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Click to Expand/Collapse OptionEtymArab
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EtymArab
A 1000-words pilot version of an Etymological Dictionary of Arabic
Test version

► Lemmata arranged after root, along the Arabic alphabet (see column to the left); roots in BOLD capitals

► Couldn’t find the item in the list to the left? Try "Search" (top of page, to the right) - with full diacritics 1

► Preliminary Bibliography (incl. list of abbreviated references)

► For some sample entries (work in progress!), see, e.g.,

ḤṢNḤḌRSRː (SRR)SLQḌRː (ḌRR)ʕMDQṬRNǦLNǦM

External links:
  • AHDEL, Semitic Roots Appendix (J. Huehnergard), in The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language)
  • DHDA (The Doha Historical Dictionary of Arabic)
  • EtymOnline (D. Harper, Online Etymology Dictionary)
  • StarLing (S. & G. Starostin, The Tower of Babel: An etymological database project, 1998-2013) => search in Afroasiatic database (= MilitarevStolbova2007)
  • SELEFA (Société d’Études Lexicographiques et Étymologiques Françaises & Arabes)
 
Section META provides some META data for cross-identification and referencing. ID refers to the number the lemma word had in EtymArab's original start-up list. • Sw gives the number of the lemma word in the Swadesh list. Typically, this is the original 100-item list. If two figures are given, the first refers to the 100-item list, the second to the extended 200-item list. • NahḍCon identifies items scheduled for closer study in a project about the morpho-semantics of Nahḍa concepts.1BP Indicates the number in BuckwalterParkinson's Frequency Dictionary of Arabic (2011). • APD Numbers given are those in the Arabic Papyrological Database. • © = author (abbrev.) | date (latest update). 
In root entries, section ENGL consists of a list of semantic values represented by items belonging to the root. The listing does NOT necessarily reflect etymological relations but only serves to give an overview over the semantic fields covered by a root. (For this purpose, also the list of semantic values given by Badawi & Abd El-Halim in their Dictionary of Quranic Usage, 2008, is reproduced here.). The listing is devided in values found in WehrCowan1979 and older values that have become obsolete in MSA as registered by WehrCowan. 
Section CONC gives a concise summary of what can be said about the lemma word's/root's etymology. Details and comments are treated further down, in section DISC(ussion). 
Section HIST tries to document earliest attestation and stages of semantic development. For the time being, it contains mainly some quotations from the Koran and early poetry, or from 19th century usage. In the long run, we hope to establish cooperation with the Historical Dictionary of the Arabic Language (Doha), in order to be able to cross-reference EtymArab and HDAL
Section COGN provides an overview of cognates of the lemma word/root in Semitic and outside. 
Section DISC comes with details and/or comments, discussing the material and the state of etymological knowledge. 
Section WEST contains words in Western (sometimes also other) languages that either are borrowed from Arabic or have a common origin with the lemma word/root in other Sem languages. 
Section DERIV contains derivatives from the lemma word and (where etymological dependence is unclear or ambivalent) other items that are semantically close to the lemma word. In some cases, these may even be the "real" etymon. 
hamza ء 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ 
R₁ 
The letter ʔ of the Arabic alphabet. 
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▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Not from Ar ʔalif but ultimately from the same source is Engl aleph, from Hbr ʔālep ‘aleph’; alpha, alphabet, from Grk alpha; all from Phoen *ʔalp ‘ox’, first letter of the Phoen alphabet. 
 
ʔBD أبد 
ID 001 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔBD 
“root” 
▪ ʔBD_1 ‘to stay, abide; to last, persist; endless, eternal; (?) liveforever, sempervivum ’ ↗ʔabada_1
▪ ʔBD_2 ‘to be wild, untamed, shy, run away (animal, game); to be unusual, prodigious’ ↗ʔabada_2

BAH2008: ‘[1]long time, eternity; [2] to go wild; to desert, be deserted; wild animals’ 
▪ Arab lexicographers relate ʔBD_1 and ʔBD_2 to each other via the participle ʔābid(aẗ) saying that ‘wild animals live long, unless killed by accident’– Lane i 1863. 
– 
DRS 1 (1994)#ʔBD/T-1 Akk abātu ‘jeter à terre, détruire, anéantir’ (réfl. à n- ‘être perdu, périr’); Ug ʔbd, oCan *abada, Phoen (impfv) yʔbd, Mo ʔbd, Hbr ʔābad, EpigAram ʔbd, JP ʔᵃbad, Mand abad ‘être perdu, périr, errer’; Ar ʔabida ‘s’irriter contre qn’; ʔabada ‘s’enfuir (animal), devenir sauvage (bétail)’; ʔabidaẗ ‘malheur; chose extraordinaire, étrange’; Gz ʔabda ‘fuir, errer; agir sottement, être fou’; Amh abbädä ‘être fou, furieux’; Te ʔabbädä ‘tromper’; ʔabəd, Tña ʔəbud, Amh Arg əbd ‘fou’. -2?Ug ʔubdy ‘(bail) de longue durée’; Hbr ʔobēd ‘toujours’; Ar ʔabada ‘s’arrêter, faire halte dans un lieu, durer’; ʔabadan ‘toujours, jamais’; ʔabad, ʔabaǧ ‘éternité’. -3 Ar taʔabbada ‘être marqué de taches de rousseur (visage)’. -4 ʔabid ‘joubarbe’. -5 ʔubayd ‘sorte de millet’.
▪ … 
▪ The two values may belong together, cf. DRS I (1994), s.v. ʔBD, where it is asked whether √ʔBD_1 should be made dependent on ʔBD_2; the hypothesis of a general value of ‘transgression of limits/boundaries’ for ʔBD_2 would permit that.
▪ Arab lexicographers ‎relate √ʔBD_1 and √ʔBD_2 to each other via the participle ʔābid(aẗ) saying that »wild animals ‎live long, unless killed by accident« (Lane i 1863).
▪ The value ‘liveforever, sempervivum ’ (ʔabid) is listed as a distinct value by DRS I (1994), (#ʔBD-4 ‘joubarbe’). However, given the fact that sempervivum does not seem to occur endemically in Ar-speaking regions it may just be a calque from a language that termed it ‘liveforever’, perhaps from Lat?
▪ Accord. to DRS, the root belongs to a group of roots that can be assumed to be derived from a nuclear *BD because all show the basic meaning of ‘to prowl, wander around, to disappear’, cf. also BDBD, ↗BDW/Y, ↗BWD, ↗BYD.
▪ Gabal2012 makes a similar assumption, but thinks that the meaning of the biconsonantal nucleus *BD is ‘extended separation or longtime distancing as the result of the emergence of a gap’. Accord. to him, preceding *ʔ‑ underlines the persistence of the separation expressed in *BD, modifying it to give ‘to last long’. – Cf. also ↗badaʔa, ↗badara, ↗badaʕa, ↗badala, ↗badan, ↗bāda.1  
– 
– 
¹ʔabad‑ أَبَدَ , i (ʔubūd
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔBD 
vb., I 
1 to stay, linger (bi‑ at a place). – 2 For other meanings see ↗ʔabada_2 – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Arab lexicographers relate ʔabada_1 and ↗ʔabada_2 to each other via the participle ʔābid(aẗ) saying that ‘wild animals live long, unless killed by accident’ – Lane i 1863. For the overall picture cf. ↗ʔBD. 
▪ … 
DRS 1 (1994)#ʔBD/T-2: ?Ug ʔubdy ‘(bail) de longue durée’; Hbr ʔobēd ‘toujours’; Ar ʔabada ‘s’arrêter, faire halte dans un lieu, durer’; ʔabadan ‘toujours, jamais’; ʔabad, ʔabaǧ ‘éternité’. – ? #ʔBD/T-4 ʔabid ‘joubarbe’.
▪ Cf., however, also the cognates of ↗ʔabada_2 (= DRS #ʔBD/T-1). 
See section CONC, above. 
– 
ʔabbada, vb. II, to make lasting or permanent, perpetuate, eternize: D-stem, caus.
taʔabbada, vb. V, 1 to be perpetuated, become lasting or permanent: tD-stem, intr./pass. of II. – 2 For other meanings see ↗ʔabada_2.

ʔabad, pl. ʔābād, n., endless, eternal duration, eternity: may be the etymon proper, the vb. perhaps being denom. from ʔabad. | ʔabadan, adv., always, forever; ever, (with neg.) never (in the future), not at all, on no account; (alone, without negation) never! not at all! by no means!; ʔilà /ʕalà ’l-ʔabad, ʔabada ’l-dahr, adv., forever; ʔabada ’l-ʔabad, ʔabada ’l-ʔābidīn, ʔabada ’l-ʔabadiyyaẗ, adv., forever and ever.
ʔabadī, adj., everlasting, eternal, endless: nsb-adj. of preceding item.
ʔabadiyyaẗ, n.f., infinite duration, endless time, eternity: n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ.
ʔābid, adj., 1 resident; nonmigratory (bird): PA I. – 2ʔabada_2.
ʔābidaẗ, pl. ʔawābidᵘ, n.f., 1 resident bird: PA I, f. – 2 and 3ʔabada_2.
muʔabbad, adj., eternal, endless, everlasting: PP II | siǧn ~, n., life imprisonment.

For other values attached to the root, see ↗ʔabada_2
²ʔabad‑ أَبَدَ , i u 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔBD 
vb., I 
1ʔabada_1 . – 2 to roam in a state of wildness, run wild, be shy, shy away, run away (animal, game) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Arab lexicographers relate ʔabada_2 and ↗ʔabada_1 to each other via the participle ʔābid(aẗ) saying that ‘wild animals live long, unless killed by accident’ – Lane i 1863. For the overall picture cf. ↗ʔBD. 
▪ … 
▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘to get lost, comminute’) Akk (ībut ‘to destroy’), Hbr ʔāḇaḏ, Syr ʔeḇaḏ, Gz ʔbd (a) ‘to be meaningless, mad’.
DRS 1 (1994)#ʔBD/T-1: Akk abātu ‘jeter à terre, détruire, anéantir’ (réfl. à n- ‘être perdu, périr’); Ug ʔbd, oCan *abada, Phoen (impfv) yʔbd, Mo ʔbd, Hbr ʔābad, EpigAram ʔbd, JP ʔᵃbad, Mand abad ‘être perdu, périr, errer’; Ar ʔabida ‘s’irriter contre qn’; ʔabada ‘s’enfuir (animal), devenir sauvage (bétail)’; ʔabidaẗ ‘malheur; chose extraordinaire, étrange’; Gz ʔabda ‘fuir, errer; agir sottement, être fou’; Amh abbädä ‘être fou, furieux’; Te ʔabbädä ‘tromper’; ʔabəd, Tña ʔəbud, Amh Arg əbd ‘fou’.
▪ Cf., however, also the cognates of ↗ʔabada_1 (= DRS #ʔBD/T-2). 
See section CONC, above. 
– 
taʔabbada, vb. V, 1ʔabada_1. – 2 to return to a state of wildness: tD-stem, intr.
ʔābid, adj., 1ʔabada_1. – 2 wild, untamed: PA I.
ʔābidaẗ, pl. ʔawābidᵘ, n.f., 1ʔabada_1. – 2 wild animal; monster: PA I, f. | ʔawābid al-dunyā, n.pl., the Wonders of the World. – 3 unusual thing, prodigious event: fig. use of [v2] (?).

For other values attached to the root, see ↗ʔabada_1
ʔabad أَبَد , pl. ʔābād 
ID 002 • Sw – • BP 584 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔBD 
n. 
endless, eternal duration, eternity – WehrCowan1979. 
May be the etymon proper of the complex treated under ↗ʔabada_1. See also ↗ʔBD for the whole picture. 
▪ eC7 ʔabadan 1 (forever, eternally, very long time) Q 4:122 wa’l-laḏīna ʔāmanū wa-ʕamilū ’l-ṣāliḥāti sa-nudḫilu-hum ǧannātin taǧrī min taḥti-hā ’l-ʔanhāru ḫālidīna fī-hā ʔabadan ‘as for those who believe and do goot deeds, We will admit them into gardens graced with flowing streams; there they are to remain for ever’; 2 (enhancing negation: ever) a) (expressively) Q 9:108 lā taqum fī-hi ʔabadan ‘don’t you ever pray in it’, b) (elliptically) Q 24:17 yaʕiẓu-kum-a ’llāhu ʔan taʕūdū li-miṯli-hī ʔabadan ‘God admonishes you [not] to revert to the like of this [sin] ever’. 
↗ʔBD, ↗ʔabada_1 
↗ʔBD, ↗ʔabada_1
– 
ʔabadan, adv., always, forever; ever, (with neg.) never (in the future), not at all, on no account; (alone, without negation) never! not at all! by no means!
ʔilà / ʕalà ’l-ʔabad, ʔabada ’l-dahr, adv., forever.
ʔabada ’l-ʔabad, ʔabada ’l-ʔābidīn, ʔabada ’l-ʔabadiyyaẗ, adv., forever and ever.

ʔabadī, adj., everlasting, eternal, endless: nsb-adj.
ʔabadiyyaẗ, n.f., infinite duration, endless time, eternity: n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ.

For other items related to ʔabad cf. ↗ʔabada_1
ʔibrīsam إبْريسَم , var. ʔibrīsim 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔBRSM, BRSM 
n. 
silk – WehrCowan1979. 
From mPers abrēšōm, akin to Av *upa-rēšma ‘silk’, derived from rīš‑ ‘to spin, yarn’ or rēš‑ ‘to twine, twist’ (Rolland2014). 
– 
DRS 1 (1994)#ʔBRŠ: Syr Mand ʔbryšwm, Ar ʔibrīsam ‘soie’. 
▪ Rolland2014: From mPers abrēšōm, akin to Av *upa-rēšma ‘silk’, derived from rīš‑ ‘to spin, yarn’ (Nourai) or rēš‑ ‘to twine, twist’ (Nişanyan).
DRS 1 (1994)#ʔBRŠ: from nPers abrēšum
▪ Not from Ar, but from the same source is Tu ibrişim, first attested as ebrīşüm [ʕĀşıḳ Paşa, Ġarīb-nāme, 1330] < Pers abrīşum < mPers abrēşōm < etc. (as Ar) – Nişanyan2012. 
– 
ʔBRQ أبرق 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔBRQ 
“root” 
▪ ʔBRQ_1 ‘pitcher, jug’ ↗ʔibrīq
▪ ʔBRQ_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
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ʔibrīq إبْريق , pl. ʔabārīqᵘ , TunAr ʔabāriqaẗ 
ID 003 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 11Apr2023
√ʔBRQ, BRQ 
n. 
pitcher; jug – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Rolland2014a: from mPers āp-reḫ ‘ewer, jug’.
▪ Cheung2017rev: ultimately of Ir origin, but prob. borrowed indirectly, via Syr ʔābrēqā < *ʔābrēg < emPers *ābrēž. For details, see below, section DISC.
▪… 
▪ eC7 (pitcher, jug, flagon) Q 56:18 bi-ʔakwābin wa-ʔabārīqa wa-kaʔsin min maʕīnin ‘with glasses, flagons and a cup full of pure liquid’ 
– 
▪ Jeffery1938: 46-47. Q 56:18 ‘ewer, jug’, only in the pl. form in an early Meccan ‎description of Paradise. »It was recognized as a Pers loan-word and is given by al-Kindī [details], ‎al-Ṯaʕālibī [det.], al-Suyūṭī [fn] and al-Jawālīqī [fn] in their lists of Pers borrowings, as well as by ‎the Lexicons LA [det.], TA [det.] though some attempted to explain it as a genuine Ar word ‎derived from √BRQ. – In modPers, the word is ābrīz meaning ‘urn’ or ‘waterpot’. It ‎would be derived from āb ‘water’ (= Phlv āβ, i.e. oPers. āpi = Av…; Skt… aqua), and ‎‎rīḫtan (= Phlv rēχtăn from the old Iranian root *raek = linquere) […] generally accepted since ‎the time. It was from the Phlv form that the word was borrowed into Ar, the shortening of the ‎‎ā being regular. The word occurs in the early poetry, in verses of ʕAdī b. Zayd, ʕAlqama, and al-‎ʔAʕšā, and so was doubtless an early borrowing among the Arabs who were in contact with the ‎court at al-Ḥīra.«
EALL : from mPers ābrēz (Asbaghi, “Persian Loanwords”).
▪ Rolland2014: from mPers āp-reḫ ‘ewer, jug’ (lit. water pourer) which is also the etymon of modPers āb-rez
▪ According to Lokotsch1927#894, Ar ʔībrīq (signifying particularly a pitcher with water used for the ritual ablutions prescribed in Islam) went into Tu (first attested in Kāşġarī, Dīvān-i Luġati't-Türk, 1073, as iwriḳ)1 , whence Rum ibric (pitcher), It bricco (coffee pot made of tin), Bulg Serb ibrik (ewer, jug, pitcher), Serb imbrik, Pol imbryk, imbryczek, Ukr imbryček (tea or coffee pot). 
barīq, n., = ʔibrīq 
ʔBL أبل 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔBL 
“root” 
▪ ʔBL_1 ‘camels’ ↗ʔibil
▪ ʔBL_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘camels, to acquire camels, to look after camels; to stay away from one’s wife, a monk; droves, flocks, bundles; successive waves’ 
ʔibil 
ʔibil 
ʔibil 
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▪ … 
– 
– 
ʔibil , var. ʔibl, إِبِل 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔBL 
n.coll. 
camels – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Kogan2011: »There is no PS term for ‘camel’. […] The most widespread common terms are *gamal‑ (Ar ↗ǧamal), *ʔibil‑ (Ar ↗ʔibil = present entry), *nāḳ-at‑ (Ar ↗nāqaẗ), and *b˅kr‑ (Ar ↗bakr).«
▪ From (only Arabian?) Sem *ʔibil‑ ‘camel’, from AfrAs *ʔa/iba/il‑, *balbal‑ ‘camel’. 
▪ … 
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#90: SAr ʔbl, Ḥrs ḥe-ybīt, Mhr ḥe-ybīt, and Jib yit ʻcamelʼ. – Outside Sem: bila-he ‘donkey’ in ECh Lele (< ECh *bil‑)?1
▪ MilitarevKogan SED II (2005)#2: Syr ʔebbālətā ‘herd (of camels)’, Sab Qat ʔbl (f. ʔblt) ‘camel’, Mhr ḥǝ-ybīt, Jib yǝt, eyét, Ḥrs ḥǝ-ybīt ‘she-camel’. < (Ar)Sem *ʔibil ‘camel’. – Outside Sem: Berb Ghat abal ‘chameau en âge d’être monté’, Ayr abal, pl. abalăn ‘chameau noir et court d’une race particulière’ (also ‘autruche mâle’), Ahaggar ăbal, pl. âbalən ‘jeune chameau’, tăbalt ‘chamelle de selle d’âge qcq.’.2 – Cush Beja baláabu ‘2-3 years old camel’.
▪ Kogan2011: (Akk ibilu, Syr ʔebbāltā,) Sab Qat ʔbl, ʔblt, Mhr ḥə-ybīl, Jib yət
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#90 reconstruct Sem *ʔib(i)l‑ ʻcamelʼ and, if the Sem evidences should at all be akin to ECh, then perhaps all from AfrAs *ʔi-bil‑ ʻcamel, donkeyʼ. The initial *ʔi‑ in Sem would then be a prefix, preserved only there, or it is part of the root but lost in ECh for phonetic reasons. Another possible anlaut in AfrAs could have been *ʔe‑.
▪ MilitarevKogan SED II (2005)#2: »The present root is reliably attested in the Arabian area only which makes its Common Semitic status doubtful […]2 . From […]< (Ar?)Sem *ʔibil‑ ‘camel’. – Reconstructions for non-Sem: Berb *Habal‑ ‘(young) camel’. – Cush *balbal‑ ? – All from AfrAs *ʔa/iba/il‑, *balbal‑ ‘camel’.
 
– 
– 
ʔBLS أبلس 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔBLS 
“root” 
▪ ʔBLS_1 ‘Satan, the Devil’ ↗ʔiblīs
▪ ʔBLS_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
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– 
– 
ʔIblīsᵘ إبْليس , pl. ʔabālisaẗ 
ID 004 • Sw – • BP??? • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔBLS 
n./n.prop. 
devil, Satan – WehrCowan1979. 
The word is one of only 17 words in the Qurʔān which, with a good degree of likelihood, ultimately are of Grk origin. It may even be one of only two among these which are believed to be direct loans. 
▪ eC7 Q 2:34, 7:11, 15:31,32, 17:61, 18:50, 20:116, 26:95, 34:20, 38:74,75. 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ Jeffery 1938: 47-48: »The tendency among the Muslim authorities is to derive the name from balasa ‘to despair’, he being so called because God caused him to despair of all good — so Rāghib, Mufradāt, 59, and Ṭab. on ii, 32. The more acute philologers, however, recognized the impossibility of this (an-Nawawī, 138), and Zam. on xix, 57, says ʔiblīs ʔaʕǧamī wa-laysa mina l-ʔiblās kamā yazʕamūn [ʔiblīs is a foreign word, and not from ʔiblās as some argue]. al-Ǧawālīqī, Muʕarrab, 17, also justly argues against an Ar derivation. – That the word is a corruption of the Grk diábolos has been recognized by the majority of Western scholars.3 In the LXX diábolos represents the Hbr śāṭān in Zech. iii, but in the N.T. ho diábolos is more than ‘the adversary’, and particularly in the ecclesiastical writers he becomes the chief of the hosts of evil. It is in this sense that ʔiblīs appears in the Qurʔān, so we are doubly justified in looking for a Christian origin for the word. – One theory is that it came through the Syr, the being taken as the genitive particle,4 a phenomenon for which there are perhaps other examples, e.g. [Syr] YPNS for [Grk] diaphōnás (ZA, xxiv, 51), [Ar] qisṭās for [Grk] dikastḗs (ZDMG, 1, 620), zinṭāriyyaẗ for [Grk] dysentería (Geyer, ZweiGedichte, i, 119 n.). The difficulty is that the normal translation of ho diábolos is [Syr] ʔBLQRṢā, the ‘accuser’ or ‘calumniator’, both in the Peshitta (cf. Matt, iv) and in the ecclesiastical literature. There is a form [Syr] ḎYBLWS, a transliteration of diábolos, but PSm, 874, quotes this only as a dictionary word from BB. There is apparently no occurrence of the word in the old Ar literature,5 so it was possibly a word introduced by Muḥammad himself. If we could assume that some such form as ḎYBLWS was colloquially used among the Aramaic-speaking Christians with whom Muḥammad came in contact, the above explanation might hold, though one would have to assume that the had been dropped by his informants. The alternative is that it came into Ar directly from the Grk, and was used by the Ar-speaking Christians associated with the Byzantine Church.6 – Grimme, ZA, xxvi, 164, suggested that it might have come from SArabia, perhaps influenced by the Eth [Gz] diyāblos. This, however, is apparently a rare word in Eth [Gz], the usual translation for diábolos being sayṭān, though sometimes gānen is used (James iv, 7; 1 Pet. v, 8, etc.). Moreover, even if there were anything in Grimme’s theory that this was the form that crossed over into Arabia, his further supposition that the diyā‑ was taken to be the SAr = [Ar] ḏī is very far fetched.«
EALL (Gutas, “Greek Loanwords”): probably a direct loan from Grk diábolos.
▪ Rolland2014 refers also to Nişanyan2001 who derived the word from Grk epíboulos ‘qui machine contre, qui tend des pièges, insidieux’ rather than from diábolos, but the Nişanyan’s online TES (as of 24Sept2014) has again diábolos. In any case, the word has probably undergone paronymic attraction from √BLS ‘despair’. 
▪ Being taken from Grk diábolos, Ar ʔiblīs is of course related to Eur successors of the Grk word. Cf., e.g., entry devil in EtymOnline: “oEngl deofol ‘evil spirit, a devil, the devil, false god, diabolical person’, from lLat diabolus (also the source of Ital diavolo, Fr diable, Span diablo; Ge Teufel is oHGe tiufal, from Lat via Goth diabaulus). – The lLat word is from Ecclesiastical Grk diábolos, in Jewish and Christian use, ‘Devil, Satan’ (scriptural loan-translation of Hbr satan), in general use ‘accuser, slanderer’, from diabállein ‘to slander, attack’, lit. ‘throw across’, from dia‑ ‘across, through’ + bállein ‘to throw’ (see ballistics). Jerome re-introduced Satan in Lat bibles, and Engl translators have used both in different measures.” 
ʔiblīsī, adj., devilish, satanic, diabolic: nsb-adj. 
ʔB(W) 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔB(W) 
“root” 
▪ ʔB(W)_1 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ʔB(W)_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
▪ … 
– 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ For Engl abba, abbacy, abbatial, abbé, abbess, abbey, abbot, baobab, borage, bwana, pataca, as well as the n.prop. Abraham, Ahab, Abigail, Job, Joab, Absalom, Barabbas, cf. ↗ ʔab
– 
ʔab أَب , st.constr. ʔabū, pl. ʔābāʔ 
ID 005 • Sw –/43 • BP 76 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔB(W) 
n. 
father – WehrCowan1979. 
From Sem *ʔab‑ (perhaps from AfrAs *ʔab‑) ‘father’. 
▪ … 
▪ Bergsträsser1928: Akk abu, Hbr ʔāḇ, Aram ʔaḇā, Gz ‎‎ʔab ‘father’
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2: Akk abu, Ug ʔab, Phn ʔb, Pun ʔb, Hbr ‎‎ʔāb, Aram ʔab, (Syr) ʔabbā, SAr ʔb, Gz ʔab, Ar ʔab(ū). Outside Sem: Berb *ʔab(b)‑ , CCh *ʔab‑ , Eg 3b.t ʻfamilyʼ (OK), ‎ʻparentsʼ (n) (which »may well be a derivative of an initial word for ʻfatherʼ"). 
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2: The word and its Sem cognates go back to Sem *ʔab‑ ‎ʻfatherʼ. The Berb, CCh and Eg cognates suggest that the common ancestor of all is an AfrAs *ʔab‑ ʻfatherʼ. 
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) In Western langs, several words and many personal names go back to Ar ʔab or its Hbr or Aram cognates.
▪ Directly from Ar ʔabū (bound form of ʔab ‘father’, also in the sense of ‘source’) are: baobab, from NAfrAr bū ḥibāb ‘tree (lit., father) of many seeds’; borage, prob. from Ar bū ʕaraq, short for ʔabū ʕaraq ‘father of sweat’; bwana, ultimately from Ar ʔabūnā ‘our father’; pataca, from Ar ʔabū ṭāqaẗ, lit. ‘father of the window’, a type of coin.
▪ From Aram ʔabbā ‘the father, my father’ (def. of ʔab) are Engl abba, abbacy, abbatial, abbé, abbess, abbey, and abbot.
▪ All Engl personal names that contain a ‘father’ element are from the Bible and thus of Hbr origin:
  • With no suffixes, Hbr ʔāb (or reduced or dialectal forms) is in Abraham (Hbr ʔabrāhām ‘the [divine] father is exalted’), Job (Hbr ʔiyyôb, perh. from an early NWSem dialectal name meaning ‘Where is the father?’, from dialectal ʔôb, akin to Hbr ʔāb),2 Joab (Hbr yôʔāb ‘Yahweh is father’; for Yahweh cf. ↗√HWY), and Ahab (Hbr ʔaḥʔāb ‘father’s brother’; for Hbr ʔaḥ cf. Ar ↗ʔaḫ(ū) ‘brother’.
  • With the 1sg.poss.suff. ‑ī, ʔăbî, the Hbr ʔāb is contained (in reduced/shortened forms) in Abigail (Hbr ʔăbîgayil ‘my father is joy’; ?cf. Ar ↗ǧīl) and Absalom (Hbr ʔabšālōm, short for ʔăbîšālōm ‘my father peace’; for Hbr šālōm cf. Ar ↗salām ‘peace’).
 
 
ʔBY أبي 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 7Mar2023
√ʔBY 
“root” 
▪ ʔBY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔBY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔBY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘aversion, disdain; to refuse, turn down, reject’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ʔTW/Y أتو / أتي 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔTW/Y 
“root” 
▪ ʔTW_1 ‘tax, due, toll, tribute’ ↗ʔitāwaẗ
▪ ʔTY_1 ‘to come’ ↗ʔatà

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to come, to arrive, to bring, to bring forward; to commit; to direct; to afflict; to bestow; to become possible, to become suitable; to yield, to fruit’ 
▪ … 
– 
In addtion to the items given under ↗ʔitāwaẗ ‘tax, due toll, tribute’ and ʔatà ‘to come’, DRS 1 (1994)#ʔTW/Y mentions 3 other values attached to the root, two without a reflex in Ar :
▪ (#ʔTW/Y-2) Akk atū ‘portier’; and
▪ (#ʔTW/Y-5) Akk ettūt, ettīt, uttūt ‘araigné’), and
▪ (#ʔTW/Y-4) one with a reflex in Ar that has become obsolete in MSA: Ar ʔatw ‘personnage importante; maladie grave’. 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
ʔitāwaẗ , pl. ‑āt , ʔatāwā 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔTW/Y 
n.f. 
duty, tax, due, toll; extorted payment; tribute – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ ? DRS 1 (1994)#ʔTW/Y-3: Ar ʔatā(w) ‘donner, produire’, ? Amh atet ‘fortune, richesse’, atat ‘usure’ 
▪ ? DRS 1 (1994)#ʔTW/Y-3: A rapprocher de ↗ʕṬW
– 
– 
ʔatà / ʔatay‑ أَتَى , i (ʔityān , ʔaty , maʔtāẗ
ID 006 • Sw 66/23 • BP 343 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔTY 
vb., I 
to come, arrive; bi‑ to bring, bring forward, produce, advance, accomplish or achieve s.th.; bi‑ to bring, give or offer s.o. s.th.; to do, perform (a deed), carry out, execute (e.g., movements); to commit, perpetrate (a sin, a crime); to mention (ʕalà s.th.); to finish off (ʕalà s.th., also s.o.); to finish, complete, carry through, dispose, settle, wind up, conclude, terminate, bring to a close (ʕalà s.th.); to destroy, annihilate, eradicate, wipe out (ʕalà s.th.); to eliminate, carry away, sweep away (ʕalà s.th.), do away (with); to use up, exhaust (also a subject), present exhaustively, in great detail (ʕalà s.th.), elaborate (on s.th.) – WehrCowan1979. 
It seems to be safe to assume a Sem verb *‘to come’ (with unclear voweling; Orel&Stolbova1994 suggest *ʔ˅t‑ or *ʔ˅t˅w‑ / *ʔ˅t˅y‑). What seems to be parallels in other branches of the AfrAs family encourages them to reconstruct either AfrAs *ʔat‑ ‘to walk, come’ or AfrAs *taʔ‑ / *taw‑ / *tay‑ ‘to go, run’. 
▪ … 
DRS 1 (1994)#ʔTW/Y-1: Sem ‘to come’, Ug ʔatw, Hbr ʔātā, oAram yʔth (ipfv), EmpAram ʔth, Nab yʔtʔ (ipfv), Palm ʔtʔ, JP ʔᵃtā, Syr ʔetā, Mand ata, Ar ʔatā(y), Tham ʔty, SAr ʔtw, ʔt, Soq ʔete ‘passer, traverser, courir, aller’, Gz Tña ʔatawa, Te ʔata ‘revenir chez soi, retourner’; Ar ʔatā u ‘courir (monture)’; ? Akk itū ‘confins, voisin’, itu ‘à, chez, du côté de’.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994 give two sets of cognates. a) #63: Ug ʔatw, Hbr ʔty, Syr ʔeta, SAr ʔtw, Gz ʔatawa. – Outside Sem perhaps ʔat ‘to ride’ in a WCh language (< WCh *ʔat‑ ‘to ride’), Bed ʔat‑ ‘to tread’, Afar ʕat‑ (< SA *ʕat‑ , with irregular ʕ) ‘to tread’, as well as ʔat‑ (< Omot *ʔat‑) ‘to come’ in an Omot language. b) #2345: Ug ʔtw, Aram ʔty, Ar ʔty, i, SAr ʔtw ‘to arrive home’; Gz ʔtw ‘to return’. – Outside Sem: te, tewi, təχ ‘to enter’, tawi ‘to go’ in some WCh languages (< WCh *ta‑ / *taw‑); tea ‘to follow’, ta ‘go’ in CCh dialects (< CCh *taʔ‑ / *tay‑); forms like tee, tayi ‘drive’, taaʔe ‘to go’ in ECh (< ECh *taʔ‑ / *tay‑); Agaw tu-ŋ (<*tuʔ‑) ‘to enter’; LEC: one ti‑ (< LEC *tiʔ‑) ‘to run’. 
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994 suggest also two etymologies: a) #63: < Sem *ʔ˅t‑ ‘to come; pass; come back’ < AfrAs *ʔat‑ ‘to walk, come’. – b) #2345: Sem *ʔ˅t˅w‑ /*ʔ˅t˅y‑ (with prefix *ʔ˅‑) < AfrAs *taʔ‑ / *taw‑ / *tay‑ ‘to go, run’. 
– 
ʔātà, vb. III, to offer, furnish, give, afford (bi‑ s.th.), provide, supply (bi‑ with); to be propitious, be favorable (DO for s.o.), favor (s.o.); to turn out well (DO for s.o.), be in favor of; to suit, befit, become (DO s.o.), be appropriate (for s.o.); to agree (with s.o.; food):.
ʔātà, vb. IV, to bring; to give; to grant, bestow (upon s.o.) | ʔātà ‘l-zakāẗ to give alms:.
taʔattà, vb. V, to originate, stem, derive, spring, arise, result (from); to end (with), result (in); to get (to), arrive (at); to be easy to do, be feasible without difficulty, be attainable, go well, progress; to go about s.th. () gently, cautiously:.
ĭstaʔtà, vb. X, to ask to come, induce to come:.
ʔityān, n., performance (bi‑):.
maʔtan, pl. maʔātin, n., place where s.th. comes from; place at which one arrives; access; pl. maʔātin place of origin; origin, source, provenance; place where one has been or to which one has come; place where s.th. starts, where s.th. ends:.
ʔātin coming, next; following:.
muʔātin, var. muwātin favorable, propitious, opportune, convenient, suitable:. 
ʔṮː (ʔṮṮ) أثّ/أثث 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 7Mar2023
√ʔṮː (ʔṮṮ) 
“root” “root” 
▪ ʔṮː (ʔṮṮ)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔṮː (ʔṮṮ)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔṮː (ʔṮṮ)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘abundance, great wealth; (of hair and tree branches) to be thick, intertwined; to be fleshy; furnishings’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ʔṮR أثر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔṮR 
“root” 
▪ ʔṮR_1 ‘track, trace’ ↗ʔaṯar
▪ ʔṮR_2 ‘egoistic, selfish; to prefer; to monopolize’ ↗ʔaṯir
▪ ʔṮR_3 ‘ether’ ↗ʔaṯīr

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘trace, mark, track, remnants, remains; landmarks, monuments; authority, favour; to mark; deeds; to pass along, to transmit; to favour, to prefer’ 
▪ … 
– 
DRS 2 (1994)#ʔṮR–1: Sem *ʔaṯar‑ ‘trace, pas, vestige’: Akk aš(a)r‑ ‘lieu, place’, Ug ʔaṯr ‘marcher’, Hbr ʔaš(š)ūr, Pun ʔšr, EmpAram Nab Palm ʔtr, JP Syr ʔatrā, Mand atra ‘lieu, région’, Ar ʔaṯar, ʔiṯr, Gz ʔašar ‘trace, vestige’, Tña assär ‘trace’, Saf ʔṯr ‘vestige, inscription’, Ug ʔaṯr, Nab bʔtr (b + ʔtr), Syr botar, Ar ʔaṯar, SAr ʔṯr ‘après’, Soq ʔihor ‘suivre’, Ug ʔaṯr, Hbr ʔᵃšer relatif ‘qui, que’. –2 [‘sanctuaire, temple, arbre sacré’]. –3 [‘beurre’?]. –4 Ar ʔuṯr ‘éclat de la lame d’un sabre’. –5 Ar ʔaṯira, SAr ʔṯr ‘choisir’. –6 [nom de déesse]. 
▪ For ʔṮR_1 ‘track, trace’ cf. DRS 2 (1994)#ʔṮR-1 (see Cognates).
▪ For ʔṮR_2 ‘egoistic, selfish; to prefer; to monopolize’ cf. DRS 2 (1994)#ʔṮR-5.
▪ ʔṮR_3 ‘ether’ not mentioned in DRS since it is from Grk aithḗr ‘upper air; bright, purer air; the sky’. 
– 
– 
ʔaṯar أَثَر , pl. ʔāṯār 
ID … • Sw – • BP 554 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔṮR 
n. 
track, trace, vestige; sign, mark (from the past); clue; slight touch; relic or remnant (preserved from the past); ancient monument; work of art, literary work (of former times); tradition, brief report (from early Islam); impression, effect, influence; – pl. آثار ʔāṯār antiquities; (religious) relics; works, writings (esp. of deceased or ancient authors) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ Bergsträsser1928: Aram ʔaṯrā, Gz ʔašár ‘trace’ (n.); cf. also Akk ašru ‘place’, Hbr ʔāšūr ‘step’
DRS 2 (1994)#ʔṮR-1: Akk aš(a)r‑ ‘lieu, place’, Ug ʔaṯr ‘marcher’, Hbr ʔaš(š)ūr, Pun ʔšr, EmpAram Nab Palm ʔtr, JP Syr ʔatrā, Mand atra ‘lieu, région’, Ar ʔaṯar, ʔiṯr, Gz ʔašar ‘trace, vestige’, Tña assär ‘trace’, Saf ʔṯr ‘vestige, inscription’, Ug ʔaṯr, Nab bʔtr (b + ʔtr), Syr botar, Ar ʔaṯar, SAr ʔṯr ‘après’, Soq ʔihor ‘suivre’, Ug ʔaṯr, Hbr ʔᵃšer relatif ‘qui, que’.
▪ Cf. also √ʔṮR
According to DRS 2 (1994)#ʔṮR-1 we can reconstruct Sem *ʔaṯar ‘trace, pas, vestige’. 
– 
ʕilm al-ʔāṯār, n., archeology:.

ʔaṯara, u, i (ʔaṯr, ʔaṯāraẗ), vb. I, to transmit, pass along, report, relate (s.th., ʕan from, or based on the authority of, s.o.):.
BP#1336ʔaṯṯara, vb. II, to affect, influence ( or ʕalà s.o., s.th.), act ( or ʕalà upon), produce an effect, make an impression, have influence ( or ʕalà on); to induce (phys.):.
taʔaṯṯara, vb. V, to be impressed, be influenced; to let o.s. be impressed, be impressible; to be moved, be touched (bi‑ or li‑ by, also min); to be excited, be stimulated; to be affected (bi‑ by, said of materials, e.g., iron by acid); to be induced (phys.); to follow in s.o.’s (DO) tracks, follow s.o.’s example, emulate s.o.; to pursue, follow up (a question, a problem); to perceive, feel (s.th.):.
BP#4307ʔaṯarī, adj., archeologic(al); n., pl. ‑ūn, archeologist (also ʔāṯārī); old, ancient, antique | ʕālim ʔ. archeologist; luġaẗ ʔ.iyyaẗ dead language; ṣarḥ ʔ. historic castle:.
BP#2257ʔiṯrᵃ, prep., immediately after, right after:.
ʔaṯāraẗ, n.f., remainder, remnant; faint trace, vestige:.
maʔṯaraẗ, var. maʔṯuraẗ, pl. maʔāṯirᵘ, n., exploit, feat, glorious deed; pl. maʔāṯirᵘ memorable events, achievements (handed down from the past) :.
BP#1020taʔṯīr, n., action, effect, influence, impression (, ʕalà on); effectiveness, efficacy; induction (phys.): vn. II.
taʔṯīrī, adj., produced by induction, inductive, inductional, induced (phys.): nsb-adj from taʔṯīr.
BP#4160taʔaṯṯur, n., being influenced; agitation, emotion, feeling; excitability, sensitivity; (pl. ‑āt) feeling, sensation, perception | sarīʕ al-t. easily impressed, impressible, sensitive:.
taʔaṯṯurī, adj.: al-maḏhab al-t. the impressionistic movement: nsb-adj of taʔaṯṯur.
taʔaṯṯuriyyaẗ, n.f., impressionism: n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ coined from taʔaṯṯur.
maʔṯūr, adj., transmitted, handed down | qawl m., kalimaẗ m.aẗ proverb; maʔṯūrāt šaʕbiyyaẗ folklore:.
BP#2360muʔaṯṯir, adj., affecting, acting upon; affective; impressive; moving, touching, pathetic; (pl. ‑āt) influencing factor, influence, effect:.
mutaʔaṯṯir, adj., under the influence (bi‑) of; (following) as a result or effect (bi‑ of):.

For other values attached to root √ ʔṮR cf. ↗ʔaṯir and ↗ʔaṯīr

ʔaṯarī أثريّ , pl. ‑ūn 
ID … • Sw – • BP 4307 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔṮR 
¹adj.; ²n. 
1 archeologic(al). – 2 (pl. ‑ūn) archeologist (also ʔāṯārī). – 3 old, ancient, antique. – 4 antiquarian – WehrCowan1979. 
A nisba formation from ʔaṯar. In the meaning of ‘archelogist’ a neologism. 
v2: 1887 Buṭrus al-Bustānī, Encyclopedia (Wehr 1934b: 435)1  
– 
ʔaṯar
– 
– 
ʔaṯir أثِر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔṮR 
adj. 
egoistic, selfish – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994)#ʔṮR-5: Ar ʔaṯira, SAr ʔṯr ‘choisir’. 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
BP#2475ʔāṯara, vb. IV, to prefer (ʕalà to), like (s.th.) more (ʕalà than); to have a predilection, a liking for, like s.th., be fond of; to choose, deem wise or advisable (ʔan to do s.th.); to honour, hold in high esteem:.
ĭstaʔṯara, vb. X, to claim a monopoly; to possess alone, with the exclusion of others, monopolize (bi‑ s.th.); to appropriate (bi‑ s.th.), take exclusive possession (bi‑ of); to preoccupy (s.th.), engross (the attention); to lay claim on, demand (bi‑, e.g., s.o.’s interest | ĭ. ‘llāhu bih the Lord has taken him unto Himself:.

ʔaṯaraẗ, n.f., selfishness, egoism:.
ʔaṯīr, adj., favored, preferred, in favor (ʕind with s.o.); select, exquisite, noble; see also ʔaṯīr.:.
ʔīṯār, n., preference; altruism; predilection; love, affection:.
ʔīṯāriyyaẗ, n.f., altruism:.
ĭstiʔṯār, n., arrogation of a monopoly; monopolization; complete absorption, demand, claim; presumption, presumptuousness; exclusive power:.

For other items of √ʔṮR cf. ↗ʔaṯar and ↗ʔaṯīr 

taʔaṯṯar‑ تَأَثَّرَ 
ID 007 • Sw – • BP 2475 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔṮR 
vb., V 
to be impressed, be influenced; to let o.s. be impressed, be impressible; to be moved, be touched (bi‑ or li‑ by, also min); to be excited, be stimulated; to be affected (bi‑ by, said of materials, e.g., iron by acid); to be induced (phys.); to follow in s.o.’s (DO) tracks, follow s.o.’s example, emulate s.o.; to pursue, follow up (a question, a problem); to perceive, feel (s.th.) – WehrCowan1979. 
ʔaṯar
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
ʔaṯar
– 
taʔaṯṯurī, adj.: al-maḏhab al-t., n., the impressionistic movement: nsb-adj from taʔaṯṯur.
taʔaṯṯuriyyaẗ, n.f., impressionism: n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ coined from taʔaṯṯur.
mutaʔaṯṯir, adj., under the influence (bi‑) of; (following) as a result or effect (bi‑ of): PA V. 
taʔaṯṯur تَأَثُر 
Sw – • NahḍConBP 4160 • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√ʔṮR 
n. 
▪ vn., V 
ʔaṯīr أثير 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔṮR 
n. 
ether – WehrCowan1979. 
From Grk aithḗr ‘upper air; bright, purer air; the sky’. – »In ancient cosmology, the element that filled all space beyond the sphere of the moon, constituting the substance of the stars and planets. Conceived of as a purer form of fire or air, or as a fifth element. From 17c.-19c., it was the scientific word for an assumed ‘frame of reference’ for forces in the universe, perhaps without material properties. The concept was shaken by the Michelson-Morley experiment (1887) and discarded after the Theory of Relativity won acceptance, but before it went it gave rise to the colloquial use of ether for ‘the radio’ (1899). – The name also was bestowed c.1730 (Frobenius; in English by 1757) on a volatile chemical compound known since 14c. for its lightness and lack of color (its anesthetic properties weren’t fully established until 1842).« – etymonline, s.v. »ether«. 
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▪ …
▪ … 
From Grk aithḗr ‘upper air; bright, purer air; the sky’., from aíthein ‘to burn, shine’ < PIE √*aidh‑ ‘to burn’ (cf. edifice). 
… 
– 
ʔṮL أثل 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 7Mar2023
√ʔṮL 
“root” 
▪ ʔṮL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔṮL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔṮL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘tamarisk tree; to be deep-rooted, be of noble origin; to acquire great wealth; to endure’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ʔṮM أثم 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 7Mar2023
√ʔṮM 
“root” 
▪ ʔṮM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔṮM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔṮM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘sin, crime, guilt, to sin, commit a crime’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ʔǦː (ʔǦǦ) أجّ/أجج 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 7Mar2023
√ʔǦː (ʔǦǦ) 
“root” 
▪ ʔǦː (ʔǦǦ)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔǦː (ʔǦǦ)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔǦː (ʔǦǦ)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to inflame; to incite; to be fast; (of fire) to crackle; (of water) to be salty, be bitter’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ʔǦR أجر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔǦR 
“root” 
▪ ʔǦR_1 ‘wages, pay; rate, fee; to reward; to let, hire out’ ↗ʔaǧr
▪ ʔǦR_2 ‘baked bricks’ ↗ʔāǧurr

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘wages, reward for work done: to hire, to engage: rent, to rent; dowry’ 
▪ ʔǦR_1: from protSem √ʔGR ‘to hire, rent’
▪ ʔǦR_2: from Akk aǧurru ‘baked bricks’ (from a Sum alur ?)
 
– 
DRS 1 (1994)#ʔGR–1: Sem ‘prendre à gages, louer’: Akk agāru, Ug ʔagr, nHbr ʔᵃgar, EmpAram Nab Palm ʔgr, JP ʔᵃgar, Syr ʔegar; Akk agr‑ , Ar ʔaǧīr [↗ʔaǧr ], SAr ʔgr ‘serviteur à gages, domestique’; Akk igr, EmpAram ʔgr, JP ʔagrā, Soq ʔegare ‘salaire’, Hbr ʔᵃgōrā ‘paiement’; Palm ʔgwr ‘bail’, Mhr ḥauǧor ‘serviteur’. – 2 […] – 3 EmpAram ʔgr ‘mur, voûte’, Syr ʔaggārā ‘toit’, Mand angara, ɛngara, Ar ʔiǧǧar ‘toit’; Akk igār‑ ‘mur’. – 4 Akk agurr‑ , Syr ʔaggūrā, Ar (coll.) ʔuǧur, ʔaǧurr, ʔaǧūr ‘briques cuites’ [, Ar ↗ʔāǧurr ]. – 5 Akk ʔekurru ‘temple’, Aram ʔᵉgōrā, ʔēgorā ‘temple païen’, Mand ʔkorʔ ‘temple des idoles et démons’. – 6 Sem ‘message, lettre royale’: Akk egert, Hbr ʔiggeret, BiblAram ʔigrā, JP ʔiggartā. – 7 Sem ‘pied’: EastAr ʔəgr, Daṯ ʔiǧr, Gz Te ʔəgər, Amh ʔəgər; ? Te ʔagri, ʔagrəh ‘caravane’. [Cf. Ar ↗riǧl ] – 8 […]. 
DRS 1 (1994): 1. Western forms emerged from Akk. – 3. Ar dependent on Aram. – 4. < Sum alur ? – 5. < Sum ekur. – 6. Western forms borrowed from Akk? – 7. Forme évoluée de RGL; ses correspondantes non-sém. (cham.-sém.) pourraient attester cependant l’absence d’une liquide à l’initiale. 
– 
– 
ʔaǧr أَجْر , pl. ʔuǧūr 
ID 008 • Sw – • BP 2304 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔǦR 
n. 
1 wages, pay, ‎honorarium, recompense, emolument, remuneration; 2 price, rate, fee – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
Of common occurrence in the Qurʔān: ‘heward, ‎wages’. 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ Jeffery1938, 49: ‎‎»Besides the noun and its pl. ʔuǧūr there occur [in the Qurʔān] also the verbal forms ʔaǧara and ĭstaʔǧara. – ‎The Muslim savants have no suspicion that the word is not pure Ar, though as a matter of fact ‎the verb ʔaǧara ‘to receive hire’, is obviously denominative. Zimmern, Akkad. Fremdw, ‎‎47,7 has pointed out that the ultimate origin of the ‎root in this sense is the Akk agru, agarru ‘hired servant’. From this come on the one hand the ‎Aram ‎אגירא ‏‎: Syr ʔᵃgīrā a ‘hireling’, and thence the denominative verbs ʔᵃgar and ʔegar ‘to hire’, ‎with corresponding nouns ‎ʔGR ‏and ʔagrā ‘hire’; and on the other hand (apparently from a popular ‎pronunciation *aggaru) the Grk ággaros, a ‘courier’.8 – It would have been from the Aram that ‎the word passed into Ar, probably at a very early period, and as the word is of much wider use ‎in Syr than in Jewish Aram,9 we are probably right in ‎considering it as a borrowing from Syriac.« 
▪ Huehnergard2011: Engl agora ‘(since 1960) a monetary unit and coin of Israel, the 100th part of a shekel ’, from Hbr ʔᵃgôrāʰ ‘payment, coin’, from Hbr ʔāgar ‘to hire’. 3  
ʔuǧūr al-dirāsaẗ, n.pl.,(student) tuition, fees.
ʔuǧūr al-safar, n.pl., fares.

ʔaǧara, u ‏(ʔaǧr), vb. I, to reward, recompense, ‎remunerate: denom.?
ʔaǧǧara, vb. II, to let for rent, let out, hire out, rent, lease: D-stem, denom.?.
ʔāǧara, vb. IV, to let for rent, let out, rent, ‎lease; to rent, hire, lease, hold under a lease, take a lease; to hire, rent, take on, engage the services: Š-stem, denom.?
taʔaǧǧara, vb. V, to hire o.s. out (also with bi-nafsihī): tD-stem, refl. of II.
ĭstaʔǧara, vb. X, to rent, hire, lease, hold under a lease, take a ‎lease; to charter (a vessel); to hire, engage, take on, engage the services (of s.o.): Št-stem, autobenef.

ʔuǧraẗ, n.f., 1 hire, rent, rental; 2 price, rate, fee; 3 fixed rate, (official) charge; 4 postage | ~ al-barīd, n.f., postage; ~ al-naql, n.f., transport charges, freight(age), carriage, cartage; sayyāraẗ ~, n.f., taxi.
ʔaǧīr, pl.‎ ‏‎ʔuǧarāʔᵘ, n., hireling; workman, laborer, day laborer; employee: quasi-PP I.
‏‎ ʔaǧīraẗ, n.f., working woman, factory girl, female laborer; woman employee: f. of ʔaǧīr | ~ al-tanẓīf, n.f., cleaning woman, charwoman.
‏‎ taʔǧīr, n., letting, leasing, hiring out, letting on lease; lease: vn. II | mašrūʕ al-taʔǧīr wa’l-ʔiʕāraẗ, n., Lend-Lease Act.
ʔīǧār, pl. ‑āt, n., rent; letting, leasing, hiring out, letting on lease: vn. IV | lil-ʔīǧār, adv., for rent, to let.
ʔiǧāraẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., rent; letting, leasing, hiring out, letting on lease:…
‏‎ ĭstiʔǧār, n., rent, lease, tenure: vn. X.
‏‎ maʔǧūr, pl. ‑ūn, 1 adj., paid, salaried, on the payroll, gainfully employed; 2 n., employee; 3 adj., mercenary, venal, hired, bribed; (pl. ‑ūn) n., a bribable, venal, corruptible person : PP I.
‏‎ maʔǧūrī, pl. ‑ūn, bribable, venal, corruptible person: nsb-adj., from maʔǧūr.
‏‎ muʔaǧǧir, pl. ‑ūn, n., landlord, lessor: PA II.
‏‎ mustaʔǧir, n., leaseholder, lessee, tenant; employer : PA X. 
ʔāǧurr آجُرّ 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔǦR 
n.coll. (n.un. ‑aẗ
baked brick – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Rolland2014a: from Syr ʔâgûrâ and Akk agurru, from Sum SIG4.AL.ÙR.RA 
▪ Nābiġa 7,16; Dīw.Huḏ. 66,10; ʔAġānī xvi: 43,3 – Fraenkel1886 
DRS 1 (1994)#ʔGR–4: Akk agurr‑ , Syr ʔaggūrā, Ar (coll.) ʔuǧur, ʔaǧurr, ʔaǧūr ‘briques cuites’. 
▪ Zimmern1914: Ar ʔāǧurr (~ ʔāǧūr) (and also Pers āgūr, Arm agur, Grk ágouros), from Aram ʔagurā, from Akk agurru ‘baked brick’
▪ R. Laffitte, Bulletin SELEFA 12 (2/2008) 
– 
– 
ʔǦL أجل 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 7Mar2023
√ʔǦL 
“root” 
▪ ʔǦL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔǦL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔǦL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a large ditch for collecting water, to collect water; an appointed time, to fix a date; a cause; to consent’ 
▪ … 
– 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
ʔḤD أحد 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔḤD 
“root” 
▪ ʔḤD_1 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ʔḤD_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
▪ … 
– 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
ʔaḥad أَحَد , f. ʔiḥdà 
ID 009 • Sw 11/109 • BP 63 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔḤD 
n. 
one (of), ‎someone; anyone – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
‎‎▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘one’) Akk ēdu ‘single, alone’, Hbr ʔēḥāḏ, Syr ḥaḏ, Gz ʔaḥadū́.
▪ See also √WḤD
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
BP#1174(yawm) al-ʔaḥad, n., Sunday. 
ʔḪḎ أخذ 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔḪḎ 
“root” 
▪ ʔḪḎ_1 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ʔḪḎ_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to take, to hold; to acquire; to take to task, to put a stop to, to frustrate; to immobilise; to take after; to earn’ 
▪ … 
– 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
ʔaḫaḏ‑ أَخَذَ , u (ʔaḫḏ
ID 010 • Sw – • BP 198 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔḪḎ 
vb., I 
to take; ‎to begin to do – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘to take’) Akk īḫuz, Hbr ʔāḥaz, Syr ʔeḥaḏ, Gz ʔáḫza (ipfv yéʔḫez).
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#25: Akk ʔaḫāzu, Ug ʔḫd, Hbr ʔḥz, Moab ʔḥz, Epigr-Aram ʔḥd, Pal‎Aram ʔaḥad, Syr ʔeḥad, Mand ahad, SAr ʔḫḏ, Gz ʔḫz, Amh yazä). Outside Sem: ‎Agaw *ʔaʒ‑ (ad‑ , as‑ , az‑) and Sid aḍ‑ (< HEC *ʔaḍ‑ < *ʔaH˅ʒ) ‘take’. 
▪ From the evidence in Sem, Orel&Stolbova1994#25 reconstructs a Sem ‎vb. *ʔ˅ḫuḏ‑ ʻto takeʼ. On account of what may be cognates in ‎Agaw and HEC they postulate a common source in AfrAs *ʔaḫuɜ̆‑ ‘to take’. 
– 
BP#1475ittaḫaḏa, vb. VIII, to adopt, pass (a resolution): autoben. from I.
BP#1785ʔaḫḏ, n., taking, seizure: vb. I.
BP#1355ittiḫāḏ, n., adopting, passing (a resolution): vn. VIII.
BP#4500wāḫid, adj., (Eg.) taking: PA I.
BP#4500māḫiḏ, adj., (Lev.Irq.Gul.) taking: PA I. 
ʔḪR أخر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔḪR 
“root” 
▪ ʔḪR_1 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ʔḪR_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to delay, to postpone; to put behind; the end; the other, the last’ 
▪ From protSem *√ʔḪR ‘(to be) late, behind, in back’ – Huehnergard2011.
 
– 
▪ …
▪ check Cohen1969: 27 ! 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
ʔāḫiraẗ آخِرَة 
ID 011 • Sw – • BP 2992 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔḪR 
n.f. 
the hereafter – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Article “āḫira” (A. S. Tritton) in EI²
▪ … 
Rajki2002: [ʔaḫḫara put off, delay] Sem *ʔḪR, Mal iehor ‘other’, l-aḥar ‘last’, Akk ‎aḫaru ‘be behind’, Hbr aḫer ‘behind; other’, aḫaron ‘last’, Syr aḫrena ‘other’, aḫraya ‘last’, JNA ʔḫr ‘be late’, ḫena ‘other’, ḫaraya ‘last’, BAram ʔḪRY ‘another’, Ug ʔḪR ‘restrain, ‎delay’, Phn ʔḤR, ʔḪR ‘behind’ 
▪ Pennacchio2011, 4: »Words such as al-ʔāḫiraẗ ‘last (life)’ […] should be revised. Indeed, one of the meanings of the former is ‘the end of days’ like in Judaism«, cf. BDB, p. 31: »bᵊ-ʔaḥᵃrît hay-yāmîm ‘in the end of the days,’ a prophetic phrase denoting the final period of the history so far as the speaker’s perspective reaches; the sense thus varies with the context, but it often = the ideal or Messianic future«. 
▪ Rajki2002: Ful alahira, Hau lahira, Ind akhirat, Pers ʔāḫerat, Swa ahera
 
ʔḪ(W) أخو 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔḪ(W) 
“root” 
▪ ʔḪ(W)_1 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ʔḪ(W)_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘brother, brotherhood; friend, companion; to take as a friend, to fraternise; ties’ 
▪ … 
– 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
ʔaḫ أخ , st.constr. ʔaḫū , pl. ʔiḫwaẗ , ʔiḫwān 
ID 012 • Sw – • BP 66 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔḪ(W) 
n. 
brother; fellow man, neighbor; friend; (pl. ʔiḫwān, specif.) brethren or members of an order; al-ʔiḫwān religious brotherhood of the Wahabi sect, militant in character, established by Ibn Saʕūd – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *ʔaḫ‑ ‘brother’.
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘brother’) Akk aḫu, Hbr ʔāḥ, Syr ʔaḥā, Gz ʔēḫʷ.
DRS 1 (1994)#ʔḪ(W)-1: Akk aḫ‑ , Ug ʔaḫ, ʔuḫ, ʔiḫ, Hbr ʔāḥ, Phn Pun ʔḥ, JP ʔᵃḥā, Mand aha, Syr ʔaḥā, Ṣaf Liḥ ʔḫ, SAr ʔḫ, Soq ʔaɛḥat, Mhr ga, Gz ʔəḫəw, ʔəḫw, ʔəḫʷ, Te ḥu ‘brother’.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#23: Akk aḫu, Ug ʔaḫ, Phn ʔḥ, Pun ʔḥ, Hbr ʔāḥ, Aram (epigr) ʔḥ Syr ʔaḥā, SAr ʔḫ, Gz ʔǝḫǝw. – Outside Sem: WCh *ʔah(ya)‑ ‘uncle’, ‘brother’, CCh *ʔaγ‑ ‘son’.
▪ Rajki2002: Mal hu, Tig ḥu, […]. – Per aḫ borrowed from Ar. 
▪ Rajki2002: < Sem *ʔ-ḫ.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#23: < Sem *ʔaḫ‑ ‘brother’ < AfrAs *ʔaḫ‑ ‘brother’.
DRS 1 (1994)#ʔḪ(W)-1: »la voyelle de flexion casuelle qui terminait ce mot était primitivement longue; elle s’est abrégée ou même a totalement disparu à l’état absolu, mais elle s’est maintenue, dans la plupart des dialectes, à l’état construit ou devant des suff. pronominaux.« 
– 
ʔāḫà, vb. III, to fraternize, associate as brothers (tr.): denominative.
taʔaḫḫà, vb. V, to act or show o.s. as a brother or friend: denominative.
taʔāḫà, vb. VI, to fraternize, associate as brothers: denominative, reciprocal.
BP#226ʔuḫt, pl. ʔaḫawāt, n.f., sister: f. formed from ʔaḫ ?; (gram.) cognate; counterpart | ʔuḫtuhā the other (of two), its mate, its counterpart (after a fem. noun):.
ḫuwayy, n., little brother: dimin.
ʔaḫawī, adj., brotherly, fraternal: nsb-adj.
ʔaḫawiyyaẗ, n.f., brotherhood (as a religious association): n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ; hence also the group that is formed in the spirit of brotherliness.
ʔuḫuwwaẗ, ʔiḫāʔ, n., brotherhood, brotherness, fraternity:. – See also ↗s.v.
ʔiḫāwaẗ, n.f., fraternization; fraternity, brotherliness:.
taʔāḫin (def. al-taʔāḫī) fraternization; fraternity, brotherliness: vn. VI. 
ʔuḫt أُخْت , pl. ʔaḫawāt 
ID 013 • Sw – • BP 226 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔḪ(W) 
n.f. 
sister; (gram.) cognate; counterpart | ʔuḫtuhā the other (of two), its mate, its counterpart (after a fem. noun) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *ʔaḫ‑at‑ ‘sister’, f. of *ʔaḫ‑ (Ar ↗ʔaḫ) ‘brother’.
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 1 (1994)#ʔḪ(W)-1: Akk aḫāt‑ , Ug ʔaḫt, Hbr ʔaḥōt, Phn Pun ʔḥt, JP ʔᵃḥātā, Mand ahata, Syr ḥātā, Ṣaf Liḥ ʔḫt, Soq ʔeɛḥet, Mhr gayt, Gz ʔəḫt, Te ḥət, Tña ḥawti, Amh ət
▪ ….
▪ See also ↗ʔaḫ
– 
– 
ʔDː (ʔDD) أدّ/أدد 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 7Mar2023
√ʔDː (ʔDD) 
“root” 
▪ ʔDː (ʔDD)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔDː (ʔDD)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔDː (ʔDD)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘abomination, hardship, disaster, affliction; to befall, afflict; shameful’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ʔDB أدب 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔDB 
“root” 
▪ ʔDB_1 ‘culture, refinement; ‎good breeding, good manners; etiquette; literature’ (etc.) ↗ʔadab
▪ ʔDB_2 ‘to invite, entertain; party, banquet’ ↗ʔadaba
▪ ʔDB_3 ‘…’ ↗
 
While Muslim lexicographers make ʔDB_1 depend on ʔDB_2, saying the concept of good manners and politeness etc. evolved from the culture of inviting to parties and hosting guests (cf. also grouping in DRS), the current opinion in Western research is that ↗ʔadab is not connected to ↗ʔadaba. But opinions differ. 
– 
▪ According to DRS 1 (1994)#ʔDB the situation in Sem is as follows: –1 Ar ʔadaba ‘inviter à un festin’; ʔadab ‘savoir-vivre, belles manières, coutume, pratique’; Soq ʔdb ‘inviter’; Te ʔadab ‘habitude, caractère, genre’; ?Amh aǧǧäbä ‘faire escorte à qu. pour le rendre honneur’. –2 Hbr ʔªdīb ‘faire languir, faire dépérir’. –3 Soq ʔidbeh ‘pied de devant’.
▪ According to others, however, items listed as ʔDB-1 by DRS do not belong together. See discussion. 
▪ Like ClassAr lexicographers, DRS sees ʔDB_1 and ʔDB_2 as being one item.
▪ However, opinions differ on this view. See ↗ʔadab and ↗ʔadaba.
▪ The other values, listed in DRS, that the root displays in Sem, do not seem to be relevant for the discussion. 
– 
See ↗ʔadab and ↗ʔadaba
ʔadub‑ أدُب , u (ʔadab
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔDB 
vb., I 
to be well-bred, well-mannered, cultured, urbane, have refined tastes – WehrCowan1979. 
Denominative from ↗ʔadab (?). 
▪ … 
ʔadab
ʔadab
– 
ʔadab
ʔadab‑ أدب , i (ʔadb
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔDB 
vb., I 
to invite (to a party or banquet), entertain – WehrCowan1979. 
Connected to ↗ʔadab ? For discussion see ↗√ʔDB
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
ʔādaba, vb. IV, to invite as a guest:…

maʔdubaẗ, pl. maʔādibᵘ, n., banquet, formal dinner: n.loc.
ʔādib, n., host: lexicalized PA I.
 

ʔadab أَدَب , pl. ʔādāb 
ID 014 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 1195 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔDB 
n. 
1 culture, refinement; 2 ‎good breeding, good manners, social graces, decorum, decency, propriety, seemliness; 3 humanity, ‎humaneness; 4 the humanities; 5 belles-lettres | ‎‎ʔādāb, n.pl., rules, rules of conduct, ‎e.g., ‏‎ʔādāb al-sulūk, rules of decorum, etiquette; ‎‏‎al-ʔādāb, n.pl., decency, ‎morals – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ A key concept of Ar-Isl culture and civilisation with a long and rich semantic history. In many contexts, it serves as the secular counterpart of the (more religiously connotated) ↗sunnaẗ. Based on pre-Isl manners, customs and tradition (which however should not be seen in isolation but in the wider context of Late Antiquity), it developed, after the spread of Islam into the Iranian sphere, under the influence of Pers court culture and was subsequently ‘codified’ in manuals and encyclopedias. In post-classical times, it came to signify ‘culture’ and ‘humanity’ in general. While the sg. today mostly means ‘literature’, the pl. is frequently met in the Ar equivalent of Fr ‘Faculté des Lettres’ or Engl ‘Faculty of Humanities’, kulliyyat al-ʔādāb.
▪ Etymology unclear, no obvious cognates in other Sem langs (those in Te are borrowed ‎directly from Ar); the most common theory is that the sg. was secondary, coined from ʔādāb, a pl. of daʔb ‘custom, habit, wont’, and that it originally ment ‘praiseworthy customs, ‎habits, inherited from the forefathers’. Rolland2014, however, gives Sum DUB > Akk ṭuppu ‘tablet, sacred text’ or oPers dipi ‘to write’ as the most plausible alternatives.
▪ Against Ar lexicographers EtymArab thinks that there is hardly any relation to the vb. I ↗ʔadaba ‘to invite to a banquet’. 
▪ Horst1987: 208 sums up the development of the ‎concept (after Nallino) as follows:
“Tradition ↗ traditionelle (Herzens- und Verstandes-) ‎Bildung ↗ Bildung ↗ Bildungsliteratur ↗ Literatur”.2  
See below, section DISC. 
▪ The etymology of the term still remains rather vague. It does not seem to ‎have any real cognates in other Sem langs. Hbr ʔadīb ‘to let die off, or shrink, to weaken, ‎or make slacken, to let or make shrivel, or disrupt s.th.’ (faire languir, faire dépérir) and Soq ʔidbeh ‘front leg/foot’ (pied de devant), which David Cohen lists in his DRS (1970 ff.), would seem quite difficult to relate semantically to the meaning with which the Ar ‎‎ʔadab makes its appearance in the oldest sources, where it signifies “‘habit, ‎hereditary norm of conduct, custom’ derived from ancestors and other persons who are looked up ‎to as models (as, in the religious sense, was the sunna of the Prophet for his community)” (Gabrieli ‎‎1960). With this meaning, it has a parellel in Te, where ʔadab means, among other things ‎‎(probably later meanings), also ‘habit’ (habitude, DRS 1, 1970), but at least this form, Cohen says, ‎‎“est un emprunt direct à l’arabe” (is directly borrowed from Ar). A connection to the verb ʔadaba ‘to invite (to a banquet etc.)’, which Arab lexicographers usually assume and which ‎shows a counterpart in SAr-Soq ʔdb ‘to invite’ and perhaps also Amh aǧǧäbä ‘faire escorte à qu. ‎pour le rendre honneur’, seems rather unlikely, so that the notorious etymology put forward by ‎Nallino 1948/50 – “that the pl. ʔādāb was formed from daʔb [custom, habit], and that the ‎sg. ʔadab was subsequently derived from this plural” (Gabrieli 1960) – does not seem ‎completely unlikely. All the more so since Ilse Lichtenstädter’s cautious proposal (1974) to link ʔadab to a Sum é-dub-ba-a, signifying ‘school’ or ‘university’ (Horst 1987), seems a bit ‎far-fetched, and Asya Asbaghi’s (1988) tracing Ar ʔadab to a – or rather ‎two – earlier (!) Pers ʔadab s which, according to the author, go back to two mPers ‎expressions, is motivated too obviously by Iranian nationalism as to survive a critical check. (It ‎may suffice here to note that the Pers term adab does not appear in Pers sources earlier ‎than 325 aH/936 CE: Khaleghi-Motlagh1985, EIr, “Adab: i. Adab in Iran”, 432).
▪ Rolland2014, however, gives Sum DUB > Akk ṭuppu ‘tablet, sacred text’ or oPers dipi ‘to write’ as the most plausible alternatives, adding that there also is Soghdian dyb-yy ‘character, letter’.
▪ But even if there ‎is no direct borrowing from the Pers lexicon, the semantic development of the words from ‘good ‎old customs, praiseworthy habits’ into the whole later concept of ʔadab has certainly been ‎influenced, if not essentially shaped, by the Iranians. It is probably not wrong to follow the entry in ‎the Encyclopedia Iranica (Khaleghi-Motlagh 1985) here, which says that “[t]he origin of the ‎concept can be traced to pre-Islamic and especially Sasanian Iran” (431), and that it is, the ‎moment it appears in Pers sources, “the equivalent of the mPers frahang and nPers ‎‎farhang ” (432), although the coming of Islam by then had already “added to it many new ‎elements and brought about a specifically Islamic synthesis” (431).
▪ If in the beginning ʔadab ‎was more or less synonymous with sunnaẗ, and if it is no lexical borrowing, then the question arises ‎why a new expression was coined by forming a new sg. from a pl. that meant ‘customs, ‎habits, wonts’. A possibility I would suggest is that it was a calque rendering Pers ēwēn (n‎Pers āyīn) which means ‘custom, rule, correct manner, and the like’ (Khaleghi-Motlagh 1985: ‎‎432) and for the Arabs must have seemed something different from their own sunan and ‎ʔadʔub (another pl. of daʔb). The fact that after the rise of Islam and the term sunnaẗ being ‎applied to the Prophet’s usage, there was a need to have a term for the secular tradition. 
– 
bayt al-ʔadab, n., toilet, water closet:.
qalīl al-ʔadab and ʕadīm al-ʔadab, adj., ill-mannered, ill-bred, impolite, uncivil:.
al-ʔadab al-ʕāmmī, n., popular literature:.
riǧāl al-ʔadab, n.pl., literati, men of letters:.
kulliyyaẗ al-ʔādāb, n., college of arts: calqued from Fr faculté des lettres.

ʔaduba, u (ʔadab), vb. I, to be well-bred, well-mannered, cultured, urbane, have refined tastes: denominative from ʔadab ?
ʔaddaba, vb. II, to refine, educate; to discipline, punish, chastise: causative of I.
taʔaddaba, vb. V, to receive a fine education; to be well-bred, well-educated, cultured, have refined tastes; to show o.s. polite, courteous, civil, urbane; to behave properly or decently, maintain good manners; to educate o.s., refine one's tastes; to let o.s. be guided:.

BP#2030ʔadabī, adj., moral, ethic(al); literary: nsb-adj | šaǧāʕaẗ ʔadabiyyaẗ moral courage; wāǧib ʔ. moral obligation, ʔadabiyyan wa-māddiyyan morally and physically, al-falsafaẗ al-ʔadabiyyaẗ ethics, moral science, al-qism al-ʔ. humanities division (higher education)
ʔadabiyyāt, n.pl., literature, belles-lettres; the humanities: n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ from ʔadab.
ʔadabḫānaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., toilet, water closet: from ʔadab and ḫānaẗ (< Pers) ↗s.v.
BP#3204ʔadīb, pl. ʔudabāʔᵘ, adj./n., cultured, refined, educated; well-bred, well-mannered, civil, urbane; a man of culture and refined tastes; man of letters, writer, author: PP/adj. formation from ʔadab.
ʔadībaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., authoress, writer: f. of ʔadīb.
maʔdubaẗ, pl. maʔādibᵘ, n., banquet, formal dinner: from the vb. ↗ʔadaba ‘to invite, entertain’ rather than from ʔadab.
C taʔdīb, n., education; discipline; punishment, chastisement; disciplinary punishment | maǧlis al-t. disciplinary board
taʔdībī, adj., disciplinary; punitive, retaliatory: nsb-adj from taʔdīb.
taʔaddub, n., good breeding, good manners, civility, politeness, courteousness, tact: vn. V.
ʔādib, n., host: lexicalized PA I from the vb. ↗ʔadaba ‘to invite, entertain’ rather than from ʔadab.
muʔaddib, pl. ‑ūn, n. educator; teacher in a Koranic school (Tun.): nominalized PA II.
muʔaddab, adj., well-bred, well-mannered, civil, urbane: PP II.
mutaʔaddib, adj., polite, well-bred: PA V; pl. ‑ūn : n., educated people: nominalized PP V. 

ʔādāb آداب (pl.) 
Sw – • NahḍConBP 3204 • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√ʔDB 
n., pl. of ↗ʔadab 
▪ … 
ʔadīb أديب 
Sw – • NahḍConBP 3204 • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√ʔDB 
n. 
▪ … 
ʔDM أدم 
Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√ʔDM 
“root” 
▪ … 
ʔādamiyyaẗ آدَمِيّة 
Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√ʔDM 
n.f. 
▪ …abstr. formation in -iyyaẗ 
ʔDY أدي 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 7Mar2023
√ʔDY 
“root” 
▪ ʔDY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔDY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔDY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to ripen, become due; to snare, prepare; to convey, bring about; to pay’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ʔḎN أذن 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔḎN 
“root” 
▪ ʔḎN_1 ‘ear’ ↗ʔuḏn ; ‘call for prayer’ ↗ʔaḏān
▪ ʔḎN_2 ‘to allow, permit’ ↗ʔiḏn
▪ ʔḎN_3 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ʔḎN_4 ‘…’ ↗
 
▪ ʔḎN_1 : (Kogan2015 Sw#21:) from protSem *ʔuḏn‑ ‘ear’ (SED I #4).
▪ The two main values MSA shows today, are probably connected, ʔḎN_2 ‘to allow, give permission’ depending on ʔḎN_1 ‘ear’, as suggested by DRS where all values are grouped as one item, deriving from protSem *‘ear’. Ar ʔaḏān ‘call for prayer’ is *‘to make o.s. heard’ and thus from ‘ear’. The semantics of ʔḎN_2 could be similar to that of ‘call for prayer’: *‘ear’ > *‘to make o.s. heard’ > *‘to notify’ > *’ to notify about a permission’ > ‘to give permission’. 
– 
DRS 1 (1994)#ʔḎN: Sem ‘ear’: Akk uzn‑ , Ug ʔudn, Hbr ʔozen, Aram ʔudnā, Syr ʔednā, Emp ʔdn, Ar ʔuḏn, Soq ʔidihen, Śḥr iden, Mhr hayden, Gz Te ʔəzn, Tña ʔəzni, Har uzun; Ar ʔaḏina ‘permettre’, Tham ʔḏn ‘autorité’, Ug ʔidn ‘permission?’, SAr ʔdn ‘obéissance, ordre’; Ar ʔaḏḏana, Te ʔaddana, ʔazzana ‘appeler à la prière’. 
Te ʔaddana, ʔazzana are clearly borrowed from Ar ʔaḏḏana
▪ Engl azan, from Ar ʔaḏān ‘call to prayer’, from ʔaḏḏana ‘to call to prayer’, D-stem of ʔaḏina ‘to listen’, denom. from ʔuḏn ‘ear’; muezzin, from Ar muʔaḏḏin ‘muezzin’, PA of ʔaḏḏana (see above) – Huehnergard2011. 
– 
ʔiḏn إذْن , pl. ʔuḏūn , ʔuḏūnāt 
ID … • Sw – • BP 1290 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔḎN 
n. 
permission, authorization; leave; license; warrant; (pl. ʔuḏūn, ʔuḏūnāt) (postal) order; bond (fin.) – WehrCowan1979. 
Most probably, the item ‘to allow, give permission’ is dependent on ʔḎN_1 ‘ear’, as suggested by DRS where all values are grouped as one item, deriving from Sem *‘ear’. Cf. ↗ʔḎN for the general picture, and ↗ʔuḏn for ‘ear’. 
▪ … 
DRS 1 (1994)#ʔḎN: [apart from cognates meaning ‘ear’]: Ar ʔaḏina ‘permettre’, Tham ʔḏn ‘autorité’, Ug ʔidn ‘permission?’, SAr ʔdn ‘obéissance, ordre’. 
See “Nutshell” above as well as ↗ʔuḏn and ↗ʔḎN
– 
ʔaḏina, a, vb. I, to allow, permit: denominative?
ĭstaʔḏana, vb. X, to ask permission to enter, have o.s. announced; to take leave, say good-bye: denominative.

ʔiḏnī, adj.: sanad ʔ. promissory note, bill payable to order of s.o.: nsb-adj.
ʔāḏin, n., door-keeper, porter: lexicalized PA I (*‘the one who gives permission to enter’).
maʔḏūn, adj., authorized; licensed, legally allowed or recognized: PP I; n., holder of diploma; slave with limited legal rights (Isl.Law); = m. šarʕī, official authorized by the cadi to perform civil marriages (Isl.Law): lexicalized nominalized PP I (*person who has been authorized).
maʔḏūniyyaẗ, n.f., leave, furlough (mil.Syr.); license, franchise (Syr.).

For other values cf. ↗ʔuḏn and ↗ʔaḏān

ʔaḏān أَذان 
ID 015 • Sw – • BP 4457 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔḎN 
n. 
call to prayer – WehrCowan1979. 
Akin to ↗ʔuḏn ‘ear’. 
▪ … 
DRS 1 (1994)#ʔḎN: [apart from those listed under ↗ʔuḏn ‘ear’ and ↗ʔiḏn ‘allowance, permit’]: Ar ʔaḏḏana, Te ʔaddana, ʔazzana ‘appeler à la prière’. 
Te ʔaddana, ʔazzana are clearly borrowed from Ar ʔaḏḏana
▪ Engl azan, from Ar ʔaḏān ‘call to prayer’, from ʔaḏḏana ‘to call to prayer’, D-stem of ʔaḏina ‘to listen’, denom. from ʔuḏn ‘ear’ – Huehnergard2011. 
ʔaḏḏana, vb. II, to call, esp. to call to prayer: denominative, or caus. of ʔaḏina ‘to listen, hear, learn, be informed’ (vb. I, ↗ʔuḏn).

maʔḏanaẗ, var. miʔḏanaẗ, pl. maʔāḏinᵘ, n., minaret: n.loc./instr., from ↗ʔaḏān.
muʔaḏḏin, n., muezzin, announcer of the hour of prayer: PA II, from vb. II, from ↗ʔaḏān.

For other values of ʔḎN, cf. ↗ʔuḏn and ↗ʔiḏn

ʔuḏn أُذُن/أُذْن , var. ʔuḏun , pl. ʔāḏān 
ID 016 • Sw 39/35 • BP 1853 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔḎN 
n. 
1 ear. – 2 handle (of a cup) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Kogan2015 (Sw#21): from protSem *ʔuḏn‑ ‘ear’ (SED I #4) (perh. < AfrAs *ʔudun-/*ʔuз̆un‑ ‘ear’).
v2 ‘handle (of a cup)’ is metaphorical use (the ‘ear’ of a cup).
▪ From ‘ear’ are also the vb.s ‘to hear’ (I) and ‘to announce, inform; to crow (rooster)’ (II, *‘to make o.s. heard’) as well as, with the advent of Islam, the ‘call for prayer’.
▪ Most probably, also the notion of ‘to allow, give permission’ is derived from here, cf. ↗ʔiḏn (and derivatives). 
▪ … 
▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘ear’) Akk uznu, Hbr ʔózen, Syr ʔuḏnā, Gz ʔezn.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#126: Akk ʔuzn‑ , Ug ʔudn, Hbr ʔōzen, Aram ʔudnā, Syr ʔednō, SAr ʔḏn, Gz ʔǝzn, Te ʔǝzn, Tña ʔǝzni ‘ear’. – Outside Sem: Eg i͗dn ‘ear’, ECh forms like ʔuduŋe or uduŋi ‘ear’. 
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#126: < Sem *ʔuḏn‑ ‘ear’ < AfrAs *ʔudun-/*ʔuз̆un‑ ‘ear’. – Eg i͗dn with palatalized from *3‑ under the influence of AfrAs *u; ECh forms < ECh *ʔudun-H‑
– 
ʔaḏina, a, vb. I, to listen; to hear, learn, be informed: denominative. – For other values cf. ʔiḏn.
ʔaḏḏana, vb. II, to call, esp. to call to prayer; to crow (rooster):.
ʔāḏana, vb. IV, to announce, make known, inform, notify; to call to prayer; to call upon s.o., urge, admonish, exhort to do s.th.; to herald; to foreshadow; to be on the verge (of doing s.th.): caus. of I.
taʔaḏḏana, vb. V, to herald, announce:.

C BP#4457ʔaḏān, n., call to prayer:.
ʔuḏayn, n., auricle (anat.): dimin.
ʔuḏaynaẗ, n.f., little ear; ear lobe: dimin.f.
maʔḏanaẗ, var. miʔḏanaẗ, pl. maʔāḏinᵘ minaret: n.loc. of ↗ʔaḏān.
ʔīḏān, n., declaration, proclamation, announcement; advance notice; imminence, threat, menace: vn. IV.
muʔaḏḏin, n., muezzin, announcer of the hour of prayer: PA II, from vb. II, from ↗ʔaḏān.

For other values of ʔḎNʔiḏn

ʔḎY أذي 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 7Mar2023
√ʔḎY 
“root” 
▪ ʔḎY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔḎY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔḎY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘harm, injury, damage; to wrong, harm; high tumultuous waves’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ʔRB أرب 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 7Mar2023
√ʔRB 
“root” 
▪ ʔRB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔRB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔRB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘power, purpose, need; knot; intelligent, resourceful, able and fit’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ʔRḪ أرخ 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔRḪ 
“root” 
▪ ʔRḪ_1 ‘date; history’ ↗ʔarraḫa, ↗tārīḫ
▪ ʔRḪ_2 ‘young bull’: ʔirḫ
▪ ʔRḪ_3 ‘…’ ↗ 
Of the five values listed for Sem √ʔRḪ in DRS, only one (‘date; history’) is realized in MSA. An earlier one (‘young bull’) is now obsolete. 
– 
DRS 1 (1994)#ʔRḪ–1: Sem *ʔurḫ ‘voie, chemin’ > Akk ʔarḫ‑ , ʔurḫ‑ , Hbr ʔōraḥ, oAram ʔrḥʔ, EmpAram Palm ʔrḥ, JP ʔorḥā, Syr ʔawrḥā, Mand ʕwḥrʔ, nAram ʔurḥ; Akk arāḫu ‘se presser, se hâter’, erēḥu ‘s’avancer aggressivement’, Hbr ʔāraḥ ‘cheminer’, ʔorḥā ‘caravane’, Soq ʔeraḥ ‘venir, arriver’.
#ʔRḪ–2: SAr ʔrḫ ‘déterminer; être déterminé, prescrit (affaire)’, Ar ʔarraḫa ‘dater, mettre la date’, taʔrīḫ ‘date’, SAr ʔrḫn ‘temps déterminé, ère, époque’.
#ʔRḪ–3: Akk arāḫu ‘consommer, anéantir’, yārāḫ‑ ‘portion de céréal’, Hbr ʔᵃruḥā ‘portion journalière, ration’
#ʔRḪ–4: Akk arḫ‑ ‘taureau’, Ug ʔarḫ ‘vache’, ʔurḫ, Ar ʔirḫ ‘taurillon’, Te Tña ʔarḥi ‘vache qui n’a pas encore vêlé’
#ʔRḪ–5: Akk arḫ‑ , Syr ʔarḥā ‘demi-tuile’. 
– 
– 
– 
ʔarraḫ‑ أرّخ 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔRḪ 
vb., II 
1 to date (a letter, and the like). – 2 to write the history of s.th. – WehrCowan1979. 
v2 is secondary, based on ↗tārīḫ rather than on v1. 
▪ … 
DRS 1 (1994)#ʔRḪ-2: SAr ʔrḫ ‘déterminer; être déterminé, prescrit (affaire)’, Ar ʔarraḫa ‘dater, mettre la date’, taʔrīḫ ‘date’, SAr ʔrḫn ‘temps déterminé, ère, époque’. 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
taʔrīḫ, n., 1 dating (of a letter, etc.); 2 historiography: vn. II.
BP#286tārīḫ, pl. tawārīḫᵘ, n., date; time; history; chronicle, annals; story, tale: from taʔrīḫ (* > ā), resultative.
BP#1013tārīḫī, adj., historic(al): nsb-adj from tārīḫ.
muʔarriḫ, n., historiographer, historian, chronicler, annalist: PA II (of v2).
muʔarraḫ, adj., dated: PP II (of v1). 
taʔrīḫ تأْريخ 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔRḪ 
n. 
1 dating (of a letter, etc.). – 2 historiography – WehrCowan1979. 
vn. II, from ↗ʔarraḫa ‘1. to date (a letter, and the like); 2. to write the history of s.th.’ (where v2 is secondary). 
▪ … 
See ↗ʔarraḫa
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
BP#286tārīḫ, pl. tawārīḫᵘ, n., date; time; history; chronicle, annals; story, tale: * > ā, lexicalized.

Cf. also
ʔarraḫa, vn. II, to write the history of s.th.
muʔarriḫ, n., historiographer, historian, chronicler, annalist: PA II, from ↗ʔarraḫa_2.
muʔarraḫ, adj., dated: PP II, from ↗ʔarraḫa _1. 

tārīḫ تارِيخ , pl. tawārīḫᵘ 
ID 017 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 286 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔRḪ 
n. 
1 date; time. – 2 history. – 3 chronicle, annals. – 4 story, tale – WehrCowan1979. 
With * > ā from ↗taʔrīḫ ‘dating (of a letter, etc.); historiography)’, all lexicalizations of the results/products of ‘dating’. 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
tārīḫ al-ḥayāẗ, n., biography; curriculum vitae
tārīḫ ʕāmm, n., world history
tārīḫ qadīm, n., an old story
ʕulamāʔ al-tārīḫ, n.pl., the historians
mā qabla ‘l-tārīḫ, n.rel., pre-historic time

ʔarraḫa, vn. II, to write the history of s.th. – See also ↗taʔrīḫ.
BP#1013tārīḫī, adj., historic(al): nsb-adj.
muʔarriḫ, n., historiographer, historian, chronicler, annalist: PA II, from ↗ʔarraḫa

ʔRZ أرز 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔRZ 
“root” 
▪ ʔRZ_1 ‘cedar (bot.)’ ↗ʔarz
▪ ʔRZ_2 ‘rice’ ↗ʔaruzz
 
While ʔarz ‘cedar (bot.)’ goes back to a protWSem *ʔarz‑ ‘cedar (or pine?)’, the word for ‘rice’, (ʔa)ruzz is probably of Iranian origin. 
– 
DRS 1 (1994)#ʔRZ–1 Ug ʔarz (Tropper2008: */ʔarzu/), Hbr ʔäräz, EmpAram ʔrz, JP Syr ʔarzā, Mand arza, nAram arra, Ar ʔarz, Soq ʔarz, Gz Te ʔarz ‘cèdre’. –2 nHbr ʔārūz ‘solide, durable’, ?Ar ʔaraza ‘se contracter, être froide (nuit)’. –3 nHbr ʔōrez, Aram ʔūrzā, Ar ʔurz, ʔuruz(z), Soq ʔírhez, Mhr ḥayrez, Śḥr ʔiróz ‘riz’. 
▪ ʔRZ_1 ↗ʔarz
▪ ʔRZ_2 ↗ʔaruzz
 
▪ ʔRZ_1 Ar ↗ʔarz akin to Engl larch ?
▪ ʔRZ_2 Ar ↗(ʔa)ruzz akin to Engl rice.
 
– 
ʔarz أَرْز 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔRZ 
n.coll. (n.u. -aẗ
cedar – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Kogan2011: from protWSem *ʔarz‑ ‘cedar’ or ‘pine’.
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 1 (1994)#ʔRZ–1 Ug ʔarz (Tropper2008: */ʔarzu/), Hbr ʔäräz, EmpAram ʔrz, JP Syr ʔarzā, Mand arza, nAram arra, Ar ʔarz, Soq ʔarz, Gz Te ʔarz ‘cèdre’. 
▪ While Tropper2008, Huehnergard2011, and Kogan2011 only go back to the WSem level (reconstr. WSem *ʔarz‑ ‘cedar, pine’), DRS 1 (1994)#ʔRZ-1 reconstructs Sem *ʔarz‑ ‘cedar’, which, however, is said to be of unknown origin.
▪ According to DRS 1 (1994)#ʔRZ-1, the Ar and EthSem forms are borrowings from NSem. 
▪ Lokotsch1927: Ar ʔarzaẗ ‘cedar, pinus cedrus’ > (+ def.art. al‑) > Span alerce ‘larch’, Sic arzanu ‘fir tree’. The author also thinks there is conspicuous similarity between Ar (al-)ʔarz and Lat larix, laric‑, which gave Ital larice, Portug larico, Ge Lärche 4 ‘larch’. In contrast, Kluge2002 does not mention a possible relation betw Lat larix, laric‑ and Ar ʔarz but says the word is of unknown origin. EtymOnline says that Engl larch (1540 s) is borrowed from Ge Lärche, via mHGe and oHGe (as in Kluge2002) from Lat larix, laric‑, the latter however not from Ar, but probably a loan-word from an Alpine Gaulish lang, corresponding phonetically to oCelt *darik‑ ‘oak’ (cf. Druid and tree).5
▪ Engl cedar, oEngl ceder, is definitely not from Ar ʔarz. In mEngl, ceder blended with oFr cedre, both from Lat cedrus, from Grk kédros ‘cedar, juniper’, origin uncertain. – EtymOnline
4. Kluge2002: Ge Lärche, mHGe lerche, larche, oHGe lerihha.  5. Following these lines in EtymOnline we find: Engl druid, 1560s, from Fr druide, from Lat druidae (pl.), from Gaul Druides, from Celt compound *dru-wid‑, probably representing oCelt *derwos ‘true’/pIE *dru‑ ‘tree’ (especially oak; see tree) + *wid‑ ‘to know’. Hence, literally, perhaps, ‘they who know the oak’ (perhaps in allusion to divination from mistletoe). AnglSax, too, used identical words to mean ‘tree’ and ‘truth’ (treow). – Engl tree, oEngl treo, treow ‘tree’ (also ‘timber, wood, beam, log, stake’), from pGerm *treuwaz‑, from pIE *drew-o‑, from *deru‑ ‘oak’ (Skr dru ‘tree, wood’, daru ‘wood, log’; Grk drŷs ‘oak’, drȳmós ‘copse, thicket’, dóry ‘beam, shaft of a spear’, oChSlav drievo, Ru derevo ‘tree, wood’; Alb drusk ‘oak’). This is from pIE *drew-o‑, a suffixed form of the root *deru‑ ‘to be firm, solid, steadfast’ (see true), with specialized sense ‘wood, tree’ and derivatives referring to objects made of wood. – The widespread use of words originally meaning ‘oak’ in the sense ‘tree’ probably reflects the importance of the oak to ancient Indo-Europeans. In oEngl and mEngl also ‘thing made of wood’, especially the cross of the Crucifixion and a gallows (such as Tyburn tree, famous gallows outside London). mEngl also had pl. treen, adj. treen (oEngl treowen ‘of a tree, wooden’). 
– 
ʔaruzz أَرُزّ 
ID … • Sw – • BP 4015 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔRZ 
n. 
rice – WehrCowan1979. 
See ↗ruzz
▪ … 
… 
See ↗ruzz
▪ See ↗ruzz
– 
ʔRḌ أرض 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔRḌ 
“root” 
▪ ʔRḌ_1 ‘earth (as opposed to sky)’ ↗ʔarḍ
▪ ʔRḌ_2 ‘termites; to be worm-eaten (wood)’ ↗ʔaraḍ
▪ ʔRḌ_3 ‘trembling, epileptic fit’: ʔarḍ

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘the earth, earth, land; to be flat; to be fatty; to be touched’ 
▪ Out of the three values of the root as given by DRS, only two (ʔRḌ_1 and ʔRḌ_2) are realized in MSA.
▪ ʔRḌ_1 : (Kogan2015 Sw#22:) from protSem *ʔarṣ́‑ ‘earth’ (HALOT 90). Passim except EthSem, Mhr and Soq.
▪ … 
– 
DRS 1 (1994)#ʔRD̮–1: Akk erṣet‑ , Ug ʔarṣ, Phn Pun Moab ʔrṣ, Hbr ʔereṣ, EmpAram ʔrq, Nab Palm ʔrʕ, BiblAram ʔᵃraʕ, JP Syr ʔarʕā, Mand arqa ‘terre (sol)’, arda ‘terre (champ)’; Akk irṣit‑ ‘terre, enfer, tombe’, EmpAram ʔrṣʔ ‘sarcophage’. (no Ar forms mentioned!)
▪ #ʔRD̮–2: Ar ʔariḍa ‘être rongé (bois)’, ʔarad̮, Te ʔarṣät ver rongeur du bois.
▪ #ʔRD̮–3: Ar ʔard̮ ‘tremblement, crise d’épilepsie’. 
– 
– 
– 
ʔarḍ أَرْض , pl. أراضٍ ʔarāḍin (def. al-ʔarāḍī), ʔaraḍūn 
ID 018 • Sw 79/36 • BP 116 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔRḌ 
n.f. 
land, country, region; area; terrain, ground, soil; lot, parcel of land, estate, real estate; al-ʔarḍ earth (as opposed to heaven or as a planet); globe, world – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *ʔarṣ́‑ ‘earth, land’ (as opposed to ‘heaven’ and ‘water’).
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994: From Sem *ʔarṣ̂‑ ‘earth’, from AfrAs *ʔarić̣‑ ‘earth’.
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘land, earth’) Akk erṣetu, Hbr ʔéreṣ, Syr ʔarʕā, SAr ʔrḍ.
DRS 1 (1994)#ʔRD̮-1: Akk erṣet‑ , Ug ʔarṣ, Phn Pun Moab ʔrṣ, Hbr ʔereṣ, EmpAram ʔrq, Nab Palm ʔrʕ, BiblAram ʔᵃraʕ, JP Syr ʔarʕā, Mand arqa ‘terre (sol)’, arda ‘terre (champ)’; Akk irṣit‑ ‘terre, enfer, tombe’, EmpAram ʔrṣʔ ‘sarcophage’.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#54: for Sem see DRS above, and SAr ʔrḍ, Jib ʔɛrḍ. – Outside Sem: WCh riṣ̂a, hīṣ̂e, rəṣ̂u, riṣ̂i ‘earth’ in some WCh languages, and iraaḍya ʻvalley’ in Bid (ECh). 
DRS 1 (1994)#ʔRD̮-1: From Sem *ʔard̮ ‘earth (as opposed to ‘sky’); country’.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#54: The authors reconstruct Sem *ʔarṣ̂‑ ‘earth’, WCh *H˅rić̣‑, and ECh *ʔirać̣‑, all from a hypothetical AfrAs *ʔarić̣‑ ‘earth’. 
– 
al-ʔarḍ al-suflà, n., the nether world.
al-ʔarḍ al-muqaddasaẗ, n.f., the Holy Land, Palestine.
al-ʔarāḍī al-munḫafiḍaẗ, n.prop.pl., The Netherlands.
taḥt al-ʔarḍ, adv., underground.

ʔarraḍa, vb. II, to ground, (Brit.) earth (antenna): caus., denom.

BP#1955ʔarḍī, adj., terrestrial, of the earth; soil-, land- (in compounds); situated on or near the ground, on the ground flor; ground (adj.); earthly; undergrund, subterranean: nsb-adj.
BP#4488ʔarḍiyyaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., floor, ground (also, e.g., of a printed fabric); background (of a painting and fig.); flooring, floor covering; ground floor, first floor (tun.); storage, warehouse charges; groundwork, foundation, fasis earth:.

For ʔarḍī šawkī ‘artichoke’ and ʔaraḍ ‘termite; woodworm’, see the respective entries. 

ʔaraḍ أرض , n.un. ‑aẗ 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔRḌ 
n.coll. 
termite; woodworm – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS#ʔRD̮–2: Ar ʔariḍa ‘être rongé (bois)’, ʔaraḍ, Te ʔarṣät ver rongeur du bois.
 
▪ …
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ʔarḍī šawkī أرْضي شَوْكي 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔRḌ , ŠWK 
n. 
artichoke – WehrCowan1979. 
From Ital articiocco (which, in turn, is from Ar al‑ḫaršūf ‘artichoke’). Popular etymology related the term to ↗ʔarḍ ‘earth’ and ↗šawk ‘thorn(s)’. 
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ʔRK أرك 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 7Mar2023
√ʔRK 
“root” 
▪ ʔRK_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔRK_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔRK_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘lote-tree, to feed on such a tree, to stay put near such trees; couches, soft furnishings’ 
▪ … 
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– 
– 
ʔRNB أرنب 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔRNB 
“root” 
▪ ʔRNB_1 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ʔRNB_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
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▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
ʔarnab أرْنب , pl. ʔarānibᵘ 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔRNB 
n. 
hare; rabbit – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ It seems safe to assume (with DRS) a protSem *ʔarnab‑ . Lipiński1997 thinks the word can be segmented into root plus ‎AfrAs “postpositive determinant” *‑b “for wild and dangerous animals”.
▪ Cf. also Kogan2011: from protSem *ʔarnab(‑at)‑ ‘hare’.
▪ … 
▪ ….. 
DRS 1 (1994): Akk arnab‑ , annab‑ , Hbr ʔarnebet, EmpAram ʔrnb, JP ʔarᵊnbā, ʔarnabtā, Syr ʔarnᵊbā, Ar ʔarnab, Har harbañño, ?Ug ʔanhb; ?Ar ʔarnabaẗ ‘extrémité du nez, naseaux’ 
DRS 1 (1994): Sem *ʔarnab‑ ‘lièvre’
▪ Lipiński1997#30.10 thinks the word can be segmented into root plus ‎AfrAs “postpositive determinant” *‑b “for wild and dangerous animals”, cf. also dubb ‘bear’, ḏiʔb‑ ‘wolf’, ḏubāb‑ ‘flies’, kalb ‘dog’, ʕankabūt‑ ‘spider’, ʕaqrab‑ ‘scorpion’, ġurāb‑ ‘crow, raven’, ṯaʕlab‑ ‘fox’.
DRS 1 (1994) hesitates to derive ʔarnabaẗ in the sense of ‘tip of the nose’ from ‘hare’. 
– 
ʔarnab hindī, n., guinea pig.
ʔarnabaẗ, n.f., female hare, doe: f.; ʔ.aẗ al-ʔanf tip of the nose; nose, muzzle (of an animal). 
ʔZː (ʔZZ) أزّ/أزز 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 7Mar2023
√ʔZː (ʔZZ) 
“root” 
▪ ʔZː (ʔZZ)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔZː (ʔZZ)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔZː (ʔZZ)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to whiz, to buzz, to hum; to agitate, to shake up, to incite, to stir up’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ʔZR أزر 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 8Mar2023
√ʔZR 
“root” 
▪ ʔZR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔZR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔZR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘back; strength; to encompass; wrap, loin cloth; to support, brace, back up’ 
▪ From CSem *√ʔZR ‘to surround, gird’ – Huehnergard2011.
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ʔZM أزم 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔZM 
“root” 
▪ ʔZM_1 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ʔZM_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
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▪ …
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▪ …
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– 
ʔazmaẗ أَزْمَة 
ID 019 • Sw – • BP 675 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔZM 
n.f. 
emergency; crisis – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
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▪ …
▪ … 
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▪ … 
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ʔSː (ʔSS) أسّ / أسس 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔSː (ʔSS) 
“root” 
▪ ʔSː (ʔSS)_1 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ʔSː (ʔSS)_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘beginning, root, foundation, to found’ 
▪ … 
– 
▪ …
▪ Borg2021 #10: For Ar ʔuss, pl. ʔasās ‘foundation, principle, basis’, the author compares Eg s.t (Pyr) ‘seat, throne, place, ground of house’; ‘Sitz, Wohnsitz, Platz; Ort, Stelle’ (Faulkner 1962: 206; Wb IV 1; Calice 1936: 79). 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
ʔasās أَساس 
ID 020 • Sw – • BP 485 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔSː (ʔSS) 
n. 
1 foundation (also, of a building), fundament, groundwork, ground, basis; 2 keynote, tonic (mus.) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
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ʔSTBRQ أستبرق 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔSTBRQ 
“root” 
▪ ʔSTBRQ_1 ‘brocade’ ↗ʔistabraq 
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▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
ʔistabraq إِسْتَبْرَق 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 11Apr2023
√ʔSTBRQ 
n. 
brocade – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Rolland2014a: From mPers stapr, stavr ‘strong, thick, solid, big’, akin to Av stavra ‘firm’, IE *stebʰ‑ ‘soutenir, fixer’, cf. Engl stamp, staff.
▪ Cheung2017(rev): prob. a direct borrowing from emPers stabrak ‘shot silk’ (lmPers stabrag > Syr ʔestabr(a)gā ‘silk dress, brocade’. For details, see below, section DISC.
▪… 
▪ eC7 (thick silk material, brocade) Q 55:54 muttakiʔīna ʕalà furušin baṭāʔinu-hā min ʔistabraqin ‘they are reclining on couches lined with brocade’ 
… 
▪ Lane: »Arabicized word, from ʔstrwh which is Syr, or from Pers, in which stabr and ʔistabr signify ‘thick’, absolutely, whence stabrah and ʔistabrah are particularly applied to signify ‘thick ↗dībāǧ ’, then the latter is Arabicized by substituting q for the h
▪ Jeffery1938: »Used [in the Qurʔān] only in early passages in description of the raiment of the faithful in Paradise. It is one of the few words that have been very generally recognized by the Muslim authorities as a Pers loan-word, cf. al-Ḍaḥḥāk in al-Suyūṭī, Itq, 319; al-Aṣmaʕī in al-Suyūṭī, Muzhir, i,137; al-Sijistānī, 49; al-Jawharī, Ṣiḥāḥ s.v.; al-Kindī, Risāla, 85; Ibn al-Athīr, Nihāya, i, 38. Some, indeed, took it as an Ar word, attempting to derive it from √BRQ (cf. Bayḍ. on lxxvi, 21), but their argument depends on a variant reading given by Ibn Muḥayṣin which cannot be defended (Dvořák, Fremdw, 39, 40). / The philologers, however, were in some confusion as to the original Pers form. LA, xi, 285, quotes al-Zajjāj as stating it was from Pers ʔstqrh, and TA, vi, 292, quotes Ibn Durayd to the effect that it is from Syr ʔstwrh, neither of which forms exist. The Qāmūs, s.v. BRQ, however, rightly gives it as from ʔstbrh,10 which al-Jawharī, Ṣiḥāḥ, says is from SṬBR, meaning ġalīẓ.[…] Pers ʔstbr, sometimes written ʔsṭbr, as al-Jawharī gives it,11 is a form of sitabr meaning ‘big, thick, gross’, apparently from a root ʔustuwār ‘firm, stable’ (cf. Skr stʰabir,12 Av staura,13 Oss st‘ur,14 and Arm stowar.15 The Phlv staβr ‘thick’ (Nyberg, Glossar, 206, is used of clothing in eschatological writings, e.g. Arda Viraf, xiv, 14, ??? ‘and glorious and thick splendid clothing’. Phlv ???, with the suffix ???, gives the modPers istabrak, which BQ, 994, defines as dībāy-e kandeh va-setabr and Vullers, Lex, i, 94, as vestis serica crassior. / From mPers the word was borrowed into Armenian as əstawrak,16 and into Syr ʔestabragā or ʔestabrāgā.17 Ibn Durayd, according to TA, vi, 292, quoted ʔistabraq as a borrowing from Syr, but PSm, 294, gives the Syr forms only as dictionary words from BA and BB, and there can be little doubt that the word passed directly into Ar from the mPers.18 The Ar -q represents the Phlv suffix ???,19 which in Syr normally became g, as we see in such examples as Phlv avistāk (= Pers ʔbstʔ or ʔfstʔ),20 which in Syr is ʔbstāgā and in Ar ʔbstāq (Ibn al-Athīr, Nihāya, i, 38).« 
– 
– 
ʔSD أسد 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔSD 
“root” 
▪ ʔSD_1 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ʔSD_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
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ʔasad أَسَد 
ID 021 • Sw – • BP 3148 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔSD 
n. 
1 lion; 2 Leo (astron.) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Huehnergard2011 reconstructs CSem *ʔaš(a)d‑ ‘lion’. Cf., however, Kogan2011 who thinks the item is of obscure etymology.
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ʔSR أسر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔSR 
“root” 
▪ ʔSR_1 ‘strap, thong; to bind, tie; to take captive’ ↗ʔasara
▪ ʔSR_2 ‘entire body; family’ ↗ʔasr (3), ↗ʔusraẗ, ↗ʔasara

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘shield, shackles, bondage, to shackle, to capture; captive; family, limbs, physique, body structure’ 
▪ [v2] ‘entirety, wholeness; family’ is dependent on [v1] as ‘what is bound/tied/held together’.
▪ Although in a way suggesting itself, research literature does not assume the vb. to be denominative from a n. meaning ‘strap, thong’.
▪ OrelStolb1994 reconstruct Sem *ʔ˅sir‑ ‘to bind, join; to hobble’ and, on account of some extra-Sem vb.s that may be cognate, see even an AfrAs dimension, reconstructed as AfrAs *ʔacir‑ ‘to bind, tie’.
▪ The other values listed in DRS are not relevant to MSA. 
– 
DRS 1 (1994)#ʔSR–1 ‘lier, enchaîner’: Akk esêru ‘enfermer’; asirt‑ ‘prisonnier’; Ug ʔasr, Hbr *ʔāsar ‘lier, capturer’, ʔēsūr ‘entraves, liens’; oEmpAram Palm ʔsr, JP ʔᵃsar, Syr ʔesar, Mand asar ‘lier capturer’; BiblAram ʔᵉsūr, JP ʔᵃsūrā, Mand wswrʔ, nSyr yisūra ‘lien, emprisonnement’; Ar ʔasara ‘lier, emmener captif’, Tham ʔsr, SAr ʔsr, Gz ʔasara, ʔašara, Te ʔasärä, Amh ʔassärä ‘lier’. –2 Palm ʔsr : monnaie. –3 Akk assar‑ : conducteur de véhicule(?). 
▪ From the values listed in DRS, only ʔSR-1 is relevant to Ar/MSA. For ʔSR-1, Eg aṯira, for ʔSR-2 Grk assarion
– 
– 
ʔasar‑ أَسَرَ , i (ʔasr
ID … • Sw –/171 • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔSR 
vb., I 
to bind, fetter, shackle, chain; to capture, take prisoner; to captivate, fascinate, hold spellbound, absorb, arrest (the attention) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Although in a way suggesting itself, research literature does not assume the vb. to be denominative from a n. meaning ‘strap, thong’.
▪ The values ‘to take as captive, prisoner’ and ‘entirety, wholeness; family’ are dependent on the original meaning, giving ‘to bind/tie a person’ and ‘what is bound/tied/held together’, respectively.
▪ OrelStolb1994 reconstruct Sem *ʔ˅sir‑ ‘to bind, join; to hobble [an animal]’ and, on account of some extra-Sem vb.s that may be cognate, see even an AfrAs dimension, reconstructed as AfrAs *ʔacir‑ ‘to bind, tie’.
 
▪ eC7 Q 33:26 farīqan taqtulūna wa-taʔsirūna farīqan ‘Some ye slew, and ye made captive some’; – (ʔasr physique, build, bodily structure; constitution) Q 76:28 naḥnu ḫalaqnā-hum wa-šadadnā ʔasra-hum ‘We it is who have fashioned them and strengthened their constitution’
 
▪ BDB1906, Bennett1998, CAD, Zammit2002: Akk esēru ‘to shut in, enclose, confine; to make capitve’, Ug ʔasr ‘to bind; to make captive’, Hbr ʔāsar ‘to tie, bind, imprison’, Phn ʔsr ‘to bind’, oAram ʔsr ‘to imprison, restrain’, BiblAram ʔᵉsūr ‘band, bond’, Syr ʔᵉsar ‘to bind, make fast, fast, tie,…’, UrmiAram sara, Sab ʔsr ‘to bind, make a prisoner’, Gz ʔasara (BDB; also ʔaśara) ‘ligare, nectare, jungere’, Tña ʔasärä, Amh assärä, Arg hassära ‘to tie’.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#12: Akk esēru, Ug ʔsr, Hbr ʔsr ‘to bind, join’, Jib ʔesɔr, Ḥrs Mhr wesōr, Śḥ ʔɛsor ‘to hobble [an animal]’. – Outside Sem: CCh Mofu sasər ‘to plait, weave’, Mafa cacar ‘to tie’; ECh Tum hīr, Kbl saːrr, Lele saar; HEC Sid Kmb usur ‘to tie’. 
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#12 reconstruct Sem *ʔ˅sir‑ ‘to bind, join; to hobble’, CCh *ca-car‑ (with partial reduplication) ‘to plait, weave; to tie’, ECh *saʔir‑ (with metathesis) ‘to tie’ and HEC *ʔusur‑ (unexpected *‑s‑ and irregular vocalism) ‘to tie’, all ultimately from AfrAs *ʔacir‑ ‘to bind, tie’. 
– 
ĭstaʔsara, vb. X, to surrender, give o.s. up as prisoner: requestative.

ʔasr, n., (leather) strap, thong; capture: perhaps the etymon proper; BP#2268captivity: vn. I | šiddat al-ʔasr, n., vigor, energy
BP#664ʔusraẗ, pl. ʔusar, ‑āt, n., family; dynasty; clan, kinsfolk, relatives: see ↗s.v..
BP#2268bi-ʔasrihī, adv., entirely, completely, altogether, ǧāʔū bi-ʔasrihim all of them came, they came one and all: lit., as a coherent body, held together by some bond; cf. also ↗ʔusraẗ.
ʔisār, n., (leather) strap, thong: the etymon proper, or derived from ʔasara ?; captivity; captivation, enthrallment: vn. I | waqaʕa fī ʔisārih, vb., to be subjected to s.th., fall into the clutches of s.th.
BP#1292ʔasīr, pl. ʔusarāʔᵘ, ʔasrà, ʔasārà, n., prisoner, captive, prisoner of war: pseudo-PP; see also ↗s.v..
ʔasīraẗ, pl. ‑āt, female prisoner, slave girl: f. of ʔasīr, pseudo-PP.
ʔāsir, adj., winning, captivating, fascinating: PA I; n., captor: nominalized PA I.
maʔsūr, adj., captivated, fascinated, enthralled: PP I. 

ʔasr أَسْر 
ID 022 • Sw – • BP 2268 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔSR 
n. 
1 (leather) strap, thong. – 2 capture. – 3 physique, build, bodily structure; constitution – survived into MSA only in the expression šiddat al-ʔasr, vigor, energy – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ In the meaning [v2] ‘capture; captivity’, the word is a lexicalized vn. of vb. I, ↗ʔasara.
▪ [v1] ‘(leather) strap, thong’, however, may not be deverbative from ʔasara but perhaps the latter’s proper etymon.
▪ [v3] is properly a ‘coherent structure, held together by a strong inner bond’. The value is attested in the Qur'ān but survived into MSA only in the expression šiddat al-ʔasr , lit. ‘strength, solidity of constitution’, hence ‘vigor, energy’. 
▪ … 
Cf. ↗ʔSR, ↗ʔasara
Cf. ↗ʔSR, ↗ʔasara
– 
If ʔasr itself is the etymon proper, all derivatives listed under the vb. ↗ʔasara should be grouped here. 
ʔusraẗ أُسْرَة , pl. ʔusar , ‑āt 
ID 023 • Sw – • BP 664 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔSR 
n.f. 
family; dynasty; clan, kinsfolk, relatives – WehrCowan1979. 
The word depends on ʔasara ‘to bind, tie together’ and thus originally means a body that is held together by strong bonds. The idea of a coherent structure, a body, is also present in the adverbial structure bi-ʔasri-hī ‘entirely, completely, altogether’. For the wider context, cf. ↗ʔSR, ↗ʔasara, ↗ʔasr
▪ eC7 (ʔasr physique, build, bodily structure; constitution) Q 76:28 naḥnu ḫalaqnā-hum wa-šadadnā ʔasra-hum ‘We it is who have fashioned them and strengthened their constitution’ 
↗ʔSR, ↗ʔasara 
↗ʔSR, ↗ʔasara 
– 
 
ʔasīr أسير , pl. ʔusarāʔᵘ , ʔasrà , ʔasārà 
ID … • Sw – • BP 1292 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔSR 
n. 
prisoner, captive, prisoner of war – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ A pseudo-PP from ʔasara ‘to tie, bind, imprison’, see ↗s.v.
▪ eC7 Q 8:70 qul li-man fī ʔaydī-kum mina ’l-ʔasrà ‘Say unto those captives who are in your hands’ 
The word has itself a number of cognates in other Sem languages, e.g. Hbr ʔāsîr, Syr ʔasīrā ‘bondman, prisoner’. – For the wider context cf. ↗ʔasara
▪ ↗ʔasara.
▪ According to Kogan 2011, »Akk asīru ‘prisoner’, well documented already in oBab, is not to be treated as an internally Akk derivation from esēru ‘to enclose’, but rather as a loanword from an early WSem term continued by Hbr ʔāsīr‑ and Ar ʔasīr.«.
▪ Eg jṯr ‘captive’ is a Sem loan-word – ThesaurusLinguaeAegypticae.
 
▪ Lokotsch1927#118, Turek 2001: Ar ʔasīr gave Tu esir 6 , dial. Tu yesir, whence the word spread into Slav langs, cf. Serb (dial.) jesir, Ukr jasyr ‘captive’, Pol jasyr (C17) ‘(being) captive of the Turks’, Russ (old and dial.) jasyr’, jesyr’ ‘slave’. 
ĭstaʔsara, vb. X, to surrender, give o.s. up as prisoner: requestative; perhaps denom. from ʔasīr
ʔSṬR أسطر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔSṬR 
“root” 
▪ ʔSṬR_1 ‘legend, fable, tale, myth, saga’ ↗ʔusṭūraẗ
▪ ʔSṬR_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
▪ … 
– 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
ʔusṭūraẗ أُسْطُورَة , pl. ʔasāṭīrᵘ 
ID 024 • Sw – • BP 3258 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔSṬR, SṬR 
n.f. 
legend, fable, tale, myth, saga – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ eC7 Q 6:25, 8:31, 16:24, 23:83, 25:5, 27:68, 46:17, 68:15, 83:13 ʔasāṭīr ‘fables, idle tales’ 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ Jeffery1938, 56-57: »[In the Qurʔān, w]e find the word only in the combination ʔasāṭīr al-ʔawwalīn ‘tales of the ancients’, which was the Meccan characterization of the stories brought them by Muḥammad. Sprenger, Leben, ii, 396 ff., thought that the reference was to a book of this title well known to Muḥammad’s contemporaries, but this theory has been combated in Nöldeke-Schwally, i, 16 ff.,21 and its impossibility becomes clear from a passage in Ibn Hišām, 235, where Naḍr b. al-Ḥāriṯ is made to say "By Allah, Muḥammad is no better a raconteur than I am. His stories are naught but tales of the ancients (ʔasāṭīr al-ʔawwalīn) which he writes down just as I do." – The Muslim authorities take it as a form ʔafāʕīl from √SṬR ‘to write’, considering it as a pl. of ʔusṭūraẗ or ʔ˅sṭāraẗ (Sijistānī, 10), or the pl. of a pl. (LA, vi, 28). The verb saṭara, however, as Fraenkel has shown (Fremdw, 250), is a denominative from saṭr, and this itself is a borrowing from Aram ŠṬRā, Syr šṭārā (Nöldeke, Gesch. d. Qorans, 13). It is possible but not probable that ʔaṣāṭīr was formed from this borrowed saṭr. – Sprenger, Leben, ii, 395,22 suggested that in ʔasāṭīr we have the Grk historía, a suggestion also put forward by Fleischer in his review of Geiger (Kleinere Schriften, ii, 119), and which has been accepted by many later scholars.23 The objections to it raised by Horovitz, KU, 70, are, however, insuperable. The word can hardly have come into Ar directly from the Grk, and the Syr ʔ˅sṭūriyā occurs only as a learned word (PSm, 298). The derivation from Syr ʔṣṭrā suggested by Nöldeke-Schwally, i, 16 n., is much more satisfactory. ʔŠṬRā (cf. Aram šəṭārā) is the equivalent of the Grk cheirógraphon ,24 and is a word commonly used in a sense in which it can have come into Ar. It was doubtless borrowed in this sense in the pre-Islamic period,25 for in a verse of the Meccan poet ʕAbdallāh b. az-Zibaʕrā, quoted in ʕAynī, iv, 140, we read ʔalhā Quṣayyan ʕan-i ‘l-maǧdi ‘l-ʔasāṭīrᵘ "the stories have averted Quṣay from glory". – In SAr, as D. H. Müller points out (WZKM, i, 29) we have ʔsṭr meaning an ‘inscription’, and sṭr is the usual verb for ‘scripsit’ (Rossini, Glossarium, 194), so it is not impossible that there was SAr influence on the form of the word.«
▪ Rolland2014: »Peut-être - comme l’avance prudemment Kazimirksi - du Grk ἱστορία [historía] ‘recherche, information; récit; histoire’. Mais ce mot est plus probablement un simple dérivé de la racine SṬR, dont l’un des sens est ‘raconter des histoires’.«
▪ …
 
– 
ʔusṭūriyyaẗ, n.f., mythologism: neologism, coined on the f. nisba pattern in -iyyaẗ
ʔSF أسف 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 8Mar2023
√ʔSF 
“root” 
▪ ʔSF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔSF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔSF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘sadness, anger, sorrow, to offend’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ʔSN أسن 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 8Mar2023
√ʔSN 
“root” 
▪ ʔSN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔSN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔSN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘relic; (of water) to become putrid, to be overcome with fumes from such water; to take after one’s father’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ʔSW أسو 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔSW 
“root” 
▪ ʔSW_1 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ʔSW_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
▪ … 
– 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
maʔsāẗ مَأْساة 
ID 025 • Sw – • BP 2262 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔSW 
n.f. 
tragedy, drama – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
 
ʔSW/Y أسو/ي 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 8Mar2023
√ʔSW/Y 
“root” 
▪ ʔSW/Y_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔSW/Y_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔSW/Y_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘cure, medicine; to console; sadness; to treat equally; model, exemplar; pillar’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ʔŠN أشن 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Jul2021
√ʔŠN 
“root” 
▪ ʔŠN_1 ‘potash; saltwort (Salsola kali; bot.)’ ↗ʔušnān
▪ ʔŠN_2 ‘moss’ ↗ʔušnaẗ
 
▪ [v1] : From Pers ʔušnān~ʔišnān ‘the herb alkali, and the ashes which are made from it, with which they wash clothes and the hands after eating’ (Steingass1892).
▪ [v2] : (Rolland2014a:) From Pers ʔušna »‘lichen, algue, mousse, usnée’. Peut-être apparanté à [v1] ‘potass (Salsola kali)’«.
 
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
▪ [v2] Fr usnée , from Ar ↗ʔušnaẗ.
 
– 
ʔušnaẗ أُشْنة 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Jul2021
√ʔŠN 
n.f. 
moss – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ (Rolland2014a:) From Pers ʔušna »‘lichen, algue, mousse, usnée’. Peut-être apparenté à ↗ʔušnān ‘potass (Salsola kali)’«.
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ …
 
▪ Fr usnée : (1. ‘lichen de couleur grisâtre poussant sur les vieux arbres’) 1553 Usnea, usnech; (2. ‘mousse qui pousse sur le crâne des pendus’) 1694 usnée humaine. Via (bot.) mLat usnea from Ar ʔušnaẗ ‘mousse, lichen’ – CNRTL. – Lokotsch1927 #2139 explains that extraordinary healing power was believed to reside esp. in usnée humaine ‘Flechte, die auf den der Luft ausgesetzten Schädeln der Toten sprießt’ (lichen sprouting on skulls of the dead that are exposed to the air).
 
– 
ʔušnān أُشْنان 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Jul2021
√ʔŠN 
n. 
1 potash; 2 saltwort (Salsola kali; bot.) – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ From Pers ʔušnān~ʔišnān ‘the herb alkali, and the ashes which are made from it, with which they wash clothes and the hands after eating’ (Steingass1892).
▪ Cf. also ↗ʔušnaẗ (< Pers ʔušna ‘lichen, algue, moss, usnea’) which, accord. to Rolland2014a, may be akin to ʔušnān.
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ …
 
▪ Cf. prob. Fr usnée < Lat usnea < Ar ↗ʔušnaẗ which is prob. akin to ʔušnān.
▪ …
 
– 
ʔṢD أصد 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 8Mar2023
√ʔṢD 
“root” 
▪ ʔṢD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔṢD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔṢD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): (this root overlaps with root WṢD because of the dialectal difference in pronouncing hamza as a pure vowel) ‘sleeveless undergarment, to wear such a garment; animal pen; courtyard; to shut tightly’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ʔṢR أصر 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 8Mar2023
√ʔṢR 
“root” 
▪ ʔṢR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔṢR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔṢR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘rope, tie, connection, relation; an undertaking; promise, vow; load, burden’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ʔṢL أصل 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔṢL 
“root” 
▪ ʔṢL_1 ‘root, source, origin’ ↗ʔaṣl, ‘firmness, purity of origin, authenticity’ ↗ʔaṣālaẗ
▪ ʔṢL_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘base, root, foundation; to be deep-rooted; to eradicate; time before sunset’ 
▪ … 
– 
▪ …
▪ check Cohen1969: 107 ! 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
ʔaṣālaẗ أصالة 
ID 026 • Sw – • BP??? • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔṢL 
n.f. 
firmness, steadfastness, strength of character; nobility of descent, purity of origin – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
 
ʔaṣl أَصْل 
ID 027 • Sw –/121 • BP 547 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔṢL 
n. 
root; trunk (of a tree); origin, source; cause, reason; descent, lineage, stock (esp., one of a noble character); foundation, fundament, basis; the original (e.g., of a book); - pl. ʔuṣūl principles, fundamentals, rudiments, elements (e.g., of a science); rules; basic rules, principles, axioms; real estate, landed property; assets (fin.) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
 
ʔFː (ʔFF) أفّ/أفف 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 8Mar2023
√ʔFː (ʔFF) 
“root” 
▪ ʔFː (ʔFF)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔFː (ʔFF)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔFː (ʔFF)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘dirt under the nails or in the ear; contamination; grumbling, complaint, to grumble’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ʔFQ أفق 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 8Mar2023
√ʔFQ 
“root” 
▪ ʔFQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔFQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔFQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘rolls of tanned leather; ways, direction, horizon; to roam about’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ʔFK أفك 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 8Mar2023
√ʔFK 
“root” 
▪ ʔFK_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔFK_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔFK_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘falsehood, to lie, deceive, beguile; to turn upside down, change the manner of things; to turn away, dissuade’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ʔFL أفل 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 8Mar2023
√ʔFL 
“root” 
▪ ʔFL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔFL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔFL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘(of a female’s milk) to decrease; (of planets and stars) to set; to be absent or go away from’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ʔFND أفند 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔFND 
“root” 
▪ ʔFND_1 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ʔFND_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
▪ … 
– 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
ʔafandī أفنْدي 
ID 028 • Sw – • NahḍConBP??? • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔFND 
n. 
gentleman (when referring to non-Europeans wearing Western clothes and the tarboosh); (after the name) a title of respect (eg.) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ Rolland2014: from Tu efendi ‘master’, itself from popGrk aphéntēs ‘lord, master’, from Grk authéntēs ‘responsible author’. 
▪ From the same Grk etymon from which Eur languages have authentic, authenticity, etc.
▪… 
 
ʔQLM أقلم 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔQLM 
“root” 
▪ ʔQLM_1 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ʔQLM_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
▪ … 
– 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
ʔiqlīm إِقْلِيم 
ID 029 • Sw – • BP 1813 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔQLM 
n. 
1 climate; 2a area, region; b province, district; c administrative district (Eg.; = mudīrīyyaẗ); pl. al-ʔaqālīm country, provinces (as distinguished from the city) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
… 
 
ʔKSR أكسر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔKSR 
“root” 
▪ ʔKSR_1 ‘elixir’ ↗ʔiksīr
▪ ʔKSR_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
ʔiksīr 
ʔiksīr 
ʔiksīr 
ʔiksīr 
▪ ↗ʔiksīr 
– 
ʔiksīr إكْسير 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔKSR , KSR 
n. 
elixir – WehrCowan1979. 
Doubtful etymology, most probably from a Grk word. The Arabic term gave our word elixir
▪ … 
– 
▪ Rolland2014: »Peut-être du grec ξηρίον [xēríon] ‘poudre siccative que l’on met sur les blessures’, dérivé de ξηρός [xērós] ‘sec’, d’étymologie obscure (Chantraine). Nişanyan propose un autre étymon grec, ἐξαίρεσις [eksaíresis] ‘extraction’, dérivé de αἱρέω [airéō] ‘prendre, enlever, saisir’, sans étymologie établie.«
▪ Hassan1986 suggested an origin in the Chinese term for ‘Cosmic soul’.26 Highly doubtful! 
EtymOnline: elixir, »mC13, from mLat elixir ‘philosopher’s stone’, believed by alchemists to transmute baser metals into gold and/or to cure diseases and prolong life, from Arabic al-iksīr ‘the philosopher’s stone’, probably from lGrk xerion ‘powder for drying wounds’, from xeros ‘dry’ […]. Later in medical use for ‘a tincture with more than one base’. General sense of ‘strong tonic’ is 1590 s; used for quack medicines from at least 1630 s.« 
– 
ʔKL أكل 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔKL 
“root” 
▪ ʔKL_1 ‘to eat’ ↗ʔakala
▪ ʔKL_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘food; yield; morsel; to eat, to consume, to devour; to erode; to become enraged’ 
▪ ʔKL_1 : (Kogan2015 Sw#23:) from protSem *ʔkl ‘to eat’ (HALOT 46). Passim except EthSem and modSAr.
▪ …
▪ …
 
– 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
ʔakal‑ أَكَلَ , u (ʔakl, maʔkal
ID 030 • Sw 55/37 • BP 1338 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔKL 
vb., I 
to eat; to eat up, consume, swallow, devour, destroy; to eat, gnaw (at), eat away, corrode, erode; to spend unlawfully, enrich o.s., feather o.’s nest (with) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *ʔkl ‘to eat’.
▪ From Sem *ʔ˅kul- ‘to eat’. – Any relation to the theme ‘to be equal, sufficient > half’?
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ Orel/Stolbova 1994 #148, DRS 1 (1994) #ʔKL- 1: Akk akālu, Ug ʔakl, Phoen ʔkl, Hbr ʔākal, Syr ʔekal; Gz ʔǝkl ‘food’, Te ʔǝkǝl, Amh ʔǝhǝl ‘grain’. – Outside Sem: Hs kālā-čī ‘food’.
▪ Do we also have to consider DRS 1 (1994) #ʔKL-2? : ‘être égal, suffisant > moitié’: SAr mʔkly ‘moitié’; Gz ʔakala, Te ʔaklä, Tña ʔahalä ‘être suffisant’; Amh ʔAkkälä ‘être égal’; Tña maʔkäl ‘milieu’; Te ʔakəl ‘comme, pareil à’; Amh əkkul ‘moitié’; Te ʔakəl ʔayi, Amh mən yahəl ‘combien?’; ?Gz ʔakāl, Te ʔakal ‘corps’; Amh akal ‘personne’.
 
▪ Orel/Stolbova 1994 #148: Sem *ʔ˅kul- ‘to eat’, WCh *kal- (< *kaʔ˅l) ‘food’, both from AfrAs *ʔ˅kul- ‘to eat’ (the WCh forms resulting from metathesis).
▪ Cf. also DRS 1 (1994) #ʔKL-2?
 
– 
ʔakala ʕalayhi ’l-dahrᵘ wa-šariba, expr., to be old and worn out, be timeworn
ʔakala ’l-ribā, vb. I, idiom., to take usurious interest
yaʕlamu min ayna tuʔkalu ’l-katif, expr., he knows how to tackle the matter properly
ʔakalahū ǧilduhū, expr., his skin itched
ʔakala fī ṣaḥn, vb. I, idiom., to eat off a plate
ʔakala ḥaqqahū, vb. I, idiom., to encroach upon s.o.’s rights

ʔakkala, vb. II, and ʔākala, vb. IV, to give s.o. s.th. to eat (2x DO), feed: D-stem, caus.
ʔākala, vb. III, to eat, dine (DO with s.o.): L-stem, associative.
taʔakkala, vb. V, and taʔākala, vb. VI, to be devoured, be consumed; to be eaten away, corrode, undergo corrosion; to become old, worn, time worn, full of cracks; to be destroyed by corrosion: tD- and tL-stem, respectively, both pass./intr.-self-refl.

BP#1495 ʔakl, n., food; meal, repast; fodder, feed | ġurfaẗ al-ʔakl, n.f., dining room; (eg.) ʔakl al-baḥr, land washed away by the see or the Nile (as opposed to ṭarḥ al-baḥr)
ʔuk(u)l, n., food; fruit | ʔatà ʔuk(u)luhū, expr., to bear fruit
ʔaklaẗ, pl. ʔakalāt, n.f., meal, repast: n.un. of ʔakl
ʔuklaẗ, n.f., bite, morsel: n.un. of ʔuk(u)l
ʔukāl, n., prurigo, itch eruption (med.)
ʔakkāl, ʔakīl, ʔakūl, adj., voracious, gluttonous; hearty eater, gourmand, glutton: ints.
maʔkal, pl. maʔākilᵘ, n., food, eats: n.instr.
taʔakkul and taʔākul, n., wear; corrosion; erosion (geol.): vn. V and VI
ĭʔtikāl, n., erosion (geol.): vn. VIII
ʔākil, n., eater: PA I.
ʔākilaẗ, n.f., gangrenous sore: PA I, f., fig., lexicalization as med. term.
maʔkūl, adj., eatable, edible: PP I; pl. ­‑āt, food, foodstuffs, eatables, edibles: nominalisation of PP I.
muʔākil, n., table companion: PA III.
mutaʔakkil and mutaʔā kil, adj., corroded; eroded; worn, timeworn; full of cracks; rusty, rust-eaten: PA V and VI.
 
ʔLː (ʔLL) ألّ/ألل 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 8Mar2023
√ʔLː (ʔLL) 
“root” 
▪ ʔLː (ʔLL)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔLː (ʔLL)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔLː (ʔLL)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘lightening; sharpening; agitation; yearning; family ties; pledge, covenant’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ʔLT ألت 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 8Mar2023
√ʔLT 
“root” 
▪ ʔLT_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔLT_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔLT_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘oath; decrease, to decrease, reduce; to prevent, deny’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ʔLF ألف 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔLF 
“root” 
▪ ʔLF_1 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ʔLF_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘thousand; to put together, bring together; to habituate; to get accustomed; to soften up; intimate; mate’ 
▪ From protSem *ʔalp‑ ‘ox’ – Huehnergard2011.
 
– 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ Engl aleph, from Hbr ʔālep ‘aleph’; alpha, alphabet, from Grk alpha; all from Phoen *ʔalp ‘ox’, first letter of the Phoen alphabet. 
– 
taʔlīf تَأْليف 
Sw – • NahḍConBP 3814 • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√ʔLF () 
n. 
▪ vn., II 
muʔallif مُؤَلِّف 
ID 031 • Sw – • BP 2062 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔLF 
n. 
author, writer – WehrCowan1979. 
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ʔLM ألم 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 8Mar2023
√ʔLM 
“root” 
▪ ʔLM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔLM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔLM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘pain, ache, to feel pain; baseness’ 
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– 
– 
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ʔLH أله 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔLH 
“root” 
▪ ʔLH_1 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ʔLH_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): old Semitic root denoting deity of which various forms occur in all Semitic languages 
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ʔilāh إله ، إلاه , pl. ʔālihaẗ 
ID … • Sw – • BP 1326 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔLH 
n. 
god, deity, godhead – WehrCowan1979. 
From CSem *ʔilāh‑ ‘god, deity’, extension in *‑h from Sem *ʔil‑ ‘god’ – Huehnergard2011. 
▪ … 
DRS I (1994)#ʔL: Akk il‑, el‑, Ug ʔil, Phn Pun ʔl, Hbr ʔēl, EmpAram ʔl, JP ʔēl, Tham ʔl; (with final ‑h) epigrHbr ʔlh, Hbr, ʔᵉlōha, Ug ʔlhm (pl.m.), ʔlht (pl.f.), epigrAram ʔlh, JP ʔᵉlhā, BabAram ʔelāh, Syr ʔalaha, Mand alaha, Ar ʔilāh, SAr ʔlh ‘god, deity’. 
DRS 1 (1994), Huehnergard2011, et al.: From CSem *ʔilāh‑ ‘god, deity’, extension in *‑h from Sem *ʔil‑ ‘dto.’. 
  • Biblical names ending in ‑el are often composed of two elements, the second being Hbr ʔēl ‘God’. Cf., e.g., Azazel, from Hbr ʕᵃzā(ʔ)zēl, of uncertain etymology, perhaps corrupt for ʕᵃzaz-ʔēl, a name meaning ‘God has been strong’ < ʕᵃzaz, reduced form of ʕāzaz ‘he is/was strong’ (cf. Ar ↗ʕZː (ʕZZ)); Bethel, from Hbr bêt ʔēl ‘house of God’ (cf. Ar ↗bayt ‘house’); Daniel, from Hbr dānīʔēl / dānīyē(ʔ)l ‘my judge is God’ < Hbr dān ‘judge’ (cf. Ar ↗dīn ‘religion’, ↗madīnaẗ ‘town, city’) + ‑ī ‘my’ (suffix 1sg) + ʔēl; Ezekiel, from Hbr yəḥezqē(ʔ)l ‘God has strengthened’ < yəḥezq ‘he has strengthened’ (cf. Ar ↗ḤZQ) + ʔēl; Israel, from Lat, from Grk Israēl, from Hbr yiśrāʔēl ‘Israel’, name meaning ‘God has striven, saved’ < yiśrā ‘he has striven, saved’ (see śry) + ʔēl; Joel, from Hbr yôʔēl ‘Yahweh is God’ < , short form of yahweh ‘Yahweh’ (see hwy) + ʔēl; Michael, from Hbr mîkāʔēl ‘who is like God?’ < ‘who?’ + ‘like’ (cf. Ar ↗ka‑) + ʔēl; Samuel, from Hbr šəmûʔēl ‘name of God’, or, ‘the name is God’ < šəmû, archaic form of šēm ‘name’ (cf. Ar ↗SMY) + ʔēl; cf. also Schlemiel, from Yidd, perhaps from the Hbr n.prop. šəlūmîʔēl ‘Shelumiel’, meaning ‘my well-being is God’ < šəlūm ‘well-being’ (cf. Ar ↗salām ‘peace’) + ‑î ‘my’ (suffix 1sg) + ʔēl.
  • For other Engl words that go back to Ar allāh ‘God’, cf. ↗s.v..
 
ʔallaha, vb. II, to deify, make a god of s.o.: caus. denom.
taʔallaha, vb. V, to become a deity, a godhead; to deify o.s.: T-stem of II, inchoat., refl.

ʔilāhaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., goddess: f. of ʔilāh.
BP#4130ʔilāhī, adj., divine, of God; theological: nsb-adj.; n.pl., al-ʔilāhiyyāt, theological, spiritual concerns: nominalized adj.f.pl., abstr. | ʕilm al-ʔilāhiyyāt, n., theology.
aḷḷāh, n., Allah, God (as the One and Only): < *al-ʔilāh, see s.v.. | wa-ḷḷāhi, excl., by God!; bi-llāhi (ʕalayk), excl., for God’s sake, I implore you, I beg of you; li-llāhi darruka, exclamation of admiration and praise, see ↗darr.
BP#784aḷḷāhumma, excl., O God!: see s.v. | ~ ʔillā, conj., unless, were it not that, except that, or at best (after a negative statement); ~ ʔiḏā, conj., at least if or when; if only; ~ naʕam, excl., by God, yes! most certainly!.
ʔulūhiyyaẗ, n.f., divine power, divinity: abstr. formation.
taʔlīh, n., deification, apotheosis: vn. II.
ʔālih, n., (pagan) god: PA *I (?).
ʔālihaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., goddess: f. of ʔālih.
ʔālihī, adj., divine: nsb-adj. from ʔālih.
mutaʔallih, adj., divine, heavenly: PA V.
 
allāh الله 
ID 032 • Sw – • BP 12 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔLH 
n. 
Allah, God (as the One and Only) – WehrCowan1979. 
From *al‑ʔilāhthe god, God’. Qurʔānic usage of the old Ar word may be influenced by Syr ʔalāhā
▪ eC7 Q passim. 
See ↗ʔilāh
▪ Jeffery1938: »One gathers from al-Rāzī, Mafātīḥ, i, 84 (so Abū Ḥayyān, Baḥr, i, 15), that certain early Muslim authorities hold that the word was of Syr or Hbr origin. The majority, however, claimed that it was pure Ar, though they set forth various theories as to its derivation.27 – Some held that it has no derivation, being murtaǧal : the Kūfans in general derived it from al-ʔilāhu, while the Baṣrans derived it from al-lāhu, taking lāhun as a vn. from √LYH ‘to be high’ or ‘to be veiled’. The suggested origins for a ʔilāh were even more varied, some taking it from ʔalaha ‘to worship’, some from ʔaliha ‘to be perplexed’, some from ʔaliha ʔilà ‘to turn to for protection’, and others from waliha ‘to be perplexed’. – Western scholars are fairly unanimous that the source of the word must be found in one of the older religions. In the Sem area ʔLH was a widely used word for ‘deity’, cf. Hbr ʔᵆlōᵃh, Aram ʔᵆlāh, Syr ʔalāhā, Sab ʔlh; and so Ar ʔilāh is doubtless a genuine old Sem form. The form allāh, however, is different, and there can be little doubt that this, like the Mandaean ʔlʔhʔ and the Pahlavi ideogram,28 goes back to the Syr ʔalāhā (cf. Grünbaum, ZDMG, 39: 571; Sprenger, Leben, i, 287-9; Ahrens, Muhammad, 15; Rudolph, Abhängigkeit, 26; Bell, Origin, 54; Cheikho, Naṣrāniya, 159; Mingana, Syriac Influence, 86). The word, however, came into use in Arabian heathenism long before Muḥammad’s time (Wellhausen, Reste, 217; Nielsen in HAA, i, 218 ff.). It occurs frequently in the NArabian inscriptions,29 and also in those from SArabia, as, e.g., ʕmn kl ʔlʔltm ‘with all the Gods’ (in Glaser, Abessinien, 50),30 as well as in the pre-Islamic oath forms, such as that of Qays b. Ḫaṭīm given by Horovitz, KU, 140, and many in al-Šanqīṭī’s introduction to the Muʕallaqāt. It is possible that the expression ʔallāhu taʕāla is of SAr origin, as the name tʕlw occurs in a Qat inscription.31 «
▪ Kiltz2003, however, showed that »there is no reason to assume a loan from Syr into Ar, as allāh is perfectly motivated, i.e. phonetically regular, in (some dialects of) Ar and its development within Ar is safely accounted for […]. There is, however, a good possibility that the prominence of Syriac allāhā and its near homophony positively influenced the use of allāh in the Qurʔān. That is to say, we find allāh in the Qurʔān not only because it was the most ‘fitting’ word to be used, in spite of or because of allah’s prominent position within pre-islamic religion, but perhaps because pre-islamic connotations were more easily superseded taking into consideration that its near homophone Syr allāhā was already prominently used in a monotheistic context.« 
▪ As a matter of course, Engl Allah (1702) is from Ar aḷḷāh. – The title Ayatollah is the Pers āyatollāh, which is from Ar ʔāyatu ’ḷḷāh ‘sign of God’, < ʔāyaẗ ‘sign; Koranic verse’ (↗ʔWY) + (a)llāh, and the name Bahaullah < Ar bahāʔu ḷḷāh, is composed of Ar bahāʔ ‘splendor’ (↗BHW) + (a)llāh ‘God’. – Hezbollah, the name of an extremist Shiite group active in Lebanon, founded c. 1982, entered Engl via Pers ḥezbollāh, which is from Ar ḥizbu ’llāh, lit. ‘Party of God’ (↗ḥizb); »[t]he name of various Islamic groups in modern times, the name itself is attested in English by 1960 in reference to an Indonesian guerilla battalion of 1945 that “grew out of a similarly named organization formed by the Japanese to give training in military drill to young Moslems.”7 « – EtymOnline. – Other compositions with (a)ḷḷāh include inshallah (1857), phonetic spelling of Ar ʔin šāʔa ’ḷḷ̣āh ‘if God wills (it)’, and bismillah (first attested in Byron), from Ar bismi ’llāh(i) ‘in the name of God’.
▪ Less obviously related to Ar (a)ḷḷāh is Engl olé (1922). This is the Span expression of admiration olé ‘bravo!’, which—perhaps—is from Ar wa-llāh ‘by God!’ – Osman2002, Huehnergard2011. 
wa-ḷḷāhi, excl., by God!
bi-llāhi (ʕalayk), excl., for God’s sake, I implore you, I beg of you.
li-llāhi darruka, exclamation of admiration and praise, see ↗darr.

BP#784aḷḷāhumma, excl., O God!: see ↗s.v. | ~ ʔillā, conj., unless, were it not that, except that, or at best (after a negative statement); ~ ʔiḏā, conj., at least if or when; if only; ~ naʕam, excl., by God, yes! most certainly!.
 
allāhumma الّهُمّا 
ID … • Sw – • BP 784 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔLH 
interj. 
God! – WehrCowan1979. 
From Hbr ʔᵆlōhîm ‘God’, properly a pl., but used as sg., of Hbr ʔᵆlōᵃh ‘god’, which is of course cognate with Ar ↗ʔilāh
▪ eC7 Q 3:26, 5:114, 8:32, 10:10, 39:46, in all places an invocatory name for God, used in contexts of absolute supplication, cf. e.g. 10:10 daʕwā-hum fī-hā subḥāna-ka ’ḷḷāhumma ‘their prayer in it [sc. Paradise] is “Glory to You, God!”’ 
… 
▪ Jeffery 1938: »The form of the word was a great puzzle to the early grammarians:32 the orthodox explanation being that it is a vocative form where the final m takes the place of an initial . The Kūfans took it as a contraction of yā ʔallāhu ʔāminnā bi-ḫayr (Bayḍ. on iii, 25), but their theory is ridiculed by Ibn Yaʕīš, i, 181. As a vocative it is said to be of the same class as halumma ‘come along’. al-Ḫafājī, 20, however, recognizes it as a foreign word. – It is possible, as Margoliouth notes (ERE, vi, 248), that it is the Hbr ʔᵆlōhîm which had become known to the Arabs through their contacts with Jewish tribes.33 «
▪ …
 
▪ Not directly from Ar aḷḷāhumma, but from the same source as the latter, is Engl Elohim (c. 1600), a name of God in the Bible. 
allāhumma ʔillā, conj., unless, were it not that, except that, or at best (after a negative statement).
allāhumma ʔiḏā, conj., at least if or when; if only.
allāhumma naʕam, excl., by God, yes! most certainly!
 
ʔLW/Y ألو/ي 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 8Mar2023
√ʔLW/Y 
“root” 
▪ ʔLW/Y_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔLW/Y_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔLW/Y_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘shortcoming, to be remiss; oath, to swear; to shine; favour’. – ‘Favour’, however, could also, on the basis of meaning and structure, be connected with the root ↗ʔLL. 
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ʔMː (ʔMM) أمّ / أمم 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔMː (ʔMM) 
“root” 
▪ ʔMː (ʔMM)_1 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ʔMː (ʔMM)_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): »This root denotes two primary inter-related concepts of [1] ‘mother, race, roots and group’ on the one hand, and on the other, [2] ‘front, main road, leader, example direction’.« 
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ʔumm أُمّ , pl. ʔummahāt 
ID 033 • Sw –/97 • BP 163 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔMː (ʔMM) 
n.f. 
1 mother; 2a source, origin; b original, original version (of a book); 3 the gist, essence of s.th.; 4 basis, foundation; 5 pl. ʔummahāt matrix (typ.) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *ʔimm‑ ‘mother’.
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▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘mother’) Akk ummu, Hbr ʔēm, Syr ʔemmā, Gz ʔemm.
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ʔumm ʔuwayq, n.f., screech owl (zool.)
ʔumm ǧiʕrān, n.f., Egyptian vulture (zool.)
al-ʔumm al-ǧāfiyaẗ, n.f., dura mater (anat.)
ʔumm al-ḥibr, n.f., cuttlefish, squid (zool.)
ʔumm al-ḥasan, n.f., (maġr.) nightingale
ʔumm al-ḥanūn, n.f., pia mater (anat.)
ʔumm al-ḫulūl, n.f., river mussel (zool.)
ʔumm durmān, n.top.f., Omdurman (city in central Sudan, opposite Khartoum)
ʔumm al-dimāġ, n.f., meninges (anat.)
ʔumm al-raʔs, n.f., skull, brain; cerebral membrane, meninges (anat.)
ʔumm ʔarbaʕ wa-ʔarbaʕīn, n.f., centipede (zool.)
ʔumm šamlaẗᵃ, n.f., this world, the worldly pleasures
bi-ʔumm al-ʕayn or bi-ʔumm ʕayni-hī, adv., with one’s own eyes; šāhadū-hu bi-ʔumm ʔaʕyuni-him, they saw it with their own eyes
ʔumm al-qurʔān and ʔumm al-kitāb, n.f., the first sura of the Koran
ʔumm al-qarn, n.f., rhinoceros (zool.)
ʔumm al-qurà, n.f., Mecca
ʔumm al-qaywayn, n.top.f., Umm al Qaiwain, name of an emirate on the Persian Gulf
ʔumm al-kitāb, n.f., also: the original text of the Book from which Koranic revelation derives; the uncontested portions of the Koran
ʔumm al-nuǧūm, n.f., the Milky Way
ʔumm al-waṭan, n.f., capital, metropolis
al-širkaẗ al-ʔumm, n.f., parent company (com.)
al-ṣaḫr al-ʔumm, pl. al-ṣuḫūr al-ʔumm, n.f., primitive rock, parent rock
al-luġaẗ al-ʔumm, n.f., mother tongue
ʔummahāt al-ḥawādiṯ, n.f.pl., the most important events
ʔummahāt al-ḥurūf, n.f.pl., matrix (typ.)
ʔummahāt al-masāʔil, n.f.pl., the main problems
ʔummahāt al-ṣuḥuf, n.f.pl., the leading, most highly-respected newspapers
ʔummahāt al-faḍāʔil, n.f.pl., the principal virtues
ʔummahāt al-kutub, n.f.pl., handbooks, basic books, essential works
ʔummahāt al-muʔminīn, n.f.pl., Mohammed’s wives

ʔamma / ʔamam‑, u (ʔumūmaẗ), vb. I., to be or become a mother: denom., from ʔumm. – For other values see ↗ʔamma and ↗ʔimām.
ʔummī, adj., 1 maternal, motherly; 2 ↗ʔummaẗ.
ʔumūmaẗ, n.f., 1 motherhood; 2 motherliness, maternity .

 
ʔummaẗ أُمَّة , pl. ʔumam 
ID 035 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 248 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔMː (ʔMM) 
n.f. 
1a nation, people; 1b community; 2 generation – WehrCowan1979. 
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▪ eC7 1 (people, nation, community) Q 35:24 wa‑ʔin min ʔummaẗin ʔillā ḫalā fīhā naḏīrun ‘there has not been a community, but came to it [lit., passed away in it] a warner’; 2 (party, category of people) Q 3:104 wa‑l‑takun minkum ʔummaẗun yadʕūna ʔilà ’l‑ḫayri ‘let there be a community from among you [also interpreted as: let zou all turn out to be a community] that calls to goodness’; 3 (crowd) Q 28:23 wa‑lammā warada māʔa Madyana waǧada ʕalayhi ʔummaẗan min‑a ’l‑nāsi yasqūna ‘and when he arrived at the water of Midian, he found a crowd of people watering [their flocks]’; 4 (common belief, tradition) Q 43:22 bal qālū ʔinnā waǧadnā ʔābāʔanā ʕalà ʔummaẗin wa‑ʔinnā ʕalà ʔāṯārihim muhtadūna ‘no indeed!, they say, “We saw our fathers following this common belief; we are guided by their footsteps”’; 5 (period of time) Q 12:45 wa‑qāla ’llaḏī naǧā minhumā wa‑’ddakara baʕda ʔummaẗin ‘then the one who gained freedom of the two, remembering [Joseph] after a while, said’; 6 (fixed, determined time) Q 11:8 wa‑la‑ʔin ʔaḫḫarnā ʕanhum‑u ’l‑ʕaḏāba ʔilā ʔummaẗin maʕdūdaẗin ‘if We delay the chastisement till a determined point in time’; 7 (organised society) Q 6:38 wa‑mā min dābbatin fī ’l‑ʔarḍi wa‑lā ṭayrin yaṭīru bi‑ǧanāḥayhi ʔillā ʔumamun ʔamṯālukum ‘[there are] no creatures in the earth, nor birds that fly with their two wings, but [that they are] [organised] communities like yourselves’; 8 (epitome of Godliness, a man alone, one of a kind) Q 16:120 ʔinna ʔIbrāhīma kāna ʔummaẗan ‘Abraham was truly an example, an epitome of godniness’. 
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▪ Jeffery 1938: »Apparently a borrowing from the Jews.34 Hbr אםה is a tribe, or people, and the אוםה of the Rabbinic writings was widely used. As the word is apparently not a native Sem word at all, but Akk ummatu; Hbr אםה; Aram אוםא, אוםתא; and Syr ʔūmṯā seem all to have been borrowed from the Sum,35 we cannot deny the possibility that the Ar ʔummaẗ is a primitive borrowing from the same source. In any case it was an ancient borrowing, and if we can depend upon a reading בכש האםת ‘at the people’s costʼ in a Safaite inscription,36 we have evidence of its early use in NArabia.«
▪ … 
– 
ʔummaẗ Muḥammad, n.f., Mohammed’s community, the Mohammedans
al-ʔumam al-muttaḥidaẗ, n.pl.f., the United Nations

ʔammama, vb. II, 1 to nationalize; 2 to dispossess (private property, in a socialist economic system) : denom.

ʔummī, adj., 1ʔumm; 2 adj., illiterate, uneducated; n., (pl. -ūn) an illiterate: nisba formation.
BP#3833ʔummiyyaẗ, n.f., 1 ignorance; 2 illiteracy: abstract formation in iyyaẗ; 3ʔumawī.
ʔumamī, adj., 1 international; 2 UNO (in compounds) : nsb-formation from ʔumam, pl. of ʔummaẗ | al-hayʔaẗ al-ʔumamiyyaẗ, al-munaẓẓamaẗ al-ʔumamiyyaẗ, n.f., the United Nations Organization, UNO.
ʔumamiyyaẗ, n.f., Internationale (as federation of socialist parties): abstr. formation in -iyyaẗ, from ʔumam, pl. of ʔummaẗ.
taʔmīm, n., nationalization: vn. II. 
ʔimām إِمام , pl. ʔaʔimmaẗ 
ID 034 • Sw – • BP 1102 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔMː (ʔMM) 
n. 
1a imam, prayer leader; b leader; master; 2 plumb line – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ From WSem *√ʔMM ‘to go toward, lead’ – Huehnergard2011.
 
▪ … 
▪ …
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▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl imam, from Ar ʔimām ‘leader, imam’, from ʔamma, vb. I, ‘to go, lead’. 
ʔaʔimmaẗ al‑ʔislām, n.m.pl., the old teaching authorities or spititual leaders of Islam; faḍīlaẗ al‑ʔimām al‑ʔakbar, n.f., title of high‑ranking religious dignitaries (esp. of the Rector of Azhar University)

ʔamma, u (ʔimāmaẗ), vb. I, 1 to lead the way, lead by one’s example (s.o.); 2 to lead in prayer. – Cf. also 3 (vn. ʔamm) ↗ʔamma; 4 (vn. ʔumūmaẗ) ↗ʔumm
ĭʔtamma, vb. VIII, to follow the example (bi‑ of s.o.)

ʔimāmaẗ, n.f., 1a imamah, function or office of the prayer leader; 1b imamate; 1c leading position; 2 precedence
ʔimāmiyyāt, n.f.pl., standards 
ʔMBRāṬūR امبراطور 
Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√ʔMBRāṬūR 
“root” 
▪ … 
ʔimbarāṭūriyyaẗ إمْبَراطورِيّة 
Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√ʔMBRāṬūR 
n.f. 
▪ abstr. in -iyyaẗ, from … -- loanword 
ʔMT أمت 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 8Mar2023
√ʔMT 
“root” 
▪ ʔMT_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔMT_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔMT_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘elevated places; hillocks, crookedness, weakness; measurement; to guess; doubt; to bend’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ʔMD أمد 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 8Mar2023
√ʔMD 
“root” 
▪ ʔMD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔMD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔMD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘end, terminus; term, period, span, long time; to be angry’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ʔMR أمر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔMR 
“root” 
▪ ʔMR_1 ‘to order, command, bid, instruct’ ↗ʔamara; ‘order, command, instruction, decree; power; (gram.) imperative’ ↗¹ʔamr; ‘commander; prince, emir; tribal chief’ ↗ʔamīr; ‘government(al), state-owned, state, public’ ↗(ʔa)mīrī ; ‘commissioned, charged; commissioner; civil officer; head of a markaz or qism (Eg.)’ ↗maʔmūr
▪ ʔMR_2 ‘matter, affair, concern, business’ ↗²ʔamr; ‘to ask s.o.’s advice, consult (s.o.) [on an issue]’ ↗ʔāmara; ‘deliberation, counsel; conference’ ↗muʔtamar; ‘plot, conspiracy’ ↗muʔāmaraẗ
▪ ʔMR_3 ‘sign, token, symptom, mark, characteristic’ ↗ʔamāraẗ
▪ ʔMR_4 ‘simple-minded, stupid; ram, lamb’ ↗ʔimmar
▪ ʔMR_5 ‘pericardium (anat.); soul, mind, spirit’ ↗taʔmūr
▪ ʔMR_6 ‘form, blank’ ↗ĭstiʔmāraẗ

Other values, now obsolete, include (Steingass1844, Hava1899):

ʔMR_7 ‘to be in good quantity; to have numerous flocks’: ʔamira (a, ʔamar(aẗ)); cf. also caus. formation, ʔāmara, vb. IV, ‘to multiply, make abundant (e.g., o.’s progeny, camels, etc.), render s.o. wealthy (God)’, as well as the adj. ʔamir ‘multiplied, much, abundant; (hence also:) blessed’.
ʔMR_8 ‘serious, painful, very difficult (affair)’: (ʔamr) ʔimr; cf. also corresp. vb. in the expr. ʔamira ’l-ʔamr ‘the affair became severe, distressful, grievous, afflictive’
ʔMR_9 ‘passions’: ʔammārāt (pl.)
ʔMR_10 ‘convent of monks’: taʔmūr(aẗ)
ʔMR_11 ‘man’: taʔmurī, taʔmūrī, tuʔmurī
ʔMR_12 ‘certain beast of the sea; (or:) small beast, kind of mountain-goat, having a single branching horn in the middle of his head’: yaʔmūr or taʔmūr.▪ ʔMR_ ‘’: ...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘1 bolder, marker, landmark, hillock; 2 affliction; 3a chief, to appoint as chief; 3b command, to command; 4 affair; 5 to increase, multiply; 6 to guide’ 
▪ From protSem *√ʔMR ‘to see, know, make known, say’ – Huehnergard2011.
▪ Albright1954: »It should be noted that the original meaning of Hebrew √ʔMR ‘to say’ was ‘to see’, as in Akk and prob. in Ug […]. The shift in meaning came through the factitive sense ‘to show’, hence ‘to speak’.«1 .With this theory, Albright reaffirms the findings of Moscati’s earlier study (Moscati1946) which concluded with the assumption that practically all values attached to the root √ʔMR in Sem should be regarded as developments from the one primary meaning *‘to see’, as preserved in Akk (and Ug). According to Moscati, the values found in Sem √ʔMR reflect several stages of a’logical development« (sviluppo logico) along the line *‘to see > to indicate > to command’ (vedere > indicare > comandare), which for Moscati has an »eloquent parallel« in Lat índico > dico > indíco (1946: 125). – Moscati’s study seems plausible in many respects, but it remains silent at least about [v5] ‘pericardium (anat.); soul, mind, spirit’ (taʔmūr), nor would Moscati exclude that [v4] ‘ram, lamb’ (and hence ‘simple-minded, stupid’) perh. is a separate item, unrelated to the remaining spectrum.
▪ Kogan2015:331 : »if one follows S. Moscati (1946:125) and W.F. Albright (1954:229) in regarding the meaning ‘to see’ as the most primitive one, Ug must be the only Sem lang where this archaic meaning is attested virtually side by side with the innovative ‘to say’, ‘to command’, normal for the rest of CSem.«
▪ Kogan2015:331 n.976: »Remnants of the original meaning ‘to see’ have been surmised for √ʔMR in other CSem langs as well (…; for Ar ʔamaraẗ, tuʔmur ‘sign, mark’ in Lane 97-98 v. Moscati 1946:124, Rundgren 1963:182), but they are much less certain. It would be tempting to regard the meaning shift ‘to see’ > ‘to say’ as a shared semantic innovation of CSem, but modSAr *ʕMR ‘to say’ (Mhr ʔāmōr, Jib ʕor, Soq ʕémor) is hard to separate from this root in spite of the irregular *ʕ‑
▪ Dolgopolsky2012 #42 reconstructs protSem *√ʔMR ‘to see, be seen’, but wants to keep this distinct from both protCush *√ʔMR (< AfrAs *ʔMR < #41 Nostr *ʔam˻˅˼R˅ or *ʔam˹o˺(˻R˅˼)) ‘morning, daylight, dawn’, and protBerb *√˹W˺MR (< AfrAs *ʔMR < #42 Nostr *˹ʔ˺Umr˅) ‘to burn (intr.); to shine, be bright; dawn’. He thinks that Sem *√ʔMR ‘to see, be seen’ and other »alleged cognates […] are semantically and\or phonetically unfit for comparison«. No further details given.
▪ Elaborating slightly on Moscati and Albright, and observing Dolgopolsky’s caveat, one may assume a semantic development along the line’(?0 Nostr *‘morning, daylight’ × *‘to burn (intr.); to shine, be bright; dawn’ > ) Sem ‘A to be visible, observable; fact, issue, matter, affair > B to see, take notice of s.th. (that is visible or comes into sight, a fact, an issue, etc.) > C to indicate, show, demonstrate, point to s.th. (a thing, matter, case, etc.) > D to say > E to command’. – Most of the values represented by Ar items can be seen as reflections of some stage in this development:
  • 0 The only Sem words that in Dolgopolsky’s view have a Nostr dimension are those given in DRS as ʔMR-2 (Gz ʔamir, Gaf aymerä, Har īr ‘sun’). Dolgopolsky excludes a relation between these and the rest, but he seems to be slightly too apodictic about that. DRS holds that it is »not impossible« that the EthSem value ‘sun’ should be seen together with the complex of ‘visibility’ treated below as primary value (A) in Sem. However, while DRS suggests that the EthSem ‘sun’ originally may have been *‘the shining one’ and thus be derived from ‘visibility’, we would assume it more likely, in the light of Dolgoposky’s material, that it is the other way round, i.e., that the appearance of the sun at dawn, its becoming visible and catching the observer’s attention, is the primary value. –DRS also asks whether there may be a relation between the EthSem ‘sun’ and Sem √QMR (cf. Ar ↗qamar ‘moon’).
  • A1 to be visible, observable; 2 fact, issue, matter, affair’: They main value belonging here is ʔMR_2, represented first and foremost by ²ʔamr ‘matter, affair, concern, business’ and derivatives, incl. ‘to consult s.o./each other on an issue’, hence (as a neologism) also ‘to conspire’. The quasi-PP ʔamīr ‘commander; prince, emir; tribal chief’, usually attributed to E, has also been interpreted as *‘person consulted, or to be consulted, in an affair/on all kinds of issues’, in which case it would belong to A2. Likewise, ʔimmar in the sense of ‘simple-minded, stupid’ is often explained in ClassAr lexica as meaning, literally, *‘(mostly children) who always ask others to explain things, seek advice on every issue’. – In an attempt to explain some values attached to Hbr ʔMR items such as ʔāmîr ‘top, summit’ and tîmārāʰ ‘column’, Barth1902 took as evident and sufficiently proven that one has to assume a homonymous Sem root √ʔMR meaning *‘to be high’ alongside ʔMR ‘to see > say > command’ (1902: 5-6). He saw reflexes of this *‘to be high’ also in [v7] ‘to be plentiful, many’ (Ar ʔamira), [v8] ‘serious, painful, very difficult (affair)’ (ʔimr) (see also BAH2008 ‘to afflict’), or in ʔamaraẗ~ʔamār(aẗ) ‘(high) heap of stones’ (ibid.). His theory comes close to others that derive Ar tuʔmur ‘sign, mark’ from the root √TMR, particularly ↗tamr ‘date palm’, sharing with the latter the notion of ‘altitude’. (On Hbr tîmārāʰ ‘column’, DRS thinks it may be from ‘to be visible, to see’, but also adds: »Il n’est pas exclu cependant que nous ayons affaire à des racines différentes, v.s. TMR.«) Accordingly, ʔamīr, too, has not only been interpreted as *‘person (to be) consulted on all kinds of issues’ (< ²ʔamr ‘affair, issue’, etc. – see above) or *‘person who commands, gives orders’ (< ʔamara ‘to command’, etc. – see below), but also as *‘person of high standing’, or *‘person excelling among the people’. However, both ‘palm tree’ and ‘s.th. high’ are at the same time s.th. visible, observable from afar and/or attracting attention, so that *‘altitude’ and ‘palm tree’ are not really necessary to explain the semantics in this group. – The relative distance of [v7] ‘multitude, plentitude, abundance’ to ‘visibility’ has led some scholars to assume that [v7] should be explained as originally belonging to ↗ʕMR, not ʔMR (so, e.g., DRS s.v. #ʔMR-5). – Group A belongs closely together with B and especially C, as it is difficult to keep ‘visibility’ apart from its effect on the observer for whom s.th. visible may serve as a sign, an indicator, and thus makes him/her see.
  • B ‘to see, take notice of s.th. (that is visible or comes into sight, a fact, an issue, etc.), observe’ is the main value of ʔMR in Akk, to be found also in Ug. In Ar, its only immediate remnant seems to be ↗taʔammala, probably from taʔammara *‘to take s.th. as an indicator\sign for o.s.’ (see C), with assumed sound shift *r > l.2
  • C ‘to indicate, show, demonstrate, point to s.th. (a thing, matter, case, etc.)’: As mentioned above, this value is very close to the two preceding ones – it may be interpreted as a shift of perspective (an object that is visible for s.o. has at the same time also the “active” part of indicating s.th. for the observer and, thus, make him/her see it, take notice of it, etc.). The value that reflects this notion in its essence is certainly [v3] ‘sign, token, symptom, mark, characteristic’ (ʔamāraẗ, and – with emphasis on the object’s own “activity”3tuʔmūr). The Qur’anic ʔamr meaning ‘revelation’ may also belong here, either directly or as a borrowing from Aram, as suggested by Jeffery1938.4
  • D ‘to say’: not represented in Ar, but central e.g. in Hbr. As pointed out by, e.g., Moscati, the value can easily be connected to C ‘to indicate, etc.’, as ‘to say s.th. to s.o.’ means ‘to draw his/her attention to it, point to it’ (1946: 121).
  • E ‘to command’: [v1], with the n. ¹ʔamr ‘order, command, etc.’, the vb. ʔamara ‘to order, command, bid, instruct’, and the quasi-PP ʔamīr ‘commander; prince, emir; tribal chief’, is the main representative of this value. Obviously, it overlaps, and is thus closely connected, with C and D, and ultimately A, as ‘commanding’ is a specific, imperative way of ‘saying’ s.th. (D), and it implies ‘pointing to, indicating’ s.th. (C), in this way drawing the addressed person’s attention to an ‘issue’, ²ʔamr (A). – As already mentioned above, the FaʕīL formation ʔamīr has been interpreted not only as *‘person endowed with authority, commander, chief’, but also as *‘person (to be) consulted in all kinds of affairs’ and *‘person of high standing’. – Clearly in group E belong [v9] the ‘passions’ (ʔammārāt, as these are the instincts or bad emotions that ‘command’ us to do evil, cf. the well-known term al-nafs al-ʔammāraẗ bi’l-sūʔ ‘the baser self (of man) that incites to evil’. According to ClassAr lexica, also taʔmūr in the sense of [v5] ‘soul, mind, spirit’ belongs to the complex of E ‘commanding’, »because it is that which is wont to command« (Lane i 1863). From ‘soul’ then also values like ‘intellect’ and ‘heart’, hence also ‘pericardium’ are derived. In a further step, taʔmūr(aẗ) may occasionally also signify the “soul” or “heart” of a monestry, or a community of believers, hence [v10] ‘convent of monks’. If taʔmūr is used synecdochically, the ‘soul’ comes to mean anybody having a ‘soul’, i.e., [v11] ‘man’ in general (also expressed by nisba formations such as taʔmurī, taʔmūrī, or tuʔmurī).
▪ The modern word ĭsti(ʔ)māraẗ, the standard term for [v6] ‘form, blank’, now in ubiquitous use, is obviously a singulative of a desiderative vn. X, thus meaning either *‘(document/move) to ask for a decree, ¹ʔamr’ (↗ʔamara), or *‘(document/move) to look into a matter, ↗²ʔamr’ (?).
▪ The only item that it might be difficult to assign to some of the above groups is probably yaʔmūr~taʔmūr, signifying either a [v12] ‘certain beast of the sea’ or a ‘small beast, kind of mountain-goat, having a single branching horn in the middle of his head’. Lane suggests to regard this as a variant of ↗yaḥmūr ‘roebuck’.
▪ … 
– 
▪ Zammit2002: Akk amāru ‘to see’, Ug ʔamr ‘saying, command; to be visible, to see’, Phoen ʔmr ‘to say’, Hbr ʔāmar ‘to utter, say’, lHbr maʔamär ‘word, command’, BiblAram ʔamar ‘to say, tell; command’, Syr ʔemar ‘to say, speak’, ʔamīrā ‘praefectus’, SAr ʔmr ‘to proclaim; command (of a god), oracle’, Gz ʔammara ‘monstrare, ostendere; notum facere; demonstrare’, Ar ʔmr ‘to command, order, enjoin’.
DRS 1 (1994) #ʔMR‑ 1 Ar ʔamara ‘ordonner’; SAr ʔmr ‘ordonner, manifester’; Soq ʕemor, Śḥr ʕoñr, Mhr amor ‘dire’; EpigrAram ʔmr, JP ʔāmar, Syr ʔemar, Mand amar ‘dire, parler, ordonner’; Ya ʔmrh ‘ordre(?)’; Phoen Pun Moab EpigrHbr ʔmr, Hbr ʔāmar ‘dire’; Ug ʔamr ‘souhait, parole(?)’. – Akk amāru ‘voir, regarder’; Ug ʔamr ‘être visible, voir’; Ar taʔammala ‘examiner’; Gz ʔammara ‘montrer, indiquer’; təʔmərt ‘signe’; ʔəm(m)ur ‘clair, bien connu’; Tña ʔamära ‘savoir’; Te ʔammärä ‘être clair’; ʔamir ‘connaissance’; Amh ʔamro ‘raison, intelligence’; təmərt ‘signe, marque, science’. – Hbr ʔāmir ‘sommet d’arbre ou montagne’; tīmārā ‘colonne pilier’, Ar ʔamāraẗ­ ‘signe, indice, repère’, tāmūr(aẗ) ‘tour, tourelles’; ?Amh ʔamärä ‘être beau, plaisant, aimable’. -2 Gz ʔamir, Gaf aymerä, Har īr ‘soleil’. -3 Akk immer‑, Ug ʔimr, Phoen Pun ʔmr, oAram EmpAram Palm *ʔmr, BiblAram ʔimmar, JP ʔimmᵊrā, Syr ʔemmᵊrā, Ar ʔimmar ‘chevreau, agneau’. -4 Soq *emer ‘être oisif’; (intensif conatif) ʔomir ‘gâter, rendre oisif’; ?Ar ʔimmar ‘sans jugement, stupide’. -5 Ar ʔamira ‘être nombreux, abondant, croître’. -6 Akk emēru ‘soulever(?)’. -7 Hbr *ʔēmer ‘brindille’. -8 Tña ʔamora, Amh amora: oiseau de proie. -9 Ar ʔamāraẗ: sorte de millet. -10 Ar taʔmūr(aẗ) ‘sang, cœur’. -11 ‘antre du lion’. -12 ‘chèvre de montagne’. -13 Akk amīr ‘engorgement de l’oreille’. -14 amar‑ ‘tuiles’. -15 amr­ ‘ambre’.
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ Dolgopolsky2012 #41 Nostr *ʔam˻˅˼R˅ (or *ʔam˹o˺(˻R˅˼)?) ‘morning, daylight’ > AfrAs *√ʔMR ‘morning, daylight’ (× #42 Nostr *˹ʔ˺Umr˅ ‘to burn’ (intr.), ‘to shine, be bright; dawn’) > Cush *√ʔMR ‘morning, dawn’ > Ag *ʔamɐr‑ ‘morning’ > Bln amari, Q amarē ‘morning, tomorrow’, Xm amir, Xm T amər ‘tomorrow’ (> Gz ʔamīr ‘sun, day, time’, Gaf aymɐra, Gur imir, yimɜr ‘sun’). || protIE *Hₓām(e)r / *Hₓām‑n‑ (*h2eHmer) ‘day’ (× Nostr *˹ʔ˺Umr˅) > Grk (Hm) ē̂mar, gen. ē̂mat-os, D/AC âmar, ‑atos ‘day’ (> Grk A ʰēmérā ‘day’, with initial ʰ‑ on the analogy of ʰespéra ‘evening’); Arm awr ‘day’ (< *au̪mr < *amur < *āmōr), gen. awur. – Dolgopolsky2012 #42 *˹ʔ˺Umr˅ ‘to burn’ (intr.), ‘to shine, be bright; dawn’ > AfrAs *√ʔMR (× Nostr *ʔam˻˅˼R˅ ‘morning, daylight’): Berb *√˹W˺MR > Ahg əmmar ‘le soleil, le feu, tout corps en combustion qui chauffe à une distance; chaleur rayonnée’, ъsammər ‘rayons du soleil chauffant doucement’, Ty, ETwl asъsam̮m̮ər id., Rf summär ‘ensoleiller, se mettre au soleil’, Izd asammər̮ ‘sunny side of a mountain’, SrSn, Izn sammər id., ṯamiri ‘moonlight’. – Other alleged cognates within AfrAs (Sem *√ʔMR ‘to see, be seen’ etc., as well as some Ch, Eg and Berb words), are semantically and\or phonetically unfit for comparison. || protIE *Hₓām(e)r / *Hₓām‑n‑ (*h2eHmer) ‘day’ (× Nostr *ʔam˻˅˼R˅, see #41).
▪ … 
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl emir, admiralʔamīr
– 
ʔamar‑ أَمَرَ , u (ʔamr
ID 036 • Sw – • BP 2205 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔMR 
vb., I 
(vn. ʔamr) 1 to order, command, bid, instruct, commission, charge, entrust (s.o. bi‑ with s.th. or to do s.th.); 2 (vn. ʔimāraẗ) to become an emir – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ If semantics within the Sem root √ʔMR developed along the line sketched and discussed s.v.↗√ʔMR (section CONC), namely *(? Nostr *‘morning, daylight’ × *‘to burn (intr.); to shine, be bright; dawn’ >) Sem ‘to be visible, observable; fact, issue, matter, affair > to see, take notice of s.th. (that is visible or comes into sight, a fact, an issue, etc.) > to indicate, show, demonstrate, point to s.th. (a thing, matter, case, etc.) > to say > to command’, then Ar ʔamara ‘to order, command, etc.’ and derivatives represent the most recent stage of a long semantic history. Reflexes of most other stages seem to be preserved by many other items belonging to the root that exhibits a wide range of meanings.
▪ While the values attached to ¹ʔamr all seem to build on the vb. ʔamara, the meanings ‘matter, affair, issue, etc.’ (²ʔamr) and ‘(Qur’ānic) revelation’ (³ʔamr) probably belong to earlier stages (see ↗ʔamr for the former and ↗ʔamāraẗ for the latter); cf., however, also below, section DISC.
▪ … 
▪ eC7 I ¹ʔamr (pl. ʔawāmirᵘ) 1 (command) Q 46:25 tudammiru kulla šayʔin bi‑ʔamri rabbihā ‘[the storm] destroys everything by the command of its Lord’; 2 (will) Q 9:48 wa‑ẓahara ʔamru ’llāhi wa‑hum kārihūna ‘and God’s will triumphed, much to their disgust’; 3 (teaching, ordinance, guidance, instruction) Q 49:9 fa‑qātilū ’llatī tabġī ḥattà tafīʔa ʔilà ʔamri ’llāhi ‘so fight the oppressive party until it returns to God’s ordinance’; 4 (system, order) Q 41:12 fa‑qaḍāhunna sabʕa samāwātin fī yawmayni wa‑ʔawḥà fī kulli samāʔin ʔamrahā ‘so He ordained them seven heavens in two days, and assigned in each heaven its order’; 5 (decision, decree) Q 9:106 wa‑ʔāḫarūna murǧawna li‑ʔamri ’llāhi ʔimmā yuʕaḏḏibuhum wa‑ʔimmā yatūbu ʕalayhim ‘And others are deferred to God’s decree, whether He chastises them or accepts their repentance’; 6 (domain, prerogative) Q 17:85 wa‑yasʔalūnaka ʕan‑i ’l‑rūḥi qul‑i ’l‑rūḥu min ʔamri rabb‑ī wa‑mā ʔūtītum min‑a ’l‑ʕilmi ʔillā qalīlan ‘And they ask you [Prophet] about the Spirit. Say: “The Spirit is [part] of the domain of my Lord,” you have only been given a little knowledge [lit., you have not been given of knowledge but a little]’; 7 (obligations, duties, tasks) Q 18:88 wa‑ʔammā man ʔāmana wa‑ʕamila ṣāliḥan fa‑lahū ǧazāʔan‑i ’l‑ḥusnà wa‑sa‑naqūlu lahū min ʔamrinā yusran ‘as for him who believed and did right, for him, as recompense, will be the ultimate reward, and We will assign to him of Our commands/tasks that which is easy [to fulfil]’; 8 (decree, verdict) Q 11:76 yā‑ʔIbrāhīmu ʔaʕriḍ ʕan hāḏā ʔinnahū qad ǧāʔa ʔamru rabbika wa‑ʔinnahum ʔātī‑him ʕaḏābun ġayru mardūdin ‘Abraham! Desist from this! Your Lord’s verdict has come about; and there is chastisement coming to them that cannot be turned back’; 9 (opinion, judgement) Q 18:82 wa‑mā faʕaltuhū ʕan ʔamrī ‘I did not do it by my own command’. – II ↗²ʔamr (pl. ʔumūr). 
▪ Zammit2002: Akk amāru ‘to see’, Ug ʔamr ‘saying, command; to be visible, to see’, Phoen ʔmr ‘to say’, Hbr ʔāmar ‘to utter, say’, lHbr maʔamär ‘word, command’, BiblAram ʔamar ‘to say, tell; command’, Syr ʔemar ‘to say, speak’, ʔamīrā ‘praefectus’, SAr ʔmr ‘to proclaim; command (of a god), oracle’, Gz ʔammara ‘monstrare, ostendere; notum facere; demonstrare’, Ar ʔmr ‘to command, order, enjoin’.
DRS 1 (1994) #ʔMR‑ 1 Ar ʔamara ‘ordonner’; SAr ʔmr ‘ordonner, manifester’; Soq ʕemor, Śḥr ʕoñr, Mhr amor ‘dire’; EpigrAram ʔmr, JP ʔāmar, Syr ʔemar, Mand amar ‘dire, parler, ordonner’; Ya ʔmrh ‘ordre(?)’; Phoen Pun Moab EpigrHbr ʔmr, Hbr ʔāmar ‘dire’; Ug ʔamr ‘souhait, parole(?)’. – Akk amāru ‘voir, regarder’; Ug ʔamr ‘être visible, voir’; Ar taʔammala ‘examiner’; Gz ʔammara ‘montrer, indiquer’; təʔmərt ‘signe’; ʔəm(m)ur ‘clair, bien connu’; Tña ʔamära ‘savoir’; Te ʔammärä ‘être clair’; ʔamir ‘connaissance’; Amh ʔamro ‘raison, intelligence’; təmərt ‘signe, marque, science’. – Hbr ʔāmir ‘sommet d’arbre ou montagne’; tīmārā ‘colonne pilier’, Ar ʔamāraẗ­ ‘signe, indice, repère’, tāmūr(aẗ) ‘tour, tourelles’; ?Amh ʔamärä ‘être beau, plaisant, aimable’.
▪ … 
▪ The n. ʔamīr ‘commander; prince, emir; tribal chief’ is often regarded to derive from ʔamara. Ultimately, this may be true – but only via a concept like ʔimraẗ ‘power, influence, authority, command’, since, morphologically, ʔamīr is a FaʕīL formation and should therefore have adjectival or quasi-PP meaning. One could think of a semantic chain like: ʔamīr, lit., *‘endowed with authority’, from ¹ʔamr or ʔimraẗ ‘power, authority’, from ʔamara ‘to command’. – For other interpretations of the word, see entry ↗ʔamīr.
▪ It is not unthinkable that ²ʔamr ‘matter, affair, issue, etc.’ and ³ʔamr ‘(Qur’ānic) revelation’ both are from *‘what has been decreed, commanded’, the former in the sense of *‘command\issued word that has to be taken as a fact, or taken into account’, the second as *‘issued by God’. However, neither ClassAr dictionaries nor modern research have suggested such a relation so far.
▪ More obvious is the dependence of ↗taʔmūr ‘soul, mind, spirit’ and the n.f.pl. ʔammārāt ‘passions’ on ʔamara. The latter is short for *‘the inner drives that command us to commit evil’ (cf. also the well-known term al-nafs al-ʔammāraẗ bi’l-sūʔ ‘the inner drive that incites the human being to do wrong, etc.’). The former, taʔmūr, an old taFʕūL formation, is usually explained as *‘commanding, she who commands’, »because it [sc. the soul] is that which is wont to command« (Lane i 1863). For further derivations from ‘soul’ etc., cf. entry ↗taʔmūr.
▪ The modern word ↗ĭstiʔmāraẗ (var. ĭstimāraẗ) ‘form, blank’ is either from ¹ʔamr (*‘to ask for a decree, for guidance’) or from ↗²ʔamr (< *‘to seek advice in some issue\case’).
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl emir, admiralʔamīr
ʔamara, ʔamura, u (ʔimāraẗ), vb. I, to become an emir: prob. denom. from ʔamīr.
ʔammara, vb. II, to invest with authority, make an emir (s.o., ʕalà over): D-stem, denom. from ʔamīr.
taʔammara, vb. V, 1 to come to power; 2a to set o.s. up as lord and master; 2b to behave like an emir; 2c to assume an imperious attitude; 2d to be imperious, domineering: Dt-stem, intr., from ¹ʔamr in the sense of ‘power, authority’.

BP#1667¹ʔamr, pl. ʔawāmirᵘ, n., 1a order, command, instruction (bi‑ to do s.th.); 1b ordinance, decree; 2 power, authority; 3 (gram.) imperative | ʔamr ʕālin, n., royal decree (formerly, Eg.); ʔamr ʕaliyy, n., decree, edict of the Bey (formerly, Tun.); ʔamr qānūnī, n., ordinance having the force of law (Tun.); al-ʔamr wa’l‑nahy, pl. al-ʔawāmir wa’l‑nawāhī (lit.: command and interdiction, i.e.) sovereign power; full power(s),supreme authority; ʔamr tawrīd, n., (delivery) order (com.); taḥtᵃ ʔamrika, expr., at your disposal, at your service.
ʔimraẗ, n.f., power, influence, authority, command | taḥtᵃ ʔimratih, adv., under his command.
BP#810ʔimāraẗ, n.f., 1 position or rank of an emir; 2 princely bearing or manners; 3 principality, emirate; 4 authority, power: vn. I of ʔamura, from ʔamīr (see below) | ʔimāraẗ al-baḥr, n.f., office or jurisdiction of an admiral, admiralty; ʔimārāt sāḥil ʕUmān, n.pl.f., Trucial Oman.
BP#589ʔamīr, pl. ʔumarāʔᵘ, n., 1 commander; 2a prince, emir; 2b title of princes of a ruling house; 3 tribal chief: quasi-PP, lit. *‘endowed with power, authority’, from ¹ʔamr or ʔimraẗ ‘power, authority’. | ʔamīr ʔalāy, n., commander of a regiment (formerly, Eg.; approx.: colonel; as a naval rank, approx.: captain); ʔamīr al-ʔumarāʔ, n., approx.: major general (Tun.); ʔamīr al-biḥār, n., (Eg. 1939) approx.: admiral; kabīr ʔumarāʔ al-biḥār, n., (Eg. 1939) approx.: fleet admiral; ʔamīr al-baḥr, n., admiral (when referring to a non‑Arab officer of this rank; Eg. 1939 approx.: vice‑admiral); ʔamīr al-biḥār al-ʔaʕẓam, n., fleet admiral (when referring to a non‑Arab officer of this rank); ʔamīr al-liwāʔ, n., (Ir., since 1933) brigadier; ʔamīr liwāʔ al-ʕassaẗ, n., commandant of the Bey’s palace guard (formerly, Tun.); ʔamīr al-muʔminīn, n., Commander of the Faithful, Caliph.
ʔamīraẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., princess: f. of ʔamīr.
ʔamīrī (and mīrī), adj., government(al), state‑owned, state, public: nisba formation from ʔamīr in the sense of *‘holder of power, authority’. | ʔarḍ ʔamīrī, n., government land (Syr.); al-maṭbaʕaẗ al-ʔamīriyyaẗ, n.f., government press.
ʔammār, adj., constantly urging, always demanding (bi‑ to do s.th.); inciting, instigating: ints. formation, quasi-PA. | al-nafs al-ʔammāraẗ bi’l-sūʔ, n.f., the baser self (of man) that incites to evil.
taʔammur, n., 1a imperiousness, domineeringness; 1b imperious deportment, overbearing manners: vn. V.
ĭstiʔmāraẗ (frequently written ĭstimāraẗ), n.f., form, blank: singulative of vn. X, from *‘(document/move) to ask for a decree, ¹ʔamr, or to look into a matter, ²ʔamr’ (?).
ʔāmir, n., 1 commander; 2 lord, master; 3 orderer, purchaser, customer, client: PA I. | al-ʔāmir al-nāhī, n., absolute master, vested with unlimited authority.
maʔmūr, 1 adj. commissioned, charged; 2 n., a commissioner; 2b civil officer, official, esp., one in executive capacity; 2c the head of a markaz and qism (Eg.): PP I. | maʔmūr al-būlīs, n., commissioner of police; maʔmūr al-taflīsaẗ, n., receiver (in bankruptcy; jur.); maʔmūr al-ḥarakaẗ, n., traffic manager (railroad); maʔmūr al-taṣfiyaẗ, n., receiver (in equity, in bankruptcy; jur.).
maʔmūriyyaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., 1 order, instruction; errand; task, assignment, mission; 2 commission; 3 commissioner’s office, administrative branch of a government agency, e.g., maʔmūriyyaẗ qaḍāʔiyyaẗ, n.f., judicial commission charged with jurisdiction in outlying communities (Eg.): nisba formation from maʔmūr.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔamara, ↗ʔimmar, ↗ʔamāraẗ, ↗ʔamīr, ↗(ʔa)mīrī, ↗taʔmūr, ↗muʔāmaraẗ, ↗ĭstiʔmāraẗ, ↗muʔtamar, as well as, for the whole picture, ↗√ʔMR. 
ʔamr أَمْر , pl. ʔumūr 
ID 037 • Sw – • BP 1667 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔMR 
n. 
I ¹ʔamr (pl. ʔawāmirᵘ) ↗¹ʔamara. – II matter, affair, concern, business – WehrCowan1976. –
III ³ʔamr (Q only) revelation ↗ʔamāraẗ
▪ While ¹ʔamr ‘command, order’ belongs together with ↗ʔamara ‘to command, order, instruct’, and the Qur’ānic ³ʔamr ‘revelation’ probably is a borrowing from Syr, semantically close to the complex of ‘showing, demonstrating, indicating’ treated s.v. ↗ʔamāraẗ, ²ʔamr in the sense of ‘matter, affair, issue, case, etc.’ seems to reflect one of the primary values attached to √ʔMR in Sem: visibility. The original meaning may have been *‘s.th. visible (from afar), observable, attracting one’s attention’. – The idea of *‘visibility’ may ultimately stem from a Nostr *‘morning, daylight’ (> AfrAs *ʔMR ‘id.’) × *‘to burn (intr.), shine, be bright; dawn’ (though Dolgopolsky2012 rejected this possibility for phonological reasons).
▪ If ²ʔamr, interpreted as *‘visible, obvious, evident fact’, belongs to the complex of *‘visibility’, then its closest relatives within √ʔMR are ↗ʔamāraẗ ‘sign, token, mark’ and perh. tāmūr(aẗ) ‘(little) tower’ (though the latter may derive from √TMR ‘date palm, dates’). Instead of a primary *‘visibility’, Barth1894 had assumed as sufficiently proven a basic *‘altitude, to be high’ to be the earliest sense of Sem √ʔMR, in which case ²ʔamr ‘matter, fact, etc.’ would originally by *‘s.th. high’, hence ‘noticeable, catching one’s attention, fact’. But neither ‘date palm, dates’ nor *‘altitude, to be high’ are needed to sketch a plausible theory of semantic development in Ar and Sem, *‘visibility’ being sufficiently convincing. – Other close relatives may be ʔamir ‘multiplied, much, abundant’ (lit., *‘visible and calling for one’s attention due to its sheer quantity’), and ʔimr ‘severe, distressful, grievous, afflictive (due to the fact that s.th. is obviously painful, hurting, etc.)’.
▪ … 
▪ eC7 Q 16:1, 17:85, 32:5, 40:15, 42:52, 65:12, 97:4.
▪ eC7 I ¹ʔamrʔamara. – II ²ʔamr (pl. ʔumūr) 1 (affair, matter) Q 8:43 ʔiḏ yurī‑ka‑humu ’llāhu fī manāmika qalīlan wa‑law ʔarā‑ka‑hum kaṯīran la‑fašiltum wa‑la‑tanāzaʕtum fī ’l‑ʔamri ‘Remember when God made you see them in your sleep as few – had He shown them to you as many, you would certainly have lost heart and disputed over the affair’; *Q 12:102 ʔaǧmaʕū ʔamrahum ‘they settled upon their plans’; *Q 9:50 qad ʔaḫaḏnā ʔamranā ‘we have taken our precautions beforehand’; *Q 21:93 taqaṭṭaʕū ʔamrahum baynahum ‘they fell into disunity, caused a schism amongst themselves [lit., they fragmented their affairs between them]’; *Q 3:186 ʕazmi ’l‑ʔumūri ‘matters of great importance, serious undertakings, a task requiring great capability’; 2 (situation, condition) Q 18:21 ʔiḏ yatanāzaʕūna baynahum ʔamrahum ‘when they were discussing their situation among themselves’; 3 (what exists) Q 11:123 wa‑li‑llāhi ġaybu ’l‑samāwāti wa’l‑ʔarḍi wa‑ʔilayhi yurǧaʕu ’l‑ʔamru kulluhū ‘to God belongs all that is hidden in the heavens and earth, and to Him all that exists shall return’.
▪ … 
▪ ¹ʔamrʔamara.
▪ Zammit2002: Akk amāru ‘to see’, Ug ʔamr ‘saying, command; to be visible, to see’, Phoen ʔmr ‘to say’, Hbr ʔāmar ‘to utter, say’, lHbr maʔamär ‘word, command’, BiblAram ʔamar ‘to say, tell; command’, Syr ʔemar ‘to say, speak’, ʔamīrā ‘praefectus’, SAr ʔmr ‘to proclaim; command (of a god), oracle’, Gz ʔammara ‘monstrare, ostendere; notum facere; demonstrare’, Ar ʔmr ‘to command, order, enjoin’.
DRS 1 (1994) #ʔMR‑ 1 Ar ʔamara ‘ordonner’; SAr ʔmr ‘ordonner, manifester’; Soq ʕemor, Śḥr ʕoñr, Mhr amor ‘dire’; EpigrAram ʔmr, JP ʔāmar, Syr ʔemar, Mand amar ‘dire, parler, ordonner’; Ya ʔmrh ‘ordre(?)’; Phoen Pun Moab EpigrHbr ʔmr, Hbr ʔāmar ‘dire’; Ug ʔamr ‘souhait, parole(?)’. – Akk amāru ‘voir, regarder’; Ug ʔamr ‘être visible, voir’; Ar taʔammala ‘examiner’; Gz ʔammara ‘montrer, indiquer’; təʔmərt ‘signe’; ʔəm(m)ur ‘clair, bien connu’; Tña ʔamära ‘savoir’; Te ʔammärä ‘être clair’; ʔamir ‘connaissance’; Amh ʔamro ‘raison, intelligence’; təmərt ‘signe, marque, science’. – Hbr ʔāmir ‘sommet d’arbre ou montagne’; tīmārā ‘colonne pilier’, Ar ʔamāraẗ­ ‘signe, indice, repère’, tāmūr(aẗ) ‘tour, tourelles’; ?Amh ʔamärä ‘être beau, plaisant, aimable’.
▪ …▪ … 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ Jeffery 1938: »In the two senses (i) ‘command’ or ‘decree’, (ii) ‘matter’, ‘affair’, it is a genuine Ar word, and commonly used in the Qurʔān. – In its use in connection with the Qurʔānic doctrine of revelation, however, it would seem to represent the Aram מימרא (Rudolph, Abhängigkeit, 41; Horovitz, JPN, 188; Fischer, Glossar, Nachtrag to 86; Ahrens, Christliches, 26; Muḥammad, 134). The whole conception seems to have been strongly influenced by the Christian Logos doctrine,37 though the word would seem to have arisen from the Targumic use of מימרא.«
▪ … 
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl emir; admiralʔamīr
ʔamr wāqiʕ, n., (accomplished) fact
ʔamr maʕrūf, n., common knowledge
fī ʔawwal al-ʔamr, adv., at first, in the beginning
li-ʔamrin, adv., for some reason or other
ʔa‑laysa ’l-ʔamr kaḏālik?, expr., isn’t it so?
ʔammā wa-ʔamr kaḏālik, expr., things being as they are, there will, no doubt
mahmā yakun min ʔamr, expr., whatever may happen; however things may be
huwa bayna ʔamrayni, expr., he has two possibilities (or alternatives)
al-ʔamr allaḏī, rel.n., which (introducing a relative clause the antecedent of which is another clause)
quḍiya ʔamruh, expr., it’s all over with him; in the latter and similar phrases, ʔamruh is a frequent paraphrase of ‘he’.

ʔāmara, vb. III, to ask s.o.’s (DO) advice, consult (s.o.): L-stem, assoc., from ²ʔamr.
taʔāmara, vb. VI, 1 to take counsel, deliberate together, confer, consult with each other; 2 to plot, conspire (ʕalà against): Lt-stem, recipr., from ²ʔamr (lit., *‘to take each other’s advice on an issue, ʔamr); [v2] seems to be a rather late development.
ĭʔtamara, vb. VIII, 1 to deliberate, take counsel (bi‑ about); 2 to conspire, plot, hatch a plot (ʕalà against s.o.): Gt-stem, self-ref., from ²ʔamr (lit., *‘to ponder for o.s. over an issue, ʔamr) | ĭʔtamara bi-ʔamrih, vb. VIII, to carry out s.o.’s orders.

ʔamāraẗ, pl. ‑āt, ʔamāʔirᵘ, n.f., sign, token, indication, symptom, mark, characteristic: exact semantic relation to ²ʔamr unclear.
BP#2838muʔāmaraẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., 1 deliberation, counsel, conference; 2 plot, conspiracy: vn. III.
taʔāmur, n., 1 joint consultation, counsel, deliberation, conference; 2 plot, conspiracy: vn. VI.
ĭʔtimār, n., 1 deliberation, counsel, conference; 2 plot, conspiracy: vn. VIII.
ĭstiʔmāraẗ (frequently written ĭstimāraẗ), n.f., form, blank: singulative of vn. X, from *‘(document/move) to ask for a decree, ¹ʔamr, or to look into a matter, ²ʔamr’ (?).
mutaʔāmirūn, n.pl., conspirators, plotters: PA VI, pl.m.
muʔtamirūn, n.pl., 1 conspirators, plotters; 2 members of a congress, convention, or conference, conferees: PA VIII, pl.m.
BP#394muʔtamar, pl. ‑āt, n., conference; convention, congress: n.loc. VIII, lit., *‘place to consult each other’. | muʔtamar al-ṣulḥ, n., peace conference.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔamara, ↗ʔimmar, ↗ʔamāraẗ, ↗ʔamīr, ↗(ʔa)mīrī, ↗taʔmūr, ↗muʔāmaraẗ, ↗ĭstiʔmāraẗ, ↗muʔtamar, as well as, for the whole picture, ↗√ʔMR. 
ʔimmar إمّر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔMR 
¹adj.; ²n. 
1 simple-minded, stupid; 2 ram, lamb – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *ʔimmar‑ ‘ram’.
▪ In ClassAr, ʔimmar can also mean ‘ram, lamb’. For systematic reasons, DRS 1 (1994) diffentiates between this ʔimmar ‘ram, lamb’ (#ʔMR-3) and ʔimmar~ʔammar in the sense of ‘simple-minded, stupid’ (#ʔMR-4), although the latter »peut représenter un usage figuré du nom de l’‘agneau’«. In contrast, ClassAr lexicographers explain the meaning ‘simple-minded, stupid’ as *‘who consults everyone respecting his case, resembling a kid, one who obeys the command of everybody, complies with everyone’s desires’, thus deriving the value ‘simple-minded, stupid’ either from ¹ʔamr (*‘one who obeys the command, ʔamr, of everybody’, ↗ʔamara) or from ↗²ʔamr (*‘asking advice in all kinds of affairs, ʔumūr, sg. ²ʔamr’). In this view, ‘lamb’ tends to be seen as dependent on ‘simple-minded, stupid’ (»resembling a kid…«).
▪ However, none of the above options may reflect etymological reality. In fact, the reason why DRS keeps ‘ram, lamb’ and ‘simple-minded, stupid’ apart is that ʔimmar in the sense of ‘ram, lamb’ is believed to be a borrowing, via Aram ʔemmᵊrā~ʔimmᵊrā, from Akk ʔimmeru ‘lamb’. »According to a widespread opinion (cf., e.g., (cf. Zimmern1914: 50), the WSem forms are Akkadisms« (SED II #5). Scholars like Hommel (1879: 237) who hold that Ar ʔimmar ‘lamb’ is from Aram »emphasize[.] the late attestation of the Ar term« (SED II: 8). Indeed, while the value ‘simple-minded’ is attested already in pre-Islamic poetry, DHAL has, as of 30Oct2020, no evidence for ‘lamb’ yet, which means that the value is not attested in the period covered by DHAL so far, i.e., up to 750 CE.
▪ … 
▪ ca. 525 (‘weak, simple-minded, having no opinion’) in a verse by Imruʔ al-Qays – DHAL
DRS 1 (1994) #ʔMR‑ 1 Ar ʔamara ‘ordonner’; SAr ʔmr ‘ordonner, manifester’; Soq ʕemor, Śḥr ʕoñr, Mhr amor ‘dire’; EpigrAram ʔmr, JP ʔāmar, Syr ʔemar, Mand amar ‘dire, parler, ordonner’; Ya ʔmrh ‘ordre(?)’; Phoen Pun Moab EpigrHbr ʔmr, Hbr ʔāmar ‘dire’; Ug ʔamr ‘souhait, parole(?)’. – Akk amāru ‘voir, regarder’; Ug ʔamr ‘être visible, voir’; Ar taʔammala ‘examiner’; Gz ʔammara ‘montrer, indiquer’; təʔmərt ‘signe’; ʔəm(m)ur ‘clair, bien connu’; Tña ʔamära ‘savoir’; Te ʔammärä ‘être clair’; ʔamir ‘connaissance’; Amh ʔamro ‘raison, intelligence’; təmərt ‘signe, marque, science’. – Hbr ʔāmir ‘sommet d’arbre ou montagne’; tīmārā ‘colonne pilier’, Ar ʔamāraẗ­ ‘signe, indice, repère’, tāmūr(aẗ) ‘tour, tourelles’; ?Amh ʔamärä ‘être beau, plaisant, aimable’. -2 […] -3 Akk immer‑, Ug ʔimr, Phoen Pun ʔmr, oAram EmpAram Palm *ʔmr, BiblAram ʔimmar, JP ʔimmᵊrā, Syr ʔemmᵊrā, Ar ʔimmar ‘chevreau, agneau’. -4 Soq *emer ‘être oisif’; (intensif conatif) ʔomir ‘gâter, rendre oisif’; ?Ar ʔimmar ‘sans jugement, stupide’. -5-15 […].
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ Lipiński1997#30.10 thinks the word can be segmented into root plus ‎AfrAs “postpositive determinant” *‑l or *‑r “for domestic or tamed animals”, cf. also ʔayyil ‘deer’, baqar‑ ‘cattle’, ṯawr‑ ‘ox’, ǧamal ‘camel’, ḥimār‑ ‘donkey’, ḫinzīr ‘swine, pig’, ʕiǧl ‘calf’, ʕayr‑ ‘ass-fowl’, karr‑ ‘lamb’, naml ‘ant’. 
– 
For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔamara, ↗ʔamr, ↗ʔamāraẗ, ↗ʔamīr, ↗(ʔa)mīrī, ↗taʔmūr, ↗muʔāmaraẗ, ↗ĭstiʔmāraẗ, ↗muʔtamar, as well as, for the whole picture, ↗√ʔMR. 
ʔamāraẗ أَمارة , pl. ‑āt, ʔamāʔirᵘ 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔMR 
n.f. 
sign, token, indication, symptom, mark, characteristic – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ If semantics within the Sem root √ʔMR developed along the line sketched and discussed s.v.↗√ʔMR (section CONC), namely *(? Nostr *‘morning, daylight’ × *‘to burn (intr.); to shine, be bright; dawn’ >) Sem ‘to be visible, observable; fact, issue, matter, affair > to see, take notice of s.th. (that is visible or comes into sight, a fact, an issue, etc.) > to indicate, show, demonstrate, point to s.th. (a thing, matter, case, etc.) > to say > to command’, then Ar ʔamāraẗ ‘sign, token, mark, etc.’ and items with related meaning reflect one of the earliest stages of a long semantic history. To the same group seem to belong ʔamr ‘matter, affair, issue, etc.’ (↗²ʔamr) and ʔamr in the (probably borrowed) Qur’ānic sense of ‘revelation’ (³ʔamr – see below, section DISC).
▪ ….
 
▪ Cf. also the ClassAr ʔamaraẗ or ʔamār(aẗ) ‘heap of stones set up in order that one may be directed thereby to the right way, sign, mark by which s.th. is known’ (Lane).
▪ … 
DRS 1 (1994) #ʔMR‑ 1 Ar ʔamara ‘ordonner’; SAr ʔmr ‘ordonner, manifester’; Soq ʕemor, Śḥr ʕoñr, Mhr amor ‘dire’; EpigrAram ʔmr, JP ʔāmar, Syr ʔemar, Mand amar ‘dire, parler, ordonner’; Ya ʔmrh ‘ordre(?)’; Phoen Pun Moab EpigrHbr ʔmr, Hbr ʔāmar ‘dire’; Ug ʔamr ‘souhait, parole(?)’. – Akk amāru ‘voir, regarder’; Ug ʔamr ‘être visible, voir’; Ar taʔammala ‘examiner’; Gz ʔammara ‘montrer, indiquer’; təʔmərt ‘signe’; ʔəm(m)ur ‘clair, bien connu’; Tña ʔamära ‘savoir’; Te ʔammärä ‘être clair’; ʔamir ‘connaissance’; Amh ʔamro ‘raison, intelligence’; təmərt ‘signe, marque, science’. – Hbr ʔāmir ‘sommet d’arbre ou montagne’; tīmārā ‘colonne pilier’, Ar ʔamāraẗ­ ‘signe, indice, repère’, tāmūr(aẗ) ‘tour, tourelles’; ?Amh ʔamärä ‘être beau, plaisant, aimable’. -2-4. -5 Ar ʔamira ‘être nombreux, abondant, croître’. -6-15 […].
▪ ↗ʔamara.
▪ … 
▪ In an attempt to explain some values attached to Hbr ʔMR items, such as ʔāmîr ‘top, summit’ and tîmārāʰ ‘column’, Barth1902 took as evident and sufficiently proven that one has to assume a homonymous Sem root √ʔMR meaning *‘to be high’ alongside ʔMR ‘to see > say > command’ (1902: 5-6). He saw reflexes of this *‘to be high’ also in ʔamaraẗ~ʔamār(aẗ) ‘(high) heap of stones’ as well as in ʔamira ‘to be plentiful, many’ and ʔimr ‘serious, painful, very difficult (affair)’ (cf. also BAH2008 ‘to afflict’). His theory comes close to others that derive Ar tuʔmur ‘sign, mark’ from the root √TMR, particularly ↗tamr ‘date palm’, sharing with the latter the notion of ‘altitude’. (On Hbr tîmārāʰ ‘column’, DRS thinks it may be from ‘to be visible, to see’, but also adds: »Il n’est pas exclu cependant que nous ayons affaire à des racines différentes, v.s. TMR.«) Accordingly, also ↗ʔamīr, usually interpreted as *‘person who commands, gives orders’ (< ↗ʔamara ‘to command’) is thought by some to have developed from an original *‘person of high standing’, or *‘person excelling among the people, being more visible than others’. However, both ‘palm tree’ and ‘s.th. high’ are at the same time s.th. visible, observable from afar and/or attracting attention, so that *‘altitude’ and ‘palm tree’ are not really necessary to explain the semantic variety in this group.
ʔamāraẗ seems to be akin to the obsol. tuʔmūr ‘sign, mark, token (on the wayside)’ which Barth1894: 300 analyzed as formed after the nominal pattern taFʕūL, thought to be an extension formed on the basis of the “transitive infinitive [protSem *]qŭtûl”, exhibiting the same transitivity. He thinks Ar taʔmūr and (with vowel assimilation) tuʔmūr are derived from √ʔMR in the sense of ‘to know’, giving taʔmūr ‘knowledge, to get to know’ and tuʔmūr (‘recognition’ =) ‘sign, mark, token (on the wayside)’.
▪ The Qur’anic ʔamr meaning ‘revelation’ may belong together with ʔamāraẗ etc., either directly or as a borrowing from Aram, as suggested by Jeffery1938: »In the two senses (i) ‘command’ or ‘decree¬’ [↗ʔamara], (ii) ‘matter’, ‘affair’ [↗²ʔamr], it is a genuine Ar word, and commonly used in the Qurʔān. – In its use in connection with the Qurʔānic doctrine of revelation, however, it would seem to represent the Aram מימרא (Rudolph, Abhängigkeit, 41; Horovitz, JPN, 188; Fischer, Glossar, Nachtrag to 86; Ahrens, Christliches, 26; Muḥammad, 134). The whole conception seems to have been strongly influenced by the Christian Logos doctrine,38 though the word would seem to have arisen from the Targumic use of מימרא.«)]
▪ To the same complex of ‘visibility’ and/or ‘pointing to, indicating s.th.’ belongs prob. also ↗taʔammala ‘to observe’, (with assumed sound shift *r > l) from *taʔammara ‘to take s.th. as an indicator\sign for o.s.’.
▪ …
 
– 
For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔamara, ↗ʔamr, ↗ʔimmar, ↗ʔamīr, ↗(ʔa)mīrī, ↗taʔmūr, ↗muʔāmaraẗ, ↗ĭstiʔmāraẗ, ↗muʔtamar, as well as, for the whole picture, ↗√ʔMR. 
ʔamīr أَمير , pl. ʔumarāʔᵘ 
ID … • Sw – • BP 589 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔMR 
n. 
1 commander; 2a prince, emir; 2b title of princes of a ruling house; 3 tribal chief – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ quasi-PP, lit. *‘endowed with power, authority’, from ʔimraẗ or ¹ʔamr in the sense of ‘power, authority’, from ↗ʔamara ‘to order, command, bid, instruct, commission, charge, entrust’. – In ClassAr, the term is also attested in the meaning ‘person with whom one consults, one of whom one begs counsel, or advice, in a case of fear’ etc.; cf., e.g., the expr. huwa ʔamīrī ‘he is the person with whom I consult’. This usage suggests a derivation from ²matter, case, issue, etc. rather than from ‘power, authority’. – Barth1894 who assumed *‘to be high’ to be the basic meaning of the Sem √ʔMR would interpret ʔamīr as *‘high-ranking, person of high standing’. If this etymology should be true, ʔamīr would belong together with other ʔMR items expressing ‘highness, altitude’ and, hence, *‘visibility’, such as ↗ʔamāraẗ ‘sign, token, mark’ and perh. tāmūr(aẗ) ‘(little) tower’.
▪ »Although in early Islam this […] title used to denote the head of the Muslim community [ʔamīr al-muʔminīn], it was downgraded over the ages, and during Ayyūbid and Mamlūk times was given to military officers, including low-ranking ones. Under the Ottomans, the term resumed its initial importance and [the corresponding nisba adj., ↗ʔamīrī, Tu ʔemīrī, short mīrī] was singled out to designate assets that belong of right to the highest Muslim authority, the Sultan« – A. Cohen, »Mīrī«, in EI².
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ See also above, section CONC.
▪ … 
▪ Depending on which of the etymologies mentioned above, section CONC, is correct, cognates will be those listed s.v. ↗ʔamara ‘to order, command, etc.’, or ²ʔamr ‘matter, case, issue, etc., or ↗ʔamāraẗ ‘sign, token, mark’.
▪ ↗.
▪ … 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl emir; admiral, from Ar ʔamīr ‘commander, prince’, and ʔamīr al-... ‘commander of the ...’ (as in ʔamīr al-baḥr ‘commander of the sea’), from ↗ʔamara ‘to command, order’. 
ʔamīr ʔalāy, n., commander of a regiment (formerly, Eg.; approx.: colonel; as a naval rank, approx.: captain)
ʔamīr al-ʔumarāʔ, n., approx.: major general (Tun.)
ʔamīr al-biḥār, n., (Eg. 1939) approx.: admiral
kabīr ʔumarāʔ al-biḥār, n., (Eg. 1939) approx.: fleet admiral
ʔamīr al-baḥr, n., admiral (when referring to a non‑Arab officer of this rank; Eg. 1939 approx.: vice‑admiral)
ʔamīr al-biḥār al-ʔaʕẓam, n., fleet admiral (when referring to a non‑Arab officer of this rank)
ʔamīr al-liwāʔ, n., (Ir., since 1933) brigadier
ʔamīr liwāʔ al-ʕassaẗ, n., commandant of the Bey’s palace guard (formerly, Tun.)
ʔamīr al-muʔminīn, n., Commander of the Faithful, Caliph.

ʔamara, ʔamura, u (ʔimāraẗ), vb. I, to become an emir: prob. denom. from ʔamīr.
ʔammara, vb. II, to invest with authority, make an emir (s.o., ʕalà over): D-stem, denom. from ʔamīr.
taʔammara, vb. V, 1 to come to power; 2a to set o.s. up as lord and master; 2b to behave like an emir; 2c to assume an imperious attitude; 2d to be imperious, domineering: Dt-stem, intr., from ¹ʔamr in the sense of ‘power, authority’.

BP#810ʔimāraẗ, n.f., 1 position or rank of an emir; 2 princely bearing or manners; 3 principality, emirate; 4 authority, power: vn. I of ʔamura, from ʔamīr, from ¹ʔamr in the sense of ‘power, authority’ | ʔimāraẗ al-baḥr, n.f., office or jurisdiction of an admiral, admiralty; ʔimārāt sāḥil ʕUmān, n.pl.f., Trucial Oman.
ʔamīraẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., princess: f. of ʔamīr.
ʔamīrī (and mīrī), adj., government(al), state‑owned, state, public: nisba formation from ʔamīr in the sense of *‘holder of power, authority’. | ʔarḍ ʔamīrī, n., government land (Syr.); al-maṭbaʕaẗ al-ʔamīriyyaẗ, n.f., government press.
taʔammur, n., 1a imperiousness, domineeringness; 1b imperious deportment, overbearing manners: vn. V.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔamara, ↗ʔamr, ↗ʔimmar, ↗ʔamāraẗ, ↗(ʔa)mīrī, ↗taʔmūr, ↗muʔāmaraẗ, ↗ĭstiʔmāraẗ, ↗muʔtamar, as well as, for the whole picture, ↗√ʔMR. 
ʔamīrī أَميريّ , var. mīrī 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔMR 
adj. 
government(al), state‑owned, state, public – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ Nisba formation from ↗ʔamīr in the sense of *‘holder of power, authority’.
▪ The shortened form, mīrī, seems to go back to Ottoman times when the term ↗ʔamīr resumed its initial importance and ʔamīrī, Tu (ʔe)mīrī, »was singled out to designate assets that belong of right to the highest Muslim authority, the Sultan. Throughout Ottoman history, it was used as a noun meaning ‘lands belonging to the government’, ‘land tax’ levied from them, as well as ‘the public treasury’. […] Muslim jurisprudence drew a distinction between privately-owned lands, mulk (either ʕušr or ḫarāǧ land, possessed by Muslims or by non-believers, respectively) and state property, ʔarḍ al-mamlakaẗ. In earlier years, the latter was designated by several names (e.g. ḫāṣṣ), and it was only under the Ottomans that it assumed the name mīrī. […] Upon the conquest of a given area by the Ottomans its agricultural lands, the most promising source of income, were declared mīrī« – A. Cohen, »Mīrī«, in EI²
▪ ↗ʔamīr.
▪ … 
▪ ↗ʔamīr.
▪ See also above, section CONC.
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
– 
ʔarḍ ʔamīrī, n., government land (Syr.)
al‑maṭbaʕaẗ al‑ʔamīriyyaẗ, n.f., government press.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔamara, ↗ʔamr, ↗ʔimmar, ↗ʔamāraẗ, ↗ʔamīr, ↗taʔmūr, ↗muʔāmaraẗ, ↗ĭstiʔmāraẗ, ↗muʔtamar, as well as, for the whole picture, ↗√ʔMR. 
taʔmūr تَأْمور 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔMR 
n. 
1 soul, mind, spirit; 2 pericardium (anat.) – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ ClassAr dictionaries list several lexical items not only of the type taFʕūL, but also the f. taFʕūLaẗ as well as a variant with short u (taFʕuL(aẗ)) and or another with u also in the prefix (tuFʕuL(aẗ)). DRS classifies the lexeme that seems to correspond to the lemma of the present entry, taʔmūr(aẗ) ‘blood, heart’, as a value in its own right (#ʔMR-10), while tāmūr(aẗ) (~taʔmūr(aẗ)) ‘tower, little towers’ is grouped, together with ʔamāraẗ ‘signe, indice, repère’ and Hbr ʔāmir ‘tree or mountain top’ and tīmārā ‘column, pillar’ as the closest relatives, under the overarching #ʔMR-1, thus as belonging to the complex ‘to be visible > to take notice of, become aware of, observe > to see > to say > to command’ (the inner development of which is treated in root entry ↗√ʔMR).
▪ Unlike DRS where taʔmūr(aẗ) ‘sang, cœur’ remains without any relatives, neither in Ar nor outside, ClassAr lexica regard taʔmūr ‘soul, spirit’ as dependent on ↗ʔamara ‘to command’, »because it is that which is wont to command« (Lane i 1863). From ‘soul’ then also values like ‘intellect’ and ‘heart’ (as the *‘seat of the soul’), hence also ‘pericardium’ are derived. In a further step, taʔmūr(aẗ) may occasionally also signify, figuratively, the “soul” of s.th., i.e., its ‘essence’, its ‘life-blood’, which sometimes may turn out be ‘wine’, ‘water’, the ‘vizier (of a king)’, or the “heart” of a monastry, or a community of believers, hence the meaning ‘convent of monks’. Furthermore, if taʔmūr is used synecdochically, it can come to mean anybody having a ‘soul’, i.e., ‘man (in general), human being, anyone’ (also expressed by nisba formations such as taʔmurī~taʔmūrī~tuʔmurī.
… 
▪ … 
DRS 1 (1994) #ʔMR‑ 1 Ar ʔamara ‘ordonner’; SAr ʔmr ‘ordonner, manifester’; Soq ʕemor, Śḥr ʕoñr, Mhr amor ‘dire’; EpigrAram ʔmr, JP ʔāmar, Syr ʔemar, Mand amar ‘dire, parler, ordonner’; Ya ʔmrh ‘ordre(?)’; Phoen Pun Moab EpigrHbr ʔmr, Hbr ʔāmar ‘dire’; Ug ʔamr ‘souhait, parole(?)’. – Akk amāru ‘voir, regarder’; Ug ʔamr ‘être visible, voir’; Ar taʔammala ‘examiner’; Gz ʔammara ‘montrer, indiquer’; təʔmərt ‘signe’; ʔəm(m)ur ‘clair, bien connu’; Tña ʔamära ‘savoir’; Te ʔammärä ‘être clair’; ʔamir ‘connaissance’; Amh ʔamro ‘raison, intelligence’; təmərt ‘signe, marque, science’. – Hbr ʔāmir ‘sommet d’arbre ou montagne’; tīmārā ‘colonne pilier’, Ar ʔamāraẗ ‘signe, indice, repère’, tāmūr(aẗ) ‘tour, tourelles’; ?Amh ʔamärä ‘être beau, plaisant, aimable’. -2-9 […]. -10 Ar taʔmūr(aẗ) ‘sang, cœur’.
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ ClassAr taʔmurī~taʔmūrī~tuʔmurī ‘man’ is a nisba formed from taʔmur~taʔmūr~tuʔmur in the sense of ‘soul, spirit, mind’. Thus, ‘man’ is *‘the animate one, the one with a soul\spirit\mind’.
▪ In ClassAr taʔmūr also appears as a variant of yaʔmūr, which in its turn seems to be a modification of ↗yaḥmūr ‘small beast, kind of mountain-goat, having a single branching horn in the middle of his head, roebuck’ (grouped under ↗√ḤMR). 
– 
ĭltihāb al-taʔmūr, n., pericarditis (med.).

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔamara, ↗ʔamr, ↗ʔimmar, ↗ʔamāraẗ, ↗ʔamīr, ↗(ʔa)mīrī, ↗muʔāmaraẗ, ↗ĭstiʔmāraẗ, ↗muʔtamar, as well as, for the whole picture, ↗√ʔMR. 
muʔāmaraẗ مُؤامَرَة , pl. ‑āt 
ID 038 • Sw – • BP 2838 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔMR 
n.f. 
1 deliberation, counsel, conference; 2 plot, conspiracy – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ vn. III, from ʔāmara ‘to ask s.o.’s (DO) advice, consult (s.o.)’, L-stem, associative, from ↗²ʔamr ‘matter, issue, affair’, lit., *‘to turn to s.o. to consult him/her on an issue (²ʔamr)’.
▪ [v2] seems to be a rather late development, shared also by some items of form VIII (see ↗muʔtamar).
▪ Monteil1960: 214 mentions muʔāmaraẗ ʻconspiracy, plot’ among the »mots-clefs« of the modern period.
▪ … 
▪ First attested as vn. (‘to consult, consulting, consultation’) in a letter (quoted in Bayhaqī’s Sunan) attributed to ʕUmar b. al-Ḫaṭṭāb; tentatively dated 644 CE by DHDA.
▪ First attestation as n. (‘s.th. that has been negociated and been agreed upon’, esp. a due payment) is dated c. 815 CE by DHDA (source: al-Iṣfahānī, K. al-Aġānī).
▪ ClassAr dictionaries do not give the value ‘conspiracy’ yet. The first attestation I was able to find for this value is in Bocthor’s Fr-Ar dictionary (Bocthor1828) where Fr conspiration is first explained as ‘entreprise secrète de plusieurs’, then translated as muʔāmaraẗ, ĭttifāq nās ʕalà šarr. But even here, the words muʔāmaraẗ and ĭttifāq alone do not seem to have a negative connotation yet, they simply mean ‘agreement, mutual consultation’; in order to signify conspiracy, the addition ʕalà šarr ‘on s.th. bad, on an evil action’ is needed. None of the dictionaries of the 19th and early 20th century list the value ‘conspiracy’.
▪ … 
▪ ↗²ʔamr.
▪ … 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
– 
ʔāmara, vb. III, to ask s.o.’s (DO) advice, consult (s.o.): L-stem, assoc., from ²ʔamr.
taʔāmara, vb. VI, 1 to take counsel, deliberate together, confer, consult with each other; 2 to plot, conspire (ʕalà against): Lt-stem, recipr., from ²ʔamr (lit., *‘to take each other’s advice on an issue, ʔamr); [v2] seems to be a rather late development.
ĭʔtamara, vb. VIII, 1 to deliberate, take counsel (bi‑ about); 2 to conspire, plot, hatch a plot (ʕalà against s.o.): Gt-stem, self-ref., from ²ʔamr (lit., *‘to ponder for o.s. over an issue, ʔamr) | ĭʔtamara bi-ʔamrih, vb. VIII, to carry out s.o.’s orders.

taʔāmur, n., 1 joint consultation, counsel, deliberation, conference; 2 plot, conspiracy: vn. VI.
mutaʔāmirūn, n.pl., conspirators, plotters: PA VI, pl.m.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔamara, ↗ʔamr, ↗ʔimmar, ↗ʔamāraẗ, ↗ʔamīr, ↗(ʔa)mīrī, ↗taʔmūr, ↗ĭstiʔmāraẗ, ↗muʔtamar, as well as, for the whole picture, ↗√ʔMR. 
ĭstiʔmāraẗ اِسْتِئْمارة , frequently written اِسْتِمارة , pl. ‑āt 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔMR 
n.f. 
form, blank – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ singulative of vn. X, desiderative, lit. either *‘document filled in / move made to ask for a decree, ¹ʔamr’ (↗ʔamara), or *‘document filled in / move made to look into a matter, ↗²ʔamr’ (?).
▪ BadawiHinds1986 groups ĭstimāraẗ under ¹ʔamr.
 
▪ … 
▪ ↗¹ʔamr, ↗²ʔamr.
▪ … 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
– 
For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔamara, ↗ʔamr, ↗ʔimmar, ↗ʔamāraẗ, ↗ʔamīr, ↗(ʔa)mīrī, ↗taʔmūr, ↗muʔāmaraẗ, ↗muʔtamar, as well as, for the whole picture, ↗√ʔMR. 
muʔtamar مُؤْتَمَر , pl. ‑āt 
ID 039 • Sw – • BP 394 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔMR 
n. 
conference; convention, congress – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ n.loc. VIII, lit., *‘place to consult each other’, from ĭʔtamara, vb. VIII, ‘to deliberate, take counsel’, Gt-stem, self-referential, lit., *‘to ponder (for o.s.) over an issue’, from ↗²ʔamr ‘matter, affair, issue, concern, business’.
▪ Some of the lexemes belonging to form VIII have, like those of form III (see ↗muʔāmaraẗ), developed the sense of ‘to conspire’. This is not the case for muʔtamar itself, but for most of the other form VIII lexemes (ĭʔtamara, ĭʔtimār, muʔtamirūn – see below, section DERIV).
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ ↗²ʔamr.
▪ … 
▪ The underlying vb. VIII, ĭʔtamara, is attested in ClassAr not only with the meaning ‘to consult s.o. (on an affair, case, issue)’, but also in the more original, self-referential sense of the Gt-stem, ‘to consult one’s own mind, form one’s own opinion, follow one’s own judgment’. This value may be derived either from ¹ʔamr ‘command, order’ (*‘to let o.s. be guided by one’s own commands’) or ²ʔamr ‘issue, affair’ (*‘to look o.s. into a matter, case’).
▪ … 
– 
muʔtamar al-ṣulḥ, n., peace conference.

ĭʔtamara, vb. VIII, 1 to deliberate, take counsel (bi‑ about); 2 to conspire, plot, hatch a plot (ʕalà against s.o.): Gt-stem, self-ref., from ²ʔamr (lit., *‘to ponder for o.s. over an issue, ʔamr) | ĭʔtamara bi-ʔamrih, vb. VIII, to carry out s.o.’s orders.

ĭʔtimār, n., 1 deliberation, counsel, conference; 2 plot, conspiracy: vn. VIII.
muʔtamirūn, n.pl., 1 conspirators, plotters; 2 members of a congress, convention, or conference, conferees: PA VIII, pl.m.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔamara, ↗ʔamr, ↗ʔimmar, ↗ʔamāraẗ, ↗ʔamīr, ↗(ʔa)mīrī, ↗taʔmūr, ↗muʔāmaraẗ, ↗ĭstiʔmāraẗ, as well as, for the whole picture, ↗√ʔMR. 
ʔML أمل 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔML 
“root” 
▪ ʔML_1 ‘to hope’ ↗ʔamala
▪ ʔML_2 ‘to look attentively, regard, contemplate, meditate, ponder’ ↗taʔammala
▪ ʔML_3 ‘…’ ↗.

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘very long and broad distinct sand dune; to ascertain, to discriminate; to mull over; to hope, expectations’ 
▪ ʔML_1 : …
▪ ʔML_2 : from ↗²ʔamr or an item akin to ↗ʔamāraẗ.
▪ ʔML_3 : …
 
– 
DRS 1 (1994) #ʔML-1 Hbr ʔumlal ‘se faner (plante), se déssécher (huile)’. -2 Ar ʔamala ‘espérer’. -3 taʔammala ‘examiner’. -4 ʔamīl ‘dunes de sable’. -5 Syr ʔāmelā ‘manteau, tapis’. -6 Soq ʔamal ‘courge’. -7 Akk amal-: sorte de pin.
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
… 
– 
ʔamal‑ أَمَلَ , u (ʔamal
ID … • Sw – • BP 1779 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔML 
vb., I 
to hope (DO or bi for), entertain hopes (of) – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ Perh. denom. from the n. ʔamal ‘hope’.
▪ The vb. V, ↗taʔammala ‘to look attentively, observe, regard, contemplate, ponder, reflect’, is usually not derived from ʔamala ‘to hope’, but from ↗²ʔamr (*‘to observe an issue, a fact’) and/or ↗ʔamāraẗ (*‘to let o.s. be guided by a sign, a token, an indicator of s.th.’).
▪ … 
▪ eC7 (hope, desire, expectation) Q 15:3 ḏar-hum yaʔkulū wa-yatamattaʕū wa-yulhi-himu ’l-ʔamalu fa-sawfa yaʕlamūna ‘Let them eat and enjoy life, and let (false) hope beguile them. They will come to know!’
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ No direct cognates outside Ar.
▪ … 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
… 
ʔammala, vb. II, 1a to hope; b to expect (s.th. min of s.o.): D-stem, ints., denom. from ʔamal. 2 to raise hopes (DO in s.o.), hold out hopes (for s.o.), give (s.o.) reason to hope or expect: D-stem, caus. of I. | ʔammalahū ḫayran, vb. II, to let s.o. hope for the best.
BP#3097taʔammala, vb. V, ↗s.v.

BP#648ʔamal, pl. ʔāmāl, n., hope, expectation ( of s.th., also bi‑): vn. I, perh. the etymon proper from which vb. I is denom. | ʔamal kāḏib, n., fallacious hope.
maʔmal, pl. maʔāmilᵘ, n., hope: n.loc., *‘place/object/aim to direct one’s hoping to, to put one’s hope in’.
BP#4394taʔammul, pl. ‑āt, n., ↗taʔammala.
ʔāmil, adj., hopeful: PA I.
muʔammil, adj., hopeful: PA II.
maʔmūl, adj., hoped for, expected: PP I.
mutaʔammil, adj., ↗taʔammala.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗taʔammala, as well as, for the whole picture, ↗√ʔMR and ↗√ʔML.

 
taʔammal‑ تَأَمَّلَ (taʔammul
ID … • Sw – • BP 3097 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔML 
vb., V 
1 to look attentively (DO, at), regard, contemplate; 2a to meditate; b to consider, think over, ponder, reflect (DO, s.th.) – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ vn. V, but prob. not from √ʔML, but from ʔMR, with assumed sound shift *r > l.5 . Thus, it may originally have been *taʔammara and meant s.th. like *‘to take notice of s.th., take s.th. as an indicator\sign for o.s.’, so that the word would be akin to ʔMR items that either express the visibility (=observability) and, hence, evident existence of facts, issues, cases, etc. (↗²ʔamr) or underline the deictic character of s.th. visible (↗ʔamāraẗ).
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ ↗²ʔamr, ↗²ʔamāraẗ.
▪ … 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
… 
BP#4394taʔammul, pl. ‑āt, n., 1 consideration; 2 contemplation; pl. taʔammulāt, meditations: vn. V.
mutaʔammil, adj., 1a contemplative, meditative, reflective; b pensive, wistful, musing: PA V.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔamala, as well as, for the whole picture, ↗√ʔML and ↗√ʔMR. 
ʔMN 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔMN 
“root” 
▪ ʔMN_1 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ʔMN_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be safe, to be secure; guard, keeper; trust, to be trusted; belief, faith, to believe’ 
▪ From WSem *√ʔMN ‘to be firm, confirmed, reliable, faithful, have faith, believe’ – Huehnergard2011.
 
– 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl amen, from Hbr ʔāmēn ‘truly, certainly’; Mammon, from Aram māmonā, prob. from Mishnaic Hbr māmôn, prob. from earlier *maʔmōn (‘security, deposit’); both from Hbr ʔāman ‘to be firm’, cognate of Ar ↗ʔamina
– 
ʔāman‑ آمَنَ 
ID 041 • Sw – • BP 1411 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔMN 
vb., IV 
to believe (bi‑ in) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ Jeffery1938: »The primitive verb ʔamina with its derivatives is pure Arabic. Form IV, however, ʔāmana with its derivatives, muʔmin ‘believer’ and ʔīmān ‘believing, faith’, is a technical religious term which seems to have been borrowed from the older faiths, and intended to represent the Aram Syr hêmīn, [Gz] ʔamna.39 The word actually borrowed would seem to have been the participle muʔmin from [Gz] māʔəmən.40 / In 59:23, muʔmin meaning ‘faithful’, and in 59:9, ʔīmān meaning ‘certainty’, may be genuine Arabic (see Fischer, Glossar, 9a).«
▪ … 
– 
 
ʔamn أَمْن 
ID 040 • Sw – • BP 238 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔMN 
n. 
1 safety; 2 peace, security, protection – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
 
ʔīmān إِيمان 
ID 042 • Sw – • BP 1302 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔMN 
n. 
faith, belief (bi‑ in) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ See also Jeffery1938 in entry ↗ʔāmana, section DISC.
▪ … 
– 
 
muʔmin مُؤْمِن 
ID 043 • Sw – • BP 1144 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔMN 
n. 
1a adj., believing, faithful; b n., believer – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ See also Jeffery1938 in entry ↗ʔāmana, section DISC.
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
 
ʔNː (ʔNN) 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔNː (ʔNN) 
“root” 
▪ ʔNː (ʔNN)_1 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ʔNː (ʔNN)_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
▪ … 
– 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
ʔann‑ / ʔanan‑ أَنَّ 
ID 044 • Sw – • BP 4589 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔNː (ʔNN) 
vb., I 
to groan, moan (min at) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
 
ʔanā أنا 
ID … • Sw – • BP 25 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔNā 
pron.1sg. 
I – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Kogan2015 (Sw#42): from protSem *ʔanā(ku) ‘I’ (CDG 26). Passim except for modSAr.
▪ …
 
▪ … 
… 
… 
– 
ʔanānī, adj., egotistic; egoistic(al), selfish
ʔanāniyyaẗ, n.f., egoism, selfishness 
ʔNBR أنبر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔNBR 
“root” 
▪ ʔNBR_1 ‘warehouse, storehouse, storeroom’ ↗ʔanbār ; cf. also ↗ʕanbar
▪ ʔNBR_2 ‘…’ ↗ 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
… 
– 
– 
ʔanbār أَنْبار , pl. ʔanābirᵘ , ʔanābīrᵘ , var. ʕanbar عَنْبَر , pl. ʕanābirᵘ 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔNBR 
n. 
warehouse, storehouse, storeroom – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ From mPers hanbārak ‘id.’, akin to Skr sambhāra ‘collecte, accumulation de nourriture’ < IE *sem- ‘un, même, ensemble’ + *bʰer- ‘porter’ – Rolland2014a.
▪ Var. ↗ʕanbar_2, according to Rolland2014a »un bon exemple de la parenté—sonore et écrite—entre la hamza et le ʕayn, et de la possibilité pour l’un de se substituer à l’autre, notamment dans les emprunts.« 
▪ … 
– 
… 
▪ Tu ambar: 1330 ʕĀşıḳ Paşa, Ġarīb-nāme : kīler ü çārtāk ü ambārlar dolar. Loaned from Pers anbār ‘storeroom, magazine’ < mPers hanbārak ‘id.’, etc. (as Ar ʕanbar, see above, section CONC) – Nişanyan16Apr2015. 
– 
ʔNṮ أنث 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔNṮ 
“root” 
▪ ʔNṮ_1 ‘feminine female’ ↗ʔunṯà
▪ ʔNṮ_2 ‘testicles’ ↗al- ʔunṯayāni
▪ ʔNṮ_3 ‘…’ ↗

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘female; to be soft, to be lenient, to be accommodating’ 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
… 
… 
… 
ʔunṯà أُنْثَى , pl. ʔināṯ, ʔanāṯà 
ID … • Sw – • BP 2763 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔNṮ 
adj./n.f. 
feminine; female; a female (of animals) – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘woman, female’) Akk aššatu ‘wife’, Hbr ʔiššā, Syr ʔattā, Gz ʔanést.
 
… 
… 
ʔanuṯa, u (ʔunūṯaẗ), vb. I, to be or become feminine, womanly, womanish, effeminate: denom.?
ʔannaṯa, vb. II, to make feminine; to effeminate, make effeminate; to put into the feminine form (gram. ): D-stem, caus., denom.
taʔannaṯa, vb. V, to become feminine (also gram. ): Dt-stem, intr.

ʔunṯawī, adj., womanly, female, women’s (in compounds); effeminate, womanish: nisba formation.
C ʔunūṯaẗ, n.f., feminitity, womanliness: vn. I; for the concept see also ↗s.v.
taʔnīṯ, n., the feminine, feminine form (gram. ): orig. vn. II.
muʔannaṯ, adj., (gram. ) feminine (adj.): orig. PP II.
 
al-ʔunṯayāni الأُنْثَيانِ 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔNṮ 
n.f.du. 
the testicles – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
… 
… 
… 
… 
ʔNǦL أنجل 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔNǦL 
“root” 
▪ ʔNǦL_1 (properly, NǦL) ‘large-eyed, wide (eye), gaping (wound)’ ↗ʔanǧalᵘ
▪ ʔNǦL_2 (ʔNGL) ‘anglification’ ↗ʔangalaẗ
▪ ʔNǦL_3 (ʔNǦīL) ‘gospel’ ↗ʔinǧīl
▪ ʔNǦL_4 (ʔNGūLā) ‘Angola’ ↗ʔanġōlā
 
4 different "roots", see s.v. 
– 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
ʔangalaẗ أنْجلة (Eg spelling) 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔNǦL 
n.f. 
anglicization – WehrCowan1979 
vn. I, from vb. ʔangala, vb. I, ‘to anglify’, neologism formed after regular pattern for 4-rad. vb.s (FaʕLaLaẗ) from a hypothetical ↗√ʔNǦL/ʔNGL.
 
▪ … 
… 
… 
– 
taʔangala (Eg spelling), vb. II, to become English of anglicized; to take on English manners, imitate the English
 
ʔinǧīl إنْجيل , pl. ʔanāǧīlᵘ 
ID 045 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔNǦL 
n. 
gospel – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Probably via Gz wangēl from Grk εὐαγγέλιον. 
▪ first attested 426 CE in a verse attributed to al-Ḥāriṯ b. Kaʕb al-Maḏḥiǧī – HDAL (1Jun2020)
▪ Jeffrey1938: »It is used [in the Q] always of the Christian revelation, is particularly associated with Jesus, and occurs only in Madinan passages.3 «

 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ Jeffery1938: »Some of the early authorities tried to find an Arabic origin for it, making it a form ʔifʕīl from √NǦL, but this theory is rejected with some contempt by the commentators Zam. and Bayḍ. both on general grounds, and because of al-Ḥasan’s reading ʔanǧīl, which clearly is not an Arabic form. So also the Lexicons LA, xiv, 171; TA, viii, 128; and al-Jawālīqī, 17 (al-Khafāǧī, 11), give it as a foreign word derived from either Hbr or Syr (cf. Ibn al-Athīr, Nihāya, iv, 136). / Obviously it is the Grk ἐυαγγέλιον euangélion, and both Marracci41 and Fraenkel42 have thought that it came directly into Ar from the Grk. The probabilities, however, are that it came into Ar through one of the other Sem tongues. The Hbr origin suggested by some is too remote. […] The suggestion of a Syr source is much more hopeful. It is true that ʔwnglywn is only a transliteration of the Grk εὐαγγέλιον, but it was as commonly used as the pure Syr sbartā [‘good tidings, gospel’] and may be assumed to have been in common use among the Christians with whom Muḥammad may have been in contact. Nöldeke has pointed out, however, that the Manichaean forms ʔnglywn of Persian origin,43 and anglion of Turkish origin,44 still have the Grk ‑ion ending, and had the Arabic, like these, been derived from the Syr we might have expected it also to preserve the final n. The shortened form, he points out (Neue Beiträge, 47), is to be found in the Eth [Gz] wangēl, where the long vowel is almost conclusive evidence of the Ar word having come from Abyssinia.45 Grimme, ZA, xxvi, 164, suggests that it may have entered Ar from the Sab, but we have no inscriptional evidence to support this. It is possible that the word was current in this form in pre-Islamic days, though as Horovitz, KU, 71, points out, there is some doubt of the authenticity of the verses in which it is found.46 «
 
▪ Not from Ar ʔinǧīl, but ultimately from the same source is Engl evangel (mC14) ‘the gospel’, from oFr evangile, from Church Lat evangelium, from Grk ἐυαγγέλιον euangélionEtymOnline. – Cf. also the derivatives: evangel|ical, ‑ist(ic), ‑ism, ‑ize, ‑ization, Evangeline (n.pr.), and similar words in other Eur langs. 
(LevAr) šilš il‑ʔinǧīl, n., couch-grass: dialectal (Christian) re-interpretation of ↗naǧīl?

ʔinǧīlī, adj., evangelical; n., evangelist: nisba formation.
ʔinǧīliyyaẗ, n.f., evangelical creed: abstract formation in ‑iyyaẗ.
mangaliyyaẗ (EgAr), n.f., church lectern: n.loc. prefix ma‑, nisba f. (for instruments, tools, etc.).
 
ʔNS أنس 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔNS 
“root” 
▪ ʔNS_1 ‘people, folk’ ↗ʔunās
▪ ʔNS_2 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ʔNS_3 ‘…’ ↗

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘humans, people; tamed animals, to tame; affable, friendly, intimate friend, to be sociable; to detect, to perceive, to come to know, to gather information, to seek gently’ 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
… 
… 
… 
ʔunās, nās أُناس ، ناس 
ID … • Sw – • BP 204 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔNS 
n.coll. 
men, people, folks – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ The two Arabic words ʔunās and nās which Bergsträsser groups as one item, not differentiating between the forms with initial ʔ˅‑ and those without, may have different origins. Orel&Stolbova1994 hold such forms apart and trace them back to two separate, though related and synonymous origins: protSem *ʔin(a)š‑ < AfrAs *ʔi‑nas‑, and protSem *niš‑ < AfrAs *nüs‑ ‘man’, respectively. (At the same time, they think that AfrAs *ʔi‑nas‑ is derived from AfrAs *nüs‑.)
▪ See also ↗√ʔNS ‘to be sociable, nice, friendly’.
 
▪ … 
▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘human beings, people’) Akk (nīšū), Hbr ʔĕnōš, Syr nāšā, SAr ʔnś.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#108: Hbr ʔenōš, Syr (ʔ)naš, Ar ʔins‑, SAr ʔns, Jib ʔɛnsi. – Outside Sem: (Berb) Ahg a‑ynəs ‘young man’; Agaw amš‑ən ‘in‑law’. 
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#108: The Sem words (Hbr ʔenōš, Syr (ʔ)naš, Ar ʔins‑, SAr ʔns, Jib ʔɛnsi ) go back to a common ancestor, protSem *ʔin(a)š‑ ‘man’. This having COGNates in Ahg a‑ynəs ‘young man’ (< Berb *ʔin˅s‑ ) and Agaw (amš‑ən ‘in‑law’, < protAgaw *ʔan˅š‑ ), the words could go back to AfrAs *ʔi‑nas‑ ‘man’. The authors suggest, however, that this is in turn derived from AfrAs *nüs‑ ‘man’.
 
… 
… 
ʔinsāniyyaẗ إِنْسانِيّة 
Sw – • NahḍConBP 4054 • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√ʔNS 
n.f. 
▪ …abstr. formation in -iyyaẗ 
ʔNF أنف 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔNF 
“root” 
▪ ʔNF_1 ‘nose’ ↗ʔanf
▪ ʔNF_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘nose; tip; foremost; chief; to begin, to go first; to go by; to disdain, to be angry’ 
▪ ʔNF_1 : (Kogan2015 Sw#61:) from protSem *ʔanp‑ ‘nose’ Preserved in Akk appu, Hbr ʔap, Ar ʔanf, Gz ʔanf and most of modEthSem.
▪ ʔNF_2 : …
▪ ʔNF_3 : …
 
– 
▪ ʔNF_1 : Outside Sem, Borg2021 #15 compares Eg nfj (LE) ‘ausatmen, hauchen’; nf ‘Hauch des Mundes, Wind’; nft ‘breath, wind’; nfyt ‘fan’; nfꜣ ‘blow’; m ‘(out of) nose’ (Wb II 250; Faulkner 1962: 131).
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
ʔanf أَنْف 
ID 046 • Sw 41/106 • BP 3151 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔNF 
n. 
1 nose; 2 spur (of a mountain); 3 pride – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Kogan2015 (Sw#61): from protSem *ʔanp‑ ‘nose’. Preserved in Akk, Hbr, Ar, Gz and most of modEthSem.
▪ Cf. also ↗nuḫraẗ ‘nostril’ (with EgAr manāḫīr ‘nose’, lit. ‘nostrils’, pl. of minḫār).
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘nose’) Akk appu, Hbr ʔap̄, Syr ʔappayyā, Gz ʔaf.
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
 
ʔNY أني 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔNY 
“root” 
▪ ʔNY_1 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ʔNY_2 ‘vessel, container, receptacle’ ↗ʔināʔ
▪ ʔNY_3 ‘…’ ↗

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘divisions of the night; daytime; to become due, (of food) to become ready; proper time; utensils; to be deliberate, to be solemn; to await; to be very hot’ 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ ʔNY_1: Borg2021 #16 (ʔ-n-y): Ar ʔanā ‘rechtzeitig kommen’; taʔannā ‘to act slowly, to procrastinate’ (Wahrmund I 143; Hava 1982: 15) ~ AlepAr tʔanna ‘agir avec lenteur, temporizer, prendre son temps’; stanna ‘attendre’ (qn ou qc)’ (Barthélemy 1935–69: 18) ~ DamAr tʔanna ‘to bide one’s time’; stanna ‘warten auf’ (Grotzfeld 1965: 22, 152) ~ Sinai taná ‘to wait for someone’ (Stewart 1990: 271); tiwanna ‘tarry’ (C. Bailey 1991: 430) ~ OmanAr teénne ‘sich verspäten’ (Reinhardt 1894: 229) ~ Rwala tawanna/tawāna ‘become tired, slacken’ (Musil 1928: 273) ~ PalAr ĭstanna/ ĭttanna ‘warten auf’ (Bauer 1957: 353): battanna fīk ‘ich erwarte dich’ (Schmidt & Kahle 1918 I 270) ~ EgAr ĭtanna/ ĭstaanna/ ĭstanna ‘to wait, expect’ (Spiro 1895: 22) ~ Khābūra twanna ‘to be late (a bedu word)’ (Brockett 1985: 223) ~ Hijaz astanna ‘to wait for’ (Omar 1975: 253) ~ SudAr assanna/ ĭstanna ‘wait for’ (LDA 39) ~ TunAr štənna ‘il a attendu’ (D. Cohen 1975: 132) ~ AlgAr stenna ‘attendre’ (Tapiéro 1971: 151) ~ MorAr tsenna ‘to expect’ (Sobelman & Harrell 1963: 67). – Eg i͗ni͗/i͗n (ME) ‘verweilen, langsam gehen, zögern etwas zu tun’ (Wb I 92; Brockelmann 1932: 101); si͗n ‘to wait, wait for’ (Caminos 1954: 579; DLE II 12).
▪ … 
… 
… 
… 
ʔināʔ إناء , pl. ʔāniyaẗ, ʔawāninin (def. al-ʔawānī
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔNY 
n. 
1 vessel, container, receptacle; 2 plate; 3 dish; 4 pl. al‑ʔawānī, kitchenware, pots and pans – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘vessel’) Akk unūtu, Hbr ŏnī ‘ship’, Syr (mānā), Gz (newā́y).
 
… 
… 
… 
ʔHL أهل 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔHL 
“root” 
▪ ʔHL_1 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ʔHL_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘family, kin: to be populated: to be tamed; to be worthy, to be deserving; to take a wife’ 
▪ … 
– 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
ʔahl أَهْل , pl. ʔahlūn , ʔahāliⁿ (def. al-ʔahālī
ID 047 • Sw – • BP 128 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔHL 
n. 
relatives, folks, ‎family; kin, kinfolk; wife; (with foll. genit.) people, members, followers, adherents, possessors, etc.; ‎inhabitants; deserving, worthy; fit, suited, qualified; eligible, competent; – pl. ʔahlūn members of the ‎family, relatives; (with foll. genit.) adherents, followers, members (of a movement, religion, etc.); – ‎pl. ʔahālin (def. al-ʔahālī) population, inhabitants (of a city, a country); ‏the ‎natives, the native population – WehrCowan1979… – WehrCowan1979. 
“[O]riginally meaning ‘those who occupy with one the same ‎tent (Hebrew ōhel)’, thus ‘family, inmates’. Therefore ahl al-Bayt means literally ‘the ‎household of the Prophet’. When the ahl (pl. ahālī) of a town or a country is spoken of it ‎denotes its inhabitants […]. But this word is often connected with other concepts, and is in these ‎combinations more loosely used, so that it may come to mean ‘sharing in a thing, belonging to it’, ‎or ‘owner of the same’, etc.”.6  
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
See also √ʔHL
– 
 
ʔWD أود 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 8Mar2023
√ʔWD 
“root” 
▪ ʔWD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔWD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔWD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘weight; effort, hardship; to weigh down; crookedness; to wriggle; to be kind’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ʔWR أور 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 24Jan2023
√ʔWR 
“root” 
▪ ʔWR_1 ‘heat, blaze; thirst’ ↗ʔuwār
▪ ʔWR_2 : see also ↗ʔYR

Other values, now obsolete, include (Freytag1830):

ʔWR_3 ‘pudor’: ʔār
ʔWR_4 ‘septentrio, fluxus, motus (nubis)’: ʔawr
ʔWR_5 ‘eurus’: ʔūr
ʔWR_6 ‘durus (de solo etc.)’: ʔawir
ʔWR_7 ‘in efferenda littera rāʔ lingua titubare, ut facere solent balbutientes | difficulté dans la prononciation de la lettre rāʔ, telle que l’éprouvent ceux qui bégaient’: ʔāraẗ
ʔWR_ ‘…’: ʔwr

 
▪ [v1] : From protSem *ʔR ‘être allumé, briller (lumière, feu) | light’ – DRS, Kogan2011 (following Fronzaroli1965).
▪ [v2] : see also ↗ʔYR
[v3] : According to Freytag1830, ʔār stands for ↗ʕār (√ʕYR), with orig. *ʕ > ʔ.
[v4] : ʔawr ‘septentrio, fluxus, motus (nubis)’ may be from Grk a͗ḗr (cf. ↗ʔYR_7)? Or identical with [v5]?
[v5] : ʔūr ‘eurus’ is obviously from Grk Εὖρος Eûros ‘(God of the) (south)east wind’
[v6] : ʔawir ‘durus (de solo etc.)’: = ʔayyir (see ↗ʔayr, section HIST)
[v7] : ʔāraẗ ‘difficulty in pronouncing the letter rāʔ, as experienced by stammerers’: prob. derived from the name of the letter itself, i.e., rāʔ.
▪ …
 
– 
▪ DRS 1 (1994) #ʔWR-13 ‘être allumé, briller (lumière, feu)’: Akk ūr-, urr- ‘(heller) Tag | day, daylight’ (K), Ug a͗r, i͗r ‘light’ (K), Hbr ʔōr, ʔōrā ‘lumière, feu | light’; ʔūr ‘feu’; Ug u͗r ‘chaleur(?) | warmth, heat (K)’; Ar ʔirraẗ ‘fire’ (K), ʔuwār ‘ardeur du feu | heat’; Hbr ʔōr ‘être clair’; Ug a͗r ‘éclairer’; Hbr heʔīr ‘faire briller, allumer’; JudPalAram ʔor ‘briller’; Ar ʔawwara, Soq ʔerir|ɛ́rir (K) ‘allumer’, Te ʔarwä ‘to flame, blaze’, ʔarwaẗ ‘flame’.4 -2 Syr ʔwrʔ ‘coup, soufflet’. ‑3 Ug a͗rt ‘légumes(?)’; Hbr ʔōrā ‘plante, légume’.5 -4 Hbr ʔūrīm ‘oracle suspendu à l’éphod du grand-prêtre’.6 -5 Ar ʔūraẗ ‘mare’. -6 Amh ʔawwärä ‘poussière (soulevée par le vent)’.7 || Outside Sem: see ↗ʕWR.
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ …
 
– 
– 
ʔuwār أُوار 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 24Jan2023
√ʔWR 
n. 
1 heat, blaze; 2 thirst – WehrCowan1976 
▪ From protSem *ʔR ‘être allumé, briller (lumière, feu) | light’ – DRS, Kogan2011 (following Fronzaroli1965).
▪ …
 
▪ …
▪ Cf. also ʔāraẗ ‘caminus | cheminée’ – Freytag1830, BK1860.
▪ …
 
▪ DRS 1 (1994) #ʔWR-18 ‘être allumé, briller (lumière, feu)’: Akk ūr-, urr- ‘(heller) Tag | day, daylight’ (K), Ug a͗r, i͗r ‘light’ (K), Hbr ʔōr, ʔōrā ‘lumière, feu | light’; ʔūr ‘feu’; Ug u͗r ‘chaleur(?) | warmth, heat (K)’; Ar ʔirraẗ ‘fire’ (K), ʔuwār ‘ardeur du feu | heat’; Hbr ʔōr ‘être clair’; Ug a͗r ‘éclairer’; Hbr heʔīr ‘faire briller, allumer’; JudPalAram ʔor ‘briller’; Ar ʔawwara, Soq ʔerir|ɛ́rir (K) ‘allumer’, Te ʔarwä ‘to flame, blaze’, ʔarwaẗ ‘flame’.9 -2-6 […].
▪ …
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ …
 
– 
For older (now obsolete) values attached to the root, see root entry ↗√ʔWR. 
ʔWL أول 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔWL 
“root” 
▪ ʔWL_1 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ʔWL_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘returning, resorting to, reverting to; a place of return; to be reduced to; to hail from; to precede, to go first; to process, to deduce, to infer’ 
▪ From CSem *√ʔWL ‘front, first’ – Huehnergard2011. 
– 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
taʔwīl تأْويل 
ID 048 • Sw – • BP??? • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔWL 
n. 
interpretation, explanation – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
 
ʔW/YN أون 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 8Mar2023
√ʔW/YN 
“root” 
▪ ʔW/YN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔW/YN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔW/YN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘time, to fall due, fatigue’ 
▪ [gnrl] : Philologists classify under this vague root some function words more on the basis of phonetic, rather than semantic, affinity – BAH2008.
 
– 
– 
– 
ʔWH أوه 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 8Mar2023
√ʔWH 
“root” 
▪ ʔWH_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔWH_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔWH_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘measles; pain, sadness; to moan, to sigh’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ʔWY 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔWY 
“root” 
▪ ʔWY_1 ‘sign, token, mark’ ↗ʔāyaẗ
▪ ʔWY_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): (ʔ-w-y) ‘shelter, refuge, abode, to repair to a place of refuge, to accommodate, to shelter, to show kindness’
▪ BAH2008: (ʔ-y-y) ‘marker, sign, token, indicator, to mark; to pause, to tarry; to ponder, to assure o.s.; a person’s body; glory; light of the sun; beauty of flowers’ 
▪ … 
– 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl aya, ayatollah, from Ar ↗ʔāyaẗ ‘sign’. 
– 
ʔāyaẗ آيَة 
ID 049 • Sw – • BP 1436 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔWY 
n.f. 
1 sign, token, mark; 2 miracle; wonder, marvel, prodigy; 3 model, exemplar, paragon, masterpiece ( of, e.g., of organization, etc.); 4 Koranic verse, ʔāy al-ḏikr) the verses of the Koran; 5 passage (in a book), utterance, saying, word; 6 pl. ʔāyāt… (with foll. genit.) most solemn assurances (of love, of gratitude) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ From protSem *ʔāyat‑ ‘sign, mark (*‑at‑ ‘feminine suffix)’ – Huehnergard2011. 
Of very frequent occurrence in the Q, e.g., 2:39, 3:4, 36:33 ‘sign’. 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ Jeffery1938: »Later it [sc. ʔāyaẗ] comes to mean a verse of the Qurʔān, and then a verse of a book, but it is doubtful whether it ever means anything more than ‘sign’ in the Qurʔān, though as Muḥammad comes to refer to his preaching as a sign, the word tends to the later meaning, as e.g. in iii, 5, etc. It is noteworthy that in spite of the frequency of its occurrence in the Qurʔān it occurs very seldom in the early Meccan passages.47 / The struggles of the early Muslim philologers to explain the word are interestingly set forth in LA, xviii, 66 ff. The word has no root in Ar, and is obviously, as von Kremer noted,48 a borrowing from Syr or Aram. The Hbr ʔôt (cf. Phoen ʔt), from a verb ʔāwāʰ ‘to sign or mark’, was used quite generally, for signs of the weather (Gen. i: 14; ix: 12), for a military ensign (Numb, ii: 2), for a memorial sign (Josh, iv: 6), and also in a technical religious sense both for the miracles which attest the Divine presence (Ex. viii: 19; Deut. iv: 34; Ps. lxxviii: 43), and for the signs or omens which accompany and testify to the work of the Prophets (1 Sam. x: 7, 9; Ex. iii: 12). / In the Rabbinic writings ʔôt is similarly used, though it there acquires the meaning of a letter of the alphabet, which meaning, indeed, is the only one the Lexicons know for the Aram ʔtʔ.49 / While it is not impossible that the Arabs may have got the word from the Jews, it is more probable that it came to them from the Syr-speaking Christians.50 The Syr ʔātā, while being used precisely as the Hbr ʔôt, and translating sēmeîon both in the LXX and N.T., is also used in the sense of argumentum, documentum (PSm, 413), and thus approaches even more closely than ʔôt the Qurʔānic use of the word. / The word occurs in the old poetry, e.g. in Imruʔ al-Qais, lxv, 1 (Ahlwardt, Divans, 160), and so was in use before the time of Muḥammad.«
▪ … 
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl aya, ayatollah, from Ar ʔāyaẗ ‘sign’. 
 
ʔYD أيد 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 8Mar2023
√ʔYD 
“root” 
▪ ʔYD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔYD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔYD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘fortification, stronghold, refuge; to bolster, fortify; power, toughness’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ʔYR أير 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 24Jan2023
√ʔYR 
“root” 
▪ ʔYR_1 ‘penis’ ↗ʔayr
▪ ʔYR_2 ‘May’ ↗ʔayyārᵘ
▪ ʔYR_3 : see also ↗ʔWR

Other values, now obsolete, include (Freytag1830, Dozy1881, Wahrmund1886, Hava1899):

ʔYR_4 ‘cotton’: ʔīr (Wahrm.)
ʔYR_5 ‘eireh/eyré, blouse worn by waiters, grooms, housemaids etc. in Egypt’: ʔayraẗ (Dozy)
ʔYR_6 ‘air’: ʔiyār
ʔYR_7 ʔayr, var. ʔīr ‘north wind, east wind, hot wind’ (Wahrm.; Hava)
ʔYR_8 ‘aes, orichalcum | brass’: ʔayār (Freytag, Wahrm.)
ʔYR_ ‘…’: ʔyr
 
▪ [v1] : Although ʔayr looks like an old word for ‘penis’, it has no direct cognates in Sem. Given that Akk ayaru (āru) ‘young man’ may be a loan (with *ʕ > ʔ) from WSem (so von Soden, AHW 25; cf. Ar ↗ʕayyār ‘vagabond, vagrant’, from ↗ʕāra ‘to wander, stray, rove’, Hbr ʕYR ‘to go away, go hither and thither, etc.’), a similar relation to the same ʕayyār is not inconceivable (considered also by the authors of DRS), especially so since the ʕayyārūn, who were »paramilitary chivalric bands that constituted an important element in premodern Islamic society, primarily in the pre-Mongol Middle East (the Mashriq) and the eastern Iranian lands«,7 were always associated with masculinity. – ? Cf. also ʔār ‘shame’ (for ʕār ‘id.’), see ↗ʔWR_3 ?
▪ [v2] : The Levantine word for ‘May’, ʔayyār, is possibly a borrowing into WSem from Akk ayyaru where it (according to von Soden, AHW) may have meant the ‘month of the flowers’ (cf. below, section COGN, DRS items #5 and #6). – Any relation to the notion of ‘light, heat, fire’ (↗ʔWR, esp. Ar ↗ʔuwār)?
▪ [v3] : See ↗ʔWR
[v4] : ʔīr ‘cotton’ is found only in Wahrmund; of obscure provenance (if a valid attestation at all), perh. related to the ‘blouse’ of [v5]?
[v5] : Is the word eireh/eyré (Dozy: ʔayraẗ), attested as the term used for a blouse worn by waiters, grooms, housemaids etc. in Egypt, related to [v4] ʔīr ‘cotton’ (recorded only by Wahrmund)?
[v6] : ʔiyār ‘aura, aër | air’ seems to be borrowed from Grk ἀήρ a͗ḗr ‘air, atmosphere’.
[v7] : Hava1899 suggests that ʔayr ~ ʔīr for ‘north wind, east wind, hot wind’ is a variant of ↗hayr (also hīr, hayyir) ‘id.’. But the reverse may be the case, and both may go back to the same etymon as [v6], namely Grk a͗ḗr. – Cf., however, Freytag1830 where ‘eurus’ also corresponds to Ar ʔayūr ~ ʔawūr, forms that are less likely to be from Grk a͗ḗr but rather from Εὖρος Eûros ‘(God of the) (south)east wind’.
[v8] : of obscure origin (if valid at all).
▪ …
 
– 
DRS 1 (1994) ʔYR-1 Ar ʔayr ‘penis, verge’. -2 Akk ayyar‑ (et āru?) ‘jeune homme’. -3 Ar ʔīr ‘parcelles, brins’. -4 Syr ʔīrā ‘pot, marmite’. -5 Akk ayyar-, iyar- ‘fleur, rosette’, ayyart- ‘corail blanc’. -6 *ʔayyar-: nom de mois (environ ‘mai’) : Akk ayyar-, JudPalAram ʔiyyār, Nab ʔyr, Mnd ayar, Ar ʔayyārᵘ.
▪ …
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ …
 
– 
– 
ʔayr أَيْر , pl. ʔuyūr 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 24Jan2023
√ʔYR 
n. 
penis – WehrCowan1976 
▪ Although ʔayr looks like an old word for ‘penis’, it has no direct cognates in Sem. Given that Akk ayaru (āru) ‘young man’ may be a loan (with *ʕ > ʔ) from WSem (so von Soden, AHW 25; cf. Ar ↗ʕayyār ‘vagabond, vagrant’, from ↗ʕāra ‘to wander, stray, rove’, Hbr ʕYR ‘to go away, go hither and thither, etc.’), a similar relation to the same ʕayyār is not inconceivable (considered also by the authors of DRS), especially so since the ʕayyārūn, who were »paramilitary chivalric bands that constituted an important element in premodern Islamic society, primarily in the pre-Mongol Middle East (the Mashriq) and the eastern Iranian lands«,8 were always associated with masculinity. – ? Cf. also ʔār ‘shame’ (for ʕār ‘id.’), see ↗ʔWR_3 ?
▪ …
 
ʔayr: pl. (pauc.) ʔāyur, ʔāyār, (mult.) ʔuyūr, ʔuyur; cf. also the expr. kāna ʔayru-hū ṭawīlan ‘he had many male children’
▪ Cf. also (BK1860, Lane i 1863, Wahrmund1886): ʔāra (i, ʔayr), rarely also ʔāra (u, ʔawr, hence grouped in some dictionaries s.r. ʔWR), vb. I, ‘forcer une femme et cohabiter avec elle | inivit eam; he compressed her’; ʔāʔir (PA I) ‘iniens’, maʔīr (PP I) ‘penetrated’, miʔyar, maʔīr, muʔayyir ‘qui multum coit’; ʔayyara (II) ‘cohabiter fréquemment avec une femme’, ʔuyārī ‘having a large membrum virile, or penis (like ʔunāfī ‘having a large nose’); ʔayyir ‘dur, très-dur (se dit d’une pierre, etc.)’
▪ …
 
DRS 1 (1994) ʔYR-1 Ar ʔayr ‘penis, verge’. -2 Akk ayyar‑ (et āru?) ‘jeune homme’. -3-6 […].
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
– 
For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔayyārᵘ as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ʔYR. 
ʔayyārᵘ أَيّار 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 24Jan2023
√ʔYR 
n. 
May (Syr Leb Irq Jord) – WehrCowan1976 
▪ The LevIrq word for ‘May’, ʔayyārᵘ, is possibly a borrowing into WSem from Akk ayyaru where it (according to von Soden, AHW) may have meant ‘month of the flowers’ (cf. below, section COGN, DRS items #5 and #6). – Any relation to the notion of ‘light, heat, fire’ (↗ʔWR, esp. Ar ↗ʔuwār)?
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
DRS 1 (1994) ʔYR-1-4 […]. -5 Akk ayyar-, iyar- ‘fleur, rosette’, ayyart- ‘corail blanc’. -6 *ʔayyar-: nom de mois (environ ‘mai’) : Akk ayyar-, JudPalAram ʔiyyār, Nab ʔyr, Mnd ayar, Ar ʔayyārᵘ.
▪ …
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ …
 
– 
For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔayr as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ʔYR. 
ʔīqūnaẗ إيقونة , var. ʔayqūnaẗ , ʔīqūniyaẗ, pl. ‑āt 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔYQN, ʔYQWN, YQN 
n.f. 
icon (Chr.) – WehrCowan1979. 
< Grk eikṓn
– 
DRS 10 (2012)#YQN: Ar ʔayqūna ‘image, tableau, icône, médaille’, JP yəqōnā, Syr yūqnā ‘image, livre; forme verbale’, yaqēn ‘représenter, former, décrire’.
▪ Cf. also ↗YQN. 
Treated separately from ‘certainty, certitude, conviction’ (↗yaqīn) in DRS
– 
– 
ʔYL أيل 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔYL 
“root” 
▪ ʔYL_1 ‘stag’ ↗ʔayyil (var. ʔiyyal, ʔuyyal)
▪ ʔYL_2 ‘province, regency’ ↗ʔiyālaẗ (ʔWL)
▪ ʔYL_3 ‘September (Syr., Leb., Ir., Jord.)’ ↗ʔaylūl
▪ ʔYL_4 ‘title deed (jur.)’ ↗ʔaylūlaẗ
 
▪ … 
– 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
ʔayyil أيِّل , var. ʔiyyal , ʔuyyal , pl. ʔayāʔilᵘ 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔYL, ʔWL2  
n. 
stag – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *ʔayyal‑ ‘fallow deer’.
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ Bergsträsser1928, Klein1987: Akk ayalu, Ug ʔyl, Phn ʔyl, Hbr ʔayyāl, Aram Syr ʔaylā, Gz hayāl, hayyal ‘stag’.
▪ … 
Lipiński1997#30.10 thinks the word can be segmented into root plus ‎AfrAs “postpositive determinant” *‑l or *‑r “for domestic or tamed animals”, cf. also ʔimmar‑ ‘ram, lamb’, baqar‑ ‘cattle’, ṯawr‑ ‘ox’, ǧamal ‘camel’, ḥimār‑ ‘donkey’, ḫinzīr ‘swine, pig’, ʕiǧl ‘calf’, ʕayr‑ ‘ass-fowl’, karr‑ ‘lamb’, naml ‘ant’. 
– 
… 
ʔiyālaẗ إِيالة 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔYL, ʔWL, ? WLY 
n.f. 
province, regency (ʔWL) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
… 
▪ Tu eyalet, which obviously is the same as Ar ʔiyālaẗ, is interpreted by NişanyanSözlük as (a corruption, with metathesis, of?) vn. IV √WLY < vb. I ↗waliya ‘to become governor (veli, Ar ↗wālin, det. wālī), be entrusted with’. However, vn. IV √WLY should be ʔīlāʔ !
 
ʔYLL أيلل 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔYLL 
“root” 
▪ ʔYLL_1 ‘September (Syr., Leb., Ir., Jord.)’ ↗ʔaylūl
▪ ʔYLL_2 ‘title deed (jur.)’ ↗ʔaylūlaẗ
 
▪ … 
– 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
ʔaylūlᵘ أيْلولُ 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔYL, ʔYLL, ḤLː (ḤLL) 
n.prop. 
September (Syr., Leb., Ir., Jord.) – WehrCowan1979. 
The word which today can be considered part of the MSA vocabulary, is originally a word from the SyrAr dialect that entered the Language via Aram ʔelūlā, lHbr ʔälûl, and ultimately goes back to Akk elūlu, name of a month (Nişanyan2011: ‘harvest season’).
This latter is probably connected to the vb. Akk elēlu (< *ḥalālum) ‘to be(come) clean, pure, holy’ which belongs to the Sem root *ḤLL, cf. Ar ↗ḤLː (ḤLL), ↗ḥalla (ḥall), ↗ḥalla (ḥill), ↗ḥalla (ḥull). 
▪ … 
▪ Zimmern1914: Aram ʔelūlā, lHbr ʔälûl, Akk elūlu.
▪ Cf. probably also ↗ḤLː (ḤLL), ↗ḥalla (ḥall), ↗ḥalla (ḥill), ↗ḥalla (ḥull). 
▪ Zimmern1914: from SyrAr ʔaylūl, from Aram ʔelūlā, lHbr ʔälûl, from Akk elūlu, name of a month (Nişanyan2011: ‘harvest season’).
▪ Huehnergard2011: Akk elūlu is probably connected to the vb. Akk elēlu (< *ḥalālum) ‘to be(come) clean, pure, holy’ which belongs to the Sem root *ḤLL. 
– 
– 
ʔaylūlaẗ أيْلولة 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ʔYL, ʔYLL, ʔWL 
n.f. 
title deed (jur.) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
… 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
ʔYM أيم 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 8Mar2023
√ʔYM 
“root” 
▪ ʔYM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔYM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔYM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘defect, shortcoming; to be without spouse, lose one’s spouse, widow, widower’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
bāʔ باء 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ 
R₁ 
The letter b of the Arabic alphabet. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ The name of the second letter of the Ar alphabet, bāʔ seems to be a short “calling name” for what in other langs has been preserved, e.g., Engl beta and alphabet, from Grk bēta, second letter of the Grk alphabet, from Phoen *bēt ‘house; second letter of the Phoen alphabet’, akin to Ar ↗bayt
 
BʔR 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BʔR 
“root” 
▪ BʔR_1 ‘well, spring’ ↗biʔr
▪ BʔR_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
▪ … 
– 
DRS 2 (1994) #BʔR- 1 protSem *bi/uʔr- ‘puits, citerne’: Akk būr-, būrt-, Pun bɛʔr (pl. bhrm ?), Moab br, Hbr bᵊʔēr, bōr, oAram byrʔ, EmpAram bʔr, Nab bʔrwt (pl.), JP bī[ʔ]rā, bᵊʔērā, bērā, Syr be[ʔ]rā, Mnd bira, abira, nSyr birä, Ar biʔr, buʔraẗ, EpigSAr bʔr, Soq ʕébehor ‘puits’; Gz barbir, oHar buʔurya, TalmAram bōrā, nSyr bāra ‘fossé’; Ar biʔraẗ, buʔraẗ, baʔīraẗ ‘trésor, dépôt’; SAr brt ‘tombe’; Har buʔur, bur ‘profond’; ? Akk bērūt-, bīrūt‑ ‘souterrain’. -2 Akk bāru ‘paraître sûr, prouvé’; Hbr bēʔēr, JP bᵊʔar, bāʔēr ‘expliquer, rendre clair’. -3 Akk būr- ‘jeune taureau’, būrt-, būšt- ‘vache’; Ug bʔur (?) ‘jeune taureau’(?). -4 Akk baʔāru, bāru ‘saisir, prendre (au filet, etc.)’; Mhr Śḥr (réfléchi) biter, Soq bɛr ‘pêcher’. -5 Akk bāru ‘se soulever, provoquer une révolte’. -6 DaṯAr baʔar ‘roter’. –
▪ Outside Sem, Borg2021 #22 (b-ʔ-r) compares Ar biʔr ‘well’ to Eg bjꜣw (OK) ‘Grube, Bergwerk, Steinbruch / mining region, mine’ (Wb I 438; Faulkner 1962: 80; Ember 1913: 112; Calice 1936: 60), ~ biʔru, pl biʔrōtu (nominal component in toponym) ‘well’ (Hoch 1994: 91)
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Beersheba, from Hbr bᵊʔēr šebaʕ ‘well of oath’, from bᵊʔēr ‘well’ (šebaʕ ‘oath’; see Ar ↗SBʕ). – Beirut, from Ar bayrūt, from Phoen *biʔrōt, pl. of *biʔr ‘well’. 
– 
biʔr بِئْر , pl.‎ ʔābār , biʔār 
ID 050 • Sw – • BP 3230 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BʔR 
n.f. 
well, spring; water pit – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *biʔr‑ / *buʔr(‑at)‑ ‘(artificially constructed) well’.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994: from AfrAs *‎‎baʔ˅r‑ / *buʔ˅r‑ ‘well, pitʼ, perh. from ‎AfrAs *buʔar‑ ‘to dig’.
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ Bergsträsser1928: Akk būru, Hbr bōr bʔēr, Aram ‎‎bērā, SAr bʔr ‘well, cistern’.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#164: Akk ‎‎būr‑ , Phn bʔr, Moab br, Hbr bōr, Ar buʔr-aẗ‑ , SAr bʔr, Gur bʷər. Outside Sem: Som boor (< LEC *boH˅r) ‘pit’. 
▪ Kogan2011: »a double reconstruction *biʔr‑ / *buʔr(-at)‑ has been proposed in Fronzaroli 1971: 611, 632, 640. The i -form with the meaning ‘well’ is known from Hbr bəʔēr, Syr bērā, Ar biʔr, Mhr bayr (HALOT 106, LSyr 56, Lane 145, ML 40), but not from Akk (bēru ‘well’ mentioned in AHw 122 has been differently interpreted in CAD B 266 and AHw 1548). The u -forms with the meaning ‘well’ are best represented by Akk būru, būrtu (AHw 141), perhaps with an early precedent in VE 520 (bu-rúm = Sum šu.a, Conti 1990: 146). Akk būru, būrtu also denote ‘hole, pit’ in general (CAD B 335, 342), and the same is true of Muh bʷər, Gog Zwy bur (EDG 150). Hbr bōr (several times spelled with ʔ) denotes ‘cistern, pit, grave’ but probably not ‘well’ (Rendsburg 2002: 205), whereas Ar buʔraẗ is applied specifically to a ‘(cooking) pit’ (Lane 145). The vocalic shape of Sab Min Qat bʔr ‘well’ (SD 25, LM 19, LIQ 22) is unknown. The general picture is complicated by a few forms with unexpected loss of ʔ : Sab brt ‘grave’ (SD 33), Gz barbir ‘cistern, well, pit’ (CDG 102, LLA 503), Soq ʕébehor ‘wells’ (LS 295).«
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#164: From the evidence in Sem, the authors reconstruct Sem *buʔr‑ ʻpit, well, holeʼ. The fact that these seem to have a ‎cognate in Som boor (LEC *boH˅r) ‘pit’, is reason enough for the authors to postulate AfrAs *‎‎baʔ˅r‑ / *buʔ˅r‑ ʻwell, pitʼ as the ultimate origin, adding that the noun is related to #319 ‎AfrAs *buʔar‑ ‘dig’. Ar baʔar a is the only language for which the verb is attested in ‎Sem; having cognates in WCh *buHar‑ (yabori, ḅur, ḅor, ḅuur) ‘dig’ and LEC *boH˅r‑ ‎‎(Som boor‑, Or bor‑) ‘dig’, the AfrAs origin seems quite likely, and therefore it is plausible to ‎assume also a Sem verb *b˅ʔar‑ ‘to dig (a well)’. – Cf. also the nouns a-βar ‘ditch’ and bur-‎bur ‘underground irrigation channel’ in two Berb languages (< Berb *bar‑), as well as bare ‘ditch’ ‎in a HEC idiom (< HEC *bar‑). These are assumed to originate in #218 AfrAs *bar‑ ‘ditch’. ‎‎- There is, however, also #276 *biʔir‑ ‘pit, well; dig’ > Sem *biʔr‑ ‘balk'¹, ‘well'²: ‎Akk bīru ¹², Hbr beʔēr, oAram byrʔ ², EmpAram bʔr ², (Palest) beʔērē, Ar ‎‎biʔr‑ ²; these would have cognates in ECh *biʔir‑ ‘dig’ and LEC *biHir‑ ‘bore, drill’. [It looks as ‎if the authors overlooked this connection in their lists. Their data therefore lack inner coherence.] ‎‎ 
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Beersheba, from Hbr bᵊʔēr šebaʕ ‘well of oath’, from bᵊʔēr ‘well’ (šebaʕ ‘oath’; see Ar ↗SBʕ). – Beirut, from Ar bayrūt, from Phoen *biʔrōt, pl. of *biʔr ‘well’. 
baʔara, a, vb. I, to dig a well: denom.
buʔraẗ, n.f., pl. ‏‎buʔar, center, seat (fig.); ‎focus (phys., opt.); site; pit; abyss
buʔarī, adj., ‏focal (phys., opt.): nsb-adj of buʔar. | ‏‎al-buʕd al-b., n., focal ‎length (phys., opt.
BāRūD بارود 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Oct2022
√BāRūD, BRD 
“root” 
▪ BāRūD_1 ‘saltpeter; gunpodwer’ ↗bārūd
 
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
– 
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
– 
bārūd بارود 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Oct2022
√BāRūD, BRD 
n. 
1 saltpeter; 2 gunpodwer – WehrCowan1976 
▪ Rolland2014a: altération probable du nGrk purítida, même sens, dont le synonyme baroúti semble être un réemprunt via le turc barut. On peut s’interroger sur une influence éventuelle de la famille Grk de báros ‘poids, charge’, avec ung lissement sémantique de ‘charge (de poudre)’ à ‘poudre’.
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
DRS 2 (1994) #BRD-1-4 […]. -5 Syr bʔrwd ‘nitre’, nSyr bārūd, bārūt ‘poudre à fusil, salpêtre’; Ar bārūd ‘salpêtre, nitre’; collAr ‘poudre à fusil’; Soq barūd, Mhr bārûd ‘poudre à fusil’. -6-10 […].
▪ … 
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
bārūdaẗ, pl. bawāridᵘ, n.f., rifle, carbine 
BāZ باز 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Oct2022
√BāZ (BʔZ, BWZ, BYZ) 
“root” 
▪ BāZ_1 ‘falcon’ ↗bāz
 
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▪ …
 
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
– 
– 
bāz باز , pl. ʔabwāz, bīzān 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Oct2022
√BāZ, BʔZ, BWZ, BYZ 
n. 
falcon – WehrCowan1976 
▪ Rolland2014a: from the same Phlv etymon as also Pers bāz ‘id.’, related to Av vaza ‘id.’. Probably also related to bāšaq. Deriv: bayzār ‘fauconnier’, from Pers bāz-dār ‘id.’.
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
– 
For other values attached to the root √BWZ, cf. ↗¹būz, ↗¹būzaẗ, and ↗²būzaẗ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√BWZ.
 
BʔS بآس 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BʔS 
“root” 
▪ BʔS_1 ‘to be strong, brave’ ↗baʔs
▪ BʔS_2 ‘to be miserable, wretched’ ↗buʔs
▪ BʔS_3 ‘…’ ↗

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘might, power; torture, hardship, fear; poverty, sorrow; to be sad; calamity, punishment’ 
▪ A relation betw. the BʔS_1 and BʔS_2 seems rather unlikely. While BʔS_2 is well attested throughout Sem (and beyond), BʔS_1 has hardly any cognates (unless the Gz Te words for ‘man’ are related).
▪ BʔS_1 : Although some suggestions have been made, the etymology of this semantic complex still remains rather unclear. Orel&Stolbova1994#163 reconstruct (from only Ar baʔusa) protSem *b˅ʔuš‑ ʻto be strongʼ, and (from only 1 ECh evidence) protECh *basuʔ‑ ‘to be strong’ and posit a hypothetical AfrAs *baʔus‑ ʻto be strongʼ. Similarly Militarev&Stolbova2007 #893: protSem *bVʔuš‑, protECh *basuH‑ ‘to be strong’, protLEC *buHus‑ ‘to fill up’ / *bis‑ ‘all’, all from AfrAs *baʔus‑ ‘to be strong’. – For Sem, the Ar evidence perh. should be supplemented by Gz bəʔsa ‘to grow, grow mature, be strong, be swift’, though this may be denom. from Gz bəʔəsi ‘man, male, husband, person, someone’. Also, it may be worth considering the obsolete Ar bāsa, yabīsu ‘to raise o.’s self above (people) and oppress them’ (Hava1899) as a development from an earlier *baʔasa, ip. *yabʔisu.
▪ BʔS_2 : In contrast, BʔS_2 is well attested all over Sem and also seems to have rather reliable cognates outside Sem, so that the reconstruction on an AfrAs ancestor is quite strong. Orel&Stolbova1994#160: reconstruct protSem *b˅ʔaš‑ ʻto be rotten; be poor’, protWCh *baʔas‑ ‘stink’ (n.), ‘bad’, protAg *bas‑, protLEC *baʔas‑ ‘spoiled, rotten’, and protHEC *buš‑ ‘bad’, all from AfrAs *baʔas‑ ʻto be rotten, be badʼ. Very similarly also Militarev&Stolbova2007: protSem *b˅ʔaš‑ ‘to be rotten; to be poor’, protWCh *baʔas‑ / *baHas‑ ‘stink (n.); bad’, protCCh *bas‑ / *b˅s‑ ‘anger, angry; angrily refuse to do s.th.’, protCCu (Ag) *bas‑ ‘to be bad’, protLEC *baʔas‑ ‘spoiled, rotten’, protHEC *buš‑ ‘bad’, all from AfrAs *baʔas‑ ‘to be rotten, be bad’.
▪ … 
▪ … 
BʔS_1
▪ Leslau CDG 2006: Ar baʔusa ‘to be strong, intrepid’, Gz bəʔsa ‘to grow, grow mature, be strong, be swift’ (denom. from bəʔəsi ‘man, male, husband, person, someone’), Te bəʔəs ‘husband’.
▪ DRS 2 (1994) thinks (s.v. #BʔŠ) that the obsolete Ar bāsa, ip. yabīsu ‘être hautain et injuste’ (Hava1899: ‘to raise o.’s self above people and oppress them’) is likely (»probablement«) to have developed from an earlier *baʔasa, ip. *yabʔisu.
▪ Should one also consider some of the values given (and cross-referenced with #BʔŠ) in DRS 2 (1994) #BHŚ/Š?: -1 Ar bahs ‘audace, hardiesse’, bahš ‘impétuosité’, bahaša ‘s’élancer’; -2 Ar (mérid.) bahaš ‘prendre avec une seule main’; -3 Ar bahs, bahš ‘cœur (du palmier nain)’; -4 bahaša (ʕan) ‘scruter, chercher, fureter’.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#163: Outside Sem: (ECh) Gabri basua ‘to be strong’.
▪ Militarev&Stolbova2007 #893: Ar bʔs [u] ‘to be strong’. – Outside Sem: (ECh) Gabri basua ‘to be strong’; (LEC) Or buusa ‘to fill up’, Konso pisá ‘all’.

BʔS_2
▪ Bergsträsser1928: biʔsa (defekt. Verb; 2) Akk ibʔiš (1), Hbr bʔš a,a (1), Aram beš neḇaš (2), Gz bʔs ‑,a (2) ‘1. malodorous; 2. to be bad’.
▪ DRS 2 (1994) #BʔŠ: ‘sentir mauvais, avoir mauvais goût ; être mauvais’: Akk baʔāšu ‘être mauvais, puant’, bīš-, biʔš- ‘puant’ ; Ug bʔš? ‘être mauvais’?; Hbr bāʔaš ‘puer’, bᵊʔōš ‘puanteur’; EmpAram bʔyš, Palm byšā, JudPal bᵊʔēš ‘vilain’, Syr beʔš ‘être mauvais’; nSyr bīšā ‘mauvais’; Mnd biš ‘devenir mauvais’; Ar baʔisa ‘être malheureux, détestable, vilain’; epigrSAr bʔš ‘être mauvais, hostile’ ; Gz bəʔsa ‘être âpre, amer, mauvais, nuisible’ ; Te bəʔsä ‘être en colère’; Tña bäʔasä, Amh basä ‘être mauvais’, bäš alä ‘avoir mal’; bʷašäšä ‘dépérir’, bäššəta ‘maladie, peste’, bis ‘mauvais’ ; Hbr bāʔšāʰ ‘mauvaise herbe’, bᵊʔušīm (pl.) ‘baies sauvages aigres’ ; nHbr bᵊʔušā, JudPal bᵊʔūšā (pl. bᵊʔūšīn) ‘vigne sauvage’. ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994 160: (Sem) Hbr bʔš ʻbe rotten’. – Outside Sem: (WCh) Hs bāšī ‘stink’, others ḅāsā, basa‑n, baši‑n ‘bad’; (CCu) Agaw bas‑ən ‘be bad’, (LEC) Som baas ‘spoiled, rotten’, (HEC) Sid buša ‘bad’.
▪ Militarev&Stolbova2007: (WCh) Hs bā́šī́ ‘stink’, Diri ḅāsā ‘bad’; (CCh) Daba bàs, Gude busǝ ‘to angrily refuse to do s.th., to speak’; (CCu Agaw) Awiya (Aungi) bas‑ǝn ‘to be bad’; (LEC) Som baas, Or busaaʷa ‘spoiled, rotten’; (HEC) Sid buša ‘bad’
 
See above, section CONC. 
… 
… 
baʔs بَأْس 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BʔS 
n. 
1a strength, fortitude, courage, intrepidity (as vn. of baʔusa); 1b power, might; 2 harm, injury, impairment, detriment, wrong – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ A relation to the complex treated s.v. ↗buʔs ‘misery, wretchedness, suffering, distress’ seems rather unlikely. While the latter is well attested throughout Sem (and beyond), the former has hardly any cognates (unless the Gz Te words for ‘man’ are related).
▪ Although some suggestions have been made, the etymology of this semantic complex of baʔs etc. still remains rather unclear. Orel&Stolbova1994#163 reconstruct (from only Ar baʔusa) protSem *b˅ʔuš‑ ʻto be strongʼ and (from only 1 ECh evidence) protECh *basuʔ‑ ‘to be strong’ and posit a hypothetical AfrAs *baʔus‑ ʻto be strongʼ. Similarly Militarev&Stolbova2007 #893: protSem *bVʔuš‑, protECh *basuH‑ ‘to be strong’, protLEC *buHus‑ ‘to fill up’ / *bis‑ ‘all’, all from AfrAs *baʔus‑ ‘to be strong’. – For Sem, the Ar evidence should perh. (or even prob.?) be supplemented by Gz bəʔsa ‘to grow, grow mature, be strong, be swift’, though this may be denom. from Gz bəʔəsi ‘man, male, husband, person, someone’.
▪ Also, it may be worth considering the obsolete Ar bāsa, yabīsu ‘to raise o.’s self above (people) and oppress them’ (Hava1899) as a development from an earlier *baʔasa, ip. *yabʔisu (as considered in a note in DRS 2) .
 
▪ … 
▪ Leslau CDG 2006: Ar baʔusa ‘to be strong, intrepid’, Gz bəʔsa ‘to grow, grow mature, be strong, be swift’ (denom. from bəʔəsi ‘man, male, husband, person, someone’), Te bəʔəs ‘husband’.
▪ DRS 2 (1994) thinks (s.v. #BʔŠ) that the obsolete Ar bāsa, ip. yabīsu ‘être hautain et injuste’ (Hava1899: ‘to raise o.’s self above people and oppress them’) is likely (»probablement«) to have developed from an earlier *baʔasa, ip. *yabʔisu.
▪ Should one also consider some of the values given (and cross-referenced with #BʔŠ) in DRS 2 (1994) #BHŚ/Š?: -1 Ar bahs ‘audace, hardiesse’, bahš ‘impétuosité’, bahaša ‘s’élancer’; -2 Ar (mérid.) bahaš ‘prendre avec une seule main’; -3 Ar bahs, bahš ‘cœur (du palmier nain)’; -4 bahaša (ʕan) ‘scruter, chercher, fureter’.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#163: Outside Sem: (ECh) Gabri basua ‘to be strong’.
▪ Militarev&Stolbova2007 #893: Ar bʔs [u] ‘to be strong’. – Outside Sem: (ECh) Gabri basua ‘to be strong’; (LEC) Or buusa ‘to fill up’, Konso pisá ‘all’.
 
See above, section CONC. 
… 
BP#1795lā baʔsᵃ, expr., nothing bad at all!

baʔusa, u (baʔs), vb. I, to be strong, brave, intrepid: denom.?
 
buʔs بُؤْس 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BʔS 
n. 
misery, wretchedness, suffering, distress – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ A relation to the complex treated s.v. ↗baʔs ‘strength, fortitude, courage, intrepidity’ seems rather unlikely. While the former is well attested throughout Sem (and beyond), the latter has hardly any cognates.
baʔs etc. is well attested all over Sem and also seems to have rather reliable cognates outside Sem, so that the reconstruction of an AfrAs ancestor is quite well-based. The original value seems to have been ‘stink, bad odour (of rotten things)’, hence ‘rotten, wretched, bad’.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#160: reconstruct protSem *b˅ʔaš‑ ʻto be rotten; be poor’, protWCh *baʔas‑ ‘stink’ (n.), ‘bad’, protAg *bas‑, protLEC *baʔas‑ ‘spoiled, rotten’, and protHEC *buš‑ ‘bad’, all from AfrAs *baʔas‑ ʻto be rotten, be badʼ. Very similarly also Militarev&Stolbova2007: protSem *b˅ʔaš‑ ‘to be rotten; to be poor’, protWCh *baʔas‑ / *baHas‑ ‘stink (n.); bad’, protCCh *bas‑ / *b˅s‑ ‘anger, angry; angrily refuse to do s.th.’, protCCu (Ag) *bas‑ ‘to be bad’, protLEC *baʔas‑ ‘spoiled, rotten’, protHEC *buš‑ ‘bad’, all from AfrAs *baʔas‑ ‘to be rotten, be bad’. 
▪ … 
▪ Bergsträsser1928: (‘¹malodorous; ²to be bad’) ²Ar biʔsa (defect. vb.), ¹Akk ibʔiš, ¹Hbr bʔš a (a), ²Syr beš (ipfv neḇaš), ²Gz bʔs (a).
▪ DRS 2 (1994) #BʔŠ: ‘sentir mauvais, avoir mauvais goût ; être mauvais’: Akk baʔāšu ‘être mauvais, puant’, bīš-, biʔš- ‘puant’ ; Ug bʔš? ‘être mauvais’?; Hbr bāʔaš ‘puer’, bᵊʔōš ‘puanteur’; EmpAram bʔyš, Palm byšā, JudPal bᵊʔēš ‘vilain’, Syr beʔš ‘être mauvais’; nSyr bīšā ‘mauvais’; Mnd biš ‘devenir mauvais’; Ar baʔisa ‘être malheureux, détestable, vilain’; epigrSAr bʔš ‘être mauvais, hostile’ ; Gz bəʔsa ‘être âpre, amer, mauvais, nuisible’ ; Te bəʔsä ‘être en colère’; Tña bäʔasä, Amh basä ‘être mauvais’, bäš alä ‘avoir mal’; bʷašäšä ‘dépérir’, bäššəta ‘maladie, peste’, bis ‘mauvais’ ; Hbr bāʔšāʰ ‘mauvaise herbe’, bᵊʔušīm (pl.) ‘baies sauvages aigres’ ; nHbr bᵊʔušā, JudPal bᵊʔūšā (pl. bᵊʔūšīn) ‘vigne sauvage’.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994 160: (Sem) Hbr bʔš ʻbe rotten’. – Outside Sem: (WCh) Hs bāšī ‘stink’, others ḅāsā, basa‑n, baši‑n ‘bad’; (CCu) Agaw bas‑ən ‘be bad’, (LEC) Som baas ‘spoiled, rotten’, (HEC) Sid buša ‘bad’.
▪ Militarev&Stolbova2007: (WCh) Hs bā́šī́ ‘stink’, Diri ḅāsā ‘bad’; (CCh) Daba bàs, Gude busǝ ‘to angrily refuse to do s.th., to speak’; (CCu Agaw) Awiya (Aungi) bas‑ǝn ‘to be bad’; (LEC) Som baas, Or busaaʷa ‘spoiled, rotten’; (HEC) Sid buša ‘bad’.
 
See above, section CONC. 
… 
baʔisa, a (buʔs), vb. I, to be miserable, wretched: denom.?
biʔsa ’l‑rajulᵘ, expr., what an evil man!: defective vb.
tabāʔasa, vb. VI, to fain misery or distress: Lt‑stem, “as if”.
ĭbtaʔasa, vb. VIII, to be sad, worried, grieved: Gt‑stem, intr.

banātu biʔs, n.f.pl., calamities, adversities, misfortunes.
baʔsāʔᵘ, n.f., = buʔs.
buʔūs, n., = buʔs.
buʔsà, pl. ʔabʔus, n.f. , = buʔs.
bāʔis, adj., miserable, wretched
 
BāṬūN باطون 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Oct2022
√BāṬūN, BṬN 
“root” 
▪ BāṬūN_1 ‘concrete’ ↗bāṭūn
 
▪ from Fr ↗béton
 
▪ …
 
– 
▪ …
 
▪ lw. in Ar
 
– 
bāṭūn باطون 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Oct2022
√BāṬūN, BṬN 
n. 
concrete, béton – WehrCowan1976 
▪ Rolland2014a: from Fr béton, from Lat bitumen ‘bitume’, d’origine probablement gauloise, et peut-être apparenté à betulla ‘bouleau’
 
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
– 
▪ loanword in Ar 
– 
bām(i)yā باميا , var. bām(i)yaẗ بامية 
ID 051 • Sw – • BP 6890 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BāMYā, BMY 
n. 
gumbo, okra (Hibiscus esculentus L.,1 bot., a popular vegetable in Egypt) – WehrCowan1979. 
Rolland2014 summarizes the state of research on the word as follows: »Pour Belot,9 le mot est d’origine grecque. Pour Rajki,10 c’est un emprunt au turc bamya. Pour Nişanyan,11 le turc est un emprunt à l’arabe.« None of these sources are particularly reliable. The Engl gumbo, Fr gombo, which could be akin to bāmiyā etc., are said to go back to Africa, cf. ngombo ‘okra’ in a Central Bantu language, ki-ngombo ‘do.’ in a Bantu language from Angola. 
– 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ See NUTSHELL and WESTLANG sections.
▪ … 
▪ In Tu, the word is attested for the first time in Aḥmed Vefīḳ Paşa’s Luġat-ı ʕOs̱mānī (1876), where it is said to have come from the Sudan and recently have become popular – Nişanyan (24Jul2014).
▪ Engl gumbo may be akin to Ar bām(i)yā (bām(i)yaẗ, pronounced bamya). Its etymology is given by EtymOnline as »1805, from Louisiana Fr, probably ultimately from a Central Bantu dialect (compare Mbundu ngombo ‘okra’).«
▪ Fr gombo: First attested in 1757 as gombaut, 1764 gombo (Jacquin, Observationes botanicae, 2ᵉ part., p. 11 ds Roll, Flore, t. 3, p. 76). Terme des Antilles françaises issu du bantou de région angolaise ki-ngombo – http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/gombo. 
– 
BTK بتك 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
√BTK 
“root” 
▪ BTK_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BTK_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BTK_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to uproot, cut off at the base; to dedicate an animal to a certain idol, as was the custom in pre-Islamic Arabia, by cutting off, or slitting its ear; to be sharp’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
BTL بتل 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
√BTL 
“root” 
▪ BTL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BTL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BTL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to cut off, separate, stay away from others; to give up pleasures; to be celibate’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
BṮː (BṮṮ) بثّ/بثث 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
√ BṮː (BṮṮ) 
“root” 
▪ BṮː (BṮṮ)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BṮː (BṮṮ)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BṮː (BṮṮ)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to spread, disseminate; to cause to multiply; to disclose; sorrow, worry, illness’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
BǦS بجس 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
√BǦS 
“root” 
▪ BǦS_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BǦS_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BǦS_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to cause water to gush out; to come upon, be full of, boil over’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
BḤṮ بحث 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BḤṮ 
“root” 
▪ BḤṮ_1 ‘to scrape up (in search of s.th.); [and hence:] to look for, search for s.th., to research, investigate; to discuss’ ↗baḥaṯa
▪ BḤṮ_2 ‘mine’ ↗baḥṯ
▪ BḤṮ_3 ‘great serpent’ ↗baḥṯ

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to rummage in the dust looking for s.th., to claw the dust, to search, to seek information’ 
The original meaning of the root that today mostly means ‘to look for, search for s.th., to research, investigate; to discuss’ is ‘to scrape, dig up (the earth), scratch’. Cognates of a similar meaning are attested in Can and Aram, and probably also in Akk, so that one can assume a ComSem etymon *baḥaṯ‑ ‘to scrape up, stir’. 
baḥaṯa 
DRS 2 (1994)#BḤṮ/Š: Akk beḫāšu ‘mélanger (?)’10 , nHbr bāḥaš, JP Syr bᵉḥaš ‘agiter, remuer, rechercher, attiser’; Syr bᵉḥeš ‘se hâter’, bāḥūšā ‘spatule’; Talm bāḥᵃšā ‘cuiller à pot; cendres chaudes, ratissages’, biḥšā ‘creux de l’épaule’; Mand bḥaš ‘chercher, examiner’; nSyr bāḫiš, (m)berḫiš ‘agiter’, bāḫušā, bāḫüštā ‘cuiller à pot’; Ar baḥaṯa ‘gratter la terre, fouiller’; om. bḥš ‘creuser’, Syrie baḥaš ‘fouiller’.
▪ Outside Sem, Borg2021 #24 (b-ḥ-ṯ) compares Ar baḥaṯa ‘to be in quest of’ (and corresponding dialectal forms) to Eg bḥs (NK) ‘to hunt / jagen (Löwen, Elefanten, Wild)’ (Faulkner 1962: 34; DLE I 138; Wb I 469) ~ Dem wʕ rmt bḥs ‘ein Jägersmann’ (DG 121) ~ Copt ⲡⲁϩⲥ ‘prey’ (Crum 1939: 281a)
▪ … 
▪ The original meaning in Ar is ‘to dig up, scrape ut the dust/earth’ (and search of s.th.). This value is still attested in ClassAr (BAH2008: ‘to rummage in the dust looking for s.th., to claw the dust, to search, to seek information’), where it also produced derivatives such as buḥṯaẗ ‘a certain game (played in the dust, or earth), ʔibl baḥūṯ ‘camels that scrape up the dust, or earth, with their forefeet’, baḥṯ ‘mine (in which one searches for gold and silver); great serpent (because it scrapes up the dust or earth)’, baḥīṯ ‘secret (hidden in the dust and to be search for)’, buḥāṯaẗ ‘dust, earth (which is scraped up from what is searched for therein)’. The modern meanings are amplifications of the earlier usage.
▪ The root is also attested, with similar meanings, in Sem. DRS thinks that the nHbr vb. is from Aram; the remaining forms, however, are probably sufficient to assume a ComSem origin (although DRS thinks the meaning of the Akk vb. is doubtful). – For the whole complex, the reader in DRS is also asked to conform the references given s.v. #BD and #BṮ. Furthermore, DRS states that »cette racine semble être, du fait de contaminations diverses (en particulier par B/MḤN/R, P/BḎR) à la base de plusieurs autres racines surtout arabes qui témoignent en outre d’échanges entre consonnes homorganiques, v. BHNS(Š), BHŚ(Š), BḤṮR, BḪṮR, BʕḎR, BʕṮR, BĠẒR, BRḤŠ; comp. aussi PḤṢ, PḤṮ (et BQṮ?).« The corresponding crossreferences in EtymArab would be ↗BḤṮR, ↗BḪTR, ↗BʕṮR, and also ↗FḤṢ. 
– 
– 
baḥaṯ‑ بَحَثَ , a (baḥṯ
ID 053 • Sw – • BP 676 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BḤṮ 
vb., I 
to look, search (ʕan for s.th.), seek (ʕan s.th.); to inquire (DO into s.th.); to do research ( on, in a fielt); to investigate, examine, study, explore (DO or ʕan s.th.), look into; to discuss (DO a subject, a question) – WehrCowan1979. 
The original meaning of the root that today mostly means ‘to look for, search for s.th., to research, investigate; to discuss’ is ‘to scrape, dig up (the earth), scratch’. Cognates of a similar meaning are attested in Can and Aram, and probably also in Akk, so that one can assume a ComSem etymon *baḥaṯ‑ ‘to scrape up, stir’. 
▪ eC7 baḥaṯa (to dig up, to scratch up) Q 5:31 fa-baʕaṯa ’ḷḷāhu ġurāban yabḥaṯu fī ’l-ʔarḍi ‘so God sent a raven scratching up the earth’.
▪ The extended meaning ‘to seek, search, investigate’ etc. that is so prominent in MSA, is however also in common use in ClassAr, cf. Lane, who has not only ‘to scrape (as one who seeks to find a thing therein) (namely, the dust, or earth)’ but also ‘to search, seek for/after s.th. in the dust, or earth; to search, inquire into s.th., investigate, scrutinize’.
▪ The older value is still mentioned in Hava1899: baḥaṯa ‘to scrape (the earth)’ (alongside with baḥaṯa ʕan ‘to be in quest of, to search s.th.’, although it is no longer listed in Steingass1884, where only the meanings ‘mine’ and ‘large snake’ for the n. baḥṯ reminds of the earlier value.
baḥṯ : The only values given in Lane for the n. baḥṯ in ClassAr, besides that of a regular vn. I, are 1 ‘mine (in which one searches for gold and silver) and 2 ‘great serpent’ (because it scrapes up the dust or earth). These are now obsolete, and nominalizations of the vn., like ‘research’, and ‘research paper, study’, have taken over. 
DRS 2 (1994)#BḤṮ/Š: Akk beḫāšu ‘mélanger (?)’11 , nHbr bāḥaš, JP Syr bᵉḥaš ‘agiter, remuer, rechercher, attiser’; Syr bᵉḥeš ‘se hâter’, bāḥūšā ‘spatule’; Talm bāḥᵃšā ‘cuiller à pot; cendres chaudes, ratissages’, biḥšā ‘creux de l’épaule’; Mand bḥaš ‘chercher, examiner’; nSyr bāḫiš, (m)berḫiš ‘agiter’, bāḫušā, bāḫüštā ‘cuiller à pot’; Ar baḥaṯa ‘gratter la terre, fouiller’; om. bḥš ‘creuser’, Syrie baḥaš ‘fouiller’…. 
▪ The original meaning in Ar is ‘to dig up, scrape ut the dust/earth’ (and search of s.th.). This value is still attested in ClassAr (BAH2008: ‘to rummage in the dust looking for s.th., to claw the dust, to search, to seek information’), where it also produced derivatives such as buḥṯaẗ ‘a certain game (played in the dust, or earth), ʔibl baḥūṯ ‘camels that scrape up the dust, or earth, with their forefeet’, baḥṯ ‘mine (in which one searches for gold and silver); great serpent (because it scrapes up the dust or earth)’, baḥīṯ ‘secret (hidden in the dust and to be search for)’, buḥāṯaẗ ‘dust, earth (which is scraped up from what is searched for therein)’. The modern meanings are amplifications of the earlier usage.
▪ The root is also attested, with similar meanings, in Sem. DRS thinks that the nHbr vb. is from Aram; the remaining forms, however, are probably sufficient to assume a ComSem origin (although DRS thinks the meaning of the Akk vb. is doubtful). – For the whole complex, the reader in DRS is also asked to conform the references given s.v. #BD and #BṮ. Furthermore, DRS states that »cette racine semble être, du fait de contaminations diverses (en particulier par B/MḤN/R, P/BḎR) à la base de plusieurs autres racines surtout arabes qui témoignent en outre d’échanges entre consonnes homorganiques, v. BHNS(Š), BHŚ(Š), BḤṮR, BḪṮR, BʕḎR, BʕṮR, BĠẒR, BRḤŠ; comp. aussi PḤṢ, PḤṮ (et BQṮ?).« The corresponding crossreferences in EtymArab would be ↗BḤṮR, ↗BḪTR, ↗BʕṮR, and also ↗FḤṢ. 
– 
bāḥaṯa, vb. III, to discuss (DO with s.o., a question): assoc.
tabāḥaṯa, vb. VI, to have a discussion, discuss together; to confer, have a talk (maʕa with s.o., about): recipr.

BP#332baḥṯ, pl. buḥūṯ, ʔabḥāṯ, n., search (ʕan for), quest (ʕan of); examination, study; research; investigation, inquiry, examination; exploration; discussion; treatise; (pl. ʔabḥāṯ) study, scientific report ( on): vn. I.
baḥḥāṯ, pl. ‑ūn, n., scholar, research worker: ints. n.prof.
baḥḥāṯaẗ, n.f., eminent scholar: ints. n.prof.
mabḥaṯ, pl. mabāḥiṯᵘ, n., subject, theme, field of investigation or discussion, object of research; research, study, examination; investigation: n.loc. | al-mabāḥiṯ al-ʕāmmaẗ, n.pl., national inspection and controls (e.g., of drug traffic); secret police (Eg.)
BP#3403mubāḥaṯaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., negotiation, parley, conference, talk, discussion: vn. III.
BP#1282bāḥiṯ, pl. ‑ūn, and buḥḥāṯ, n., scholar, research worker; examiner, investigator: PA I. 
baḥṯ بَحْث , pl. buḥūṯ , ʔabḥāṯ 
ID … • Sw – • BP 332 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BḤṮ 
n. 
1 search (ʕan for), quest (ʕan of). – 2 examination, study. – 3 research. – 4 investigation, inquiry, examination. – 5 exploration. – 6 discussion. – 7 treatise. – 8 (pl. ʔabḥāṯ) study, scientific report ( on)
 
Apart from its function as a vn. of vb. I ↗baḥaṯa, the word is lexicalized in ClassAr only as ‘mine’ and ‘great serpent’, both derived from the original meaning of baḥaṯa, ‘to dig up, scrape up (the sand or earth, in search for s.th.)’, a mine being a place where the earth is digged up in search of minarals etc., while the serpent is so called because with its movements it scrapes up the dust (Lane). 
▪ The modern meanings are all extensions and specific lexicalizations of the original vn. meaning ‘scraping, scratching (the dust or the earth).
▪ The older value is still mentioned in Hava1899: baḥaṯa ‘to scrape (the earth)’ (alongside with baḥaṯa ʕan ‘to be in quest of, to search s.th.’, although it is no longer listed in Steingass1884, where only the meanings ‘mine’ and ‘large snake’ for the n. baḥṯ reminds of the earlier value.
baḥṯ : The only values given in Lane for the n. baḥṯ in ClassAr, besides that of a regular vn. I, are 1 ‘mine (in which one searches for gold and silver) and 2 ‘great serpent’ (because it scrapes up the dust or earth). These are now obsolete, and nominalizations of the vn., like ‘research’, and ‘research paper, study’, have taken over. 
baḥaṯa 
baḥaṯa 
– 
– 
bāḥiṯ باحِث , pl. ‑ūn , and buḥḥāṯ 
ID 052 • Sw – • BP 1282 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BḤṮ 
n. 
scholar, research worker; examiner, investigator – WehrCowan1979. 
Originally a PA from the vb. I ↗baḥaṯa, the word has become lexicalized during C20 with the meaning of ‘researcher, investigator’. In ClassAr, a bāḥiṯ is still s.o. who is ‘scraping up (dust or earth)’ 
baḥaṯa 
baḥaṯa 
baḥaṯa 
– 
– 
BḤR بحر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 1Oct2022
√BḤR 
“root” 
▪ BḤR_1 ‘sea, ocean; river; generous person; great knowledge’ : ↗baḥr
▪ BḤR_2 (TunAr) ‘vegetable garden, truck garden’ : ↗buḥayraẗ
▪ BḤR_3 ‘(poet.) meter’ : ↗baḥr (v4)
▪ BḤR_4 ‘to pierce (the ear of a she-camel destined to be sacrificed); she-camel having her ear slit, chosen to be sacrificed’ : obs.
▪ BḤR_5 ‘to be startled, bewildered (with fright)’ ↗baḥira
▪ BḤR_6 ‘crisis (of an illness); climax, culmination (also, e.g., of ecstasy)’ ↗buḥrān
▪ BḤR_7 ‘vehemence of heat in mid-summer; moon’ : obs.
▪ BḤR_8 ‘bottom of the womb; pure, intense red (blood)’ : obs.
▪ BḤR_9 ‘lyer’ : obs.

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘ocean, sea, great river, great expanse of water, lake; generous person; great knowledge; to slit an animal’s ear in ritual’ 
▪ … 
– 
DRS 2 (1994) #BḤR-1 Syr baḥrā, Ar baḥr, SAr bḥr, Gz bāḥr, Te bäḥar, Tña baḥri, Amh bahər, bar ‘mer, lac’; SAr bḥrt ‘citerne’; h/šbḥr ‘aménager une citerne’; Gz bāḥrəy ‘perle’; (et Amh bahrəy ‘substance, qualité’); ? Akk bērt- (?) ‘cours d’eau’. -2 Ar baḥraẗ, SAr bḥr ‘sol’, mbḥr ‘tombeau’, Gz bəḥēr ‘pays, terre’; ? MġrAr baḥḥar ‘cultiver un jardin’, baḥīraẗ ‘potager, plaine basse’. -3 Akk bēru, beḫēru ‘choisir’; Hbr bāḥar, JP bᵊḥar ‘élire’; SAr bḥr ‘élire (?)’. -?4 Ar baḥara ‘fendre (l’oreille à une chamelle consacrée)’. -5 Hbr bāḥūr ‘jeune homme complètement développé’. -6 Ar baḥira ‘être très affaibli amaigri (par la phtisie); être effrayé’, baḥir ‘qui court jusqu’à épuisement (homme, monture)’; Gz ʔabāḥrara ‘effrayer’; Te bäḥarärä, Tña baḥrärä ‘être effrayé’; Har abäḥarä ‘s’arrêter de se convulser (bête égorgée)’. -7 Ar bāḥūr ‘forte chaleur du cœur de l’été’. -8 bāḥir ‘rouge vif (sang)’. -9 bāḥir ‘fieffé menteur’.
▪ BḤR_1: Outside Sem, Borg2021 #25 (b-ḥ-r¹) compares Eg bʕr (Pyr) ‘Wasserfülle, Überschwemmung; Name eines Gewässers in Unterägypten’; ‘sea (in toponym)’ (Calice 1936: 60; Wb I 447; Hoch 1994: 92).
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
baḥr بَحْر , pl. biḥār , buḥūr , ʔabḥār , ʔabḥur 
ID 054 • Sw –/129 • BP 507 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BḤR 
n. 
1 sea. – 2 large river. – 3 a noble, or great, man (whose magnanimity or knowledge is comparable to the sea). – 4 meter (poet.) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Kogan2011: from SSem *baḥr- ‘sea’, replacing the main Sem term for ‘sea’, protSem *tiham(‑at)‑ (cf. Ar Tihāmaẗ).
▪ Cf., however, Huehnergard2011, who assumes protSem *baḥr‑ ‘sea, coast’.
▪ [v3] ‘noble, or great, man’ can be thought to be figurative use (WehrCowan: person »whose magnanimity or knowledge is comparable to the sea).
▪ v4 ‘(poetical) meter’ remains unexplained in the sources but is obviously a calque from Grk rhythmós ‘measured movement, harmonious flow’ (dance, speech, music,…) (from rhéō ‘to flow’).
▪ … 
▪ Unless the idea ‘wideness’ was prior to that of ‘sea’, the latter can be assumed to have served as a metaphor for ‘wideness’ (and ‘depth’?), which then could be applied both to generosity and knowledge.
▪ The fact that Gz bāḥər means ‘sea’ while bəḥēr is ‘land’, and a similar "contradiction" within the root is to be found in Ar (cf. baḥr ‘sea’ vs. baḥraẗ ‘land’, and the dimin. of both, buḥayraẗ denotes ‘(little sea >) lake’ as well as ‘(little land >) Ländchen’), made Nöldeke_Gegensinn assume that there was a »Grundbedeutung« (basic meaning), common to both, which later must have split into two. »Vielleicht ‘Niederung, Senkung’? Schwerlich ‘Fläche’ (wie bei aequor ‘Land’ und ‘Meer’).« – See, however, DISC in entry ↗√BḤR for another picture. 
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#305: Syr baḥrā, SAr bḥr, Gz bāḥr, Te bähar, Tña baḥri, Amh bahǝr. – Outside Sem: WCh Sura voγor, Ang fwor ‘rivulet’, Grk vor, voor ‘pond; rivulet’, ECh Kera vor ‘sea, river’.
▪ Leslau_EDG: SAr bḥr, Gur bahǝr.
▪ Kogan2011: Ar baḥr, Sab Min bḥr, Gz bāḥr.
▪ Outside Sem, Borg2021#25 (b-ḥ-r¹) compares Eg bʕr (Pyr) ‘Wasserfülle, Überschwemmung; Name eines Gewässers in Unterägypten’; ‘sea (in toponym)’ (Calice 1936: 60; Wb I 447; Hoch 1994: 92). 
▪ Kogan2011: From SSem *baḥr‑, which seems to be the most widespread replacement in the SSem area for what probably had been the main Sem term for ‘sea’ earlier, Sem *tihām(-at)‑ (traces of which in today’s Ar only in the name for the coastal region in W Yemen, the Tihāmaẗ). (In the NWSem area, Sem *tihām(-at)‑ was replaced by *yamm‑, which later was loaned from there into Ar as ↗yamm.)
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#305: A hypothetical Sem *baḥr‑ ‘sea, lake’ is ‎probably the common ancestor of the Ar word as well as its Sem cognates. Together with reconstructed cognates outside Sem, ‎such as WCh *bʷaH˅r‑ ‘pond; rivulet’ and ECh *bʷar < *bʷaH˅r ‘sea, river’, the Sem word ‎may go back to AfrAs *boḥ˅r‑ ‘sea, lake’. – a in Sem *baḥr‑ may have developed from an ‎earlier Sem *u under the influence of the preceding labial.
▪ Huehnergard2011: from Sem *baḥr ‘sea, coast’.
▪ Ehret1995#9: Together with Cush ‎‎*bôoḥ‑ ‘to spill (intr.)’, Ar baḥr goes back to AfrAs *‑bôoḥ‑ ‘to flow’; the word is composed ‎of the AfrAs stem + an *‑r noun suffix. 
– 
baḥri…, prep., in the course of, during (e.g., fī baḥr sanatayn in the course of two years, within two years).
al‑ baḥr al‑ ʔabyaḍ al‑ mutawassiṭ, n., the Mediterranean (sometimes shortened to al-baḥr al-ʔabyaḍ).
al‑ baḥr al‑ balṭīq, n., the Baltic Sea.
al‑ baḥr al‑ ǧanūb, n., the South Seas.
al‑ baḥr al‑ ʔaḥmar, n., the Red Sea (also baḥr al-qulzum).
baḥr al‑ ḫazar and baḥr Qazwīn, n., the Caspian Sea (also al-baḥr al-kasbiyātī).
baḥr al-rūm, n., the Mediterranean.
al‑ baḥr al‑ ʔaswad, n., the Black Sea.
baḥr al‑ ẓulumāt, n., the Atlantic.
baḥr lūṭ and al-baḥr al-mayyit, n., the Dead Sea.
baḥr al-nīl, n., (eg.) the Nile.
baḥr al-hind, n., the Indian Ocean.

baḥḥara, vb. II, to travel by sea, make a voyage: denom.
ʔabḥara, vb. IV, to travel by sea, make a voyage; to embark, go on board; to put to sea, set sail, sail, depart (ship); to go downstream, be sea-bound (ship on the Nile): denom.
tabaḥḥara, vb. V, to penetrate deeply, delve ( into); to study thoroughly ( a subject): denom., from baḥr in the sense of ‘person whose knowledge is comparable to the sea’, lit. *‘to delve into (a sea of knowledge)’? DRS suggests another etymology, unrelated to baḥr, see ↗ √BḤR.
ĭstabḥara, vb. X, = V.

al-baḥrayn, n., the Bahrein Islands; (State of) Bahrein: n.loc.
BP#3264baḥrānī, adj., of the Baḥrein Islands; al-baḥārinaẗ, the inhabitants of the Bahrein Islands: nsb-adj from (al)-baḥrayn.
BP#1874baḥrī, adj., sea…, marine; maritime; nautical; naval; navigational; (in Eg.) northern, baḥriyyaẗ (with foll. genit.) north of: nsb-adj; (pl. ‑ūn, aẗ), n., sailor, seaman, mariner: nominalized nisba adj.
BP#4032baḥriyyaẗ, n.f., marine; navy: abstr. in iyyaẗ.
baḥraẗ, pond, pool: n.un. (?).
baḥḥār, pl. ‑ūn, baḥḥāraẗ, n., seaman, mariner, sailor: n.prof.; pl. baḥḥāraẗ crew (of a ship, of an airplane).
BP#3535buḥayraẗ, pl. ‑āt, baḥāʔirᵘ, n., lake: dimin.; (tun.) vegetable garden, truck garden: meaning transferred from ‘lake’ to *‘place with a small lake, pond = garden’? DRS suggests another etymology, unrelated to baḥr, see ↗ √BḤR.
ʔibḥār, n., navigation, seafaring: vn. IV.
tabaḥḥur, n., deep penetration, delving ( into a subject), thorough study ( of): vn. V.
mutabaḥḥir, adj., thoroughly familiar ( with); profound, erudite, searching, penetrating: PA V.

For other items from the root, cf. ↗√BḤR and ↗baḥira

BḪT بخت 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 5Oct2022
√BḪT 
“root” 
▪ BḪT_1 ‘luck’ ↗baḫt
▪ … 
▪ BḪT_1 : from Pers baḫt ‘chance, hasard’ - Rolland2014a.
▪ … 
baḫt بَخْت 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 5Oct2022
√BḪT 
n. 
1 luck; 2 a kind of lottery – WehrCowan1976
 
▪ Rolland2014a: from Pers baḫt ‘chance, hasard’, related to Av baḫta ‘ce qui est donné, chance’, IE *bʰag- ‘partager, obtenir sa part’.
▪ See also ↗baqšīš.
▪ … 
qalīl al-baḫt, adj., unlucky;
sūʔ al-baḫt, n., bad luck

baḫīt, adj., lucky, fortunate
mabḫūt, adj., lucky, fortunate
 
BḪR بخر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BḪR 
“root” 
▪ BḪR_1 ‘vapor, fume; steam’ ↗buḫār ; ‘incense; francincense’ ↗baḫūr
▪ BḪR_2 ‘to sprinkle a plantation’: only in bāḫir
▪ BḪR_3 ‘to cure s.o.’: only in S dialects, baḫḫar
 
▪ BḪR_1 ‘incense; francincense’ seems to go back to *‘effluvium, evaporation’
▪ BḪR_2 ‘to sprinkle a plantation’: perhaps related to BḪR_1. – Cf. also ↗√BḤR and ↗√MḪR.
▪ BḪR_3 ‘to cure s.o.’: uncertain, perhaps delocutive, formed from bi-ḫayr ‘well, in good health’. 
– 
DRS 2 (1994)#BḪR–1: Ar baḫūr, SAr ʔbḫr ‘parfum, encens (?)’, Soq bḥr ‘fumer, parfumer’, Mhr ha-beḫáur ‘fumer’, Te bəkkur ‘encens’, Ar baḫar ‘mauvaise haleine’, Akk baḫāru ‘être chaud’, baḫr‑ ‘chaud’
#BḪR–2 and #BḪR–3: (only Ar). 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
bāḫiraẗ باخِرة , pl. bawāḫirᵘ 
ID 055 • Sw – • BP 6798 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BḪR 
n.f. 
steamer, steamship – WehrCowan1979. 
Properly a PA I, f., akin to ↗buḫār ‘vapor, fume; steam’. The word is a neologism, probably calqued from Engl steamer, presumably during the 1890s. 
▪ Not yet lexicalized as an item in its own right in ClassAr (no entry in Lane).
▪ Kazimirski1860, Bustānī1867, Steingass1884, Wahrmund1887: Ø
▪ Hava1899 has bāḫiraẗ ‘steamer, steamboat’ and markib buḫārī ‘steamer’ 
buḫār 
▪ ↗buḫār.
▪ The word does not appear in dictionaries of Ar before the late 1890s (the first appearance in my sources is Hava1899). It is probably calqued from Engl steamer
▪ … 
– 
buwayḫiraẗ, n.f., small steamboat: dimin.

For other values of the root cf. ↗√BḪR and ↗baḫūr

baḫūr بَخُور 
ID 056 • Sw – • BP??? • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BḪR 
n. 
incense; frankincense – WehrCowan1979. 
The value ‘incense; francincense’ seems to go back to an original meaning, *‘effluvium, evaporation’, cf. ↗buḫār
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994)#BḪR-1: Ar baḫūr, SAr ʔbḫr ‘parfum, encens (?)’, Soq bḥr ‘fumer, parfumer’, Mhr ha-beḫáur ‘fumer’, Te bəkkur ‘encens’, Ar baḫar ‘mauvaise haleine’, Akk baḫāru ‘être chaud’, baḫr‑ ‘chaud’. 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
baḫḫara, vb. II, to perfume with incense, expose to aromatic smoke; to fumigate; to disinfect: denominative. – For other meanings see ↗buḫār.
tabaḫḫara, vb. V, to perfume o.s., or be perfumed, with incense: t-stem of II, denominative. – For other meanings see ↗buḫār.

mibḫaraẗ, pl. mabāḫirᵘ (also ‑āt), n., censer; thurible; fumigator: n.instr.

For other values of the root, cf. ↗√BḪR and ↗buḫār

buḫār بُخار , pl. ‑āt , ʔabḫiraẗ 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BḪR 
n. 
vapor, fume; steam – WehrCowan1979. 
Originally probably *‘effluvium, evaporation’. 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994)#BḪR-1: Ar baḫūr, SAr ʔbḫr ‘parfum, encens (?)’, Soq bḥr ‘fumer, parfumer’, Mhr ha-beḫáur ‘fumer’, Te bəkkur ‘encens’, Ar baḫar ‘mauvaise haleine’, Akk baḫāru ‘être chaud’, baḫr‑ ‘chaud’. 
buḫār seems to have preserved the original value of the root (*‘effluvium, evaporation’), while the value ‘incense; francincense’ (↗baḫūr) probably is a later specification. 
– 
baḫḫara, vb. II, to vaporize, evaporate; to fumigate: denominative. – For other meanings see ↗baḫūr.
tabaḫḫara, vb. V, to evaporate (water); to volatilize, turn into smoke or haze: t-stem of II, denominative. – For other meanings see ↗baḫūr.

buḫārī, adj., steam, steam-driven: nsb-adj | ḥammām b., n., steam bath; ʕaǧalaẗ buḫāriyyaẗ, n., motorcycle.
ʔabḫarᵘ, adj., suffering from halitosis: elat. formation.
tabḫīr, n., fumigation: vn. II.
tabaḫḫur, n., evaporation, vaporization: vn. V.
BP#6798bāḫiraẗ, n.f., steamer, steamship: properly a PA I, f.
buwayḫiraẗ, n.f., small steamboat: dimin. of bāḫiraẗ.

For other values of the root, ↗√BḪR and ↗baḫūr

BḪʕ بخع 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
√BḪʕ 
“root” 
▪ BḪʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BḪʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BḪʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘tendon that runs close to the neck, to cut such tendon, cut the throat; to show humility; to be docile’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
BḪL بخل 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BḪL 
“root” 
▪ BḪL_1 ‘to be niggardly, be stingy’ ↗baḫila
▪ BḪL_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be stingy, to be covetous; to be grudging, meanness’ 
baḫila 
– 
baḫila 
baḫila 
– 
– 
baḫil‑ بخِل , a (baḫal), and baḫul‑ بخُل , u (buḫl
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BḪL 
vb., I 
to be niggardly, be stingy (bi‑ with s.th., ʕan or ʕalà with regard to s.o.), scrimp (ʕan, ʕalà s.o., bi‑ for), stint (bi‑ in, ʕan or ʕalà s.o.), withhold (ʕan, ʕalà from s.o., bi‑ s.th.) – WehrCowan1979. 
Etymology unclear. If regular, baḫi/ula should go back to a vb. (WSem?) *baḫ˅l‑
lC6 ʕAntara b. Šaddād 68,13 al-dahru yabḫalu tāratan wa-yaǧūdu ‘time/destiny is sometimes a miser, and gives generously (at other times)’, ▪ eC7 Ḥuṭayʔa 117,7 lam yabḫal wa-lam yataʕallali (Polosin 1995)
▪ eC7 Q 47:38 (to be or act in a niggardly or miserly way) hā-ʔantum hāʔulāʔi tudʕawna li-tunfiqū fī sabīli ’ḷḷāhi fa-min-kum man yabḫalu ‘here you are called upon to spend in the cause of God, but some of you will be niggardly’, 57:24 (miserliness etc) allaḏīna yabḫalūna wa-yaʔmurūna ’l-nāsa bi’l-buḫli ‘those who are miserly and urge miserliness on others’ 
▪ BDB1906, Zammit2002: Hbr *bāḥēl (pu.) ‘to get by greed’
DRS 2 (1994)#BḪL ? : Hbr mᵉboḥälät (dans naḥᵃlā mᵉboḥälät) ‘(possession) obtenue par avarice (?)’; ? (Aram) Aysor bāḫil ‘envier’, baḫilāna ‘envieux’. 
DRS 2 (1994)#BḪL ? : Hbr mᵉboḥälät (dans naḥᵃlā mᵉboḥälät) ‘(possession) obtenue par avarice (?)’; ? (Aram) Aysor bāḫil ‘envier’, baḫilāna ‘envieux’. mᵉboḥälät (Prov. 20, 21 Ketib) : interprétation (fort douteuse) de Gesenius, many others against him. — See also BʕL ?
▪ Etymology unclear due to scarcity of evidence outside Ar. Some relate the root to BḤL or BʕL, but this is doubtful. The Hbr and Aram (Aysor) cognates given by BDB, Zammit and DRS do not provide sufficient evidence for reliable reconstruction. If regular, baḫi/ula should go back to a vb. (WSem?) *baḫ˅l
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tabāḫala, vb. VI, to give reluctantly, grudgingly (ʕan, ʕalà to s.o., bi‑ s.th.): assoc., ‘to behave in a… way’.
buḫl, n., avarice, cupidity, greed: vn. I.
baḫīl, pl. buḫalāʔᵘ, adj., avaricious, greedy; n., miser, skinflint: pseudo-PA/PP, ints.
mabḫalaẗ, n.f., cause of avarice, that which arouses avarice or greed: n.loc. (?) 
*BD‑ 
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√BD‑ 
2-cons. "root nucleus" 
See section CONCISE below. 
2-consonantal nucleus with the basic meaning(s) of ‘to cut’ (to separate, split, pierce, disperse, etc.) (DRS, s.v. BD-1), or ‘extended separation or longtime distancing as the result of the emergence of a gap’ (Gabal2012), and ‘to prowl, wander around, to disappear’ (DRS, s.v. BD-3), or ‘to appear’ (Ehret1989). 
– 
▪ …
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994)#BD: »1 Une des séquences radicales formées d’un phonème labial et d’un phonème dental (parfois aussi ś ou š) qui entrent dans la constitution de nombreuses racines ayant pour valeur fondamentale la notion de ‘couper’, associée le plus souvent aux notions connexes de ‘séparer, fendre, percer, disperser, etc.’. Souvent aussi ces notion s’accompagnent, pour les mêmes racines et éventuellement pour les mêmes langues, de celles de ‘jaillir, suinter (à travers une brèche), poindre, germer’, parfois de celles de ‘creuser, fouiller, rechercher, examiner’. – Dans un certain nombre de cas, les racines ont leurs deux dernières radicales semblables. Mais il est plus fréquent (aussi bien pour les triconsonnes que pour les quadriconsonnes) que les radicales complémentaires soient des liquides (l ou r, plus rarement n), des semi-voyelles, parfois d’autres consonnes (palatales, vélaires, pharyngales, laryngales). Il peut s’agir soit de biconsonnes étoffées, soit de variantes par échange de consonnes de localisation voisine, soit souvent de croisement avec d’autres racines de sens voisin. (Il est à noter que d’autres séquences – palatale + dentale par exemple, v.s. GD, ou labiale + palatale ou vélaire, voir en particulier sous PQ – entrent aussi dans la constitution de racines ayant les valeurs de ‘couper’ et de ‘fendre’.) – Voir p.e. pour les racines avec BD : ↗BDː (BDD), ↗BDL, ↗BDĠ, ↗BDQ. – Mais voir aussi les renvois sous ↗BḎ, ↗BZ, ↗BṬ, ↗BṢ/Ḍ, BŚ, BŠ, ↗BT, ↗BṮ. – Pour d’autres labiales initiales, voir aux lettres M et P. — 2 Quelques-unes des racines comportant une labiale + dentale ont soit comme valeur unique, soit comme valeur associée aux précédentes, les sens de ‘mépriser, dédaigner’, parfois ‘être hautain, arrogant’. — 3 Pour une valeur ‘errer, disparaître etc.’, voir ↗ʔBD/T, BDBD, ↗BDW/Y, ↗BWD, ↗BYD.«
▪ Another series of extensions/derivations from a biconsonantal basis *BD is postulated by Ehret1989: From a reconstructed root *BD ‘to appear, emerge’, the author derives: (+ concisive *‑ʔ =) badʔ (↗badaʔa) ‘to begin, do a thing first’, (+ diffusive *‑r =) badr (↗badara) ‘to come quickly or unexpectedly on, surprise, break forth suddenly’, (+ sunderative *‑ʕ =) badʕ (↗badaʕa) ‘to produce, originate, begin’ (presumed earlier sense: ‘to bring forth from’), (+ amplificative *‑h =) badh (↗badaha) ‘to come unexpectedly, surprise’, (+ inchoative/denominative *‑w =) badw (↗badā) ‘to appear’, (+ inchoative/denominative *‑y =) bady (merged with ↗badaʔa) ‘to begin’.
▪ Gabal2012, like DRS for BD#1, assumes a basic value of ‘separation’ for the biconsonantal nucleus *BD, more specifically an ‘extended separation or longtime distancing as the result of the emergence of a gap’ (tafrīq mumtadd ʔaw ʔibʕād dāʔim yulzimuhu ḥudūṯ farāġ). Among the derivations/extension, however, Gabal also includes many values that Ehret1989 derives from what he assumes to be the basic meaning, namely ‘to appear’: ↗badaʔa ‘to start, begin’ (the final *‑ʔ adding the notion of s.th. that is slipping into the gap designated by the nuclear *BD, and thus appearing in it for the first time), ↗ʔabada ‘to last long’ (the initial *ʔ‑ underlining the persistence of the separation expressed in BD), ↗bāda (< *bayada) ‘to perish’ (*‑y‑ inserted between the two nuclear radicals to express a prolonged continuity of the gaping), ↗badara ‘to break forth suddenly’ (*‑r denoting the tendency of the unexpected ‘intruder’ into the void space to unfold and expand itself until fullness, as with the full moon, ↗badr), ↗badaʕa ‘to originate, do for the first time’ (*‑ʕ indicating newness of the intruder into the void space), ↗badala ‘to replace, exchange’ (*‑l, in itself expressing ‘independence’, when added to BD signifying together the disappearance of s.th. and its reappearance in another place), ↗badana ‘to be fat, corpulent’ (*‑n expressing a ‘soft extension, or continuity’ inside; added to *BD, it produces the notion of amassing and corpulence). 
– 
Opinion differs as to which 3-consonantal roots are derived from the 2-consonantal nucleus:

↗ʔBD (DRS #BD-3, Gabal2012)
↗BDː (BDD) (DRS #BD-1)
↗BDʔ (Ehret1989, Gabal2012)
BDBD (DRS #BD-3)
↗BDR (Ehret1989, Gabal2012)
↗BDʕ (Ehret1989, Gabal2012)
↗BDĠ (DRS #BD-1)
↗BDQ (DRS #BD-1)
↗BDL (DRS #BD-1, Gabal2012)
↗BDN (Gabal2012)
↗BDH (Ehret1989)
↗BDW/Y (Ehret1989, DRS #BD-3)
↗BWD (DRS #BD-3)
↗BYD (DRS #BD-3, Gabal2012) 
BDː (BDD) بدّ / بدد 
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√BDː (BDD) 
“root” 
▪ BDː (BDD)_1 ‘to distribute, spread, disperse’ ↗badda
▪ BDː (BDD)_2 ‘way out, escape’ ↗budd_1
▪ BDː (BDD)_3 ‘idol, temple consecrated to an idol’ ↗budd_2
▪ BDː (BDD)_4 ‘wish, intention, desire’ (LevAr badd, bidd < *bi‑wadd, *bi‑widd) ↗wadda

Other values, now obsolete:
▪ BDː (BDD)_5 ‘beam, bar, baulk’: ClassAr badd .
▪ BDː (BDD)_6 ‘(olive) oil press’: ClassAr badd ; ‘arm of an (olive) press’: ClassAr budd .
▪ BDː (BDD)_7 ‘equal, similar’: ClassAr bidd .
▪ BDː (BDD)_8 ‘power, strength; want’: ClassAr badad .
 
▪ While the two values [v1] ‘to distribute, spread, disperse’ and [v2] ‘way out, escape’ may be etymologically connected, [v3] ‘idol, temple consecrated to an idol’ is with all probability borrowed from Pers, and [v4] is a dialectal contraction of the preposition ↗bi‑ and the word for ‘wish, intention, desire’, wadd or widd. The origin of the obsolete [v5] is not clear; it may be related to [v1], a beam, bar, baulk being a kind of separator that creates a distance between two sides or parts. [v6] is clearly a loan from Aram; but the Aram word seems to be akin to [v5]. [v7] is a specialisation of [v1] in the sense of ‘to distribute in equal portions ’, hence the notion of ‘equality, similarity’ of o.’s share or contribution. Etymology of [v8] unclear.
▪ BDː (BDD)_1 is thought by many to best represent the 2-consonantal nucleus ↗*BD from which a number of 3-consonantal roots derive by extension (see DISC below). The value of this nucleus is given as ‘to cut’ or ‘to separate’ by DRS and Gabal2012, and as ‘to appear, emerge’ by Ehret1989.
▪ For BDː (BDD)_1 an AfrAs background has been suggested: Orel&Stolbova1994 reconstruct AfrAs *bad‑ ʻto separateʼ.
▪ The reconstruction of AfrAs *bud‑ or *bud(˅H)‑ ((Orel&Stolbova and Militarev, respectively) ‘stick’ for BDː (BDD)_5 is rather speculative.
 
– 
▪ [BDː (BDD)_1] DRS 2 (1994)#BDD–1. Akk buddudu ‘dissiper, gaspiller’, Hbr bōdēd ‘séparé’, lᵉ-bādād ‘seul’, nHbr bādad ‘disperser, être seul’, EmpAram bdd (?) ‘disperser, anéantir’, Syr bad ‘mélanger, troubler; se répandre, déborder (fleuve)’, Ar badida ‘se tenir les jambes écartées’, badda ‘séparer, écarter, vaincre, repousser’, baddada ‘répandre, disperser’, ʔabadda ‘distribuer par portion’, tabaddada ‘gaspiller sa santé, dépérir’, Tham *bdd ‘repousser’, Hbr bad, Ar budd, buddaẗ ‘partie, portion’, Tham mbd ‘quote-part’, SAr bd ‘contrevaleur’, bd, bdd ‘espace de temps’; ? Te bad ‘pauvreté’, Aram bādīd ‘bêche; tranchée, sillon’, Te bädäd belä ‘déborder, être répandu’, Tña bəddəd bälä ‘se lever rapidement’.
▪ [BDː (BDD)_1] Orel&Stolbova1994 (#171): Ug bd ‘to take awayʼ,12 Hbr bdd ‘to separate’, EmpAram bdd ‘to disperse’, Ḥrs abdōd, Mhr abdēd, Śḥr ɛbded. – Outside Sem, (HEC) Sid bad‑ ‘to separate’, as well as bad‑ and badda ‘to split, cut (wood)’ in 2 Omot langs. Cf. also Militarev2006 (#492): abde ‘to split, divide, separate’ in a WCh idiom.
▪ [BDː (BDD)_3]: For what Orel&Stolbova1994 and Militarev2006 assume to be cognates in- and outside Sem, cf. ↗budd_2.
▪ [BDː (BDD)_5] DRS 2 (1994)#BDD –2. Hbr bad ‘rameau, branche’, JP baddā ‘tige, perche’, Ar badd ‘poutre’.
▪ [BDː (BDD)_6] DRS 2 (1994)#BDD –3. Aram bad, Ar badd ‘pressoir à olive’, budd ‘axe de pressoir’.
▪ For the wider context cf. DISC. 
▪ [BDː (BDD)_1] DRS 2 (1994)#BDD: 1. Les sens réunis ici semblent bien liés sémantiquement: séparation, dispersion, partage, épuisement, etc. […]. Il est possible que 2 et 3 n’en sont aussi que des dérivations […]. Le sens premier paraît être celui de ‘trancher, séparer’ commun à plusieures racines formées d’une labiale et d’une dentale, voir ↗BD. […, cf. also ↗BDĠ, ↗BDQ, ↗BDL] — 3. Ar < Aram. — Like DRS 2 (1994), also Gabal2012 assumes ‘separation’ as the basic value underlying extensions of a biconsonantal nucleus ↗BD, more specifically an ‘extended separation or longtime distancing’ as a result of the emergence of a gap’ (tafrīq mumtadd ʔaw ʔibʕād dāʔim yulzimuhu ḥudūṯ farāġ). The basic value of *BD is best represented in the unextended root BDː (BDD). — Ehret1989, who postulates a similar dependence of triradical roots on biradical nuclei, assumes ‘to appear, emerge’ as the primary value, without however connecting the geminated root BDː (BDD) to the *BD- nucleus (the only derivatives/extensions he mentions are ↗badaʔa,↗badara, ↗badaʕa, ↗badaha, and ↗badā).
▪ [BDː (BDD)_1] Orel&Stolbova1994 (#171) reconstruct Sem *bud‑ ‘to take away; to separate; to disperse’, HEC *bad‑ ‘separate’, Omot *bad‑ ‘split, cut (wood)’, to which Militarev2006 (#492) adds WCh *bad‑ ‘to split, divide, separate’, all from AfrAs *bad‑ ʻto separateʼ (with secondary *‑u‑ in Sem).
▪ [BDː (BDD)_2] budd ‘way out, escape’: not mentioned in DRS. Related to BDː (BDD)_1 ‘to distribute, spread, disperse’? Rolland2014 assumes a Sem origin but does not give details.
▪ [BDː (BDD)_3] budd ‘idol, temple consecrated to an idol’: accord. to Rolland2014 a loanword from Pers but ‘idol’ (cf. also Buddha ?). In contrast, Orel&Stolbova1994 and Militarev2006 assume a Sem (< AfrAs) origin. For details, cf. ↗budd_2.
▪ [BDː (BDD)_4] LevAr badd, bidd ‘wish, intention, desire’: contracted from *bi-wadd, *bi-widd : see ↗wadda.
▪ [BDː (BDD)_5] The sense of ‘pole, beam, bar, baulk’ (DRS #BDD-2) for badd does not appear in ClassAr dictionaries and is not attested in MSA (for sources, cf. DRS). The etymological origin is not clear either; it may be related to [v1], a pole, beam, bar, baulk being a kind of separator that creates a distance between two sides, or parts. – Given the Hbr and Aram cognates, Orel&Stolbova1994 reconstruct Sem *bad(d)‑ ‘pole, stick, beam’. On the evidence of what the authors think to be Berb and ECh cognates, they also assume Berb *budid‑ ‘pole of a hut’ (with secondary *u after labial and partial reduplication, hypostacized from Irjen a-budid) and ECh *b˅d˅H‑ ‘stick’ to be cognate. The common ancestor of the Sem, Berb and ECh forms is thought to be AfrAs *bud‑ ‘stick’. In StarLing, the ECh items are no longer mentioned; instead, there is given Mofu-Gudur bébeḍ < CCh *b˅-b˅ḍ‑ (< *b˅d˅H‑) ‘digging stick’, and the origin of all is modified into AfrAs *bud(˅H)‑ ‘stick’.
▪ [BDː (BDD)_6] badd as ‘pressoir, grande machine servant à presser des olives ou du raisin, moulin à huile’ is given by Dozy1881 and said to be from Aram, cf. Syr baḏā, bā̆ḏā ‘beam of an oil- or wine-press’ (PayneSmith1903). The Aram word itself seems in turn to be akin to [v5].
▪ [BDː (BDD)_7] ‘equal, similar’ (ClassAr bidd; cf. also bādda, vb. III, ‘to contribute equally for the purchasing of corn, or food, to eat; to have people’s money, or property, divided into lots, or portions, and distributed in shaires among them; to divide property among a people in shares’): not mentioned in DRS; derived, as a specialization in meaning, from the notion of ‘to distribute portionwise’ in vb. I, badda.
▪ [BDː (BDD)_8] ‘power, strength; want’: no etymological suggestions available so far. Probably related to [v1]. 
– 
– 
badd‑, badad‑ بَدَّ/بَدَدْـ , u (badd
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BDː (BDD) 
vb., I 
to distribute, spread, disperse – WehrCowan1979. 
(In Militarev’s reconstruction:) from Sem *bud‑ ‘to take away; to separate; to disperse’, from AfrAs *bad‑ ‘dto.’ 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994)#BDD: 1. Akk buddudu ‘dissiper, gaspiller’, Hbr bōdēd ‘séparé’, lᵉ-bādād ‘seul’, nHbr bādad ‘disperser, être seul’, EmpAram bdd (?) ‘disperser, anéantir’, Syr bad ‘mélanger, troubler; se répandre, déborder (fleuve)’, Ar badida ‘se tenir les jambes écartées’, badda ‘séparer, écarter, vaincre, repousser’, baddada ‘répandre, disperser’, ʔabadda ‘distribuer par portion’, tabaddada ‘gaspiller sa santé, dépérir’, Tham *bdd ‘repousser’, Hbr bad, Ar budd, buddaẗ ‘partie, portion’, Tham mbd ‘quote-part’, SAr bd ‘contrevaleur’, bd, bdd ‘espace de temps’; ? Te bad ‘pauvreté’, Aram bādīd ‘bêche; tranchée, sillon’, Te bädäd belä ‘déborder, être répandu’, Tña bəddəd bälä ‘se lever rapidement’. — ? 2. Hbr bad ‘rameau, branche’, JP baddā ‘tige, perche’, Ar badd ‘poutre’. — 3. Aram bad, Ar badd ‘pressoir à olive’, budd ‘axe de pressoir’.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#171: Ug bd ‘to take awayʼ,13 Hbr bdd ‘to separate’, EmpAram bdd ‘to disperse’, Ḥrs abdōd, Mhr abdēd, Śḥr ɛbded. – Outside Sem, (HEC) Sid bad‑ ‘to separate’, as well as bad‑ and badda ‘to split, cut (wood)’ in 2 Omot langs. Cf. also Militarev2006 (#492): abde ‘to split, divide, separate’ in a WCh idiom.
 
DRS 2 (1994)#BDD: 1. Les sens réunis ici semblent bien liés sémantiquement: séparation, dispersion, partage, épuisement, etc. […] Il est possible que 2 et 3 n’en sont aussi que des dérivations […]. Le sens premier paraît être celui de ‘trancher, séparer’ commun à plusieures racines formées d’une labiale et d’une dentale, voir ↗BD. […]
DRS does not explain in which way BDD-2 and BDD-3 (which seem to be etymologically the same item) may possibly be connected to BDD-1.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994 #171 reconstruct Sem *bud‑ ‘to take away; to separate; to disperse’, HEC *bad‑ ‘separate’, Omot *bad‑ ‘split, cut (wood)’, to which Militarev2006 (#492) adds WCh *bad‑ ‘to split, divide, separate’all from AfrAs *bad‑ ʻto separateʼ (with secondary *‑u‑ in Sem).
 
– 
baddada, vb. II, to divide, distribute, spread, scatter, disperse: ints.; to remove, eliminate: caus.; to waste, squander, fritter away, dissipate: ints./caus.
tabaddada, vb. V, pass. of II.
ĭstabadda, vb. X, to be independent, proceed independently (bi‑ in, e.g., in one’s opinion, i.e., to be opinionated, obstinate, headstrong); to possess alone, monopolize (bi‑ s.th.); to take possession (bi‑ of s.o.), seize, grip, overwhelm, overcome (bi‑ s.o.; said of a feeling, of an impulse); to dispose arbitrarily, highhandedly (bi‑ of s.th.); to rule despotically, tyrannically, autocratically (bi‑ over): autobnfct./request., TŠ-stem from budd in the (obsolete) sense of ‘part, portion’ (*to make s.o. give his portion to o.s./the speaker, to ask for one’s portion).
BP#455budd, n., way out, escape: from ‘to separate, disperse’? | ʔiḏā lam yakun buddun min ʔan… if it is inevitable that…; lā budda, adv., definitely, certainly, inevitably, without fail; by all means; lā budda min, it is necessary, inescapable, unavoidable, inevitable, lā budda lahū minhu he simply must do it, he can’t get around it; min kulli buddin, adv., in any case, at any rate.
ʔabādīdᵘ, adj.pl., scattered: old poet. form.
tabdīd, n., scattering, dispersal, dispersion; removal, elimination; waste, dissipation: vn. II.
BP#4414ĭstibdād, n., arbitrariness, highhandedness; despotism; autocracy; absolutism: vn. X.
ĭstibdādī, adj., arbitrary, highhanded, autocratic, despotic; authoritarian; ĭstibdādiyyāt, n.pl., arbitrary acts: nsb-adj. from vn. X.
ĭstibdādiyyaẗ, n.f., autocracy; authoritarianism: abstr. formation in ‑iyyaẗ from vn. X.
mubaddid, n., scatterer, disperser; squanderer, wastrel, spendthrift: nominalized PA II.
mustabidd, adj., arbitrary, highhanded, autocratic, tyrannical, despotic: PA X; n., autocrat, tyrant, despot: nominalized PA X | ~ bi-raʔyi-hī, adj., opinionated, obstinate, headstrong; malakiyyaẗ ~aẗ, n., absolute monarchy 
bidd بَدّ , var. badd 
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√BDː (BDD) 
n. 
(LevAr) wish, intention, e.g., bidd-ī, quasi-vb., I wish, want, will 
From *bi-widd…, bi-wadd…
▪ … 
wadda
wadda
– 
– 
budd بُدّ (disambig.) 
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√BDː (BDD) 
n. 
▪ budd_1 ‘way out, escape’ ↗budd_1, ↗badda
▪ budd_2 ‘(temple consecrated to an) idol’ ↗budd_2 
While the n. for ‘way out, escape’ (budd_1) is probably related to the vb. ↗badda ‘to distribute, spread, disperse’, budd_2 is a borrowing from Pers. 
– 
– 
– 
– 
– 
¹budd بُدّ 
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√BDː (BDD) 
n. 
way out, escape – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Etymologically probably related to ↗badda ‘to distribute, spread, disperse’.
 
▪ … 
… 
▪ Lane reports that in ClassAr dictionaries, the word is interpretated as signifying a ‘separating o.s.’, or an ‘artifice whereby one may avoid a thing or escape from it’, or the ‘avoiding a thing’. Accord. to Lane, the word is not used but in negative phrases, except by post-classical writers.
▪ The common phrase lā budda min ka-ḏā is explained by Lane as ‘there is no separating o.s. from such a thing, there is no artifice whereby one may avoid it, or escape from it; there is no avoiding it, hence: it is absolutely necessary; it is not possible to separate o.s. from it, nor is there anything that can serve in its stead’. 
– 
– 
²budd بُدّ , pl. bidadaẗ , ʔabdād 
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√BDː (BDD) 
n. 
idol – WehrCowan1979. 
The current opinion is that the word entered Ar as a borrowing from Pers but ‘idol’, but may ultimately (via Sogd?) be related to Indian words for Buddha. There is, however, also other research that puts it in a Sem, and even a wider AfrAs, context, see COGN and DISC below. 
▪ … 
▪ Against the current opinion, Orel&Stolbova1994 and Militarev2006 do not assume a Pers but a Sem < AfrAs origin. Inside Sem, they put Ar budd ‘idol’ (and bdd ‘to cause dammage’) together with Hbr bad ‘oracle priest’, Gz budā, Tña Amh Har Gur buda ‘one who causes harm by means of the evil eye’; cf. also Te bozzay ‘magician’; also Amor baddum ‘official’ seems to be related. Cf. also Hbr Aram Ar MSA *bdʔ ‘to lie, invent, talk loosely’. – As outside Sem evidence, the authors list: bádǝ̀-rà ‘sorcerer’ in a WCh lang; bǝ́bǝ́ḍé, bùbbùḍḍe ‘curse’ in some ECh idioms; Bilin bawda ‘witch-doctor; verwolf’ as well as buda ‘id.’ in two other CCush (Agaw) langs; Sa budā, Af buda ‘witch-doctor’; (LEC) Som bida, Or bawda ‘witch-doctor’; Sid bud-akko ‘who has evil eye’, as well as buda, būdo in 3 other HEC langs, meaning either ‘who has evil eye’ or ‘potter’; budo ‘witch-doctor’ in 2 Omot langs.
 
▪ Rolland2014: From Pers but ‘idol’51 , IE *bʰeu‑ ‘to be, exist’. The reduplication of the final consonant is regular. The change from Pers t to Ar d is unusual but can be explained as a result of the influence of ↗budd_1 ‘way out, escape’.
▪ In contrast, Dozy1881 thinks that, »[d]ans le sens d’‘idole’, budd ne semble être rien autre chose que Bouddha «. In the same vein, Carra de Vaux states that »budd denotes the Buddha« in authors such as al-Ǧāḥiẓ, al-Masʕūdī, al-Bīrūnī, or al-Šahrastānī; »[t]he principal instance of the use of the word in the sense of ‘pagoda’ occurs in a passage in the Merveilles de l’Inde;52 this sense [however] appears to be the rarest, although given as the primary sense in the LA53
▪ In Tu, the word appears in two forms, but (~ put) and büt (~ püt). According to Nişanyan (13Okt2014), both ultimately go back to Skr buddha. büt is attested already in Uyghur texts before 1000 CE, meaning ‘Buddha’ (some Turkic tribes had adopted Buddhism in C10-11). In contrast, the form but (~ put) is said to be taken from Pers but, from Soghd bud ‘Buddha, Buddha statue or temple’, from Skr.
▪ Neither Orel&Stolbova1994 nor Militarev2006 (in StarLing) see the Pers connection. Instead, the latter reconstructs (#1930) Sem *ba/ud‑ ‘oracle priest; pagan temple, idoleum; one who causes harm by means of the evil eye’, WCh *bad‑ (?) ‘sorcerer’, ECh *bu-buḍ‑ ‘curse’,54 CCush (Agaw) *baw˅d‑ ‘witch-doctor; verwolf’, SaAf *bud‑, LEC *baw˅d‑, Omot *bud‑ ‘witch-doctor’, HECush *bud‑ ‘who has evil eye; potter’.55 Based on the Sem and extra-Sem material, the author reconstructs AfrAs *baw˅d‑ ‘sorcerer’. 
▪ Engl Buddha, which entered the language by the 1680 s, is certainly not taken from Ar budd. It may however go back, via Pali, to the same Skr word, meaning ‘awakened, enlightened’, to which also Ar budd ultimately can be traced back. The Pali word is a PP of budh ‘to awake, know, perceive’, related to Skr bodhati ‘is awake, observes, understands’ – EtymOnline
– 
ĭstibdād اِسْتِبْداد 
ID 057 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 4414 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BDː (BDD) 
n., C 
1 arbitrariness, highhandedness; 2 despotism; autocracy; absolutism – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Morphologically, the word is a vn. X, derived from budd in the (obsolete) sense of ‘part, portion’ and thus denotes taking possession of s.th., or monopolizing it.
▪ While in classical texts the word meant ‘arbitrary and capricious’ rather than ‘illegitimate or tyrannical rule’, it has taken on, during C19, the modern sense of ‘despotism’ etc. 
▪ Lane gives the meaning of the underlying vb. X in ClassAr as ‘to be(come) alone, independent of others, exclusively of others; to have none to share, or participate, with; bi‑ ‘to have or keep s.th. to o.s., exclusively, with none to share with in it; bi-raʔyi-hī ‘to follow o.’s own opinion only, with none to agree with; to be singular in o.’s opinion; bi-ʔamri-hī ‘to obtain (absolute) predominance, or control, over o.’s affair, so that people would not hear (or obey) any other’.
▪ »In the modern period, new experiences, perceptions and ideas, both at home and abroad, reshaped the theory and practice of politics in the Islamic lands. First, reports from Western lands, then the massive Western presence in the Islamic world changed Muslim perceptions of good and therefore also of bad government. [▪ …] As good government was redefined, bad government was redefined as a departure from it. [▪ … Among other terms, also] the term istibdād was revived to connote autocratic personal government. As used in classical texts, it had a connotation of arbitrary and capricious rather than of illegitimate or tyrannical rule. It was used, for example, of a ruler who took decisions and actions on his own, without consulting his religious or bureaucratic advisors. In Ar chronicles of the Mamlūk period it sometimes appears in a neutral or even in a positive sense, to indicate that one or another of contenders for power had got rid of his rivals and taken sole charge. In the 19th and 20th centuries, it came to be the term commonly used by advocates of liberal reforms to denounce the autocratic monarchs whom they wished either to restrain or to remove.«4 Cf., e.g., ʕAbd al-Raḥmān al-Kawākibī’s Ṭabāʔiʕ al-ĭstibdād wa-maṣāriʕ al-ĭstiʕbād, which first appeared, in 1900, as a series of anonymous articles in al-Muʔayyad and which to a large extent is »a faithful rendering in Arabic of Della Tirannide (1800) by Vittorio Alfieri«. 5  
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ vn. of ĭstabadda, vb. X, ‘to be independent, proceed independently (bi‑ in, e.g., in one’s opinion, i.e., to be opinionated, obstinate, headstrong); to possess alone, monopolize (bi‑ s.th.); to take possession (bi‑ of s.o.), seize, grip, overwhelm, overcome (bi‑ s.o.; said of a feeling, of an impulse); to dispose arbitrarily, highhandedly (bi‑ of s.th.); to rule despotically, tyrannically, autocratically (bi‑ over)’. Form X (TŠ-stem) can be understood as an autobenefactive or requestative formation, coined from budd in the (obsolete) sense of ‘part, portion’, i.e., *‘to make s.o. give his portion to o.s./the speaker, to ask for one’s portion’.
▪ The underlying budd is related to the vb. ↗badda ‘to distribute, spread, disperse’. The latter has preserved the original meaning of a 2-consonantal ↗*BD ‘to cut, separate’, a component to be found in many 3-consonantal roots that can be interpreted as extensions from this nucleus. 
– 
ĭstibdādī, adj., arbitrary, highhanded, autocratic, despotic; authoritarian; ĭstibdādiyyāt, n.pl., arbitrary acts: nsb-adj.
ĭstibdādiyyaẗ, n.f., autocracy; authoritarianism: abstr. formation in ‑iyyaẗ.
 
BDʔ بدأ 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
√BDʔ 
“root” 
▪ BDʔ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BDʔ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BDʔ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to begin, initiate, the beginning, the lead; chief, exceptional person’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
BDR بدر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last update 3Oct2022
√BDR 
“root” 
▪ BDR_1 ‘to come unexpectedly, by surprise’ ↗badara
▪ BDR_2 ‘full moon’ ↗badr
▪ BDR_3 ‘huge amount of money (formerly= 10,000 dirhams)’ ↗badraẗ ▪ BDR_4 ‘threshing floor’ ↗baydar
▪ BDR_ ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘full moon, sign, herald, harbinger; to give surprise, to take the initiative’ 
▪ BDR_1 badara ‘to come unexpectedly, by surprise’: …
▪ BDR_2 badr ‘full moon’: …
▪ BDR_3 badraẗ ‘huge amount of money (formerly= 10,000 dirhams)’: …
▪ BDR_4 baydar ‘threshing floor’: …
▪ BDR_ …
 
– 
DRS 2 (1994) #BDR-1 Ar badara ‘surprendre, arriver inopinément, précipitamment’, badāri (interj.) ‘hâte-toi!’; ThamAr bdr ‘hâte-toi!’; Gz badara ‘être véloce, prévenir’, badr ‘cursus’; Te badra ‘se hâter, précéder, rattraper, rivaliser’; bədrat ‘hâte’.(?); ? nSyr lᵊ-bádder lᵊ-baddâr ‘dehors’. -2 Akk buddur- : objet en de roseau, ‘panier (?)’. -3 Ar badr ‘pleine lune, lune’. -4 badraẗ ‘chevrette’. -5 Soq n-bdr ‘être tacheté’. -6 Amh abäddärä ‘prêter de l’argent’, bədər ‘prêt, revanche, vengeance’. -7 Har bädri : vêtement féminin de dessus.
▪ Outside Sem, Borg2021#27 (b-d-r) compares Eg ꜣbd (OK) ‘month’; ‘mois, mois lunaire’ (Faulkner 1962: 2; Meeks 2010: 42).
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
badar- بَدَر , u 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Oct2022
√BDR 
vb., I 
1 to come unexpectedly, by surprise; 2 to escape (min s.o.; e.g., words in excitement) – WehrCowan1976 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994) #BDR-1 Ar badara ‘surprendre, arriver inopinément, précipitamment’, badāri (interj.) ‘hâte-toi!’; ThamAr bdr ‘hâte-toi!’; Gz badara ‘être véloce, prévenir’, badr ‘cursus’; Te badra ‘se hâter, précéder, rattraper, rivaliser’; bədrat ‘hâte’.(?); ? nSyr lᵊ-bádder lᵊ-baddâr ‘dehors’. -2-7 ....
▪ … 
BP#2917bādara, vb. III, 1 to come to s.o.’s mind, occur to s.o. all of a sudden, strike s.o. (idea, notion); 2 to embark, enter (ʔilà upon s.th.) or set out (ʔilà to do s.th.) without delay; 3a to rush, hurry (ʔilà to s.o., to a place); b to hurry up (bi- with s.th.); c ~ ʔilà with foll. verbal noun: to do s.th. promptly, without delay, hasten to do s.th.; 4 to fall upon s.o with (bi-), accost, assail, surprise (bi- s.o. with s.th.; e.g., ~ bi-kalām ġalīẓ, to snap rudely at s.o.); 5 to react, respond (ʔilà to s.th.): L-stem \ | ~ ʔilà ʔinǧāzi l-waʕd, vb., to set out to fulfill a promise
tabādara, vb. VI, 1 ~ ʔilà al-ḏihn, to suggest itself strongly, be obvious; 2 to appear at first glance as if (ʔanna): Lt-stem | ~ ʔilà ḏihnī ʔanna, it occurred to me all of a sudden that …; ~ ʔilà l-fahm, to be immediately understood
ĭbtadara, vb. VIII, 1 to hurry, rush, hasten (to); 2 to get ahead of s.o., anticipate, forestall (s.o.): Gt-stem | ~-hā qāʔilan, expr., before she could say a word he exclaimed…
badāri, interj., hurry! quick!
BP#1105mubādaraẗ, pl. -āt, n.f., undertaking, enterprise: vn. III
BP#4525bādiraẗ, pl. bawādirᵘ, n.f., 1 herald, harbinger, precursor, forerunner, first indication, sign; 2 unforeseen act; 3 stirring, impulse, fit (e.g., of rage); 4 blunder, mistake; 5 stirrings, impulses: PA I.f | ~ ḫayr, n.f., a good, or generous, impulse

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗badr, ↗badraẗ, and ↗baydar, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√BDR. 
badr بدْر , pl. budūr 
ID 058 • Sw – • BP 5714 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 3Oct2022
√BDR 
n. 
full moon – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994) #BDR-1-2 .... -3 Ar badr ‘pleine lune, lune’. -4-7 ....
▪ Outside Sem, Borg2021#27 (b-d-r) compares Eg ꜣbd (OK) ‘month’; ‘mois, mois lunaire’ (Faulkner 1962: 2; Meeks 2010: 42).
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗badara, ↗badraẗ, and ↗baydar, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√BDR. 
badraẗ بَدْرة , pl. -āt, bidār 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Oct2022
√BDR 
n.f. 
huge amount of money (formerly= 10,000 dirhams) – WehrCowan1976 
▪ … 
badarāt al-ʔamwāl, n.pl., enormous sums of money

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗badara, ↗badr, and ↗baydar, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√BDR. 
mutabādir مُتَبادِر 
Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√BDR 
adj. 
▪ …PA, VI 
baydar بَيْدَر , pl. bayādirᵘ 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Oct2022
√BDR 
n. 
threshing floor – WehrCowan1976 
▪ … 
For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗badara, ↗badr, and ↗badraẗ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√BDR. 
BDʕ بدع 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BDʕ 
“root” 
▪ BDʕ_1 ‘to introduce, originate, do for the first time, be the first to do s.th.’ ↗badaʕa, ‘innovation, novelty; heretical doctrine, heresy’ ↗bidʕaẗ
▪ BDʕ_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘novelty, to produce s.th. new, to ongmate, to contrive; new fashion, heresy’ 
▪ … 
– 
DRS 2 (1994) #BDʕ-1 Ar badaʕa ‘produire, inventer, commencer’; Te bədʕ ‘action soudaine’. -2 Ar ʔabdaʕa ‘rendre irrévocable (un serment etc.)’. -3 ʔabdaʕa ‘terrasser qn’, ‘être épuisé, à bout de forces’, ĭbtadaʕa ‘se séparer de qn’; MġrAr bəddaʕ fī ‘torturer (au fig.)’. -4 Ar badiʕa ‘engraisser (intr.)’, bidʕ, badiʕ, badīʕ, badig ‘dodu, gros’. -5 badʕiyyaẗ ‘gilet brodé’.
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
badaʕ- بَدَع , a (badʕ
ID – • Sw – • BP… • APD … • © SG | 3Oct2022
√BDʕ 
vb., I 
1 to introduce, originate, start, do for the first time (s.th.), be the first to do s.th.; 2 to devise, contrive, invent (s.th.) – WehrCowan1976 
▪ … 
baddaʕa, vb. II, to accuse of heresy (s.o.): D-stem, denom., from ↗bidʕaẗ.
ʔabdaʕa, vb. IV, 1 = I; 2 to create (s.th.); 3 to achieve unique, excellent results ( in); 4 to be amazing, outstanding ( in s.th.)
ĭbtadaʕa, vb. VIII, to invent, contrive, devise, think up (s.th.): Gt-stem, self-ref.
ĭstabdaʕa, vb. X, to regard as novel, as unprecedented (s.th.): *Št-stem, declarative

badʕ, n., 1a innovation, novelty; b creation | badʕan wa-ʕawdan, adv., repeatedly
bidʕ, pl. ʔabdāʕ, 1 n., innovator; 2 adj., a new, original; b unprecedented, novel | lā ~, interj., no wonder!; lā ~ ʔan, expr., no wonder that …; ~ min, 1a n., s.th. else than; b adj., unlike, different from
bidʕaẗ, pl. bidaʕ, n.f., 1 innovation, novelty; 2 heretical doctrine, heresy; 3 pl. creations (of fashion, of art) | ʔahl al-~, n., heretics
BP#4393badīʕ, pl. budʕ, 1 adj., unprecedented, marvelous, wonderful, amazing, admirable, singular, unique; 2 n., creator | ʕilm al-~, n., the art or science of metaphors and (in general) of good style: quasi-PP
badīʕaẗ, pl. badāʔiʕ, n.f., 1 an astonishing, amazing thing, a marvel, a wonder; 2 original creation: quasi-PP.f
badīʕī, adj., rhetorical: nsb-formation, from ↗badīʕ
ʔabdaʕᵘ, adj., 1 more amazing, more exceptional; 2 of even greater originality: elat. formation
BP#1642ʔibdāʕ, n., 1 creation, fashioning, shaping; 2 a marvelous, unique achievement; 3 uniqueness, singularity, originality; 4 creative ability: vn. IV
ʔibdāʕī, adj., romantic (lit.): nsb-formation, from ↗ʔibdāʕ
ʔibdāʕiyyaẗ, n.f., romanticism (lit.): abstr. formation in iyyaẗ, based on ↗ʔibdāʕ
BP#2455mubdiʕ, adj., 1 producing, creating; 2a creative; b creator; 3 exceptional, unique, outstanding (in an achievement, esp. of an artist): PA IV
mubtadiʕ, n., 1a innovator; b creator; 2 heretic: PA VIII
 
bidʕaẗ بِدْعة , pl. bidaʕ 
ID 059 • Sw – • BP??? • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BDʕ 
n.f. 
1 innovation, novelty; 2 heretical doctrine, heresy; 3 pl. creations (of fashion, of art) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
ʔahl al-bidʕaẗ, n., heretics

baddaʕa, vb. II, to accuse of heresy (s.o.): D-stem, denom., from ↗bidʕaẗ.
 
ʔibdāʕ إِبْداع 
Sw – • NahḍConBP 1642 • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√BDʕ 
n. 
▪ vn., IV 
BDL بدل 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BDL 
“root” 
▪ BDL_1 ‘to replace, exchange’ ↗badala
▪ BDL_2 ‘suit (of clothes), costume’ ↗badlaẗ

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘substitute, alternative, replacement; to replace, to exchange, to alter; to trade, to barter’ 
▪ From protSem *√BDL ‘to change, divide, separate’ – Huehnergard2011.
▪ … 
– 
DRS 2 (1994) #BDL-1 Hbr *nibdal ‘se mettre à part; se séparer’, hibdīl ‘séparer l’un de l’autre’; nHbr bādal ‘séparer, diviser, distinguer’; TalmAram bᵊdal ‘s’abstenir de’; nHbr ʔabdālā, JP ʔabdaltā ‘séparation’; nSyr bādil ‘changer’; ? Ug bdl(m) (pl.) ‘marchands’; Ar badala, ʔabdala ‘échanger’; SAr bdlt ‘expiation’, Soq bdl ‘être changé’; Mhr hebdūl ‘changer’; Te bädlä ‘changer’; Tña bäddälä ‘faire du troc’; ? Har bädäl ‘groupe de garçons en rapport d’amitié avec un groupe de filles’. -2 Ar badila ‘avoir une douleur des articulations’; SAr bdln ‘douleur articulaire’; Tña Amh bäddälä ‘nuire, maltraiter offenser’; bädäl ‘offense’. -3 Hbr bᵊdīl ‘étain’. -4 Gz badl, badal ‘fève’.
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
badal- بَدَل , u 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Oct2022
√BDL 
vb., I 
to replace (bi- s.th, by), exchange (bi- s.th. for) – WehrCowan1976 
▪ … 
BP#4613baddala, vb. II, 1 to change, alter (s.th. to), convert (s.th. into); 2 to substitute (for s.th., bi- or min s.th.), exchange, give in exchange (s.th., bi- or min for); 3 to change (s.th.): D-stem, ints./caus.
bādala, vb. III, to exchange (with s.o. s.th.): L-stem, associative
ʔabdala, vb. IV, 1 to replace (bi- s.th. by), exchange (bi- for s.th. s.th. else); 2 to compensate (bi- s.o. for s.th. with s.th. else), give s.o. s.th. in exchange for (bi-): *Š-stem, caus.
tabaddala, vb. V, 1 to change; 2 to be exchanged: tD-stem, intr./pass.
tabādala, vb. VI, to exchange (s.th., also words, views, greetings): tL-stem, recipr.
ĭstabdala, vb. X, 1 to exchange, receive in exchange, trade, barter (bi- and bi- s.th. for); 2 to replace (bi- and bi- s.th. by), substitute (bi- and bi- for s.th. s.th. else): *Št-stem, desiderative

badal, pl. ʔabdāl, n., 1 substitute, alternate, replacement; 2 equivalent, compensation, setoff; 3 reimbursement, recompense, allowance; 4 price, rate; 5 (gram.) appositional substantive standing for an other substantive | ~ al-ǧirāyaẗ, n., allowance for food; ~ al-safariyyaẗ, n., travel allowance; ~ ĭštirāk, n., subscription rate; ~ al-tamṯīl, n., expense account, expense allowance
badalᵃ, prep., instead of, m. place of, in lieu of
BP#864badalᵃⁿ min, prep., in place of, in stead of, in lieu of
badlaẗ, pl. -āt, bidal, n.f., 1 suit (of clothes); 2 costume | ~ al-ḥammām, n.f., bathing suit; ~ rasmiyyaẗ, n.f., uniform; ~ tašrīfātiyyaẗ, n.f., full-dress uniform
badaliyyaẗ, n.f., compensation, smart money
badālᵃ, prep., instead of
badālᵃ , conj., instead of (being, doing, etc.)
BP#1434badīl, pl. budalāʔᵘ, n., 1 substitute, alternate (ʕan or min for); 2 stand-in, double (theat.); 3 (f. -aẗ) serving as a replacement or substitute: quasi-PP I | mafrazaẗ badīlaẗ, n.f., reserve detachment (mil.)
baddāl, n., 1 grocer; 2 money-changer: n.prof.
baddālaẗ, n.f., 1 culvert; 2 pipeline; 3 telephone exchange, central
mabādilᵘ, from mibḏal, 1 slipper; 2 casual clothing worn around home
BP#4775tabdīl, n., change, alteration: vn. II
mubādalaẗ, pl. -āt, n.f., exchange: vn. III | mubādalāt tiǧāriyyaẗ, n.f., commercial exchange, trade relations
ʔibdāl, n., exchange, interchange, replacement (bi- by), substitution (bi- of); 2 change; 3 phonetic change: vn. IV
tabaddul, n., 1 change, shift, turn; 2 transformation; 3 transmutation, conversion: vn. V
BP#1602tabādul, n., (mutual) exchange: vn. VI | ~ al-salām, n., exchange of greetings; ~ al-ḫawāṭir, n., thought transference, telepathy
BP#4229ĭstibdāl, n., exchange, replacement, substitution: vn. X
mubdil: ~ al-usṭuwānāt, n., automatic record changer: PA IV
BP#2734mutabādal, adj., mutual, reciprocal: PP VI
 
badlaẗ بدْلة , pl. -āt, bidal 
ID 060 • Sw – • BP 6602 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BDL 
n.f. 
1 suit (of clothes); 2 costume – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ …
 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
badlaẗ al-ḥammām, n.f., bathing suit;
badlaẗ rasmiyyaẗ, n.f., uniform;
badlaẗ tašrīfātiyyaẗ, n.f., full-dress uniform

 
BDN بدن 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
√BDN 
“root” 
▪ BDN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BDN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BDN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘torso, body; to be fat; to be fleshy; to be old; a camel or cow fattened for sacrifice in pre-Islamic ritual’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
BDW بدو 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BDW 
“root” 
▪ BDW_1 ‘desert; nomads, Bedouins’ ↗bādiyaẗ, ↗badw
▪ BDW_2 ‘to appear, show, become evident, clear, come to light, be obvious, seem’ ↗badā
▪ BDW_3 ‘whim, caprice; ill-humor’ ↗badāẗ
▪ BDW_ ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to appear, to manifest; to disclose, to show; to come to one’s mind; the open desert; to go to the desert; desert dwellers, bedouins’ 
▪ BDW_1: From WSem *√BDW ‘to be(come) desolate, desert’; n. *badw‑ ‘desert’ – Huehnergard2011.
 
– 
DRS 2 (1994) #BDW/Y-1 Ar badā ‘s’en aller dans le désert, mener une vie nomade’, badw ‘vie bédouine’, bādiyaẗ ‘steppe, plaine semi-désertique’; Gz badwa ‘être désolé, inculte’, badw ‘désert’; Amh bäda, Te bädu, badob, Tña bado ‘désert, brousse’. -2 Ar badā ‘paraître, surgir, se manifester’; SAr bʔdm ‘publiquement’. -3 nSyr bādūwā ‘tisonnier’. -4 Har bädu ‘croupe (d’un animal)’.
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ Engl Bedouinbadw
– 
bādiyaẗ بادِيَة 
ID 061 • Sw – • BP 4322 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BDW 
n.f. 
1 desert, semidesert, steppe; 2 peasantry; 3 pl. bawādin, det. bawādī, nomads, Bedouins – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ From WSem *√BDW ‘to be(come) desolate, desert’; n. *badw‑ ‘desert’ – Huehnergard2011. 
▪ … 
▪ See ↗badw.
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
tabaddà, vb. V, 1badā; 2 to live in the desert: tD-stem, denom.
tabādà, vb. VI, to pose as a Bedouin: tL-stem, denom., imitative

badāwaẗ, var. bidāwaẗ, n.f., 1 desert life, Bedouin life; 2 Bedouinism, nomadism
baydāʔᵘ, n.f., desert, steppe, wilderness, wild
bādⁱⁿ, det. al-bādī, 1badā; 2 adj., inhabiting the desert; 3 n., pl. budāẗ, Bedouins

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗badw, ↗badā and ↗badāẗ, as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√BDW. 
badw بدْو 
ID 062 • Sw – • BP??? • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 4Oct2022
√BDW 
n. 
1 desert; 2a nomads; b Bedouins – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ From WSem *√BDW ‘to be(come) desolate, desert’; n. *badw‑ ‘desert’ – Huehnergard2011. 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994) #BDW/Y, 1 Ar badā ‘s’en aller dans le désert, mener une vie nomade’, badw ‘vie bédouine’, bādiyaẗ ‘steppe, plaine semi-désertique’; Gz badwa ‘être désolé, inculte’, badw ‘désert’; Amh bäda, Te bädu, badob, Tña bado ‘désert, brousse’. -2-4 […]
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Bedouin, from Ar badawiyyīn ‘Bedouins’, pl. of badawī ‘nomadic, Bedouin’, from badw ‘desert, nomads, Bedouins’. 
tabaddà, vb. V, 1badā; 2 to live in the desert: tD-stem, denom.
tabādà, vb. VI, to pose as a Bedouin: tL-stem, denom., imitative

BP#3441badawī, adj., 1 Bedouin, nomadic; 2 rural (as distinguished from urban); 3 a Bedouin: nsb-formation
badawiyyaẗ, pl. -āt, n.f., Bedouin woman, Bedouin girl: f. of badawī
badāwaẗ, var. bidāwaẗ, n.f., 1 desert life, Bedouin life; 2 Bedouinism, nomadism
baydāʔᵘ, n.f., desert, steppe, wilderness, wild
bādⁱⁿ, det. al-bādī, 1badā; 2 adj., inhabiting the desert; 3 n., pl. budāẗ, Bedouins
BP#4322bādiyaẗ, n.f., 1 desert, semidesert, steppe; 2 peasantry; 3 pl. bawādⁱⁿ, det. bawādī, nomads, Bedouins

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗badā and ↗badāẗ, as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√BDW. 
badā / badaw- بدا/بدوـ , u 
ID – • Sw – • BP329 • APD … • © SG | 4Oct2022
√BDW 
vb., I 
1 to appear, show, become evident, clear, plain or manifest, come to light; 2 to be obvious; 3 to seem good, acceptable, proper (li- to s.o.) – WehrCowan1976 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994) #BDW/Y, 1 ... -2 Ar badā ‘paraître, surgir, se manifester’; SAr bʔdm ‘publiquement’. -3-4 ....
▪ … 
bādà, vb. III, to show, display, evince, manifest, reveal, declare openly: L-stem | ~ bi-’l-ʕadāwaẗ, vb., to show open hostility
BP#2091ʔabdà, vb. IV, 1 to disclose, reveal, manifest, show, display, evince (s.th.); 2 to demonstrate, bring out, bring to light, make visible (s.th.); 3 to express, utter, voice (s.th.): *Š-stem, caus. | ~ raʔya-hū, vb., to express one’s opinion about; ~ raġbatan, vb., to express a wish or desire
tabaddà, vb. V, 1 = I; 2badw: tD-stem

ʔibdāʔ, n., expression, manifestation, declaration: vn. IV
bādⁱⁿ, det. al-bādī, adj., 1 apparent, evident, obvious, plain, visible; 2-3badw

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗badw, ↗bādiyaẗ and ↗badāẗ, as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√BDW. 
badāẗ بَداة , pl. badawāt 
ID – • Sw – • BP… • APD … • © SG | 4Oct2022
√BDW 
n.f. 
1 whim, caprice; 2 ill-humor – WehrCowan1976 
▪ … 
For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗badw, ↗bādiyaẗ and ↗badā as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√BDW. 
BḎR بذر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BḎR 
“root” 
▪ BḎR_1 ‘…’ ↗baḏr
▪ BḎR_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘seed, seedling, to sow; to disseminate; to divulge; to squander, to waste’ 
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DRS 2 (1994) #BḎR: Ar buḏr ‘pousse, germe’: une autre valeur de la racine P/BḎ/ZR.
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▪ … 
– 
– 
baḏr بَذْر , pl. buḏūr, biḏār 
ID 063 • Sw 24/131 • BP 4306 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, laste updated 4Oct2022
√BḎR 
n.coll. 
1a seeds, seed; b seedling; c pl. buḏūr, pips, pits, stones (of fruit) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Kogan2011: replaces the main protSem term for ‘seed’, *ḏarʕ‑ (of which Ar ↗ZRʕ ‘to cultivate’ is a reflex).
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994) #BḎR: Ar buḏr ‘pousse, germe’: une autre valeur de la racine P/BḎ/ZR.
▪ … 
– 
baḏara, u (baḏr), vb. I, to sow, disseminate (s.th., seed, also fig. = to spread): denom.(?)
baḏḏara, vb. II, to waste, squander, dissipate (s.th.): D-stem, ints.

baḏraẗ, n.f., 1 a seed, a grain; 2 pip, pit, stone (of fruit); 3 germ; 4 (fig.) germ cell (of a development, and the like): n.un.
biḏār, n., seedtime
taḏbīr, n., waste, squandering, dissipation: vn. II
mubaḏḏir, n., squanderer, wastrel, spendthrift: PA II
 
BḎL بذل 
Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√BḎL 
“root” 
▪ … 
ĭbtiḏāl اِبْتِذال 
Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√BḎL 
n. 
▪ vn., VIII 
BRː (BRR) برّ/برر 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
√ BRː (BRR) 
“root” 
▪ BRː (BRR)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BRː (BRR)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BRː (BRR)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘open country, desert, wilderness, land (as opposed to sea); to be free of impurity, be free of guilt, be pious, be devoted; to fulfil one’s promise, wheat, goodness’ 
▪ From protSem *√BRR ‘to be(come) clear, pure, white’ – Huehnergard2011.
▪ …
 
– 
– 
– 
BRʔ برء 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BRʔ 
“root” 
▪ BRʔ_1 ‘to create (said of God)’ ↗baraʔa
▪ BRʔ_2 ‘to be(come) free, cleared (from guilt, blame, etc.); to recover (from an illness)’ ↗bariʔa, ‘guiltless, innocent’ ↗barīʔ
▪ BRʔ_ ‘…’ ↗ 
▪ … 
– 
DRS 2 (1994) #BRʔ-1 Pun brʔ ‘graveur(?)’; Hbr *bērē(ʔ) ‘couper des arbres, éclaircir une forêt’; Ar tabāraʔa ‘se séparer (époux)’; Liḥ baraʔ ‘sculpter, creuserʼ. -?2 Hbr bārā ‘créer (Dieu)’; Aram bᵊrā, Mand bra, nSyr bārī, Ar baraʔa ‘créer’; SAr brʔ ‘bâtir, faire’; Soq bere, Mhr bīrū, Śḥr buri ‘mettre au monde, enfanter’; Soq bérhe ‘père’, bóreh ‘mère’, míbrhe, Śḥr embéra ‘enfant’. -3 Pun bryʔh ‘sécurité, tranquillité’; Hbr bārā ‘manger, se fortifier (malade)’, bārī ‘engraissé (animal)’; JP brʔ ‘sain, guéri’; Talm bᵊrā ‘être fort’, bārī ‘sain, fort, gras’; Syr bᵊrē ‘libre’; Ar bariʔa ‘guérir, être guéri; être innocent, absous, libéré’; DaṯAr bariyy, mibri ‘exempt’; ṮamAr bry ‘(ma?) guérison’; Liḥ barāʔat ‘guérison’; SAr bry ‘sauver; santé, abondance’; Śḥr brʔ ‘exempter’; Soq berí ‘libre, exempt’; ?Te bäräy ‘graisse (des entrailles)’.
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baraʔ- بَرَأ , a (barʔ
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 4Oct2022
√BRʔ 
vb., I 
to create (s.th., said of God) – WehrCowan1976 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994) #BRʔ-1 Pun brʔ ‘graveur(?)’; Hbr *bērē(ʔ) ‘couper des arbres, éclaircir une forêt’; Ar tabāraʔa ‘se séparer (époux)’; Liḥ baraʔ ‘sculpter, creuserʼ. -?2 Hbr bārā ‘créer (Dieu)’; Aram bᵊrā, Mnd bra, nSyr bārī, Ar baraʔa ‘créer’; SAr brʔ ‘bâtir, faire’; Soq bere, Mhr bīrū, Śḥr buri ‘mettre au monde, enfanter’; Soq bérhe ‘père’, bóreh ‘mère’, míbrhe, Śḥr embéra ‘enfant’. -3 […].
▪ …
 
barʔ, n., creation
bariyyaẗ, pl. -āt, barāyā, n.f., 1 creation (= that which is created); 2 creature
al-bāriʔ, n., the Creator (God)

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗bariʔa and ↗barīʔ as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√BRʔ. 
bariʔ- بَرِئ , a (barāʔaẗ
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 4Oct2022
√BRʔ 
vb., I 
1 to be or become free, be cleared (min from, esp. from guilt, blame, etc., ʔlà, toward s.o.); 2 to recover (min from an illness) – WehrCowan1976 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994) #BRʔ-1-2 […]. -3 Pun bryʔh ‘sécurité, tranquillité’; Hbr bārā ‘manger, se fortifier (malade)’, bārī ‘engraissé (animal)’; JP brʔ ‘sain, guéri’; Talm bᵊrā ‘être fort’, bārī ‘sain, fort, gras’; Syr bᵊrē ‘libre’; Ar bariʔa ‘guérir, être guéri; être innocent, absous, libéré’; DaṯAr bariyy, mibri ‘exempt’; ṮamAr bry ‘(ma?) guérison’; Liḥ barāʔat ‘guérison’; SAr bry ‘sauver; santé, abondance’; Śḥr brʔ ‘exempter’; Soq berí ‘libre, exempt’; ?Te bäräy ‘graisse (des entrailles)’.
▪ …
 
barraʔa, vb. II, to free, clear, acquit, absolve, exculpate (s.o., min from suspicion, blame, guilt): D-stem, caus. | ~ sāḥaẗ al-raǧul, expr., he acquitted the man
ʔabraʔa, vb. IV, 1 to acquit, absolve, discharge, exculpate (s.o.); 2 to cause to recover, cure, heal (s.o.): *Š-stem, caus. | ~ dimmata-hū, vb., to clear s.o. or o.s. from guilt, exonerate s.o. or o.s.
tabarraʔa, vb. V, 1 to clear o.s. (min from suspicion, from a charge), free o.s. (min from responsibility, etc.), rid o.s. (min of); 2 to declare o.s. innocent, wash one’s hands (min of); 3 to be acquitted: tD-stem, self-ref.
ĭstabraʔa, vb. X, 1 to restore to health, cure, heal (s.o.); 2 to free o.s. (min from), rid o.s. (min of): *Št-stem, desiderative
burʔ, var. burūʔ, n., convalescence, recovery
BP#1673barīʔ, pl. ʔabriyāʔᵘ, burāʔ, birāʔ, adj., 1 free, exempt (min from), devoid (min of); 2a guiltless, innocent; 2b guileless, harmless; 3 healthy, sound: quasi-PP I
barāʔ, adj., free, exempt (min from) | ḏimmatu-hū ~ min, expr., he is innocent of...
BP#3104barāʔaẗ, n.f., 1 being free; 2 disavowal, withdrawal; 3 innocence, guiltlessness; 4 naiveté, guilelessness, artlessness; 5 (pl. -āt), license, diploma, patent: vn. I | ~ ĭḫtirāʕ, n.f., patent on an invention; ~ al-tanfīḏ, n.f., exequatur (a written authorization of a consular officer, issued by the government to which he is accredited); ~ al-ṯiqaẗ, n.f., (Tun.) credentials (dipl.); ~ al-ḏimmaẗ, n.f., 1 harmless; 2 without guilt, innocent
tabriʔaẗ, n.f., 1 freeing, exemption; 2 acquittal, absolution, discharge, exoneration: vn. II
mubāraʔaẗ, n.f., mubarat, divorce by mutual consent of husband and wife, either of them waiving all claims by way of compensation (Isl. Law): vn. III
ʔibrāʔ, n., 1 acquittal, absolution, release; 2 release of a debtor from his liabilities, remission of debt (Isl. Law): vn. IV
ĭstibrāʔ: ~ al-ḥamal, n., the ceremony of selecting and purifying the Host before Mass (Copt.-Chr.): vn. X

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗baraʔa as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√BRʔ. 
barīʔ بَرِيء , pl. ʔabriyāʔᵘ, burāʔ, birāʔ 
ID 064 • Sw – • BP 1673 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BRʔ 
adj. 
1 free, exempt (min from), devoid (min of); 2a guiltless, innocent; b guileless, harmless; 3 healthy, sound – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ ↗bariʔa 
▪ … 
▪ ↗bariʔa
▪ … 
▪ ↗bariʔa
▪ … 
– 
For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗baraʔa and ↗bariʔa as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√BRʔ. 
BRǦ برج 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BRǦ 
“root” 
▪ BRǦ_1 ‘to show, play up o.’s charms (woman), adorn herself, make herself pretty (woman)’ ↗tabarraǧa
▪ BRǦ_2 ‘warship, battleship’ ↗bāriǧaẗ
▪ BRǦ_3 ‘tower; signs of the Zodiac’ ↗burǧ

Other meanings, now obsolete, include:
  • BRǦ_4 [= DRS #BRǦ-1] ‘to have abundant provisions, have good fare’: bariǧa a (baraǧ)
  • BRǦ_5 [= DRS #BRǦ-2] ‘beauty of the eyes’: baraǧ . – Cf. also ʔabraǧᵘ (f. barǧāʔᵘ, pl. burǧ) ‘having beautiful eyes’.
  • BRǦ_6 ‘experienced, able sailor’: bāriǧ(aẗ)
  • BRǦ_7 ‘rebellious, recalcitrant person’: bāriǧaẗ
  • BRǦ_8 [= DRS #BRǦ-5] ‘butterskin’2 : ʔibrīǧ
BAH2008: ‘height, prominence; beauty of the eyes; tower; signs of the zodiac; fortification; (of women) to display their charm’ 
While both bāriǧaẗ ‘battleship’ (BRǦ_2) and burǧ ‘tower’ (BRǦ_3) traditionally have been regarded, by non-Arab etymologists, as foreign words, ClassAr lexicography as well as, recently, also Rolland derive them from the same Ar root BRǦ as also all the other values. The original meaning of the root is given as ‘to be(come) apparent, manifest, conspicuous, high, elevated’ by Lane (bariǧa, a, baraǧ), ‘glänzen’ (to shine, be brilliant, glare, gleam) by Fraenkel1886:235,12 and ‘to deal a blow’ by Rolland2015_BRǦ. 
In adition to the items mentioned above, dictionaries of ClassAr still list the following:
▪ BRǦ_3 : 1 denom. barraǧa, IV ʔabraǧa ‘to build a tower’; 2 denom. baraǧa u ‘to appear; to ascend (stars)’, II barraǧa ‘to augur s.th. by the course of the stars’
▪ BRǦ_2, 6, 7: For bāriǧ, ClassAr dictionaries give not only ‘experienced, able sailor’ but (hence?) also ‘liberal (ḫuluq disposition)’; and bāriǧaẗ is not only ‘warship, battleship’ and ‘rebellious, recalcitrant person’, but also ‘cuirasse’ and ‘man-of-war’. 
DRS 2 #BRG-1 Ar bariǧa ‘avoir des provisions abondantes’; ?dial. mér. baraǧ ‘payer ses dettes’; SAr brg ‘acheter, donner le prix’. -2 Ar baraǧ ‘beauté (des yeux)’. -3 Te bärräg belä ‘être épouvanté’; Amh bäräggägä ‘tressaillir’; Te bärgä ‘se mettre en route’. -4 Syr burgā ‘tour’; Ar burǧ ‘fortin’. -5 Ar ʔibrīǧ ‘outre à beurre’. 
▪ ClassAr dictionaries tend to take bariǧa (a, baraǧ) ‘to be(come) apparent, manifest, conspicuous, high, elevated’ (Lane) as the etymon from which all other meanings are derived. For Gabal2012, the one basic meaning is ‘appearance/emergence of s.th. intensely brilliant, coming from inside a thing, on its surface’.
▪ In a similar vein, Rolland2015_BRǦ too thinks that almost all values to be found in this root, even burǧ ‘tower’, go back to one original meaning, which he thinks is *‘to deal a blow’ (porter un coup). From this, the author says, six new values developed (and produced further derivations): 1 ‘to cut’ (couper): barīǧ ‘quartier de fruit’, mubarraǧ ‘festonné’, baraǧ ‘séparation des sourcils’; 2 ‘to chop, split, dissect’ (fendre): burǧ ‘angle’, bāriǧ ‘marin habile’, bāriǧaẗ ‘vaisseau de guerre’; 3 ‘to pierce’ (percer): bariǧa ‘devenir apparent, manifeste, visible, être haut, élevé’, mubarraǧ ‘voyant’; 4 ‘to be brilliant, beautiful’ (être éclatant, beau, briller): tabarraǧa ‘se faire voir dans l’éclat de sa toilette et de sa parure, se parer’, baraǧ ‘éclat de l’œil qui consiste en ce que le noir de la prunelle est encadré dans le blanc bien prononcé; beau de visage; éclatant; beauté des yeux’, ʔabraǧ ‘qui a de beaux yeux’, burūǧ ‘constellations remarquables; signes du Zodiaque’; 5 ‘to leave a mark’ (laisser une marque): mubarraǧ ‘tacheté’; 6 ‘to beat [cream, butter]’ (briser): ʔibrīǧ ‘outre à beurre’. – Quant à une relation entre l’ensemble de vocables ci-dessus et ceux dont nous avons vu dès le début de cette étude qu’ils relevaient du parallelisme sémantique ‘manger’ > ‘être fort’: bariǧa ‘faire bonne chère, manger et boire beaucoup’, ou ‘avoir des provisions de bouche en abondance’, burǧ ‘force’, ʔabraǧ ‘plus fort’, burǧ ‘bastion; citadelle; fort, fortin; tour’, bāriǧaẗ ‘forte tête’.
▪ BRǦ_3 (DRS #BRG-4): Traditionally thought to be from Grk pýrgos, Lat burgus; but this is contested by the ClassAr lexicographers and also Rolland2015_BRǦ (while Rolland2014a still traces it back, via Aram burgā, to Grk pýrgos).
▪ BRǦ_2,6,7: For bāriǧaẗ in the sense of ‘vessel, battleship, flagship’, a Copt, an Ind and a Pers source have been suggested. Some believe also that it is the result of a fusion between the latter and burǧ < Aram burgā < Grk pýrgos. For these, the relation, if any, between bāriǧaẗ and bāriǧ ‘experienced sailor’ remains equally obscure. – In contrast, both ClassAr tradition and Rolland2015_BRǦ regard the item as derived from Ar BRǦ. 
▪ BRǦ_2 : According to a number of earlier studies, bāriǧaẗ ‘warship, battleship’ may be akin to Engl barge, bark, barque.
▪ BRǦ_3 : Traditionally, burǧ is regarded to be from Lat burgus or Grk pýrgos, which are of IE origin (IE *bʰergʰ- ‘high’, > *bʰergʰ-os ‘mountain’) and therefore related to many words in Eur langs, e.g. nHGe Berg ‘mountain’, Burg ‘fortress, stronghold, castle’. 
– 
tabarraǧ‑ تَبَرَّجَ 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BRǦ 
vb., V 
to display, show, play up her charms (woman); to adorn herself, make herself pretty (woman) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ According to ClassAr dictionaries the vb. V is derived from the obsolete vb. I, bariǧa (a, baraǧ) ‘to be(come) apparent, manifest, conspicuous, high, elevated’ (Lane). Rolland2015_BRǦ too thinks that almost all values to be found in the root ↗BRǦ (even ↗burǧ ‘tower’) go back to one original meaning. But he thinks this was *‘to deal a blow’ (porter un coup); in Rolland’s view, ‘to appear’, like also five other main values (see DISC in entry ↗BRǦ), is secondary. 
▪ eC7 tabarraǧa ([said only of women:] to adorn themselves in an enticing way, in a lust-causing way; to expose themselves in an alluring way) Q 33:33 wa-qarna fī buyūti-kunna wa-lā tabarraǧna tabarruǧa ’l-ǧāhiliyyaẗi ’l-ʔūlà ‘stay in your houses, and do not display your finery in the way of the pagans of old’. – mutabarriǧ ([said only of women:] those who flaunt their bodies in an alluring way, display their adornment enticingly) Q 24:60 wa’l-qawāʕidu min-a ’l-nisāʔi ’llātī lā yarǧūna nikāḥan fa-laysa ʕalay-hinna ǧunāḥun ʔan yaḍaʕna ṯiyāba-hunna ġayra mutabarriǧātin bi-zīnaaẗin ‘such women as are past childbearing who have no hope of marriage, there is no blame on them if they take off their [outer] garments, without however, flaunting their charms’. 
… 
See section CONC above. 
– 
For other items of the root, see ↗BRǦ, ↗burǧ, ↗bāriǧaẗ
burǧ بُرْج , pl. burūǧ , ʔabrāǧ 
ID 065 • Sw – • BP 2615 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BRǦ 
n. 
tower – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Traditionally, the word is seen as one of only 17 words in the Q that, ultimately, are of Grk origin, cf., e.g., EALL (Gutas, »Greek Loanwords«): a loan from Syr būrgā that goes back to Grk πύργος pýrgos.
▪ Both the indigenous tradition and Rolland2015_BRǦ, however, do not see a need to derive the word from a foreign source; rather, they regard it as a specilisation developed from bariǧa (a, baraǧ) ‘to be(come) apparent, manifest, conspicuous, high, elevated’ (Lane) or BRǦ ‘to deal a blow’ (Rolland). 
▪ eC7 1 (tower, castle) Q 4:78 ʔayna-mā takūnū yudriku-kum-u ’l-mawtu wa-law kuntum fī burūǧin mušayyadaẗin ‘wherever you may be, death will overtake you, even if you are inside lofty towers’, 2 (positions of the sun, moon and planets, constellations; signs of the zodiac) Q 15:16 wa-la-qad ǧaʕalnā fī ’l-samāʔi burūǧan wa-zayyannā-hā lil-nāẓirīna ‘We have set constellations up in the sky and made it beautiful for the beholders’. Cf. also 25:61 and 85:1 (all in the pl., burūǧ). 
DRS 2 #BRG-4 Syr burgā ‘tour’; Ar burǧ ‘fortin’. 
▪ R. Laffitte, SELEFA Séance 11/12/2014
▪ Jeffery1938: »The original meaning occurs in 4:78, but in the other passages it means the signs of the Zodiac, according to the general consensus of the Commentators, cf. as-Sijistānī, 63. – The philologers took the word to be from baraǧa ‘to appear’ (cf. Bayḍ. on 4:78; LA, iii: 33), but there can be little doubt that burūǧ represents the Grk pýrgos (Lat burgus), used of the towers on a city wall, as e.g. in Homer Od, vi: 262: pólios ḕn perì pýrgos hypsēlós. The Lat burgus (see Guidi, Della Sede, 579) is apparently the source of the Syr būrgā 56 ‘turret’, and perhaps of the Rabbinic bwrgyn, bwrgn ‘resting place or station for travellers’.57 From this sense of ‘stations (for travellers)’ it is an easy transition to ‘stations (of the heavenly bodies)’, i.e. the Zodiac. Syr būrgā is indeed used for the ‘Zodiac’ (PSm, 475), but this is late and probably under the influence of Ar usage. – It is possible that the word occurs in the meaning of ‘tower’ in a SAr inscription (D. H. Müller in ZDMG, xxx: 688), but the reading is not certain.58 Ibn Durayd, 229, also mentions it as occurring as a personal name in the pre-Islamic period. The probabilities are that it was a military word introduced by the Romans into Syria and NArabia,59 whence it passed into the Aram dialects60 and thence to Arabia. It would have been borrowed in the sg. form burǧ from which an Ar pl. was then formed.«
▪ Rolland2015_BRǦ: »Une certaine tradition étymologique61 a effectivement cru voir dans burǧ ‘bastion, tour, fortin’ un emprunt au Grk πύργος [pýrgos ] ‘tour, enceinte garnie de tours’, via l’Aram burgā ‘id.’. La racine IE serait *bʰergʰ- ‘hauteur fortifiée’. La liste de probables apparentés ne se limite pas à ceux-là puisqu’on a également Hit parku- ‘haut’, Skr pur- et purî-, mPers borz ‘haut’, Kurd berz ‘haut’, Arm burg ‘pyramide’, Germ *burgs (Fr bourg, Sp burche, Engl borough, Ge Berg, etc.). Tous ces mots, dont la liste est loin d’être exhaustive, semblent bien être des cognats mais les filiations sont difficiles à établir.62 On a certainement construit un peu partout – dans le Moyen Orient et ailleurs – des forts sur des hauteurs naturelles depuis la plus haute Antiquité.« But all this is not necessary, the author finds.
▪ Gabal2012 I:101, who defines the basic meaning of the Ar root BRǦ as ‘appearance/emergence of s.th. intensely brilliant from the inside of a thing on its surface’ (burūz nāṣiʕin qawiyyin min bayni mā yaktanifu-hū fī ẓāhir al-šayʔ), thinks that towers (of a city-wall, etc.) are called burūǧ because of the prominence, whiteness and height. 
56. So Fraenkel, Fremdw, 235, against Freytag and Rodiger, who claim that it is a direct borrowing from [Grk] pýrgos.  57. But see the discussion Krauss, Griechische Lehnwörter, ii: 143.  58. Müller in WZKM, 1: 28.  59. Vollers in ZDMG, 51: 312.  60. The Arm bowrgn [sic!] came probably through the Aramaic also. Cf. Hübschmann, Arm. Gramm, i: 393; Brockelmann in ZDMG, 47: 2.  61. Voir notamment Jeffery1938: 78.  62. Dolgopolsky2002#243 does not connect Ar burǧ < Grk pýrgos and the IE forms, but rather sees IE, Berb, Cush and Ar related; he puts together [Berb] Ahag burǵət ‘être soulevé, se soulever’, ETwl, Ty bъrgъt ‘être soulevé’, Ghad bəržēd ‘to stand up suddenly’,[Cush] Bj birga ‘high’, [EC] Or borgi ‘eminence, hill (Anhöhe, Hügel)’, adj. borgi ‘rising, eminent; erhaben, ansteigend’, Rn bū́r ‘big’, Som būr ‘mountain, bare-topped hill’, būran ‘stout’, būrān ‘stoutness’, [Sem] Gz √bgr (metath.) G of ‘to grow, become physically developed’, […] and IE *bʰergʰ- ‘high’(>*bʰergʰ-os ‘mountain’, > nPers borz ‘height, tallness; tall’, oLat forctus, Lat fortis ‘strong’, Celt *brig- ‘hill, high’, Got baírgahei ‘Gebirgsgegend’, oNo bjarg, berg, Dan bjerg, nNo, Swed, oHGe, oSax berg, nHGe Berg ‘mountain’; oNo borg ‘a height; fortress, city’, Got baurgs ‘Stadt, Turm’, Du borg, borcht, oSax, oHGe burg ‘castle, town; stronghold’, nHGe Burg ‘fortress, stronghold, castle’; Slav *bergъ ‘bank, steep slope’, Cz břeh ‘Ufer, Rand’, Pol brzeg, Ru Ukr bereg ‘bank, coast, shore’; Hit parku- ‘high’, park-, parkiya- ‘to raise, rise’ – all from a hypothetical Nostr *biʔ˅r˅gE ‘high, tall’. 
▪ See DISC above. 
burǧ al-ḥamām, n., pigeon house, dovecot
burǧ al-miyāh, n., water tower

For other items of the root, see ↗BRǦ, ↗tabarraǧa, ↗bāriǧaẗ
bāriǧaẗ بارِجة , pl. bawāriǧᵘ 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BRǦ 
n.f. 
1 warship, battleship; 2 barge – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ While earlier research tried to trace this word back, or at least somehow link it, to Ind, Pers, Copt, or m/lLat origins, ClassAr lexicographical tradition as well as Rolland2015_BRǦ stick to the Ar root ↗BRǦ, see DISC below. 
▪ … 
… 
▪ Rolland2014a#bāriǧaẗ ‘cuirassé, vaisseau amiral; forte tête’: »L’origine de ce mot est aussi obscure que celle des formes du lLat barca et du mLat barga qui sont à l’origine des Fr barque et Engl barge. Peut-être vient-il, come on l’a supposé pour ce dernier, du Copt bari via le Grk bâris ‘espèce de bateau plat utilisé en Égypte’, ou d’un autre bâris signifiant ‘domaine, grande maison fortifiée’ (Chantraine).63 Dozy le croit issu, après altération, d’un mot Ind bīrah ‘barque’. À moins qu’il ne vienne du Pers bār-gāh ‘cour royale, palais; ventre des femelles d’animaux’, ou qu’il ait quelque rapport avec ↗burǧ […]. Peut-être est-il enfin le résultat d’une fusion de tous ces éventuels étymons64 . Reig est le seul à donner le sens figuré de ‘forte tête’. Quant à un éventuel rapport avec bāriǧ ‘marin expérimenté’, donné par certains auteurs (dont Belot), il est possible, mais comme nous ignorons l’origine de ce dernier mot, cela ne nous avance guère.«
▪ Rolland2015_BRǦ: »nous faisons l’hypothese que les vocables burǧ ‘angle’, bāriǧ ‘marin habile’ et bāriǧaẗ ‘vaisseau de guerre’ relèvent… d’un sens disparu ‘couper, fendre’ qu’aura eu jadis une forme verbale de la racine √BRǦ.«
▪ Cf. also Gabal2012 I:101 who defines the basic meaning of the Ar root BRǦ as ‘appearance/emergence of s.th. intensely brilliant from the inside of a thing on its surface’ (burūz nāṣiʕin qawiyyin min bayni mā yaktanifu-hū fī ẓāhir al-šayʔ) and thinks that big ships are called bawāriǧᵘ because they appear so prominently on the surface of water, attracting attention through their bigness and height. 
▪ If there should be any relation between Ar bāriǧaẗ and m/lLat words for small vessels, then bāriǧaẗ is akin to Engl barge, »c. 1300, ‘small seagoing vessel with sails’, from oFr barge, oProv barca, from mLat barga, perhaps from Celt, or perhaps from Lat *barica, from Grk baris ‘Egyptian boat’, from Copt bari ‘small boat’«, and bark ‘any small ship’, »eC15, from mFr barque (C15), from lLat barca (c. 400), probably cognate with vulgLat *barica (see barge). More precise sense of ‘three-masted ship’ (C17) often is spelled barque to distinguish it« – EtymOnline
For other items of the root, see ↗BRǦ, ↗tabarraǧa, ↗burǧ
BRḤ برح 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
√BRḤ 
“root” 
▪ BRḤ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BRḤ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BRḤ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘wide empty expanse of land; to be clear, come out in the open; to depart; to cause hardship’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
BRD برد 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 3Oct2022
√BRD 
“root” 
▪ BRD_1 ‘cold’ ↗bard; ‘hail’ ↗barad,
▪ BRD_2 ‘garment’ ↗burd
▪ BRD_3 ‘to file (a piece of metal, etc.)’ ↗barada
▪ BRD_4 ‘collyrium’ ↗barūd
▪ BRD_5 ‘post, mail’ ↗barīd
▪ BRD_6 ‘papyrus’ ↗bardī
▪ BRD_7 ‘saltpeter; gunpodwer’ ↗bārūd
▪ BRD_ ‘…’ ↗
 
▪ BRD_1 bard ‘cold’, barad ‘hail’: from Sem *BRD‘to be cold’, *barad- ‘hail.’
▪ BRD_2 burd ‘garment’: perh. from Phlv pardag ‘curtain, veil’, from Ir partaka ‘piece of fabric, curtain’, from IE pelə ‘flat, extended’, or (Dozy) related to ↗bardī ~ burdī ‘papyrus’ (bot.) and ↗burdaẗ ‘long wollen gown made of wool’, cf. purdah.
▪ BRD_3 barada ‘to file (a piece of metal, etc.)’: …
▪ BRD_4 barūd ‘collyrium’: …
▪ BRD_5 barīd ‘post, mail’: traditionally regarded as a lw. from Pers, or Phlv, or (< ByzGrk) < lLat; but see discussion ↗s.v.
▪ BRD_6 bardī ‘papyrus’: …
▪ BRD_7 bārūd ‘saltpeter; gunpodwer’: prob. from nGrk purítida ‘id.’
▪ BRD_ ‘…’ ↗
 
– 
DRS 2 (1994) #BRD-1 Mand barda ‘froid’; Ar baruda ‘être froid, frais; être en bon état’; ṮamAr brd ‘adoucir une douleur’; SAr brd ‘froid’; Gz ʔabrada ‘refroidir’; Te bärd̈a, bärdädä, Amh bärrädä ‘devenir froid’. – Hbr bārād, oAram brd, JP Syr bardā, nSyr berda, Ar barad, SAr brd, Gz barad, Te Tña bäräd, Amh bärädo ‘grêle’. -2 Hbr *bārōd ‘tacheté’; Syr bārdā ‘foncé, couleur olive (vêtement)’; nSyr birdā ‘tacheté’; Ar burd : étoffe rayée ou à ramages; YemAr ʔabrad ‘bigarré’. -3 Ar barada ‘limer’; Śḥr eñberéd ‘lime’; Tña bärädä ‘limer’. -4 Ug brd ‘couper’?, ‘offrir’?. -5 Syr bʔrwd ‘nitre’, nSyr bārūd, bārūt ‘poudre à fusil, salpêtre’; Ar bārūd ‘salpêtre, nitre’; collAr ‘poudre à fusil’; Soq barūd, Mhr bārûd ‘poudre à fusil’. -6 Aram bʔrwdʔ, byrydʔ ‘cheval de poste’; Ar barīd ‘cheval ou chameau de poste, courrier’; SAr brdn ‘émissaire, ambassadeur’. -7 Te bärräǧä ‘danser la danse de guerre’; Har (tä)brāǧä ‘être secoué par des mouvements nerveux’; ?Amh täbräǧärräǧä ‘avoir le vertige pour avoir bu’. -8 Ar burdiyy : espèce de dattes (du Hedjaz). -9 bardiyy : sorte de roseau; (ʔa)bardī ‘touffe de papyrus’, waraq al-bardī ‘papier de papyrus’ -10 Amh boräǧ ‘jaunir (p.e. poivron)’.
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
bard بَرْد 
ID 066 • Sw 94/22 • BP 2242 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 4Oct2022
√BRD 
n. 
1a coldness, chilliness, coolness; b cooling; c cold, catarrh; 2 alleviation – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ …
▪ Cf. also ↗barad (from protWSem *barad‑) ‘hail’ (Kogan2011).
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994) #BRD-1 Mand barda ‘froid’; Ar baruda ‘être froid, frais; être en bon état’; ṮamAr brd ‘adoucir une douleur’; SAr brd ‘froid’; Gz ʔabrada ‘refroidir’; Te bärd̈a, bärdädä, Amh bärrädä ‘devenir froid’. – Hbr bārād, oAram brd, JP Syr bardā, nSyr berda, Ar barad, SAr brd, Gz barad, Te Tña bäräd, Amh bärädo ‘grêle’. -2-10 […].
▪ … 
▪ vn. I or the etymon proper?
▪ … 
– 
barada u, 1 to be or become cold; 2 to cool, cool off (also fig.); 3 to feel cold; 4 to cool, chill (s.th.); 5 to soothe, alleviate (pain): G-stem, denom. (?)
baruda u, to be or become cold: G-stem, denom.(?)
barrada, vb. II, 1a to make cold (s.th.); b to refrigerate (s.th.); c to cool, chill (s.th., also fig.); 2 to soothe, alleviate (pain): D-stem
tabarrada, vb. V, 1 to refresh o.s., cool o.s. off; 2 to be soothed, be alleviated: tD-stem, intr., self-ref.
ĭbtarada, vb. VIII, 1 to become cold, cool off: Gt-stem, self-ref.

barad, n., hail
baradaẗ, n.f., hailstone: n.un. of ↗barad
burūd, n., 1 coldness, coolness, chilliness; 2 emotional coldness, frigidity: vn. I of baruda
burūdaẗ, n.f., 1 coldness, coolness, chilliness; 2 emotional coldness, frigidity: vn. I of baruda | ~ al-dam, n.f., cold-bloodedness
bardiyyaẗ, n.f., ague, feverish chill
buradāʔᵘ, n., ague, feverish chill
barrād, n., 1 cold-storage plant; 2 refrigerator, icebox: ints.formation, quasi-n.instr.
tabrīd, n., 1 cooling, chilling; 2 cold storage, refrigeration; 3 alleviation, mitigation: vn. II | ǧahāz al-~, n., cold storage plant, refrigerator; ġurfaẗ al-~, n., cold-storage room
BP#1380bārid, adj., 1 cold; 2 cool, chilly; 3 easy; 4 weak; stupid, inane, silly, dull; 5 dunce, blockhead: PA I | al-ḥarb al-~, n., the cold war; ġanīmaẗ ~, n.f., an easy prey; ʕaiš ~, n., an easy life; ḥuǧǧaẗ ~, n.f., a weak argument; tibġ ~, n., light, mild tobacco
mubarrid, n., 1 cooling, refreshing; 2 pl. -āt, refreshments (beverages, etc.): PA II
mubarrad, adj., cooled, chilled: PP II

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗bārūd (s.r. √BāRūD), ↗barad, ↗burd, ↗barada, ↗barūd, ↗barīd, and ↗bardī, as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√BRD. 
barad بَرَد 
ID - • Sw … • BP … • APD … • © SG | 4Oct2022
√BRD 
n. 
hail – WehrCowan1976 
See ↗bard
See ↗bard
See ↗bard.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗bārūd (s.r. √BāRūD), ↗burd, ↗barada, ↗barūd, ↗barīd, and ↗bardī, as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√BRD. 
burd بُرْد , pl. ʔabrād 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Oct2022
√BRD 
n. 
garment – WehrCowan1976 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994) #BRD-1 […]. -2 Hbr *bārōd ‘tacheté’; Syr bārdā ‘foncé, couleur olive (vêtement)’; nSyr birdā ‘tacheté’; Ar burd : étoffe rayée ou à ramages; YemAr ʔabrad ‘bigarré’. -3-10 […].
▪ … 
burdaẗ, n.f., Mohammed’s outer garment
burdāyaẗ, n.f., curtain, drape

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗bārūd (s.r. √BāRūD), ↗bard, ↗barad, ↗barada, ↗barūd, ↗barīd, and ↗bardī, as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√BRD. 
barad- بَرَدَ , u 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Oct2022
√BRD 
vb., I 
to file (a piece of metal, etc.) – WehrCowan1976 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994) #BRD-1-2 […]. -3 Ar barada ‘limer’; Śḥr eñberéd ‘lime’; Tña bärädä ‘limer’. -4-10 […].
▪ … 
barrād, n., fitter (of machinery): ints.formation, quasi-n.instr.
birādaẗ, n.f., fitter’s trade or work
buradaẗ, n.f., iron filings
mibrad, pl. mabāridᵘ, n., file, rasp: n.instr.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗bārūd (s.r. √BāRūD), ↗bard, ↗barad, ↗burd, ↗barūd, ↗barīd, and ↗bardī, as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√BRD. 
barūd بَرود 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Oct2022
√BRD 
n. 
collyrium – WehrCowan1976 
▪ … 

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗bārūd (s.r. √BāRūD), ↗bard, ↗barad, ↗burd, ↗barada, ↗barīd, and ↗bardī, as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√BRD. 
barīd بَرِيد 
ID 067 • Sw – • BP 1812 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 4Oct2022
√BRD 
n. 
post, mail – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ According to EALL (Shahîd, “Latin Loanwords”), the word is one of the loans from Latin that owe their existence to the ‎‎"strong Roman military and administrative presence in the region".
▪ But see below, section DISC.
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994) #BRD-1-5 […]. -6 Aram bʔrwdʔ, byrydʔ ‘cheval de poste’; Ar barīd ‘cheval ou chameau de poste, courrier’; SAr brdn ‘émissaire, ambassadeur’. -7-10 […].
▪ … 
EALL ‎‎(Shahîd, “Latin Loanwords”): from Lat veredus ‘thill horse’; from this, the meaning developed, ‎in Ar, into ‘post horse; courier; stage’ and today's ‘mail’.
▪ Cf., however, Rolland2014a/2022: For Kazimirski, the word is Pers.65 But its origin is still being discussed.66 Traditionally, it was regarded to go back to Pers burīdah dum ‘with shortened tail’,67 a term used for postal mules and, by extension, messengers and the postal system. But this etymology is prob. more popular than learned. Some, quoted by Nourai,68 would derive the term from Phlv burtan ‘emporter’, related to Av bar ‘porter, monter à cheval’, IE *bʰer ‘porter’. For Rajki, it is via ByzGrk ϐέρεδος béredos from lLat veredus ‘postal horse’, accord. to Ernout and Meillet borrowed from gaulois, IE *reidʰ- ‘to ride’. It may be the other way round, however. The existence of names for equids coined from √BRD/PRD in several Sem languages (Hbr pirdah ‘mule’, Akk perdum ‘[still unidentified equid]’69 ), associated with oPers pirradaziš ‘service (de transport) rapide’ in the Persepolis tablets points, if not to a Sem but at least to a Mesopotamian origin of both, barīd and Lat veredus. But there remain many missing links that would bridge the huge gap in time and space separating the Mesopotamian and the Ar and Lat words.
▪ … 
– 
al-barīd al-ǧawwī, n., air mail

ʔabrada, vb. IV to send by mail, to mail (a letter)

barīdī, 1 adj., postal; 2 n., a messenger, courier; b mailman

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗bārūd (s.r. √BāRūD), ↗bard, ↗barad, ↗burd, ↗barada, ↗barūd, and ↗bardī, as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√BRD. 
bardī بَرْدي , var. burdī 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Oct2022
√BRD 
n. 
papyrus (bot.) – WehrCowan1976 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994) #BRD-1-8 […]. -9 bardiyy : sorte de roseau; (ʔa)bardī ‘touffe de papyrus’, waraq al-bardī ‘papier de papyrus’. -10 […].
▪ … 
bardiyyaẗ, pl. -āt, n.f., papyrus | ʕilm al-~, n., papyrology

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗bārūd (s.r. √BāRūD), ↗bard, ↗barad, ↗burd, ↗barada, ↗barūd, and ↗barīd, as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√BRD. 
bārūd بارود 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Oct2022
√BāRūD, BRD 
n. 
saltpeter; gunpodwer – WehrCowan1976 
See ↗bārūd (alphabetical order). 
– 
– 
– 
– 
For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗bard, ↗barad, ↗burd, ↗barada, ↗barūd, ↗barīd, and ↗bardī, as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√BRD. 
BRZ برز 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
√BRZ 
“root” 
▪ BRZ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BRZ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BRZ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘open land; to go out in the open, be prominent; to outdo others; to duel; to evacuate the bowels’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
BRZḪ برزخ 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9Apr2023
√BRZḪ 
“root” 
▪ BRZḪ_1 ‘interval, gap; isthmus’ ↗barzaḫ
▪ BRZḪ_ ‘...’ ↗...
 
▪ [v1] : of oPers or mPers/Parth origin, see details s.v. ↗barzaḫ
 
– 
– 
– 
barzaḫ بَرْزَخ , pl. barāziḫᵘ 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 9Apr2023
√BRZḪ 
n. 
1 interval, gap, break, partition, bar, obstruction; 2 isthmus – WehrCowan1976.

▪ In Islamic eschatology, the term has taken the specific meaning of ‘interval between the present life and that which is to come, from the period of death to the resurrection’.
 
DRS 2 (1994) #BRZḪ follows Jeffery1938 (see below, section DISC) and art. »barzakh« in EI² in deriving Ar barzaḫ from Pers farsaḫ; so also DHDA. But Rolland2014 is prob. closer to the truth when he traces Ar barzaḫ ‘intervalle, séparation, isthme’ back to oPers barsaḫ, akin to Av barz-ahva «qui devait désigner une sorte de purgatoire, ou, comme pour les Soufis, ʻle lieu situé entre le monde matériel et le monde spirituel (Dozy)’, IndEur *bʰergʰ‑ ‘hauteur fortifié’ + *ansu‑ ‘esprit’». In a similar vein, Cheung suggests a Parth origin, either in an (not attested, but rather likely) compound *bwrz-ʔḫw /burzaḫw/ ‘the High, Exalted World, Existence’, or in a Parth rendering *bwrzʔḫ(w) /burzāḫw/ of Av barəzāhu (loc.pl.) ‘in the heights’. In view of the Qur’ānic semantics Cheung would also not exclude that Ar barzaḫ is the result of a conflation of two Parth formations, *bwrzʔḫ(w) ‘an unsurmountable passage, height’ and ‘the Existence beyond, Jenseits’, respectively; for details see below, section DISC.
▪ …
 
▪ eC7 (barrier, partition) Q 23:100 huwa qāʔilu-hā wa-min warāʔi-him barzaḫun ʔilā yawmi yubʕaṯūna ‘It is but a word that he speaketh; and behind them is a barzaḫ until the day when they will be resurrected’; Q 25:53 wa-huwa ’llaḏī maraǧa ’l-baḥrayni, hāḏā ʕaḏbun furātun wa-hāḏā milḥun ʔuǧāǧun, wa-ǧaʕala bayna-humā barzaḫan wa-ḥiǧran mahǧūran ‘And He it is Who hath given independence to the two seas (though they meet); one palatable, sweet, and the other saltish, bitter; and hath set a barzaḫ and a forbidding ban between them’; Q 55:20 bayna-humā barzaḫun lā yabġiyāni ‘There is a barzaḫ between them. They encroach not (one upon the other)’
 
– (loanword) 
▪ Jeffery1938: »In 25:53 and 55:20, it is the barrier between the two seas (baḥrayn) where the reference is probably to some cosmological myth. In 23:100, it is used in an eschatological passage, and the exegetes do not know what the reference is, though as a glance at al-Ṭabarī’s Commentary will show, they were fertile in guesses. / That the word is not Ar seems clear from the Lexicons, which venture no suggestions as to its verbal root, are unable to quote any examples of the use of the word from the old poetry, and obviously seek to interpret it from the material of the Qurʔān itself. / Addai Sher, 19, sought to explain it from the Pers parzak ‘weeping, crying’, but this has little in its favour, and in any case suits only 23:100. Vollers, ZDMG, 1:646, makes the much more plausible suggestion that barzaḫ is a by-form of farsaḫ ‘parasang’, from the Phlv frasang, modPers farsang, which preserves its form fairly well in Grk parasángēs, but becomes Aram prsā or prsh, Syr parsaḥā whence the Ar farsaḫ. The Phlv frasangan of PPGl, 116, means a ‘measure of land and of roads’70 and could thus fit the sense ‘barrier’ in all three passages.«
▪ Cheung2017(rev): »The connection with the traditional Iranian unit of distance, the parasang (Pers farsaḫ, mPers frasang, etc.), is semantically not quite fitting, as it does not explain how this mundane measurement could have acquired these eschatological overtones. / Actually, the Ar form barzaḫ looks like a Parth compound *bwrz-ʔḫw /burzaḫw/ ‘the High, Exalted World, Existence’, mirroring the opposite term dwj-ʔḫw ‘hell’ (with pref. dōž- ‘dys-’). The concept ʔḫw originally refers to an existence beyond this world without being qualified as “bad” or “good”. Unfortunately, *bwrz-ʔḫw has not yet been found in our limited Parth corpus of texts and inscriptions, although bwrz and ʔḫw are attested, separately, in mPers and Parth. Of course, ʔḫw does occur in compounded formations, e.g. Manich mPers rwšnʔḫw ‘world of light’ and Parth dwj-ʔḫw ‘hell’ (also borrowed into nPers duzāḫ). The form burz is also found in Manich mPers, and is considered a Parth loanword with the figurative meaning of ‘exalted, lofty’. The denominative verb burzīdan ‘to praise, honour’ is also derived from burz. Incidently, Ar barz71 with the meaning ‘intelligent, respectable; dignified’ points to borrowing from Parth bwrz ‘high, lofty’, possibly via Pers. / Alternatively, especially in view of Sūrah 55:20, barzaḫ could also reflect a Parth rendering *bwrzʔḫ(w) /burzāḫw/ of Avestan barəzāhu (loc.pl.) ‘in the heights’, which is attested in the famous Yasht dedicated to the deity Mithra. In the following passage, Yasht 10.45, the abode of Mithra, the deity that upholds the contract, “is set in the material world as far as the earth extends, unrestricted in size, shining, reaching widely abroad, for whom on every height, in every watchpost, eight servants sit as watchers of the contract”. This abode is a place, “where is no night or darkness, no wind cold or hot, no deadly illness, no defilement produced by evil gods” (transl. Gershevitch 1967: 95 ff., 99). Considering the fact that, in the Qurʔān, the meanings of barzaḫ allude to some sort of ‘(a means of) separation of two seas’ and also to an existential matter, Ar barzaḫ may well reflect two, conflated, (near-)homonymous Parth formations, *bwrzʔḫ(w) ‘an unsurmountable passage, height’ and ‘the Existence beyond, Jenseits’, respectively. / There is one phonological difficulty remaining, the apparent mismatch of the vocalism of Ar barzaḫ and its Parth source *burzāḫw, together with Ar barz ~ Parth burz. Ar -a- in the first syllable of barzaḫ may reflect the older sub-phonemic pronunciation -ǝ- (prior to its later labial “colouring”), i.e. Parth [bǝrzāḫw] and [bǝrz] respectively.72 «
▪ ...
▪ ... 
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BRSM برسم 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BRSM 
“root” 
▪ BRSM_1 ‘pleurisy’ ↗birsām
▪ BRSM_2 ‘clover’ ↗birsīm
▪ BRSM_3 ‘silk’ ↗ʔibrīsam
 
▪ … 
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DRS 2 (1994) #BRSM-1 Talm barsām, Ar barsām ‘fièvre avec délire; pleurésie’; Syr brsmw : sorte de maladie. -2 Ar birsīm ‘trèfle’. -3 Te bäršäm ‘poignée (de l’épée)’.
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birsām بِرْسام 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BRSM 
n. 
pleurisy – WehrCowan1979. 
From Pers barsām ‘pain in the breast, oppression, wind, swelling in the stomach; pleurisy’. 
▪ … 
… 
▪ Rolland2014: from Pers bar-sām ‘pleurisy’, lit. ‘swelling in the breast’ (with sām ‘swelling, illness’) 
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– 
birsīm بِرْسيم , var. EgAr barsīm 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BRSM 
n. 
clover, specif. berseem, Egyptian clover (Trifolium alexandrinum L.; bot.
From Copt bersim ‘clover’, from ber (Eg pr.t ?) ‘seed’ and sim (Eg sm) ‘plant’. 
▪ … 
… 
▪ Youssef2003: from Eg brsm, Copt birsim ‘clover’
▪ Rolland2014: from Copt bercim ‘clover’, from ber ‘seed’ and cim ‘plant’ 
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BRṢ برص 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Mar2023
√BRṢ 
“root” 
▪ BRṢ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BRṢ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BRṢ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘vitiligo, loss of pigmentation; leprosy; gecko; to graze pasture to extinction’ 
▪ … 
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BRṬM برطم 
ID 068 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BRṬM 
“root” 
▪ BRṬM_1 ‘to rave, talk irrationally’ ↗barṭam‑ .
▪ BRṬM_2 ‘trunk of an elephant’ (burṭūm) ↗barṭam‑ .
▪ BRṬM_3 ‘glass jar’ ↗barṭamān
▪ BRṬM_4 ‘apartment’ barṭamān (TunAr) < Fr appartement
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–.. 
▪ …
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Wehr and DRS group BRṬM_1 and BRṬM_2 together as one item. As long as there is no counter-evidence against this EtymArab follows this model, i.e., burṭūm‑ is treated as dependent from barṭam‑
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barṭam‑ برْطم 
ID 069 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BRṬM 
vb., I 
to rave, talk irrationally – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
1887 For barṭam‑, Wahrmund gives, apart from ‘stottern’ a number of values now obsolete: ‘vor Zorn anschwellen; finster blicken; (trans.) zum Zorn reizen; sehr dunkel sein (Nacht)’. Cf. also II tabarṭam‑ ‘zornig werden über eine Rede’, barṭam ‘Stotterer’, and barṭamaẗ ‘Anschwellen vor Zorn’. barṭamaẗ is also a variant of barṭanaẗ ‘e. Spiel’ – Wahrmund1887. 
No cognates given in DRS
▪ Does burṭūm‑ (see DERIV below) really belong to barṭam‑ ? DRS lists the two as one item – as is done in this entry too.
▪ Unrelated to EgAr ↗barṭamān, var. baṭramān‑ ‘glass jar’ (which is a metathetic variant of ↗marṭabān). 
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burṭūm, var. barṭūm, n., trunk of an elephant: related to barṭam‑
barṭamān برْطمان , pl. ‑āt, var. baṭramān , ↗marṭabān , martabān 
ID 070 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BRṬM 
n. 
(EgAr) glass jar (for preserves, etc.), jelly jar – WehrCowan1979. 
Var. (with metathesis) of SyrAr ↗marṭabān (which may be the etymon of the European words for marchpane/marzipan). Originally probably a kind of porcelain or pottery, nowadays the material from which the jars are produced is mostly glass or plastic. 
1976 WehrCowan1976 ‘(syr., eg.) tall earthen or glass vessel (for preserves, oil, etc.)’ 
EgAr baṭramān, var. barṭamān ‘glass or plastic jar with lid, jam jar’ – HindsBadawi1986. 
Unrelated to barṭama ‘to rave, talk irrationally’, burṭūm, barṭūm ‘trunk of an elephant’ (cf. ↗√BRṬM). 
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BRQ برق 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 1Oct2022
√BRQ 
“root” 
▪ BRQ_1 ‘lightning; to shine, glitter, flash; (ClassAr:) to threaten (with evil), frighten’ ↗barq
▪ BRQ_2 ‘telegram, wire, cable’ ↗barqiyyaẗ
▪ BRQ_3 ‘Alborak (name of the creature on which Mohammed made his ascension to the seven heavens)’: al- ↗burāq
▪ BRQ_4 ‘Cyrenaica (region of E Libya)’: al- ↗Barqaẗ

Other values, now obsolete or dialectal only, include:
  • BRQ_5 ‘to attire o.s. (woman)’ ↗baraqa u (burq)
  • BRQ_6 ‘to be astounded, dazzled; dread, fright’: bariqa a (baraq); cf. also barūq ‘cowardly man’
  • BRQ_7 ‘to undertake a long journey’: barraqa
  • BRQ_8 ‘African lizard’: burq
  • BRQ_9 ‘ram, sheep, (Lane) lamb’: baraq (pl.pauc. ʔabrāq, pl.mult. birqān, burqān)
  • BRQ_10 (Lev.) ‘lumbago’: barqaẗ
  • BRQ_11 ‘hard ground, hard soil’: burqaẗ (pl. buraq), ʔabraqᵘ (pl. ʔabāriqᵘ)
  • BRQ_12 ‘asphodill (a plant)’: barūq (Hava1899), barwaq, barwiq (Lane, Kaz.)
  • BRQ_13 ‘wart, verruca’: barrūqaẗ, burrūqaẗ (pl. barārīqᵘ)
  • BRQ_14 ‘blotty, spotted, stained (goat, eye), piebald (white and black)’: ʔabraqᵘ (f. barqāʔᵘ, pl. ʔabāriqᵘ)
Not from √BRQ but often listed under this root because the items/roots look as if they could have s.th. to do with √BRQ:
  • BRQ_15 ‘pitcher; jug’ ↗ʔibrīq (*√ʔBRQ)
  • BRQ_16 ‘brocade, silk garment embroidered with gold’ ↗ʔistabraq (*√ʔSTBRQ)
  • BRQ_17 ‘borax’ ↗bawraq (*√BWRQ)
  • BRQ_18 ‘banner, flag’ ↗bayraq (*√BYRQ)
  • BRQ_19 ‘apricot, (Eg) plum’ ↗barqūq (*√BRQQ)
  • BRQ_20 ‘wine-leaves stuffed’: yabraq (*√YBRQ)
BAH2008 gives the following main values for ClassAr: ‘1 thunderbolt, lightning; to shine [cf. BRQ_1]; 2 to be dazzled [cf. BRQ_6]; 3 to become belligerent [cf. BRQ_1]’ 
▪ Most of the values that belong to the root BRQ proper (without additional ʔ, W, Y, or reduplication of Q), i.e., BRQ_1-14, seem to derive, ultimately, from BRQ_1 ‘lightening; to shine, glitter, flash’ (which can be traced back to Sem *BRḲ ‘to flash [esp. of lightning]’ and/or the n. Sem *bar(a)ḳ‑ ‘lightning, thunderbolt’. In this group, only the obsol. baraq ‘ram, sheep, lamb’ (BRQ_9) and the MġrAr barrūqaẗ, burrūqaẗ ‘wart, verruca’ (BRQ_13) stand out as a loanwords, the former probably from Pers, the latter from Span. – barūq (BRQ_12) does not belong to BRQ proper since it is only a var. of barwaq, barwiq, or barwāq (name of a plant, perh. with Sem etymology). – There is also some uncertainty around al-Burāq (BRQ_3), the name of the mysterious animal with which the Prophet made his famous night-journey, but most lexicographers think al-Burāq is called so due to its swiftness, *‘fast as a lightning’. – For the other values BRQ_1-14, see below, section DISC.
▪ For items BRQ_15-20, cf. s.v.
▪ … 
– 
DRS 2 (1994)#BRQ-1 [corresp. BRQ_1] Akk berq-, birq-, Ug brq, Hbr bārāq, Aram barqā, EpigrAram brq(ʔ), Aysor birqa, Ar barq, SAr brq, Śḫr brq, Mhr barq, Te bärq, Tña bärqi ‘éclair, foudre’; Gz mabraq ‘éclair’; Akk barāqu, Hbr *bāraq, JP ʔabrēq, Ar baraqa, Soq brq, Gz baraqa, Tña bärräqʷä ‘lancer des éclairs’; Amh bärräqä ‘tonner’; Akk barāqu, nHbr bāraq, Aram bᵉraq, bᵉrēq, nSyr bāriq, Ar baraqa, Amh bärräqä ‘briller, scintiller’. – [corresp. BRQ_5] Ar baraqa, barraqa ‘s’orner, se parer’; ETH. bēräqa ‘décorer’; ? nSyr birqu ‘vaine (femme)’. – Amh bäräqqʷa ‘commencer à blanchir, à mûrir (céréales)’. – Ar tabarraqa ‘regarder fixement (avec colère)’; Soq beroq (be) ‘envier’; Har bēräqa ‘décorer’; Amh bärräqä ‘fondre sur’. -?2 nHbr barqīt, Aram barqīt, bᵉraqtītā, bᵉruqtītā, Mand buruqta ‘cataracte (de l’œil)’. -3 Akk barraqtu (CAD: a gem, nBab), Hbr bāréqet, JP *bariqtā, Syr barqā ‘émeraude’. -4 [corresp. BRQ_12] Hbr barqōn, JP barqānayyā : plante épineuse; Akk barraqītu (CAD: var. paraqītu): plante; Ar barūq ‘asphodèles’.
▪ BRQ_1: Outside Sem, Borg2021#30 (b-r-q) compares Eg bꜣq/bqꜣ (Pyr) ‘bright, white, be bright’; ‘hell sein, klar sein’ (Faulkner 1962: 79; DLE I 127, 137, 141; Wb I 424; Hannig 1995: 257).
▪… 
▪ BRQ_1: It is the value ‘lightning’ (Ar barq, from Sem *bar(a)ḳ- ‘lightning’ – Kogan2011) on which most of the values BRQ_2 through BRQ_14 seem to be based (but not sup>†BRQ_9 ‘ram, sheep, lamb’, nor perhaps BRQ_12, the name of a certain plant). In the present dictionary, we also assume the vb. baraqa ‘to shine, glitter, flash; to threaten (with evil), frighten’ to be denominative from ‘lightning, thunderbold’.
▪ BRQ_2: barqiyyaẗ ‘telegram, wire, cable’ is a neologism (C19) coined from barq ‘lightning’.
▪ BRQ_3: burāq, the name of the fantastic creature on which the prophet Mohammed made his ascension to the seven heavens, is usually explained as being given to the animal on account of its exceptional fleetness (‘like a lightning’). There are, however, also other theories; in any case, the idea of the burāq is probably of pre-Isl origin. – Is burāq the basis of barraqa ‘to undertake a long journey’ (BRQ_7) ?
▪ BRQ_4 al-Barqaẗ ‘Cyrenaica (region of E Libya)’: of obscure etymology. It may be from a Phoen or Lib name, or been so called after its burqaẗ ‘hard ground, hard soil’ (BRQ_11) ?, or its ‘spotted’ appearance, cf. ʔabraqᵘ, f. barqāʔᵘ ‘blotty, spotted, stained (goat, eye), piebald (black and white)’ (BRQ_14).
▪ BRQ_5: The value ‘to attire o.s.’ that the vb. I baraqa can take in ClassAr when women are the subject, seems to be fig. use of the basic value ‘to shine, glitter, flash’, attiring o.s. meaning ‘to exhibit o.’s beauty intentionally, beautify o.s.’ (Lane) and thus look brilliant ‘as a lightning’.
▪ BRQ_6: The meaning of the intr. vb. I bariqa ‘to be astounded, dazzled’ is explained in ClassAr dictionaries as ‘to fear, be astonished, amazed, stupefied at seing the gleam of lightning, etc.’ (Lane), thus denom. from barq ‘lightning’ (BRQ_1), cf. Q 75:7 fa-ʔiḏā bariqa ’l-baṣaru ‘when sight is dazzled’. Hence also barūq ‘cowardly man’. – Another meaning, now obsolete, of the same vb. is ‘to melt, become decomposed’ (fat, butter). This, too, can be explained as meaning, literally, ‘to (begin to) shine, flash’ (in the pan etc. when melting).
▪ BRQ_7 barraqa ‘to undertake a long journey’: denom. from burāq (BRQ_3)?
▪ BRQ_8 burq ‘African lizard’: Accord. to Lane, this is apparently a pl. of barūq, properly a ‘she-camel raising her tail, and feigning herself pregnant, not being so’, applied to the lizards in analogy, from the raising of the tail that is a habit of those animals (and letting the vulva flash as ‘bright as a lightening’). Another etymology explains it as the pl. of ʔabraqᵘ ‘having two colours; twisted with a black strand and a white strand, having blackness and whiteness together’ (on account of the colour of the lizards’ skin), see BRQ_14 below.
▪ BRQ_9: baraq ‘ram, sheep, (Lane) lamb’ was recognized as a foreign word already by al-Ǧawālīqī. The etymon seems to be Pers barah, barreh ‘lamb’.
▪ BRQ_10: barqaẗ ‘lumbago’ is attested already in Wahrmund1887 and marked as a LevAr expression both in Hava1899 and Landberg1920 (»Syrie ‘douleur au dos’«). It is probably fig. use of BRQ_1 ‘lightning’, qualifying lumbago as a pain that comes as suddenly and strongly as a lightning.
▪ BRQ_11: The value ‘hard ground, hard soil’ is attested for the n.f. burqaẗ (pl. buraq) as well as for the elative-like n. ʔabraqᵘ (pl. ʔabāriqᵘ) and its pl.f., barqāwāt (Wahrmund1887: ‘steiniger, sandiger Boden mit Lehm’). Landberg1920 and others interpret ʔabraqᵘ ‘hard ground, soil’ as the same ʔabraqᵘ that also means ‘spotted, piebald’ and seems to be a phonetic var. of ↗ʔablaq (see BRQ_14, below). If this is true, the ‘hard ground, hard soil’ would have its name on account of its surface that lets it look spotted or piebald. – The name al- Barqaẗ for the ‘Cyrenaica (region of E Libya)’ (BRQ_4) may belong here. – Lokotsch1927 holds that Ar burqaẗ (via Portug and other langs) is the etymon of Engl baroque, see section WESTLANG below.
▪ BRQ_12: The n. barūq (thus in Hava1899 and DRS), or barwaq, barwiq (Kazimirski, Lane), meaning ‘asphodill’ according to the first three sources, but ‘a certain kind of plant which camels do not feed upon except in cases of necessity; small, feeble tree, which, when the sky becomes clouded, grows green’ according to Lane (for whom only barwāq is ‘asphodel’, i.e. ‘a certain plant also called ḫunṯà ’ the eating of whose »fresh, juicy stalk, boiled with olive-oil and vinegar, counteracts jaundice; and the smearing with its root, or lower part, removes the two kinds of ↗bahaq ’«) seems to have relatives in Akk, Hbr and JP and thus perhaps be of Sem origin. – Related in any way to BRQ_1?
▪ BRQ_13: barrūqaẗ, burrūqaẗ ‘wart, verruca’ is mentioned by Dozy and said to stem from Span berruga ‘id.’. The latter is akin to Engl wart, oEngl weart, from protGerm *warton- (cognates: oNo varta, oFris warte, Du wrat, oHGe warza, Ge warze ‘wart’), from the IE root *wer- (1) ‘high, raised spot on the body, or other bodily infirmity’ (cf. Lat verruca ‘swelling, wart’, and also Engl vary, varied, varying, etc.) – EtymOnline.
▪ BRQ_14: The elat. adj. ʔabraqᵘ (f. barqāʔᵘ, pl. ʔabāriqᵘ) ‘blotty, spotted, stained (goat, eye)’ is said by Wahrmund and others to be a var. of ↗ʔablaqᵘ (f. balqāʔᵘ, pl. bulq) ‘brindle, dappled, piebald (white and black)’. Given that there is nothing that would prove this assumption, one should not exclude beforehand the possibility of a relation to BRQ_1 ‘lightning’ (contrast between brightness and darkness); note that the pl.s of ʔabraq and ʔablaq show differing patterns (ʔabāriq, not *burq, as would be the logical correspondence of pl. bulq). – For the pl.f. barqāwāt ‘stony, sandy soil with clay’, cf. above, BRQ_11. 
▪ BRQ_1: A Sem word for ‘lightning; to shine glitter, flash’ may be the etymon of Grk smáragdos ‘emerald’ and, hence, of many Eur words for ‘emerald’ (Span esmeralda, It smeraldo, Fr émeraude, Ge Smaragd, etc.) as well as (via Pers) Ar ↗zumurrud ‘emerald’ and ↗zabarǧad ‘green jewels, cut from chrysolite or peridot’.
▪ BRQ_11: Lokotsch1927 thinks that Ar burqaẗ ‘schlechter Boden aus Sand, Lehm und Steinen; unbebautes Gelände’ (poor soil of sand, clay and stones; uncultivated land) gave Portug barroca ‘rough terrain, sandy soil with clay and stones’, and barroco, a technical term applied first by Portug pearl fishers and tradesmen to ‘eine doppelkugelige, höckerige, verwachsene Perle’ (bumpy, deformed, two-ball pearl),8 then generalized into ‘crooked, lopsided, irregular’, whence Span barroco (term.techn. in architecture) ‘irregular, deviating from traditional ways of building’, Fr baroque, It barocco, Ge Barock, barock. Lokotsch dismisses derivations from Lat (bis-)verruca ‘double wart’, bisrocca ‘double stone’ etc. as »untenable«. Cf., however, the etymology of Engl baroque as given in EtymOnline: »1765, from Fr baroque (C15) ‘irregular’, from Portug barroco ‘imperfect pearl’, which is of uncertain [!] origin, perhaps [!] related to Span berruca ‘a wart’«. – Cf. also BRQ_13, Ar barrūqaẗ, burrūqaẗ ‘wart, verruca’. 
– 
barq بَرْق , pl. burūq 
ID 071 • Sw – • BP 4392 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BRQ 
n. 
1 lightning; flash of lightning. – 2 telegraph | barqun ḫullabun, n., 1 lightning without a downpour; 2 a disappointing, disillusioning matter; an unkept promise – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ From protSem *bar(a)ḳ‑ ‘lightning’ (Kogan2011), from AfrAs *baraḳ‑ ‘id.’ (Orel&Stolbova1994).
 
▪ eC7 (lightning) Q 13:12 huwa ’llaḏī yurī-kum-u ’l-barqa ḫawfan wa-ṭamaʕan ‘He it is who shows you lightning, (inspiring) fear and hope’ 
▪ Bergsträsser1928, Zammit2002: Akk berqu, Ug brq, Hbr bārāq, Aram barqā, Syr barqā, Ar barq ‘lightning, thunderbolt’, SAr brq ‘lightning storm > stormy season’, Gz mabraq ‘lightning, thunderbolt, bright light’
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#226: Akk berq-, birq-, Ug brq, Hbr brq, Syr barqō, SAr brq, Te bārq , Tña bärqi, Ar barq- ‘lightning’.
▪ Kogan2011: Akk birqu, Ug brq, Hbr bārāq, Syr barqā, Ar barq, Sab Min brq, Gz mabraq, Mhr bōrəq, Jib bɛrq ‘lightening’

Cf. also the corresponding vb.:
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#231: Akk barāqu, Aram berēq, beraq, Gz brq, Amh bärräqä ‘to shine, glitter, flash’. – Outside Sem: Eg bꜣḳ (Borg2021: bꜣq/bqꜣ) ‘to be light, be bright’ (pyr.) (with -ꜣ- reflecting earlier -r-).
▪ Ehret1995#23: Outside Sem: Eg brḳ ‘to shine, glitter, flash’ (Copt ɛbrēčɛ), Cush *bǎrk'- / bǐrk'- ‘to flash’, vb. p'arìq- in an Omot lang.
▪ Militarev&Stolbova2007 (in StarLing)#1733: Sem cognates: as in earlier studies. – Outside Sem: (CChad) Logone bárak (< Ar), (CCush / Agaw) Khamir birqa, (HEC) Sid banḳo, biraḳo, and the forms balaḳa and banḳu-ta in 2 other HEC langs, as well as Dahalo biriḳina ‘lightning’ and (in 1 Omot lang) ṗariqq(i)- ‘shine’.
DRS 2 (1994)#BRQ-1 Akk berq-, birq-, Ug brq, Hbr bārāq, Aram barqā, EpigrAram brq(ʔ), Aysor birqa, Ar barq, SAr brq, Śḫr brq, Mhr barq, Te bärq, Tña bärqi ‘éclair, foudre’; Gz mabraq ‘éclair’; Akk barāqu, Hbr *bāraq, JP ʔabrēq, Ar baraqa, Soq brq, Gz baraqa, Tña bärräqʷä ‘lancer des éclairs’; Amh bärräqä ‘tonner’; Akk barāqu, nHbr bāraq, Aram bᵉraq, bᵉrēq, nSyr bāriq, Ar baraqa, Amh bärräqä ‘briller, scintiller’. – Ar baraqa, barraqa ‘s’orner, se parer’; ETH. bēräqa ‘décorer’; ? nSyr birqu ‘vaine (femme)’. – Amh bäräqqʷa ‘commencer à blanchir, à mûrir (céréales)’. – Ar tabarraqa ‘regarder fixement (avec colère)’; Soq beroq (be) ‘envier’; Har bēräqa ‘décorer’; Amh bärräqä ‘fondre sur’. -?2 nHbr barqīt, Aram barqīt, bᵉraqtītā, bᵉruqtītā, Mand buruqta ‘cataracte (de l’œil)’. -3 Akk barraqtu (CAD: a gem, nBab), Hbr bāréqet, JP *bariqtā, Syr barqā ‘émeraude’. 
▪ Kogan2011: from Sem *bar(a)ḳ- ‘lightning’.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994 reconstruct (#226) Sem *baraḳ- ‘lightning’, CCh *baraḳ-, HEC *baraḳ- , all from AfrAs *baraḳ- ‘lightning’, as well as (#231) Sem *b˅riḳ- ‘to shine (of lightning)’, Eg b3ḳ ‘to be light, be bright’ (pyr.), both ultimately from AfrAs *bariḳ- ‘to shine, be bright’.
▪ Ehret1995#23: Sem *brḳ ‘to lighten; lightning’, Eg brḳ ‘to shine, glitter, flash’ (Copt ɛbrēčɛ), Cush *bǎrk'- / bǐrk'- ‘to flash’ and the vb. p'arìq- in an Omot lang, all from an AfrAs *-bǐrk'- /*-bǎrk'- ‘to flash’ which the author thinks is in itself composed of *-bir- ‘to burn brightly’ + *k as an intensive extension of effect.
▪ Militarev&Stolbova2007 (in StarLing)#1733: Sem *bariḳ-, CChad *barak- (< Ar?), CCush (Agaw) *bir˅ḳ- (< Sem?), ? HEC *ban/laḳ- (irregular changes of *-r- in the cluster *-rḳ- ?), Dahalo (Sanye) *biriḳ- ‘lightning’ (< Sem?), Omot *ṗariḳḳ- ‘shine’ (secondary ṗ- < *b- influenced by * ?), all from AfrAs *bariḳ- ‘lightning’.

DRS 2 (1994)#BRQ-3 mentions that accord. to Zimmern1914, the Akk word barraqtu for a gem, perh. an emerald, probably is a late borrowing from some other lang, but that it is not clear whether this was a Sem lang (in which case the Akk word and its successors in Hbr, JP and Syr would be akin to Ar barq, i.e., ‘brilliant’, flashing like a lightning) or whether the word is from an IE source akin to Skr marakatam, Grk smáragdos ‘emerald’. A supporter of a Sem origin is Huehnergard2011; he groups the gem under Sem *BRQ ‘to flash (especially of lightning)’. – In Ar, the word for ‘emerald’ is ↗zumurrud, which, however, may be ultimately from the same source, cf. s.v. 
▪ According to some etymologists, Eur words for ‘emerald’ should perhaps be traced back to a Sem word belonging to the root *BRQ ‘to flash (especially of lightning)’. Cf. entry emerald in EtymOnline: »‘bright green precious stone,’ c1300, emeraude, from oFr esmeraude (C12), from mLat esmaraldus, from Lat smaragdus, from Grk smáragdos ‘green gem’ (emerald or malachite), from Sem baraq ‘shine’ (compare Hbr bāreqet ‘emerald’, Ar barq ‘lightning’). Skr maragdam ‘emerald’ is from the same source, as is Pers zumurrud, whence [Ar zumurrud and] Tu zümrüd, source of Ru izumrud ‘emerald’.« 
baraqa, u (barq, burūq, barīq, baraqān), vb. I, to shine, glitter, sparkle, flash: denom. (unless itself the etymon) | baraqat-i ’l-samāʔ, expr., there was lightning.
ʔabraqa, vb. IV, 1 = I. – 2 to emit bolts of lightning (cloud); to flash up, light up: denom. – 3 to brighten (face): fig. – 4 to cable, wire, telegraph (ʔilà to): neolog., denom. from barqiyyaẗ.

barqī, adj., telegraphic, telegraph- (in compounds): neolog., nsb-adj., *‘as fast as a lightning’.
BP#4430barqiyyaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., telegram, wire, cable: neologism, nsb-adj.f. coined from barq, i.e. *‘message that reaches the addressee with the swiftness of a lightning’.
BP#4653barīq, pl. barāʔiqᵘ, n., glitter, shine, gloss, luster: quasi-vn. | ḏū barīq maʕdanī, adj., lustered, coated with metallic luster.
burāq, n.pr., Alborak, name of the creature on which Mohammed made his ascension to the seven heavens (↗miʕrāǧ): probably so called on account of its swiftness; see also ↗s.v..
barrāq, adj., shining, lustrous, sparkling, flashing, glittering, twinkling: ints.adj.
mabraq, n., glitter, flash: vn. | fī mabraq al-ṣubḥ, adv., with the first rays of the morning sun.
bāriq: bāriq al-ʔamal, n., glimpse of hope: PA I.
bāriqaẗ, pl. bawāriqᵘ, n.f., gleam, twinkle: f. of the preceding.
mubriq: mubriq kātib, n., teletype; ʔālaẗ mubriqaẗ, n.f., id.: PA IV, denom. from neolog. barqiyyaẗ
barqiyyaẗ بَرْقِيّة , pl. ‑āt 
ID … • Sw – • BP 4430 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BRQ 
n.f. 
telegram, wire, cable – WehrCowan1979. 
neologism (C19), nsb-adj.f., coined from ↗barq, i.e. *‘message that reaches the addressee with the swiftness of a lightning’. 
▪ … 
Cf. ↗barq
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
burāq بُراق 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BRQ 
n.prop. 
Alborak, name of the creature on which Mohammed made his ascension to the seven heavens (↗miʕrāǧ) – WehrCowan1979. 
Perhaps called so on account of the exceptional fleetness—‘like a lightning’, ↗barq—of the fantastic beast, but it may also be of pre-Isl origin. 
▪ … 
Cf. ↗barq (?), ↗BRQ. 
▪ »Islamic legend has it that »Muḥammad made the [famous night-] journey [↗ʔisrāʔ, ↗miʕrāǧ ] from Mecca to Jerusalem and back, not merely in a dream, but—accompanied by Gabriel—in the living flesh and within the space of a single night. The miraculous speed of such a feat was held to be explicable on the ground that Muḥammad rode a beast of exceptional fleetness. It was in this connexion that the legend of al-Burāḳ arose. […] The etymology of the name Burāḳ is not yet fully elucidated. E. Blochet believed it to come from the mPers bārag ‘steed’. J. Horovitz has rightly questioned this interpretation and has declared himself in favour of a derivation from the Ar root baraqa ‘to lighten, to flash’. According to this view, Burāq could be explained as a (rare) diminutive form. The miraculous beast would thus have received its name ‘the little lightning-flash’ on account of its fleetness or of its brilliant colour. Yet even this explanation is not wholly convincing. The possibility must also be envisaged that the name Burāq goes back to a pre-Islamic tradition now unknown to us. In general, much that is reported about the steed of the miraculous ‘night-journey’ will derive from pre-Islamic tradition. It is, however, difficult to uncover the various links in all their detail« – Paret, art. “al-Burāḳ”, in EI².
▪ Lane mentions that, according to lexicographical tradition, the animal may not only be called Burāq »because of the quickiness of his motion« but also »because of the intense whiteness of his hue, and his great brightness«. However, the latter option too would be based on a likening with the lightining. In both cases, Burāq is believed to be akin to barq
– 
– 
al-Barqaẗ البَرْقة 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BRQ 
n.pr.loc.f. 
Cyrenaica (region of E Libya) – WehrCowan1979. 
Of obscure etymology. 
Grk Bárkē
… 
Is it taken from a Phoen or Libyan name (barkaẗ, barqaẗ ?), or was it called al-Barqaẗ after its burqaẗ, i.e., ‘hard ground, hard soil’ (cf. BRQ_11 s.v. ↗BRQ)?, or after its ‘spotted’ surface—a reinterpretation of the adj. barqāʔᵘ, f. of ʔabraqᵘ ‘blotty, spotted, stained (goat, eye), piebald (black and white)’ (BRQ_14 s.v. ↗BRQ)? 
– 
– 
BRQʕ برقع 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BRQʕ 
“root” 
▪ BRQʕ_1 ‘veil (worn by women; long, leaving the eyes exposed)’ ↗burquʕ 
▪ … 
– 
DRS 2 (1994)#BRQʕ-1 Ar (dial.) barqaʕ ‘déchirer, faire éclater, crever, s’éclaircir (temps)’. -2 burqaʕ ‘voile de visage’ 
DRS 2 (1994)#BRQʕ-1 Cf. ↗BRQ. 
▪ BRQʕ_1: Engl burka, burqaburquʕ
– 
burquʕ بُرْقُع , pl. barāqiʕᵘ 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BRQʕ 
n. 
veil (worn by women; long, leaving the eyes exposed) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
… 
▪ Landberg1920: Le burquʕ égyptien n’est pas connu ici [sc. in DaṯAr]. 
▪ Engl burka (1836), from Hindi, from Ar burqaʕEtymOnline. | ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl burqa, from Ar burqaʕ, variant of burquʕ, perh. from *buqquʕ, from root variant √BQʕ, akin to Ar ↗faqaʕa ‘to burst’, the name of the garment, burquʕ, perh. originally making reference to a split or slit in front of the eyes through which the wearer can see. 
barqaʕa, vb. I, to veil, drape: denom. (?).
tabarqaʕa, vb. II, to put on a veil, veil o.s.: t-stem of preceding, refl.
 
BRQQ برقق 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BRQQ 
“root” 
▪ BRQQ_1 ‘plum (Eg); apricot’ ↗barqūq 
▪ … 
– 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ See ↗barqūq
– 
barqūq بَرْقُوق 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BRQQ 
n.coll. (n.un. ‑aẗ
plum (Eg) – WehrCowan1979. 
From ByzGrk berikókkion ‘apricot’, from lGrk praikókkion, from Lat praecoquum ‘fruit précoce’ – Rolland2014a. 
▪ … 
… 
▪ Lane: burqūq, vulg. barqūq, post-clasical word [probably arabicized from the Pers barqūq, which is applied to both apricots and plums.
▪ Fraenkel1886: from Syr barqūqā = Grk beríkokka 
▪ Engl apricot : 1550 s, abrecock, from Catalan abercoc, related to Portug albricoque, from Ar al-birqūq, through ByzGrk berikokkia from Lat (malum) praecoquum ‘early-ripening (fruit)’; form assimilated to French abricot. Lat praecoquis ‘early-ripe’ can probably be attributed to the fact that the fruit was considered a variety of peach that ripened sooner than other peaches…. [Barnhart] – EtymOnline.
▪ Ge Aprikose : C17, from Dutch abrikoos, from Fr apricot (influenced by the pl.), from Span albaricoque and Portug albricoque, from Ar al-barqūq, from Grk prekókkion (and var.s), from Lat praecoquum ‘early-ripe’, belonging to Lat coquere ‘to ripen, let ripe’. The fruit that was imported in Italy since C1 from China, was superiour to the indigenous Marille and was called persica praecocia ‘early-ripe peach’ (fruit that ripens earlier than peaches) – Kluge2002. 
barqūq barrī, n., sloe plum 
BRK برك 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 1Oct2022
√BRK 
“root” 
▪ BRK_1 ‘to kneel down’ ↗baraka
▪ BRK_2 ‘(to invoke a) blessing’ ↗barakaẗ, ↗bāraka
▪ BRK_3 ‘pond, pool’ ↗birkaẗ
▪ BRK_4 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘chest of a camel, thorax; (of a camel) to lie down on the chest; a group of camels; bounty, a blessing, to be blessed, to be great; the blessed, to be praised; a pond’ 
▪ BRK_1: from protSem *birk- ‘knee’ – DRS 2 (1994) #BRK-1.
▪ BRK_2: From WSem *√BRK ‘to bless’, probably a metathesized variant of *√KRB – Huehnergard2011.
▪ BRK_3: …
▪ BRK_: … 
– 
DRS 2 (1994) #BRK-1 *birk- ‘genou’: Akk birk-, burk-, Ug brk, Hbr berek, PehlAram brk, JP birkā, Syr burkā, Aysor birkʸä, Soq *berk, Mhr bark, Gz Te bərk, Tña bərḫi, Selti bərk. – Hbr *bārak (inac. wa-yyibrak), Syr bᵊrak ‘s’agenouiller’; nSyr barik ‘être à genoux’; Ar baraka ‘s’accroupir, baraquer (chameau)’; Soq ʔebrek ʼfaire s’agenouillerʼ; Gz baraka, Amh bärräkä ‘baraquer’; Te bärkä, Tña boräha ‘s’agenouiller’; Amh tämbäräkkäkä ‘trembler, les genoux branlants’, ambaräkkäk ‘agenouillement’, bərəkrək alä ‘se soumettre’; Akk *birk- ‘giron’; Ar bark ‘poitrine’; Soq bérak ‘poitrine’; Gz burke ‘épaule, humérus’; ?Ar burk ‘sarcelle, canard’. -2 Ug Phoen Pun brk, Hbr berak, bērēk, EpigAram brk, JP bᵊrak, bārēk, Mnd brak, nSyr bāriḫ, Ar baraka, Tham brk, Sab brk, Soq bórik, Gz bāraka, Amh barräkä ‘bénir’; Ar burkaẗ ‘mouture abondante; salaire de meunier; prix du sang’. -3 Ug brk, EpigHbr brkh, BiblHbr bᵊrekā, Ar birkaẗ, Sab brkt, brk ‘étang, citerne’. -4 .... -5 Syr bārktā ‘armoise’; ?Ar birkān: plante (du Nejd). -6 Ar birak: poissons (de mer) -7 birkaẗ: sorte de manteau du Yémen. -8 ....
▪ BRK_1: Outside Sem, Borg2021#31 (b-r-k¹) compares Eg brk (LE) ‘knien (in Huldigung)’ (Wb I 466).
▪ BRK_2: Outside Sem, Borg2021#32 (b-r-k²) compares Eg brk/ba=ra=ka (NK) ‘beten zu; schenken; Geschenk, Gabe’; ‘bless in homage’ ~ bá-ra-ka ‘segnen’ (Wb I 466; Helck 1962: 557; Hoch 1994: 102).
▪ BRK_3: Outside Sem, Borg2021#33 (b-r-k³) compares Eg brk.t (LE) ‘Teich’; ‘pond, pool, lake’ (Wb I 466; DLE I 137) ~ Dem brkt/blkt/blgt ‘der Teich, der See’ (DG 119, 120) ~ Copt ⲃⲉⲣϭⲟⲟⲩⲧ (Sa‘idic) (Vittmann 1996: 438).
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ Engl Baruch, broker, cherubbāraka, ↗barakaẗ
– 
barak- بَرَك , u 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1Oct2022
√BRK 
vb., I 
to kneel down – WehrCowan1976 
▪ from protSem *birk- ‘knee’ – DRS 2 (1994) #BRK-1.
▪ … 
… 
DRS 2 (1994) #BRK-1 *birk- ‘genou’: Akk birk-, burk-, Ug brk, Hbr berek, PehlAram brk, JP birkā, Syr burkā, Aysor birkʸä, Soq *berk, Mhr bark, Gz Te bərk, Tña bərḫi, Selti bərk. – Hbr *bārak (inac. wa-yyibrak), Syr bᵊrak ‘s’agenouiller’; nSyr barik ‘être à genoux’; Ar baraka ‘s’accroupir, baraquer (chameau)’; Soq ʔebrek ʼfaire s’agenouillerʼ; Gz baraka, Amh bärräkä ‘baraquer’; Te bärkä, Tña boräha ‘s’agenouiller’; Amh tämbäräkkäkä ‘trembler, les genoux branlants’, ambaräkkäk ‘agenouillement’, bərəkrək alä ‘se soumettre’; Akk *birk- ‘giron’; Ar bark ‘poitrine’; Soq bérak ‘poitrine’; Gz burke ‘épaule, humérus’; ?Ar burk ‘sarcelle, canard’. -2-8 ....
▪ Outside Sem, Borg2021#31 (b-r-k¹) compares Eg brk (LE) ‘knien (in Huldigung)’ (Wb I 466).
▪ … 
… 
… 
barraka, vb. II, and ʔabraka, vb. IV, to make (the camel) kneel down: D- and *Š-stem., caus. 
bārak‑ بارَكَ 
ID 072 • Sw – • BP 971 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BRK 
vb., III 
1a to bless ( or s.o., also li- or ʕalà), invoke a blessing on; b to give one’s blessing (to s.th.), sanction (s.th.) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ From WSem *√BRK ‘to bless’, probably a metathesized variant of *√KRB – Huehnergard2011.
… 
▪ … 
▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘to bless’) Akk (krb (u)), Hbr (ints) brk, Syr (ints) brk, Gz (L-stem) brk.
▪ … 
▪ Jeffery1938: »With this should be taken the forms barakāt (vii, 94; xi, 50, 76), and mubārak (iii, 90; vi, 92, 156, etc.). / The primitive verb baraka, which is not used in the Qurʔān, means ‘to kneel’, used specially of the camel, so that ʔabraka is the technical word for making a camel kneel. In this primitive sense it is common Sem […]. It was in the NSem area, however, that the root seems to have developed the sense of ‘to bless’, and from thence it passed to the SSem area. Thus we have Hbr bārak and Phoen brk ‘to bless’, Aram Syr bᵊraḵ ‘to bless or praise’, and in Palm such phrases as bryk šmw lʕlmʔ (de Vogüé, No. 94) ‘blessed be his name for evermore’, and ybrk (ibid., No. 144) ‘may he bless’. From this NSem sense we find derived the Sab brk (Rossini, Glossarium, 118), Eth [Gz] baraka ‘to bless, celebrate the praises of’, and Ar bāraka as above. Note also the formations Hbr bᵊrāḵāʰ, Aram birkā, Syr būrkᵊtā, which also were taken over into SSem, e.g. Eth [Gz] barakat, Ar barakaẗ
▪ … 
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl n.prop. Baruch, from Hbr bārûḵ ‘blessed’, PP of *bāraḵ ‘to bless’ (only attested in derived stem bērēḵ ‘to bless’, cf. Ar L-stem ↗bāraka ‘to bless’). – Engl broker, from Ar al-barkaẗ, colloquial variant of al-barakaẗ ‘the blessing, divine favor, gift’, from Ar ↗bāraka ‘to bless’, (associative) L-stem, prob. borrowed from Hbr. 
BP#4239tabāraka, vb. VI, to be blessed, be praised: tL-stem, self-ref. | tabāraka… God bless…
BP#1803mubārak, adj., blessed, fortunate, lucky: PP III 
barakaẗ بَرَكَة 
ID 073 • Sw – • BP 1928 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BRK 
n.f. 
blessing, benediction – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ From WSem *√BRK ‘to bless’, probably a metathesized variant of *√KRB – Huehnergard2011.
… 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994) #BRK-1 .... -2 Ug Phoen Pun brk, Hbr berak, bērēk, EpigAram brk, JP bᵊrak, bārēk, Mnd brak, nSyr bāriḫ, Ar baraka, Tham brk, Sab brk, Soq bórik, Gz bāraka, Amh barräkä ‘bénir’; Ar burkaẗ ‘mouture abondante; salaire de meunier; prix du sang’. -3-8 ....
▪ Outside Sem, Borg2021#32 (b-r-k²) compares Eg brk/ba=ra=ka (NK) ‘beten zu; schenken; Geschenk, Gabe’; ‘bless in homage’ ~ bá-ra-ka ‘segnen’ (Wb I 466; Helck 1962: 557; Hoch 1994: 102).
▪ … 
▪ Cf. Jeffery1938 in entry ↗bāraka, section DISC.
▪ … 
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl broker, from Ar al-barkaẗ, colloquial variant of al-barakaẗ ‘the blessing, divine favor, gift’, from Ar ↗bāraka ‘to bless’, (associative) L-stem, prob. borrowed from Hbr.
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl cherub, from Hbr kᵊrûb ‘cherub’, akin to Akk karābu ‘to praise, bless’, protSem root √*KRB with WSem metathesized variant √*BRK, cf. Ar barakaẗ
qillaẗ al-barakaẗ, misfortune, bad luck

barraka, vb. II, to invoke a blessing (ʕalà or on s.th., li- on s.o.): D-stem., denom., caus.
BP#971bāraka, vb. III, to bless ( or -h, s.o., also li‑ or ʕalà), 1 to invoke a blessing on; 2 to give one’s blessing (‑h to s.th.), sanction: L-stem, associative
tabarraka, vb. V, 1 to be blessed (bi‑ by); 2 to enjoy, find pleasure, delight (bi‑ in); 3 to ask s.o.’s (bi‑) blessing: tD-stem, self-referential
BP#4239tabāraka, vb. VI, to be blessed, be praised: tL-stem, self-ref. | tabāraka… God bless…
ĭstabraka, vb. X, to be blessed: *Št-stem, (orig.) desiderative

ʔabrakᵘ, adj., more blessed: elat. formation
tabrīk, pl. -āt, 1 good wish; 2 blessing, benediction: vn. II
BP#1535mabrūk, adj., blessed, happy: PP I
BP#1803mubārak, adj., blessed, fortunate, lucky: PP III 
birkaẗ بِرْكة , pl. birak 
ID … • Sw – • BP 4913 • APD … • © SG | 1Oct2022
√BRK 
n.f. 
pond, small lake; puddle, pool – WehrCowan1976 
▪ ? Cf. Eg brk.t (LE) ‘pond, pool, lake’, Dem brkt / blkt / blgt ‘Teich, See’ (DG 119, 120), Copt ⲃⲉⲣϭⲟⲟⲩⲧ (Sa‘idic) - Borg2021#33 (b-r-k³).
▪ … 
… 
DRS 2 (1994) #BRK-1-2 .... -3 Ug brk, EpigHbr brkh, BiblHbr bᵊrekā, Ar birkaẗ, Sab brkt, brk ‘étang, citerne’. -4-8 ....
▪ Outside Sem, Borg2021#33 (b-r-k³) compares Eg brk.t (LE) ‘Teich’; ‘pond, pool, lake’ (Wb I 466; DLE I 137) ~ Dem brkt/blkt/blgt ‘der Teich, der See’ (DG 119, 120) ~ Copt ⲃⲉⲣϭⲟⲟⲩⲧ (Sa‘idic) (Vittmann 1996: 438).
▪ … 
… 
… 
birkaẗ al-sibāḥaẗ, n.f., swimming pool 
BRKN بركن 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BRKN 
“root” 
▪ BRKN_1 ‘volcano’ ↗burkān
▪ BRKN_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
▪ … 
– 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
burkān بُرْكان 
ID 074 • Sw – • BP 4860 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BRKN 
n. 
volcano – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
… 
 
BRLMāN برلمان 
Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√BRLMāN 
“root” 
▪ … 
barlamān بَرْلَمان 
Sw – • NahḍConBP 1413 • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√BRLMāN 
n. 
parliament 
▪ …loanword 
BRM برم 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Mar2023
√BRM 
“root” 
▪ BRM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BRM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BRM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a stone pot; a twisted rope; to twist, to tighten; to confirm, to plan’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
BRMǦ برمج 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BRMǦ 
“root” 
▪ BRMǦ_1 ‘program, plan, schedule’ ↗barnāmaǧ
▪ BRMǦ_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
▪ … 
– 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
barnāmaǧ بَرْنامَج , pl. barāmiǧᵘ 
ID 075 • Sw – • BP 161 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BRMǦ, BRNMǦ 
n. 
program, plan, schedule; roster, list, index; curriculum – WehrCowan1979. 
The word is one out of a plentitude ‎of loans from mPers which testifies to the intense interaction between Arab and Iranian ‎culture during the first centuries of the Muslim expansion. Arabic was then »invigorated by new ‎elements of ideas and images, stimulated with fresh conceptions of excellence and eloquence, and ‎enriched […] with a new vocabulary. Persian, in particular, was responsible for the introduction of ‎new terms in the fields of luxury, ornaments, handicrafts, fine arts, government administration, ‎and public registers.«13 . ‎‎''barnāmaǧ'’ is one out of the significant number of administrative terms that found their way into ‎Arabic. 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
EALL (Asbaghi, “Persian Loanwords”): a loan from mPers bārnāmak ‎‎'[?]’. 
… 
 
BRHN برهن 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Mar2023
√BRHN 
“root” 
▪ BRHN_1 ‘evident proof’ ↗burhān
▪ BRHN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BRHN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘(the quadruple structure of this root together with the limited derivatives it has in Arabic give support to its being a very early ing, possibly from Pers. Some philologists, however, consider it a derivation from root brh ‘to cut’ or ‘whiteness’)’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
burhān بُرْهان 
Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√BRHN 
n. 
evident proof – Jeffery1938 
▪ … 
▪ eC7 Q ii, 105; iv, 174; xii, 24; xxi, 24; xxiii, 117; xxvii, 65; xxviii, 32, 75 – Jeffery1938.
 
▪ Jeffery1938: »In all the passages save xii, 24, and xxviii, 32, it is used in the sense of a proof or demonstration of the truth of one’s religious position.
In these two cases, one from the story of Joseph and the other from that of Moses, the word refers to an evident miraculous sign from God for the demonstration of His presence and power to him who beheld it. It is thus clearly used in the Qurʔān as a technical religious term.73 . / It is generally taken as a form fuʕlān from √BRH, form IV of which is said to mean ‘to prove’, but the straits to which the philologers are put to explain the word (cf. Rāġib, Mufradāt, 44; LA, xvii, 369), show us that we are dealing with a foreign word. Sprenger, Leben, i, 108 had noted this,74 but he makes no attempt to discover its origin. / Addai Sher, 21, suggested that it is from the Pers purūhān ‘clearly manifest, well known’ (cf. Vullers, Lex., i, 352), but this is somewhat remote. The origin clearly is, as Nöldeke has shown (Neue Beiträge, 58)75 , in the Eth [Gz] bərhān, a common Abyssinian word,76 being found also in Amh, Te, and Tña, meaning ‘light, illumination’, from a root [Gz] BRH cognate with Hbr BHR, Ar BHR. It seems to have this original sense in iv, 174; xii, 24, and the sense of ‘proof’ or ‘demonstration’ is easily derived from this.«
 
BZR بزر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BZR 
“root” 
▪ BZR_1 ‘seeds’ ↗bizr
▪ BZR_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
▪ … 
– 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
bizr بِزْر , pl. buzūr ; ʔabzār , ʔabāzīrᵘ 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BZR 
n. 
(pl. buzūr) seeds; (pl. ʔabzār, ʔabāzīrᵘ) spice – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994)#BZR: Hbr *bāzar, Aram bᵊzar ‘répandre, éparpiller’, Phlv bzr ‘semence’, JP bizrā, Ar bizr ‘semences, graines’; Soq bizar ‘comestibles’, Syr bazrā ‘huile de lin’, MġrAr ʔabzār ‘épices’, bazra ‘impôt’, tbazzar ‘être prodigue’; Syr ʔabzārā ‘cru; mancheron de charrue’; Ar bayzār ‘laboureur’, bazīr ‘pilon de foulon’, bazara ‘fouler un tissu de laine’; Syr bezārā ‘lettre, diplôme’. Observations et références s. P/BḎ/ZR. Voir aussi les renvois s. BD, BZ. – Hbr *bāzar est sans doute un aramaïsme.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#269: Aram (Phlv) bzr, (Pal) bizrā ‘seed’, [Syr bazar ‘to disperse’], Ḥrs bezār, Mhr bezār Śḥr bizɛr ‘peppers’. 
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#269: AfrAs *beʒar‑ ‘corn’ > Sem *bizr‑ ‘seed‘¹, ‘peppers’²: Aram (Phlv) bzr ¹, (Pal) bizrā ¹, Ar bizr‑ ¹ (from which the denominative verb bzr, i ‘sow’), while Hss bezār, Mhr bezār and Shh bizɛr all mean ‘peppers’. The ancestor of cognates in WCh was probably *baʒar‑ ‘corn’. – The word seems also to be etymologically connected with *baʒar‑ ‘to be torn, be peeled’.
▪ Any connection to bazara ‘to blow the nose’ ? 
– 
bazara, i (bazr), vb. I, to sow: denom. (Orel&Stolbova1994).
bizraẗ, n.f., seed; kernel, pip, pit, stone (of fruit); germ: n.un.
bazzār, n., seedsman: n.prof.
buzayra, pl. ‑āt, n., spore (bot.): dimin. n.un. 
BZĠ بزغ 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Mar2023
√BZĠ 
“root” 
▪ BZĠ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BZĠ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BZĠ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘crack, laceration, to slash; to show through, to break forth, to come out’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
BSR بسر 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Mar2023
√BSR 
“root” 
▪ BSR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BSR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BSR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘open outstretched land, the face of the earth; carpet; to stretch out, to spread out, to reach out, to unfold; abundance, vastness,-increase’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
BSṬ بسط 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 4Oct2022
√BSṬ 
“root” 
▪ BSṬ_1 ‘to spread, spread out, level, flatten, enlarge, expand, extend, unfold; to grant, offer; to present, submit, explain’ ↗basaṭa, ‘to be glad, delighted, be(come) happy’ ↗ĭnbasaṭa, ‘carpet, rug’ ↗bisāṭ, ‘simple, plain, uncomplicated’ ↗basīṭ, ‘cheerful, happy, gay; well off, well-to-do…’ ↗mabsūṭ
▪ BSṬ_2 ‘rim, felly (of a wheel)’ ↗ʔubsūṭaẗ
▪ BSṬ_3 ‘…’ ↗
 
▪ … 
– 
DRS 2 (1994) #BS(Š?)Ṭ-1 Ar basaṭa ‘étendre (tapis, natte); élargir’. -2 Amh täbäsač̣ä ‘s’impatienter, s’emporter’.
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
basaṭ- بَسَطَ , u (basṭ) and

basuṭ- بَسُطَ , u (basāṭaẗ
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 4Oct2022
√BSṬ 
vb., I 
basaṭa, u (basṭ): 1 to spread, spread out (s.th.); 2 to level, flatten (s.th.); 3a to enlarge, expand (s.th.); b to stretch out, extend (s.th.); c to unfold, unroll (s.th.); 4a to grant, offer, present (s.th.); b to submit, state, set forth, expound, explain (s.th., li- or ʕalà to s.o.); 5 to flog (s.o.; Nejd); 6 to please, delight (s.o.)

basuṭa, u (basāṭaẗ): to be simple, openhearted, frank, candid
 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994) #BS(Š?)Ṭ-1 Ar basaṭa ‘étendre (tapis, natte); élargir’. -2 Amh täbäsač̣ä ‘s’impatienter, s’emporter’.
▪ … 
basaṭa ḏirāʕay-hī, vb. to spread one’s arms;
basaṭa yad al-musāʕadaẗ li-, vb., to extend a helping hand to s.o.;
basaṭa l-māʔidaẗ, vb., to lay the table

bassaṭa, vb. II, 1 to spread, spread out, extend, expand (s.th.); 2 to level, flatten (s.th.); 3 to simplify, make simple (s.th.): D-stem, ints./caus.
bāsaṭa, vb. III, 1 to set forth, state, expound, explain; 2 to be sincere (bi- with s.o. about or in s.th.), confess frankly (bi- to s.o. s.th.): L-stem, assoc.
tabassaṭa, vb. V, 1 to be spread, be unrolled, be spread out, be extended; 2 to speak at great length ( about), enlarge ( on), treat exhaustively, expound in detail ( a theme); 3 to be friendly, communicative, sociable, behave unceremoniously, be completely at ease: tD-stem, intr./pass, and fig. use | ~ fī al-ḥadīṯ, vb., to talk freely, without formality
ĭnbasaṭa, vb. VII, 1 to spread, extend, expand (intr.); 2 to be glad, be delighted, be or become happy: N-stem

basṭ, n., 1 extension, spreading, unrolling, unfolding; 2 presentation, statement, explanation, exposition; 3 cheering, delighting, delectation; 4 amusement; 5 (Eg.) numerator (of a fraction): vn. I (of basaṭa) | ~ al-yad, n., avarice, greed, cupidity
basṭaẗ, n.f., 1 extension, extent, expanse; 2 size, magnitude; 3 skill, capability, abilities; 4 excess, abundance; 5 (pl. -āt) statement, exposition, presentation; 6 (pl. bisāṭ) landing (of a staircase); 7 estrade, dais, platform (eg.): n.un.
bisāṭ, pl. -āt, ʔabsiṭaẗ, busuṭ, n., carpet, rug | ~ al-raḥmaẗ, n., winding sheet, shroud; ṭaraḥa or waḍaʕa masaʔalaẗan ʔalà ~ al-baḥṯ, vb., to raise a question, bring a question on the carpet, also ʕalà ~ al-munāqašaẗ, for discussion; ṭawà ~, vb., to bring the matter to an end, settle it once and for all
BP#849basīṭ, pl. busaṭāʔᵘ, adj., 1 simple; 2 plain, uncomplicated; 3 slight, little, modest, inconsiderable, trivial, trifling; 4 al-basīṭ, name of a poetical meter; 5 pl. busaṭāʔᵘ, simple souls, ingenuous people: quasi-PP I | ~ al-yadayn, adj., generous, openhanded
al-basīṭaẗ, n.f., the earth, the world: quasi-PP I.f, *‘the spread, flat one’
basāʔiṭᵘ, n.pl., 1 elements; 2 simple remedies, medicinal plants; 3 basic facts
BP#2210basāṭaẗ, n.f., simplicity, plainness
BP#3876ʔabsaṭᵘ, adj., simpler; wider, more extensive: elat. formation
tabsīṭ, n., simplification: vn. II
tabassuṭ, n. (n. vic. -aẗ), 1 extensity, extensiveness, extension; 2 expansion, expanse; 3 joy, delight, happiness, gaiety, cheerfulness: vn. V
ʕaḍalaẗ bāsiṭaẗ, n.f., extensor (anat.)
BP#4654mabsūṭ, adj., 1 extended, outstretched; 2 spread out; 3 extensive, large, sizeable; 4 detailed, elaborate (book); 5a cheerful, happy, gay; b feeling well, in good health; c (tun.) well-to-do: PP I
munbasaṭ, adj., 1 extending, spreading; 2 gay, happy, cheerful; 3 n., level surface: PP VII.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔubsūṭaẗ as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√BSṬ. 
ĭnbasaṭ‑ انبسط 
ID 077 • Sw – • BP 6192 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 4Oct2022
√BSṬ 
vb., VII 
1 to spread, extend, expand (intr.); 2 to be glad, be delighted, be or become happy – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ ↗basaṭa
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ ↗basaṭa
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
munbasaṭ, adj., 1 extending, spreading; 2 gay, happy, cheerful; 3 n., level surface: PP VII.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗basaṭa, ↗bisāṭ, ↗basīṭ, ↗mabsūṭ, ↗ʔubsūṭaẗ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√BSṬ. 
bisāṭ بِساط , pl. -āt, ʔabsiṭaẗ, busuṭ 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 4Oct2022
√BSṬ 
n. 
carpet, rug – WehrCowen1976 
▪ ↗basaṭa
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ ↗basaṭa
▪ … 
bisāṭ al-raḥmaẗ, n., winding sheet, shroud;
ṭaraḥa or waḍaʕa masʔalaẗan ʕalà bisāṭ al-baḥṯ, expr., to raise a question, bring a question on the carpet, also ʕalà bisāṭ al-munāqašaẗ, for discussion;
ṭawà l-bisāṭ bi-mā fīh, vb., to bring the matter to an end, settle it once and for all

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗basaṭa, ↗ĭnbasaṭa, ↗basīṭ, ↗mabsūṭ, ↗ʔubsūṭaẗ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√BSṬ. 
basīṭ بَسيط , pl. busaṭāʔᵘ 
ID – • Sw – • BP 849 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 4Oct2022
√BSṬ 
adj. 
1 simple; 2 plain, uncomplicated; 3 slight, little, modest, inconsiderable, trivial, trifling; 4 al-basīṭ, name of a poetical meter; 5 pl. busaṭāʔᵘ, simple souls, ingenuous people – WehrCowan1976 
▪ adj./quasi-PP I of ↗basaṭa
▪ … 
▪ ↗basaṭa
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
basīṭ al-yadayn, adj., generous, openhanded

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗basaṭa, ↗ĭnbasaṭa, ↗bisāṭ, ↗mabsūṭ, ↗ʔubsūṭaẗ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√BSṬ. 
mabsūṭ مَبْسُوط 
ID 076 • Sw – • BP 4654 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BSṬ 
adj. 
1a extended, outstretched; b spread out; c extensive, large, sizeable; d detailed, elaborate (book); 2 cheerful, happy, gay; feeling well, in good health; 3 (TunAr) well-to-do – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ PP I, from ↗basaṭa
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ ↗basaṭa
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗basaṭa, ↗ĭnbasaṭa, ↗bisāṭ, ↗basīṭ, ↗ʔubsūṭaẗ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√BSṬ. 
ʔubsūṭaẗ أُبْسوطة , pl. ʔabāsīṭᵘ 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 4Oct2022
√BSṬ 
n.f. 
rim, felly (of a wheel) – WehrCowen1976 
▪ … 
For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗basaṭa, ↗ĭnbasaṭa, ↗bisāṭ, ↗basīṭ, ↗mabsūṭ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√BSṬ. 
BSQ بسق 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Mar2023
√BSQ 
“root” 
▪ BSQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BSQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BSQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘tall, lofty, towering, to surpass’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
BSL بسل 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BSL 
“root” 
▪ BSL_1 ‘to be brave, fearless, intrepid’ ↗basula
▪ BSL_2 ‘peas’ ↗bisillaẗ

Other values, now obsolete:

BSL_3 ‘to become sour’: basala, u (busūl)

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘hardship; ugly countenance; to be reckless, to dare death, to fight fiercely; to be made responsible for one’s bad deeds; imprisoning; courage’ 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘ripe, done’) Akk bašlu, Hbr bāšēl, Syr (bšl e (a) ‘to ripen’), Gz bsl a (e).
DRS 2 (1994) #BSL-1 Ar basula ‘être brave’, basala ‘prendre un air sévère; aigrir (lait), fermenter, se gâter’. La rac. est certainement liée à d’autres qui n’en diffèrent que par la nature et la place de la liquide : BNS, BSR. -2 basala ‘payer un exorciseur’. -3 Akk bassil(a)t- ‘mouchoir de tête (?)’.
DRS 2 (1994) #BŠL: Akk bašālu ‘être cuit, mûr’, Hbr bāšal ‘être cuit, mûr’; PehlAram bšl ‘cuire’; JudPal bᵊšal, bᵊšīl, Syr bᵊšel ‘être mûr; Aysor bāšil ‘être cuit, mûr’; Mnd bašla ‘maturité’; Ar ʔabsala ‘cuire des dattes non mûres’; SAr bšl ‘faire une offrande’, Soq béhel ‘être cuit’, behel ‘cuit’; Śḥr bisil ‘mûr, cuit’; Gz basala ‘être cuit’; Te bäšlä, Tña Amh bässälä ‘être cuit, mûr’. – Il faut sans doute comp. SAr mbšl ‘autel’ d’ap. Hbr mᵊbaššᵊlōt ‘pyrées’. LandbergZetterstein1942 rapproche de SAr bšl ‘faire une offrande’; Ar bédouin de Syrie buslaẗ ‘don, cadeau’.
... 
… 
… 
… 
basul‑ بسل , u (basālaẗ
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BSL 
vb., I 
to be brave, fearless, intrepid – WehrCowan1976.

basala, u (busūl), vb. I, to become sour.
 
▪ As for the semantic connection between the old meaning ‘to become sour’ and the newer ‘to be courageous’, Lane I (1863) suggested that ‘to become sour’ was secondary, said of milk in analogy to the meaning ‘to frown, contract one’s face; to look sternly’ (cf. V), among other reasons ‘by reason of courage, or of anger; to be displeasing, or odious’.
▪ The fact that the meaning ‘to be courageous’ is not found in other Sem langs suggests that it is an Arab innovation and that the Arab philologists’ etymology, preserved in Lane I (1863), is wrong: it was not the sternly looking man’s face after which sour milk was called, but the sour milk from which the meaning was transferred to humans.
 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994) #BSL-1 Ar basula ‘être brave’, basala ‘prendre un air sévère; aigrir (lait), fermenter, se gâter’. La rac. est certainement liée à d’autres qui n’en diffèrent que par la nature et la place de la liquide : BNS, BSR.
▪ … 
See section CONC, above. 
… 
tabassala, vb. V, to scowl, glower.
ĭstabsala, vb. X, to be reckless, defy death.

basālaẗ, n.f., courage, intrepidity: vn. I.
ĭstibsāl, n., death defiance: vn. X.
bāsil, pl. busalāʔᵘ, bawāsilᵘ, adj., brave, fearless, intrepid: PA I.
mustabsil, adj., death‑defying, heroic: PA X.
 
bisillà بِسِلَّى , var. bisillaẗ, bizillaẗ, bazillaẗ 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BSL 
n.f. 
peas – WehrCowan1976. 
From It piselli ‘small peas’ < Lat pisum ‘pea’. 
▪ … 
… 
See sections CONC and WEST. 
▪ Not from Ar bisillaẗ, but ultimately from the same source is Engl pea(s): e/mC17, from mEngl pease (pl. pesen), which was both single and collective (as wheat, corn) but the /s/ sound was mistaken for the pl. inflection; from oEngl (WSaxon) pise, (Mercian) poise ‘pea’, from lLat pisa, var. of pisum ‘pea’, prob. a loan-word from Grk pison ‘the pea’, a word of unknown origin (Thracian? Phrygian?) – EtymOnline
– 
BSM بسم 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Mar2023
√BSM 
“root” 
▪ BSM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BSM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BSM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to smile; to bloom; (of clouds) to display a faint flash of lightning; white teeth’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
BŠR بشر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BŠR 
“root” 
▪ BŠR_1 ‘(to announce) good news’ ↗BŠR_1
▪ BŠR_2 ‘to scrape, peel; skin, (flesh); man, mankind; to get in direct contact; to initiate’ ↗BŠR_2

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘skin; to skin; to be in skin-to-skin contact, to be intimate with one’s wife; first signs, to give good tidings, good tidings, a hum.a n being’ 
Homonymous root with two principle values. 
– 
– 
▪ Both WehrCowan1979 and DRS 2 (1994) differentiate between two main values, BŠR_1 and BŠR_2.
▪ However, Lane I (1863) reports that Arab lexicographers think that there is a connection between ‘good news’ (BŠR_1) and ‘skin’ (BŠR_2), interpreting the vb. bašira a / bašara i as »He became changed in his bašaraẗ (or ‘complexion’) by the annunciation of an event […] and, hence, he rejoiced […]« (op.cit., s.v. bšr 1.). Furthermore, most of them think (as also DRS ) that ‘skin’ is related to ‘man, mankind’ as well as to ‘having direct contact’ (see BŠR_2). 
– 
– 
¹BŠR بشر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BŠR_1 
“root” 
Since it is difficult to decide what was first – a vb. ‘to announce good news’ or a n. ‘good news’, or ‘joy’ –, the present lemma functions as if it were a disambiguation entry. For items belonging to the theme, see below, section “Derivatives". 
▪ Jeffery1938, 79-80 (on baššara, in the Qurʔān): »The probabilities are that the word was an early borrowing and taken direct from the Jews, though in the sense of ‘to preach’ the influence was probably Syriac.«
▪ According to Orel&Stolbova1994#361, the NSem words from which the Ar items seem to be derived, go back to a Sem *b˅ŝir‑ ‘to announce (good news)’, which in turn may be from an AfrAs vb. *b˅ĉir‑ ‘to announce’. 
baššara : ▪ eC7 Of frequent occurrence in the Qurʔān, cf. ii, 23; iii, 20; iv, 137, etc. ʻto announce good news’. 
▪ Bergsträsser1928: Akk bsr, Hbr bśr, Aram sbr (metath.), Ar baššara, Gz bsr (caus.) ‘frohe Botschaft bringen’.
DRS 2 (1994)#BŚR-1: Akk bussuru, Ug bšr, JP bᵉśar, bᵉsar, Ar baššara, SAr tbśr, Soq bśr, Mhr bīšár, Gz ʔabsara, Te bäššärä, Amh abässärä ‘annoncer (une bonne nouvelle)’; Akk bussurt‑ , Ug bšr, bšrt, Hbr bᵉśōrā, JP bᵉsortā, Syr (avec métathèse) sᵉbartā, nSyr (pl.) bašārāt, Ar bišāraẗ, Gz bəsrāt ‘bonne nouvelle’; SAr tbšr(n) ‘révélation’.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#361: Akk bašāru, Ug bšr, Hbr bŝr, Aram (Palest) beŝar, SAr tbŝr, Soq bsr, Ḥrs abēśer, Mhr abōśer, Śḥr ōśer. – Outside Sem, there are parallels in a number of Berb languages (i-βdər, i-bdər, Kby yəβḍər); the common ancestor may be reconstructed as Berb *b˅c̣˅r‑ ‘to announce’ (reflecting earlier *‑ć̣‑). 
▪ Jeffery1938, 79-80: Apart from items belonging to BŠR_2, there are also many that belong to another theme: »ʻto announce, good tidings’. Thus we have the verb baššara as above; bušrā ʻgood news’ (ii, 91; iii, 122; viii, 10, etc.); bašīr (v, 22; vii, 188, etc.), and bušr (vii, 55; xxv, 50, etc.) ʻthe bringer of good tidings’: also mubaššir (ii, 209, etc.) with much the same meaning; ʔabšara (xli, 30) ʻto receive pleasure from good tidings’: and mustabšir (lxxx, 39) ʻrejoicing’. This use, however, seems not to be original in Ar but derived from the older religions. Thus Akk bussuru is ʻto bear a joyful message’: Hbr BŚR both ʻto bear good tidings’ and ʻto gladden with good tidings’: hiṯbaśśēr ‘to receive good tidings’.77 – The SSem use of the word seems to be entirely under the influence of this Jewish usage. In Eth the various forms basara ʻto bring a joyful message’, ʔabsara ʻto bring good tidings’, tabasara ʻto be announced’, bəsarāt ʻgood news’, ʔabsār ʻone who announces good tidings’, are all late and doubtless under the influence of the Bible. So the SAr tbs²r ʻto bring tidings’ and bs²rn ʻtidings’ (cf. ZDMG, xxx, 672; WZKM (1896), p. 290; Rossini, Glossarium, 119), are to be considered of the same origin, especially when we remember that the use of [SAr] bs²rn is in the Raḥmān inscription. The Syr sbr has suffered metathesis, but in the Christian Palestinian dialect we find bsr ʻto preach’, used just as baššara in iii, 20; ix, 34, etc., and so basūrā = [Grk] euangélion, where again the influence is undoubtedly Jewish. – The probabilities are that the word was an early borrowing and taken direct from the Jews, though in the sense of to preach the influence was probably Syriac.78 «
DRS 2 (1994)#BŚR-1: Ar bišāraẗ < Aram or > nSyr ?
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#361: The NSem forms (from which Ar seems to be borrowed) probably go back to Sem *b˅ŝir‑ ‘to announce (good news)’, which in turn may have developed from an AfrAs vb. *b˅ĉir‑ ‘to announce’ as the origin of both the Sem and Berb forms. The reconstruction however is slightly doubtful, the authors add, because available data display an irregular correspondence of affricates. 
– 
bašara, i, var. bašira, a, vb. I, to rejoice, be delighted: denominative or itself the etymon?
BP#4466baššara, vb. II, to announce (as a good news); to forecast (sth good), give good prospect; to spread, propagate, preach (sth, a religion, a doctrine): denominative (from ?) or itself the etymon (after having been loaned from NSem)?.
ʔabšara, vb. IV, to rejoice (at a good news): probably denominative (from ?).
ĭstabšara, vb. X, to rejoice, be delighted, be happy (esp. at good news), welcome; to take as a good omen: autobenefactive, probably from a noun like bišr or bušr.

bišr, n., joy: deverbative or itself the etymon of the verbs?
bušr, n., glad tidings: deverbative, or itself the etymon of the verbs?
bušrà, pl. bušrayāt, n., glad tidings, good news: a loan from Aram?
bašīr, pl. bušarāʔᵘ, n., bringer of glad tidings, messenger, herald, harbinger, forerunner, precursor; evangelist (Chr.): ?
bišāraẗ, pl. bašāʔirᵘ, n., good news, glad tidings; annunciation, prophesy; gospel; pl. good omens, propitious signs: possibly < Aram.
bušāraẗ, n.f., gift to a bringer of glad tidings:.
tabšīr, n., announcement (of glad tidings); preaching of the Gospel; evangelization, missionary activity: vn. II.
tabšīrī, adj./n., missionary: nsb-adj from tabšīr.
tabāšīrᵘ, n.pl., foretokens, prognostics, omens, first signs or indications, heralds (fig.); beginnings, dawn: pl. of tabšīr.
mubaššir, pl. ‑ūn, n., announcer, messenger (of glad tidings); evangelist (Chr.); preacher; missionary (Chr.): lexicalized PA II.
mustabšir, adj., happy, cheerful: lexicalized PA X.

For the semantic complexes ‘scrape, peel; skin’ (bašaraẗ, mibšaraẗ, mabšūr) as well as ‘pursuit, practice’ and ‘directness, immediateness’ (bāšara, mubāšaraẗ, mubāšir) see ↗BŠR_2

²BŠR بشر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BŠR_2 
“root” 
▪ BŠR_2a ‘skin’ ↗bašaraẗ .
▪ BŠR_2b ‘to touch, be in direct contact with s.o.; to have sexual intercourse; to initiate’ ↗bāšara .
▪ BŠR_2c ‘man, mankind’ ↗bašar .
 
▪ Ultimately, the items of this entry all go well back to Sem *baśar‑ ‘skin, flesh’ (as reconstructed by DRS 2 (1994)).
▪ BŠR_2b ‘to touch, be in direct contact with s.o.; to have sexual intercourse’ < *‘to have skin-to-skin contact’.
▪ The Sem cognates suggest that also BŠR_2c ‘man, mankind’ belongs here and is thus akin to bašaraẗ ‘skin’. 
▪ eC7
DRS 2 (1994)#BŚR-2: Ug bšr, Hbr baśār ‘chair’; Pun bšr ‘enfant, descendant’; JP bᵉśar, bᵉsar, biśrā, bisrā, Syr besrā, Mand bisra, nSyr bisra, pisra ‘chair’; Ar bašar ‘peau’, SAr bśr ‘peau’ ou ‘chair’, Gz bāsor, Har Gur bäsär ‘chair’; Ar bašara ‘racler (une peau)’; ? Te bašur ‘selle de mariée’. – Ar bašara ‘avoir commerce charnel avec’, ‘avoir un contact immédiat avec, entreprendre personnellement, surveiller de près (un travail)’; ? nSyr *mbašir ‘savoir faire, se tirer d’affaire, être habile’, bašrānā ‘habile’. 
▪ Lane I (1863) gives the opinion of some Arab lexicographers that the meaning ‘man, mankind’ of bašar »is a secondary application of the word […], i.e., this signification is tropical« and that »a human being is thus called because his bašaraẗ [‘skin’] is bare of hair and of wool« (s.v. bašar).
▪ Furthermore, Lane mentions that Arab lexicographers suggest a connexion between ‘good news’ (BŠR_1) and ‘skin’ (BŠR_2) in that they interpret [the vb.] bašira a / bašara i as »he became changed in his bašaraẗ (or >complexion) by the annunciation of an event […] and, hence, he rejoiced […]« (op.cit., s.v. bšr 1.).
▪ Jeffery1938, 79-80: »The primitive verb bašara ʻto peel off bark’ [↗BŠR_2 ], then ʻto remove the surface of a thing’, i.e. to ʻsmooth’, is not found in the Qurʔān, though it occurs in the old literature. From this we find bašar un ‘skin’ and thence ʻflesh’, as Syr besrā; Hbr bāśār 79 ; Akk bišru ʻblood-relation’, whence it is an easy transition to the meaning ʻman’, cf. Hbr bāśār; Syr bar bisrā (pl. banī bisrā = [Grk] ánthrōpoi). bašarun in this sense occurs frequently in the Qurʔān80 and Ahrens, Christliches, 38, thinks it is of Aramaic origin. – The wider use of the root in the Qurʔān, however, is in the sense of ʻto announce good tidings’ […]. This use, however, seems not to be original in Ar but derived from the older religions [etc., ↗BŠR_1 ].« 
– 
bašara, u, vb. I, to scrape off, shave off, scratch off; to grate, shred: the proper etymon?
bāšara, vb. III, to touch, be in direct contact with; to have sexual intercourse with; to attend, apply o.s., take up, take in hand, pursue, practice, carry out (s.th., a job, a task, etc.): properly *‘to have skin-to-skin, or flesh-to-flesh, contact with s.o.’.

BP#3786bašaraẗ, n.f., outer skin, epidermis, cuticle; skin; complexion: the proper etymon?
bašarī, adj., epidermal, skin (adj.): nsb-adj from bašaraẗ | ṭabīb b. dermatologist.
mibšaraẗ, pl. mabāširᵘ, n., skraper, grater: n.instr.
BP#1150mubāšaraẗ, n.f., pursuit practice; direct, physical cause (Isl.Law): vn. III; mubāšaratan, adv., immediately, directly: temporal acc. of vn. III, giving adv. of time.
mabšūr: ǧubnaẗ m.aẗ shredded cheese: PP I.
BP#912mubāšir, adj., direct; immediate; live (broadcast): PA III, properly *‘having skin-to-skin contact’; – (pl. ‑ūn) practitioner, pursuer, operator; director; manager (Eg.); court usher (Syr.): nominalized PA III.

For bašar ‘man, mankind’, BP#1120bašarī ‘human’, and BP#2953bašariyyaẗ ‘mankind’ ↗bašar.

For the theme ‘(to announce) good news’ cf. ↗BŠR_1

bāšar‑ باشر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BŠR 
vb., III 
to touch, be in direct contact with; to have sexual intercourse with; to attend, apply o.s., take up, take in hand, pursue, practice, carry out (sth, a job, a task, etc.) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ From bašaraẗ < Sem *bašar‑ ‘skin, flesh’, the original meaning thus being *‘to have skin-to-skin contact’
 
▪ … 
See ↗BŠR_2
Lane I 1863 gives the Arab lexicographers’ interpretation: in the phrase bāšara ‘l-marʔaẗ, the word means »He was, or became, in contact with the woman, skin to skin […,] he enjoyed [contact with] her skin […,] he became in contact with her, skin to skin both being within one garment, or piece of cloth […,] he lay with her, [skin to skin, or in the sense of] inivit eam «. – In the phrase bāšara ‘l-ʔamr, the meaning »He superintended, managed, or conducted, the affair himself, or in his own person« is interpreted »properly« as »he managed, or conducted, the affair with hisbašaraẗ, i.e., his own hand […] and hence a later application of the verb in the sense of […] ↗lāḥaẓa he regarded, or attended to, the thing, or affair, &c.« (ibid., s.v. bšr 3.). 
– 
BP#1150mubāšaraẗ, n.f., pursuit practice; direct, physical cause (Isl.Law): vn. III; mubāšaratan, adv., immediately, directly: temporal acc. of vn. III, giving adv. of time.
BP#912mubāšir, adj., direct; immediate; live (broadcast): PA III; – (pl. ‑ūn) practitioner, pursuer, operator; director; manager (Eg.); court usher (Syr.): nominalized PA III. 
bašar بشر 
ID … • Sw – • BP 1068 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BŠR 
n. 
man, human being; men, mankind – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Kogan2011: It seems that the word for ‘man, human being; men, mankind’ is akin to bašaraẗ ‘skin’ and ultimately goes back to protWSem *baśar‑ ‘skin, flesh, meat’. The original sense then would be *‘the being(s) with skin/flesh’. 
▪ eC7
DRS 2 (1994)#BŚR-2: Ug bšr, Hbr baśār ‘chair’; Pun bšr ‘enfant, descendant’; JP bᵉśar, bᵉsar, biśrā, bisrā, Syr besrā, Mand bisra, nSyr bisra, pisra ‘chair’; Ar bašar ‘peau’, SAr bśr ‘peau’ ou ‘chair’, Gz bāsor, Har Gur bäsär ‘chair’; Ar bašara ‘racler (une peau)’; ? Te bašur ‘selle de mariée’. – Ar bašara ‘avoir commerce charnel avec’, ‘avoir un contact immédiat avec, entreprendre personnellement, surveiller de près (un travail)’; ? nSyr *mbašir ‘savoir faire, se tirer d’affaire, être habile’, bašrānā ‘habile’. 
▪ The Sem cognates suggest that bašar ‘man, mankind’ and bašaraẗ ‘skin’ are semantically related. Lane I 1863 gives the opinion of some lexicographers that bašar is »a secondary application of the word […], i.e., this signification is tropical; or, as some say, the word is so much used in this sense as to be, so used, conventionally regarded as proper; the sense not depending upon its having another word connected with it: but […] by the generality of authors, this signification is given as proper. […] Some say that a human being is thus called because his bašaraẗ [‘skin’] is bare of hair and of wool« (s.v. bašar). Furthermore, he mentions that Arab lexicographers suggest a connexion between ‘good news’ (bšr_1) and ‘skin’ (bšr_2) in that they interpret the vb. bašira a / bašara i as »He became changed in his bašaraẗ (or ‘complexion’) by the annunciation of an event […] and hence, he rejoiced […]« (op.cit., s.v. bšr 1.).
DRS 2 (1994)#BŚR-2: From Sem *baśar‑ ‘skin, flesh’. 
– 
BP#1120bašarī, adj., human: nsb-adj; n., human being: nominalized nsb-adj. – See also ↗bšr_2.
BP#2953bašariyyaẗ, n., humankind, human race: n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ.

For the semantic complexes ‘scrape, peel; skin’ (bašaraẗ, mibšaraẗ, mabšūr) as well as ‘pursuit, practice’ and ‘directness, immediateness’ (bāšara, mubāšaraẗ, mubāšir) ↗BŠR_2.

For all items connected to the value ‘(to announce) good news’ ↗BŠR_1

bašariyyaẗ بَشَرِيّة 
Sw – • NahḍConBP 2953 • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√BŠR 
n.f. 
mankind 
▪ …abstr. formation in -iyyaẗ 
bašaraẗ بَشَرَة 
ID 078 • Sw –/137 • BP 3786 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BŠR 
n.f. 
outer skin, epidermis, cuticle; skin; complexion – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
BŠR_2
BŠR_2
– 
bašara, u, vb. I, to scrape off, shave off, scratch off; to grate, shred: derived from lemma, or vice the lemma’s proper etymon?
bāšara, vb. III, to touch, be in direct contact with; to have sexual intercourse with; to attend, apply o.s., take up, take in hand, pursue, practice, carry out (s.th., a job, a task, etc.): properly *‘to have skin-to-skin, or flesh-to-flesh, contact with s.o.’.

bašarī, adj., epidermal, skin (adj.): nsb-adj from bašaraẗ | ṭabīb b. dermatologist.
mibšaraẗ, pl. mabāširᵘ, n., skraper, grater: n.instr.
BP#1150mubāšaraẗ, n.f., pursuit practice; direct, physical cause (Isl.Law): vn. III; mubāšaratan, adv., immediately, directly: temporal acc. of vn. III, giving adv. of time.
mabšūr, adj.: ǧubnaẗ m.aẗ shredded cheese: PP I.
BP#912mubāšir, adj., direct; immediate; live (broadcast): PA III, properly *‘having skin-to-skin contact’; – (pl. ‑ūn) practitioner, pursuer, operator; director; manager (Eg.); court usher (Syr.): nominalized PA III.

For bašar ‘man, mankind’, BP#1120bašarī ‘human’, and BP#2953bašariyyaẗ ‘mankind’ ↗bašar.

For the theme ‘(to announce) good news’ cf. ↗BŠR_1

BṢR بصر 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BṢR 
“root” 
▪ BṢR_1 ‘to be endowed with eyesight, to see clearly’ ↗baṣ˅ra
▪ BṢR_2 ‘a kind of porridge made of green beans’ ↗biṣāraẗ
▪ BṢR_3 ‘Basra’ (port in Iraq) ↗al-Baṣraẗ

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘eyesight, to see; to comprehend, to realize; proof, sign, eye opener; to warn, to guide; to reflect, to ponder’ 

▪… 
– 
DRS 2 (1994)#BṢR–1 nHbr *bāṣar ‘être raccourci, être diminué’, JP Syr bᵉṣar, Mand bṣar, Aysor bāṣir ‘être diminué, petit, peu’; (Ur.) baṣūrā ‘inférieur’; Mand bᵉṣīr ‘peu’; ?Ar baṣara ‘trancher (sabre) (?)’. –2 Ar baṣīr ‘sang frais, sang virginal’. –3 Ug bṣr ‘tester pour pierres (?)’; Hbr ? mᵉbaṣṣēr ‘testeur pour l’or’, beṣer ‘or’, Ar baṣura ‘être doué de la vue’, baṣar ‘vue’. –4 Ug bṣr ‘prende l’essor’; Hbr ? yibbaṣṣēr ‘être inaccessible, impossible’, nHbr beṣer ‘forteresse’. –5 Ar buṣr ‘bord, lisière, frange’. –6 Ar baṣr ‘terrain calcaire’.
▪ … 
▪ Neither (Eg)Ar biṣāraẗ (BṢR_2) nor the name of the city of Baṣraẗ (BṢR_3) are mentioned in DRS. Apart from these, Lane lists also the items (all now obsolete) baṣara u (baṣr) (al-ʔadīmayn) ‘to put together, sew together’ and buṣr ‘thickness (of s.th.); cotton’.
▪ Out of these many values, only three have survived into MSA. The main complex is BṢR_1 ‘to be endowed with eyesight, to see clearly’, which has many semantic derivatives. Among these one may perhaps also group what in DRS is thought to be a distinct item (#BṢR-2), baṣīr ‘sang frais, sang virginal’; for the f. form, baṣīraẗ, at least, ClassAr lexicographers give (among other values) ‘evidence, testimony, proof, argument’, »and hence« ‘blood by which one is directed to an animal that has been shot,…, blood of a virgin,…, fine for homicide’; ‘witness’; ‘shield’; ‘oblong piece of cloth’ (Lane). Denominative from this are also baṣṣara (arrows) ‘to besmear (with blood, baṣīraẗ)’ or ‘to strengthen and fasten (with glue)’; ‘to hang upon the door of o.’s dwelling a baṣīraẗ, i.e., an oblong piece of cotton or other cloth’.
buṣāraẗ (BṢR_2), if appearing in MSA texts, is taken from EgAr, for which a Copt / Eg etymology has been suggested (see s.v.).
Baṣraẗ belongs perhaps to DRS #BṢR-6 Ar baṣr ‘terrain calcaire’, (Lane:) baṣraẗ ‘soft stones, rugged ground, land that is as though it were a mountain of gypsum’. Popular etymology often derives it from baṣura, interpreting the name as ‘the overlooking one’. Also Pers and Aram etymologies have been suggested (see s.v.). 
– 
– 
baṣ˅r‑ :
baṣur‑ بَصُرَ u (baṣar), and
baṣir‑ بَصِرَ a (baṣar
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BṢR 
vb., I 
to look, see; to realize, understand, comprehend, grasp (bi‑ s.th.) 
▪ … 
▪ eC7 Accord. to Badawi/AbdelHaleem2003, of this root, 14 forms occur 48 times in Q; some examples: baṣura 1 (to see, comprehend, to gain knowledge of something) 20:96 baṣurtu bi-mā lam yabṣurū bihī ‘he said, “I saw what they did not see [or: I have gained insight into something which they were unable to see]”’, 2 (to keep an eye on, to watch over) 28:11 wa-qālat li-ʔuḫti-hī quṣṣī-hi fa-baṣurat bi-hī ʕan ǧunubin wa-hum lā yašʕurūn ‘and she said to his sister “Track him,” so she watched him from a distance while they were unaware’; ʔabṣara 1 (to see) 7:179 wa-lahum ʔaʕyunun lā yubṣirūna bi-hā ‘they have eyes they do not see with’, 2 (to comprehend, to understand) 28:72 man ʔilāhun ġayru ’ḷḷāhi yaʔtī-kum bi-laylin taskunūna fīhi ʔa-fa-lā tubṣirūna ‘what god other than He could give you night in which to rest?, do you not comprehend?’, 3 (to find guidance) 6:104 qad ǧāʔa-kum baṣāʔiru min rabbi-kum fa-man ʔabṣara fa-li-nafsi-hī ‘ clear proofs have come to you from your Lord—so whoever finds guidance, it is for himself’; baṣīraẗ 1 (clear evidence, sure knowledge) 12:108 ʔadʕū ʔilā ’ḷḷāhi ʕalā baṣīratin ‘I call to God with sure knowledge’, 2 (witness, overseer) 75:14 bal-i ’l-ʔinsānu ʕalā nafsi-hī baṣīratun ‘truly, man is a [clear] witness against himself [in another interpretation: there is an observer observing him]’; tabṣiraẗ (providing insight, showing the way, eyesight) 50:8 tabṣiratun wa-ḏikrā li-kulli ʕabdin munībin ‘as an eye-opener and a reminder for every servant who turns to God’; baṣar (eyesight, eyes, sight, vision, sense of sight) 6:103 lā tudriku-hū ’l-ʔabṣāru wa-huwa yudriku ’l-ʔabṣāra ‘vision cannot encompass Him, but He encompasses all visions’ 
DRS 2 (1994)#BṢR-3: Ug bṣr ‘tester pour pierres (?)’; Hbr ? mᵉbaṣṣēr ‘testeur pour l’or’, beṣer ‘or’, Ar baṣura ‘être doué de la vue’, baṣar ‘vue’. 
▪ On baṣura may also depend the ClassAr word baṣīr ‘sang frais, sang virginal’. For the f., baṣīraẗ, ClassAr lexicographers give (among other values) ‘evidence, testimony, proof, argument’, »and hence« ‘blood by which one is directed to an animal that has been shot,…, blood of a virgin,…, fine for homicide’; ‘witness’; ‘shield’; ‘oblong piece of cloth’ (Lane). Denominative from this are also baṣṣara (arrows) ‘to besmear (with blood, baṣīraẗ)’ or ‘to strengthen and fasten (with glue)’; ‘to hang upon the door of o.’s dwelling a baṣīraẗ, i.e., an oblong piece of cotton or other cloth’.
 
– 
baṣṣara, vb. II, to make (s.o.) see, understand or realize (DO or bi‑ s.th.), make aware (of s.th.); to enlighten; to tell, inform (s.o., DO or bi‑ about): caus.
ʔabṣara, vb. IV, to see, catch sight of, behold, discern, perceive; to notice, observe; to make out, recognize; to try to discern or perceive: denom. from baṣar ?
tabaṣṣara, vb. V, to envisage, regard ( s.th.); to try to get an insight ( in); to consider, ponder ( s.th.), reflect on; to gain or have a keen insight: autobenef./refl.
ĭstabṣara, vb. X, to have the faculty of visual perception, be able to see; to be endowed with reason, be rational, reasonable, intelligent; to reflect ( on s.th.), ponder ( s.th.): denom. from baṣar ?

BP#2385baṣar, pl. ʔabṣār, n., vision, eyesight; glance, look; insight; sight, discernment, perception: vn. I, or the etymon proper? | qaṣīr al-~, adj., shortsighted, myopic; lamḥ al-~, glance of the eye; ka‑, , dūna, fī ʔaqalli min lamḥ al-~, adv., in the twinkling of an eye, in a moment, in a flash, instantly; ʕalà madà ’l-~, adv., within sight; la-hū ~ fī, he is knowledgeable in, he is familiar with; ʔūlū ’l-ʔabsār, n.pl., people with deep insight.
BP#4425baṣarī, adj., optic(al), visual, ocular: nsb-adj from baṣar.
baṣariyyāt, n.pl., optics: abstr. in iyyaẗ from baṣar.
baṣāraẗ, n.f., perception, discernment; perspicacity, acuteness of the mind, sharp-wittedness:.
baṣīr, pl. buṣarāʔᵘ, adj., endowed with eyesight; acutely aware (bi‑ of), having insight (bi‑ into); possessing knowledge or understanding (bi‑ of), discerning, discriminating, versed, knowledgeable, proficient (bi‑ in), acquainted (bi‑ with s.th.): quasi-PP I.
baṣīraẗ, pl. baṣāʔirᵘ, n., (keen) insight, penetration, discernment, understanding, (power of) mental perception, mental vision: quasi-PP I f. used as n.abstr. | ʕan ~, adv., deliberately, knowingly; kāna ʕalà ~in min, vb., to have insight into s.th., be informed about s.th.; nāfiḏ al-~, adj., discerning, clear-sighted, perspicacious, sharp-witted; nafāḏ al-~, n., sharp discernment, perspicacity.
ʔabṣarᵘ, adj., more discerning: elat.
tabṣiraẗ, n.f., enlightenment; instruction, information: n.abstr. of the tafʕilaẗ pattern.
ʔibṣār, n., vision, sight, visual perception: vn. IV | ~ muzdawiǧ, n., diplopia (med.).
tabaṣṣur, n., reflection, consideration; penetration, clear-sightedness, perspicacity: vn. V.
ĭstibṣār, n., insight (psych.): vn. X.
bāṣiraẗ, pl. bawāṣirᵘ, n., eye: f. of PA.f. (*‘the seeing one’).
 
biṣāraẗ بِصارة , var. EgArbuṣāraẗ 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BṢR 
n.f. 
(EgAr) a kind of porridge made of green beans, boiled with onions, garlic, parsley, etc. – WehrCowan1979. 
Perhaps from Eg ps-wr ‘very cooked’ or from ps ‘cooking’ + i͗wryt ‘beans’ (Youssef2003). 
▪ … 
… 
▪ Youssef2003: perhaps from Eg ps-wr ‘very cooked’ or from ps ‘cooking’ + i͗wryt ‘beans’ 
– 
– 
al-Baṣraẗ البَصْرة 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BṢR 
n.prop.loc., f. 
Basra (port in S Iraq) - WehrCowan1979. 
EI², art. »al-Baṣra« (S.H. Longrikk): »probably derived from the nature of the soil« 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994)#BṢR-6 baṣr ‘terrain calcaire’. Cf. also (Lane:) baṣraẗ ‘soft stones, rugged ground, land that is as though it were a mountain of gypsum’ 
▪ If S.H. Longrikk (art. »al-Baṣra«, in EI²) is right and the name of the city is »probably derived from the nature of the soil«, then one would have to see it together with ClassAr baṣraẗ ‘soft stones, rugged ground, land that is as though it were a mountain of gypsum’ and/or ʔarḍ baṣiraẗ ‘land in which are stones that cut the hoofs of beasts’ (Lane).
▪ The value ‘terrain calcaire’ is listed in DRS 2 (1994) as #BṢR-6, but without mentioning Basra.
▪ Popular etymology explains the name as ‘the over-watching’, ‘the one seeing everything’ (from ↗baṣ˅ra ‘to see’). On the Internet, other etymologies can be found (from an allegedly Pers bas-rāh [sic!] ‘where many paths meet’, ‘where many ways come together’, or allegedly Aram basratha [sic!] ‘place of huts, settlement’ – e.g., en.wiki). None of these are reliable.
▪ … 
– 
– 
BṢL بصل 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BṢL 
“root” 
▪ BṢL_1 ‘onion’ ↗baṣal
▪ BṢL_2 ‘compass’ ↗būṣalaẗ

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘onion, multi-layered’ 
▪ … 
– 
DRS 2 (1994) #BṢL, 1 Aram bᵊṣal ‘peler, fendre’; Ar baṣṣala ‘peler’; Gz baṣṣala ‘déchirer’. 2 Akk bisr-, bišr- ‘poireau’; Hbr (pl.) bᵊṣālīm, JP buṣlā, baṣlā, Syr beṣlā, Ar baṣal, SAr Soq bṣl, biṣle, Mhr beṣalôt, Gz baṣal, Te bäṣäl ‘oignon’. -3 Soq beṣílleh ‘huile rosat’. -4 Te (tə)bäṣṣälä ‘se fatiguer de’, bəṣṣul ‘dégoûté, paresseux’. -5 Akk baṣillat-: instrument de musique.
▪ BṢL_1: Outside Sem, Borg2021#38 (b-ṣ-l) compares Dem mḏ(w)l ‘onion’ (DG 195) ~ Copt ⲙϫⲱⲗ/ⲉⲙϫⲱⲗ ‘onion’ (Crum 1939: 213b)).
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
baṣal بَصَل 
ID 079 • Sw – • BP 4300 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BṢL 
n.coll. (n.u. ‑aẗ
1 onion(s); 2 bulb(s) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Kogan2011: from protWSem *baṣal‑ ‘onion’.
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#322: Hbr bāṣāl, ‎Syr beṣlō, SAr bṣl, Ḥrs beṣel, Mhr beṣāl, Śḥr beṣal. Outside Sem: ? ḅušal ‘kind ‎of grass’ in a WCh language.
DRS 2 (1994) #BṢL, 1 Aram bᵊṣal ‘peler, fendre’; Ar baṣṣala ‘peler’; Gz baṣṣala ‘déchirer’. 2 Akk bisr-, bišr- ‘poireau’; Hbr (pl.) bᵊṣālīm, JP buṣlā, baṣlā, Syr beṣlā, Ar baṣal, SAr Soq bṣl, biṣle, Mhr beṣalôt, Gz baṣal, Te bäṣäl ‘oignon’. -3-5 […].
▪ … 
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#322: Given the cognates in several Sem languages, it is safe to ‎assume that the word goes back to Sem *baṣal‑ ‘onion’. Outside Sem, only the word ḅušal ‘kind ‎of grass’ in a WCh language seems to be a possible correspondence (the authors reconstruct: ḅušal < WCh *ḅucal < *buc̣al, with shift of emphatization). If this is to be accepted, the AfrAs ‎ancestor of the Sem and WCh forms may be reconstructed as AfrAs *buc̣al‑ ‘plant’.81 . In this case, the *a in Sem ‎‎*ba ṣal‑ can be explained as a regular sound shift, to be observed also elsewhere, from AfrAs ‎‎*u to Sem *a after a labial.
▪ Outside Sem, Borg2021#38 (b-ṣ-l) compares Dem mḏ(w)l ‘onion’ (DG 195) ~ Copt ⲙϫⲱⲗ/ⲉⲙϫⲱⲗ ‘onion’ (Crum 1939: 213b)).
▪ … 
– 
baṣal al-faʔr, n., sea onion (Scilla verna)

baṣalī, adj., bulbous: nsb-formation
buṣaylaẗ, pl. -āt, ~ al-šaʕr, bulb of the hair (anat.): dimin. formation
 
BḌʕ بضع 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Mar2023
√BḌʕ 
“root” 
▪ BḌʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BḌʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BḌʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘flesh, lump of flesh, to slice; to be intimate with a woman; to marry; a piece of merchandise, a small number of items (from three to ten); a small flock of sheep’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
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BṬḪ بطخ 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BṬḪ 
“root” 
▪ BṬḪ_1 ‘watermelon’ ↗baṭṭīḫ
▪ BṬḪ_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
▪ … 
– 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
baṭṭīḫ بَطّيخ , var. biṭṭīḫ 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last update 1Oct2022
√BṬḪ 
n.coll. (n.u. ‑aẗ
melon, watermelon – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Rolland2014a: from Eg biṭka ‘id.’
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994)#BṬḪ: Hbr ʔªbaṭṭīḥīm (pl.), JP ʔªbaṭṭīḥā, Syr paṭṭītḥē, baṭṭīkā ‘melon’.
▪ Outside Sem, Borg2021#39 (b-ṭ-ḫ) compares Eg bddw-kꜣ (MK) ‘watermelon’; ‘eine offizinell verwendete Pflanze oder Frucht’ (Faulkner 1962: 36; Keimer 1924 I 133; Wb I 488).
▪ … 
▪ Youssef2003: from Eg bddk3 ‘watermelon’
DRS 2 (1994)#BṬḪ: Syr paṭṭītḥē, baṭṭīkā is from Ar. 
– 
mabṭaḫaẗ, n.f., melon patch: n.instr. 
BṬR بطر 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Mar2023
√BṬR 
“root” 
▪ BṬR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BṬR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BṬR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to slash; to fail to appreciate others; to be conceited, to fail to show gratitude’ 
▪ … 
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– 
– 
BṬRQ بطرق 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BṬRQ 
“root” 
▪ BṬRQ_1 ‘patrician; Romaean general; penguin’ ↗biṭrīq
▪ BṬRQ_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
▪ … 
– 
DRS 2 (1994) #BṬRQ: Amh bäṭärräqä ‘fendre la tête’. Forme augmentée de BṬQ? Pour les formes Ar biṭrīq, baṭrīq ‘patrice, général en chef’ et dérivés, V. DAFA 674.
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
biṭrīq بِطْريق , pl. baṭāriqaẗ, baṭārīqᵘ 
ID 080 • Sw – • BP??? • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BṬRQ 
n. 
1 patrician; 2 Romaean general; 3 penguin (zool.) – WehrCowan1979. 
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▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
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BṬRM بطرم 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BṬRM 
“root” 
▪ BṬRM_1 ‘…’ ↗baṭramān
▪ BṬRM_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
▪ … 
– 
DRS 2 (1994) #BṬRM, 1 Ar baṭram ‘bague à chaton’. -2 tabaṭrama ‘se montrer vulgaire’.
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▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
baṭramān بطْرمان , pl. ‑āt 
ID 081 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BṬRM 
n. 
… 
barṭamān 
▪ ….. 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
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– 
BṬŠ بطش 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Mar2023
√BṬŠ 
“root” 
▪ BṬŠ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BṬŠ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BṬŠ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘force, attack, to seize with violence, to assault, to batter’ 
▪ … 
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– 
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BṬQ بطق 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Oct2022
√BṬQ 
“root” 
▪ BṬQ_1 ‘slip (of paper), tag; card, calling card; ticket; label’ ↗biṭāqaẗ
▪ BṬQ_ ‘…’ ↗ 
▪ BṬQ_1 : from lGrk pittákion ‘tablette, billet, recu’
▪ BṬQ_ ‘…’ ↗ 
biṭāqaẗ بِطاقة , pl. -āt, baṭāʔiqᵘ 
ID … • Sw – • BP1486 • APD … • © SG | 3Oct2022
√BṬQ 
n.f. 
slip (of paper), tag; card, calling card; ticket; label – WehrCowan1976 
▪ Rolland2014a: from lGrk pittákion ‘tablette, billet, recu’, of unknown etymology.
▪ … 
biṭāqaẗ al-ziyāraẗ, calling card;
biṭāqaẗ šaḫṣiyyaẗ and biṭāqaẗ al-taʕrīf, identity card;
biṭāqaẗ al-mawādd al-ġiḏāʔiyyaẗ, biṭāqaẗ al-tamwīn, food ration card;
biṭāqaẗ al-muʕāyadaẗ, greeting card

 
BṬL بطل 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 3Mar2023
√BṬL 
“root” 
▪ BṬL_1 ‘to be(come) null, void, invalid, false, etc.; to cease, stop, be discontinued; to be inactive, be out of work’ ↗baṭala
▪ BṬL_2 ‘hero; brave’ ↗baṭal
▪ BṬL_ ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘falsehood, vanity; void, futile, untrue, to be false, to nullify; to be idle, idleness’ – 
▪ BṬL_1 : …
▪ BṬL_2 : …
▪ BṬL_ : …
 
– 
DRS 2 (1994) #BṬL-1 Akk baṭālu ‘tirer à sa fin, cesser; être sans travail’; Hbr *bāṭal (3pl. bāṭlū) ‘être sans travail’; nHbr ʔabṭālā ‘désœuvrement, indolence, frivolité’, bāṭel ‘être aboli’; JP Syr bᵊṭēl ‘cesser, finir; être sans travail’; Mnd bṭil ‘devenir inutile’; nSyr Ur *mabṭil ‘faire chômer’; Aysor bāṭil ‘être inoccupé’; Ar baṭala ‘être réduit à rien; être sans travail’; MġrAr bāṭil ‘gratis; injustement’; Śḥr bṭol ‘anéantir’; Soq bṭl ‘être enflammé’, šbṭl (caus.) ‘être désert’; Mhr habṭóul (caus.) ‘anéantir’; Gz baṭala ‘être inutile, vain; cesser, être aboli’; Te bätlä ‘être vain, inutile’; Amh bäṭṭälä ‘être gâté’, bəṭul ‘incorrect’, abäṭällälä ‘déprécier, mépriser’. -?2 Ar baṭal ‘intrépide, héroïque’, baṭula ‘être héroïque’ -?3 Syr bāṭlē ‘objet gravé, ciselé’; Amh bäṭṭälä ‘couper’, abṭäläṭṭälä ‘déchirer’, bəṭəlṭəl alä ‘être déchiré’.
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▪ …
▪ … 
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baṭal- بَطَلَ , a (buṭl, buṭlān
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 4Oct2022
√BṬL 
vb., I 
1a to be or become null, void, invalid, false, untenable, vain, futile, worthless; b to be abolished, fall into disuse, become obsolete; c to cease, stop, be discontinued; d to be inactive, be out of work – WehrCowen1976 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994) #BṬL-1 Akk baṭālu ‘tirer à sa fin, cesser; être sans travail’; Hbr *bāṭal (3pl bāṭlū) ‘être sans travail’; nHbr ʔabṭālā ‘désœuvrement, indolence, frivolité’, bāṭel ‘être aboli’; JP Syr bᵊṭēl ‘cesser, finir; être sans travail’; Mnd bṭil ‘devenir inutile’; nSyr Ur *mabṭil ‘faire chômer’; Aysor bāṭil ‘être inoccupé’; Ar baṭala ‘être réduit à rien; être sans travail’; MġrAr bāṭil ‘gratis; injustement’; Śḥr bṭol ‘anéantir’; Soq bṭl ‘être enflammé’, šbṭl (caus.) ‘être désert’; Mhr habṭóul (caus.) ‘anéantir’; Gz baṭala ‘être inutile, vain; cesser, être aboli’; Te bätlä ‘être vain, inutile’; Amh bäṭṭälä ‘être gâté’, bəṭul ‘incorrect’, abäṭällälä ‘déprécier, mépriser’. -?2 Ar baṭal ‘intrépide, héroïque’, baṭula ‘être héroïque’ -?3 Syr bāṭlē ‘objet gravé, ciselé’; Amh bäṭṭälä ‘couper’, abṭäläṭṭälä ‘déchirer’, bəṭəlṭəl alä ‘être déchiré’.
▪ … 
baṭṭala, vb. II, 1a to thwart, foil, frustrate, make ineffective, counteract, neutralize, nullify, invalidate (s. th.); b to abolish, cancel, annul, suppress (s.th.): D-stem, caus.
ʔabṭala, vb. IV, 1a = II; b to paralyze, immobilize, hold down, pin down (the opponent); 2 to talk idly, prattle: *Š-stem, ¹caus., ²denom.

buṭl, n., 1a nullity; b uselessness, futility, vanity; 2 falsity, falseness, untruth: vn. I
BP#2357biṭālaẗ, var. baṭālaẗ, n.f., 1 idleness, inactivity; 2 free time, time off, holidays, vacations; 3 unemployment
baṭṭāl, pl. -ūn, adj., 1 idle, inactive; 2 unemployed, out of work: ints. formation
buṭlān, n., 1a nullity; b uselessness, futility, vanity; 2 falsity, untruth; 3 invalidity
ʔibṭāl, n., 1 thwarting, frustration, invalidation; 2 ruin, destruction; 3 abolition, cancellation: vn. IV
BP#2674bāṭil, adj., n., 1 nugatory, vain, futile; 2 false, untrue; 3 absurd, groundless, baseless; 4 worthless; 5 invalid, null, void; 6 deception, lie, falsehood; 7 pl. ʔabāṭīlᵘ, vanities, trivialities, trifles, flimflam, idle talk, prattle: PA I
bāṭilᵃⁿ, var. bi-l-bāṭil, adv., 1 falsely; 2 futilely, in vain
mubṭil, n., 1 prattler, windbag; 2 liar: PA IV
mubṭal, adj., nugatory, futile, vain: PP IV
mutabaṭṭil, adj., unemployed: PA V

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗baṭal and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√BṬL. 
baṭal بَطَل , pl. ʔabṭāl 
ID 082 • Sw – • BP 871 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last update 4Oct2022
√BṬL 
n. 
1, adj., brave, heroic; 2a, n., hero; b champion, pioneer; c hero, protagonist (of a narrative, etc.), lead, star (of a play); d champion (athlet.) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Rolland2014a: of obscure etymology. Monteil reported about a hypothetical Mongolian origin. Rajki ignores the question. In any case, it would be hard to connect ‘hero, champion’ to the Sem root BṬL ‘void, nullity, uselessness’. Personal hypothesis: perh. related to medieval vulgLat battalia, battualia ‘escrime’, from lLat batt-ere ‘to beat’ (cf. battle, Fr bataille), of unknown origin.
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994) #BṬL-1 Akk baṭālu ‘tirer à sa fin, cesser; être sans travail’; Hbr *bāṭal (3pl bāṭlū) ‘être sans travail’; nHbr ʔabṭālā ‘désœuvrement, indolence, frivolité’, bāṭel ‘être aboli’; JP Syr bᵊṭēl ‘cesser, finir; être sans travail’; Mnd bṭil ‘devenir inutile’; nSyr Ur *mabṭil ‘faire chômer’; Aysor bāṭil ‘être inoccupé’; Ar baṭala ‘être réduit à rien; être sans travail’; MġrAr bāṭil ‘gratis; injustement’; Śḥr bṭol ‘anéantir’; Soq bṭl ‘être enflammé’, šbṭl (caus.) ‘être désert’; Mhr habṭóul (caus.) ‘anéantir’; Gz baṭala ‘être inutile, vain; cesser, être aboli’; Te bätlä ‘être vain, inutile’; Amh bäṭṭälä ‘être gâté’, bəṭul ‘incorrect’, abäṭällälä ‘déprécier, mépriser’. -?2 Ar baṭal ‘intrépide, héroïque’, baṭula ‘être héroïque’ -?3 Syr bāṭlē ‘objet gravé, ciselé’; Amh bäṭṭälä ‘couper’, abṭäläṭṭälä ‘déchirer’, bəṭəlṭəl alä ‘être déchiré’.
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baṭal al-ʕālam, n., world champion

baṭula, u (baṭālaẗ, buṭūlaẗ), vb. I, to be brave, be heroic, be a hero: denom. (?)

baṭalaẗ, n.f., 1a heroine (of a narrative), female lead, star (of a play); b woman champion (athlet.): f. of baṭal
baṭālaẗ, n.f., bravery, valor, heroism: vn. I
BP#616buṭūlaẗ, n.f., 1 bravery, valor, heroism; 2a leading role, starring role (theater, film); b championship (athlet.): vn. I | ~ al-ʕālamiyyaẗ and ~ al-ʕālam, n.f., world championship (athlet.); dawr al-~, n., the part or role of the hero, leading role

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗baṭala and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√BṬL. 
BṬN بطن 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 3Mar2023
√BṬN 
“root” 
▪ BṬN_1 ‘belly, stomach’ ↗baṭn
▪ BṬN_2 ‘fulling mill’ ↗bāṭān
▪ BṬN_3 ‘concrete, béton’ ↗bāṭūn
▪ BṬN_ ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘stomach, belly, the inside of anything; hidden, secret, to conceal; entourage; inner side, lining; low land’ – 
▪ BṬN_1 : from Sem *baṭn- ‘stomach, belly’
▪ BṬN_2 : from Span batán
▪ BṬN_3 : from Fr béton
 
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DRS 2 (1994) #BṬN-1 *baṭn- ‘ventre’: oCan bṭn, Hbr beṭen, EmpAram bṭn, JP baṭnā, biṭnā, Te bäṭn, Har bäṭni ‘ventre’; Pun bʔṭn ‘fût (de colonne)’ (?); JP Talm bᵊṭan ‘être enceinte’; Mnd bṭin ‘concevoir’; nSyr (Ur) Aysor bāṭin ‘être enceinte’; Liḥ baṭin ‘grossir’; Ar bāṭin ‘intérieur’, ʔabṭana ‘doubler un vêtement’, baṭṭaniyyaẗ ‘couverture doublée’; ?Soq bitan ‘laine’. -2 Aram baṭnōn ‘lyre à sept cordes’.
▪ …check Cohen1969: 397 ! 
▪ …
▪ … 
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– 
baṭn بَطْن , pl. buṭūn, ʔabṭun 
ID 083 • Sw 49/10 • BP 2080 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 4Oct2022
√BṬN 
n. 
1a belly, stomach, abdomen; b womb; 2 interior, inside, inner portion; 3 depth – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Kogan2011: from protCSem *baṭn‑ ‘belly’.
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▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994) #BṬN-1 *baṭn- ‘ventre’: oCan bṭn, Hbr beṭen, EmpAram bṭn, JP baṭnā, biṭnā, Te bäṭn, Har bäṭni ‘ventre’; Pun bʔṭn ‘fût (de colonne)’ (?); JP Talm bᵊṭan ‘être enceinte’; Mnd bṭin ‘concevoir’; nSyr (Ur) Aysor bāṭin ‘être enceinte’; Liḥ baṭin ‘grossir’; Ar bāṭin ‘intérieur’, ʔabṭana ‘doubler un vêtement’, baṭṭaniyyaẗ ‘couverture doublée’; ?Soq bitan ‘laine’. -2 […].
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baṭn al-qadam, n., sole of the foot;
baṭn al-kaff, n., palm of the hand;
raqṣ al-baṭn and raqṣ al-buṭūn, n., belly dance;
fī baṭnⁱ …, prep., in, within, in the midst of;
fī buṭūnⁱ…, prep., inside, within, in;
waladat baṭnᵃⁿ wāḥidᵃⁿ , expr., she gave birth only once;
baṭnᵃⁿ li-ẓahrⁱⁿ , adv., upside down

baṭana u (baṭn, buṭūn), to be hidden, concealed, to hide
baṭuna u (baṭānaẗ), to be paunchy
baṭṭana, vb. II, 1 to line (a garment, bi- s.th. with); 2 to cover the inside (bi- of s.th. with), hang, face, fill (bi- s.th. with): D-stem, applicative
ʔabṭana, vb. IV, to hide, conceal, harbor (s.th.): *Š-stem, caus.
tabaṭṭana, vb. V, 1 to be lined, have a lining (garment); 2 to penetrate, delve (into), become absorbed, engrossed (in): tD-stem, self-ref.
ĭstabṭana, vb. X, 1 to penetrate, delve (into), become absorbed, engrossed (in); 2a to try to fathom (s.th.); b to fathom (s.th.), get to the bottom of; c to have profound knowledge (of s.th.), know thoroughly, know inside out (s.th.): *Št-stem, desid./request.

baṭnī, adj., ventral, abdominal: nsb-adj.
baṭin, adj., paunchy
biṭnaẗ, n.f., 1 gluttony; 2 overeating, indigestion
biṭān, pl. ʔabtinaẗ, n., girth (of a camel)
biṭānaẗ, pl. baṭāʔinᵘ, n.f., 1 inside, inner side; 2 lining (of a garment); 3 retinue, suite, entourage | fī ~, prep., 1 among, amidst; 2 within
baṭīn, pl. biṭān and mibṭān, adj., 1 paunchy, fat, corpulent, stout; 2 gluttonous: quasi-PP I, ints.
buṭayn, adj., ventricle (of the heart; anat.): dimin. formation
baṭṭāniyyaẗ, pl. -āt, baṭāṭīnᵘ, n.f., 1 cover; 2 blanket; 3 quilt
BP#3762bāṭin, pl. bawāṭinu, adj., 1 inner, interior, inward, inmost, intrinsic; 2 hidden, secret: PA I | ~ al-kaff, n., palm of the hand; ~ al-qadam, n., sole of the foot; fī ~ al-ʔamr, adv., at bottom, after all, really; bawāṭin al-ʔamr, n. pl., the factors, circumstances or reasons at the bottom of s.th.; bawāṭin al-ʔarḍ, n. pl., the secret depths of the earth
al-bāṭinaẗ, n.f., coastal plain of E Oman
bāṭinᵃⁿ, adv., inwardly, secretly
bāṭinī, adj., internal: nsb-formation, from bāṭin | maraḍ al-~, n., internal disease; ṭibb al-~, n., internal medicine
al-bāṭiniyyaẗ, n.f., name of a school of thought in Islam, characterized by divining a hidden, secret meaning in the revealed texts: abstr. formation in iyyaẗ, from bāṭin
mabṭūn, adj., affected with a gastric or intestinal ailment: PP I
mubaṭṭan, adj., 1 lined; 2 filled (bi- with): PP II
 
TunAr bāṭān باطان 
ID - • Sw - • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 4Oct2022
√BṬN 
n. 
fulling mill – WehrCowan1976 
▪ Span batán 
baṭṭana, vb. II, to full (s.th.) (tun.): denom. (?) 
BʕṮ بعث 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BʕṮ 
“root” 
▪ BʕṮ_1 ‘to send out’ ↗baʕaṯa
▪ BʕṮ_2 ‘resurrection’ ↗baʕṯ

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘messenger, delegation, to send; to awake, to provoke, to incite; to cause to rise; to spread out; to walk briskly’ 
▪ … 
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DRS 2 (1994) #BʕṮ: Akk bēšu ‘s’éloigner’; Syr ʔabʕet ‘faire lever qn’; ?Ḥaṭ bʕt ‘délégué (?)’; Ar baʕaṯa ‘réveiller qn; envoyer’.
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– 
baʕaṯ- بَعَثَ , a (baʕṯ
ID – • Sw – • BP1441 • APD … • © SG | 4Oct2022
√BʕṮ 
vb., I 
1a to send, send out, dispatch (bi-, h s.o. or s.th., ʔilà to); b to forward; c to delegate; d to emit; 2a to evoke, arouse, call forth, awaken (s.th.); b to stir up, provoke, bring on (s.th.); c to incite, induce (ʕalà to s.th.), instigate (ʕalà s.th.); d to cause (ʕalà s.th.; e.g., astonishment); 3a to revive, resuscitate (s.th.); b to resurrect (s.o., min al-mawt, from death) 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994) #BʕṮ: Akk bēšu ‘s’éloigner’; Syr ʔabʕet ‘faire lever qn’; ?Ḥaṭ bʕt ‘délégué (?)’; Ar baʕaṯa ‘réveiller qn; envoyer’.
▪ … 
baʕaṯa ʔilay-hi hazzaẗ al-ḫawf, vb., to scare the wits out of s.o.;
baʕaṯa rūḥ al-ḥayāẗ fī, vb., to breathe life into s.th. or s.o., revive s.th.

ĭnbaʕaṯa, vb. VII, 1a to be sent out, be emitted, be dispatched, be delegated; b to originate (min in), come (min from), be caused (min by); c to emanate (fragrance); d to arise, spring, proceed, develop (min from), grow out of (min); e to set out to do s.th. (with foll., imperf.); 2 to be triggered, be caused, be provoked; 3 to be resurrected (min al-mawt, from death): N-stem
ĭbtaʕaṯa,vb. VIll, to send, dispatch (s.o.): Gt-stem

baʕṯ, n., 1 sending out, emission, dispatching, delegation, etc.; 2 resurrection; 3 pl. buʕūṯ, delegations, deputations: vn. I | ḥizb al-~, n., approx.: Renaissance Party, a political party with strong socialist tendencies; yawm al-~, n., Day of Resurrection (from the dead)
BP#4670baʕṯī, adj./n., Baathist: nsb-formation, from baʕṯ
BP#2325baʕṯaẗ, pl. baʕaṯāt, n.f., 1 delegation, deputation, mission; 2 expedition; 3 student exchange; 4 group of exchange students; 5 revival, rebirth, renaissance, rise | ~ ʕaskariyyaẗ, n.f., military mission; ~ diblūmāsiyyaẗ, n.f., diplomatic mission; ~ ʕaṯariyyaẗ, n.f., archaeological expedition; raʔis al-~, n., chief of mission (dipl.)
bāʕūṯ, n., Easter (Chr.)
mabʕaṯ, n., 1 sending, forwarding, dispatch; 2 emission; 3 awakening, arousal; 4 — pl. mabāʕiṯᵘ, cause; 5 factor: n.loc. I
bāʕiṯ, pl. bawāʕiṯᵘ, n., incentive, inducement, motive, spur, reason, cause: PA I
BP#4103mabʕūṯ, 1 adj., dispatched, delegated; 2 n., a envoy, delegate; b representative, deputy (in the Ottoman Empire): PP I
munbaʕaṯ, n., source, point of origin: n.loc. VII
 
baʕṯ بعْث 
ID 084 • Sw – • BP??? • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BʕṮ 
n. 
1 sending out, emission, dispatching, delegation, etc.; 2 resurrection; 3 pl. buʕūṯ, delegations, deputations – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ ↗baʕaṯa
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ ↗baʕaṯa
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
BP#4670baʕṯī, adj./n., Baathist: nsb-formation, from baʕṯ
 
BʕṮR بعثر 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Mar2023
√BʕṮR 
“root” 
▪ BʕṮR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BʕṮR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BʕṮR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to scatter, to strew about; to squander; to disarrange, to turn inside out’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
BʕD بعد 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BʕD 
“root” 
▪ BʕD_1 ‘(to be) far away’ ↗baʕuda
▪ BʕD_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be far, to go far; to come next; to remove, to separate’ 
▪ … 
– 
DRS 2 (1994) #BʕD: Talm ʔabʕid, ʔabʕad (impf.) ‘éloigne-toi!’; Syr ʔabʕed ‘éloigner’; ? Palm bʕd ‘céder (?)’; Ar baʕida, baʕuda ‘s’éloigner’, Tham bʕd ‘être éloigné’; SAr bʕd ‘éloigner’; Ar baʕad ‘étranger’; Gz baʕəd ‘autre, étranger’; Te bəʕd, Amh bada, bad ‘étranger, qui n’est pas de la famille’, ?bado, bädo ‘vide’; Ug bʕd ‘derrière’; Hbr baʕad ‘près de, derrière’; Ar baʕdª, Liḥ baʕd, SAr bʕd(n) ‘derrière, après’; Śḥr Soq baʕd, Mhr bâd ‘après’; Hbr *baʕad (cstr. bᵊʕad) ‘change, prix’; nHbr baʕad, bᵊʕad ‘pour, à l’égard de’; SAr bʕd ‘détériorer’; Gz baʕada ‘changer’.
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
¹baʕdᵘ بَعْدُ , and
²baʕdᵃ بَعْدَ 
ID – • Sw – • BP ¹789, ²34 • APD … • © SG | 4Oct2022
√BʕD 
¹adv., ²prep. 
baʕdᵘ : 1a then, thereupon; b afterwards, later, after that, in the following; 2 still, yet

baʕdᵃ : 1 after; 2 in addition to, beside; 3 aside from 
▪ … 
fīmā baʕdᵘ, adv., afterwards, later;
huwa baʕdᵘ ṣaġīr, expr., he is only a small boy, he is still young;
lam yaʔti baʕdᵘ, expr., he hasn’t come yet
baʕdᵃ kawni-hī…, expr., aside from the fact that he is...;
baʕdᵃ ḏālikᵃ, adv., 1 afterwards, after that, later (on); 2 besides, moreover;
baʕdᵃ ʔan, conj., after;
baʕdᵃ-mā and min baʕdⁱ mā, conj., do.;
safahᵘⁿ mā baʕdᵃ-hū safahᵘⁿ, expr., the height of stupidity

BP#2786baʕuda, u (buʕd), 1 to be distant, far away, far off; 2 to keep away, keep one’s distance (ʕan from); 3 to go far beyond (ʕan), exceed by far (ʕan s.th.); 4 to be remote, improbable, unlikely: vb. I, denom. (?) | ~ bi-hī ʕan, expr., he kept him away from; lā yabʕudᵘ ʔan, expr., it is not unlikely that...
baʕʕada, vb. II, 1 to remove (s.o.); 2 to banish, exile, expatriate (s.o.): D-stem, caus.
bāʕada, vb. III, to cause a separation (bayna between): L-stem, assoc. | ~ baynᵃ fulān wa-baynᵃ l-šayʔ, vb., to prevent s.o. from attaining s.th.; ~ bayna ʔaǧfāni-h, vb., to stare wide-eyed
BP#4080ʔabʕada, vb. IV, 1a to remove (s.th.); b to take away (s.th.); c to eliminate (s.th.), do away with; 2a to send away, dismiss (s.o.); b to expatriate, banish, exile (s.o.); 3 to exclude, make unlikely, improbable, impossible (s.th.); 4a to go or move far away; b to go very far ( in or with s.th.): *Š-stem, caus.
tabāʕada, vb. VI, 1 to be separated, lie apart, lie at some distance from one another; 2 to separate, part company, become estranged; 3 to move away, go away, with draw, depart (ʕan from); 4 to keep away, keep one’s distance (ʕan from); 5 to quit, leave, avoid (ʕan s.th.); 6 to follow in regular intervals: tL-stem, recipr.
BP#2332ĭbtaʕada, vb. VIII, 1 to move or go away; 2 to keep away, withdraw (ʕan from); 3 to quit, leave, avoid (ʕan s.th.); 4 to leave out of consideration, disregard (ʕan s.th.): Gt-stem, self-ref.
BP#3955ĭstabʕada, vb. X, 1 to single out, set aside (s.th.); 2 to think remote, farfetched (s.th.); 3 to regard as unlikely (s.th.); 4 to disqualify (s.o.): *Št-stem

BP#1358buʕd, n., 1 remoteness, farness; 2 pl. ʔabʕād distance; 3 dimension; 4 interval (mus.) | ʕalà ~ and ʕalà al-~, adv., in the distance, far off; ʕala ~ miʔaẗ mitr, adv., at a distance of 100 meters; min ~ and ʕan ~, adv., from a distance, from afar; ḏū ṯalāṯaẗ ʔabʕād, adj., three-dimensional; qiyās al-ʔabʕād, n., linear measure; ~ al-himmaẗ, n., high aspirations, loftiness of purpose; ~ al-šiqqaẗ, n., wide interval, wide gap; ~ al-ṣīt, n., renown, fame, celebrity; ~ al-ṣawt, n., do.; ~ al-naẓar, n., far sightedness, foresight; buʕdan li-, expr., away with …
baʕdaʔiḏⁱⁿ, adv., then, thereafter, there upon, after that, afterwards
baʕīd, pl. -ūn, buʕadāʔᵘ, buʕud, buʕdān, biʕād, adj., 1a rod distant, far away, far (ʕan from); b remote, outlying, out-of-the-way; 2a far-reaching, extensive; b far fetched, improbable, unlikely; 3 unusual, strange, odd, queer; 4 incompatible, inconsistent (ʕan with): quasi-PP I, ints.qual. | min ~, adv., from afar, from a distance; munḏu ʕahd ~, adv., a long time ago; ~ al-ʔaṯar, adj., of far-reaching consequence; ~ al-tārīḫ, adj., remote in time, going way back in history, ancient; ~ al-šaʔw, adj., high-minded, bold; ~ al-šiqqaẗ, adj., far apart; ~ al-ġawr, adj., 1 deep; 2 unfathomable; ~ al-madà, adj., 1 long-distance, long-range; 2 extensive, far-reaching; ~ al-naẓar, adj., 1 farsighted; 2 farseeing; ~ al-manāl, adj., hardly attainable, hard to get at; ḏahaba baʕīdan, vb., to go far away, go to distant lands; taṭallaʕa ʔilà al-~, vb., to look off into the distance
buʕaydᵃ, prep., shortly after, soon after
ʔabʕadᵘ, pl. ʔabāʕidᵘ, adj., n., 1 farther, remoter, more distant; 2 more extensive; 3 less likely, more improbable; 4 pl. ʔabāʕidᵘ, very distant relatives: elat. formation | al-šarq al-~, n., the Far East; al-~, n., the absent one (used as a polite periphrasis for s.o. who is being criticized or blamed for s.th.; also when referring to the 1st and 2nd persons)
ʔabʕādiyyaẗ, pl. -āt, n.f., country estate: f.nsb-formation, from ʔabʕād, pl. of buʕd
tabʕīd, n., banishment: vn. II
biʕād, n., distance: vn. III
mubāʕadaẗ, n.f., sowing of dissension, estrangement, alienation: vn. III
ʔibʕād, n., 1a removal, separation, isolation; b elimination; 2 expatriation, banishment, deportation: vn. IV
tabāʕud, n., 1 interdistance; 2 mutual estrangement: vn. VI
ĭstibʕād, adj., n., exclusion, removal, keeping at a distance: vn. X
mutabāʕid, adj., separate: PA VI | fī fatarāt ~, adv., in wide intervals; ~ minal-zaman, adv., at infrequent intervals, from time to time
mustabʕad, adj., improbable, unlikely: PP X
 
baʕda-ʔiḏⁱⁿ بَعْدَئِذٍ 
Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√BʕD, ʔḎ 
adv. 
later, afterwards 
▪ … 
baʕud‑ بعُد 
ID 085 • Sw –/41 • BP 6581 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BʕD 
vb., I 
1a to be distant, far away, far off; b to keep away, keep one’s distance (ʕan from); c to go far beyond (ʕan), exceed by far (ʕan s.th.); d to be remote, improbable, unlikely – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994) #BʕD: Talm ʔabʕid, ʔabʕad (impf.) ‘éloigne-toi!’; Syr ʔabʕed ‘éloigner’; ? Palm bʕd ‘céder (?)’; Ar baʕida, baʕuda ‘s’éloigner’, Tham bʕd ‘être éloigné’; SAr bʕd ‘éloigner’; Ar baʕad ‘étranger’; Gz baʕəd ‘autre, étranger’; Te bəʕd, Amh bada, bad ‘étranger, qui n’est pas de la famille’, ?bado, bädo ‘vide’; Ug bʕd ‘derrière’; Hbr baʕad ‘près de, derrière’; Ar baʕdª, Liḥ baʕd, SAr bʕd(n) ‘derrière, après’; Śḥr Soq baʕd, Mhr bâd ‘après’; Hbr *baʕad (cstr. bᵊʕad) ‘change, prix’; nHbr baʕad, bᵊʕad ‘pour, à l’égard de’; SAr bʕd ‘détériorer’; Gz baʕada ‘changer’.
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
 
BʕR بعر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BʕR 
“root” 
▪ BʕR_1 ‘camel’ ↗baʕīr
▪ BʕR_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a camel of either sex; a donkey; (of a camel) to grow to maturity; a camel’s droppings; to become angry’. – baʕīr is described by al-Suyūṭī as a borrowing from Hbr. 
▪ … 
– 
DRS 2 (1994) #BʕR-1 ?Ug bʕr ‘piller’? ‘enflammer’? Hbr *bāʕar ‘brûler (intr.)’; JP bᵊʕar ‘brûler, enflammer’, bōʕᵃrā, bāʕōrā ‘flambeau’; Mnd bar ‘brûler’; Śḥr əmbáyʕer ‘détruire’. -2 Ug bʕr ‘rejeter, retirer, guider’; Hbr biʕēr ‘enlever, nettoyer, débarrasser’; JP baʕēr ‘éloigner’; Syr bᵊʕar ‘parcourir avec soin, rechercher de nouveau’. -3 Akk bēr-, bīr- ‘jeune taureau’; Hbr bᵊʕīr ‘bovins’, baʕar ‘brute, stupide’; Syr bᵊʕīrā ‘bête de somme’; Mnd bira ‘bétail domestique’; nSyr Aysor bīra ‘gros bétail à cornes’; Syr baʕrar ‘rendre sauvage’, ʔetbaʕrar ‘être en fureur’; nSyr Ur *mbarbir ‘mugir, rugir; attaquer’; Ar baʕīr, Tham bʕyr ‘chameau’; SAr bʕr ‘bétail’ (en particulier ‘chameaux’); Soq beʕer, Mhr beyr ‘chameau’; Gz bəʕrāwi, Tña beʕray, Amh bare ‘bœuf’; Te bəʕər ‘jeune chameau’; Amh barat ‘parc à bestiaux’. -4 Syr bᵊʕurā ‘excrément’; Ar baʕara ‘rendre les excréments (chameau)’; Soq bʕr ‘cracher’. -5 Soq boʕor ‘voyager la nuit, avoir lieu la nuit’.
▪ …check Cohen1969: 386 ! 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
baʕīr بعير 
ID 086 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BʕR 
n.coll.; pl. ʔabʕiraẗ , buʕrān , ʔabāʕirᵘ , baʕārīnᵘ 
camel – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Kogan2011: with semantic shift from protSem *b˅ʕ˅r‑ ‘bull’, possibly also ‘livestock, cattle’ in general, the semantic shift to ‘camel’ in Ar being an Arabian innovation.
▪ According to Orel&Stolbova1994, Ar baʕīr‑ goes back to Sem *baʕīr‑ ‘¹bull, ²young bull, ³camel’, ‘ox’⁴, which in turn may have developed from AfrAs *baʕür‑ ‘bullʼ. 
▪ eC7 Q xii, 65: wa-namīru ʔahla-nā wa-naḥfaẓu ʔaḫā-nā wa-nazdādu kayla baʿīrin ‘We shall get provision for our folk and guard our brother, and we shall have the extra measure of a camel (load)’, 72: qālū nafqidu ṣuwāʕa l-maliki wa-li-man ǧāʔa bihī ḥimlu baʿīrin ‘They said: We have lost the king’s cup, and he who bringeth it shall have a camel-load’. 
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#183: Akk bīru¹², Hbr bᵊʕīr¹, Aram bᵊʕīrā¹, Ar baʕīr³, SAr bʕr³, Gz bəʕr-awi⁴, Te bəʕər-ay⁴, Tgy bəʕəray⁴, Amh bäre⁴, Arg bara⁴, Hrr baʕara⁴, Gur bawra⁴, Soq beʕer³, Mhr beyr³). Cognates in WCh *bar‑ ‘ram’, ‘bull’, CCh *bar‑ ‘bull’, ECh *bur‑ < *b˅Hur‑ ‘bull’, Agaw *bir‑ < *b˅Hir‑ ‘bull’, SA *baʕer‑ ‘bull’, HEC *baʕor‑ ‘oryx, bull’, Omot *b˅ʕor‑ ‘bull’. Maybe related to Berb *barar‑ ‘she-camel’.
▪ Kogan2011: Akk bīru ‘bull, young cattle’, būru ‘young calf ’; Gz bəʕər ‘ox, bull’, Hbr bəʕīr, SAr bʕr ‘livestock, cattle’; Ar baʕīr, Mhr hə-bɛ̄r, SAr bʕr ‘camel’. 
▪ Jeffery1938, 82: »It occurs only in the Joseph story, and Dvořák, Fremdw, 18, is doubtless right in thinking that its use here is due to Muḥammad’s sources. In the Joseph story of Gen. xlv, 17, the word used is [Hbr] bᵊʕīr, and in the Syr bᵊʕīrā, which means originally ‘cattle’ in general, and then any ‘beast of burden’. It is easy to see how the word was specialized in Ar to mean ‘camel’ (Guidi, Della Sede, 583; Rossini, Glossarium, 116; Hommel in HAA, i, 82 n.), the usual beast of burden in that country, and as such it occurs in the old poetry. There seems no reason to doubt the conclusion of Dvořák, Fremdw, 46 (cf. Horovitz, JPN, 192), that Muḥammad’s informant, hearing the word in the story as he got it from a Jewish or Christian source, passed the word on as though it had its specialized Ar meaning of ‘camel’.«
▪ Kogan2011: »The meaning ‘bull’ may also be attributed to PS *b˅ʕ˅r‑ on the evidence of Akk bīru ‘bull, young cattle’, būru ‘young calf ’ and Gz bəʕər ‘ox, bull’, but a more general meaning ‘livestock, cattle’, typical of Hbr bəʕīr and ESA bʕr is also possible (the semantic shift to ‘camel’ in Ar baʕīr, Mhr hə-bɛ̄r and, probably, ESA bʕr is an Arabian innovation).« 
– 
 
BʕḌ بعض 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Mar2023
√BʕḌ 
“root” 
▪ BʕḌ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BʕḌ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BʕḌ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘part, some, portion, to divide; mosquitoes, gnats, to be bitten by a mosquito’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
BʕL بعل 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BʕL 
“root” 
▪ BʕL_1 ‘the god Baal; lord; husband’ ↗baʕl
▪ BʕL_2 ‘land or plants thriving on natural water supply’ ↗baʕl
▪ BʕL_3 ‘…’ ↗

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘unirrigated palm trees, a male palm tree; a husband, a wife; to marry; courtship; master, deity’ 
▪ WehrCowan1979 treats [v1] and [v2] in one and the same entry, without explaining how ‘land or plants thriving on natural water supplyʼ and perh. the god Baʕl may be related.
▪ BʕL_1 : (Orel&Stolbova1994) From protSem *baʕl- ‘husband, masterʼ < AfrAs *baʕil- ‘manʼ.
▪ BʕL_2 ‘…’ ↗
▪ BʕL_3 ‘…’ ↗ 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
… 
▪ Engl Baal, Beelzebub, Hannibal, Belshazzar, ↗baʕl
▪ BʕL_3 ‘…’ ↗ 
… 
baʕl بَعْل , pl. buʕūl, buʕūlaẗ 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BʕL 
n. 
1a the god Baʕl; 1b (pl. buʕūl, buʕūlaẗ ) lord; husband; – 2 land or plants thriving on natural water supply – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ Two, or even three, etymata? WehrCowan1979 treats [v1] and [v2] in one and the same entry, without explaining how ‘land or plants thriving on natural water supplyʼ and perh. the god Baʕl or ‘lord, master’ may be related etymologically.
▪ [v1] From protSem *baʕl‑ ‘lord’ – Huehnergard2011.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994 reconstruct protSem *baʕl- ‘husband, masterʼ < AfrAs *baʕil- ‘manʼ.
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ Bergsträsser1928: Akk bēlu, Hbr baʕal, Aram baʕlā, Gz bāʕl.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#182: Akk bēlu, Ug bʕl, Phoen bʕl, Pun bʕl, Hbr baʕal, EpigrAram bʕl, SAr bʕl, Śḥr baʕl, Soq baʕl, Mhr bâl, Gz baʕal, Te baʕl, Amh bal, all ‘husband, masterʼ. – Outside Sem: CCh *b˅l- ‘man’, Sa *bal- ‘father-in-law’, LEC *Hobol- ‘relative’, as well as in HEC *beHil- ‘master’, ‘friend’.
▪ … 
▪ Jeffery1938, 81: »The word occurs in the Elijah story and as a proper name undoubtedly came to Muḥammad from the same source as his ʔIlyās. As this would seem to be from the Syr we may conclude that baʕl is from the Syr baʕlā.82 On the question of the word in general the authorities differ. Robertson Smith83 argued that the word was a loan-word in Arabia, but Nöldeke (ZDMG, xl: 174), and Wellhausen (Reste, 146), claim that it is indigenous. It is worthy of note that as-Suyūṭī, Itq, 310, states that baʕl meant rabb in the dialects of Yemen and of Azd, and as such we find it in the SAr inscriptions, e.g. Glaser, 1076, 2, bʕl trʕt ‘Lord of Teriʕat’ (see further Rossini, Glossarium, 116; RES, i, Nos. 184, 185). In any case from the Nab and NAr inscriptions84 we learn that the word was known in this sense in Arabia long before Muḥammad’s time.85 Horovitz, KU, 101, thinks it came from Eth [Gz] (cf. Ahrens, Christliches, 38).«
▪ [v1] ‘god Baalʼ: is Baal just ‘theʼ lord, ‘theʼ master? Or was the god Baal the model after which the family’s superior was called a ‘baʕlʼ? Is there a connection between the god and natural irrigation?
▪ [v1]‘lordʼ, ‘husbandʼ: which meaning was earlier, ‘lordʼ or ‘husbandʼ? If ‘lordʼ, then it may have been transferred both to the family domain (‘lordʼ > ‘lord of the household, a woman’s masterʼ > ‘husbandʼ) and to the religious field (‘lordʼ > ‘the Lord, Masterʼ).
▪ [v2] ‘land or plants thriving on natural water supplyʼ: any connection with the god Baʕl?
 
▪ Not from Ar baʕl, but ultimately from the same source are Engl Baal, from Hbr baʕal ‘lord, Baal’; Beelzebub, from Hbr baʕal zᵊbûb ‘lord of the flies’, pejorative alteration of baʕal zᵊbûl ‘lord prince’ (name of a Philistine god; cf. Ar ↗ḎBB and ↗ZBL); Hannibal, from Phoen (Pun) *ḥannī-baʕl ‘my grace (is) Baal’, cf. Ar ↗ḤNN; Belshazzar, from Hbr bēlšaṣṣar, from Akk bēl-šar-uṣur ‘Bel (an Akk deity) protect the king’ (bēl ‘lord, Bel’, cf. Ar baʕl, and ↗naẓara ‘to see, look, watch’). 
baʕlaẗ, n., wife: f. of baʕl [v1].
baʕlī, adj., unirrigated (land, plants): nisba formation of baʕl [v2]. 
BĠT بغت 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Mar2023
√BĠT 
“root” 
▪ BĠT_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BĠT_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BĠT_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘surprise’ is the single concept denoted by the root 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
BĠḌ بغض 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Mar2023
√BĠḌ 
“root” 
▪ BĠḌ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BĠḌ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BĠḌ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘hate’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
BĠL بغل 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Mar2023
√BĠL 
“root” 
▪ BĠL_1 ‘mule’ ↗baġl
▪ BĠL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BĠL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘mule; to be stupid, to affect stupidity’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
baġl بَغْل , pl. biġāl 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 2Jun2023
√BĠL
 
n. 
mule – Jeffery1938 
▪ … 
▪ eC7 Q xvi, 8 – Jeffery1938.
 
▪ Jeffery1938: »al-Ḫafāǧī, 44, shows that some of the Muslim philologers suspected that it was non-Arabic. The root is clearly not Arabic, and Hommel, Säugethiere, 113, noted it as a borrowing from Abyssinia, where the mule was as characteristic an animal as the camel is in Arabia. Fraenkel, Fremdw, 110, accepts this derivation, and Nöldeke, Neue Beiträge, 58, has established it. The word is common to all the Abyssinian dialects, cf. Eth [Gz] and Te baql, Amh baqlō and baqʷelō; Tña baqlī. – The q for ġ is not an isolated phenomenon, as Hommel illustrates.«
 
– 
– 
BĠY بغي 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Mar2023
√BĠY 
“root” 
▪ BĠY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BĠY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BĠY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a shoot; an unripe fruit; to seek, to go after, to wish for, to covet; to go over the limits, to transgress; to facilitate; to earn one’s living, to strive; a maid, a slave girl; to commit adultery; to practise prostitution’ 
▪ From protSem *√BĠY ‘to seek’ – Huehnergard2011.
▪ …
 
– 
– 
– 
BQDNS بقدنس 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Oct2022
√BQDNS, MQDNS 
“root” 
▪ BQDNS_1 ‘parsley’ ↗baq͗dūnis
▪ … 
▪ … 
baqdūnis بَقْدونس , var. baqdūnas , مَقْدونس maq͗dūnis, maq͗dūnas 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Oct2022
√BQDNS, MQDNS 
n. 
parsley – WehrCowan1976 
▪ Rolland2014a: ‘parsley’: from Grk Makedónes ‘Macedonians’
▪ … 
… 
… 
… 
… 
… 
BQR بَقَر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BQR 
“root” 
▪ BQR_1 ‘to split open, rip open, cut open’ ↗baqara
▪ BQR_2 ‘cattle; cow’ ↗baqar
▪ BQR_3 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘cow; to split up, to gash, to plough, to enlarge; to travel around; corruption’ 
▪ BQR_1 : …
▪ BQR_2 : from protCSem *baḳar‑ ‘large cattle’ – Kogan2011
▪ BQR_ : …
 
– 
DRS 2 (1994) #BQR-1 Syr bᵊqar ‘perforer’; Mnd bqar ‘se fendre, éclater’; Ar baqara ‘fendre’, baqqara ‘creuser (le sol jusqu’à l’eau)’; Amh boqärä ‘démanteler, abattre’; Hbr bōqer ‘matin’, *bīqqēr ‘rechercher exactement’; JP baqqar, Syr bᵊqar ‘rechercher’; nSyr bāqir ‘demander, interroger’; buqar, buqrā ‘question’; Ar baqira ‘être recru, brisé de fatigue’; Akk baqāru, paqāru ‘faire valoir une revendication’, baqrū ‘revendication’; Hbr biqqoret ‘châtiment, peine’; ?nSyr bāqūrā, bākūrā ‘bâton, verge’; ?Gz baql ‘châtiment’. -2 *baqar- ‘gros bétail, bœufs, vaches’: Akk buqār- ‘bœuf’; Phoen bqr, Hbr bāqār ; Ar baqar, SAr bqr ‘gros bétail, bœufs, vaches’; Tham bqr ‘bœuf, jeune chameau (?)’; JP bᵊqartā, JP Syr Mnd baqrā, Talm baqqārā, buqrā, biqrā ‘troupeau’; SAr bqr ‘labourer’; Ar bayqaraẗ ‘biens, richesses’; Akk b/puq/gurru, Ar baqariyyaẗ ‘quartier de bœuf’; Te baqret ‘haut de la cuisse; quartier postérieur de la vache’; ? Ar bayqara ‘errer, aller à l’aventure; douter’, buqar ‘mensonges’. -3 Te attäbaqärä ‘donner un nom’.
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
baqar- بَقَرَ , u 
ID – • Sw … • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 5Oct2022
√BQR 
vb., I 
to split open, rip open, cut open (s.th.) – WehrCowan1976 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994) #BQR-1 Syr bᵊqar ‘perforer’; Mnd bqar ‘se fendre, éclater’; Ar baqara ‘fendre’, baqqara ‘creuser (le sol jusqu’à l’eau)’; Amh boqärä ‘démanteler, abattre’; Hbr bōqer ‘matin’, *bīqqēr ‘rechercher exactement’; JP baqqar, Syr bᵊqar ‘rechercher’; nSyr bāqir ‘demander, interroger’; buqar, buqrā ‘question’; Ar baqira ‘être recru, brisé de fatigue’; Akk baqāru, paqāru ‘faire valoir une revendication’, baqrū ‘revendication’; Hbr biqqoret ‘châtiment, peine’; ?nSyr bāqūrā, bākūrā ‘bâton, verge’; ?Gz baql ‘châtiment’. -2-3 […].
▪ … 
ʔabraqa, vb. IV, do.: *Š-stem, ints.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗baqar as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√BQR. 
baqar بَقَر , pl. ʔabqār, buqūr 
ID 087 • Sw – • BP 3339 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 5Oct2022
√BQR 
n.coll.; n.un. ‑aẗ 
cattle; n.un. cow – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#310: from Sem ‎‎*baḳar‑ ‘bull'¹, ‘cattle'², ‘cow'³.
▪ Kogan2011: from protCSem *baḳar‑ ‘large cattle’.
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994) #BQR-1 […]. -2 *baqar- ‘gros bétail, bœufs, vaches’: Akk buqār- ‘bœuf’; Phoen bqr, Hbr bāqār ; Ar baqar, SAr bqr ‘gros bétail, bœufs, vaches’; Tham bqr ‘bœuf, jeune chameau (?)’; JP bᵊqartā, JP Syr Mnd baqrā, Talm baqqārā, buqrā, biqrā ‘troupeau’; SAr bqr ‘labourer’; Ar bayqaraẗ ‘biens, richesses’; Akk b/puq/gurru, Ar baqariyyaẗ ‘quartier de bœuf’; Te baqret ‘haut de la cuisse; quartier postérieur de la vache’; ? Ar bayqara ‘errer, aller à l’aventure; douter’, buqar ‘mensonges’. -3 […].
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#310: Akk buqāru¹ (with secondary u), ‎Phn bqr², Hbr bāqār², Aram (Palest) bᵉqartā², SAr bqr², or Ḥrs beqār³.
▪ … 
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#310: A hypothetical Sem ‎‎*baḳar‑ ‘bull'¹, ‘cattle'², ‘cow'³ is probably the common ancestor of ‎the Ar word as well as its Sem cognates. In the first syllable, Sem *a would be a regular development from AfrAs ‎‎*‑o‑ after a labial, so that AfrAs *boḳar‑ ‘cattle’ can be reconstructed, bearing in mind that the ‎Sem word has cognates also in Berb *buk˅r‑ ‘one year old camel’ and CCh *bwak˅r‑ ‘goat’. ‎AfrAs *boḳar‑ itself may be derived from AfrAs *boḳ‑ ‘goat’. On the other hand, cf. AfrAs ‎‎*baraḳ‑ ‘ram, goat, calf’.
▪ Lipiński1997#30.10 thinks the word can be segmented into root plus ‎AfrAs “postpositive determinant” *‑l or *‑r “for domestic or tamed animals”, cf. also ʔimmar‑ ‘ram, lamb’, ʔayyil ‘deer’, ṯawr‑ ‘ox’, ǧamal ‘camel’, ḥimār‑ ‘donkey’, ḫinzīr ‘swine, pig’, ʕiǧl ‘calf’, ʕayr‑ ‘ass-fowl’, karr‑ ‘lamb’, naml ‘ant’. 
– 
baqaraẗ, pl. -āt, n.f., cow: f., n.un.
baqarī, adj., n., 1 bovine, cattle-, cow- (in compunds); 2 beef (eg.): nsb-adj. | laḥm ~, n., beef
baqqār, pl. -ẗ, n., cowhand, cowboy: n.prof.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗baqara as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√BQR. 
BQS بقس 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Oct2022
√BQS 
“root” 
▪ BQS_1 ‘box, boxwood’ ↗baqs
▪ … 
▪ BQS_1 : from Grk púxos ‘box(wood)’, prob. borrowed from an Anatolian language (< Sem?)
▪ … 
baqs بَقْس 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Oct2022
√BQS 
n. 
box, boxwood (biol.) – WehrCowan1976 
▪ Rolland2014a: According to Rajki from Grk púxos ‘id.’, which Chantraine thinks is prob. borrowed from an Anatolian language. The Ar and Grk terms may thus have an identical Sem etymon.
▪ … 
BQSMṬ بقسمط 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Oct2022
√BQSMṬ 
“root” 
▪ BQSMṬ_1 ‘rusk, zwieback; biscuit’ ↗buqsumāṭ
▪ … 
▪ BQSMṬ_1 : from Grk paxamás
▪ … 
buqsumāṭ بُقْسُماط , var. buqsumāt 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Oct2022
√BQSMṬ 
n. 
rusk, zwieback; biscuit – WehrCowan1976 
▪ Rolland2014a: from Grk paxamás ‘id.’, according to Chantraine from the name of a baker and inn-keeper, Páxamos.
▪ … 
▪ var. buqsumāt (interpreted as pl. in -āt), bišmāṭ
▪ … 
BQŠŠ بقشش 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Oct2022
√BQŠŠ 
“root” 
▪ … 
baqšīš بَقْشيش , var. baḫšīš, pl. baqāšīšᵘ 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Oct2022
√BQŠŠ 
n. 
present of money; tip, gratuity, baksheesh – WehrCowan1976 
▪ Rolland2014a: via Tu from Pers baḫšīš ‘baksheesh, tip’, from Pers baḫšīdan ‘to give’, related to Av baḫš ‘ce qui est donné, chance’ (see also ↗baḫt ‘luck’).
▪ … 
BQL بقل 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Mar2023
√BQL 
“root” 
▪ BQL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BQL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BQL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to sprout, to appear, to shoot: herbage, pot-herbs, legumes, beans of all kinds’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
BQY بقي 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Mar2023
√BQY 
“root” 
▪ BQY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BQY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BQY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to stay behind, wait, remain, survive, continue; remainder, residue, that which outlasts, that which endures’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
BKː (BKK) بكّ/بكك 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Mar2023
√ BKː (BKK) 
“root” 
▪ BKː (BKK)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BKː (BKK)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BKː (BKK)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘crowding, pressure, breakage, stifling’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
BKR بكر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BKR 
“root” 
▪ BKR_1 ‘(to set out in the) early morning’ ↗bukraẗ
▪ BKR_2 ‘first-born, eldest’ ↗bikr, ‘young camel’ ↗bakr
▪ BKR_3 ‘reel; pulley, winch’ ↗bakraẗ

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘morrow; beginning of the day; early time, to do s.th. early in the day; first fruits; virgin, firstborn, outstanding deed’ 
▪ BKR_1 : …
▪ BKR_2 : (Orel&Stolbova1994) protSem *bakr- ʻyoung camelʼ, perh. from AfrAs *bak˅r- ʻyoung animalʼ.
▪ BKR_3 : …

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘morrow; beginning of the day; early time, to do s.th. early in the day; first fruits; virgin, firstborn, outstanding deed’ 
▪ … 
▪ BKR_1: Outside Sem, Borg2021#49 (b-k-r²) compares Eg bkꜣ (Pyr) ‘the morrow, morning’; ‘der zweite Tag, das Morgen, der Morgen (neben Tagesmitte und Abend); morgen’ (Faulkner 1962: 85; Ember 1911: 88; Wb I 481; Sethe 1962: 120).
▪ BKR_2: Outside Sem, Borg2021#48 (b-k-r¹), Ar bikr ‘virgin’; ‘femme ou femelle à son premier enfantement’ (Lane 240; DAF I 153): cf. Eg bkꜣ (MK) ‘be pregnant’; ‘schwanger sein / werden’; bkꜣ.t ‘pregnant woman’; ‘die schwangere’ (Faulkner 1962: 85; Wb I 481); bk ‘pregnant’; bꜣkꜣ ‘breeding cow’ (DLE I 141, 128) ~ Dem bk ‘schwanger, trächtig’ (DG 125) ~ Copt ⲃⲟⲕⲓ ‘conceive’ (Crum 1939: 31a). 
… 
… 
… 
bakr بَكْر , pl. ʔabkur, bukrān 
ID … • Sw – • BP 7869 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BKR 
n. 
young camel – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#196: from protSem *bakr- ʻyoung camelʼ, perh. from AfrAs *bak˅r- ʻyoung animalʼ.
▪ See also ↗√BKR and ↗bikr ‘first-born’. 
▪ … 
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#196: Akk bakru, Hbr beker, SAr bkr, Mhr bōker, Śḥr okrit, Ḥrs bōker. – Outside Sem perh. Berb e-bakar, e-bəkər, a-bukir ‘lamb, kid’; but these may be loans from Sem.
▪ See also ↗√BKR and ↗bikr ‘first-born’. 
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#196: protSem *bakr- ʻyoung camelʼ (Akk, Hbr, SAr, Mhr, Śḥr, Ḥrs). If the Berb forms are not loans, one may reconstruct protBerb *b˅k˅r- ) ‘lamb, kid’. ProtSem and protBerb taken together, the common etymon could be AfrAs *bak˅r- ʻyoung animalʼ.
▪ See also ↗√BKR and ↗bikr ‘first-born’. 
… 
For related items, cf. ↗bikr, ↗bukraẗ, and, for the general picture, ↗√BKR. 
bikr بِكْر , pl. ʔabkār 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BKR 
n. 
1a first-born, eldest; 1b firstling; 2 unprecedented, novel, new; 3a virgin; 3b virginal – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ From protSem *bukur‑ ‘*bikr‑ ‘*bak(u)r‑ ‘first-born’ – Huehnergard2011.
▪ The word may be the etymon proper of the whole root.
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘first-born’) Akk bukru, Hbr bḵōr, Syr buḵrā, Gz bakʷér.
 
… 
… 
bikrī, adj., first‑born, first: nisba formation of bikr.
bikriyyaẗ, n.f., primogeniture: abstr. formation in ‑iyyaẗ.

For other related items, cf. ↗bakr, ↗bukraẗ, and, for the general picture, ↗√BKR. 
bakraẗ بَكْرة , var. bakaraẗ, pl. bakar, ‑āt 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BKR 
n.f. 
1 reel; 2 pulley (mech.); 3 spool, coil; 4 winch, windlass – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
… 
… 
… 
ḫayṭ bakraẗ, n., thread.

bakkāraẗ, n.f., pulley (mech.) | bakkāraẗ murakkabaẗ, n.f., set of pulleys, block and tackle.

For other items of the same root, cf. ↗bakr, ↗bikr, ↗bukraẗ, and, for the general picture, ↗√BKR. 
bukraẗ بُكْرة , pl. bukar 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BKR 
n.f. 
early morning – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
… 
… 
… 
BP#1810bukraẗan, (EgLevGulAr) bukrā, adv., 1 early in the morning; 2a tomorrow; 2b on the following day, next day

bakara, u, vb. I, 1 to set out early in the morning, get up early; 2 to come early (ʔilà to), be early (ʔilà at)
bakkara, vb. II, 1 = I; 2 bakkara fī/bi‑ with foll. vn.: to do s.th. early, prematurely, ahead of its time: D‑stem, denom. from bukraẗ.
bākara, vb. III, to be ahead of s.o. (‑h), anticipate, forestall (‑h s.o.)
ʔabkara, vb. IV, = I
ĭbtakara, vb., VIII, 1 to be the first to take (‑h s.th.), be the first to embark (on s.th.); 2 to deflower (‑hā a girl); 3a to invent (‑h s.th.); 3b to create, originate, start (‑h s.th.)

bakr, pl. ʔabkur, bukrān, n., young camel: may be the etymon proper. – See also s.v.
bikr, pl. ʔabkār, n., 1 first‑born, eldest; 2 firstling; 3 unprecedented, novel, new; 4a virgin; 4b virginal: may be the etymon proper. – See also s.v.
bikrī, adj., first‑born, first: nisba formation of bikr.
bikriyyaẗ, n.f., primogeniture: abstr. formation in ‑iyyaẗ.
(?) ²bakraẗ, n.f.: ʕalà\ʕan bakraẗ ʔabīhim, ʕan bakratihim, adv., all without exception, all of them, all together; ḫaraǧat il‑ǧamāhīr ʕan bakratihā, expr., the crowd went forth as one man.
bakīr and bakūr ~ bākūr, adj., 1 coming early; 2 early, premature; 3 precocious: ints., quasi‑PP.
bukūr, n., earliness, prematureness, premature arrival | bukūrī fī ’l‑ʕawd, n., my early return
bakāraẗ, n.f., virginity
bukūraẗ and bukūriyyaẗ, n.f., primogeniture
bākūraẗ, pl. bawākīrᵘ, firstlings; first results, first fruits; beginning, rise, dawn; (with foll. genit.) initial, early, first; pl. bawākīrᵘ, first signs or indications; initial symptoms; heralds, harbingers (fig.) | bākūraẗ al‑fawākih, n.f., early fruit; kāna bākūraẗ ʔaʕmālih, expr., the first thing he did was…
ʔabkarᵘ, adj., rising earlier: elative formation.
mibkār, adj., precocious: rare adj. pattern!
ĭbtikār, pl. ‑āt, n.f, 1 novelty, innovation; 2a creation; 2b invention; 2c origination, first production; 3 initiative; 4 creativity, originality; pl. ‑āt, specif., creations of fashion, fashion designs: vn. VIII.
BP#3505bākir, adj., 1 early; 2 premature: PA I; | bākiran, adv., 1 in the morning; 2 early; fī ’l‑ṣabāḥ al‑bākir, adv., early in the morning; ʔilà bākir, adv., till tomorrow
bākiraẗ, pl. bawākirᵘ, n.f., firstlings, first produce, early fruits, early vegetables: PA I, f.; pl. first indications or symptoms, heralds, harbingels
BP#1424mubakkir, adj., 1 doing early; 2 early: PA II; | mubakkiran, adv., early in the morning, early
mubtakir, adj./n., 1a creator; 1b creative; 1c inventor: PA I.
mubtakar, adj./n., 1 newly created, novel, new, original; 2 (pl. ‑āt) creation, specif., fashion creation, invention | ṯawb mubtakar, n., original design, model, dress creation.

For other items of the same root, cf. ↗bakraẗ and, for the general picture, ↗√BKR. 
BKM بكم 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Mar2023
√BKM 
“root” 
▪ BKM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BKM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BKM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘dumbness, muteness; inability to express o.s.; to be silent; to be born or to become dumb or mute; to be ignorant’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
BKY بكي 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BKY 
“root” 
▪ BKY_1 ‘to cry, weep, bemoan, lament’ ↗bakà
▪ BKY_2 ‘…’ ↗
▪ BKY_3 ‘…’ ↗

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to wail, to cry, to bemoan, to lament; to cause to cry; to pretend to cry’ 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
… 
… 
… 
bakà / bakay‑ بكى / بكيْـ , ī (bukāʔ, bukaⁿ, det. bukà
ID … • Sw – • BP 1238 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BKY 
vb., I 
1a to cry, weep; 1b to bemoan, lament, bewail, mourn – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘to weep, cry’) Akk ibkī, Hbr bāḵā, Syr bḵā, Gz bakáya.
 
… 
… 
bakkà, vb. II, and ʔabkà, vb. IV, to make cry: D-stem and *Š-stem, respectively, caus.
ĭstabkà, vb.X, to move to tears, make cry: *Št-stem, desiderative.

bukāʔ, n., crying, weeping: vn. I .
bakkāʔ, adj., given to weeping frequently, tearful, lachrymose: ints.
ḥāʔiṭ al‑ mabkà, n., the Wailing Wall (in Jerusalem): n.loc.
bākin (det. bākī), pl. bukāẗ, 1a adj., weeping, crying: PA I; 1b n., weeper, wailer, mourner: nominalized PA I.
bākiyaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., wailing woman, hired mourner: PA I f.; – (pl. bawākin, det. bawākī; Eg. ) arch, arcade: ?
mubakkin, det. mubakkī, and mubkin, det. mubkī, adj., 1a causing tears, tearful; 1b sad, lamentable, deplorable: PA II and IV, respectively.
 
BLː(BLL) بللـ/ بلّ 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BLː(BLL) 
“root” 
▪ BLː (BLL)_1 ‘to moisten, make wet’ ↗¹balla
▪ BLː (BLL)_2 ‘to recover (from illness)’ ↗²balla
▪ BLː (BLL)_3 ‘porridge made of wheat or maize with milk and sugar’ ↗EgAr balīlaẗ

Other values, now obsolete, include:

▪ BLː (BLL)_4 ‘wicked, hypocrite, unjust’: ʔaball, f. ballāʔ, pl. bull (Hava1899)
▪ BLː (BLL)_5 ‘moan’: ball, balīl (Hava1899)
▪ BLː (BLL)_6 ‘a kind of fern’: LevAr ballān (Hava1899)
▪ BLː (BLL)_7 ‘meeting-place’: balāl~bulāl (Hava1899)
▪ BLː (BLL)_ ‘’:
 
▪ BLː (BLL)_1-3 : The grouping in DRS suggests that all items belong together, based on the idea of ‘mixing’. If this is correct, BLː (BLL)_1 ‘to moisten, make wet’ is originally *‘to mix with water’; BLː (BLL)_2 ‘to recover (from illness)’ may be *‘to get well again due to fresh (= wet, moistened, or mixed, variegated?) pasture/food’ (or simply refreshing coolness thanks to moisture? – cf. obsolete balīl, balīlaẗ ‘cold and damp wind’, or ballaẗ ‘freshness of youth’, given by Hava1899); and EgAr balīlaẗ may be either *‘soaked cereals’ (< ‘to moisten, make wet’), or the *‘meal that helps to recover, or is given to s.o. recovering, from an illness’, or it has preserved the basec idea of ‘mixing’ and is to be interpreted as *‘mixture, potpourri’, with this coming closest to Pun bll *‘mixed offering’.
BLː (BLL)_4 : cf. DRS 2 (1994) #BLL-2
BLː (BLL)_5 : cf. DRS 2 (1994) #BLL-4
BLː (BLL)_6 : cf. DRS 2 (1994) #BLL-5
BLː (BLL)_7 : ?
▪ ClassAr lexicographers traditionally also group under √ BLː (BLL) the particles bal ‘but; on the contrary, besides, much more, rather; no, nay’ and balà ‘(after neg.) oh yes!, but of course!, certainly!’. 
▪ … 
▪ DRS 2 (1994) #BLL-1 Akk balālu ‘mélanger; allier, brasser’; Hbr bālal ‘mélanger (avec de l’huile)’; Aram bal ‘mélanger’; Ar balla ‘mouiller, tremper, humecter’;14 SAr bll ‘irriguer’; Te bälla ‘mélanger’, bällälä ‘changer la couleur’; Pun bll: espèce de sacrifice.15 – Akk ballu ‘fourrage mélangé’; Hbr bᵊlīl, TalmAram bᵊlīlā ‘méteil’; Ar balla ‘désaltérer, apaiser’, bill ‘convalescence’; Tham (*Š-stem) h-bl ‘guérison’; Ar balāl ‘bien’, bullaẗ (pl. bilāl) ‘bien, bienfait’; SAr bll ‘bien (?)’. -?2 Ar balila, balla ‘être agressif, hargneux’, balalaẗ, bulalaẗ ‘haine implacable’, bill ‘malheur’; Amh bällälä ‘se gâter, aller mal, ne pas réussir’; Te bolälä ‘se sentir mal, abhorrer’.16 -3 Akk bullu ‘emporter, arracher?’; Ar balla (fī ’l- ʔarḍ) ‘errer; aller droit devant soi’; Tña bällälä ‘voler’; Har täbāläla ‘se hâter’. -4 Ar balīl ‘gémissement, plainte douce’, ballala ‘roucouler (colombe), crier (paon)’; Amh (Gondar) bulall- ‘tourterelle’.17 -5 Ar ball (coll.) ‘fleurs, fruits (d’un épineux); sureau?’, balalaẗ: sorte d’épineux, ‘aspalathe’, ballān: sorte de plante, ‘fougère?’?; Gz ʔablalit: sorte de chardon; Te bälla ‘mauvaise herbe’.18 -6 […].
▪ … 
See above, section CONC. 
– 
… 
¹ball‑/ balal‑ بَلّ / بَلَلْـ , u (ball)
 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BLː(BLL) 
vb., I 
to moisten, wet, make wet – WehrCowan1976.
 
▪ The grouping in DRS suggests that ¹balla belongs to a group of lexemes that are based on the idea of *‘mixing’. If this is correct, ‘to moisten, make wet’ is originally *‘to mix with water’.
▪ … 
▪ Hava1899: ballala (D-stem) ‘to wet, drench, moisten’, ʔaballa (*Š-stem) ‘to be sappy (tree)’; bullaẗ, balal, bulālaẗ ‘dampness, moisture’, ballān ‘warm bath (LevAr); waiter at baths’; balāl~bulāl ‘water, milk’
▪ … 
▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘to soak, mix’) Akk bll, Hbr bālal, Syr balbel ‘to confuse’, Te balla.
▪ DRS 2 (1994) #BLL-1 Akk balālu ‘mélanger; allier, brasser’; Hbr bālal ‘mélanger (avec de l’huile)’; Aram bal ‘mélanger’; Ar balla ‘mouiller, tremper, humecter’;19 SAr bll ‘irriguer’; Te bälla ‘mélanger’, bällälä ‘changer la couleur’; Pun bll: espèce de sacrifice.20 – Akk ballu ‘fourrage mélangé’; Hbr bᵊlīl, TalmAram bᵊlīlā ‘méteil’; Ar balla ‘désaltérer, apaiser’, bill ‘convalescence’; Tham (*Š-stem) h-bl ‘guérison’; Ar balāl ‘bien’, bullaẗ pl. bilāl) ‘bien, bienfait’; SAr bll ‘bien (?)’. -26 […].21
▪ Borg2021 #53 b-l-l compares Akk balālu ‘to blend, mingle, concoct’; ballu ‘mixed (medicinal and aromatic substances)’ (Parpola 2007: 13; CAD II 63) and (outside Sem) Eg (i) bꜢj (Med) ‘feucht sein (unter anderem vom Schweiß)’; bꜢy ‘foot ewer’; bꜢi͗w ‘damp (adj.)’ (Wb I 417; Faulkner 1962: 77).▪ …
 
… 
… 
ballala, vb. II = I: D‑stem, ints.
ʔaballa, vb. IV, ↗²balla
taballala, vb. V, and ĭbtalla, vb. VIII, to be moistened, be wetted; to become wet: Dt‑ and Gt‑stem (respectively).
ball, n., 1a moistening, wetting; 1b moisture: vn. I.
bill, n., ↗²balla
billaẗ, n.f., moisture, humidity
balal,n., 1a moisture, humidity; 1b moistness, dampness, wetness: vn. I
balīl, n., a moist, cool wind: ints. formation, *‘the moist, humid one’.
balīlaẗ, n.f., (EgAr) porridge made of wheat or maize with milk and sugar: Does balīlaẗ belong here (perh. *‘soaked cereals’), or is it rather the *‘meal that helps to recover, or is given to s.o. recovering, from an illness’ (↗²balla), or is it perh. akin to the *‘mixed offering’ of Pun bll (see above, section COGN)?
ʔiblāl, n., ↗²balla
taballul, n., moistness, dampness, humidity: vn. V.
mablūl, muballal, mubtall, adj., moist, damp, wet; drenched (by rain): PP I, II, VIII, respectively.

For other items of the root, cf. ↗²balla, ↗EgAr balīlaẗ, as well as, for the overall picture, ↗√BLː (BLL). 
²ball‑ / balal‑ بَلّ / بَلَلْـ , i (bill
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BLː(BLL) 
vb., I 
to recover (min maraḍ from an illness) – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ The grouping in DRS suggests that ²balla belongs to a group of lexemes that are based on the idea of *‘mixing’. If this is correct, ‘to recover (from illness)’ may originally be *‘to recover due to fresh (= wet, moistened, or mixed, variegated?) pasture, or to a fresh, moist breeze’. One of the closest cognates would be Tham h-bl ‘recovery’ (*Š-stem, caus., *‘to cause to be well’).
 
▪ Hava1899: balla (u, bilāl) ‘to give s.th., be beneficent’; balla (a, balal, bilāl) ‘to enjoy (bi- s.th.), to obtain; to know s.th.’, cf. also the expr. ballat yadāka bih ‘you have obtained it’; balla (balal, balālaẗ, bulūl) ‘to enjoy (bi‑ the company of s.o.)’. – The relation to ↗¹balla ‘to moisten’ becomes clearer in lexemes like balīl, balīlaẗ ‘cold and damp wind’ that combine ‘moisture’ and refreshing coolness, or also in ballaẗ ‘freshness of youth’. 
▪ DRS 2 (1994) #BLL-1 Akk balālu ‘mélanger; allier, brasser’; Hbr bālal ‘mélanger (avec de l’huile)’; Aram bal ‘mélanger’; Ar balla ‘mouiller, tremper, humecter’;22 SAr bll ‘irriguer’; Te bälla ‘mélanger’, bällälä ‘changer la couleur’; Pun bll: espèce de sacrifice.23 – Akk ballu ‘fourrage mélangé’; Hbr bᵊlīl, TalmAram bᵊlīlā ‘méteil’; Ar balla ‘désaltérer, apaiser’, bill ‘convalescence’; Tham (*Š-stem) h-bl ‘guérison’; Ar balāl ‘bien’, bullaẗ pl. bilāl) ‘bien, bienfait’; SAr bll ‘bien (?)’. -26 […]24  
… 
… 
ballala, vb. II, ↗¹balla.
ʔaballa, vb. IV, = I: *Š‑stem.
taballala, vb. V, and ĭbtalla, vb. VIII, ↗¹balla.

ball, n., ↗¹balla.
bill, n., recovery, convalescence, recuperation: vn. I.
billaẗ, balal, balīl ↗¹balla.
balīlaẗ, n.f., (EgAr) porridge made of wheat or maize with milk and sugar: Does balīlaẗ belong here (perh *‘meal that helps to recover, or is given to s.o. recovering, from an illness’), or rather to ¹balla ‘to moisten, make wet’, or is it perh. akin to the *‘mixed offering’ of Pun bll (see above, section COGN)?
ʔiblāl, n., recovery, convalescence, recuperation: vn. IV.
taballul, mablūl, muballal, mubtall ↗¹balla.

For other items of the root, cf. ↗¹balla and ↗EgAr balīlaẗ, as well as, for the overall picture, ↗√BLː (BLL). 
EgAr balīlaẗ بَليلة 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BLː (BLL) 
n.f. 
(EgAr) porridge made of wheat or maize with milk and sugar – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ Does balīlaẗ belong to ↗¹balla ‘to moisten, make wet’ (perh. *‘soaked cereals’), or is it rather the *‘meal that helps to recover, or is given to s.o. recovering, from an illness’ (↗²balla)? Or perh. none of these, but rather akin to the *‘mixed offering’ of Pun bll that preserved the original idea of *‘mixture’ (see section COGN)? In any case, DRS does not mention balīlaẗ, but groups all – ‘to moisten’, ‘to recover’ and Pun bll ‘mixed offering’ – together as cognates.
 
▪ … 
▪ DRS 2 (1994) #BLL-1 Akk balālu ‘mélanger; allier, brasser’; Hbr bālal ‘mélanger (avec de l’huile)’; Aram bal ‘mélanger’; Ar balla ‘mouiller, tremper, humecter’;25 SAr bll ‘irriguer’; Te bälla ‘mélanger’, bällälä ‘changer la couleur’; Pun bll: espèce de sacrifice.26 – Akk ballu ‘fourrage mélangé’; Hbr bᵊlīl, TalmAram bᵊlīlā ‘méteil’; Ar balla ‘désaltérer, apaiser’, bill ‘convalescence’; Tham (*Š-stem) h-bl ‘guérison’; Ar balāl ‘bien’, bullaẗ pl. bilāl) ‘bien, bienfait’; SAr bll ‘bien (?)’. -26 […]27  
… 
… 
For other items of the root, cf. ↗¹balla and ↗²balla, as well as, for the overall picture, ↗√BLː (BLL). 
BLD بلد 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 5Oct2022
√BLD 
“root” 
▪ BLD_1 ‘country’ ↗balad
▪ BLD_2 ‘to be stupid, idiotic, dull-witted’ ↗baluda
▪ BLD_ ‘steel’ ↗fūlāḏ (var. būlād)

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a marked plot of land; an animal dwelling, an abode, to abide in a place, to stay put; a tower; city, village; density; to be lacking in intelligence’ 
▪ BLD_1 : from …
▪ BLD_2 : from …
▪ BLD_3 : see ↗fūlāḏ
▪ … 
– 
DRS 2 (1994) #BLD-1 Ar balad ‘pays plat, terre, sol’, bilād ‘contrée’; Tham bldt ‘pays’; Soq bilād, Śḥr bilád ‘ville’; ?Har bad ‘pays, terre’. -2 Ar baluda, balida ‘être lent, stupide’, ʔablad ‘seul, délaissé’; ?Amh bolläd : singe qui vit seul; homme sans foi ni loi. -3 Ug (yn) bld (ǵll) : sorte de vin. -4 Te Tña blād, Amh bulad ‘silex’.
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
balad بَلَد , pl. bilād , ‎buldān 
ID 088 • Sw – • BP 99 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 5Oct2022
√BLD 
n.; rarely f. 
1 country; 2 town, city; 3 place, community, village; 4 bilād, country; 5 buldān, countries – WehrCowan1976 
▪ According to Gutas (see below), the word is ‎one of the few cases where Grk acted as intermediary for the transmission of a Latin loanword. 
▪ Q 2:126, 3:196, 7:57-58, etc. Also baladaẗ 25:49, 27:91, 34:15, etc. ʻcountry, region, territoryʼ 
DRS 2 (1994) #BLD-1 Ar balad ‘pays plat, terre, sol’, bilād ‘contrée’; Tham bldt ‘pays’; Soq bilād, Śḥr bilád ‘ville’; ?Har bad ‘pays, terre’. - Cf. perh. also 2 Ar baluda, balida ‘être lent, stupide’, ʔablad ‘seul, délaissé’; ?Amh bolläd : singe qui vit seul; homme sans foi ni loi. -3-4 […].
▪ Outside Sem, Borg2021 #51 (b-l-d) compares Eg bnd/bꜢd.t (Gr) ‘Acker’ (Wb II 464).
▪ … 
▪ Jeffery1938: »The verb balad‑ in the sense of ‘to dwell in a ‎region’ is denominative, and Nöldeke recognized that balad in the sense of ‘a place where one ‎dwellsʼ was a Semitic borrowing from the Lat palatium : Grk palátion. This has been accepted ‎by Fraenkel, Fremdw, 28, and Vollers, ZDMG, li, 312, and may be traced back to the military ‎occupation of N. Arabia.«

EALL (Gutas, “Greek Loanwords”): a loan from Grk ‎palátion that goes back to Latin palatium.

▪ Shahîd (EALL, “Latin Loanwords”) also mentions ‎Lat. palatium ‘town, inhabited area’, but adds that this etymology is uncertain. 

– 
bilād al-ḥabaš, Ethiopia;
bilād al-ṣīn, China;
bilād al-hind, India

ballada, vb. II, to acclimatize, habituate (s.th., to a country or region): D-stem, denom., caus.
taballada, vb. V, 1 pass. of II; 2baluda: tD-stem, self-ref.
BP#1458baldaẗ, n.f., 1 town, city; 2 place, community, village; 3 rural community; 4 township
BP#2236baladī, adj., 1 native, indigenous, home (as opposed to foreign, alien); 2 (fellow) citizen, compatriot, countryman; 3 a native; 4 communal, municipal: nsb-adj. | maǧlis ~, n., city council, local council
BP#1243baladiyyaẗ, pl. -āt, n.f., 1 township, community, rural community; 2 ward, district (of a city); 3 municipality, municipal council, local authority: abstr. formation in ‑iyyaẗ

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗baluda as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√BLD. 
baladiyyaẗ بَلَدِيَّة 
ID 089 • Sw – • BP 1243 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BLD 
n.f. 
1 township, community, rural community; 2 ward, district (of a city); 3 municipality, municipal council, local authority – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ abstr. formation in -iyyaẗ from ↗balad
▪ … 
▪ ↗balad.
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
 
balud- بَلُدَ , u (balādaẗ
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 5Oct2022
√BLD 
vb., I 
to be stupid, idiotic, dull-witted – WehrCowan1976 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994) #BLD-1 […]. -2 Ar baluda, balida ‘être lent, stupide’, ʔablad ‘seul, délaissé’; ?Amh bolläd : singe qui vit seul; homme sans foi ni loi. -3 […].
▪ … 
taballada, vb. V, 1balad; 2a to become stupid, besotted, lapse into a state of idiocy; b to show o.s. from the stupid side: tD-stem, self-ref.
tabālada, vb. VI, to feign stupidity: : tL-stem, imitative

balīd, var. ʔabladᵘ, adj., stupid, doltish, dull-witted, idiotic: quasi-PP, ints.adj.
balādaẗ, n.f., stupidity, silliness: vn. I
taballud, n., idiocy, dullness, obtuseness, apathy: vn. V
mutaballid, adj., besotted, dull, stupid: PA V

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗balad as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√BLD. 
būlād بُولاد 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BLD, BWLʔD, BūLāD 
n. 
steel – WehrCowan1979. 
A var. of ↗fūlāḏ
▪ … 
… 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ ↗fūlāḏ
– 
BLS بلس 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Mar2023
√BLS 
“root” 
▪ BLS_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BLS_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BLS_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a state of shock, to be overwhelmed with grief, fall into utter despair; to be cut off; to be confused and bewildered’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
BLṬ بلط 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 5Oct2022
√BLṬ 
“root” 
▪ BLṬ_1 ‘pavement, floor, tiles; court, palace’ ↗balāṭ
▪ BLṬ_2 ‘oak; acorn’ ↗ballūṭ
▪ BLṬ_3 ‘ax’ ↗balṭaẗ
▪ BLṬ_4 ‘balata gum’ ↗balaṭaẗ
▪ BLṬ_5 ‘Tilapia nilotica, a food fish of the Nile’ ↗bulṭī
▪ BLṬ_ ‘…’ ↗
 
▪ BLṬ_1 : 1) from Lat palatium ‘imperial residence’; ‎‎2) from Grk plateîa ‘flagstone, paved way’
▪ BLṬ_2 : …
▪ BLṬ_3 : from Tu balta ‘ax’
▪ BLṬ_4 : …
▪ BLṬ_5 : …
▪ BLṬ_ : …
 
– 
DRS 2 (1994) #BLṬ-1 Akk balāṭu ‘vivre’. -2 nHbr balūṭ, bālūṭ, JP Syr balūṭā, bᵊlūṭā, Aysor bålūṭå, Mnd baluda, Ar balluṭ ‘chêne, gland’; Aram bālūṭ : cheville placée dans la barre de la porte; Syr bᵊlaṭ ‘obstruer, fermer’. -3 Akk ba/ulṭīt-, JP ba/ulṭītā, Syr belṭītā, nSyr bilṭīta : ver qui ronge le bois. -4 Talm bwlṭ?, SAr blṭ ‘argent monnayé’. -5 Ar balāṭ ‘palais’, balaṭa ‘aplanir, niveler, damer’. -6 bālaṭa ‘jouter’. -?7 SAr *blṭ : btlṭ (forme à -t- infixé) ‘fin, destruction’.
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
balāṭ بلاط 
ID 090 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BLṬ 
n. 
1 royal court, palace. – 2a pavement, floor; b (pl. ʔabliṭaẗ) floor tiles – ‎WehrCowan1979. 
According to Shahîd (see below, “Etymology"), the word (in meaning ‎no. 1, ‘royal court') is one of the loans from Latin that owe their existence to the »strong Roman ‎military and administrative presence in the region", whereas no. 2 came from Grk. 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994) #BLṬ-1-4 […]. -5 Ar balāṭ ‘palais’, balaṭa ‘aplanir, niveler, damer’. -6 […].
▪ … 
EALL (Shahîd, “Latin Loanwords”): 1) from Lat palatium ‘imperial residence’; ‎‎2) from Grk plateîa ‘flagstone, paved way’
▪ … 
– 
al-balāṭ al-malakī, n., the royal court;
ḥidāḍ al-balāṭ, n., court mourning

ballaṭa, vb. II, to pave (s.th., with flagstones or tiles): D-stem, denom., applicative
balāṭaẗ, n.f., 1 floor tile; 2 flagstone, slab stone; 3 paving stone: quasi-n.un.
tablīṭ, n., paving, tile-laying: vn. II
muballaṭ, adj., paved, tiled: PP II

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ballūṭ, ↗balṭaẗ, ↗balaṭaẗ, ↗bulṭī as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√BLṬ. 
ballūṭ بَلّوط 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 5Oct2022
√BLṬ 
n. 
n., 1 oak; 2 acorn – WehrCowan1979 
▪ … 
For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗balāṭ, ↗balṭaẗ, ↗balaṭaẗ, ↗bulṭī as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√BLṬ. 
balṭaẗ بَلْطة , pl. ‑āt , bulaṭ 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 5Oct2022
√BLṬ 
n.f. 
ax – WehrCowan1979 
EALL (S. Procházka, »Turkish Loanwords«): from Tu balta ‘ax’.
▪ … 
▪ …
 
▪ … 
▪ Although »contacts between Arabs and speakers of Turkic languages go back to the first half of the 9th century, when the Abbasid caliphs began recruiting Turks from Central Asia as Praetorian guards", and although Arabic was influenced by a Turkic dialect during the Mamluk period too (13th-16th centuries), most loans from Turkish stem from the Ottoman period, esp. the 18th-19th century. Ar balṭa is an example of these loans, the majority of which fall into the domains of »administration and government, army and war, crafts and tools, house and household, dress, and food and dishes. The influence of Turkish on Arabic in these particular categories is obviously the consequence of the presence of the Ottoman bureaucracy and army in the Arab world in particular, and of the influence of centuries-long relations on everyday life in general."86 .
▪ … 
– 
balṭaǧī, pl. -iyyaẗ, n., 1 engineer, sapper, pioneer (mil.); 2a gangster; b procurer, panderer, pimp; c sponger, hanger-on, parasite: n.prof., from balṭaẗ + Tu suffix ‑ǧī

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗balāṭ, ↗ballūṭ, ↗balaṭaẗ, ↗bulṭī as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√BLṬ. 
balaṭaẗ بَلطة 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 5Oct2022
√BLṬ 
n.f. 
balata gum – WehrCowan1979
 
▪ … 
For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗balāṭ, ↗ballūṭ, ↗balṭaẗ, ↗bulṭī as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√BLṬ. 
bulṭī بُلْطي 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 5Oct2022
√BLṬ 
n. 
Tilapia nilotica, a food fish of the Nile – WehrCowan1979
 
▪ … 
For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗balāṭ, ↗ballūṭ, ↗balṭaẗ, ↗balaṭaẗ as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√BLṬ. 
BLʕ بلع 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Mar2023
√BLʕ 
“root” 
▪ BLʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BLʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BLʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to swallow, swallow up; a glutton; a drain’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
BLĠ بلغ 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BLĠ 
“root” 
▪ BLĠ_1 ‘to reach, get to, arrive at, attain, to come of age’ ↗balaġa, ‘eloquence; art of good style, art of composition; literature’ ↗balāġaẗ
▪ BLĠ_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to reach, to arrive; to mature, to come of age, to reach puberty; to exhaust; to attain a high degree; to be eloquent; to exaggerate; to do one’s utmost; to notify, to announce, to convey, message’ 
▪ … 
– 
DRS 2 (1994) #BLĠ: Hbr *billēʕ (ip. yᵊbullaʕ) ‘être communiqué, divulgué’, belaʕ ‘calomnie’; Ar balaġa ‘parvenir à un état, à un lieu, à qn; être mûr’, ballaġa ‘faire parvenir un message’, balāġaẗ ‘calomnie, médisance’; Śḥr úleġ ‘parvenir à’; Soq balaḥ ‘être mûr’.
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
balaġ- بَلَغَ , u (bulūġ
ID – • Sw – • BP443 • APD … • © SG | 5Oct2022
√BLĠ 
vb., I 
1 to reach (s.o., s.th.), get (to), arrive (at); 2 to come, amount (to), be worth (so and so much); b to go far ( in s.th.), attain a high degree ( of s.th.); 3 to come to s.o.’s ears; 4a to attain puberty (boy); b to ripen, mature (fruit, or the like); c to come of age; 5 to exhaust, wear out (min s.o.); 6 to act (min upon s.o.), have its effect (min on), affect (min s.o.) – WehrCowan1979
 
▪ …
 
DRS 2 (1994) #BLĠ: Hbr *billēʕ (ip. yᵊbullaʕ) ‘être communiqué, divulgué’, belaʕ ‘calomnie’; Ar balaġa ‘parvenir à un état, à un lieu, à qn; être mûr’, ballaġa ‘faire parvenir un message’, balāġaẗ ‘calomnie, médisance’; Śḥr úleġ ‘parvenir à’; Soq balaḥ ‘être mûr’.
▪ Outside Sem, Borg2021 #52 (b-l-ġ) compares Eg mꜢʕ (Gr) ‘richtig, wahr, so wie etwas eigentlich beschaffen sein soll’ (Wb II 12; Calice 1936: 152).
▪ … 
balaġa bi-hī ʔilà, vb., to make s.o. or s.th. get to or arrive at, lead or take s.o. or s.th. to, get s.o. or s.th. to the point where;
balaġa bi-hī l-tarannuḥᵘ ʔanna, expr., he began to reel so violently that...;
balaġa l-ʔamrᵘ mablaġᵃ l-ǧidd, expr., the matter became serious;
balaġa l-saylᵘ l-zubà, expr., the matter reached a climax, things came to a head;
balaġa mablaġᵃ l-riǧāl, vb., to be sexually mature, attain manhood, come of age;
balaġa ʔašudda-hū, vb., 1 to attain full maturity, come of age; 2 to reach its climax;
balaġa fī/min-a l-šayʔ mablaġᵃn, vb., to attain a high degree of s.th.;
ḥīna balaġtu bi-ḏikrayātī hāḏā l-mablaġᵃ, expr., when I had come to this point in my reminiscences;
balaġa min-hu kullᵃ mablaġin, vb., to work havoc on s.o.;
balaġa muntahā-hu, vb., to reach its climax, come to a head

ballaġa, vb. II, 1a to make (s.o.) reach or attain (s.th.); b to take, bring (ʔilà s.th. to s.o.), see that s.th. gets (ʔilà to); 2a to convey, transmit, impart, communicate, report (to s.o. s.th.); b to inform, notify (s.o. of s.th.), tell, let know (s.o. about); c to report (ʕan about), give an account of (ʕan); d to inform (ʕan against s.o.), report, denounce (ʕan s.o.): D-stem, caus. | ~ risālaẗ, vb., to fulfil a mission; balliġ-hu salāmī, expr., give him my best regards!
bālaġa, vb. III, 1a to exaggerate ( in s.th.); b to overdo, do too long ( s.th.); 2 to go to greatest lengths, do one’s utmost ( in): L-stem
BP#3610ʔablaġa, vb. IV, 1 to make (s.o., s.th.) reach or attain (ʔilà s.th.); 2 to make (s.th.) amount (ʔilà to), raise (a an amount, a salary, ʔilà to); 3a to inform, notify (bi- or ʕan s.o. of s.th.), tell, let know (bi- or ʕan s.o. about); b to announce, state, disclose (s.th.); c to inform (ʕan against s.o.), report, denounce (ʕan s.o.): *Š-stem, caus. | ~ al-būlīs bi-, to report s.th. to the police
taballaġa, vb. V, 1 to content o.s., be content (bi- with); 2 to eke out an existence; 3 to still one’s hunger (bi- with), eat (bi- s.th.); 4 to be delivered, be transmitted: tD-stem, self-ref.
samʕᵃⁿ lā balġᵃⁿ!, expr., may it be heard but not fulfilled, i.e., God forbid! (used at the mention of s.th. unpleasant)
bulġaẗ, n.f., and balāġ, n., sufficiency, competency, adequacy
BP#4243balāġ, pl. -āt, n., 1a communication, information, message, report; b announcement, proclamation; c communique; d statement; e notification (of the police) | ~ ʔaḫīr, n., ultimatum
balīġ, pl. bulaġāʔ, adj., 1 eloquent; 2 intense, lasting, deep, profound (e.g., an impression); 3 serious, grave (e.g., an injury): quasi-PP, ints.adj.
BP#3938bulūġ, n., 1 reaching, attainment, arrival (at); 2 maturity, legal majority: vn. I
balāġaẗ, n.f., 1 eloquence; 2 art of good style, art of composition; 3 literature | ʕilm al-~, n., rhetoric
BP#4882ʔablaġᵘ, adj., 1 intenser, deeper, more lasting; 2 more serious, graver: elat. formation
BP#962mablaġ, pl. mabāliġᵘ, n., 1 amount, sum of money; 2 extent, scope, range: n.loc. | ~ ĭsmī, n., nominal par; al-mabāliġ al-mūdaʕaẗ, n., the deposits (at a bank); li-yatabayyana ~ qawlī min al-ǧiddi, expr., in order to find, out to what extent my words were meant seriously
tablīġ, pl. -āt, n., 1 conveyance, transmission, delivery (ʔilà to s.o.); 2a information (ʕan about); b report, notification (ʕan of); c communication, announcement, notice: vn. II | kitāb al-~, n., credentials
BP#3701mubālaġaẗ, pl. -āt, n., exaggeration: vn. III
ʔiblāġ, n., conveyance, transmission: vn. IV
BP#1318bāliġ, adj., 1 extensive, far-reaching; 2 considerable; 3 serious (wound), deep, profound, violent, vehement (feelings), strong, intense; 4a mature; b of age, legally major: PA I
muballiġ, n., 1 bearer (of news), messenger; 2 informer, denouncer; 3 detective: PA II
BP#4489mubālaġ fīh, adj., 1 exaggerated: PP III
 
balāġaẗ بلاغة 
ID 091 • Sw – • BP??? • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BLĠ 
n.f. 
1 eloquence; 2 art of good style, art of composition; 3 literature – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ ↗balaġa
▪ Cf. AliLeaman2008: 116 (s.v. ‘rhetoric').
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BLQ بلق 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BLQ 
“root” 
▪ BLQ_1 ‘piebald’ ↗ʔablaq
▪ BLQ_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
▪ … 
– 
DRS 2 (1994) #BLQ-1 Hbr *bālaq (PA f.sg: bōlqāʰ, mᵊbullāqāʰ) ‘dévaster, ravager’; Ar ‘violer (une fille)’, ʔablaqa ‘ouvrir, fermer (brusquement une porte)’. – nSyr bāliq ‘écarquiller les yeux; être fier’; Mnd blq ‘aveugler’; Ar baliqa ‘être stupéfait’. – ? Syr bᵊlaq ‘apparaître; l’emporter sur; désirer’. -2 Syr bᵊlāqā ‘blanc et noir; blanc’; Ar baliqa ‘être blanc et noir’, balaq, balq, SAr blq, Gz balaq ‘marbre’; Te bälqät, bälqay ‘roches’. -3 Syr bᵊlaq ‘parvenir à’; Te ʔabläqä, Amh baläq ‘devenir pubère’. -4 Mnd baliqa ‘glouton, cupide’.
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ʔablaqᵘ أبْلقُ 
ID 092 • Sw – • BP 7759 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BLQ 
adj. 
piebald – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994) #BLQ-1 Hbr *bālaq (PA f.sg: bōlqāʰ, mᵊbullāqāʰ) ‘dévaster, ravager’; Ar ‘violer (une fille)’, ʔablaqa ‘ouvrir, fermer (brusquement une porte)’. – nSyr bāliq ‘écarquiller les yeux; être fier’; Mnd blq ‘aveugler’; Ar baliqa ‘être stupéfait’. – ? Syr bᵊlaq ‘apparaître; l’emporter sur; désirer’. – [Cf. perh. also] -2 Syr bᵊlāqā ‘blanc et noir; blanc’; Ar baliqa ‘être blanc et noir’, balaq, balq, SAr blq, Gz balaq ‘marbre’; Te bälqät, bälqay ‘roches’. -3-4 […].
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BLKN بلكن 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BLKN 
“root” 
▪ BLKN_1 ‘balcony’ ↗balkūnaẗ
▪ BLKN_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
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balkūnaẗ بلْكونة , var. balkūn , ‎balakūnaẗ , pl. ‑āt 
ID 093 • Sw – • BP??? • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BLKN 
n.f. 
balcony – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ A current belief is that the word is one out of a plentitude ‎of loans from mPers which testifies to the intense interaction between Arab and Iranian ‎culture during the first centuries of the Muslim expansion. Arabic was then »invigorated by new ‎elements of ideas and images, stimulated with fresh conceptions of excellence and eloquence, and ‎enriched […] with a new vocabulary. Persian, in particular, was responsible for the introduction of ‎new terms in the fields of luxury, ornaments, handicrafts, fine arts, government administration, ‎and public registers."14 . ‎‎According to this view, bal(a)kūnaẗ is one out of the significant number of terms from material culture that found their ‎way into Arabic. However, given that the European words for ‘balcony’, which for a long time were believed to derive from the same Pers source, probably are not of Pers but Germ origin, the probability is high that the Ar word is not from Pers but from a European language, probably Ital.
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EALL (Asbaghi, “Persian Loanwords”): a loan from mPers bālā ‘top, upstairs’ + ḫānag ‘house’.
▪ However, etymological dictionaries of Ge do ‎not trace Ge Balkon back to Pers origins, cf. EtymDuden1963: »Das ‎Substantiv wurde im 18. Jh. aus frz. balcon < it. balcone entlehnt. Das it. Wort selbst ist ‎‎germ. Ursprungs und gehört wohl im urspr. Sinne von ‘Balkengerüst’ zu dem unter Balken ‎behandelten, ins Roman. gelangten germ. Wort (ahd. balko = langobard. *balko).« Kluge2002, though calling this etymology in doubt, retains European origins: »Das italienische ‎Wort galt […] als aus dem Langobardischen entlehnt […]; doch rechnen neuere Untersuchungen ‎‎[Korth 1973] mit einem früh-rom. *pālica, einer Ableitung aus lat. pālus ‘Pfahl’. Wieder anders ‎Kahane [1976/77]: Das Wort ist germanisch und die Bedeutung ursprünglich (wie oberdeutsch) ‘Fensterladen’, von dem zum Balkon führenden Fenster.« It seems as if this opinion has to be ‎revised. For English and French, Wikipedia entries acknowledge the possibility of a Persian origin, ‎cf. Balcony in en.wiki, where it says: »probably cognate ‎with Pers term ‏‎bālkāneh or its older variant ‏‎pālkāneh «. 
– 
 
BLW بلو 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Mar2023
√BLW 
“root” 
▪ BLW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BLW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BLW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘test, trial, to test; bounty; to strive, to have care for; to afflict, calamity; to give an oath’ 
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BN بن 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BN 
“root” 
▪ BN_1 ‘son’ ↗ĭbn
▪ BN_2 ‘daughter’ ↗bint

▪ BAH2008 (s.v. BNw/y): ‘sons and daughters, offspring; to adopt a child; building, wall, tent; to build, to form; to wed’ 
▪ … 
– 
DRS 2 (1994) #BN-1 *bin- ‘fils’, *bint- ‘fille’: Akk bin-, Ug bn, Phoen Pun Moab bn, Hbr ben, Nab bn, Ar ĭbn, bin, Liḥ bin, Tham *bn (duel bny), SAr bn ‘fils’; Akk bint-, bunt-, bunat-, Ug bt, Phoen bt, Pun bt, bat (?), nPun bɛt, Hbr bat-, (avec suff.) bitt-, Ar bint, Liḥ bint, Tham bnt, SAr bnt ‘fille’; Gz bənt (ʕayn) ‘pupille (de l’œil)’; Hbr bar, Aram bar, EpigAram br ‘fils’, brt, JP bᵊrattā, Syr barᵊtā, ‘fille’; nSyr brūnā ‘fils’, bar (cstr.) ‘fils (de)’, brātā ‘fille’; DaṯAr bir, SAr brw, Mhr habrê, Śḥr br ‘fils’; Soq bar ‘enfant’. -2 SAr bn; Tham bn ‘de’.
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ĭbn اِبْن , pl. ʔabnāʔ, banūn 
ID 094 • Sw – • BP 145 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 5Oct2022
√BN 
n. 
1a son; b descendant, scion; c offspring, son (of a nation or people) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *bin‑ ‘son’.
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘son’) Akk binu, Hbr bēn, Syr (brā), SAr bn.
DRS 2 (1994) #BN-1 *bin- ‘fils’, *bint- ‘fille’: Akk bin-, Ug bn, Phoen Pun Moab bn, Hbr ben, Nab bn, Ar ĭbn, bin, Liḥ bin, Tham *bn (duel bny), SAr bn ‘fils’; […]. -2 […].
▪ Outside Sem, Borg2021 #55 (b-n-n¹) compares Eg bnn (LE) ‘to beget, become erect (of male)’; ‘begatten; erzeugen; Bezeichnung des Phallus’; bnbn ‘als eine sexuelle Betätigung’ (Faulkner 1962: 82; Wb I 459, 460; Hannig 1995: 254).
▪ …. 
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banū ʔĀdam, pl. ĭbn ʔĀdam, n., (son of Adam) man, human being;
ĭbn ʔāwà, n., jackal;
ĭbn al-balad, n., local inhabitant, native; ʔabnāʔ al-balād, n. pl., natives, native population;
ĭbn al-ḥarb, n., 1 warrior, soldier; 2 warlike, bellicose;
ĭbn al-sibīl, n., wayfarer, wanderer;
ĭbn ḫamsīn sanaẗ, adj./n., 50 years old;
ĭbn sāʕati-hī, adj./n., temporal, transient, passing;
ĭbn ṣulbi-hī, n., his own son;
ĭbn ʕirs, n., weasel;
banū māʔ al-samāʔ, n., the Arabs;
Banī Suwayf, n., Beni Suef (city in Egypt, S of Cairo)

ĭbnaẗ and bint, pl. banāt, n.f., 1 daughter; 2 bint, girl | ĭbnaẗ al-ʕamm, n.f., 1 (female) cousin; 2 periphrastically for wife: ĭbnaẗ ʕammak, n.f., your wife; bint al-fikr pl. banāt al-ʔafkār, n.f., thought, idea; banāt al-ʔarḍ, n. pl., insects and worms; banāt biʕs, n. pl., calamities, afflictions; banāt al-dahr, n. pl., do.; bint al-šafaẗ, n.f., word; banāt al-ṣadr, n. pl., worries, fears, anxieties; banāt wardāna, n. pl., earth worms, rainworms
BP#3232tabannà, vb. V, 1 to adopt as son (s.o.); 2 to adopt, embrace (s.th.): tD-stem, self-ref.
bunayya, my little son: dimin. + suffix 1sg
bunūwaẗ, n.f., sonship, filiation
bunawī, adj., filial: nsb-formation
tabannⁱⁿ, n., adoption (also fig., e.g.. of ideas, principles, etc.): vn. V
 
bint بِنْت , pl. banāt 
ID 095 • Sw – • BP 252 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BN 
n.f. 
1a daughter; b (bint, girl) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *bin‑at‑ ‘daughter’, f. of *bin‑ (Ar ↗ĭbn) ‘son’.
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▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘daughter’) Akk bintu, Hbr baṯ, Syr (barṯā), Gz bent ‘pupil (of the eye)’.
DRS 2 (1994) #BN-1 […]; Akk bint-, bunt-, bunat-, Ug bt, Phoen bt, Pun bt, bat (?), nPun bɛt, Hbr bat-, (avec suff.) bitt-, Ar bint, Liḥ bint, Tham bnt, SAr bnt ‘fille’; Gz bənt (ʕayn) ‘pupille (de l’œil)’; Hbr bar, Aram bar, EpigAram br ‘fils’, brt, JP bᵊrattā, Syr barᵊtā, ‘fille’; nSyr brūnā ‘fils’, bar (cstr.) ‘fils (de)’, brātā ‘fille’; […]. -2 […].
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ĭbnaẗ al-ʕamm, n.f., 1 (female) cousin; 2 periphrastically for wife: ĭbnaẗ ʕammak, n.f., your wife;
bint al-fikr, pl. banāt al-ʔafkār, n.f., thought, idea;
banāt al-ʔarḍ, n. pl., insects and worms;
banāt biʔs, n. pl., calamities, afflictions;
banāt al-dahr, n. pl., do.;
bint al-šafaẗ, n.f., word;
banāt al-ṣadr, n. pl., worries, fears, anxieties;
banāt wardānaẗ, n. pl., earth worms, rainworms
 
BNː (BNN) بنّ / بنن 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BNː (BNN) 
“root” 
▪ BNː (BNN)_1 ‘coffee’ ↗bunn
▪ BNː (BNN)_2 ‘finger tips’ ↗banān
 
▪ … 
– 
DRS 2 (1994) #BNN-1 Ar banna ‘faire halte, se fixer (dans un lieu)’; Tham bn ‘rester’. -2 Ar binn ‘graisse’. -3 bannaẗ ‘odeur’; SAr banna ‘saveur, goût’. -4 Ar bunān ‘extrémité(s) des doigts’; dial S Ar bannaẗ, bunnaẗ ‘doigt, orteil; longueur ou largeur d’un doigt’. -5 Ar YemAr bunn, Te Tña Amh bun ‘café’. -6 Amh bännänä ‘voleter ci et là (poussière, fumée)’; Tña bänänä ‘s’évaporer’. -7 Akk benn- : peut-être ‘l’ainé d’une famille?’. -8 benn- ‘épilepsie?’.
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banān بنان , var. bunān 
ID 096 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BNː (BNN) 
n. 
finger tips – WehrCowan1979 
Etymology unclear. 
▪ eC7 Q 8:12 fa-’ḍribū fawqa l-ʔaʕnāqi wa-’ḍribū min-hum kulla banānin ‘Then smite the necks and smite of them each finger’; 75:4 qādirīna ʕalā ʔan nusawwiya banāna-hū ‘We are able to restore his very fingers!’ 
DRS#BNN-4 gives bunān (with u) and the “dial. mér.” forms bannaẗ, bunnaẗ ‘doigt, orteil; longueur ou largeur d’un doigt’. 
Probably unrelated to other items of the root as given by DRS (of which only ↗bunn‑ ‘coffee beans, (unground) coffee’ is still known in MSA), cf. ↗BNN
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yušāru ʕalay-hī l-banān, expr., lit.: he is pointed at with fingers, i.e., he is a famous man;
anā ṭawʕᵃ banānika, expr., I am at your disposal, I am at your service
 
bunn بُنّ , var. būn 
ID 097 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BNː (BNN) 
n. 
coffee beans, (unground) coffee – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Outside Sem, Borg2021 #57 (b-n-n³) compares Eg bnn (MK) ‘bead, pellet’; ‘boulette, pilule’; ‘Kügelchen der "Myrrhe" als Medikament; kleine Perle aus Stein’ (Faulkner 1962: 83; Lacau 1972: 339; Wb II 460) ~ Dem bnn.t ‘Kugel’ (DG 118).
▪ ….. 
▪ ….. 
DRS#bnn-5 Te Tña Amh bun ‘coffee’ 
Probably unrelated to other items of the root as given by DRS (of which only ↗banān‑ ‘finger tips’ is still known in MSA), cf. ↗BNN
▪ Engl (coffee‑) beans 
bunnī, adj., coffee-coloured, brown: nsb-adj. 
BNDQ بندق 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BNDQ 
“root” 
▪ BNDQ_1 ‘hazelnut’ ↗bunduq
▪ BNDQ_2 ‘bullet’ ↗bunduq
▪ BNDQ_3 ‘rifle, gun’ ↗bunduq
▪ BNDQ_4 ‘Venice’ ↗ (al-) Bunduqiyyaẗ
▪ BNDQ_5 ‘bastard’ ↗bundūq
 
While BNDQ_1-4 all are from Grk pontikós ‘from the Black Sea (Pontos) region’, BNDQ_5 is of unknown origin. 
– 
bunduq, ↗bundūq 
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▪ ↗bunduq
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bunduq بُنْدُق , var. funduq , n.un. ‑aẗ , pl. banādiqᵘ 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BNDQ 
n.coll. 
1 hazelnut(s), filberts; hazel, hazel tree; -aẗ, n.f., hazelnut, filbert. – 2 bullet – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ From Grk pontikón (kárion) ‘Black Sea (nut), hazelnut’ (based on Grk póntos ‘sea’).
▪ [v2] Bullets were called bunduq because they looked like hazelnuts.15
▪ From bunduqaẗ ‘bullet’ was coined ‘the weapon with which to shoot bullets’, bunduqiyyaẗ.
▪ For ‘Venice’ cf. (al-)Bunduqiyyaẗ 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994)#BNDQ: Syr būndᵉqā ‘boule’, Ar bunduq ‘noisette; balle de fusil’, bunduqiyyaẗ ‘arquebuse, fusil’, Soq bindūq, Mhr bəndúq, mindúq, Śḥr bendīq, endiq
DRS 2 (1994)#BNDQ: From Grk pontikón (káryion) ‘Black Sea (nut), hazelnut’ (based on Grk póntos ‘sea’), Phlv pondik. Syr < Ar (Brockelmann).
▪ The variant funduq is not to be confused with the homonymous word for ‘caravanserai, hostel; hotel’, cf. ↗funduq
▪ Tu fındık: <1410 (Ḫıżır Paşa, Münteḫab-ı Şifā) fınduk : from Ar bunduq / funduq.
▪ Span albóndiga ‘meatball’: from Ar al-bunduqaẗ ‘the hazelnut’ (because of the ‘bullet’ form). 
bunduqiyyaẗ, pl. banādiqᵘ, n., rifle, gun | ~ rašš, n., shotgun; ~ hawāʔiyyaẗ, n., airgun. 
bunduqiyyaẗ بُنْدُقيّة , pl. banādiqᵘ 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BNDQ 
¹n.f.; ²n.prop.loc. 
1 rifle, gun. – 2 al-~ Venice – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ [v1] is based on ↗bunduq, meaning ‘hazelnut’ and (because of the form) also ‘bullet’.
▪ [v2] Directly from Grk pontikós and, thus, ‘(town of) the Pontos people’, or based on ↗bunduq ‘hazelnut’ or bunduqiyyaẗ ‘rifle, gun’ and thus ‘(town of) those who deal with hazelnuts, or rifles’? Rolland2014 suggests ‘(town of) the people who, like the hazelnuts, were believed to stem from the Pontus region’. 
▪ … 
▪ See ↗bunduq
▪ For [v1], cf. ↗bunduq.
▪ [v2] : Rolland2014: »Les Vénitiens étaient, commes les noisettes, supposés être originaires du Pont-Euxin.«
 
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[v1]
bunduqiyyaẗ rašš, n., shotgun.
bunduqiyyaẗ hawāʔiyyaẗ, n., airgun.

[v2]
bunduqī, Venetian sequin: nsb-adj from (al-) Bunduqiyyaẗ ‘Venice’.
bunduqānī, pl. ‑ūn, banādiqaẗ, n., a Venitian: extended nsb-adj, from (al-) Bunduqiyyaẗ ‘Venice’ + ‑ān suff.loc.< 

bundūq بُنْدوق , pl. banādīqᵘ 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BNDQ 
n. 
bastard – WehrCowan1979. 
Of unknown origin. Rolland2014 suggests that it is a contraction from ĭbn dūq ‘son of a stupidity’. Probably not related to ↗bunduq or ↗bunduqiyyaẗ
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Rolland2014: »L’origine… reste à éclaircir. On ne voit de rapport ni avec la noisette ni avec Venise. Hasardons une hypothèse: le mot est peut-être l’altération du syntagme ĭbn dūq ‘fils d’une folie, d’une sottise’.« 
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BNR بنر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BNR 
“root” 
▪ BNR_1 ‘glass’ ↗bannūr
▪ BNR_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
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bannūr بنّور 
ID 098 • Sw – • BP 7785 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BNR 
n. 
glass – WehrCowan1979. 
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BNW/Y بنو/ي 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 2Jun2023
√BNW/Y 
"root" 
▪ BNW/Y_1 ‘to build’ ↗banà, ‘builder’ ↗bannāʔ , ‘building, construction’ ↗bunyān
▪ BNW/Y_ ...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘sons and daughters, offspring; to adopt a child; building, wall, tent; to build, to form; to wed’ 
▪ From protSem *√BNY ‘to build, create’ – Huehnergard2011.
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bannāʔ بَنّاء
 
ID – • Sw – • BP 4854 (adj.) • APD … • © SG | 2Jun2023
√BNW/Y
 
n.; adj. 
builder – Jeffery1938 
▪ … 
▪ eC7 Q xxxviii, 36 – Jeffery1938.
 
▪ Jeffery1938: »The verb banà ‘to build’ occurs in the Qurʔān along with certain formations therefrom, e.g. bināʔ ‘ceiled roof’, and mabnīy and it would seem on the surface that bannāʔ is another such formation. Nöldeke, Mand. Gramm, 120, n., however, has a suggestion that it is a borrowing from Aramaic, whence on the other hand it passed into mPers (cf. Herzfeld, Paikuli, Glossary, p. 156). Fraenkel, Fremdw, 255, is doubtful, but thinks that if it is a loan-word it comes from the Jewish bnʔʰ rather than from the Syr bnyā. Zimmern, Akkad. Fremdw, 26, considers them all as borrowed from Akk banū ‘to build’, though the SAr bny and its derivatives might suggest that the root developed independently in SSem (Rossini, Glossarium, 115).«
 
– 
– 
bunyān بُنْيان 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 2Jun2023
√BNW/Y
 
n. 
a building or construction – Jeffery1938 
▪ … 
▪ eC7 Q ix, 110, 111; xvi, 28; xviii, 20; xxxvii, 95; lxi, 4 – Jeffery1938.
 
▪ Jeffery1938: »Again it would seem, on the surface, that this word also is from banà ‘to build’. Sprenger, Leben, i, 108, has noted that words of this form are un-Arabic, e.g. qurbān, furqān, sulṭān, subḥān, etc., and lead us to look for an Aram origin. Fraenkel, Fremdw, 27, points out that we have in Aram binyān, bînyāynāʔ beside bnyytā and bnʔytʔ, and in Syr binyānā ‘building’. In Hbr also we find binyān, but as Lagarde, Übersicht, 205, shows, this is a borrowing from Aram. [Ar] bunyān occurs in the old poetry so it was doubtless an early borrowing from Aramaic.«
 
– 
– 
BHT بهت 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 5Mar2023
√BHT 
“root” 
▪ BHT_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BHT_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BHT_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be confounded, be taken by surprise, be dumbfounded; falsehood, slander; to be argued down; to be perplexed’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
BHǦ بهج 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 5Mar2023
√BHǦ 
“root” 
▪ BHǦ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BHǦ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BHǦ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘delight; freshness; verdancy; to please, make merry’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
BHR بهر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BHR 
“root” 
▪ BHR_1 ‘to glitter, shine; dazzle, overwhelm’ ↗bahara
▪ BHR_2 ‘to gasp for air, pant, be exhausted’ ↗buhr
▪ BHR_3 ‘narcisses’ ↗bahār_1
▪ BHR_4 ‘spice’ ↗bahār_2
▪ BHR_5 ‘leather bag’ ↗buhār
▪ BHR_6 ‘centre, middle’ ↗buhraẗ
▪ BHR_7 ‘aorta’ ↗ʔabharᵘ 
▪ BHR_1 ‘to glitter, shine; dazzle, overwhelm’: perhaps an extension in ‑r »pre-Proto-Semitic« (Ehret) *bh ‘to sneak up on and surprise’, from AfrAs *‑bâh‑ ‘to go secretively’. – Cf. also ↗√BHT, ↗√BHW/Y, ↗√BRQ, ↗√ṬHR.
▪ BHR_2 ‘to gasp for air, pant, be exhausted’: akin to BHL ? Dependent on BHR_1 ?
▪ BHR_3 ‘narcisses’: from Pers bahār ‘spring’ ?
▪ BHR_4 ‘spice’: akin to ʕabhar ‘styrax’?
▪ BHR_5 ‘leather bag’: < Copt ?
▪ BHR_6 ‘centre, middle’: ?
▪ BHR_7 ‘aorta’: related to BHR_6 ‘centre, middle’ ? 
– 
See entries (as in NUTSHELL section, above). 
See entries (as in NUTSHELL section, above). 
– 
– 
bahar‑ بهر , a (bahr
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BHR 
vb., I 
1 to glitter, shine. – 2 to dazzle, overwhelm – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994)#BHR-1: Akk buʔār‑ ‘prospérité, santé’28 , Hbr bāhīr‑ ‘brillant (?)’,29 nHbr bihēr ‘briller’, bāhōr ‘blanc, brillant’, JP ša-bhar ‘briller, glorifier’, Syr ša-bhar ‘glorifier’, šū-bhārā ‘gloire, orgueil’, Mand bhʔr (mod.), behar, bar ‘éclairer (?), briller’, NSyr bāhir ‘briller’, bāhrā, bārā ‘lumière’, bāhrānā, bārānā ‘brillant, lumineux’, *(m)bāhrin ‘être clair’, Ar bahara ‘briller, l’emporter en beauté’, bahr‑ ‘éclat de beauté’; ? Tña bəhar, bahar ‘grand, fort’, Te bäharat ‘qui poussent, germent’, Syr bāhrā, būhrā ‘crépuscule’, bahīrā, bahūrā(yā) ‘un peu obscur’; Akk biʔār‑ , Hbr baheret, JP bahartā ‘tache blanche sur la peau’. 
▪ Lane I 1863 considers [v2] as the primary one: ‘to overcome, overpower, subdue’, hence ‘to shine brightly’, the link being expressions like baharat-i ‘l-šamsu ‘-ʔarḍa ‘the light of the sun overspread the earth’.
▪ Any connection to BHR_2 ‘to gasp for air, pant, be exhausted’? Exhaustion and panting could be the result of BHR_1.
▪ If so, then Ehret1995#5 may be relevant here: Ar bahr ‘astonishment’ (hence ‘to dazzle, overcome, subdue’? – SG). The latter is interpreted as an extension in »diffusive« *‑r 87 from a bi-consonantal »pre-Proto-Semitic« (pPS, i.e. preSem) root *BH- ‘to sneak up on and surprise’ < AfrAs *‑bâh‑ ‘to go secretively’. – Other extensions from the same pre-Sem root: ↗√BHT • premodSAr bhɮ.
▪ Cf. also ↗√BHW/Y, ↗√BRQ, ↗√ṬHR.
 
– 
buhira, vb. I, pass., to be out of breath, to pant: probably not belonging to BHR_1 but to BHR_2, cf. separate entry ↗buhr.
ʔabhara, vb. IV, to glitter, shine; to dazzle, overwhelm:
ĭnbahara, vb. VII, to be dazzled, blinded; to be smitten with blindness: pass. – For another meaning ↗buhr.
ĭbtahara, vb. VIII, to flaunt, parade, show off, present in a dazzling light (bi‑ s.th.):.
bahr, n., deception, dazzlement
bahraẗ, n.f., being dazzled, dazzlement
ʔabharᵘ, adj., more brilliant, more magnificent
ĭbtihār, n., dazzling display, show (bi‑ of s.th.)
bāhir, adj., dazzling, brilliant, splendid

For other items of the same root, cf. ↗√BHR. 

buhr بُهْر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BHR 
n. 
difficult respiration, labored breathing – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ BHR_2 ‘to gasp for air, pant, be exhausted’: an extension in ‑r going back, ultimately, to AfrAs *‑bâh‑ ‘to go secretively’? 
▪ … 
– 
DRS 2 (1994) lists Ar bahira ‘haleter, être exténué’ as an item distinct from #BHR-1 ‘to glitter, shine’. No reasons given.
▪ But isn’t BHR_2 simply a semantic extension of BHR_1, showing the effect/result or a similarity (‘to be exhausted, to gasp for air, pant’ because one is, or like s.o. who is, dazzled, overcome, or overwhelmed by the glittering of s.th.)? Form VII, ĭnbahara, can have both meanings: 1. to be dazzled, blinded; to be smitten with blindness; 2. to be out of breath – are we dealing with a root merger here, or is ‘panting’ a resultative extension of ‘dazzlement’?
▪ Ehret1995#5 (bahr astonishment): an extension in »diffusive« *‑r 88 from a bi-consonantal »pre-Proto-Semitic« (pPS, i.e. preSem) root *bh ‘to sneak up on and surprise’ < AfrAs *‑bâh‑ ‘to go secretively’. – Other extensions from the same pre-Sem root: ↗√BHT • premodSAr bhɮ
– 
Cf. also
buhira, vb. I, pass., to be out of breath, to pant.
ĭnbahara, vb. VII, to be dazzled, blinded; to be smitten with blindness; to be out of breath:.
mabhūr, adj., breathless, out of breath, panting: PP I. 
buhraẗ بُهْرة 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BHR 
n.f. 
middle, center – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Not mentioned in DRS 2 (1994).
▪ Relation to other items of ↗√BHR unclear. 
▪ … 
– 
ʔabharᵘ, n., aorta: from buhraẗ (aorta = that which is at the center) – or vice versa? 
ʔabharᵘ أبْهرُ 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BHR 
n. 
aorta (anat.) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Not mentioned in DRS 2 (1994).
▪ Relation to other items of ↗√BHR unclear. 
▪ … 
–? 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
buhraẗ, n.f., middle, center: akin to ʔabharᵘ (aorta = that which is at the center) – or vice versa? 
¹bahār (†) بهار 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BHR 
n. 
a certain plant, of sweet odour, the plant called ʕarār which is also called ʕayn al-baqar (buphthalmum, or ox-eye), the bahār al-barr, a crisping or curling plant having a yellow flower, growing in the days of the spring; perfume; (and hence also:) flowers of the desert; anything goodly, beautiful, and bright, or shining – Lane I (1863). narcisse, narcissus tagetta L. – Dozy I (1881). 
▪ From Pers bahār ‘spring’?
▪ Relations with other items of ↗√BHR unlikely. 
▪ … 
– 
DRS 2 (1994)#BHR-3: »iran. ? bahār ‘printemps’?« (following Blachère, Dictionnaire)
▪ Probably no relation with other items of ↗√BHR. 
– 
– 
²bahār بهار , pl. ‑āt 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BHR 
n. 
spice – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Akin to ʕabhar ‘styrax’?
▪ Obviously unrelated to other items of ↗√BHR. 
▪ … 
– 
DRS 2 (1994)#BHR-4: »bahār‑, buhār‑ ‘poivre, épices. […] En relation avec ʕabhar ‘styrax’? (v. Pérès, Poésie andaluse 170)«
▪ Evidently unrelated to other items of ↗√BHR. 
– 
– 
buhār بُهار 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BHR 
n. 
a certain thing with which one weighs; the weight of three hundred / […] a thousand pounds / (one half of) a load borne by a camel; a camel-load of household-goods or furniture and utensils; commodities, utensils, of the sea; or, of merchants; […] a receptible (?) – Lane I (1863). Sac fait de peau de veau, sac fait de la peau du cou du chameau – Dozy I (1881) 
▪ Relation to other items of √BHR unclear (if not to be excluded at all). Perhaps a loan from Copt? 
▪ … 
– 
▪ Lane I (1863): in the meaning ‘weight of three hundred pounds’ thought by A'Obeyd to be not Ar, but Copt (Ṣ), having this signification in Copt (JK), but thought by Az to be pure Ar.
DRS 2 (1994), s.v. bhr _5: < copt. ?
 
– 
– 
BHL بهل 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 5Mar2023
√BHL 
“root” 
▪ BHL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BHL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BHL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to leave an animal unattended, eglect; to be without a husband; to chase out; to curse, invoke God’s wrath; to swear one’s innocence; to pray eagerly’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
BHM بهم 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BHM 
“root” 
The root displays a variety of meanings that, at first sight, seem to be unconnected:
▪ BHM_1 ‘(to be) obscure, dark, cryptic’ ↗bahīm
▪ BHM_2 ‘animal, quadruped, lamb, sheep, cattle’ ↗bahīmaẗ
▪ BHM_3 ‘thumb; big toe’ ↗ʔibhām_2‑ .
Nevertheless, WehrCowan1979 treats all in one entry. In contrast, EtymArab follows (most of) the disctinctions made in DRS 2 (1994).

▪ Cf. BAH2008: ‘four-footed animals; to be dumb; obscure, unintelligible; to be dark; unmarked’ 
While BHM_2 ‘animal, quadruped, lamb, sheep, cattle’ may be dependent on BHM_1 (with the original value of ‘unable to speak, dumb’, cf. Huehnergard2011: WSem *√BHM ‘to be dumb’), animals being those who are unable to speak, a connection of these two values with BHM_3 ‘thumb, toe’ seems highly unlikely. 
– 
DRS 2 (1994)#BHM-1: Ar ʔabham ‘qui ne sait pas parler: barbare, étranger’, Gz bəhām, bəhum ‘muet’, bəhma ‘être muet’, Tña Te bähamä ‘être muet’.
DRS 2 (1994)#BHM-2: Ug bhmt ‘bétail, vaches’, Hbr bᵉhēmā ‘animal’, EmpAram bhmyth (?), bhmth (?) ‘bétail’, Mand bʔhymʔ ‘âne’, Ar bahmaẗ ‘agneau, chevreau, veau’, bahīmaẗ ‘bête, animal’, Tham bhm (pl.) ‘agneaux’, MġrAr bhīm ‘âne’; Ar buhmaẗ ‘obscurité, ténèbres; bloc de pierre’.
DRS 2 (1994)#BHM/N: Akk ubān‑ ‘doigt’, Hbr bōhen, Ar ʔibhām, dial bihām, bāhim, Mhr hābīn ‘pouce’. 
▪ For BHM_1 cf. also ↗BǦM, ↗BKM, ↗BLM.

DRS 2 (1994)#BHM: BHM_2, for which Sem *bahīmat‑ ‘animal, cattle’ can be reconstructed, »dépend vraisemblablement de [BHM_]1, même si, comme le pense Jeffery1938, Ar bahīmaẗ est un empr. à l’Hbr.«
▪ »Une reconstruction de la forme proto-Sem reste problématique« (is it BHM or BHN?).

▪ Assigning Ar buhmaẗ ‘obscurité, ténèbres; bloc de pierre’ to BHM_2 ‘animal, cattle’ seems not really plausible; why not to BHM_1 ‘unable to speak, dumb, mute’? – SG
 

– 
– 
bahīm بهيم , pl. buhum 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BHM_1 
adj. 
jet-black – WehrCowan1979. 
Related to BHM_1 ‘obscurity, darkness’ or (as suggested by DRS) to BHM_2 ‘animal, cattle’?
▪ Huehnergard2011: WSem *√BHM ‘to be dumb’. 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994)#BHM-2 groups the value ‘obscurité, ténèbres’ together with Ug bhmt ‘bétail, vaches’, Hbr bᵉhēmā ‘animal’, EmpAram bhmyth (?), bhmth (?) ‘bétail’, Mand bʔhymʔ ‘âne’, Ar bahmaẗ ‘agneau, chevreau, veau’, bahīmaẗ ‘bête, animal’, Tham bhm (pl.) ‘agneaux’, MġrAr bhīm ‘âne’; Ar buhmaẗ ‘obscurité, ténèbres; bloc de pierre’.
▪ In our view, however, the semantics would rather suggest a grouping unter DRS 2 (1994)#BHM-1, i.e., together with Ar ʔabham ‘qui ne sait pas parler: barbare, étranger’, Gz bəhām, bəhum ‘muet’, bəhma ‘être muet’, Tña Te bähamä ‘être muet’. 
▪ Semantically, it seems easier to connect the value ‘jet-black’ to BHM_1 ‘obscurity, darkness’ than (as suggested by DRS ) to BHM_2 ‘animal, cattle’
▪ No connection with BHM_3 ‘thumb, toe’. 
– 
Cf. also
ʔabhama, vb. IV, to make obscure, dubious, unintelligible: caus. (from bahīm ?).
tabahhama, vb. V, and ĭstabhama, vb. X, to be obscure, ambiguous, unintelligible: denom. (from bahīm ?).
ʔibhām _1, n., obscurity; vagueness, ambiguity: vn. IV.
mubham, adj., obscure, dark, cryptic, doubtful, vague, ambiguous; unintelligible: PP IV.
 
bahīmaẗ بهيمة , pl. bahāʔimᵘ 
ID 099 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BHM_2 
n.f. 
beast, animal, ‎quadruped; pl. livestock, cattle, (large) domestic animals – WehrCowan1979. 
Jeffery1938 suggests an origin in Hbr bᵉhēmā ‘animal’, but the word may well stem directly from AfrAs *bahīmat‑ ‘animal, cattle’ (which is also the Hbr word’s ancestor). The value ‘animal, cattle’ is probably connected to the value ‘unable to speak, dumb, mute’ of BHM_1 (Huehnergard2011: WSem *√BHM ‘to be dumb’). 
▪ eC7 Q 5:1, 22:28, 27:34 ‘animal’. 
DRS 2 (1994)#BHM-2: Ug bhmt ‘bétail, vaches’, Hbr bᵉhēmā ‘animal’, EmpAram bhmyth (?), bhmth (?) ‘bétail’, Mand bʔhymʔ ‘âne’, Ar bahmaẗ ‘agneau, chevreau, veau’, bahīmaẗ ‘bête, animal’, Tham bhm (pl.) ‘agneaux’, MġrAr bhīm ‘âne’; Ar buhmaẗ ‘obscurité, ténèbres; bloc de pierre’. 
▪ Jeffery1938, 84-85: »A very late word, occurring only in material from towards the very end of the Madina period, and used only in connection with legislation about lawful and unlawful meats. It is well known that these food regulations were formed under Jewish influence,89 so that it is significant that the word in the Jewish legislation (Lev. xi) is bᵉhēmā. The root of the word is probably a form BHM which we find in Eth [Gz] bəhəma ‘to be dumb’, connected with Ar ʔabham and ĭstabhama [↗BHM_1 ] ] both of which refer to incoherence or ambiguity of speech. The Lexicons, however, are troubled about the word (cf. LA, xiv, 323), and there is little doubt that it was a direct borrowing from the Jewish bᵉhēmā.90 «
▪ Cf. also ↗√BHM.
DRS 2 (1994) reconstructs Sem *bahīmat‑ ‘animal, cattle’ and says that this value probably depends on BHM_1 ‘(to be) unable to speak, mute’. – It is not clear, however, why DRS groups Ar value buhmaẗ ‘obscurité, ténèbres; bloc de pierre’ to BHM_2 ‘animal, cattle’ rather than under BHM_1 ‘(to be) unable to speak, mute’. 
– 
‏‎ bahīmī, adj., animal, bestial, brutish: nsb-adj.
bahīmiyyaẗ, n.f., brutishness, bestiality, brutality: abstr. formation in ‑iyyaẗ.

Cf. also
‏‎ bahmaẗ, n.f., lamb, sheep. 

²ʔibhām إبْهام , pl. ʔabāhīmᵘ 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BHM_3 
n. 
thumb; big toe – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Kogan2011: prob. akin to protSem *b˅h˅n ‘thumb’.
▪ It is not clear whether Ar has preserved an original final *‑m or whether this has developed from an earlier form in *‑n.
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994)#BHM/N: Akk ubān‑ ‘doigt’, Hbr bōhen, Ar ʔibhām, dial bihām, bāhim, Mhr hābīn ‘pouce’. 
▪ Fronzaroli#2.86 reconstructs Sem *buhān‑ ‘finger’, Kogan2011 has Sem *b˅h˅n‑ ‘thumb’.
DRS 2 (1994)#BHM/N: »Une reconstruction de la forme proto-Sem reste problématique« (*BHM or *BHN ?).
▪ Neither ʔibhām nor bāhim look as if they were the proper etymon. Rather are they derived from s.th. else that however has not left other traces.
▪ A connection with BHM_1 ‘(to be) unable to speak, dumb’ or BHM_2 ‘animal, cattle’ can well be excluded; see ↗BHM. 
– 
Cf. also
bāhim, n., big toe.
 
BWʔ بوء 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BWʔ 
“root” 
▪ BWʔ_1 ‘milieu, surroundings, environment, climate’ ↗bīʔaẗ
▪ BWʔ_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘dwelling, home, abode, residence; to take up a place for settling in, to provide abode for others; to take a wife, marriage; to come back; to incur; to admit; situation; equality’ 
▪ … 
– 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
bīʔaẗ بِيئَة 
ID 100 • Sw – • BP 1039 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BWʔ 
n.f. 
1a milieu, surroundings; b environment, situation (in which s.o. lives); c place where s.o. feels at home; d home, habitat – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
 
BWB بوب 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BWB 
“root” 
▪ BWB_1 ‘door, gate, opening; chapter; group, class, category’ ↗bāb
▪ BWB_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘desert; wonders; doors, ways, choices’ 
▪ … 
– 
DRS 2 (1994) #BWB: Akk bāb ‘porte’, bābtu ‘quartier’; EmpAram Palm bb(ʔ), Mnd baba, Syr bābā, ‘porte’; JP bābā ‘entrée, chapitre’; Ar bāb, Śḥr ōb (pl. bubét), Tña bab ‘grande porte’; Te bab ‘porte’.
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ Engl Bab, Babism, Babylonbāb
– 
bāb باب , pl. ʔabwāb , bībān 
ID 101 • Sw – • BP 298 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BWB 
n., 
door; gate; opening, gateway; entrance; chapter, ‎section, column, rubric; group, class, category; field, domain (fig.) | al-b. al-ʕālī the ‎Sublime Porte; ‏‎ʕalā ‘l-ʔabwāb near, imminent; … – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ From Akk bābu (protSem *√BWB) ‘gate, doorway’ – Huehnergard2011.
… 
▪ eC7 Occurs ‎some twenty-seven times in the Qurʔān, e.g. ii, 55; iv, 153. 
DRS 2 (1994) #BWB: Akk bāb ‘porte’, bābtu ‘quartier’; EmpAram Palm bb(ʔ), Mnd baba, Syr bābā, ‘porte’; JP bābā ‘entrée, chapitre’; Ar bāb, Śḥr ōb (pl. bubét), Tña bab ‘grande porte’; Te bab ‘porte’.
▪ Outside Sem, Borg2021 #58 (b-w-b) compares Eg bꜢbꜢ(w) (Pyr)/bbt (BD) ‘hole, cave’; ‘Loch, Höhlung’ (Ember 1930: 43; Calice 1936: 60; Faulkner 1962: 43, 82; Wb II 419), Copt ⲃⲏⲃ ‘cave’ (Crum 1939: 28).
▪ … 

▪ Jeffery1938: 74: »Fraenkel, ‎‎Fremdw, 14, noted that it was an early loan word, and suggested that it came from the Aram bāḇâ ‏which is in very common use in the Rabbinic writings. D. H. Müller, however (WZKM, i, 23), on ‎the ground that bābā occurs very rarely in Syr and that the root is entirely lacking in Hbr, Eth, ‎and Sab, suggested that it was an early borrowing from Mesopotamia (cf. Zimmern, Akkad. ‎Fremdw, 30), and may have come directly into Ar. It occurs commonly in the old poetry, ‎which confirms the theory of early borrowing, and it is noteworthy that from some Mesopotamian ‎source it passed into mPers (Frahang, Glossary, p. 103; Herzfeld, Paikuli, Glossary, ‎‎151).«

▪ Schall1982, Retsö2006 (EALL, “Aramaic/Syriac ‎Loanwords"): via Aram bāḇā from Akk bāb-um ‘gate’ 

▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Bab, Babism, from Ar bāb ‘gate’, from Aram bābā, from Akk bābu ‘dto.’. – Babylon, from Akk bāb-ili ‘Babylon’, lit. ‘gate of the god’ (prob. a folk etymology of a pre-Akk place name), from bāb, bound form of bābu ‘gate’ (ili, genitive of ilu ‘god’, akin to Ar ↗ʔilāh, ↗allāh). 
bawwaba, vb. II, to divide into chapters or ‎sections; to arrange in groups, arrange systematically, class, classify: ‎denominative, from bāb in the sense of ‘chapter, category’, etc.
‏‎bābaẗ, n.f., pl. ‑āt kind, sort, ‎class, category:

bawwāb, n., pl. ‑ūn doorman, gatekeeper: n.prof., denominative
biwābaẗ, n.f., office of ‎gatekeeper:

[BP #2435] bawwābaẗ, n.f., pl. ‑āt (large) gate, portal:

tabwīb ‎n., division into chapters, sectioning, classification, systematic arrangement, grouping: vn. II, denominative.
mubawwab, adj., arranged in groups, classed, classified: PP II, from bawwaba 
BWR بور 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 5Mar2023
√BWR 
“root” 
▪ BWR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BWR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BWR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘waste, uncultivated land; demise, to perish; corrupt; stagnant; lazy; to test’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
BWRQ بورق 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BWRQ 
“root” 
▪ BWRQ_1 ‘borax, sodium borate’ ↗bawraq (also būraq, bōraq
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bawraq بَوْرَق , var. بُورَق būraq , bōraq 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BWRQ 
n.coll. 
borax [i.e., sodium borate] – WehrCowan1979. Lane: ‘certain thing, or substance, that is put into dough/flour and causes it to become inflated’ 
▪ From the same etymon as Pers būrā ‘nitre, salpêtre’, akin to Av bowra ‘red, brown’, IE *bʰer‑ ‘brillant, brown’ – Rolland2014a 
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EI²: bawraq (< Pers būra), also būraq : natron, sesqui-carbonate of soda.
▪ Turek2011 thinks the borrowing from mPers bōrak went via Syr bōrqā
▪ Engl borax, lC14, from Anglo-Fr boras, from mLat baurach, from Ar būraq, applied by the Arabs to various substances used as fluxes, probably from Pers būrah. Originally obtained in Europe from the bed of salt lakes in Tibet – EtymOnline. ▪ Lokotsch1927#356: Ar būraq > Span borraj, Port borax, Fr borax, It borrace; Du Engl borax, Ge Borax; Ru Bulg bura, Serb Pol boraks, Cz borax
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BWZ بوز 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Oct2022
√BWZ 
“root” 
▪ BWZ_1 ‘muzzle, snout’ ↗būz
▪ BWZ_2 ‘ice cream’ ↗¹būzaẗ
▪ BWZ_3 ‘beerlike beverage’ ↗²būzaẗ
▪ BWZ_4 ‘falcon’ ↗bāz
▪ BWZ_5 ‘…’ ↗
 
▪ BWZ_1 : …
▪ BWZ_2 : ‘ice cream’ ↗¹būzaẗ
▪ BWZ_3 : ‘beerlike beverage’ ↗²būzaẗ
▪ BWZ_4 : ‘falcon’ ↗bāz
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būz بُوز , pl. ʔabwāz 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 6Oct2022
√BWZ 
n. 
muzzle, snout – WehrCowan1976 
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bawwaza, vb. II, to pout, sulk, look glum, sullen: D-stem, denom.

tabwīzaẗ, n.f., sullen mien: n.vic.
mubawwiz, adj., sullen, glum: PA II

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹būzaẗ, ↗²būzaẗ, and ↗bāz (look up alphabetically) as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√BWZ.
 
¹būzaẗ بُوزة 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 6Oct2022
√BWZ 
n.f. 
ice cream – WehrCowan1976 
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For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗būz, ↗²būzaẗ, and ↗bāz (look up alphabetically) as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√BWZ.
 
²būzaẗ بُوزة 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 6Oct2022
√BWZ 
n.f. 
beerlike beverage – WehrCowan1976 
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For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗būz, ↗¹būzaẗ, and ↗bāz (look up alphabetically) as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√BWZ.
 
BWS بوس 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Oct2022
√BWS 
“root” 
▪ BWS_1 ‘to kiss’ ↗bāsa
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▪ BWS_1 : …
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bās- / bus- باس / بُسْـ , u (baws
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 6Oct2022
√BWS 
vb., I 
to kiss – WehrCowan1976 
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bawsaẗ, būsaẗ, n.f., kiss: n.vic.

 
BWṢL بوصل 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Oct2022
√BWŞ̣L 
“root” 
▪ BWŞ̣L_1 ‘compass’ ↗būṣulaẗ.
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▪ BWŞ̣L_1 : from Ital bussola
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būṣalaẗ بوصَلة , var. بوصلة būṣilaẗ , būṣlaẗ, /boṣlaẗ/ 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Oct2022
√BṢL, BWŞ̣L 
n.f. 
compass 
▪ Rolland2014a: from It bussola, f. corresponding to bossolo ‘little vase, (wooden) recipient’, hence Fr boussole, itself orig. placed in a little wooden chest; bossolo is from vulgLat *buxula, from Lat buxis ‘chest made from boxwood’, from Grk puxís ‘id.’, from púxos ‘boxwood’, of unknown origin. See also ↗baqs.
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BWL بول 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 5Mar2023
√BWL 
“root” 
▪ BWL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BWL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BWL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): (with a degree of overlapping with roots ↗BLY and ↗BYL) ‘heart, mind, thought; condition; importance; ease of living; disposition’ 
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BYT بيت 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BYT 
“root” 
▪ BYT_1 ‘house, tent, to stay over night’ ↗bayt, ↗bāta
▪ BYT_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘tent, dwelling, abode, quarters; family; to spend the night, to do s.th. at night; to raid by night, (of food) to become stale’ 
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DRS 2 (1994) #BYT: (commSem ‘tente, maison’): Akk bīt- (ass. bēt-), Ug bt, Phoen Pun Moab bt, Hbr bayit (cstr. bēt), oAram Nab Palm byt, by, Ḥaṭ bt, Ya byt, JP baytā, bētā, , , nSyr Ur bētā, Aysor bēta, Ar bayt, Tham byt, bt ‘maison, tribu’; Liḥ byt ‘maison, temple’; DaṯAr bayt ‘forteresse’; SAr byt ‘maison, fort, temple’; Soq beyt ‘maison de pierre’; Mhr beyt, bēt, Śḥr būt, ūt, Gz Amh Tña Te bet ‘maison’; Syr bāt, Ar bāta, Tham bt, byt, bṯ (!), Liḥ bt ‘passer la nuit’.
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▪ Engl beta, alphabet ↗ Ar bayt
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bayt بَيْت , pl. buyūt, buyūtāt 
ID 102 • Sw – • BP 104 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 5Oct2022
√BYT 
n. 
1a house, building; b tent (of nomads); c room; d apartment, flat; 2 (garden) bed; 3 family; 4 case, box, covering, sheath; pl. buyūtāt, 5 large, respectable houses; 6 respectable families; 7 pl. ʔabyāt, verse – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ From protSem *bayt‑ ‘house’ – Huehnergard2011.
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▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘house’) Akk bītu, Hbr báyiṯ, Syr baytā, Gz bēt.
DRS 2 (1994) #BYT (commSem ‘tente, maison’): Akk bīt- (ass. bēt-), Ug bt, Phoen Pun Moab bt, Hbr bayit (cstr. bēt), oAram Nab Palm byt, by, Ḥaṭ bt, Ya byt, JP baytā, bētā, , , nSyr Ur bētā, Aysor bēta, Ar bayt, Tham byt, bt ‘maison, tribu’; Liḥ byt ‘maison, temple’; DaṯAr bayt ‘forteresse’; SAr byt ‘maison, fort, temple’; Soq beyt ‘maison de pierre’; Mhr beyt, bēt, Śḥr būt, ūt, Gz Amh Tña Te bet ‘maison’; Syr bāt, Ar bāta, Tham bt, byt, bṯ (!), Liḥ bt ‘passer la nuit’.
▪ Outside Sem, Borg2021 #64 (b-y-t) compares Eg bt (NK) ‘house, clan, family’ (Hoch 1994: 113–115; DLE I 142) ~ b-i͗-ti͗-i͗ ‘my house’ = baytī < NWS (Steiner 2011: 36).
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▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl beta and alphabet, from Grk bēta, second letter of the Grk alphabet, from Phoen *bēt ‘house; second letter of the Phoen alphabet’, akin to Ar bayt.
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl bethel, from Hbr bêt ʔēl ‘house of God’, from bêt, bound form of bayit ‘house’, and ʔēl ‘God’ (cf. Ar ↗ʔilāh, ↗allāh). Bethlehem, from Hbr bêt-leḥem ‘house of bread’ (cf. Ar ↗laḥm). 
bayt al-ʔibraẗ, n., (navigator’s) compass;
ʔahl al-bayt, n., family, specif., the family of the Prophet;
ʔahl al-buyūtāt, n., people from good, respectable families;
buyūtāt al-tiǧāriyyaẗ, n.pl., commercial houses;
al-bayt al-ḥarām, n., the Kaaba;
bayt al-ḫalāʔ and bayt al-ʔadab, n., toilet, water closet;
bayt al-dāʔ, n., origin or seat of the disease;
bayt rīfī, n., country house;
bayt al-qaṣīdaẗ and bayt al-qaṣīd, n., 1 (the essential, principal verse of the kasida, i.e.) the quintessence; 2a the gist, the essentials, the hit of s.th.; b s.th. that stands out from the rest, the right thing;
bēt al-laḥm, baytallaḥm, n., Bethlehem;
al-bayt al-mālikī, n., the ruling house;
bayt al-māl, n., 1 treasure house; 2 fisc, treasury, exchequer (Isl. Law); 3 (Tun.) administration of vacant Muslim estates

BP#1079bāta, i (mabīt), vb. I, 1a to pass or spend the night; b to stay overnight; 2a to become; b to be (li- in a situation); c with foll., imperf.: to get into a situation, get to the point where; d to continue to do s.th., go on or keep doing s.th., stick to s.th.: G-stem, denom. (?)
bayyata, vb. II, 1a to brood (by night; a about s.th.); b to put up for the night (s.o.); 2 to contrive, hatch (an evil plan, li- against s.o.), plot (li- against s.o.): D-stem | ~ fī al-ṣaff, vb., (eg.) to flunk, fail promotion (pupil)
ʔabāta, vb. IV, to put up for the night (s.o.): *Š-stem

baytī, adj., 1 domestic, private, home, of the house, house- (in compounds); 2 domesticated (animals); 3 homemade: nsb-adj.
buwayt, pl. -āt, n., 1 small house; 2 small tent: dimin.
bayyāt, n., pl. -ūn, and bayyātaẗ, n.f., 1 boarder (student); 2 pl. -ūn, pupil of a boarding school (tun.): n.prof.
bayyūt, adj., stale, old: ints. formation
mabīt, n., 1a overnight stop, overnight stay; b shelter for the night: n.loc.
bāʔit, adj., 1 stale, old; 2 (eg.) not promoted, fī al-ṣaff, in school: PA I
mubayyit, n., plotter, schemer, intrigant: PA II
 
BYD بيد 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 5Mar2023
√BYD 
“root” 
▪ BYD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BYD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BYD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘desert; to vanish, be cut off; to perish, become extinct’ 
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BYRQ بيرق 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BYRQ 
“root” 
▪ BYRQ_1 ‘banner, flag, standard’ ↗bayraq 
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bayraq بَيْرَق , pl. bayāriqᵘ 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BYRQ 
n. 
banner, standard – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ From Tu bayrak ‘id.’ (so Nişanyan et al.; Dozy, Kazimirski et al. think it is of Pers origin) – Rolland2014a. 
▪ The Tu word is attested already before 1000 CE as batruk in Uyghur Buddhist texts, then shortly later as batraḳ in Kāşġarī’s Dīvān-i Luġati ’t-Türk (1073). 
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▪ According to Nişanyan(27Mar2015), the Tu etymon of Ar bayraq, Tu bayrak, is from oTu batrak ~ batruk ‘spear, banner on a lance’, perh. from oTu batur- ‘to spear’. 
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bayraqdār, n., colour-bearer, standard-bearer: with Pers suffix ‑dār ‘holding firmly’, IE *dʰer‑ ‘to hold firmly’. 
BYḌ بيض 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BYḌ 
“root” 
▪ BYḌ_1 ‘eggs’ ↗bayḍ
▪ BYḌ_2 ‘white’ ↗ʔabyaḍ…

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘eggs; white, to become white, to whiten, to whitewash; to honour’ 
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DRS 2 (1994) #BYḌ: Ar bāḍa ‘surpasser en blancheur’, ʔabyaḍ ‘blanc’; ?Te bäyyäṣä ‘être brillant’. – Hbr (pl.) bēṣīm, nHbr bēṣā, Aram bēʕtā, nSyr (Ur) bītā, Mnd bita, Ar bayḍaẗ, Te bayč̣e ‘œuf, testicule’. – Ar bīʕaẗ, SAr bʕt ‘église’.
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bayḍ بَيْض , pl. buyūḍ , n.un.pl. ‑āt 
ID 104 • Sw 33/38 • BP 2692 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BYḌ 
n.coll.; n.un. ‑aẗ 
eggs – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Kogan2011: from protCSem *bayṣ́‑at‑ ‘egg’.
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▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#354: Hbr bēṣā, SyrAram bīʕtō, Ḥrs bēṣ́eh, Mhr bēṣ́ayt, Śḥr beṣ́. – Outside Sem: cognates in several WCh languages (byaŝ, mbuŝi, mboŝ, mbuŝ, mbiŝ). 
Orel&Stolbova1994#354 reconstructs Sem *bayṣ́‑ ‘egg’ < AfrAs *buyać̣‑ ‘egg’ (with regular *a < AfrAs *u after a labial), assuming WCh *buyać̣‑ ‘egg’ (which would have preserved the original AfrAs form). 
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bāḍa, ī, vb. I, to lay eggs; to stay, settle down, be or become resident (bi‑ at a place) | b. bi’l-makān wa-farraḫ to be born and grow up in a place; to establish itself and spread (plague)
bayyaḍa, vb. II, to make white, paint white, whitewash, whiten; to bleach, blanch (textiles, Iaundry, rice, etc.); to tin, tinplate; to make a fair copy | b. waǧhahū to make s.o. appear blameless, in a favorable light, to whitewash, exculpate, vindicate, justify s.o., play s.o. up, make much of s.o.; to honor s.o., show honor to s.o.; b. ‘llāhu waǧhahū may God make him happy! lā yubayyiḍu min waǧhih this doesn’t show him in a favorable light
tabayyaḍa, vb. V: pass. of II.
ĭbyaḍḍa vb. IX, to be or become white: denominative from ʔabyaḍ.

bayḍaẗ, n. un., pl. ‑āt, egg; testicle; helmet; main part, substance, essence: n.un. | b. al-dīk (the egg of a rooster, i.e.) an impossible or extraordinary thing; b. al-balad a man held in high esteem in his Community; fī b. al-nahār in broad day light; b. al-ṣayf the hottest part of the summer; b. al-ʔislām the territory or pale of Islam; al-difāʕ ʕan b. al-dīn, b. il-waṭan defense of the faith, of the country; b. al-ḫidr a woman secluded from the outside world, a chaste, respectable woman
bayḍī, bayḍawī and bayḍāwī, adj., egg-shaped, oviform, oval, ovate: nsb-adj. from bayḍ.
buyayḍaẗ and buwayḍaẗ, n.f., pl. ‑āt, small egg, ovule; ovum (biol.)
BP#3703bayāḍ, n., white, whiteness; whitewash; — (pl. ‑āt) barren, desolate, uncultivated land, wasteland; gap, blank space (in a manuscript); blank; leucoma (med.); linen, pl. ‑āt linen goods, linens; (syr.) milk, butter, and eggs | b. al‑bayḍ white of egg, albumen; b. al‑ʕayn the white of the eye; b. al‑nahār daylight, (acc.) by day, during the daytime; bayāḍa yaumihī wa-sawāda laylih by day and by night; b. al-waǧh fine character, good reputation; samak b. a Nile fish (eg.); ʕalà b. blank, free from writing, printing or marks, uninscribed; labisa, irtadà al-b. to dress in white
bayūḍ, n., pl. buyuḍ, bīḍ (egg-) laying
BP#564ʔabyaḍᵘ, f. bayḍāʔᵘ, pl. bīḍ white; bright; clean, shiny, polished; blameless, noble, sincere (character); empty, blank (sheet of paper); pl. al-bīḍān the white race; al-ʔ. white of egg, albumen | ʔarḍ bayḍāʔᵘ harren, uncultivated land, wasteland; ṯawraẗ bayḍāʔᵘ peaceful, bloodless revolution; al-ḫayṭ al-ʔ. first light of dawn; al-ḏahab al-ʔ. platinum; bi’l-silāḥ al-ʔ. with cold steel; ṣaḥīfatuhū bayḍāʔᵘ his reputation is good; he has noble deeds to his credit, he has a noble character; ṣuḥuf bayḍāʔᵘ noble, glorious deeds; ʔukḏūbaẗ bayḍāʔᵘ white lie, fib; al-mawt al-ʔ. natural death; yad bayḍāʔᵘ beneficent hand, benefaction
al-Bayḍāʔ (short for al-Dār al-b.) n.prop., Casablanca:.
bayḍāwī, adj., from Casablanca, a resident of C.: nsb-adj from [al-Dār] al-Bayḍāʔ.
mabīḍ, mibyaḍ, n., ovary (med.): n.loc.
tabyīḍaẗ, n.f., fair copy: n.un. from vn. II.
ĭbyiḍāḍ, n., leukemia (med.): vn. IX.
bāʔiḍ, adj., pl. bawāʔiḍᵘ, (egg-) laying: PA I (from bāḍa).
mubayyiḍ, n., pl. ‑ūn, whitewasher; bleacher; tinner; copyist, transcriber (of fair copy): PA II.
mubayyaḍaẗ, n.f., fair copy: n.un. from PP II. 

ʔabyaḍᵘ أَبْيَض 
ID 103 • Sw 90 • BP 564 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BYḌ 
adj. 
1 white; 2a bright; 2b clean, shiny, polished; 3 blameless, noble, sincere (character) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Kogan2011: prob. based on Ar bayḍ ‘egg’. – Replaced the original Sem term for ‘white’, protSem *lbn ‘white’, which is one of the four basic colours in the protSem colour spectrum16 (see also Ar ↗ẒLM and SWD for ‘black’, ↗ḤMR for ‘red’, ↗WRQ and ḪḌR for ‘green’).
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BYʕ 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BYʕ 
“root” 
▪ BYʕ_1 ʻcontract; to buy/sellʼ ↗bāʕa
▪ BYʕ_2 ʻplace of worship, churchʼ ↗bīʕaẗ

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘buying and/or selling, exchange of goods, merchandise, deals; to pledge allegiance, to acknowledge s.o. as ruler’. biyaʕ, a place of worship, is also classified under this root although it is generally recognised as being of foreign origin, possibly Pers. 
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DRS 2 (1994) #BYʕ-1 Pun bʕt ‘tarif’; nSyr be ‘hypothèque’; Ar bāʕa, Tham byʕ ‘vendre’; Soq ʔebiḥ ‘être la part de qn, échoir’, šeʔebaḥ ‘demander le partage, partager’; ? Te bayʔät ‘tromperie, abus de confiance’. -2 JP bᵊyāʕā, bīʕᵃtā ‘joie, allégresse’.
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bāʕ‑ باع, biʕ‑ , ī (bayʕ , mabīʕ
ID … • Sw – • BP 1620 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BYʕ 
vb., I 
to sell (bi‑ for a price) – WehrCowan1979. 
Traditionally counted as one of the ʔaḍdād. There is, however, no real contradiction (as Monteil 1970: 90 has shown): bāʕa does not signify either buying or selling but the reciprocal act of exchanging s.th., »sans que l’asymétrie de la relation soit exprimé« (ibid.). 
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DRS 2 (1994)#BYʕ-1: Pun bʕt ‘tarif’, nSyr be ‘hyothèque’, Ar bāʕa, Tham byʕ ‘vendre’, Soq ʔebiḥ ‘être la part de qn, échoir’, šeʔebaḥ ‘demander le partage, partager’; ? Te bayʔät ‘tromperie, abus de confiance’.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#254: AfrAs *bay˅ʕ‑ ‘sell’ > Sem *bīʕ‑ ‘sell’: Ar bayʕ‑ , i. – Cognates only in WCh *bay‑ (with loss of auslaut laryngeal) ‘trade’¹, ‘sell’², and Rift beʔ‑ (with irregular *‑ʔ‑) ‘buy, sell’.
▪ Cf. also bīʕaẗ (though unrelated). 
DRS 2 (1994)#BYʕ-1: Aram Syr bāyaʕ < Ar bāyaʕa ‘prêter serment d’allégeance’, sens dérivé de ‘conclure une transaction’. – nSyr < Ar. – Te < Ar bayʕaẗ‑.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#25: Ar bayʕ‑ i ‘sell’ < Sem *bīʕ‑ ‘sell’ < AfrAs *bay˅ʕ‑ ‘sell’.
▪ Cf. also bīʕaẗ (though unrelated). 
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bāyaʕa, vb. III, to make a contract; to pay homage; to acknowledge as sovereign or leader, pledge allegiance:.
ʔabāʕa, vb. IV, to offer for sale:.
tabāyaʕa, vb. VI, to agree on the terms of a sale, conclude a bargain.
ĭnbāʕa, vb. VII, to be sold, be for sale.
ĭbtāʕa, vb. VIII, to buy, purchase:.
BP#1078bayʕ, pl. buyūʕ, buyūʕāt, n., sale: vn. I.
bayʕaẗ, n.f., agreement, arrangement; business deal, commercial transaction, bargain; sale; purchase; homage:.
bayyāʕ, n., salesman, merchant, dealer, commission agent, middleman:.
mubāyaʕaẗ, n.f., pl. ‑āt conclusion of contract; homage; pledge of allegiance; transaction: vn. III.
ibtiyāʕ, n., purchase: vn. VIII.
BP#3100bāʔiʕ, n., seller, vendor; dealer, merchant; salesman: PA I.
bāʔiʕaẗ, n.f., saleswoman: PA I.
BP#3191mabīʕ, adj., sold: PP I; n., pl. ‑āt sales:.
mubtāʕ, n., buyer, purchaser: nominalized PA VIII. 
bīʕaẗ ‎ ‎بيعة‎ , pl. ‎biyaʕ 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√BYʕ 
n.f. 
(Chr.) church; ‎synagogue – WehrCowan1979. 
Akin to byḍ ‘white’, not bāʕa ‘to sell’ 
▪ eC7 Q 22:40 (in the pl. biyaʕ) ‘place of worship’ 
DRS 2 (1994) #BYḌ: Ar bāḍa ‘surpasser en blancheur’, ʔabyaḍ ‘blanc’; ?Te bäyyäṣä ‘être brillant’. – (commSem) ‘œuf, testicule’: Hbr (pl.) bēṣīm, nHbr bēṣā, Aram bēʕtā, nSyr (Ur) bītā, Mnd bita, Ar bayḍaẗ, Te bayč̣e. – Ar bīʕaẗ, SAr bʕt ‘église’. 
▪ Jeffery1938, 86-87: »It was early recognized as a ‎foreign word (as-Suyūṭī, Itq, 320; Mutaw, 46), and is said by al-Ǧawālīqī, Muʕarrab, 35, to be ‎a borrowing from Pers. One is at a loss to know why al-Ǧawālīqī should think it was Pers, ‎when it is so obviously the Syr bīʕtā,91 unless perhaps we may suggest that he knew of Syrian churches ‎in Pers territory called by this name and jumped to the conclusion that it was a Pers word. ‎Syr bīʕtā is originally an ‘eggʼ (cf. Ar ↗bayḍ; Hbr bēṣā; Aram bīʕā) and then was used ‎metaphorically for the top of a rounded arch – BīʕTā ḏ-QBBH ḏ-PūRQSā, and so for the domed ‎buildings used for worship. – The word was well known in pre-Islamic times, being found in the SAr ‎inscriptions,92 and ‎occurring not infrequently in the old poetry (e.g. Diwan Hudh., ed. Kosegarten, 3, l. 5), and may ‎be assumed to have entered Ar from the Mesopotamian area. It is interesting that the ‎traditional exegesis of the Qurʔān seems to favour the word in xxii, 41, being referred to maʕbad ‎al-naṣārā, though some thought it meant kanīsat al-yahūd, cf. Zam., Baiḍ., Ṭab., on the ‎passage, and TA, v, 285; as-Siǧistānī, 65.«
▪ Unrelated to ↗bāʕa ‘to buy/sell’. 
– 
– 
BYN بين 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 5Mar2023
√BYN 
“root” 
▪ BYN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BYN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ BYN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘separation, severance, division; to be disconnected, become divorced; in between, middle; to clarify, declare, explain; eloquence’ 
▪ From WSem *√BYN ‘to be separate, clear, distinct; in derived stems, to discern, understand’ – Huehnergard2011.
▪ …
 
– 
– 
– 
tāʔ تاء 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ 
R₁ 
The letter t of the Arabic alphabet. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ Cf. Engl tau, from Grk tau ‘tau’; tav, from Hbr tāw ‘tav’; both from Phoen *taww ‘mark; twenty-second letter of the Phoen alphabet’ - Huehnergard2011. 
 
TāBūT تابوت 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
√TāBūT 
“root” 
▪ TāBūT_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ TāBūT_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ TāBūT_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘[a borrowing, said to be from Aram, Gz, Hbr or others; philologists also derive it from various Ar roots, e.g. ↗TBT and ↗TBH]’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
TBː (TBB) تبّ/تبب 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
√TBː (TBB) 
“root” 
▪ TBː (TBB)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ TBː (TBB)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ TBː (TBB)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to stamp down, to flatten, to crush, to ruin; to cause to lose, to destroy; to become stable, to settle down, to become well-ordered’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
TBR تبر 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
√TBR 
“root” 
▪ TBR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ TBR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ TBR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘gold dust, raw metal, ore; to fragment, crush, destroy, annihilate’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
TBʕ تبع 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
√TBʕ 
“root” 
▪ TBʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ TBʕ_2 ‘(title of the Kings of the Himyarites)’ ↗tubbaʕ
▪ TBʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘an attachment, to follow, succeed, pursue, abide by, comply with; to send after, cause to go after; a follower, creditor; result; liability; consequence; follow up, successor; uniformity; one’s shadow’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
tubbaʕ تُبَّع 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 2Jun2023
√TBʕ
 
n., title 
Title of the Kings of the Himyarites – Jeffery1938
 
▪ … 
▪ eC7 Q xliv, 36; 1, 13 – Jeffery1938.
 
▪ Jeffery1938: »The philologers would derive the word from tabaʕa ‘to follow’, and explain the title as meaning that each king followed his predecessor, cf, Bagh. on xliv, 36. / Fraenkel, Vocab, 25, connected it with the Eth [Gz] tabʕa ‘strong, manly’, and Nöldeke in Lidzbarski’s Ephemeris, ii, 124, supports the connection. The word itself, however, is clearly SAr, and occurs in the inscriptions in the compound names tbʕ-ʔl, ʔlh-tbʕ, tbʕ-krb, etc. Hartmann in ZA, xiv, 331-7, would explain it from √BTʕ = Hbr √BṮʕ, but this seems very unlikely.93 , and everything is in favour of the other derivation. The word was apparently well known in pre-Islamic Arabia, for it occurs not infrequently in the old poetry.94
 
– 
– 
TǦR تجر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TǦR 
“root” 
▪ TǦR_1 ‘trade, commerce; to trade, deal, do business; tradesman, merchant; merchandise’ ↗tiǧāraẗ
▪ TǦR_2 ‘…’ ↗

BAH2008: ‘wine merchant, wine seller; to barter, buy or sell; to trade, exchange; (of a camel) to be saleable’ 
▪ TǦR_1: It seems clear that the root goes back, via Aram, to Akk tamkāru ‘merchant, trader, money-lender’, a deriv. of makāru ‘to do business, use (silver etc.) in business transactions’. However, previous research differs on what should be considered the basis of derivation for all other items of the root—tāǧir ‘merchant’ or tiǧāraẗ ‘commerce, trade’. For phonetic reasons, we follow Jeffery1938 in favouring the latter. 
– 
tiǧāraẗ 
tiǧāraẗ, ↗tāǧir 
– 
– 
tāǧir تاجِر , pl. tuǧǧār , tiǧār 
ID 105 • Sw – • BP 1662 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TǦR 
n. 
merchant, trader, businessman, dealer, tradesman – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ For Schall1982, tāǧir is a borrowing and the basis from which all other TǦR items are derived. But it is more likely that it is a regular PA from the vb. I, taǧara, which is denominative from ↗tiǧāraẗ (which is the real borrowing, via Aram, from Akk). 
▪ Jeffery1938, 90-91: tāǧir occurs commonly enough in the old poetry, particularly in connection with the wine trade.6  
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ Schall1982 would derive Ar tāǧir via Aram ṯaggārā from Akk tamkāru ‘merchant’,95 and the latter from Sum damgar ‘id.’. – Cf. however HalloranSumLex3.0, who says that Sum dam-gàr(-a) is in itself borrowed from Akk tamkāru, not the other way round. – Cf. also the arguments, put forward by Jeffery1938, against tāǧir as the n. that is dependent on Aram taggārā; the direct loan is rather Ar ↗tiǧāraẗ ‘merchandise; trade, commerce’; for details see s.v.
▪ Tu: 1387 tacir (Osm tācir) İrşādü’l-Mülūk ve’s-Selāṭīn : Mekkede kirmekke barābar turur anıŋ içinde tācir kişi from Aram tag(g)ārā, from Akk tamkāru a.a. < Akk makāru ‘alıp satma, ticaret yapma’ – NişanyanSözlük 22Dec2014. – 1680 tüccār (pl. of tācir) Meninski, Thesaurus : ‘mercatores’ – NişanyanSözlük 20Aug2015. 
tāǧir al-ǧumlaẗ, n.f., wholesale dealer
tāǧir al-taǧziʔaẗ and tāǧir al-qiṭāʕī, n., retailer
biḍāʕaẗ tāǧiraẗ, n.f., salable, marketable merchandise
 
tiǧāraẗ تِجارَة 
ID 106 • Sw – • BP 886 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TǦR 
n.f. 
1 commerce; traffic, trade; 2 merchandise – WehrCowan1979. 
Via Syr têgûrtâ ‘trade, commerce, wares’, Aram taggārā ‘merchant’ from Akk tamkāru, tamgāru ‘merchant, trader, money-lender’, a deriv. of makāru ‘to do business, use (silver etc.) in business transactions’. 
▪ eC7 (merchandise) Q 2:282 ʔillā ʔan takūna tiǧāraẗan ḥāḍiraẗan tudīrūna-hā bayna-kum fa-laysa ʕalay-kum ǧunāḥun ʔallā taktubūhā ‘unless it be ready merchandise which you hand one to the other, there is no blame on you if you do not write it down’; (commerce, business, trade) Q 2:16 ʔulāʔika ’llaḏīna ’štaraw-u ’l-ḍalālaẗa bi’l-hudà fa-mā rabiḥat tiǧāraẗu-hum ‘these are the ones who have purchased error in exchange for guidance, so their trade brought no gain’.
▪ The primary sense was probably ʻmerchandiseʼ. »It will be noticed that the word occurs only in late passages. In three passages (2:16; 4:29; 24:37) it bears the sense of ʻtraffickingʼ rather than ʻmerchandiseʼ or the substance of traffic, and this latter is perhaps a derived sense. The word tāǧir ʻmerchantʼ does not occur in the Qurʔān, nor any derived verbal form« – Jeffery1938. 
▪ Akk tamkāru, tamgāru ‘merchant, trader, money-lender’, Mand tangara, Syr têgûrtâ 30 ‘trade, commerce, wares’, taggārā ‘merchant’.
▪ Cf. also, for Sem *MKR, (CAD:) Akk mākiru, makkāru ‘trader’, makkūru ‘valuable, treasures, property, assets, estate’, (Tropper2008:) Ug mkr (N-, G-, D-stems pass.) ‘to be sold’, mkr /makkāru/ ‘tradesman’), (BDB1906:) Hbr māḵar ‘to sell’, mäḵär ‘merchandise, value’, Phoen mkr ‘to sell’, Aram Syr mᵊḵar ‘to marry’ (i.e. *‘to buy as a wife’), (Tropper2008:) Ar makkara ‘to buy up, store up (grain)’. 
▪ Fraenkel1886:181, who takes Ar tāǧir (not tiǧāraẗ) as the word that was borrowed from Aram (more precisely, from a dialectal form tāgᵊrāh, as suggested to him by Nöldeke), would derive the underlying Aram taggârâ from ʔagrâ (√ʔGR), which he translates as ‘price’ (cf. Ar ↗ʔaǧr). But this suggestion is not taken up by later researchers (not mentioned, e.g., in DRS, nor even by Jeffery1938), given that the ʔ with which Syr têgûrtâ ‘trade, commerce, wares’ is written (tʔgwrtʔ) seems to be secondary, owing its existence to contamination with Syr ʔagrā (√ʔGR) ‘pay, reward’, D-stem ʔeggar ‘to hire, rent’ (see above, COGN).
▪ Schall1982 thinks that Aram ṯaggārā (for him, as for Fraenkel, the source of Ar tāǧir, not tiǧāraẗ 96 ) is from Akk tamkārum, which, he thinks, in turn goes back to Sum dam-gàr(-a) ‘merchant’. But the latter is a loan from the Akk, not the other way round – HalloranSumLex3.0.
▪ Zimmern1914: Akk tamkaru, tamgaru ‘merchant, businessman’ > Aram taggārā, Mand tangara > Ar tāǧir (interpreted as PA of a denom. vb. I, taǧara), Arm t’angar, perh. also Hbr taggār (1 Kings 10:15; 2 Chron 9:14).
▪ Jeffery1938, 90-91: »There can be no doubt that the word came from the Aram. Fraenkel, Fremdw, 182, thinks that tiǧāraẗ was formed from the verb taǧara which is a denominative from tāǧir, the form which he thinks was originally borrowed from Aram. In view, however, of the Aram tiggârâ, Syr têgûrtâ both of which have the meaning ʻmercaturaʼ, there would seem no reason for refusing to derive the Ar tiǧāraẗ directly. In fact, as Fraenkelʼs discussion shows (p. 181), there is some difficulty in deriving tāǧir, a participial form, from Aram taggārâ, Syr taggārâ, and Nöldeke had to suggest a dialectal form ṯāgᵊrâ to ease the difficulty. If, however, the original form in Ar were tiǧāraẗ from [Aram] tiggârâ, and the verb taǧara a denominative from this, it is easy to see how ʻmerchantʼ, i.e. ʻone who trafficsʼ, would be formed as a participle from this verb. – That the borrowing was from the Aram is clear from the fact that the original word was the Akk tamkāru or tamgāru,97 whence comes the Arm tankar or tangar,98 so that in the Aram ṯaggârâ the doubled g represents an original *n, which we find still unassimilated in the Mand tngʔrʔ. The word was well known in Arabia in pre-Islamic days, as is clear from the fact that we find both tgrʔ meaning ʻmerchantʼ and tgrtʔ meaning ʻcommerceʼ in the NAr inscriptions,99 while [Ar] tāǧir occurs commonly enough in the old poetry, particularly in connection with the wine trade.100
▪ Tu ticaret (Osm ticāret) 1437 ʕÖmer b. Mezîd, Mecmūʕatü’n-neẓāʔir : cānını verüp ayağuŋ tozını satun alan / assı kıldı ol ticāretden peşīmān olmasun – NişanyanSözlük13Jan2015. 
tiǧāraẗ ḫāsiraẗ, n.f., a losing business

taǧara u, vb. I, to carry on commerce: denom.
tāǧara, vb. III, to do business, trade (DO with s.o.): D-stem, denom. or coined from I, associative.
ĭttaǧara, vb. VIII, to do business; to trade, deal ( or bi‑ in s.th.): tG-stem, self-refl./autobfact.

BP#836tiǧārī, adj., commercial, mercantile, trade, trading, business (used attributively); commercialized; commercially profitable or productive: nsb-adj.; pl. tiǧāriyyūn, n., merchants, vendors, business people: nominalization | bayt ~, n., commercial house, business house; al-ḥarakaẗ al-tiǧāriyyaẗ, n.f., trade, traffic; širkaẗ tiǧāriyyaẗ, n.f., trading company; ĭttifāq ~, n., trade agreement.
matǧar, pl. matāǧirᵘ, 1 business, transaction, dealing: quasi-vn.; 2 merchandise: quasi-n.instr.; 3 store, shop: n.loc.
matǧarī, adj., commercial, trade, trading, business (used attributively): nsb-adj. of preceding item.
mutāǧaraẗ, n.f., commerce: vn. III.
ĭttiǧār, n., trade, business ( or bi‑ in s.th.) : vn. VIII.
BP#1662tāǧir, pl. tuǧǧār, tiǧār, n., merchant, trader, businessman, dealer, tradesman: PA I, or the etymon proper (see DISC) | ~ al-ǧumlaẗ, n., wholesale dealer; ~ al-taǧziʔaẗ and ~ al-qiṭāʕī, n., retailer; adj.: biḍāʕaẗ tāǧiraẗ, n.f., salable, marketable merchandise. 
TRB ترب 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TRB 
“root” 
▪ TRB_1 ‘dust, earth, dirt; ground, soil’ ↗turāb
▪ TRB_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘earth, dust, to cover with dust; to become poor, poverty, need; playmates, people of similar age; to become wealthy; to become tame, to become docile; the base of the neck, the area between the breasts and collar bone’ 
▪ … 
– 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
turāb تُراب 
ID 107 • Sw 79/34 • BP 1833 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TRB 
n. 
dust, earth, dirt; ground, soil – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ Outside Sem, Borg2021 #68 (t-r-b) compares Eg tnm (ME) ‘Schmutz’ (Wb V 312), Copt ⲧⲱⲗⲉⲃ/ⲧⲁⲗⲉϥ/ⲧⲱⲗⲙ ‘to be defiled, besmirched’ (Crum 1939: 410).
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
 
TRǦM ترجم 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TRǦM 
“root” 
▪ TRǦM_1 ‘interpreter, dragoman; to interpret, translate’ ↗turǧumān
▪ TRǦM_2 ‘’ ↗

Other values, now obsolete, include:
  • TRǦM_ ‘’ :
 
▪ Huehnergard2011#RGM: from Sem *RGM ‘to say, speak, call, shout, contest, lay claim to’; there may have been a t-stem *t-RGM ‘to speak to one another, translate’ already in protoSem times.
▪ The theory, summarized by Huehnergard in the prededing paragraph, is contested by a more recent one that argues (on account of the ending -annu) that the Akk term is a borrowing from Luwian – Smelik2013:141 (referring to Starke1993, Rahim1963 and Von Soden1989).
 
▪ … 
▪ BDB1906, Zimmern1914, CAD: Akk targumānu, turgumānu (CAD: targumannu ~ targamannu, turgumannu, targumjanu, from oAkk on) ‘interpreter, dragoman’, Aram targᵊmānā, turgᵊmānā, Ar tarǧamān ~ tarǧumān, turǧumān; Hbr tirgēm, Aram Syr targem, Ar tarǧama ‘to interpret, translate’; pBiblHbr targūm ‘translation, Targum’. – Cf. perh. also Ar raǧama ‘to conjecture, opine’. 
▪ Wellhausen1897 notes that Ar tarǧīm (vn. of D-stem raǧǧama) has the same meaning as ḍarb bi’l-ḥaṣy, i.e. ‘[the art of prophesy from] throwing pebbles’. From this, the sense of ‘to assume, conjecture’ could be derived: ‘to throw stones > to interpret the results, try to give them a meaning > to assume’. »Vielleicht hängt damit auch [Hbr] trgm zusammen: ‘enträtseln’, dann ‘dolmetschen’« (207, fn. 4), i.e., tarǧama, too, may be dependent on the heathen practice: ‘to throw stones > to interpret the results, solve the riddle > to explain, interpret’; cf. raǧǧama, D-stem of ↗raǧama (with Wellhausen1897:111-2 on ĭrtiǧām, ruǧmaẗ, raǧm).
▪ BDB1906: (on Akk targumānu ‘interpreter’, Hbr tirgēm, Aram Syr targem, Ar tarǧama ‘to interpret, translate’): perh. from √RGM, cf. Ar raǧama ‘to conjecture, opine’.
▪ Zimmern1914: Ar tarǧamān ~ tarǧumān ~ turǧumān < Aram targᵊmānā ~ turgᵊmānā < Akk targumānu ~ turgumānu ‘interpreter’.
▪ Huehnergard2011#RGM: Ar tarǧumān ‘translator’ < Aram targᵊmānā < Akk targumannu ‘interpreter’, either from Akk ragāmu ‘to speak, call, contest’ or from an earlier Sem t-stem vb., *t-rgm ‘to speak to one another, translate’.
▪ Smelik2013:141: “Although most scholars still hold that [Akk] targumannu(m) is related to the root [Akk] ragāmu ‘to call out’, this connection—and the supposedly inherited meaning of ‘speaking out aloud’ of the root TRGM—is almost certainly wrong. The noun-formation of targumannu(m) is neither Akk nor Sem, but points to a Luwian loanword in Akk. Via Aram, targumannu(m) was adopted in Hbr and Ar, and later in many IE langs.”
 
▪ Huehnergard2011#RGM: Not from Ar tarǧumān, but akin to the latter’s source, is Engl targum, from Mishnaic Hbr targūm ‘translation’, from Aram targᵊmtā (< *targᵊmā), back-formation from targᵊmānā, from Akk targumannu ‘interpreter’. 
turǧumān
tarǧamaẗ تَرْجَمَة 
Sw – • NahḍConBP 2228 • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√TRǦM  
n.f. 
translation... 
▪ vn., I 
turǧumān تُرْجُمان , pl. tarāǧimaẗ , tarāǧīmᵘ 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TRǦM 
n. 
translator, interpreter – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Via Aram targᵊmānā from Akk targumannu ‘interpreter’. Traditionally, the Akk word is believed to derive either from Akk ragāmu ‘to speak, call, contest’ or from an earlier Sem t-stem, *t-rgm ‘to speak to one another, translate’ (so, e.g., Huehnergard2011). More recent theory however argues (on account of the ending -annu) that the Akk term is a borrowing from Luwian – Smelik2013:141, referring to Starke1993, Rahim1963 and Von Soden1989).
▪ Ar tarǧumān or turǧumān, appearing in OttTu as tercüman, ‘interpreter’. »The word is of Aram origin, and is familiar in the form targum for the Aram translations or paraphrases or interpretations of the Hbr OT which came into use when the use of Hbr as a living, spoken language amongst ordinary people declined. The Ar term, and the verb tarǧama ‘to translate’, was certainly in familiar usage by ʕAbbāsid times« – art. »tardjumān« (C.E. Bosworth), in EI²
▪ … 
▪ BDB1906, Zimmern1914, CAD: Akk targumānu, turgumānu (CAD: targumannu ~ targamannu, turgumannu, targumjanu, from oAkk on) ‘interpreter, dragoman’, Aram targᵊmānā, turgᵊmānā, Ar tarǧamān ~ tarǧumān, turǧumān; Hbr tirgēm, Aram Syr targem, Ar tarǧama ‘to interpret, translate’; pBiblHbr targūm ‘translation, Targum’. – Cf. perh. also Ar raǧama ‘to conjecture, opine’.
▪ For the wider context, cf. ↗TRǦM, ↗RǦM ↗raǧama
▪ BDB1906: (on Akk targumānu ‘interpreter’, Hbr tirgēm, Aram Syr targem, Ar tarǧama ‘to interpret, translate’): perh. from √RGM, cf. Ar raǧama ‘to conjecture, opine’.
▪ Zimmern1914: Ar tarǧamān ~ tarǧumān ~ turǧumān < Aram targᵊmānā ~ turgᵊmānā < Akk targumānu ~ turgumānu ~ targumannu ‘interpreter’. Huehnergard2011#RGM thinks that Akk targumannu ‘interpreter’ is either from Akk ragāmu ‘to speak, call, contest’ or from an earlier Sem t-stem vb., *t-rgm ‘to speak to one another, translate’.
▪ Wellhausen1897 notes that Ar tarǧīm (vn. of D-stem raǧǧama) has the same meaning as ḍarb bi’l-ḥaṣy, i.e. ‘[the art of prophesy from] throwing pebbles’. From this, the sense of ‘to assume, conjecture’ could be derived: ‘to throw stones > to interpret the results, try to give them a meaning > to assume’. »Vielleicht hängt damit auch [Hbr] trgm zusammen: ‘enträtseln’, dann ‘dolmetschen’« (207, fn. 4), i.e., tarǧama, too, may be dependent on the heathen practice: ‘to throw stones > to interpret the results, solve the riddle > to explain, interpret’; cf. raǧǧama, D-stem of ↗raǧama (with Wellhausen1897:111-2 on ĭrtiǧām, ruǧmaẗ, raǧm). 
▪ Heth tarkummiya is from Akk targumannu, Arm tarkman from Aram targᵊmānā (< Akk) – Nişanyan10Mar2015.
▪ Tu tercüman (<1500) Kıpçak Türkçesi Sözlüğü : from Ar tarǧumān ‘interpreter’ < Aram targᵊmānâ < Akk targumannu, from Akk ragāmu ‘to call, invite’– Nişanyan10Mar2015. – »in mysticism, [tercüman is also] a term used by the members of Futuwwa groups and by the Turkish dervish orders of the Mawlawiyya and Bektās̲h̲iyya for speech utterances, generally in verse, recited during the ritual or, outside this, during the accomplishment of some piece of work or some particular act. These formulae, which are made up of a prayer, are pronounced in order to seek pardon for some offence. ~ can also denote a sum of money or a sacrifice made in order to secure pardon for an offence. In practice, ~ is often mixed up with gül-bank (gulbāng), which is reserved for longer prayers in prose« – entry »terd̲j̲ümān«, in EI², Glossary of terms.
▪ Tu tercüme (1429) Aḥmed b. Ḳāḍı-i Manyās, Gülistān tercümesi : sekiz bābını türkī’ye tercüme kılup tamām itdim, from Ar tarǧumaẗ, var. of Ar tarǧamaẗ , from Aram ṯargūm ‘interpretation, esp. the Aram commentary on the Torah’ – Nişanyan14May2015.
▪ Engl dragoman (eC14): from oFr drugemen, from lGrk dragoumanos, from Ar tarǧumān ‘interpreter’, from tarǧama ‘to interpret’. Treated in Engl as a compound, with plural -menEtymOnline.
▪ Fr dragoman (c1200) drogeman ‘interpreter’, 1213 droguement, 1553 id., prob. (as also It dragomanno) from ByzGrk dragoúmanos, from EgAr targumān (Ar tarǧumān). – truchement (lC12) drugement ‘interpreter’, lC14 trucheman, C15 truchement ‘s.o. who speaks for s.o. else, speaker, porte-parole, representative’, 1557 ‘explanation, s.th. that makes know or understand’: from Ar turǧumān ‘interpreter, translator’ – TLF.
▪ Ge Dragoman (C16): via It dragomanno, nFr dragoman, Span dragoman, from Ar tarǧumān ‘interpreter’, from tarǧama ‘to interpret’, from Syr targem ‘to explain, interpret’ – Kluge2002.
▪ Lokotsch1927#2033: Ar tarǧumān ‘interpreter, translator’ (vb. tarǧama, from Syr targem ‘to explain’, cf. targūm ‘explanation, commentary’; cf. also Akk ragāmu ‘to speak’, rigmu ‘word’, orig. ‘to shout, call’, ‘shouting, yelling, call’, targumānu ‘interpreter’) > It dragomanno, turcimanno (under infl. of turco ‘Turk’), Prov drogoman, Fr drogoman, drogman, trucheman, Cat Sp drogoman, trujaman, Port dragomano, trugimão; Engl dragoman, druggerman, Du dragoman, drogman, Ge Dragoman, (older) Drutzelmann, Trutschelmann; Ru dragoman
tarǧama, vb. I, 1 to translate; to interpret; to treat (of s.th.) by way of explanation, expound (s.th.); 2 to write a biography (li‑ of s.o., also DO): either denom. from turǧumān or directly from Aram Syr targem ‘to interpret, translate’.
BP#2228tarǧamaẗ, pl. tarāǧimᵘ, n.f., 1 translation; interpretation; 2 biography (also ~ al-ḥayāẗ); 3 introduction, preface, foreword (of a book): lexicalized vn. I | al-~ al-sabʕīniyyaẗ, n.f., the Septuagint; ~ ḏātiyyaẗ, n.f., autobiography.
mutarǧim, n., 1 translator, interpreter; 2 biographer: PA I.
mutarǧam, adj., translated: PP I | ~ ʕalà ’l-fīlm, synchronized (film) 
TRF ترف 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
√TRF 
“root” 
▪ TRF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ TRF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ TRF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a watering place within easy access, (of plants) to be watered; good food; to live in luxury, provide with lavish means, affluence’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
TRQ ترق 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
√TRQ 
“root” 
▪ TRQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ TRQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ TRQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘(no evidence of verbal root) collarbone, the uppermost of the chest’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
TRK ترك 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TRK 
“root” 
▪ TRK_1 ‘to let be, leave, abandon, etc.; to leave behind, bequeath’ ↗taraka
▪ TRK_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to relinquish, to abandon, to let be, to do without, to finish with, to leave behind; neglected, forlorn, spinster’ 
▪ … 
– 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
tarak‑ تَرَكَ 
ID 108 • Sw – • BP 472 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TRK 
vb., I 
1a to let be, leave, relinquish, renounce, give up, forswear (s.th.); b to desist, refrain, abstain (from s.th.); c to leave, quit(s.o., a place); d to leave out, omit, drop, neglect, pass over, skip; e to leave (s.th. li‑ or ʔilà to); f to leave behind, leave, bequeath, make over (s.th., a legacy li‑ to s.o.) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
 
TSʕ تسع 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TSʕ 
“root” 
▪ TSʕ_1 ‘nine’ ↗tisʕat
▪ TSʕ_2 ‘…’ ↗
▪ TSʕ_3 ‘…’ ↗

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘this root revolves around the number nine’ 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
… 
… 
… 
TaSNīM تَسْنِيم 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 2Jun2023
√TSNM
 
hypothetical "root" 
See ↗SNM. 
– 
– 
– 
– 
– 
– 
tisʕaẗ تِسْعة , f. tisʕ 
ID … • Sw – • BP 1140 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TSʕ 
num. 
nine – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘nine’) Akk tīšu, Hbr téšaʕ, Syr tšaʕ, Gz tesʕū́.
 
… 
… 
BP#4899tisʕūnᵃ, num., 1 ninety: num.card.; 2 ninetieth: num.ord.
BP#4433tisʕīnᵃ: al‑tisʕīnāt the 90s.
BP#4789tisʕīnī: al‑tisʕīniyyāt, n.pl.f., the 90s: abstr. formation from f. nisba in ‑iyyaẗ.
 
TSNM تسنم 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Jun2023
√TSNM 
"root" 
▪ TSNM_1 ‘Tasnim (name of a fountain in Paradise)’ ↗tasnīm (arranged s.r. ↗SNM)
 
ز 
– 
ز 
ز 
– 
– 
TʕB تعب 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TʕB 
“root” 
▪ TʕB_1 ‘to be(come) exhausted’ ↗taʕiba
▪ TʕB_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
▪ … 
– 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
taʕib‑ تَعِبَ 
ID 109 • Sw – • BP 2621 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TʕB 
vb., I 
1a to work hard, toil, slave, drudge, wear o.s. out; b to be or become tired, weary (min of s.th.) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
 
taʕbān تعْبان 
ID 110 • Sw – • BP 5691 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TʕB 
n. 
tired, weary, exhausted – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
 
TʕS تعس 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
√TʕS 
“root” 
▪ TʕS_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ TʕS_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ TʕS_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘peril, misfortune, destruction; to fall on one’s face, meet with disaster, evil, to be wretched’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
TFː (TFF) تفّ / تففـ 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TFː (TFF) 
“root” 
▪ TFː (TFF)_1 ‘to spit’ ↗taffa ; see also EgAr ↗taftif
▪ TFː (TFF)_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
taffa
– 
taffa
taffa
– 
– 
taff‑, taf?f‑ تفّ / تففـ , ? (?
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TFː (TFF) 
vb., I 
to spit – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Accord. to SEDV#72, the word is from Sem *TPP ‘to spit’. – Cf., however, also Eg tf ‘to spit; saliva’.
▪… 
▪ … 
▪ SEDV#72: Hbr tōp̄ät ‘spittle, expectoration’, JudAram təpap, təpē ‘to spit’, tūp ‘spittle’, Ar tff ‘to spit, Gz tafʔa ‘to spit, spit out’, Tña täfʔa, Arg täffa, əntəf ala, Har tuf bāya, Wol tuf balä ‘to spit’.
▪ ? Cf. also Ug ypṯ (< *wpṯ, inf. wpṯ-m /wuppaṯu-/) ‘to call s.o. names, scorn’, and Ar ↗NFṮ ?
▪ ErmanGrapow1921: Eg tf ‘to spit; saliva’
▪ Outside Sem, also Borg2021 #71 (t-f-f) compares Eg tf (Pyr) ‘Speichel, ausspeien (besonders mit Bezug auf die Schöpfung der Göttin Tefnut durch Atum); spucken, vomieren’; tpi͗ ‘to spew out’ (Wb V 297; Hannig 1999: 923; DLE II 207), Copt ⲧⲁϥ ‘spittle’ (Crum 1939: 453a).
▪ … 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ See also EgAr ↗taftif
– 
taffafa, vb. II, to say “phew”: denom. from tuff (?).

tuff, n., dirt under the fingernails | ~an la-ka, interj., phew!, fie on you!
taffāfaẗ, n.f., spittoon, cuspidor: ints.f. as n.instr. 
EgAr taftif تَفْتِف , yitaftif (taftafaẗ
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TFTF, TFː (TFF) 
vb., I 
(EgAr) to spit or splutter while talking – BadawiHinds1986. 
▪ Youssef2003 suggested that the word is from Eg tftf, Copt ṯoftef ‘to spit’. Needs further evidence.
▪ Cf. also ↗taffa
▪ … 
… 
▪ Youssef2003: from Eg tftf, Copt ṯoftef ‘to spit’
▪ Cf. also ↗TFː (TFF), ↗taffa 
– 
taftūfaẗ, pl. tafā̆tīf, n., 1 [slang] cigarette. – 2 a small piece 
TFṮ تفث 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
√TFṮ 
“root” 
▪ TFṮ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ TFṮ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ TFṮ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘hair matting and dirt accumulating on the body as a result of leaving off acts of body cleansing, to become dirty in such a manner’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
TFḤ تفح 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TFḤ 
“root” 
▪ TFḤ_1 ‘apple(s)’ ↗tuffāḥ .
▪ TFḤ_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
▪ … 
– 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
tuffāḥ تُفّاح , pl. ‑āẗ , tafāfīḥᵘ 
ID 111 • Sw – • BP 4601 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TFḤ 
n.coll.; n.un. ‑aẗ 
apple(s) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ Outside Sem, Borg2021 #70 (t-f-ḥ) compares Eg ḏpḥ/tpḥ (NK) ‘Apfel’ (Wb V 568; Hannig 1999: 1005), Dem ḏmpḥ/ḏpḫ ‘Apfel’ (DG 680), Copt ϫ(ⲉ)ⲙⲡⲉϩ ‘apple’ (Crum 1939: 771b).
▪ … 
▪ Youssef2003: Copt ǧmpeḥ, var. ǧpoḥ ‘apples’, possibly from Eg ḏpḥ
▪ … 
– 
– 
TFL تفل 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TFL 
“root” 
▪ TFL_1 ‘spit, spittle, saliva’ ↗tufl
▪ TFL_2 ‘…’ ↗ 
▪ From Sem *tpl ‘to spit’ – SED#v73.
▪… 
▪ … 
tufl
tufl
– 
– 
tufl تُفْل 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TFL 
n. 
spit, spittle, saliva – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ From Sem *tpl ‘to spit’ – SED#v73. 
▪ … 
▪ SED#v73: Ar tafala (i, u) ‘to spit’, tafl, tufl, tufāl ‘spittoon, cuspidor’, Mhr təfūl, Ḥrs tefōl, Jib tfɔl ‘to spit’. – ? Cf. also Hbr tāpēl ‘s.th. unsalted, insipid, dull’, tpl ‘to utter stupidity, speak foolishly’. 
▪ SED#v73: The modSAr forms are poorly attested and may be Arabisms.
▪ SED#v73: Is Sem *TPP (Ar ↗taffa) ‘to spit’ the source for TPL (suffixed * L)?
▪ Cf. ↗taffa, ↗tuff.
▪ Cf. also ↗ṯufl and ↗ṭufāl
– 
tafala, u (tafl), vb. I, to spit: denom. (?)

tufāl, n., spit, spittle, saliva: var. of tufl. tafil, adj., ill-smelling, malodorous:…
mitfalaẗ, n.f., spittoon, cuspidor: n.instr.
 
TQN تقن 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
√TQN 
“root” 
▪ TQN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ TQN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ TQN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘dregs of a well, to dredge up a well; nature; to do s.th. well, be skilful, be eloquent; to perfect, perfection’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
TQY تقي 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TQY 
“root” 
▪ TQY_1 ‘…’ ↗
▪ TQY_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
▪ … 
– 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
taqwā تَقْوَى 
ID 112 • Sw – • BP 4309 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TQY 
n. 
godliness, devoutness, piety – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
 
TL ː (TLL) تلّ / تلل 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TLː (TLL) 
“root” 
▪ TLː (TLL)_1 ‘hill, elevation’ ↗tall
▪ TLː (TLL)_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘hill, heap, mound, elevation, to mount, to heap up; to knock dow.-n, to lay down, to be tough, to be stocky, to agitate’ 
▪ … 
– 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
Tel Aviv, telltall 
– 
tall تلّ 
ID 113 • Sw – • BP 6505 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TLː (TLL) 
n. 
hill, elevation – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *t˅ll‑ ‘hill, mound’.
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ Akk tilu(m)/tillu/telu ‘(ruin) mound; heap of grain’ (CDA 406).
▪ Outside Sem, Borg2021 #73 (t-l-l) compares Eg ṯnn (NK) ‘Ort wo Kraut wächst’; ‘mounds, heaps’ (Wb V 384; Hoch 1994: 356), Copt ⲧⲁⲗ ‘heap, hillock’ (Crum 1939: 408a).
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Tel Aviv, from Hbr tēl ʔābîb ‘barley tell’, from tēl ‘tell’ (ʔābîb ‘barley’; see ↗ʔBB)’; tell, from Ar tall ‘tell’. 
 
TLW تلو 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
√TLW 
“root” 
▪ TLW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ TLW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ TLW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to leave behind, overcome; to come after, come one after another; to accumulate, be wealthy; to attach; the hind part; to read after, recite, follow a singer’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
TMː (TMM) تمّ/تمم 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
√TMː (TMM) 
“root” 
▪ TMː (TMM)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ TMː (TMM)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ TMː (TMM)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘complete, whole, entire, to become complete, to complete; to perform, carry out, fulfil; to come to the end, finish one’s term; to be tough’ 
▪ From CSem *√TMM ‘to be(come) complete, finished’ – Huehnergard2011.
▪ …
 
– 
– 
– 
TMR تمر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TMR 
“root” 
▪ TMR_1 ‘dates’ ↗tamr
▪ TMR_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
▪ Kogan2011: from protWSem *tam(a)r‑ ‘date palm’ (and its fruit).
▪ … 
– 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ Engl n.pers. Tamar, tamarindtamr
– 
tamr تَمْر 
ID 114 • Sw – • BP 4663 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TMR 
n. 
dates, esp. dried ones – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ From protSem *tam(a)r‑ ‘palm-tree, dates’ – Huehnergard2011.
▪ …
 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Tamar, from Hbr tāmār ‘palm-tree’; tamarind, from Ar tamr hindī ‘dates of India’, from tamr ‘dates’. 
 
TMSḤ تمسح 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TMSḤ 
“root” 
▪ TMSḤ_1 ‘crocodile’ ↗timsāḥ
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
timsāḥ تِمْساح , pl. tamāsīḥᵘ 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 6Oct2022
√TMSḤ 
n. 
crocodile – WehrCowan1976 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ Outside Sem, Borg2021 #74 (t-m-s-ḥ) compares Eg msḥ / mzḥ (LE) ‘crocodile’ (Faulkner 1962: 117; DLE I 205), Dem msḥ ‘Krokodil’ (DG 179), Copt ⲙⲥⲁϩ ‘id.’ (Crum 1939: 187b).
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
TNː (TNN) تنّ / تنن 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TNː (TNN) 
“root” 
▪ TNː (TNN)_1 ‘tuna (zool.)’ ↗tunn
▪ TNː (TNN)_2 ‘dragon’ ↗tinnīn
▪ TNː (TNN)_3 ‘tannin, tannic acid’ ↗tannīn
 
All three values attached to the root TNː (TNN) in Ar are loan words:
  • The words for ‘tuna (zool.)’ (tunn) and ‘dragon’ (tinnīn) may both go back, ultimately, to Hbr ↗tannīn ‘sea monster, big fish’, while
  • tannīn, for ‘tannin, tannic acid’, is clearly from a European lang (Engl, Fr).
 
– 
Follow references given in section CONCISE above. 
Follow references given in section CONCISE above. 
▪ Follow references given in section CONC above. 
– 
tunn تُنّ 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TNː (TNN) 
n. 
tuna (zool.) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ According to etymonline.com, Ar tunn (on which Engl tuna seems to be based) is a borrowing, probably made in Spain, from Lat thynnus, thunnus ‘tuna, tunny’, which is from Grk thýnnos ‘id.’, possibly with a literal sense of ‘darter’, from thýnein ‘to dart along’. For a possible relation between the Grk etymon and Ar tinnīn ‘dragon’, see ↗tinnīn.
▪ Rolland2014 summarizes: perhaps from Grk thýnnos ‘id.’, unless it is the other way round or both stem from the “Mediterranean word” mentioned by Chantraine1977. 
▪ … 
… 
See section CONCISE, above. 
▪ Ar tunn, with def.art. al-tunn /at-tunn/, gave Span atun and, via Amer(Calif.)Span tuna, entered Engl as tuna by 1881. In contrast, Engl tunny (1520 s) ‘large sea-fish of the mackerel order’, seems to have taken another way where Ar was not involved: probably from mFr thon (C14), from oProv ton and directly from Lat thynnus, thunnus ‘tuna, tunny’, from Grk thýnnos ‘id.’ – EtymOnline. Grk thýnnos, however, may have a Sem background, cf. Ar ↗tinnīn ‘dragon’. 
– 
tinnīn تِنِّين , pl. tanānīnᵘ 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TNː (TNN) 
n. 
1 dragon, sea monster. – 2 Draco (astron.). – 3 waterspout (meteor.) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Kogan2011: [from Hbr/Aram?, ultimately from] protWSem *t˅n˅n‑ ‘mythical snake (dragon)’.
▪ As a loan word most probably directly taken from Aram tannīnā. The latter may, however, be older, cf. the Ug and Hbr cognates. Alongside with the Can ancestors, there are also words in EthSem with similar semantic values, but with the root TMN rather than a reduplicated TNː (TNN). For the Sem period, Sem *tannīn‑ (part. redupl.) ‘big serpent, crocodile’ or Sem *t˅nn˅n‑ ‘(mythical) snake, dragon’ and (based on the EthSem forms) *taman‑ ‘snake, dragon’ have been suggested. Taken together with what some scholars think are parallels in Eg, WCh and CCh languages, AfrAs *tan‑ ‘snake, worm’ and AfrAs *tam(-an)‑ ‘fish’ have been suggested as long-term etymologies for the two strings.
▪ Ar tinnīn may be related to Engl tunny and tuna and corresponding words in other Eur langs (Fr thon, It tonno, G Thun fisch, etc.). 
▪ … 
▪ BDB1906: Hbr tannîn (erroneously also tannîm), Ar tannīn, Aram tannînâ, Syr tunnînâ, Gz taman.
▪ Klein1987: Ug tnn, Hbr tannîn1 sea monster; 2 serpent; 3 dragon; 4 nHbr crocodile’, EgAram tnyn, JudAram Syr tannînâ, Gz taman, Ar tinnīn ‘dragon’.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2367: Hbr tannīn, Ar tinnīn. – Outside Sem: (WCh) Hs tānā ‘earth worm’.
▪ Militarev2006#179: Ug tnn /*tunnanu/ ‘dragon (kind of monster accompanying the sea- god Ym) ’, Hbr tannîn ‘sea-monster, sea-dragon; serpent; crocodile’, OffAram tnyn ‘dragon’, JudAram tannīnā ‘sea-monster, crocodile; large snake’, Syr tannīnā ‘sea-monster, dragon, serpent’, nSyr tanînâ ‘dragon’, Mand tanina (also tiniana, tinita) ‘dragon’, Ar tinnīn‑ ‘serpent de grandeur énorme; dragon’. – NB: Eth forms with ‑m‑ instead of ‑n‑ may be related: Gz taman ‘snake, dragon’, Tña Amh tämän ‘snake’. For these, cf. Militarev2006#2686: (Sem) Gz taman, Te Amh tämän; outside Sem: oEg tm.t (med) ‘kind of fish’; (CCh) tamwi, tum, túm, tumi, túmí, tǝǝmǝ ‘to fish; fish; (group) fishing’ in several langs. (Cf. also next paragraph.)
▪ Dolgopolsky2012#2279: (Sem) Gz taman,Tña Amh tämän ‘snake, dragon’; (ECush) Saho timbakiyā ‘worm’. 
▪ BDB1906 is the first, after Fraenkel1886, to repeat that Ar tannīn is borrowed from Aram tannīnā.
▪ Tropper2008 says Ug tnn and its cognate Hbr tannîn are the origin of the corresponding words in other WSem langs.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2367 reconstruct Sem *tannīn‑ ‘big serpent, crocodile’ and WCh *tan‑ ‘earth worm’, both from AfrAs *tan‑ ‘snake, worm’. The second half of Sem *tannīn‑ would thus be the result of partial reduplication.
▪ Militarev2006#179 repeats that Ar tinnīn is »almost certainly borrowed from Aram«. Based on the Can (and Ar) evidence, the author reconstructs Sem [Can] *t˅nn˅n‑ ‘(mythical) snake, dragon’. No AfrAs dimension mentioned.
▪ On account of the EthSem evidence (Gz, Tña, Amh), Militarev2006#2686 reconstructs Sem *taman‑ ‘snake, dragon’. Together with oEg tm.t ‘kind of fish’ and CCh *ta/um‑ ‘to fish; fish; (group) fishing’, these forms may go back to AfrAs *tam(-an)‑ ‘fish’. – NB: (Reflexes of) this root may form the second component of Cush composites for ‘fish’: LEC *ḳur-tum‑ (Or qurtummi, Gdl kurtum-et) and HEC *ḳir-tum‑ /*ḳur-tum‑ (Sid ḳiltiʔmi, Dar ḳultuʔme, Had ḳurṭume, Ala ḳurč̣um-et, Bmb ḳur-ṭume, Kmb ḳurtum). Cf. also Sem. *t˅nn˅n‑ ‘(mythical) snake, dragon’. 
▪ Klein1987 thinks that Grk thýnnos ‘tunny’ probably is from Hbr tannîn (though influenced by Grk thýnein ‘to shake’). If this is true, Eur words for ‘tuna, tunny’ ultimately go back to the same source as Ar tinnīn. Other sources, however, are more reluctant, or refuse, to accept such an etymology. Kluge2002, e.g., formulates rather vaguely (s.v. Thunfisch): Grk thýnnos is »a Mediterranean word« that is »probably from a Sem lang«. EtymOnline thinks that Engl tunny (1520 s) ‘large sea-fish of the mackerel order’ is probably from mFr thon (C14), from oProv ton and directly from Lat thynnus, thunnus ‘tuna, tunny’, which is from Grk thýnnos ‘id.’, »possibly with a literal sense of ‘darter’, from thýnein ‘to dart along’«; no Sem dimension suggested (so also Littmann, Lokotsch, EtymDud, Nişanyan). And DeCaprona2013 explicitly denies that Grk thýnnos, though from a Mediterranean lang, is from Hbr tannîn, but does not explain his opinion.
▪ On a completely other line, Dolgopolsky2012#2279, puts (reconstructed) EthSem *taman‑ together with (reconstructed) narrowIE *dem(-el)‑ ‘worm’ (Alb dhemjë ‘caterpillar, maggot’, dhemizë, dhëmizë, dhimizë, dhemizë, dhemë ‘id.; blowfly’, and other words for ‘leeches’) and reconstructs Nostr *t˅m˅ ‘worm, snake’. 
– 
tannīn تَنِّين 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TNː (TNN) 
n. 
tannin, tannic acid – WehrCowan1979. 
Rolland2014: From Fr tanin, derived from tan, with high probability from a Celtic *tanno‑ ‘oak’. 
▪ … 
– 
▪ Cf. also the etymology of Engl tannin ‘tannic acid, vegetable substance capable of converting animal hide to leather’, as given in etymonline.com : 1802, from Fr tannin (1798), from tan ‘crushed oak bark containing tannin’, probably from a Celtic source (such as Breton tann ‘oak tree’). The Engl vb. to tan can be traced back, via late oEngl tannian ‘to convert hide into leather (by steeping it in tannin)’, to mLat tannare ‘to tan, dye a tawny colour’ (c900), from Lat tannum ‘crushed oak bark (used in tanning leather)’. The meaning ‘to make brown by exposure to the sun’ (as tanning does to hides) first recorded 1520 s; intransitive sense also from 1520 s. Of persons, not considered an attractive feature until 20c.; in Shakespeare, ‘to deprive of the freshness and beauty of youth’ (Sonnet CXV). As an adj. from 1620 s. Related: G Tanne ‘fir tree’ (as in Tannenbaum) might be a transferred meaning from the same Celtic source.101  
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TNR تنر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TNR 
“root” 
▪ TNR_1 ‘baking oven, pit’ ↗tannūr
▪ TNR_2 ‘skirt’ ↗LevAr tannnūraẗ
 
▪ [v1] Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): [a borrowing, said to be from Pers, Hbr or undetermined origin, occurring twice in the Qur’an. Some Arab philologists link it to either ↗nūr or ↗nār while Ibn ʕAbbās describes it as common to all languages; variously rendered by the commentators as: ‘oven/furnace; spring; surface of the ground’
▪ [v2] …
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tannūr تنّور 
ID 115 • Sw – • BP??? • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TNR 
n. 
a kind of baking oven, a pit, usually clay-lined, for baking bread – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Acc. to BAH2008 a borrowing, said to be from Pers, Hbr or undetermined origin, occurring twice in the Qur’an. Some Arab philologists link it to either ↗nūr or ↗nār while Ibn ʕAbbās describes it as common to all languages; variously rendered by the commentators as: ‘oven/furnace; spring; surface of the ground’.
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ Akk tinūru ‘oven’ (Parpola 2007: 125), Hbr tannūr ‘portable stove or firepot’ (BDB 1072).
▪ Outside Sem, Borg2021 #76 (t-n-r) compares Eg trr (NK) ‘Ofen des Bäckers’; ‘oven’; ta=ru₂=ru₂ (Wb V 318; Hoch 1994: 359; DLE II 162).
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tannūraẗ تنّورة 
ID 116 • Sw – • BP 6684 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TNR 
n.f. 
(SyAr, LebAr) (lady’s) skirt – WehrCowan1979. 
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TWB توب 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TWB 
“root” 
▪ TWB_1 ‘to repent, turn away from’ ↗tāba, ‘the Relenting one (one of the names of God)’ ↗tawwāb
▪ TWB_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): (this root could be a variant of ṮWB) ‘to return, go back, relent, to encourage s.o. to abandon their bad deeds’ 
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tāb‑ / tub‑ تاب 
ID 117 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TWB 
vb., I 
to repent, be penitent, do penance; with ʕan: to turn from (sin), be converted from, renounce, forswear s.th.; (said of God) to restore to His grace, forgive (ʕalà s.o.) – WehrCowan1979. 
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▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
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tawbaẗ تَوْبَة 
ID 119 • Sw – • BP 4200 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TWB 
n.f. 
repentance, penitence, contrition; penance – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
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tawwāb توّاب 
ID 118 • Sw – • BP ... • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TWB 
adj. 
▪ (adj.) doing penance; repentant, penitent, contrite; forgiving, merciful (God) – WehrCowan1979.
▪ (n.) the Relenting one (one of the names of God, used only of Him in the Qurʔān and only in Madinan passages) – Jeffery1938 
▪ … 
▪ eC7 Q ii, 35, 51, 122, 155; iv, 20, 67; ix, 105, 119; xxiv, 10; xlix, 12; ex, 3 – Jeffery1938.
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ Jeffery1938: »The Muslim authorities take it as a formation from tāba. We have already seen, however, that tāba is a borrowed religious term used by Muḥammad in a technical sense, and Lidzbarski in SBAW, Berlin 1916: 1218, argues that tawwāb instead of being a regular Arabic formation from the already borrowed tāba, is itself a distinct borrowing from the Aram. The Akk taiaru, he says,[(cn :: Lidzbarski admits that Delitzsch, Assyrisches Handwörterbuch, 703a, and Zimmern, Akkadische Fremdwörter, 66, had earlier shown the connection between taiaru and tawwāb]) was borrowed into Aram, e.g. into Palm, and the Mand tʔyʔbʔ is but a rendering of the same word. Halevy, JA, viiᵉ sér., vol. x, p. 423, would recognize the word in twb of a Safaite inscription, and if this is correct there would be clear evidence of its use in NArabia in pre-Islamic times.«
▪ …
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TWT توت 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TWT 
“root” 
▪ TWT_1 ‘mulberry (tree)’ ↗tūt_1
▪ TWT_2 ‘(first month of Coptic calender)’ ↗tūt_2
▪ TWT_3 ‘zinc’ ↗tūtiyā
 
▪ TWT_1 : Sem or Ind? See ↗tūt_1
▪ TWT_2 : from (Boh)Copt thwout
▪ TWT_3 : from and Ind lang, cf. Skr tutthā
 
– 
See individual entries. 
See individual entries. 
▪ TWT_3 Ar ↗tūtiyā gave the words for ‘zinc oxide’ etc. in some Eur langs.
 
– 
¹tūt تُوت 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TWT 
n. 
mulberry tree; mulberry – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ For Fraenkel, the word is clearly of Aram origin (as direct source, at least); Klein says this is “probably” so.
▪ Rolland2014a: »Pour Rajki, le mot, qui a des cognats en Akk, en Hbr et en Aram, serait d’origine Sem, mais l’existence du Skr tuda permet d’en douter. Quant au Pers tūt ou tūṯ, il est de même difficile de savoir s’il est d’origine Skr ou Sem.« 
▪ … 
▪ Akk tuttu (CAD), pBiblHbr tūṯ (Klein1987), Aram Syr tūṯā (Klein1987, Brockelmann1895) ‘mulberry’ 
▪ Fraenkel1886: The variation tūt ~ tūṯ is a clear indication of an Aram origin. Nişanyan, too, thinks the source is Aram Syr tūṯā.
▪ CAD: Akk tuttu ‘mulberry tree’ is a foreign word (Nişanyan: from Aram).
▪ Klein1987: pBiblHbr tūṯ ‘mulberry’, probably from Aram tūṯā, whence also Ar tūt 
▪ Tu dut: 1680 Meninski, Thesaurus : tūtak ve tatlü tūt, kara tūt…, tūtı wahşī – Nişanyan_24Aug2013. – The word is also part of the composite n. ahududu ‘raspberry’: 1892 Tıngır & Sinapian, Iṣṭılaḥāt Luġāti : [Fr] framboise = [Tu] ahu tutu, böğürtlen, ağaç çileği Nişanyan_24Jun2015.9  
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²tūt تُوت 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TWT 
n. 
first month of Coptic calender (mid-September to mid-October) – WehrCowan1979, BadawiHinds1986. 
▪ Rolland2014a: From BohCopt thwout [ErmanGrapow1921 θoout ], from Thoth [Eg ḏḥwtj ], name of the god of knowledge, inventor of writing. 
▪ … 
– 
See section CONC, above. 
– 
– 
tūtiyā تُوتِيَا , var. tūtiyāʔ تُوتِيَاء , tūtiyaẗ تُوتِيَة 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TWT, TWTY 
n. 
zinc – WehrCowan1979. 
Via Pers probably from an Ind language, cf. Skr tutthā ‘blue vitriol (cupric sulfate), used as eye drops’. The Ar word is the source of words for ‘zinc (oxide)’ in some Eur langs. 
▪ … 
▪ Brockelmann1895: Syr tūtiyā ‘antimon’ 
▪ from Pers tūtiyā, from Skr tutthā – en.wiktionary (07Jan2016)#tutty. 
▪ Fr tut(h)ie 1256 tutie, 1432 tuthie. From Ar tūtiyāʔ «tutie, zinc, oxyde de zinc», probably itself a loan from an Ind lang, cf. Skr tutthā «vitriol bleu (sulfate de cuivre), utilisé comme collyre» – TLF.
▪ Engl tutty (a powdered form of impure zinc oxide used for polishing) from Fr tutie (cf. also Sp tutia, atutia), from Lat tutia, from Ar tūtiyāʔ, from Pers tūtiyā, from Skr tutthā – en.wiktionary (07Jan2016).10
▪ Lokotsch1927#2120: Ar tūtiyāʔ ‘zinc, zinc oxide’ [perh. from an Ind lang, ZDMG L: 650; cf. also Grk toutía; in the East formerly often used as remedy against eye diseases], also Tu; hence Rum tutea ‘zink oxide’, Span Port atutia, Cat tutia, Fr tutie, tuthie ‘id.’; Pol tucyja ‘Art Zinkkalk’; Engl tutty ‘zink oxide’ [used for cleaning]. – From Pers tūtyānāk ‘like tutia’ [s. De Sacy ChrAr III, 44:2; 4529/442, on Ar tūtiyāʔ ] developed the Engl tutenag ‘Indian zinc; alloy from copper, nickel and zinc, for cutlery’; Fr toutenague, tintenague, Port tutenaga ‘id’. 
– 
TWR تور 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last update 19Jul2023
√TWR 
"root" 
▪ TWR_1 ‘once; sometimes, at times’ ↗tāraẗᵃⁿ
▪ TWR_2 ‘Torah, Pentateuch; Old Testament’ ↗tawrāẗ (see alphabetically, *√TWRā)
▪ TWR_ ‘...’ ↗...  
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
tāraẗᵃⁿ تارةً 
ID – • Sw – • BP 2697 • APD … • © SG | 20Jul2023
√TWR3  
adv.  
1 once; 2 sometimes, at times – WehrCowan1976  
▪ …  
▪ eC7 (a time, one time, one turn) Q 20:55 min-hā ḫalaqnā-kum wa-fī-hā nuʕīdu-kum wa-min-hā nuḫriǧu-kum tāraẗᵃⁿ ʔuḫrà ‘out of it [earth] We created you, into it We will return you, and from it We will bring you forth yet another time’  
▪ …  
▪ ...  
–  
tāraẗᵃⁿ... tāraẗᵃⁿ... , tāraẗᵃⁿ... ṭawrᵃⁿ... , tāraẗᵃⁿ... tāraẗᵃⁿ ʔuḫrà... , adv., sometimes, at times…, at other times…  
TaWRā تَوْراة 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 20Jul2023
√TWR, √TaWRā, √WRY
 
n.f. 
▪ TaWRā_1 ‘Torah, Pentateuch; Old Testament’ ↗tawrāẗ  
▪ According to Jeffery1938 and others, Ar tawrāẗ is a borrowing from Hbr The etymology of the latter is not clear, though. BDB1906, Leslau2008 (CDG), and also EtymOnline (see section WEST), regard Hbr tōrāʰ as a vn. of the Hi (*Š-stem) of Hbr yārāʰ ‘to throw, shoot’ (√YRY), nHbr ‘to shoot’, (Hi) ‘to teach’,17 but this view has been contested. Instead of deriving tōrāʰ from ‘to throw, shoot’, the authors of DRS, for instance, hold that the word most likely belongs to a semantic complex *‘to show, teach’ (reflexes of which may be the dial. Ar ↗²warrà, ʔawrà ‘to show, indicate’, which others, however, would see as deriving from raʔà ‘to see’). See below, section DISC, for more details.
▪ If the Hbr etymon tōrāʰ is from (Hi) hōrē ‘to indicate, point to (with a finger), teach, instruct’, could there then be a connection to Hbr ʔōr ‘light; to be clear’, ʔūr ‘fire’, Ar ʔirraẗ ‘fire’, ↗ʔuwār ‘heat, blaze’ (all < protSem *ʔR ‘fire, light’)? Such a connection is discussed nowhere so far although semantics (‘teaching = enlightening’) would be easily conceivable.
▪ ...
 
▪ eC7 Q iii, 2, 43, 44, 58, 87; v, 47-50, 70, 72, 110; vii, 156; ix, 112; xlviii, 29; lxi, 6; lxii, 5 – Jeffery1938.
▪ eC7 (generic name for the Law or Scripture revealed to Moses comprising the Pentateuch, as distinct from al-ʔinǧīl, the ‘Evangel, Gospel, New Testament’) Q 3:65 yā-ʔahla ’l-kitābi li-mā tuḥāǧǧūna fī ʔibrāhīma wa-mā ʔunzilat-i ’l-tawrāẗu wa’l-ʔinǧīlu ʔillā min baʕdi-hī ʔa-fa-lā taʕqilūna ‘O People of the Scripture! Why will ye argue about Abraham, when the Torah and the Gospel were not revealed till after him? Have ye then no sense?’
▪ …
 
▪ NB: The cognates indicated by BDB1906 and Leslau2008 blend the notions of ‘throwing, shooting’ and ‘showing, teaching’ that DRS treats as distinct. Below, only the ‘showing, teaching’ group suggested by DRS is mentioned. For ‘throwing, shooting’, see root entry.
▪ According to BDB1906, Leslau2008 (CDG), and others, Hbr tōrāʰ should be seen in the context of: Ug yrw (Tropper2008: yry), Hbr yārāʰ ‘to throw, shoot’ (√YRY), nHbr ‘to shoot’, (Hi) ‘to teach’, Aram (Af) ʔôrî ‘to teach’, Gz warawa ‘to throw, throw away, cast off, cast down, cast forth’, Te wärwära, Tña wärwärä, Amh wäräwwärä, Gur wəräwärä ‘to throw’, SAr wrw ‘to attack’, Ar warra (√WRː (WRR)) ‘to throw’.31 – Cf. also Ar ↗raʔà, ↗rawà?
DRS 7 (1997) #WRY-1 Akk (w)arū(m), oAkk oAss warāʔum ‘conduire’32 – ?2 Hbr (Hi) hōrē ‘montrer (avec le doigt), instruire’; – ? tōrāʰ ‘direction, instruction, loi’; mōräʰ ‘enseignant, maître’; JudPalAram ʔōrī ‘enseigner, instruire’; Ar [dial.] warrà, ʔawrà ‘montrer, désigner’, MġrAr warra (i) ‘montrer, faire voir, enseigner’, OranAr wāri ‘évident’, ? YemAr *warā ‘violer l’honneur d’une femme’; Sab hwry ‘annoncer, publier’, Soq ʔere ‘marque (?)’, Gz waraya ‘dire les nouvelles, raconter’, Te wära ‘annoncer’, Tña wäre ‘nouvelle, avis, renommée’, ʔawräyä, Amh ʔawärra ‘donner des nouvelles’, Amh Arg Gur wäre, Har war ‘nouvelle’; Tña wäräyä ‘être utile, servir, aider, assister, être fécond’. -3 Gur wäriya, wērä, wäyä, Gaf wäyä ‘nouveau’. -4-6 ....
▪ (given here only for the sake of completeness, as earlier research would often see Hbr tōrāʰ as akin to ‘to throw, cast’ ; DRS itself groups tōrāʰ under #WRY-2, see preceding paragraph) : DRS 7 (1997) #WRW~WRR-1 Ug *yrw ‘tirer (une flèche)’, Hbr yārā ‘jeter, lancer, tirer (flèche, etc.)’, ? Syr ʔeštawrī ‘arriver par hasard, venir à la rencontre, percer; oser’; EAr warra ‘jeter, rejeter’, warwar ‘jeter, lancer’; Gz warawa, warrawa ‘jeter, lancer, rejeter’, Te Tña wärwärä, Amh Arg wäräwwärä, Gur wəräwwarä ‘jeter, lancer’.33 / 34 / 35 / 36 -2 ....
▪ …
 
▪ Jeffery1938: »It is used as a general term for the Jewish Scriptures,102 but particularly as associated with Moses, and in a few passages (iii, 44, 87; lxi, 6, etc.) it seems to have the definite sense of ʰo nómos. With the possible exception of vii, 156, it occurs only in Madinan passages. / Clearly it represents the Hbr tôrâʰ, and was recognized by some of the early authorities to be a Hbr word, as we learn from al-Zaǧǧāǧ in TA, x, 389; and Bagh. on iii, 2. Some, however, desired to make it an Arabic word derived from ↗WRY, a view which Zam. on iii, 2, scouts, though it is argued at length in LA, xx, 268, and accepted without question by Rāġib, Mufradāt, 542. Western scholars from the time of Marracci, Prodromus, i, 5, have recognized it as a borrowing direct from the Hbr,103 and there is no need to discuss the possible Aram origin mentioned by Fraenkel, Vocab, 23.104 . The word was doubtless well known in Arabia before Muḥammad’s time, cf. Ibn Hišām, 659.«
DRS 7 (1997), comment on #WRY-2 : « .... – Pour Hbr tōrāʰ, sa place ici, qui semble la mieux justifiée, ne fait pas l’objet d’un accord général; on a proposé en particulier de rattacher la forme à YRY ‘jeter, lancer’, v.s. ↗WRW~WRY, en rapport avec ‘lancer pour tirer au sort’, v. BiblHbr, BDB 435; pour ‘lancer’, Koehler Theologie d. AT; autre hypothèse : emprunt de l’Akk tērtu(m) ‘instruction, directives’ (AHW 1350) ...; présentation générale de la question dans HAL 1575; le mot est passé en Aram sous la forme ʔōrāytā, en éth [Gz] sous la forme ʔorit. – ... ; l’histoire de la forme Ar warra, présente dans la plupart des dialectes n’est pas très claire ; on l’a expliquée par une métathèse à partir de ↗raʔà ‘voir’ ...; Marçais Tanger 494 propose de prendre en compte une valeur *‘être clair’ pour ClassAr warà(y), “négligé par les lexicographes..., mais conservé dans les dialectes”, comp. par exemple wāri ‘évident’ dans les dialectes d’Oranie; EgAr: BadawiHinds 934;105 pour la valeur YemAr ‘déshonorer une femme’, d’ap. HAB 92/20, Glos. 96: même rapport sémantique que dans PḎḤ par exemple; SAr: hwry (vb. dual), Müller Wurzeln 112; Dic.Sab., p. 162 renvoie à p. 57 s. HWR (v. ici s. #HWR-5); cependant, sémantiquement, la forme semble appartenir ici; Soq: sens douteux, Leslau LS 72; sur le rapprochement des formes EthSem signifiant ‘nouvelles’, etc., v. Praetorius AMS 242; Barth ES 14: rapport avec ↗RWY (Ar ↗rawà ‘rapporter, raconter d’après qn’)?; Cerulli Harar 435 fait dépendre du Cush: Bil Or Af Sa warē, Som war, Caffa warō. »
▪ …
 
▪ Engl Torah ‘the Pentateuch’, 1570s, from Hbr tôrāʰ, literally ‘instruction, law’, vn. from hôrāʰ ‘he taught, showed’, Hi of yārāʰ ‘to throw, shoot’ – EtymOnline
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TYN تين 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TYN 
“root” 
▪ TYN_1 ‘fig(s)’ ↗tīn
▪ TYN_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
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– 
– 
tīn تِين 
ID 120 • Sw – • BP??? • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√TYN 
n. 
fig – WehrCowan1979. 
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▪ …
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TYH تيه 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
√TYH 
“root” 
▪ TYH_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ TYH_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ TYH_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘expanse of desolate unmarked featureless desert; wilderness; to lose one’s way, be misguided; to be conceited, be obstinate’ 
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– 
– 
– 
ṯāʔ ثاء 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ 
R₁ 
The letter of the Arabic alphabet. 
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– 
 
ṮBT ثبت 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
√ṮBT 
“root” 
▪ ṮBT_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ṮBT_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ṮBT_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to stand firm, be fixed, hold out; to establish, make fast; to prove; to transfix; to be constant’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ṮBR ثبر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ṮBR 
“root” 
▪ ṮBR_1 ‘to destroy, ruin’ ↗ṯabara
▪ ṮBR_2 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ṮBR_3 ‘…’ ↗

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘ruin, destruction, to perish; to be vanquished, to be transfixed, to be detained; to persist, to be diligent’
 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ ṮBR_1 : (Bergsträsser1928 *‘to break, crash’:) Akk šbr (i), Hbr šbr a (o), Syr tbr (u), Gz sbr a (e).
▪ … 
… 
… 
… 
ṯabar‑ ثَبَرَ , u (ṯubūr, intr.) 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ṮBR 
vb., I 
to destroy, ruin – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘to break, crash’) Akk šbr (i), Hbr šbr a (o), Syr tbr (u), Gz sbr a (e).
▪ … 
… 
… 
… 
ṮBṬ ثبط 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
√ṮBṬ 
“root” 
▪ ṮBṬ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ṮBṬ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ṮBṬ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be slow, sluggish, phlegmatic; to cause s.o. to lose heart, to discourage, turn away’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ṮBY ثبي 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
√ṮBY 
“root” 
▪ ṮBY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ṮBY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ṮBY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a group of horse riders, to divide into groups; to be constant; the centre of a water trough’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ṮǦː (ṮǦǦ) ثجّ/ثجج 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
√ṮǦː (ṮǦǦ) 
“root” 
▪ ṮǦː (ṮǦǦ)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ṮǦː (ṮǦǦ)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ṮǦː (ṮǦǦ)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘downpour, to flow forcefully, gush out, to flood, waterfalls’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ṮḪN ثخن 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
√ṮḪN 
“root” 
▪ ṮḪN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ṮḪN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ṮḪN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘thickness, solidity; to do s.th. to the utmost; to wear out, exhaust, weaken, conquer; to be solemn, be overcome with strain’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ṮDY ثدي 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ṮDY 
“root” 
▪ ṮDY_1 ‘(female) breast; udder’ ↗ṯady
▪ ṮDY_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
▪ … 
– 
▪ …
▪ …check Cohen1969: 328 ! 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
ṯady ثَدْي , var. ṯadan , ṯadà , pl. ʔaṯdāʔ 
ID 121 • Sw 51 • BP 4672 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ṮDY 
n. (m. and f.) 
female breast; breast; udder – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Kogan2011: from protWSem *ṯad(y)‑ ‘female breast’. – Cf. also ↗bizz, ↗dayd, ↗ (AlgAr) zīzaẗ, and (perh.) ↗nuʕnuʕaẗ.
▪ … 
▪ Cf. Fück1950: 119 f. 
▪ Bennett1998: Ug ṯd, Hbr šad, Syr təḏā, Jib ṯɔ́dɛʔ
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#462: Hbr šad, Syr tedā, Ḥrs ṯōdi, Mhr ṯōdi, Śḥr ṯodɛʕ, Soq todi. Cognates in ECh *čid‑ ‘breast’ (reconstructed from evidence in 1 language).
▪ Outside Sem, Borg2021 #79 (ṯ-d-y) compares Eg šdi͗ (Pyr) ‘suckle’; ‘säugen; aufziehen’ (Faulkner 1962: 273; Wb IV 564; Hannig 1995: 844).
▪ … 
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#462 suggest: < Sem *ṯady‑ ‘breast’ < AfrAs *čad‑ / *čid‑ ‘breast’ 
– 
ṯadyāʔᵘ, adj.f., full-bosomed: elat.f.
ṯadyī, adj.: ḥayawānāt ṯadyiyyaẗ mammals: nsb-adj 
ṮRB ثرب 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
√ṮRB 
“root” 
▪ ṮRB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ṮRB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ṮRB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘thin layer of fat over the stomach; fingers; to point out faults, blame, abuse, reproach, upbraid’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ṮRW/Y ثرو/ي 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 5Feb2023
√ṮRW/Y 
“root” 
▪ ṮRW/Y_1 ‘to become wealthy’ ↗ṯariya, ‘fortune, wealth’ ↗ṯarwaẗ
▪ ṮRW/Y_2 ‘Pleiades; chandelier’ ↗ṯurayyā
▪ ṮRW/Y_3 ‘moist earth; ground, soil’ ↗ṯaràⁿ (√ṮRY)
▪ ṮRW/Y_ ‘…’ ↗
 
▪ [gnrl] : Ultimately, all values in this root may go back to the ‘moist earth’ and the idea of ‘soaking’ underlying [v3] and represented in MSA by Ar ↗ṯaràⁿ ‘moist earth; soil’ (here treated s.r. ↗√ṮRY), a value that is well attested in NWSem (see ↗√ṮRY). However, a transition from ‘soaking; moist earth’ (via *‘fertility’?) to ‘plentitude, richness’ is merely hypothetical, so that one may hesitate to accept a relation of this kind and rather treat the two values separately (as is done here in EtymArab), as √ṮRY ‘to soak, moisten’ etc. also may point in another direction (cf. ↗√ṬRW ‘to be fresh, juicy, moist’ < protWSem *√ṬRY ‘to be fresh, raw’).
▪ The only, though reliable and strong evidence of a deeper Sem dimension of [v1] remains Akk šarû which, with its meanings ‘rich, prosperous’ and ‘copious, luxuriant’, displays remarkable similarity to the Ar root where the notion of ‘plentitude’ (though now obsol.) goes together with that of ‘wealth, prosperity’.
▪ [v2] : The Ar term for the cluster of stars in Taurus called ‘Pleiades’, ṯurayyā, is a dimin. of the f. of the obsol. adj. ṯarwān, an ints. formation in ‑ān, from ṯarīy ‘numerous (troops, property, wealth)’. The literal meaning is thus *‘little cluster, small group of many (stars)’. – The modern meaning ‘chandelier’ indicates a kind of “Pleiades” suspending from the ceiling and sparkling as brightly as the star cluster.
▪ …
 
– 
▪ vonSoden ii 1974, CAD: Akk šarû ‘rich, prosperous; copious, luxuriant | reich sein/werden’, mašrū ‘wealth, prosperity, riches’, Ar ṯariya, ʔaṯrà ‘reich sein’
▪ …
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ …
 
– 
– 
ṯariy‑/ṯarī‑ ثَرِي , a (ṯarāʔ
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 5Feb2023
√ṮRW/Y 
vb., I 
to become wealthy – WehrCowan1976
 
▪ The idea of ‘fortune, wealth, riches’ is based on that of a more general *‘plentitude’, as is evidenced by earlier stages of the language (see below, section HIST) when ṯarā (u, ṯarāⁿ) mainly meant ‘1a être nombreux (se dit des hommes, des bestiaux, etc.); b être plus riche en troupeaux (qu’une autre tribu); c (vn. ṯarw) rendre nombreux’ (BK1860). The two values ‘plentitude’ and ‘richness, wealth’ exist alongside each other also in Akk, the only close/direct relative of the Ar vb. in Sem (see below, section COGN).
▪ Ultimately, ‘plentitude, richness’ etc., may be related (via *‘fertility’?) to the notion of ‘moisture, soaking’ etc (cf. ↗ṯaràⁿ ‘moist earth; soil’, here treated s.r. ↗√ṮRY), a value that is well attested in NWSem (see ↗√ṮRY). However, given that a transitional stage between ‘moist earth’ and ‘plentitude, richness’ is not attested, it remains a mere hypothesis. Therefore, rather than to *‘plentitude’, NWSem *‘moisture, moist earth’ etc. may be akin to protWSem *√ṬRY ‘to be fresh, raw’ (cf. Ar ↗ṭaruwa/ṭariya ‘to be\come fresh, succulent, moist, tender, soft, mild’).
▪ From *‘multitude, plentitude’, the Ar term for the cluster of stars in the constellation of Taurus called ‘Pleiades’, ↗ṯurayyā, is derived. Literally, ṯurayyā signifies a *‘little cluster, small group of many (stars)’. – The modern meaning ‘lustre, chandelier’ indicates, figuratively, a kind of “Pleiades” suspending from the ceiling and sparkling as brightly as the star cluster.
▪ …
 
▪ BK1860: ṯarā (u, ṯarāⁿ) ‘1a être nombreux (se dit des hommes, des bestiaux, etc.); b être plus riche en troupeaux (qu’une autre tribu); c (vn. ṯarw) rendre nombreux.
▪ …
 
▪ vonSoden ii 1974, CAD: Akk šarû ‘rich, prosperous; copious, luxuriant | reich sein/werden’, mašrū ‘wealth, prosperity, riches’, Ar ṯariya, ʔaṯrà ‘reich sein’
▪ …
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ …
 
– 
ʔaṯrà, vb. IV, 1a intr., to become or be rich, wealthy (bi­‑ or min through s.th.); b tr., to make rich, enrich: *Š-stem, ¹ᵃdenom., ¹ᵇcaus.

ṯarīy, pl. ʔaṯriyāʔᵘ, adj., wealthy, rich: adj. formation | ṯarīy al-ḥarb, adj./n., war profiteer, nouveau riche
BP#1743ṯarwaẗ, n.f., and ṯarāʔ, n., fortune, wealth, riches: (quasi-)vn. I | ʔahl al-ṯarwaẗ, the rich, the wealthy; ṯarwaẗ qawmiyyaẗ, national wealth; ṯarwaẗ māʔiyyaẗ, abundance of water, abundant supply of water (of a region)
ṯurayyā, n.f., 1 Pleiades; 2 (also ṯariyyaẗ), pl. ṯurayyāt, chandelier: dimin. of ṯarwà, f. of ṯarwān, ints. formation in ‑ān, from ṯarīy ‘nombreux (troupeau, biens)’; see also s.v.; [v2] is due to transfer of meaning from the cluster of stars to the similarly sparkling chandelier
muṯrīⁿ, adj., wealthy, rich: PA IV

For other values attached to the root, cf. also root entry ↗√ṮRW/Y as well as ↗√ṮRY (with ↗ṯaràⁿ).
 
ṯarwaẗ ثَرْوَة , pl. ṯarawāt 
ID … • Sw – • BP 1743 • APD … • © SG | 5Feb2023
√ṮRW/Y 
n.f.
 
fortune, wealth, riches – WehrCowan1976
 
▪ quasi-vn. I, from ↗ṯariya ‘to be rich’, earlier ‘to be plentiful, copious’.
▪ …
 
▪ ↗ṯariya
▪ …
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ …
 
▪ Tu servet: [Meninski, Thesaurus, 1680] ‘s̱ervet = multitudo & opulentia’ – Nişanyan_15Oct2014
▪ …
 
ʔahl al-ṯarwaẗ, the rich, the wealthy;
ṯarwaẗ qawmiyyaẗ, national wealth;
ṯarwaẗ māʔiyyaẗ, abundance of water, abundant supply of water (of a region)

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ṯariya and ↗ṯurayyā), as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ṮRW/Y. – Cf. also ↗ṯaràⁿ (↗√ṮRY)
 
ṯurayyā ثُرَيَّا (pl. -āt
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 5Feb2023
√ṮRW/Y

== FOR SORAYA ==
 
n.f.
 
1 Pleiades; 2 (also ṯariyyaẗ), pl. ṯurayyāt, chandelier – WehrCowan1976
 
▪ (following BK1860:) ṯurayyā as a term for the cluster of stars in the constellation of Taurus known as the Pleiades, or the Seven Sisters, is a dimin. of ṯarwà, f. of ṯarwān ‘opulent’, ints. formation in ‑ān, from ṯarīy ‘numerous (troops, property, etc.); rich, wealthy (man)’, from ↗ṯarā ‘to be numerous’. Thus, the literal meaning is *‘the little cluster, the small group of the many (stars)’.
▪ In the Persian-speaking world, the Ar word was, and is still, used as a personal name. In the transliterated spelling, Soraya, the name has become popular also in the West (see below, section WEST).
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
▪ ↗ṯariya.
▪ (Gz tərəyā ‘constellation of stars’ and ṭarāw ‘constellation’ are from Ar ṯurayyā – Leslau2006.)
▪ …
 
▪ Another indigenous Ar explanation of the term ṯurayyā would be the beneficial ‘riches’, ṯarāʔ, brought about by the rain that often accompanies the rising of the Pleiades above the horizon at morning dawn – J. Ruska, art. »Süreyyâ / al-S̱urayyā«, in ¹EIᵀᵘ.
▪ The Ar name for the Pleiades can help to clarify the etymology of the Grk term Pleiádes. While this term is often explained as deriving from pleîn (1sg.prs plé-ō) ‘to sail’ (because of the cluster’s importance in delimiting the sailing season in the Mediterranean), it is more likely (given the evidence of Ar ṯurayyā being based on the notion of ‘plentitude’) that Pleiádes is coined from Grk pleîos ~ pléos ‘full’106 – J. Ruska, art. »Süreyyâ / al-S̱urayyā«, in ¹EIᵀᵘ.
▪ …
 
▪ Tu süreyya: [Şeyhoğlu, Marzubānnāme terc., 1380] bir ulu ağaç varıdı, sanadıŋ kökleri taḥte 's̠-s̠erāye [toprağın altına] irmiş ve budakları s̠üreyyāya ağmışdı; [Ahterî-i Kebir, 1545] s̱üreyyā = Ülker dedikleri altı yıldız ki ikişer ikişer birbiriniñ muḳābelesinde olur – Nişanyan_3Jul2021
▪ As a personal name, Soraya is also popular in Europe due to its association with Soraya Esfandiary-Bakhtiari, the second wife of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi of Iran (en.wiki/Soraya; for prominent holders of the name, cf. ibid.).
▪ …
 
For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ṯariya (incl. ↗ṯarwaẗ), as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ṮRW/Y. – Cf. also ↗ṯaràⁿ (↗√ṮRY)
 
ṮRY ثري 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 5Feb2023
√ṮRY 
“root” 
▪ ṮRY_1 ‘moist earth; ground, soil’ ↗ṯaràⁿ
▪ ṮRY_2 see also ↗√ṮRW/Y
▪ ṮRY_ ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘(somewhat overlapping with ṯ-r-w) moisture, to moisten; soil, wet soil; goodness’
 
▪ A root that expresses the general notion of *‘immersing, soaking, steeping’ and *‘moist earth, moisture’ is fairly well attested in NWSem (Hbr, Aram, Ar) so that it seems safe to reconstruct a corresponding root NWSem *√ṮRY ‘moist earth, moisture; to soak, etc.’.
▪ See also below, section DISC.
▪ …
 
– 
▪ BDB1906, Gesenius1915, Klein1987, Zammit2002: Hbr šārāʰ ‘to immerse, soak, steep, saturate’ (Klein1987), mišrāʰ ‘juice’, nHbr šārâ ‘to soften, dissolve’, JudAram tᵊrâ ʻwässern, einweichen’, ChrPal trʔ ‘to dissolve; be soaked, be damp’, Syr täryānâ ‘grape juice’, Ar ṯariya ʻto be moist’, ṯarāⁿ ‘the Earth (beneath the soil)’; most prob. also Akk šerū ‘to grow luxuriantly’ (not in CAD), (CAD, AHw) šarû ‘rich, prosperous; copious, luxuriant | reich sein/werden’, mašrū ‘growth, (CAD) wealth, prosperity, riches’
▪ Hoch1994 #207: Outside Sem, one has perh. to compare lEg *mēšaru ‘plain; wetland’, a »place with productive agricultural soil«, though »the NWSem evidence all points to a meaning of extreme wetness, not appropriate for land producing cereal crops[; therefore] the connection is somewhat questionable«.37
▪ …
 
▪ According to some scholars (see above, section COGN), there are perh. also (distant) Akk cognates meaning *‘(opulent) growth’. Akk šarū or šerū is not registered in CAD with such an alleged value and can therefore not be confirmed. If valid nevertheless, it may connect √ṮRY with ↗√ṮRW/Y *‘plentitude, richness’, and one may assume a hypothetical development along the line *‘moist earth > fertile ground > growth > opulence, copiousness > richness, wealth’. Given the doubtfulness of such a hypothesis one should prob. better treat the two values separately (as is done here in EtymArab)…
▪ … all the more so as √ṮRY ‘to soak, moisten’ etc. may also point in another direction: cf. perh. ↗√ṬRW ‘to be fresh, juicy, moist’ (< protWSem *√ṬRY ‘to be fresh, raw’).
▪ …
 
– 
– 
ṯaràⁿ ثَرًى 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 5Feb2023
√ṮRY 
n. 
1a moist earth; b ground, soil – WehrCowan1976
 
▪ Ar ṯaràⁿ belongs to a root that expresses the general notion of *‘immersing, soaking, steeping’ and *‘moist earth, moisture’ and is fairly well attested in NWSem (Hbr, Aram, Ar) so that it seems safe to reconstruct a corresponding root NWSem *√ṮRY ‘moist earth, moisture; to soak, etc.’.
▪ See also below, section DISC.
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
▪ BDB1906, Gesenius1915, Klein1987, Zammit2002: Hbr šārāʰ ‘to immerse, soak, steep, saturate’ (Klein1987), mišrāʰ ‘juice’, nHbr šārâ ‘to soften, dissolve’, JudAram tᵊrâ ʻwässern, einweichen’, ChrPal trʔ ‘to dissolve; be soaked, be damp’, Syr täryānâ ‘grape juice’, Ar ṯariya ʻto be moist’, ṯarāⁿ ‘the Earth (beneath the soil)’; most prob. also Akk šerū ‘to grow luxuriantly’ (not in CAD; CAD and AHw have šarû ‘rich, prosperous; copious, luxuriant | reich sein/werden’), mašrū ‘growth’ (not as such in CAD where the meaning is given as ‘wealth, prosperity, riches’).
▪ Hoch1994 #207: Outside Sem, one has perh. to compare lEg *mēšaru ‘plain; wetland’, a »place with productive agricultural soil«, though »the NWSem evidence all points to a meaning of extreme wetness, not appropriate for land producing cereal crops[; therefore] the connection is somewhat questionable«.38
▪ …
 
▪ According to some scholars (see above, section COGN), there are perh. also (distant) Akk cognates meaning *‘(opulent) growth’. However, Akk šarū or šerū is not registered in CAD with such an alleged value and can therefore not be confirmed. If valid nevertheless, it may connect √ṮRY with ↗√ṮRW/Y *‘plentitude, copiousness, richness’, and one may assume a hypothetical development along the line *‘moist earth > fertile ground > growth > opulence, copiousness > richness, wealth’. Given the doubtfulness of such a hypothesis one should prob. better treat √ṮRY and √ṮRW/Y as distinct values (as is done here in EtymArab)…
▪ … all the more so as √ṮRY ‘to soak, moisten’ etc. also may point in another direction: perhaps, one should compare ↗√ṬRW ‘to be fresh, juicy, moist’ (< protWSem *√ṬRY ‘to be fresh, raw’).
▪ …
 
ʔayna l-ṯarà min al-ṯurayyā, prov., what has the ground to do with the Pleiades?;
ṭayyaba ’ḷḷāhu ṯarā-hu, expr., may God rest him in peace!

ṯarīyāt (ṯariyyāt) (pl.), plantations

For other values attached to the root, cf. root entry ↗√ṮRY as well as, for the broader picture, ↗√ṮRW/Y (with ↗ṯariya, ↗ṯarwaẗ, and ↗ṯurayyā).
 
ṮʕB ثعب 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
√ṮʕB 
“root” 
▪ ṮʕB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ṮʕB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ṮʕB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘snake, serpent, adder; to wriggle; channels cut by floods in the mountain, to flow, to flood’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ṮFL ثفل 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ṮFL 
… 
▪ ṮFL_1 ‘dregs, sediment’ ↗ṯufl
▪ ṮFL_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
… 
– 
– 
ṯufl ثُفْل 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ṮFL 
n. 
1 dregs, lees, sediment; 2 residues – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ EgAr tifl ‘fibrous vegetable sediment, dregs’, taffil ‘to become fibrous’. 
▪ Cf. also ↗tufl (√TFL) and ↗ṭufāl (√ṬFL). 
– 
– 
ṮQB ثقب 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
√ṮQB 
“root” 
▪ ṮQB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ṮQB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ṮQB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to bore, perforate, puncture, pierce a hole; to heighten; to kindle, light, shine up’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ṮQF ثقف 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ṮQF 
“root” 
▪ ṮQF_1 ‘to find, meet’ ↗ṯaqifa
▪ ṮQF_2 ‘to be skillful, smart, clever’ ↗ṯaqifa, ‘culture’ ↗ṯaqāfaẗ, ‘intellectual’ ↗muṯaqqaf̈

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to straighten, to put into the correct shape; a capable person; to locate, to catch, to overcome, to dispute’ 
▪ … 
– 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
ṯaqif‑ ثقِف , a (ṯaqf
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ṮQF 
vb., I 
to find, meet – WehrCowan1979. – For other values cf. ↗ṯaqufa
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
ṯaqqafa, vb. II, to arrest; to seize, confiscate:. – For other values cf. ↗ṯaqufa.

For other items of ṮQF cf. ↗ṯaqufa ‘to be skillful, smart, clever’. 

ṯaquf‑ u (ṯaqāfaẗ), and ṯaqifa , a (ṯaqaf , ṯaqf
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ṮQF 
vb., I 
to be skillful, smart, clever – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Probably denominative from the adj., now obsolete, ṯaq(i)f ‘skilled, skillful; light, active, quick, sharp; intelligent, sagacious’ (Lane1863).
▪ Cf. also ↗ṮQF
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
ṯaqqafa, vb. II, 1a to make straight, straighten; 1b to correct, set right, straighten out. – 2 to train, form, teach, educate: D-stem, caus. (and fig. use) – For other values cf. ↗ṯaqifa.
ṯāqafa, vb. III, to fence: L-stem, applic.
taṯaqqafa, vb. V, to be trained, be educated: tD-stemm, pass. of II (v2).

BP#519ṯaqāfaẗ, n.f., culture, refinement; education; (pl. ‑āt) culture, civilization: vn. I.
BP#629ṯaqāfī, adj., educational; intellectual; cultural: nsb-adj. of preceding. | mulḥaq ṯ., n., cultural attaché.
taṯqīf, n., cultivation of the mind; training, education; instruction: vn. II.
muṯāqafaẗ, n.f., fencing, art or sport of fencing, swordplay, swordsmanship: vn. III.
taṯaqquf, n., culturedness, culture, refinement, education: vn V.
BP#1973muṯaqqaf, n., educated; trained; cultured: PP II.

For other items of ṮQF cf. ↗ṯaqifa ‘to find, meet’. 

ṯaqāfaẗ ثَقافَة , ‑āt 
ID 122 • Sw – • BP 519 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ṮQF 
n.f., C 
Bildung, Geistesbildung; Bildungswesen; (pl. ‑āt) Kultur – Wehr19??; culture, refinement; education; (pl. ‑āt) culture, civilization – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Vn. of ↗ṯaqufa (which in turn is denominative from ṯaq(i)f ?).
▪ A slightly polemical and of course rather old, but – as an introduction to questions of conceptual history – still valuable and useful study is Ṭibāwī195518  
1875 Kazimirski: [no specific entry for ṯ. itself, but] cf. ṯaqufa (vn. ṯaqāfaẗ) Être très-intelligent et ingénieux. – II 1. Redresser, rendre droit. – 2. Rendre intelligent. – 3. Former, rendre instruit par l’enseignement des lettres. – III Lutter avec un autre à qui se montera plus ingénieux, plus intelligent. • ṯaqafa 1. Redresser, rendre droit (ce qui était courbé ou tortu, p. ex. une lance). – 2. Surpasser en esprit, en sagacité. • ṯaqifa [▪ …] 2. Être intelligent.
▪ c1910: According to Ṭibāwī, »Dr. Manṣūr Fahmi states [in al-Maʕrifa 1 (June 1931): 144-5] that through Western influence the term ‘thaqāfa’ in the sense of ‘Kultur’ was introduced only ‘some twenty years ago’.«7
1955 Ṭibāwī: »The term ‘thaqāfa’, like the concept ‘culture’, which it is supposed to express, seems now to be more generally accepted and used than understood and appreciated; it is in fact one of the most overworked terms in contemporary Arabic«8  
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
ṯaqqafa, vb. II, to train, form, teach, educate:. – For other values cf. ↗ṯaqifa.
taṯaqqafa, vb. V, to be trained, be educated:.

BP#629ṯaqāfī, adj., educational; intellectual; cultural | mulḥaq ṯ. cultural attaché:.
taṯqīf, n., cultivation of the mind; training, education; instruction :.
taṯaqquf, n., culturedness, culture, refinement, education:.
BP#1973muṯaqqaf, n., educated; trained; cultured:. 

ṯaqāfī ثَقافيّ 
Sw – • NahḍConBP 629 • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√ṮQF 
adj. 
▪ …nsb-formation 
muṯaqqaf مُثَقَّف , pl. ‑ūn , pl.f. ‑āt 
ID 123 • Sw – • BP 1973 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ṮQF 
¹adj.; ²n. 
▪ gebildet; ausgebildet, erzogen; kultiviert – Wehr19??
▪ educated; trained; cultured; al-mmuṯaqqafūn educated people, intellectuals, the intelligentsia; al-muṯaqqafāt educated ladies, women intellectuals – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ PP II, denominative from ↗ṯaqāfaẗ.
▪ The modern value ‘intellectual’ must be later than the 1890s. In English, intellectual is first attested in 1819 and seems to have carried »implications of abstractness, coldness (‘cold intellectualism,’ 1859) and ineffectiveness« throughout C19.
▪ Cf. also ↗ṮQF
1860 Kazimirski-I: 1. Redressé. – 2. Lance. – Cf. also vb. ṯaqafa : 1. Redresser, rendre droit (ce qui était courbé ou tortu, p. ex. une lance). – 2. Surpasser en esprit, en sagacité. – ṯaqifa, vb. I, [▪ …] 2. Être intélligent. – ṯaqqafa, vb. II, 1. Redresser, rendre droit; 2. Rendre intelligent; 3. Former, rendre instruit par l’enseignement des lettres.
1863 Like Kazimirski, also Lane I does not yet mention a meaning other than ‘(a spear) straightened, or made even’ for m.; so also al-Bustānī1867. But ṯaqqafa-hū, vb. II, is both ‘he straightened it, or made it even’ and, ‘hence (!): he disciplined him, or educated him well, and amended him, or improved him’, and taṯaqqafa, vb. V, is ‘he was, or became, disciplined, or educated well, and mended, or improved’ (so also al-Bustānī1867).
1887 Wahrmund-2 has ‘wohlgebildet; gut erzogen’, but not yet ‘intellectual’. 
▪ …
▪ … 
Since the word, a PP from ṯaqqafa, vb. II, does not show lexicalisation as ‘intellectual’ until late in C19, this latter value must have been added later than 1860. While a metaphorical use of vb. II was common in ClassAr already, a lexicalisation of the PP seems to have happened not earlier than the 1890s. 
– 
 
ṮQL ثقل 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
√ṮQL 
“root” 
▪ ṮQL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ṮQL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ṮQL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘weight, to weigh, heavy, loads; sin, responsibility; to find heavy, become reluctant, find burdensome; to oppress, distress; phlegmatic, dull’ 
▪ From protSem *√ṮQL ‘to weigh’ – Huehnergard2011.
▪ …
 
– 
– 
– 
ṮLː (ṮLL) ثلّ/ثلل 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
√ṮLː (ṮLL) 
“root” 
▪ ṮLː (ṮLL)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ṮLː (ṮLL)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ṮLː (ṮLL)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a herd of sheep, wool, a group of people; to perish, to ruin’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ṮLṮ ثلث 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ṮLṮ 
“root” 
▪ ṮLṮ_1 ‘three’ ↗ṯalāṯaẗ
▪ ṮLṮ_2 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ṮLṮ_3 ‘…’ ↗

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘this root revolves around the concept of the number three’ 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
… 
… 
… 
ṯalāṯaẗ ثلاثة , f. ṯalāṯ 
ID … • Sw – • BP 151 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ṮLṮ 
num.card. 
three – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘three’) Akk šalāšu, Hbr šālōš, Syr tlāṯ, Gz (šallā́s).
 
… 
… 
BP#2359ṯulṯ, num.part., one third.
BP#1108ṯalāṯūnᵃ, num., thirty.
BP#1504(yawm) al‑ṯulāṯāʔ, n., Tuesday.
BP#3364ṯulāṯī, 1a adj., three‑part‑, tri‑; 1b n., trio.
BP#367ṯāliṯ, num.ord., third.
BP#4946muṯallāṯ, 1a n., triangle; 1b adj., triangle‑like.
 
ṮLǦ ثلج 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ṮLǦ 
“root” 
▪ ṮLǦ_1 ‘ice, snow’ ↗ṯalǧ
▪ ṮLǦ_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
▪ … 
– 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
ṯalǧ ثَلْج , pl. tulūǧ 
ID 124 • Sw –/79,145 • BP 3500 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ṮLǦ 
n. 
snow; ice; artificial ice – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *ṯalg‑ ‘snow’.
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ Fronzaroli#3.19, Kogan2011: Akk šalgu, Hbr šäläg, Syr talgā, Ar ṯalǧ, Jib ṯalg, perhaps also (metathesis) Ug glt ‘snow’.
 
▪ Fronzaroli#3.19, Kogan2011: From Sem *ṯalg‑ ‘snow’.
▪ … 
– 
ṯalǧ ġiḏāʔī, n., ice cream:.
nudfaẗ al-ṯ. snowflake:.

ṯalaǧa, u, vb. I: ṯalaǧat il-samāʔ it snowed, was snowing: denominative.
ṯaliǧa, a, vb. I: to be delighted, be gladdened (soul, heart; bi‑ by): denominative.
ṯallaǧa, vb. II, to cool with ice; to freeze, turn into ice: caus., denom.
ʔaṯlaǧa, vb. IV: ʔaṯlaǧat il-samāʔ it snowed, was snowing; to cool, moisten: caus., denom. | ʔ. ṣadrahū to delight, please, gratify s.o.:.
taṯallaǧa, vb. V, to become icy, turn into ice, congeal:.

ṯalǧī, adj., snowy, snow (in compounds); icy, glacial, ice (in compounds): nsb-adj.
ṯaliǧ, adj., icy:.
ṯallāǧ, pl. ‑ūn, n., ice vendor: n.prof.
BP#3758ṯallāǧaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., iceberg, ice floe; refrigerator, icebox; cold-storage plant:.
maṯlaǧaẗ, pl. matāliǧᵘ, n., icebox, refrigerator; cold-storage plant : n.loc.
taṯlīǧ, n., deepfreezing: lexicalized vn. II.
maṯlūǧ, adj., PPI, snow-covered; iced, icy; ‑āt, n., frozen food; iced beverages :.
muṯallaǧ, adj., iced; icy, ice-cold; deepfrozen: PP II; – (pl. ‑āt), n., iced drink; ice cream: nominalized and lexicalized PP II. 

ṮMː (ṮMM) ثمّ/ثمم 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
√ṮMː (ṮMM) 
“root” 
▪ ṮMː (ṮMM)_1 ‘...’ ↗ṯamma
▪ ṮMː (ṮMM)_2 ‘...’ ↗ṯumma
▪ ṮMː (ṮMM)_3 ‘...’ ↗...
 
▪ [v1] : adv. of place indicating a removed point either physically or in rank (high rank), occurring four times in the Qur’an ((BAH2008)
▪ [v2] : conjunction indicating a separation in time, or in rank, between the two entities it joins (as distinguished from proximate sequence denoted by the conjunctive fa (BAH2008)
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ṮMD ثمد 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
√ṮMD 
“root” 
▪ ṮMD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ṮMD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ṮMD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘little water; to dig for water; a ditch in which water seeps, name of a tribe suffering from scarcity of water’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ṮMR ثمر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ṮMR 
“root” 
▪ ṮMR_1 ‘fruit(s)’ ↗ṯamar, ‘to exploit; investment’ ↗ĭstiṯmār
▪ ṮMR_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘load of trees, yield of trees, fruit, to fruit; wealth, offspring, full milk’ 
▪ … 
– 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
ṯamar ثَمَر , pl. ʔaṯmār 
ID 125 • Sw – • BP 2856 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ṮMR 
n. 
fruits, fruit (coll.) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
… 
BP#3827ṯamaraẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., fruit; reault, effect; yield, profit, benefit, gain: n.un. of ṯamar.

ṯamara, u, vb. I, to bear fruit:.
ʔaṯmara, vb. IV, = I.; to have as a result (ʕan s.th.), result in:.
ĭstaṯmara, vb. X, to profit, benefit (from); to exploit, utilize; to invest profitably (money): autobeneficial, denominative from ṯamar, or deverbal from IV.

BP#803ĭstiṯmār, n., exploitation (also pol.-econ.), utilization, profitable use; (pl. ‑āt) investment (of money, capital): vn. X, in v2 a calque for Engl investment.
BP#2465ĭstiṯmārī, adj., investment- (in compounds): vn. X, in v2 a calque for Engl investment.
muṯmir, adj., fruitful, productive, profitable, lucrative: PA IV, denominative from ṯamar, i.e. producing fruits.
BP#2263mustaṯmir, pl. ‑ūn, n., exploiter (pol.econ.); beneficiary; investor: PA X. 

ĭstiṯmār اسْتِثْمار , pl. ‑āt 
ID … • Sw – • BP 803 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ṮMR 
n. 
1 exploitation (also pol.-econ.), utilization, profitable use. – 2 (pl. ‑āt) investment (of money, capital) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ vn. X, autobenefactive, denominative from ↗ṯamar.
▪ [v2] calque, for Engl investment
A neologism, not yet attested in ClassAr. 
▪ …
▪ … 
ṯamar
– 
BP#2465ĭstiṯmārī, adj., investment (in compounds): nsb-adj. 
ṮMN ثمن 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ṮMN 
“root” 
▪ ṮMN_1 ‘price’ ↗ṯaman
▪ ṮMN_2 ‘eight’ ↗ṯamāniyaẗ
▪ ṮMN_3 ‘…’ ↗

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘(l) this root revolves around the concept of number eight’, (2) ‘price, value, to price; equivalent’ 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
… 
… 
… 
ṯamāniyaẗ ثمانية , f. ṯamāniⁿ (det. ṯamānī
ID … • Sw – • BP 875 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ṮMN 
num.card. 
eight – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘eight’) Akk šamānū, Hbr šmōnē, Syr tmānē, Gz semānī́.
 
… 
… 
BP#3758ṯamānūnᵃ, num., 1 eighty; 2 Eighties.
BP#4358ṯamānīnᵃ: al‑ṯamānīnāt, n.f.pl., the Eighties.
BP#1585ṯāmin, num.ord., eighth.
 
ṮNY ثني 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ṮNY 
“root” 
▪ ṮNY_1 ‘to fold, bend, turn; during (prep.); turn away, divert; to except, exclude’ ↗ṯanà
▪ ṮNY_2 ‘two; second’ ↗iṯnān
▪ ṮNY_3 ‘to praise’ ↗ṯanāʔ
▪ ṮNY_4 ‘lowest, most ignoble, meanest’: ṯinyaẗ
▪ ṮNY_5 ‘long mountain lying across the road; high road’: ṯaniyyaẗ

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘two, to make two, to double; to bend, to twist, to fold up; incisor teeth; to do in twos; to praise; to insult; to exclude, to except’ 
▪ ṮNY_1 and ṮNY_2 may be connected: either is ‘doubling’ produced by ‘folding’, i.e., by turning one side/edge of s.th. on the other, or ‘folding’ is seen as a result of ‘doubling’. The fact that both ‘to turn away, divert’ and ‘doubling, twofold’ can be imagined as deriving from ‘to fold, bend, turn’ (‘diverting’ = *to turn away, make s.o.’s path ‘bend’), would suggest ‘to fold’ to be the original value. – In ClassAr, ṯanà can also mean ‘to tie together (with the two ends of a rope)’ (cf. also ṯināʔ ‘cord, rope, with which the camel’s fore shank and his arm are bound together […] consisting of a folded, or doubled, cord, or rope’19 ), so that it is difficult to decide which value was first.
Given however that ‘two’ can be traced back to AfrAs, it may be older, and thus the ancestor of ‘folding’ and ‘tying’, and only then ‘diverting’. – A ClassAr ṯinyaẗ ‘lowest, most ignoble, meanest’ is difficult to attach to either ṮNY_1, ṮNY_2, or ṮNY_3.
▪ ṮNY_3 ‘to praise’ is difficult to link up to any of the other values. 
– 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
… 
ṯanà ثنى , ṯanay‑, ī (ṯany
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ṮNY 
vb., I 
1 a) to double, b) double up, c) fold, fold up, fold under. – 2 to bend, flex. – 3 to turn away, dissuade, keep, prevent, divert (ʕan from) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
ṯannà, vb. II, 1 a) to double, make double; b) to do twice, repeat; 2 to pleat, plait; 3 to form the dual (of a word); 4 to provide with two diacritical dots (a letter): caus.
taṯannà, vb. V, 1 a) to double, become double; to be doubled; b) to be repeated; 2 to bend, fold; to be bent, be folded, be folded up or under:: pseudopass. from II; 3 to walk with a swinging gait: metaph.
ĭnṯanà, vb. VII, 1 a) to bend, bend up, down or over, lean, incline, bow; b) to fold, be foldable, be folded back: pass. of I; 2 a) to turn away (ʕan from), give up, renounce (ʕan s.th.); b) to turn, face (ʔilà toward); to apply o.s., turn (ʔilà to s.th.): refl. of I; 3 (with foll. imperf.) to set out, prepare (to do s.th.):.
ĭstaṯnà, vb. X, to except, exclude (min from), make an exception: from ṯanà (3) ‘to turn away, divert’?

ṯany, n., 1 bending; folding; 2 turning away, dissuasion, keeping, prevention: vn. I.
ṯiny, pl. ʔaṯnāʔ, n., 1 fold, pleat, plait, crease (in cloth); 2 bend, twist | ṯinyan baʕda ṯinyin from time to time: perhaps the real etymon (?).
BP#706ʔaṯnāʔᵃ, prep., during; within; in; in the course of: lexicalized acc.pl. of ṯiny, indicating temporal use.
ṯanyaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., fold, pleat, plait, crease (in cloth); turn-up, cuff (of trousers and sleeves), hem of a garment: n.un. of ṯany (?).
ṯaniyyaẗ, pl. ṯanāyā, n., 1 middle incisor, front tooth; 2 fold, plait; crease (of trousers); 3 a) narrow pass; b) mountain trail | BP#4703fī ṯanāyā in, inside, among, between, frequently only a fuller, rhetorically more elegant expression for ‘in’; ṭallāʕ al-ṯanāyā, n., one with high-flung aspirations:.
ṯanawī, adj., dualist: nsb-adj.
ṯanawiyyaẗ, n.f., dualism: abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ.
ṯunāʔᵘ, and maṯnà, adj., two at a time; ṯunāʔᵃ, adv., as a pair or duo, two and two:.
BP#2152ṯunāʔī, adj., 1 a) twofold, double, dual, binary, bi-; b) bilateral; c) biradical (gram.); – (‑āt), n., 2 a) pair, a group of two; b) duet, duo (mus.) | ṯ. al-buʕd, adj., two-dimensional; ʕalāqāt t.iyyaẗ bilateral relations: nsb-adj from ṯunāʔ (?).
ṯunāʔiyyaẗ, n.f., 1 dualism: abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ; 2 duet, duo (mus.): short for qiṭʕaẗ ṯ. ‘(musical) piece for two’, nsb-adj in the f., lexicalized as n.
BP#653ĭṯnāni, f. ĭṯnatāni, num., two:.
ĭṯnā ʕašarᵃ, f. ĭṯnatā ʕašraẗᵃ, num., twelve:.
BP#1347(yawm) al ĭṯnayn, n., Monday:.
BP#80al-ṯānī, num.ord., 1 the second; 2 the next; 3 (coll.) the other (one) | ṯānī ĭṯnayn, n., the second of a pair, pendant, companion piece, match:.
BP#2403ṯāniyaẗ, pl. ṯawānin, det. al-ṯawānī, n.f., second (time unit): calque from Fr seconde (?).
BP#1455ṯānawī, adj., 1 secondary; 2 minor | ʔumūr ṯ.iyyaẗ matters of secondary importance, minor matters; madrasaẗ ṯ.iyyaẗ secondary school: nsb-adj from ṯānin.
BP#4147ṯānawiyyaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., 1 secondary school: short for madrasaẗ ṯ., nsb-adj in the f., lexicalized as n.; 2 secondary importance: abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ.
taṯniyaẗ, n.f., 1 a) repetition; b) doubling, gemination; c) (gram.) dual; d) second sequel (e.g., of a collection of short stories); 2 plaiting, pleating; 3ṯanāʔ. | t. al-ĭštirāʕ Deutoronomy: vn. II.
ĭnṯināʔ, n., 1 bending, flection; 2 flexibility, foldability: vn. VII.
ĭnṯināʔaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., bend, flexure, curve: n.un. of vn. VII ĭnṯināʔ.
BP#2093ĭstiṯnāʔ, n., exception, exclusion: vn. X.
BP#3465ĭstiṯnāʔī, adj., exceptional | ʔaḥwāl ĭ.iyyaẗ emergencies: nsb-adj from vn. X ĭstiṯnāʔ.
maṯniyy, adj., 1 a) folded; b) plaited, pleated; 2 doubled: PP I.
muṯannan, def. al-muṯannà, adj., 1 double, twofold; 2 in the dual (gram.): PP II.
mustaṯnan, def. al-mustaṯnà, adj., excepted, excluded (min from): PP X.

For other values cf. ↗ĭṯnān ‘two’ and ↗ṯanāʔ ‘praise’. 

ṯanāʔ ثناء 
ID … • Sw – • BP 4908 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ṮNY 
n. 
commendation, praise, eulogy; appreciation – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
ʔaṯnà, vb. IV, to commend, praise, laud, extol (ʕalà s.th., s.o.), speak appreciatively of: denom.(?)
ṯanāʔī, adj., laudatory, eulogistic: nsb-adj.
taṯniyaẗ, n.f., commendation, praise, eulogy: vn. II.

For other values cf. ↗ṯanà ‘to fold, bend’ and ↗ĭṯnān ‘two’.
 

ĭṯnānⁱ اِثْنانِ , f. ĭṯnatānⁱ اثنتانِ 
ID 126 • Sw 12/176 • BP 653 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ṮNY 
num. 
two – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ Bergsträsser1928: Akk šinā, Hbr šnáyim, Aram trēn (dissimilation!) ‘two’; cf. also Gz sānī́t ‘following day’.
▪ Blažek 201139 : Akk m./f. šinān / šittān, Ebl m. šina (Dombrowski 1994), Ug ṯnm / ṯtm [ṯināmi / ṯittēmi ], Ph šnm [šənēm ], late Pu (l)isnim, Hbr šĕnáyim / šĕttáyim, Sab ṯny / ṯnty, Qat m. ṯnw, all ‘two’. Cf. also Gz sānəy ‘the next day’, Te säno, Tña sänuy ‘Monday’), as well as Aram *təron / tarton, Mhr troh / trīt, Hob ṯro, ṯroh / ṯərīt, Har ṯərō / ṯərə́t, Jib ṯroh / ṯrət, Soq trøh / trih). – Outside Sem: Eg m./f. snwj / sntj, Copt Sahidic m./f. snau / sənte with the root vowel *i confirmed by the cuneiform record ši-na from the Amarna tablets; Berb: Siwa Ghadames sən/-ət, Kabyle sin / snat, Wargla sin / sent, Ahaggar əssin / sänât, Zenaga šinan / šenanet; Guanche of Tenerife sijn ‘two’, Gran Canaria smetti [= sinetti ] ‘two’. – Outside AfrAs: Kartvelian *č(w)en‑ > Swan išgen ‘(an)other’.
▪ Outside Sem, Borg2021 #80 (ṯ-n-y) compares Eg (i) snw (Gr) ‘the number two’; snnw ‘(ordinal number) second’ (Faulkner 1962: 230), (ii) sn (Pyr) ‘brother’; ‘Bruder’; snw ‘companion, fellow, equal’ (Faulkner 1962: 230; Wb IV 150); snsn ‘sich vereinen mit, sich gesellen; sich verbrüdern’ (Hannig 2003: 1159; Lepper 2008: 54).
▪ … 
▪ Blažek 2011107 : The root ṯ-n-y does not stand isolated within Sem (see “Cognates" above).108 The present data may be projected to the Proto-Sem level, where *‑ā and *‑ay‑ are the dual markers for nom. and obl. respectively, *‑at‑ is the f. marker and *‑ni is the determiner, not appearing before nouns (Table 1: m.nom. *ṯín-ā-ni, acc./gen. *ṯín-ay-ni, f.nom. *ṯín-at-ā-ni, gen./acc. *ṯín-at-ay-ni). – The Proto-Sem reconstruction is not the final limit. The Eg (see above) and Berb cognates (Berb m/f *sīn ~ *Hissīn / *sīnat) shift the age of this root to the AfrAs (= HamSem) level, [where] the starting point should be reconstructed as *čin(ay)‑. But even the AfrAs proto-language is not the ultimate limit. If there are promising parallels in language families that are possibly related to AfrAs (e.g. Indo-European, Kartvelian, Dravidian, Uralic, Altaic, all members of the so-called Nostratic macro-family), it is legitimate to admit a still deeper history of the studied root. In the case of AfrAs *čin‑ ‘two’, one could mention Kartvelian *č(w)en‑ > Swan išgen ‘(an)other’.
▪ See also ↗ṮNY
– 
ṯanà, i (ṯany), vb. I, 1 a) to double, b) double up, c) fold, fold up, fold under. – For other values cf. ↗ṯanà ‘to fold, bend’.
ṯannà, vb. II, 1 a) to double, make double; b) to do twice, repeat; 2 to pleat, plait; 3 to form the dual (of a word); 4 to provide with two diacritical dots (a letter): caus.
taṯannà, vb. V, 1 a) to double, become double; to be doubled; b) to be repeated: pseudopass. from II. – For other values cf. ↗ṯanà ‘to fold, bend’.

ṯanawī, adj., dualist: nsb-adj.
ṯanawiyyaẗ, n.f., dualism: abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ.
ṯunāʔᵘ, and maṯnà, adj., two at a time; ṯunāʔᵃ, adv., as a pair or duo, two and two:.
BP#2152ṯunāʔī, adj., 1 a) twofold, double, dual, binary, bi-; b) bilateral; c) biradical (gram.); – (‑āt), n., 2 a) pair, a group of two; b) duet, duo (mus.) | ṯ. al-buʕd, adj., two-dimensional; ʕalāqāt t.iyyaẗ bilateral relations: nsb-adj from ṯunāʔ (?).
ṯunāʔiyyaẗ, n.f., 1 dualism: abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ; 2 duet, duo (mus.): short for qiṭʕaẗ ṯ. ‘(musical) piece for two’, nsb-adj in the f., lexicalized as n.
ĭṯnā ʕašarᵃ, f. ĭṯnatā ʕašraẗᵃ, num., twelve:.
BP#1347(yawm) al ĭṯnayn, n., Monday:.
BP#80al-ṯānī, num.ord., 1 the second; 2 the next; 3 (coll.) the other (one) | ṯānī ĭṯnayn, n., the second of a pair, pendant, companion piece, match:.
BP#2403ṯāniyaẗ, pl. ṯawānⁱⁿ, det. al-ṯawānī, n.f., second (time unit): calque from Fr seconde (?).
BP#1455ṯānawī, adj., 1 secondary; 2 minor | ʔumūr ṯ.iyyaẗ matters of secondary importance, minor matters; madrasaẗ ṯ.iyyaẗ secondary school: nsb-adj from ṯānin.
BP#4147ṯānawiyyaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., 1 secondary school: short for madrasaẗ ṯ., nsb-adj in the f., lexicalized as n.; 2 secondary importance: abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ.
taṯniyaẗ, n.f., 1 a) repetition; b) doubling, gemination; c) (gram.) dual; d) second sequel (e.g., of a collection of short stories) | t. al-ĭštirāʕ Deutoronomy: vn. II. – For other values cf. ↗ṯanà ‘to fold, bend’ and ↗ṯanāʔ ‘praise’.
maṯniyy, adj., doubled: PP I. – For other values cf. ↗ṯanà ‘to fold, bend’.
muṯannan, def. al-muṯannà, adj., 1 double, twofold; 2 in the dual (gram.): PP II.

– For other values cf. ↗ṯanà ‘to fold, bend’ and ↗ṯanāʔ ‘praise’. 

ṯānawī ثانَوِيّ 
Sw – • NahḍConBP 1455 • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√ṮNY 
adj. 
secondary 
▪ nsb-formation 
ṮWB ثوب 
(bm :: 2 :: ṮWB)][(cuid :: c3e1fca5-ffad-11ed-937a-005056a97067)]
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
√ṮWB 
“root” 
2826[(bm :: 2 :: ṮWB)][(cuid :: c3e1fca5-ffad-11ed-937a-005056a97067)]▪ ṮWB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ṮWB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ṮWB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a ditch to which water returns, stones stacked on top of one another; to return, come back, come to a gathering, a place of gathering, a resort; garment, clothes; reward, recompense, to reward, repay; to repeat, to volunteer’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ṮWR ثور 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ṮWR 
“root” 
▪ ṮWR_1 ‘bull; (astron.) Taurus’ ↗ ṯawr
▪ ṮWR_2 ‘to rise; to be shaken, be moved (soul), be roused (anger), be stirred (quarrel), be kindled (war)’ ↗ ṯāra

Other values, now obsolete, include:
▪ ṮWR_3 ‘to investigate, inquire after s.th.’: ʔaṯāra

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘bull, to stir, to raise, to excite, to rise, to swirl up; to agitate, to rebel, to rage; to break up, to plough; to chase, to dig up, to look into’ 
▪ ṮWR_1 : from Sem *ṯawr- (? < AfrAs *čaw˅r‑ / *č˅r‑)‘bull’
▪ ṮWR_2 : from ṮWR_1 (fig. use: *‘to "revolt", break out like a bull’?
▪ ṮWR_3 : caus. of ṮWR_2 (*‘to stir in the dust, till the ground and thereby investigate the soil’) or belonging to another Sem root? (Cf. Hbr tūr ‘to seek out, spy out, explore’, Ar ʔatāra ‘to seek out, spy out, explore’, tāraẗ ‘period, succession’). 
– 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
ṯār‑ ثارَ / ṯur‑ , ū (ṯawraẗ , ṯawarān
ID 127 • Sw – • BP 4251 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ṮWR 
vb., I 
to stir, be stirred up, be aroused, be exited; to swirl up, rise (dust); to arise (question, problem; a difficulty); to be triggered, be unleashed, break out; to revolt, rebel, rise (ʕalā against); to rage, storm | ṯ. ṯāʔiruh to fly into rage, become furious, flare up – WehrCowan1979. 
Akin with ↗ṯawr ‘bull’. 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
BP#1198ʔaṯāra, vb. IV, to agitate, excite; to stimulate; to irritate; to arouse, stir up, kindle, excite (e.g., feelings), cause, provoke, awaken; to raise, pose, bring up (a question, a problem): caus. of I.
ĭstaṯāra, vb. X, to excite, stir up, kindle (e.g., passions); to rouse; to arouse, awaken (e.g., feelings); to elicit, evoke (wails, outcries); to incite, set (s.o. against):.

C BP#1031ṯawraẗ, n.f., excitement, agitation; outbreak, outburst, fit (of fury, of despair, etc.); eruption (of a volcano); (pl. ‑āt) ↗ṯawraẗ :
BP#3379ṯawrī, adj., revolutionary: nsb-adj from ↗ṯawraẗ.
ṯawrawī, adj., revolutionary: nisba formation from ↗ṯawraẗ.
ṯawarān, n., agitation, excitation, flare-up, eruption, outbreak, outburst; dust whirl: vn. I.
maṯār, n., incentive, stimulus, motive, spur, occasion, cause:.
BP#2587ʔiṯāraẗ, n.f., excitation, stirring up, kindling; agitation, incitement; provocation, (a)rousing, awakening; irritation, stimulation: vn. IV.
ṯāʔir, adj., excited, agitated, raving, furious, mad; rebellious; fury, rage; (pl. ṯuwwār), n., insurgent, rebel, revolutionary: PA I; see also ↗ṯawraẗ.
ṯāʔiraẗ, pl. ṯawāʔirᵘ, n., tumult; excitement, agitation; fury, rage: nominalized PA I, f.
BP#2193muṯīr, adj., exciting; provocative; stimulative, irritative: PA IV; n., excitant, irritant, stimulant; germ, agent; pl. ‑āt stimulants: nominalisation of PA IV.

Cf. also ↗ṯawr

ṯawr ثوْر , pl. ṯīrān 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ṮWR 
n. 
1 bull, steer; ox. – 2 al-ṯawr Taurus (sign of the zodiac; astron.). – 3 the second month of the solar year (Saudi Ar., cf. ḥamal
▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *ṯawr‑ ‘bull, ox’.
▪ … < AfrAs *čaw˅r‑ / *č˅r‑ ‘bull’)?
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ Bergsträsser1928: Akk šūru, [Bennett1998: Ug ṯr,] Hbr šōr, Aram tawrā, Gz sōr
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#477: Akk šūru, Ug ṯr, Hbr šōr, Syr tawrā, Gz sōr, Ḥrs ṯawr). – Outside Sem: Eg šsr.
▪ Outside Sem, Borg2021 #81 (ṯ-w-r) compares Eg sr (Pyr) ‘sheep, ram’; ‘Schafbock, Widder’ (Faulkner 1962: 235; Wb III 462).
▪ … 
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#477: < Sem *ṯawr‑ ‘bull’. The authors also reconstruct AfrAs *čaw˅r‑ /*č˅r‑ ‘bull’ and say that the initial *šs‑ in Eg continues AfrAs *č‑. The Eg form may then represent the original AfrAs root while Sem reflects a secondary tension.
▪ Lipiński2001 thinks (with Diakonoff) that ṯawr can be segmented into root plus AfrAs »key consonant« ‑r for weak, tame animals, cf. also ↗ʔimmar, ↗baqar, ↗ḥimār, karr, ʕayr, ↗ʔayyil, ↗ǧamal.
▪ See also ↗√ṮWR 
▪ Dolgopolsky2012 thinks IE *tawro-s ‘bull, aurochs’ (which gave European words for the animal like Grk taûros, Lat taurus etc.) is a borrowing from Sem. 
šōrbaẗ ḏayl al-ṯ., n., oxtail soup:.

For other items of the root ↗√ṮWR

ṯawraẗ ثَوْرَة, pl. ‑āt 
ID 128 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 1031 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ṮWR 
n.f. 
1 excitement, agitation. – 2 outbreak, outburst, fit (of fury, of despair, ‎etc.). – 3 eruption (of a volcano). – 4 (pl. ‑āt) upheaval, uprising, insurrection, riot, rebellion, revolt. – ‎‎5 revolution – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
v4/5 1882 »terme ‎employé à propos de ʕArābī Pāšā« (Pérès1955: 56)9  
▪ …
▪ … 
↗√ṮWR 
– 
BP#3379ṯawrī, adj., n., revolutionary: nsb-adj.
ṯawrawī, adj., = ṯawrī : dto.
ṯāʔir, adj., excited, agitated, raving, furious, mad; rebellious; fury, rage: lexicalized PP I from vb. ↗ṯāra; (pl. ṯuwwār), n., ‎insurgent, rebel, revolutionary: nominalized PP I.
 
ṮWM ثوم 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ṮWM 
“root” 
▪ ṮWM_1 ‘garlic’ ↗ṯūm
▪ ṮWM_2 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ṮWM_3 ‘…’ ↗ 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
… 
… 
… 
ṯūm ثًوم 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ṮWM 
n.coll. 
garlic – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘garlic’) Akk šūmu, Hbr šūm, Syr tūmā, Gz sōmát.
 
… 
… 
… 
ṮWY ثوي 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
√ṮWY 
“root” 
▪ ṮWY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ṮWY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ṮWY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘dwelling, abode, animal enclosure, to abide in a place, live for a long time in one place’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ṯayyibāt ثَيِّبات 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
√ṮYB 
n./adj.f.pl. 
widow, divorcee, non-virgin woman – BAH2008 
▪ possibly from ↗ṮWB, pl. of quasi-act. part./n.fem., thayyib, occurring once in the Qur’an – BAH2008.
▪ … 
▪ eC7 Q 66:5 thayyibātin wa-ʔabkāran ‘previously married or virgins’ 
– 
– 
ǧīm جيم 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ 
R₁ 
The letter ǧ of the Arabic alphabet. 
▪ From protSem *gaml‑ ‘throwstick’ – Huehnergard2011.
… 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ Cf. Engl gamma, from Grk gamma, from Phoen *gaml ‘throwstick (?), third letter of the Phoen alphabet’; gimel, from Hbr gîmel ‘gimel’, alteration of Phoen *gaml (see above) - Huehnergard2011. 
 
ǦʔR جأر 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 5Mar2023
√ǦʔR 
“root” 
▪ ǦʔR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ǦʔR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ǦʔR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘(of cattle) to low; to cry for help; anxiety; (of plants) to grow tall and plentiful; to be stout’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
Ǧālūt جالوت 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22Oct2022
√ǦāLūT, ǦLT 
n.prop. 
Goliath 
▪ According to Jeffery1938, the Qurʔānic Ǧālūt is (prob. influenced by Hbr gālûṯ, Aram galūṯā ‘exile’) from Hbr Gālyaṯ ‘Goliath’.
▪ …
 
▪ Q 249-51.
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
▪ Jeffery1938: »There was very general agreement among the Muslim authorities that the name was not Arabic, even Rāġib, Mufradāt, 94 […]; cf. also al-Ǧawālīqī, Muʕarrab, 46; LA, ii, 325; TA, i, 535. / Clearly Ǧālūt is an attempt to reproduce the Hbr Gālyaṯ of the OT narrative, of which the Qur’ānic story is obviously a garbled version.109 Hirschfeld, New Researches, 13, suggested that the Qurʔānic / form is due to Muḥammad’s informant having misread the [Hbr] Gālyaṯ of his MS as Gālûṯ, which of course it was very easy to do, and vowelling it [Hbr] Gālûṯ gave Muḥammad his Ǧālūt. This is very ingenious and has in its favour the fact that the Goliath story occurs only in the late Madina period when Muḥammad was beginning to pick up more and more detailed information from the Jews. It is difficult, however, to think that any Jewish informant skilled enough to read the Hbr text would not have known the Biblical story well enough to have avoided such a mistake, unless indeed he deliberately misled Muḥammad. / Like the Aram glwtʔ (Syr galūṯā),110 the word [Hbr] gālûṯ means an exile, and in the Talmud (e.g. Sukkah, 31a), the Exilarch is called ryš glwtʔ, so Horovitz, KU, 106, suggests that this glwt, which must have been commonly used among the Jews of Arabia, may have become confused in Muḥammad’s mind with the Gālyaṯ of the Biblical story, and so have given rise to Ǧālūt. In any case we are safe in attributing the introduction of the name to Muḥammad himself, for no trace of it can be found in pre-Islamic days.111 «
▪ …
 
▪ Not from Ar Ǧālūt but ultimately from the same Hbr source are the Western names for the Biblical giant, e.g., Engl Goliath, 1590s, from lLat Goliath, from Hbr Gālyaṯ, name of the Philistine giant slain by David (I Samuel xvii).
▪ …
 
– 
ǧāmūs جامُوس , pl. ǧamāmīsᵘ 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦāMūS, ǦMS 
n. 
buffalo – WehrCowan1979. 
From the same mPers etymon as modPers gāvmīš ‘(water) buffalo’, from Av gāvo-māešī ‘id.’, lit. ‘cow-sheep/ram’, first component from IE *gʷou‑ ‘cow, ox, bull, domestic animal’ (which also gave, with reduction to the female, Germ *k(w)ōw‑ ‘cow’, cf. Engl cow, G Kuh; Kluge2002: cf. also Sum gux, gud, guřx ‘domestic ox, bull’20 ? ), second component from (Nourai:) IE *moiso ‘sheep’. 
▪ … 
DRS 3 (1993) #GMŠ-1-3 .... -4 Syr gawmūš, gamīšā, Mnd gamušan, gamišan, gamšin, Ar ǧāmūs ‘buffle’, Gz Te gamus : tête de bétail européen sans bosse, Amh Arg goš, Har goōš, Gur gäs ‘buffle’; Gz gamas : anneau en corne de buffle, Te gamus : anneau fait d’ongle de buffle. -5 ....
▪ …
▪ … 
See section CONCISE above. 
The first part of the word ǧā-mūs goes back to the same IE word *gʷou‑ for ‘cow, ox, bull, domestic animal’ as Engl cow, Ge Kuh, etc. 
ǧāmūsaẗ, n.f., buffalo cow 
*ǦB- جبـ 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 18Oct2022
√*ǦB- 
2-cons. root nucleus 
DRS #GB: Diverses rac. contenant ces deux consonnes accompagnées d’une liquide, d’une nasale, d’une pharyngale ou d’une laryngale, semblent sémantiquement liées. Avec le sens de
  • [1] *‘hauteur, éminence’, on peut citer GBʔ/W/Y, GBB, GBH, GBḤ, GBL, GBN, GBʕ, ?GWB. – Le sens de
  • [2] *‘puits, fosse’ est vraisemblablement lié au précédent, la valeur de base étant alors celle de ‘dénivellation’, et se trouve illustré en particulier par GBʔ/W/Y, GBB, GBL; v. peut-être aussi GBʕ, GYB, QBʕ. – Pour une valeur
  • [3] *‘rassembler, réunir, coaguler’, non sans rapport sans doute avec celle de
  • [4] *‘tresser’, et peut-être aussi de
  • [5] *‘mélanger, pétrir’, v.s. GBʔ/W/Y, GBB, GBH, GBL, GBN, GWB, GʕB. –
  • [6] *‘s’affaiblir, devenir mou, lâche’: GBʔ/W/Y, GBB, GBGB, GBH, GBḤ, GBN, GʕB.
D’autres renvois pour des valeurs d’une extension plus limitée se trouvent s. les différentes rac.
▪ …
 
▪ See above, section ENGL.
▪ For Ehret1995#262, the bi-consonantal “pre-Proto-Semitic” (pPS, i.e., preSem) root *GB ‘great’ (DRS #GB-1)) has a background in AfrAs *gâb- ‘great (esp. in size and number)’.
▪ … 
… 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
… 
▪ According to Ehret1995#262, the 2-cons. “pre-Proto-Semitic” root *GB ‘great’ has several extensions, reflected in Ar:
  • *GB- + “durative” *-gʷ > √ǦBǦ vn. ǧabǧ ‘to recover and regain strength’
  • *GB- + “adjective suffix” *-r > ↗√ǦBR, adj. ǧabbār ‘strong, powerful’
  • *GB- + “adjective suffix” *-l > ↗√ǦBL, adj. ǧabl ‘numerous’
▪ For other 3-cons. extensions see above, section ENGL.
▪ …
 
ǦBː (ǦBB) جبّ/جبب 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 16Oct2022, last updated 20Oct2022
√ǦBː (ǦBB) 
“root” 
▪ ǦBː (ǦBB)_1 (≙ DRS #GBB-2) ‘well, cistern, pit’ ↗¹ǧubb
▪ ǦBː (ǦBB)_2 (≙ DRS #GBB-7) ‘long outer garment, jubbah’ ↗¹ǧubbaẗ

Other values, now obsolete, include (BK1860, Lane II 1865, Hava1899):

ǦBː (ǦBB)_3 (cf. DRS #GBB-1) ‘déchet, rebut’ : ¹ǧubāb
ǦBː (ǦBB)_4 (cf. DRS #GBB-2) ‘eye-bone, bone that surrounds the cavity of the eye’ : ²ǧubbaẗ, meaning also ‘poignet; cheville, point où le sabot se joint au tibia | joint between the hind shank and the thigh, shank-joint; part of a spearhead into which the shaft enters’
ǦBː (ǦBB)_5 (cf. DRS #GBB-3) ‘to cut off; to emasculate’ : ǧabba (u, ǧabb) (vb. I); cf. also ¹ĭǧtabba (vb. VIII) ‘couper | trancher (la bosse du chameau); châtrer (par ablation totale), supprimer, retrancher’, maǧbūb ‘eunuch’, ʔaǧabbᵘ ‘having its hump cut off or eroded by the saddle, or having no hump (camel), having no buttocks or thighs (woman); qui n’a pas de fesses; qui a la peau usée, consumée par les pustules’; ? cf. also ³ǧubbaẗ ‘bourrelet du sabot (du cheval)’
ǦBː (ǦBB)_6 (cf. DRS #GBB-4) ‘dearth | sécheresse, disette’ : ǧabāb, ²ǧubāb
ǦBː (ǦBB)_7 (cf. DRS #GBB-5) ‘plain, open space, field, desert’: ¹ǧabābaẗ; cf. also ǧabūb ‘earth (in general); hard, rugged land’, ǧabūbaẗ ‘morceau, motte de terre, de boue’, maǧabbaẗ (pl. āt) ‘grand chemin, grande route, route (frayée) | middle, or main part (of a road)’
ǦBː (ǦBB)_8 (cf. DRS #GBB-6) ‘to impregnate, fecundate (palmtrees, with the pollen of the male trees)’: ǧabba (u, ǧabāb) (vb. I)
ǦBː (ǦBB)_9 (≙ DRS #GBB-8) ‘to overcome’: ǧabba (u, ǧabb) (vb. I); cf. also ǧābba (vb. III) ‘l’emporter sur | to vie, contend with s.o. for superiority in goodliness, beauty, etc.’, ǧibāb, n., ‘lutte, dispute, émulation’; (?) also related: taǧābba (vb. VI) ‘to marry one another’s sister (two men)’
ǦBː (ǦBB)_10 ‘white hair from the feet to the knees of a horse’: ǧabab, taǧbīb; cf. also ¹ǧabbaba (vb. II) ‘to be white-footed (horse)’, muǧabbab ‘having white hair from his feet to his knees (horse)’; cf. perh. also ³ǧubbaẗ ‘bourrelet de sabot (du cheval)
ǦBː (ǦBB)_11 (cf. DRS #GBB-1?) ‘se couvrir d’écume’: ʔaǧabba (vb. IV); cf. also ³ǧubāb ‘crème (de lait de chamelle) | butter, or what is produced by churning, of camels’ milk’
ǦBː (ǦBB)_12 ‘bush, shrub’: ²ǧubb
ǦBː (ǦBB)_13 ‘to shrink, be averse, withdraw; to escape, fly’: ²ǧabbaba (vb. II)
ǦBː (ǦBB)_14 ‘parcourir et visiter (des pays, des villes)’: ²ĭǧtabba (vb. VIII)
ǦBː (ǦBB)_15 ‘portion, partie, quantité déterminée payable à l’échéance’: ²ǧabābaẗ
ǦBː (ǦBB)_ ‘…’ :

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to cut, sever; the crust of the earth; hard rocky land; any kind of well, a large-mouthed well, well containing much water, deep well, also well that is not deep’ 
▪ ǦBː (ǦBB)_1 (cf. DRS #GBB-2): from WSem21 *gibb- ‘pit, well’ – Kogan2015 117#7. Cf., however, DRS where the authors “without doubt” assume that not only the Akk but also Ar word is dependent on Aram (so also already Jeffery1938).
▪ ǦBː (ǦBB)_2 (cf. DRS #GBB-7) ‘long outer garment, jubbah’: …
ǦBː (ǦBB)_3 (cf. DRS #GBB-1) ‘déchet, rebut’ : prob. same as [v6].
ǦBː (ǦBB)_4 (cf. DRS #GBB-2) ‘eye-bone’: prob. related to [v1], sharing with ‘pit, well’ the idea of surrounding the cavity of s.th.; dto. the ‘part of a spearhead into which the shaft enters’
ǦBː (ǦBB)_5 (cf. DRS #GBB-3) ‘to cut off, castrate, emasculate, eunuch; having no hump etc.’: … – Cf., however Kogan2011: Ar ǧabab ‘erosion of the hump of a camel’ from protWSem *gbb, *gbn ‘hump, hunchback’.
ǦBː (ǦBB)_6 : prob. identical with [v3].
ǦBː (ǦBB)_7 (cf. DRS #GBB-5) ‘plain, open space, field, desert’: …
ǦBː (ǦBB)_8 (≙ DRS #GBB-6) ‘to impregnate, fecundate (palmtrees, with the pollen of the male trees)’: related to [v5] ‘to cut off’?
ǦBː (ǦBB)_9 (cf. DRS #GBB-8) ‘to overcome’: …?
ǦBː (ǦBB)_10 ‘white hair from the feet to the knees of a horse’: …
ǦBː (ǦBB)_11) : According to DRS, comm. ad #GBB-1, the value ‘se couvrir d’écume; crème (de lait de chamelle) | butter, or what is produced by churning, of camels’ milk’ should perh. be seen as related to DRS #GBB-1, due to the frequent association ‘to pile up – coagulate’.
ǦBː (ǦBB)_12 ‘bush, shrub’: …
ǦBː (ǦBB)_13 ‘to shrink, be averse, withdraw; to escape, fly’: according to DRS, comm. on #GBB-3, Ar ǧabbaba (as also Hbr gaband Gz gäbbo ‘côté, côte’) depend on Sem √GNB (see Ar ↗ǧanb ‘side’), with assimilation *nb > bb.
ǦBː (ǦBB)_14 ‘parcourir et visiter (des pays, des villes)’: …
ǦBː (ǦBB)_15 ‘portion, partie, quantité déterminée payable à l’échéance’: …
ǦBː (ǦBB)_ ‘…’ :  
▪ …
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DRS #GBB-1 nHbr gibbēb, JudPalAram gᵊbab, gabbēb ‘entasser, rassembler, ratisser’; PhlvAram gbb ‘foin’, TalmAram gᵊbābā ‘herbes sèches, ramilles, flocons de laine’, Mnd *gbaba, *gababa ‘écheveau, pelote de fil’; Ar ǧubāb ‘déchet, rebut’?, Te gabäbä ‘tresser les cheveux’. -2 Akk gubb‑ ‘citerne, puits’, Hbr gēb, Aram gubbā ‘fosse, citerne’, Ar ǧubb ‘puits naturel et permanent; bassin-citerne’, Gz Te gəbb ‘fosse’, Amh gubbät ‘golfe’, Syr gūbᵃtā ‘jonc creux avec lequel on éteint les chandelles’, Ar ǧubbaẗ ‘encoche dans le fer où s’enfonce le bois de la lance’, Hbr gab ‘arcade sourcillière’, Ar ǧubbaẗ ‘os qui entoure l’œil, orbite’, Hbr gab ‘jante de roue’?, nWAram gappōnā ‘mur’. -3 Hbr gab, PhlvAram gb (?), JudPalAram gabbā ‘dos, corps’, nWAram guppōtā ‘croupe, derrière’, JudPalAram gab, gabbē ‘vers, avec’, nWAram gapp ‘près de’, nSyr gībā ‘côté’, Hbr gab ‘hauteur’, JudPalAram gibᵊbā ‘ sommet’, Syr gᵊbibā ‘bossu’, Mnd ɛtg’b’b ‘être courbé’, Amh gʷäbbäbä, Te gäb belä ‘être courbé, s’incliner’, gobäbb alä ‘avoir le dos vouté’, Hbr gab ‘bosses de bouclier’, Ar ʔagabbᵘ ‘(chameau) amputé de la bosse, blessé par le bât; castré’, ĭǧtabba ‘trancher (la bosse du chameau); châtrer (par ablation totale), supprimer, retrancher’; ? Ar ǧubbaẗ ‘bourrelet du sabot (?)’. -4 Ar ǧabāb ‘sécheresse, disette’, Te gäbbä ‘devenir pauvre’, gεbub ‘pauvre’, gäb belä ‘être affamé’. -5 Ar ǧabūb ‘sol, terrain, glèbe, terre friable’, maǧabbaẗ ‘route (frayée)’, ? Akk gabīb- : sorte de terre de pâture. -6 Ar ǧabba ‘féconder (un palmier)’. -7 ǧubbaẗ, Te gäbbät: sorte de robe. -8 Ar ǧabba ‘surpasser’, ǧābba ‘l’emporter sur’. -9 Soq geb(b) ‘nager’. -10 Akk gabb-: partie du corps : ‘cervelle (?)’.
▪ ad ǦBː (ǦBB)_5 (DRS #GBB-3) in the value ‘having no hump etc.’ cf. also Kogan’s (2011 #7.4.3) juxtaposition: Hbr gibben ‘hunchbacked’, JudPalAram gbynth ‘hump’, Syr gbab ‘to be hunchbacked’, Ar ǧabab ‘erosion of the hump of a camel’, Amh gʷäbäbb alä ‘to be hunchbacked’, Muh gʷəbən ‘hunchbacked’; SED I #67); cf. perh. also (from protWSem *gbṯ >) Ug gbṯt ‘humps’ Te gäbəs ‘crook-backed’, Wol gumbus ‘hunchbacked’; SED I #82v).
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▪ For Engl jumper, see ↗ǧubbaẗ
▪ See ↗√*ǦB- .
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ǧubb جُبّ , pl. ʔaǧbāb, ǧibāb 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 16Oct2022
√ǦBː (ǦBB) 
n. 
well, cistern; pit – WehrCowan1976
 
▪ from WSem *gibb- ‘pit, well’ – Kogan2015 117#7.
▪ Cf., however, DRS where the authors “without doubt” assume that not only the Akk but also Ar word is dependent on Aram (so also already Jeffery1938).
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▪ Kogan2015 117#7 : Hbr gēb, Syr gubbā, Ar ǧubb, Gz gəbb. – Akk gubbu ‘well’ is borrowed from Aram (cf. AbrahamSokoloff2011: 31).
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▪ see above, section CONC.
▪ Earlier, Jeffery1938 had argued: »The word is usually taken as a derivation from ǧabba ‘to cut off’, though exactly how it is to be derived from this root is not clear. Rāġib, Mufradāt, 82, gives an alternative explanation, that it is so called because dug out of the ǧabūb, i.e., ‘rough ground’. / It is used only in the Joseph story, where in the OT we have bwr, but the Targums read gbʔ or gwbʔ, and the Peshitta has gwbʔ. The origin would thus be Aram and probably it was an early borrowing.112 There is a Min gwb but the meaning is uncertain (Rossini, Glossarium, 121).«
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– 
For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ǧubbaẗ as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ǦBː (ǦBB).
 
ǧubbaẗ جُبّة , pl. ǧubab, ǧibāb, ǧabāʔibᵘ 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 16Oct2022
√ǦBː (ǦBB) 
n.f. 
jubbah, a long outer garment, open in front, with wide sleeves – WehrCowan1976
 
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… 
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▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl jumper, from Ar ǧubbaẗ, a long garment with wide, open sleeves, from Ar ǧabba, vb. I, ‘to cut’, cf. ↗ǦBː (ǦBB). 
For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ǧubb as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ǦBː (ǦBB).
 
ǦBʔ جبأ 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 18Oct2022, last update 22Oct2022
√ǦBʔ 
“root” (extinct) 
ǦBʔ_1 (≙ DRS #GBʔ/W/Y-1) ‘hollow of stagnating water’: ¹ǧabʔ (pl. ǧabʔaẗ, ǧibʔaẗ, ʔaǧbuʔ)
ǦBʔ_2 (cf. DRS #GBʔ/W/Y-1 and -4) ‘to conceal o.s.’: ǧabaʔa ( a, ǧabʔ, ǧibāʔ, ǧubūʔaẗ); ¹ʔaǧbaʔa (vb. IV) ‘to conceal s.th.; to extinguish (a fire)’; ǧabaʔa ʕalà ‘to come upon s.o. of a sudden; to come out against s.o. (snake, wild beast)’; (ǧabʔ, ǧubūʔ) ʕan ‘to shrink, desist from; to draw back in fear; to recoil from s.th. (eye, sword)’; ǧubaʔ, ǧubaʔaẗ ‘cowardly, dastardly man’
ǦBʔ_3 (? cf. DRS #GBʔ/W/Y-1) ²ǧabʔ (pl. ǧabʔaẗ, ǧibʔaẗ,ʔaǧbuʔ) and ‘red truffles’ ǧabaʔ, ‘red truffles’, ²ʔaǧbaʔa, vb. IV, ‘to bring forth truffles (soil)’, ʔarḍ muǧbaʔaẗ, ‘land full of truffles’
ǦBʔ_4 (? cf. DRS #GBʔ/W/Y-1) ‘locust’: ǧābiʔ
ǦBʔ_ ‘…’:
 
▪ From WSem *√GBʔ ‘to gather, collect’ – Huehnergard2011.
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DRS #GBʔ/W/Y-1 nHbr gābā ‘encaisser’, gibbuy ‘collecte’, gabbāy ‘collecteur’; TalmAram gᵊbā ‘faire rentrer’, gabbāyā, gābōyā ‘collecteur’, cf. Palm gbʔ, gby ‘taxer, lever des impôts’, Syr gᵊbā ‘recueillir (de l’eau, les impôts), choisir, élire’, Mnd gba ‘rassembler, choisir’, nSyr gāwi ‘mendier, recueillir (des souscriptions, etc.), choisir’; (Aysor) gʸävi ‘mendier’, gʸäb ‘rassembler; fermenter, déborder’; Ar ǧabā (w/y) ‘recueillir (de l’eau, un tribut), rebrousser chemin’; MġrAr ǧbā ‘descendre; passer’, ǧtabā ‘choisir’, SAr gbʔ ‘revenir’, ʔgbyw ‘temps de la collecte des impôts’, Soq *gébe ‘trouver’, Gz gabʔa ‘revenir à, se réunir à’, tagabʔa ‘confluer’ ; Te gäbʔa, gäʔa ‘arriver, se produire’, təgabʔa ‘rencontrer’, Tña gäbʔe ‘se tourner’, Amh gäbba, čaha gäpa-m ‘entrer’, Har gäbaʔa ‘retourner’, Gz gubāʔe, Te Tña Amh gubaʔe ‘réunion’, Hbr gebē ‘étang, marais’, gēb ‘fossé, réservoir à eau’, Nab Palm gbʔ, Ar ǧabʔ ‘fosse, anfractuosité où l’eau s’amasse‘, Hbr *gēb, gōb (coll. gobay, gōbay), JudPalAram gōbā, gōbay ‘sauterelle’, Ar ǧabiʔa, ǧabaʔa ‘surgir, s’abattre sur’, ǧābiʔ ‘nuée de criquets’, Akk gabb- ‘totalité; ?Ar ǧabʔ ‘truffe’.40 -?2 ǧabʔà ‘(fille) aux seins qui pointent’, ǧabāʔ ‘pointe de la corne (de l’oryx)’. -3 ǧabʔaẗ ‘région ombilicale’. -4 ǧabiʔa, ǧabaʔa ‘s’émousser (sabre), s’affaiblir (vue)’, ǧubbaʔ ‘poltron’. -5 ǧabaʔa ‘teindre à l’ocre rouge’.
ǦBʔ_4 : SED II #75: Akk [g]i-bu 41 , Ebl gi-ba-um42 , Hbr gōbay ‘swarm of locust’;43 JudAram gōbā ‘locust’, gābay ‘a species of edible locusts’, gwb, gwbyy, SamAram gwb ‘locust’; Ar ǧābiʔ ‘locustae quod natae properunt e terra’, ‘the locust; locusts’, ǧarad ǧābiʔ ‘nuée de criquets’ (cf. also al-ǧābī ‘le Dévorant (apell. du Criquet)’, ‘the locust’; Tña gʷäbib ‘chicken mite’.
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ǦBʔ_4 : DRS (ad #GBʔ/W/Y-1:) «Pour le nom de la ‘sauterelle’, le rapport avec GBʔ/W/Y ‘rassembler’ paraît évident. Les formes attestées sont d’ailleurs, pour l’essentiel, des collectifs nommant la ‘multitude’, la ‘nuée’ de sauterelles. – Gesenius propose cependant une autre explication mettant en relation Hbr gēb, gōb avec Ar ǧabaʔa ‘sortir de terre (comme un serpent de son trou)’ [see ǦBʔ_2, particularly ǧabaʔa ʕalà] et invoque un parallélisme avec Gz ʔanbaṭā: nom d’une variété de sauterelles rapproché de l’Ar nabaṭa ‘émerger, sortir de l’eau’.»
ǦBʔ_4 : SED II #75: »Gz dagobəyā (dagabəyā, dagobiyā, dogabiyā) ‘kind of locust, cricket, caterpillar’ has been compared to the present root (for a number of similar nEthSem forms v. *gʷa(n)dab- // *ga(n)dab- ‘cricket, locust’, SED #80, ≙ Ar ↗ǧundub ‘grasshopper’). While it is hard to believe that d- in these forms goes back to “an original t-, serving to form reflexives” (as suggested in Dillmann1907 136), interpreting dagobəyā as a result of contamination of the present root with *gʷa(n)dab- //*ga(n)dab- ‘cricket, locust’ (#80) cannot be ruled out (admittedly, the EthSem forms may be regarded as metathetic variants of the latter without any relationship to the present root).«
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ǦBT جبت 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 5Mar2023
√ǦBT 
“root” 
▪ ǦBT_1 ‘idol, sorcery, devil (?)’ ↗ǧibt
▪ ǦBT_2 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): hapax in the Qur’an (Q 4:51) of uncertain meaning 
▪ [v1] Accord. to Jeffery1938 from Gz gəbt ‘recent event’ (in the phrase ʔamāləkta gəbt ‘idols of recent (time), recent gods’), see ↗ǧibt.
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ǧibt جِبْت 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 5Mar2023
√ǦBT 
n. 
(variously interpreted by ClassAr lexicographers as:) ‘false deity’, ‘sorcery’, ‘the devil’, ‘idol’, a name of a certain idol, said to belong to the tribe of Quraysh – BAH2008 
▪ acc. to BAH2008 hapax in the Qurʔān, of either Gz or Hbr origin 
▪ ec7 Q 4:51 ʔa-lam tara ʔilà ’llaḏīna ʔūtū naṣīban min-a ’l-kitābi yuʔminūna bi’l-ǧibti wa’l-ṭāġūti ‘have you considered those given a portion of the Scripture, who believe in idols and evil powers’ 
▪ Jeffery1938: »It occurs only along with the Ethiopic word ṭāġūt in the sentence “they believe in Jibt and Ṭāghūt”. The exegetes knew not what to make of it, and from their works we can gather a score of theories as to its meaning, whether idol (ṣanam), or priest (kāhin), or sorcerer (sāḥir), or sorcery (siḥr), or Satan, or what not. It was generally agreed that it was an Ar word. Bayḍ., e.g., claiming that it was a dialectal form of ǧibs, a theory that was taken up by Rāġib, Mufradāt, 83, and others.113 Some of the philologers, however, admitted that it was a foreign word (cf. Jawharī, sub voc., LA, ii, 325),114 and from al-Suyūṭī, Itq, 320, we learn that some of them even knew that it was Ethiopic. / Margoliouth in ERE, vi, 249, suggested that it was the γλυπτά of the LXX from γλύφω ‘to carve, engrave’, which is used to translate Hbr fsl in Lev. xxvi: 1. This assumes that its meaning is very much the same as Ṭāġūt, i.e. ‘idol’, and this has the weight of evidence from the Commentators in its favour. It is a little difficult, however, to see how the Grk word could come directly into Arabic without having left any trace in Syriac. It is more likely that al-Suyūṭī’s authorities were right for once, and that it is an Abyssinian word. This has been recognized by Dvořák, Fremdw, 50, and by Nöldeke, Neue Beiträge, 48, who shows that [Gz] ʔamlāk gəbt = θεός πρόσφατος [‘new, recent god], and in [Gz] gəbt we have the form we need.«115
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ǦBǦ جبج 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 18Oct2022
√ǦBǦ 
“root” 
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ǦBǦB جبجب 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 18Oct2022
√ǦBǦB 
“root” 
▪ … 
ǦBR جبر 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 16Oct2022, last updated 9Jan2023
√ǦBR 
“root” 
▪ ǦBR_1 ‘force, compulsion, coercion, duress; power, might; (predestined, inescapable) decree of fate’ ↗¹ǧabr. – ‘giant, gigantic, colossal, huge; tyrant, oppressor; almighty, omnipotent (God); Orion (astron.)’ ↗ǧabbār
▪ ǦBR_2 ‘to set (broken bones); to restore, bring back to normal; to help back on o.’s feet, help up’ ↗ǧabara (incl. ʕilm al-ǧabr ‘algebra’)
▪ ǦBR_3 ‘to treat with kindness, friendliness, be nice to s.o.’ ↗ǧābara
▪ ǦBR_4 ‘pride, haughtiness’ ↗ǧibriyāʔᵘ
▪ ǦBR_5 ‘(the archangel) Gabriel’ ↗Ǧibrīlᵘ

Other values, now obsolete, include (BK1860, Lane ii 1865, Wahrmund1886, Hava1899):

ǦBR_6 ‘man; young man, courageous (Lane) | homme, surtout fort, puissant (BK1860)’: ²ǧabr
ǦBR_7 ‘king’: ³ǧabr
ǦBR_8 ‘slave’: ǧabr
ǦBR_9 ‘aloes-wood’: ǧabr
ǦBR_10 ‘1 vanité, mensonge; 2 ce qui est en pure perte; 3 sang versé et non vengé; 4 exempt, libre ou innocent de qc (BK1860)| thing of which no account, or for which no revenge or retaliation or mulct, is taken (Lane ii 1865) | erlaubtes Blutvergießen; Krieg; frei, quit (Wahrmund1886)’: ¹ǧubār
ǦBR_11 ‘torrent’: ²ǧubār
ǦBR_12 ‘(pre-Islamic name of) Tuesday’: ³ǧubār ~ ǧibār
ǦBR_13 ‘bandage; truss; splints (pieces of wood with which bones are set)’: ǧibāraẗ, ¹ǧabīraẗ (pl. ǧabāʔirᵘ)
ǦBR_14 ‘leather bag; portfolio’: ²ǧabīraẗ
ǦBR_15 ‘middling in wealth, talents; simple, good (man) (Hava1899) | Mensch von geringem Vermögen od. Talent (Wahrmund1886)’: ĭnǧibārī
. ▪ ǦBR_ ‘…’:

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to set broken bones; to restore, assist; to compel, force, be impregnable; giant, tyrant, almighty’ 
▪ [v1] : (Kogan2011:) from protCSem *gabr ‘man / (DRS:) homme fait, dans toute sa force’ (> Ar [v6] ‘man’) < protSem *gbr ‘to be strong’. According to Huehnergard2011, *√GBR is a WSem variant (assimilated form) of protSem *√GPR ‘to be(come) strong, prevail, work’. – According to Palache1959: 18, the basic meaning of the root in Sem is *‘to rise, raise o.s.; hence also: strength; to restore; to compel, overpower > man’. – In a similar vein, Ar lexicography tends to regard [v1]/[v6] ‘strength; man’ as secondary, developed from [v2] when ‘setting broken bones’ became equated with ‘force’ and ‘power’. – According to Ehret1995#262, Ar ǧabbār ‘strong, powerful’ represents an extension in an adj. suffix *-R from a bi-consonantal “pre-Proto-Semitic” root *√GB ‘great’ < AfrAs *gâb- ‘great (esp. in size and number)’. For other extensions from the same pre-protSem root, cf. ↗√ǦBǦ (ǧabǧ ‘to recover and regain strength’, cf. [v2]) and ↗√ǦBL (ǧabl ‘numerous’). – See also below, section DISC. – For the specialized meaning ‘(predestined, inescapable) decree of fate’, see directly s.v. ↗¹ǧabr.
▪ [v2] : According to DRS, the value ‘to set (broken bones), repair, restore’ is a « notion dérivée », dependent on [v1]/[v6] ‘power, strength; man’ (*‘to press/force broken bones together in order to set them’). In contrast, indigenous Ar lexicography would derive the latter from the former. – For Landberg1920, DaṯAr ǧabar equals ↗ǧabal ‘to form, shape, build up’. – See also below, section DISC. – For (ʕilm al-) ǧabr ‘algebra’ as a *‘restoring, repairing’, see ↗ǧabara.
▪ [v3] : ?Reflecting value [v6] ‘man’, prominent mostly in Can, thus orig. *‘to treat as a fellow human being’, or rather simply *‘(friendly) coercion’ (i.e., from [v1]), or *‘to make it easy/comfortable for s.o.’ (from [v10])? As a support of the first option could serve ClassAr ʔaǧbara, vb. IV, ‘to consider (s.o.) as honest’ (Hava1899), obviously a denom., thus perh. *‘to consider as a man’; on the other hand, an expression like ClassAr ǧabara ḫāṭira-hū ‘to converse kindly with s.o’ (ibid.) literally means *‘to force/exert [mild?] coercion on s.o.’s mind’. Cf. also the ClassAr expression fulān ǧābirᵘⁿ/mustaǧbirᵘⁿ lī ‘s.o. exerting himself much/exceedingly/to the utmost in paying frequent attention to me, taking care of me, putting my affairs into a right/proper state’ (Lane ii 1865) / Wahrmund: ‘einem ( mit etw.) ein Vergnügen machen’.
▪ [v4] : Dependent on [v1], orig. *‘to feel powerful, think of o.s. as mighty, behave arrogantly’. Cf. also al-mutaǧabbir ‘the lion’, nominalized PA V, prob. *‘the one boasting of his power’ (see also [v7] ‘king’). – Pattern FiʕLiyāʔᵘ in accordance with ↗kibriyāʔᵘ ‘pride, arrogance’? – For other historically attested synonymous forms, see directly s.v. ↗ǧibriyāʔᵘ.
▪ [v5] : According to Jeffrey1938 via Aram (ChrPal, Syr) ultimately from Hbr Gaḇrīʔēl ‘my strength / strong one is God’, explained by Huehnergard2011 as composed of gaḇrî ‘my strong one’, from gaḇr‑, presuffixal form of geḇer ‘strong one, man’ (cf. [v6]), from gāḇar ‘to be strong’ (see [v1]), and Hbr ʔēl ‘god’, cf. Ar ↗allāh, ʔLH.
[v6] ²ǧabr ‘(young, courageous) man | homme, surtout fort, puissant’ (Lane|BK); cf. also DaṯAr ǧuburraẗ ‘naturel de l’homme’ (Landberg1920): value apparently only scarcely attested in Ar,22 , but the most prominent value in the Hbr Aram context. – Either via protCSem *gabr ‘man’ (Kogan2011) / ‘homme fait, dans toute sa force’ (DRS) or directly from protSem *gbr ‘to be strong’ (see [v1]). – In Aram, successors of protAram *gabr-23 became the main exponent of the value ‘man’, gradually replacing successors of protCSem *ʔinš- ‘man’ (> Ar ↗√ʔNS, ↗nās, ↗ʔinsān, etc.). 24
[v7] ³ǧabr ‘king’: for Lane ii 1865 »of uncertain derivation«, but prob. simply specialized use of [v6] ²ǧabr ‘man’ (which may depend on [v1] or [v2]). Or it is *‘the one boasting of power’ (see [v4]), similar to al-mutaǧabbir ‘the lion’.
[v8] ⁴ǧabr ‘slave, servant’: Lane ii 1865 remarks that [v7] ‘king’ and [v8] ‘slave, servant’ seem to be »two contrary significations« of ǧabr; however, given the basic notion of *‘strength, strong man’, both can be interpreted as specialized use of the latter, i.e, [v1]/[v6]. – Kogan2015: 382 #6 thinks the value may be due to acquaintance with Gz gabr ‘slave’. Thus, [v7] ‘king’ may be an intrinsic, inner-Ar development, while [v8] ‘slave’ could be an Ethiopism.
[v9] ⁵ǧabr ‘aloes-wood’: etymology obscure. – See below, [v13], and section DISC.
[v10] ¹ǧubār1 vanité, mensonge; 2 ce qui est en pure perte; 3 sang versé et non vengé; 4 exempt, libre ou innocent de quelque chose (BK1860)| thing of which no account, or for which no revenge or retaliation or mulct, is taken (Lane ii 1865) | erlaubtes Blutvergießen; Krieg; frei, quit (Wahrmund1886)’; to this complex one prob. has to add DaṯAr ǧabar ‘qui ne paie pas d’impôts/l’octroi’, ǧabar (sens du Sud:) ‘être exempt d’impôt, ne pas être assujetti à l’octroi’, ǧabbar ‘exempter de payer la dime/l’octroi’ (Landberg1920) (with cognates in Gz gəbr, Amh Te Gur gəbər, Tña Har gəbri ‘taxes’, etc., see section COGN). – Ultimately, all these values seem to be based on [v2], with a hypothetical semantic development *‘to set (broken bones), restore, repair > help to recover | raffermir, consolider > …’. Cf., e.g., Ar ǧabbara ‘reverdir (se dit d’une plante foulée ou mangée en partie); reprendre les forces, renaître, recouvrer la santé, être rétabli (se dit d’un malade)’, and even more general, ‘rétablir ses affaires, redevenir riche après avoir été dans la misère; relever qn, le remettre dans l’aisance, le remettre à flot; faire du bien à qn’, ĭǧtabara ‘s’enrichir et recouvrer l’ancienne aisance, le bien-être’ (BK1860). In short, ¹ǧubār seems to be based on a development along the line *‘to set (broken bones) > repair > help to recover > do s.th. good to s.o., exempt/relieve s.o. from s.th.’. With the latter, this value comes close to [v3].
[v11] ²ǧubār ‘torrent’: connected to [v1] ‘force, power’, as *‘the powerful one’? Cf. also yawm ǧabr al-baḥr, name for a local holiday of Cairo, orig. *‘day of “forcing”, i.e., channeling the water (of the Nile) (into the now-abandoned ↗ḫalīǧ, or City Canal)’. Thus, the meaning ‘torrent’ could also be *‘water masses forced into a narrow bed’.
[v12] ³ǧubār ~ ǧibār ‘(pre-Islamic name of) Tuesday’: original attestation apparently only in a single verse which Fischer1896 thought was a »distichon memoriale« made by a little gifted poet for his students to help them memorize the names of the pre-Islamic weekdays.25 In contrast, Rotter1993 is convinced that ³ǧubār can be equated with Mars, the Roman god of war, and that therefore the name for the weekday is identical with Lat Martis dies (> Fr mardi, It martedi etc.).[(»Der veneris dies im vorislamischen Mekka, eine neue Deutung des Namens „Europa” und eine Erklärung für kobar = Venus«, Der Islam 70 (1993): 112-32, here 120.)] If this is correct, the “martial” name is related to [v1]/[v6] ‘strength, power; man’.
[v13] ǧibāraẗ ~ ¹ǧabīraẗ ‘bandage; truss; splints (pieces of wood with which bones are set)’ (Hava1899), ‘poignet; bracelet, ornement du poignet’ (BK1860): The basic value here is prob. ‘splints’, which evidently belongs to [v2] ‘to set (broken bones)’, hence also ‘truss’ (*structure made of several splints) and ‘wrap, bandage’ (with which the splints are fixed to broken bones), hence also ‘bracelet’ (*“wrapping”) around the wrist > ‘wrist’. – Does also (DRS #GBR-4) Akk gub/pr- ‘needle, pin’ belong here?
[v14] ²ǧabīraẗ ‘leather bag; portfolio’: cf. Amh gäbär ‘board or piece of leather or cloth used as a cover for a book’ (DRS #GBR-3). – According to Hava1899, ²ǧabīraẗ here stands for ǧafīraẗ ‘id. (?)’; cf. ǧafīr ‘kind of quiver (for arrows etc.)’ (Lane ii 1865).
[v15] ĭnǧibārī ‘middling in wealth, talents; simple, good (man) (Hava1899) | Mensch von geringem Vermögen od. Talent (Wahrmund1886)’: marked as »modern sense/use« in Wahrmund1886, explained as »for ranǧ-bar« by Hava1899; if the latter etymology is valid, the adj. would be a “naturalized” borrowing from Pers, meaning ‘working/toiling person, worker, toiler, drudge; proletarian’ (Steingass1892 has still ‘artificer, mechanic’).
▪ …
 
22. Kogan2015: 382 #6: »Lane LA iv 133 adduces one verse in support of this meaning (wa-ʔanʕim ṣabāḥan ʔayyuhā l-ǧabru ‘Good morning, oh man!’), commented upon as ʔayy ʔayyuhā l-raǧulu. One may legitimately wonder whether such a usage could be ascribed to the author’s acquaintance with Aram.  23. Kogan2015: 382 #6 oAram gbr ‘man’, cont. in JudPalAram gᵊbar, Syr gabrā, Mlaḥso gavro.  24. Kogan2015: 382 #6: »The details of this process are intricate enough to deserve a special study. While practically no trace of *ʔinš- seems to be present in such later Aram idioms as JudPalAram or Syr, it is relatively well attested in EmpAram (with the remarkable exception of the BiblAram corpus), where it coexists with *gabr- (cf. Fitzmyer 1995:120). It remains to be investigated whether there is any kind of semantic, syntactic or stylistic distribution between the two terms in various EmpAram corpora. As far as the oAram inscriptions are concerned, ʔš is attested twice in Sefire and once in KAI 202 as opposed to three examples of gbr in Sefire. There is hardly any perceptible difference in the usage of these terms (…).«  25. August Fischer, »Die altarabischen Namen der sieben Wochentage«, ZDMG 50 (1896): 220-26, here 222. The other six days mentioned in the verse are ↗ʔawwalᵘ (also ʔawl) ‘Sunday’, ʔahwanᵘ (also ʔahwadᵘ or ʔawhadᵘ) ‘Monday’, dubārᵘ ‘Wednesday’, muʔnis ‘Thursday’, ↗ʕarūbaẗᵘ ‘Friday’, and šiyārᵘ (var. šibārᵘ, sibārᵘ) ‘Saturday’. Fischer considered the possibility of a specifically South Arabian origin of these names, but no SAr or EthSem cognates seem to have been found until today. Moreover, he questioned the reliability of the transmission of verse in general. 
– 
DRS GBR-1 Akk gabr- ‘fort’, gab/pāru ‘vaincre, être supérieur’; Hbr geber ‘homme’,44 gibbōr ‘héros’, gābar ‘être fort’; Phoen gbr ‘homme’, Pun gybrh ‘puissance’?; Moab gbrn ‘homme’; YaAram gbrh, epigAram gbrʔ, gbrtʔ ‘force’ ; JudPal Syr gᵊbar ‘être fort, gabrā, Mand gabra, nWAram gabrōnā ‘homme’, JudPal gibbār, Syr gabbārā, Mnd gabara, nSyr (aysor) gʸäbärä ‘héros, géant’, gʸörä, (Ur) gōrā ‘mari’, gōrūnā ‘garçon’; Ar ǧabr ‘puissant’, gabbār ‘puissant, orgueilleux’, ǧabr ‘esclave corvéable; force, contrainte’, ǧubār ‘violence’; Gz gabr ‘travailleur, valet, esclave’, gabra ‘faire’; Te gäbr ‘esclave’, gäbrä ‘faire, faire violence’; Te Amh gəbr ‘tribut’, gäbbärä ‘payer le tribut’; Ar ǧabara ‘se ressouder (os), se rétablir, se raffermir; aider’; Te gäbbärä ‘réparer, sauver’. -?2 Amh gubbər ‘durillon, callosité; mammelon de bouclier, hernie’. -?3 Amh gäbär ‘planchette ou morceau de cuir ou de toile servant de couverture à un livre’. -4 Akk gubr- (gupr- ?) ‘aiguille, broche’. -5 sorte de table. -6 Akk gubār- : barre (de métal) (?). -7 Ar ǧabar ‘nécropole (?)’.
▪ Leslau2006: Akk gapāru ‘to surpass’, gabru, gapru ‘strong’, Hbr gāḇar ‘to prevail’, gibbōr ‘manly’, Phoen gbr-t ‘mighty deeds’, Syr gabber ‘to prevail’, Mnd gbr ‘to be strong, prevail’, Ar ǧabara ‘to force to do s.th., submit’, ǧabr ‘powerful man, constraint, coercion’, Gz gabra (yəgbar) ‘to act, do, work, make, be active, practice, labor, perform, manufacture, produce, bring forth, create, build, fashion, function, carry out, prepare, achieve, execute, procure, enact, keep (ordinances), observe (ordinances, fast)’; gabbara ‘to cultivate land, till land, pay taxes’; ʔagabbara ‘to constrain, force, compel, coerce, impose tribute’; gəbr ‘affair, matter, thing, act, work, workmanship, manner, mode, action, task, office, duty, event, deed, service, business, function, procedure, charge, activity, occupation, doing of work, situation, product, produce, conduct, tribute, contribution, religious service, magical activity, force, reality, compulsion, constraint, necessity, (K*) taxes’; gabir ‘practice, conduct, prescription against black magic, practice of magic’; gabbār ‘workman, laborer, farmer, peasant; one who pays taxes’, gəbrat ‘work, working, construction, building, workmanship’; gabbārāwi ‘workman, laborer, farmer, peasant’; gəbrənāt ‘service, action, servitude, enslavement, bondage’, ʔagbərtāwi (< ʔagbər , pl. of gabr + āwi) ‘pertaining to servants’, Te gäbra ‘to do, make’, gäbbära ‘to enslave, subdue’, Tña gäbärä ‘to make, do’, Amh gäbbärä ‘to farm’, agäbbärä ‘to force’, Har agäbära ‘to tame’, Gur gäbbärä. For Gz gəbr ‘taxes’, cp. Tña Amh gäbbärä ‘to pay taxes’, Te Arg gäbbära, Gur gäbärä, Amh Te Gur gəbər ‘taxes’, Tña Har gəbri. The root passed into Cush: Kam gabbárro ‘to tame’, Ṭem gäbärre, Sa gibr-e ‘to work’, Had gibirā-kko ‘to pay taxes’, Kam gibirro.
▪ [v2]/[v10]: Borg2021 #85 ǧ-b-r: Ar ǧabara ‘to be restored to a former state’, EgAr gabar ‘to repair’ (Spiro 1895: 92), Tangier žbaṛ ‘trouver’ (W. Marçais 1911: 247), HispAr ⟨anjabar⟩ ‘be restored’ (Corriente 1997: 88), S. Arabia ⟨ǧabar⟩ ‘contenter, satisfaire (chez tous les Bédouins d’Arabie)’ (Landberg 1909: 540), NYemAr ǧabar ‘beistehen, erhalten’ (Behnstedt 1992: 163), Kǝndērīb ǧabaṛ ‘zwingen’ (O. Jastrow 2005: 29), AlepAr ǧabar ‘obliger, assister qn dans le besoin’ (Barthélemy 1935–69: 101), DamAr ja žāber ‘o (Gott) der du Gedeihen gibst’ (Bergsträßer 1924: 107), LebAr jabar ‘faire avoir de bonheur par faire profiter de (fî)’; jabr ‘compensation, bonheur’ (Feghali 1935: 64; 1938: 589), PalAr žabar ‘to console’ (Piamenta 2000: 199); ǧabr ‘zufriedenstellen’ (Kampffmeyer 1 936: 10); maǧbūr il-ḫāṭir ‘höchst zufrieden’ (Schmidt & Kahle 1918 I 273), ḤassAr jbaṛ ‘trouver’ (Taine-Cheikh 1990: 147), Malta ⟨ġabar⟩ ‘cogliere, raccogliere, risarcire, ristaurare’ (Vassalli 1796: 207). | Outside Sem, the author compares Eg (Pyr) ḏbꜣ ‘ersetzen, vergelten | to restore, replace, repay’ (Wb V 555; Faulkner 1962: 321).
▪ Sabaweb: Sab gbr ‘Arbeit, Werk’, gbry ‘Arbeiter, Beauftragter’ (both not reliably attested)
▪ …
 
▪ [gnrl] Most values attached to the root can be explained as belonging to the complex [v1]/[v2]/[v6]. For the time being, it seems impossible to disentangle these three main notions and decide with certainty which of them may have been the “most original” one. Evidently interrelated, [v6] ‘man’ and [v1] ‘strength, power, force’ and prevalent in Sem and have to be regarded as the source of derivation for the larger part of the GBR/ǦBR vocabulary, while [v2] ‘to set (broken bones), restore, repair’ seems to be an Ar peculiarity. Given the Sem evidence, it is prob. safe to reject the derivation, maintained by ClassAr lexicographers, of ‘strength, power, force’ from [v2] ‘to set (broken bones)’. Should we assume an inverse dependence then, i.e., regard ‘to set (broken bones), restore, repair’ as developed from ‘strength, power, force’? Not inconceivable, as the setting of bones is a kind of “forcing” the broken ends back into their place with the help of a splint etc., cf. [v13]. Nevertheless, this looks a bit far-fetched as it would imply that, for the speaker, the element of ‘strength, force’ is the main aspect in setting broken bones. Therefore, as a personal hypothesis, I would prefer to interpret [v2] ǧabara ‘to set (broken bones)’ as a variant of ↗ǧabala ‘to form, shape, build up’, i.e., as a “reshaping” rather than a “forcing” (into previous shape), perh. originating from SArabia. An argument in favour of this view is the semantic identity of ǧabar and ǧabal ‘to form, shape, build up’ in DaṯAr (Landberg1920), and perh. also the fact that, outside Ar, the notion of [v10] ‘relief, ease, exemption (from due taxes etc.)’, which seems to be related to [v2] in the sense of ‘restore, repair, help up again’, is common in EthSem only. – If this is valid, one may assume two lines of development, both originating from a pre-protSem 2-rad. root nucleus *GB with the general meaning ‘to amass, bring together, pile up’ (cf. Ehret1995: *GB ‘great’): (1) > *GBR ‘height, eminence, greatness’ (cf. Palache1956: *‘to rise, raise o.s.’) > ‘power, strength’ (Ehret1995: *‘strong, powerful’) > ‘man’; and (2) > *GBL ‘to assemble, bring/put together, (re)collect, (re)unite; to plait; (pile up >) multitude; mountain’ > (in SArabia?, with liquid L > R) Ar *ǦBR ‘to (re)shape, bring into form (again), repair, restore, set (broken bones)’ > ‘to help recover’ > ‘to relieve, exempt (from paying blood-money, taxes, etc.)’.
▪ [v1]/[v2]/[v6] : In their comments, the authors of DRS mention that, « [d]ans plusieurs langues, le nom de la femme (ou de la «Dame») se tire par suffixation de la désinence du fém. à une forme de *gabr-. - Amh connaît une forme de cette rac. développée en GBRR : gäbärrärä ‘roidir, devenir raide’. - De la notion dérivée ‘restaurer, réparer’, Ar a tiré un nom métaphorique du ‘pain’: (ʔabū) ǧābir, dont il faut peut-être rapprocher Te Tña gäbbara ‘plat à pétrir’; Amh mägbärya ‘vase dans lequel on prend la pâte pour faire le pain’. – […] Comp. GBB, GBʕ et v. s. GB. »
[v6] ²ǧabr ‘man’: Kogan2015: 382 #6: »protAram *gabr- ‘man’ has transparent cognates in Hbr gäbär and Ar ǧabr and, therefore, must be traced back to protCSem – fn: Or even protWSem if Gz gabr ‘slave’ (cf. [v8]) is thought to be related116 – *gabr- ‘man’.
[v8] ⁴ǧabr ‘slave’: see fn. to DISC of [v6], and above, section CONC.
[v9] ⁵ǧabr: According to Lane ii 1865, the value ‘aloes-wood’ is explained in the Qāmūs as signifying ʕūd ‘wood (in general, as well as aloes-wood in particular)’ while the Tāǧ interprets it as …allaḏī yuǧbarᵘ bih ‘wood with which one sets bones’, see [v2]. Lane thinks that yuǧbarᵘ is a mistranscription for yuǧammarᵘ ‘…with which one fumigates’.
▪ …
 
▪ For Engl algebra and Gabriel see ↗ǧabara and ↗Ǧibrīl, respectively.
▪ …
 
– 
ǧabar- جَبَرَ , u (ǧabr, ǧubūr
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 23Oct2022, last updated 9Jan2023
√ǦBR 
vb., I 
1a to set (broken bones); b to restore, bring back to normal; c to help back on o.’s feet, help up (e.g., one fallen into poverty); 2 to force, compel (s.o. ʕalà to do s.th.) – WehrCowan1976
 
▪ Ultimately, both values of ǧabara are certainly connected, though the nature of this relation is not exactly clear. ClassAr lexicographers tend to derive [v2] ‘to force, compel’ (and ↗ǧabr ‘strength, power; man’) from [v1] ‘to set (broken bones)’. But the evidence of Sem, where ‘(strong) man; strength, power, force’ prevails and possible reflections of *‘restoring, repairing, helping, making easy/comfortable’ are restricted to the EthSem context, seems to forbid such a derivation. In contrast, the authors of DRS think [v1] is from [v2], in which case the ‘setting of broken bones’ would be a specialization from ‘to force, compel’, namely *‘to force broken bones back into their original place/shape’. Though not inconceivable, such a dependence looks a bit unlikely, given the broad field of derivations, esp. in ClassAr (see HIST), building on the basic idea of ‘restoring, repair, helping’ – should all these have developed from the only instance where ‘to force, compel’ had taken a positive meaning, namely when interpreted as ‘setting broken bones’? Therefore, I [S.G.] am inclined to regard [v1] as the result of a development that may have started in a southern Arabian environment, where an original ↗ǧabala ‘to form, shape, build’ became confused with ǧabara ‘to force, compel’; in DaṯAr, ǧabar has even become identical with ǧabal ‘to form’ (Landberg1920). – Irrespective of these considerations, ultimately, both values prob. go back to a 2-cons. pre-protSem root nucleus *GB ‘to assemble, amass, bring together, pile up’ (cf. Ehret1995: *GB ‘great’); for more details, cf. ↗√ǦBR.
▪ For the use of [v1] in mathematics, cf. Lane ii 1865: ǧabr ‘(in computation:) addition of s.th. for the purpose of reparation; [hence: ] algebra, more commonly called al-ǧabr al-muqābalaẗ, perfective addition and compensation subtraction, or restoration and compensation (because of the frequency of these operations in the reduction of equations)’
▪ For derivations from [v1] as given in section HIST below, see ↗ǦBR_10.
▪ The L-stem ↗ǧābara ‘to treat with kindness, be nice to s.o.’ is possibly based on [v1.d] in an extended sense of ‘to make things easy/comfortable for s.o.’. – Cf., however, the expression ǧabara ḫāṭira-hū ‘to console, comfort, gratify, oblige s.o.; to treat (s.o.) in a conciliatory or kindly manner’ where the underlying notion also could be [v2] ‘to force, compel’. If ǧābara is from there, its original sense would be *‘to oblige s.o., force s.o. into a feeling of indebtedness (by treating him/her so friendly/nicely)’.
▪ For the semantic field around [v2], see ↗¹ǧabr and ↗ǧabbār.
▪ …
 
▪ [v1] ǧibāraẗ, ¹ǧabīraẗ (pl. ǧabāʔirᵘ) ‘bandage; truss; splints (pieces of wood with which bones are set)’
▪ [v1]: (BK1860, Hava1899:) taǧabbara and ĭǧtabara ‘to recover from illness; to recover from destitution, regain wealth; to be reinstated in a former state’, ĭstaǧbara ‘to recover wealth’ (Hava1899); fig., ʔabū ǧābir, ǧābir b. ḥabbaẗ ‘bread’ (*‘what restores, sc. one’s constitution’
▪ ?[v1]: ¹ǧubār1 vanité, mensonge; 2 ce qui est en pure perte; 3 sang versé et non vengé; 4 exempt, libre ou innocent de qc (BK1860)| thing of which no account, or for which no revenge or retaliation or mulct, is taken (Lane ii 1865) | erlaubtes Blutvergießen; Krieg; frei, quit (Wahrmund1886)’ – see ↗ǦBR_10.
▪ For [v2], see ↗¹ǧabr and ↗ǧabbār.
▪ …
 
▪ ↗¹ǧabr, ↗ǦBR, for [v1] perh. also ↗ǧabala, ↗ǦBL.
▪ Borg2021 #85 ǧ-b-r: Ar ǧabara ‘to be restored to a former state’, EgAr gabar ‘to repair’ (Spiro 1895: 92), Tangier žbaṛ ‘trouver’ (W. Marçais 1911: 247), HispAr ⟨anjabar⟩ ‘be restored’ (Corriente 1997: 88), S. Arabia ⟨ǧabar⟩ ‘contenter, satisfaire (chez tous les Bédouins d’Arabie)’ (Landberg 1909: 540), NYemAr ǧabar ‘beistehen, erhalten’ (Behnstedt 1992: 163), Kǝndērīb ǧabaṛ ‘zwingen’ (O. Jastrow 2005: 29), AlepAr ǧabar ‘obliger, assister qn dans le besoin’ (Barthélemy 1935–69: 101), DamAr ja žāber ‘o (Gott) der du Gedeihen gibst’ (Bergsträßer 1924: 107), LebAr jabar ‘faire avoir de bonheur par faire profiter de (fî)’; jabr ‘compensation, bonheur’ (Feghali 1935: 64; 1938: 589), PalAr žabar ‘to console’ (Piamenta 2000: 199); ǧabr ‘zufriedenstellen’ (Kampffmeyer 1 936: 10); maǧbūr il-ḫāṭir ‘höchst zufrieden’ (Schmidt & Kahle 1918 I 273), ḤassAr jbaṛ ‘trouver’ (Taine-Cheikh 1990: 147), Malta ⟨ġabar⟩ ‘cogliere, raccogliere, risarcire, ristaurare’ (Vassalli 1796: 207). | Outside Sem, the author compares Eg (Pyr) ḏbꜣ ‘ersetzen, vergelten | to restore, replace, repay’ (Wb V 555; Faulkner 1962: 321).
▪ …
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ …
 
▪ Engl algebra, from Ar al-ǧabr ‘the might, force, restoration’, vn. of ǧabara, vb. I, ‘to force, restore, set (bones)’ – Huehnergard2011.
▪ For related Engl Gabriel see ↗Ǧibrīl.
▪ …
 
NB: Given that the etymological relation between [v1] and [v2] is still unclear, this section lists derivations from both, but tries to keep them apart for systematic reasons:

[v1]
ǧabbara, vb. II, to set (broken bones): D-stem, ints.
taǧabbara, vb. V, 1a see [v2]; 2 to be set (broken bones): tD-stem, self-ref.
ĭnǧabara, vb. VII, to be mended, repaired, restored: N-stem, pass.
¹ǧabr, n., 1 setting (of broken bones); 2 see [v2]: vn. I | ʕilm al-ǧabr, algebra
ǧabrī, adj., 1 algebraic; 2 see [v2]: nsb-adj. of ↗¹ǧabr in the sense of ‘restoring, repairing’
ǧibāraẗ, n.f., (art of) bonesetting: vn. I
ǧabīraẗ and ǧibāraẗ, pl. ǧabāʔirᵘ, n.f., splint (surg.): quasi-PP I.f.
taǧbīr, n., taǧbīr al-ʕiẓām, orthopedics: vn. II
ǧābir and muǧabbir, n., bonesetter: PA I and PA II

[v2]
ʔaǧbara, vb. IV, 1 to force, compel (s.o. ʕalà to do s.th.); 2 to hold sway (ʕalà over): *Š-stem, ints.
taǧabbara, vb. V, 1a to show o.s. proud, haughty; b to act strong, throw one’s weight around; c to show o.s. strong or powerful, demonstrate one’s strength or power; 2 see [v1]: tD-stem, self-ref. | taǧabbara ḷḷāhu bi-bni-ka, God has demonstrated His power on your son, i.e., He has taken him unto Himself
¹ǧabr, n., 1 see [v1]; 2a force, compulsion; b coercion, duress; c power, might; d (predestined, inescapable) decree of fate; ǧabrᵃⁿ forcibly, by force: vn. I, but perh. the etymon proper, see also ↗s.v. | yawm ǧabr al-baḥr, a local holiday of Cairo (the day on which, in former times, the water of the Nile was channeled into the now-abandoned ↗ḫalīǧ, or City Canal, thus marking the beginning of the irrigation season)
ǧabrī, adj., 1 see [v1]; 2 compulsory, forced: nsb-adj. of ↗¹ǧabr
ǧabarī, adj./n., 1a adherent of the doctrine of predestination and the inescapability of fate; b fatalist: nsb-adj., from ↗¹ǧabr (2.d)
ǧabariyyaẗ, n.f., 1a an Islamic school of thought teaching the inescapability of fate; b fatalism: abstr. formation in -iyyaẗ, from ↗¹ǧabr (2.d)
BP#4246ǧabbār, pl. -ūn, ǧabābirᵘ, ǧabābiraẗ, 1 n., a giant; colossus; b tyrant, oppressor; 2 adj., a almighty, omnipotent (God); b gigantic, giant, colossal, huge; 3 Orion (astron.): ints. formation | ǧabbār al-ḫuṭwaẗ, striding powerfully, taking huge strides
ǧabarūt, n.f., 1a omnipotence; b power, might; 2 tyranny: n. formation along the FaʕaLūt pattern
ǧibriyāʔᵘ, n., pride, haughtiness: see ↗s.v.
ʔiǧbār, n., compulsion, coercion: vn. IV
ʔiǧbārī, adj., forced, forcible, compulsory, obligatory: nsb-adj., from vn. IV | al-taǧnīd al-ʔiǧbārī, compulsory recruitment; military conscription
maǧbūr and muǧbar, adj., forced, compelled: PP I and PP IV
Ǧabraʔīlᵘ, Ǧibrīlᵘ, Gabriel: see ↗s.v.

[v1] or [v2]?
ǧabara ḫāṭira-hū, expr., to console, comfort, gratify, oblige s.o.; to treat (s.o.) in a conciliatory or kindly manner
ǧābara, vb. III, to treat with kindness, with friendliness, be nice (to s.o.): L-stem, assoc., see also ↗s.v.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹ǧabr, ↗ǧabbār, ↗ǧābara, ↗ǧibriyāʔᵘ, and ↗Ǧibrīlᵘ as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ǦBR.

 
ǧābar- جابَرَ (muǧābaraẗ
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 23Oct2022, last updated 9Dec2022
√ǦBR 
vb., III 
to treat with kindness, with friendlinss, be nice to s.o. – WehrCowan1976 
▪ The associative L-stem ǧābara is possibly based on ↗¹ǧabara ‘to set (broken bones); (hence also:) to restore, bring back to normal, help back on o.’s feet, help up (e.g., one fallen into poverty)’ in an extended sense of ‘to make it easy/comfortable for s.o.’. – Cf., however, the expression ǧabara ḫāṭira-hū ‘to console, comfort, gratify, oblige s.o.; to treat (s.o.) in a conciliatory or kindly manner’ where the underlying notion also could be that of ²ǧabara, namely ‘to force, compel’. If ǧābara is from there, the original sense would be *‘to oblige s.o., force s.o. into a feeling of indebtedness (by treating him/her so friendly/nicely)’.
▪ … 
▪ …
 
▪ ↗ǧabara (< ↗ǧabala?), ↗¹ǧabr, ↗ǧabbār
▪ ↗ 
▪ See above, section CONC.
 
– 
No derivations in the proper sense, but a related item is certainly

ǧabara ḫāṭira-hū, expr., to console, comfort, gratify, oblige s.o.; to treat (s.o.) in a conciliatory or kindly manner

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ǧabara, ↗¹ǧabr, ↗ǧabbār, ↗ǧibriyāʔᵘ, and ↗Ǧibrīlᵘ as well as, for the overall picture, root entry √ǦBR.

 
¹ǧabr جَبْر 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 23Oct2022, last updated 9Dec2022
√ǦBR 
n. 
1 setting (of broken bones): see ↗ǧabara; 2a force, compulsion; b coercion, duress; c power, might; d (predestined, inescapable) decree of fate; ǧabrᵃⁿ forcibly, by force – WehrCowan1976 
▪ vn. of ↗ǧabara, vb. I, with both of its main values.
▪ This entry focusses on [v2] only. For [v1], also in the use in computation/mathematics (algebra), see ↗ǧabara.
▪ Ultimately, both values of ¹ǧabr are certainly connected, though the nature of this relation is not exactly clear. ClassAr lexicographers tend to derive [v2] ‘to force, compel’ (and ǧabr ‘strength, power; man’) from [v1] ‘to set (broken bones)’. But the evidence of Sem, where ‘(strong) man; strength, power, force’ prevails and possible reflections of *‘restoring, repairing, helping, making easy/comfortable’ are restricted to the EthSem context, seems to forbid such a derivation. In contrast, the authors of DRS think [v1] is from [v2], in which case the ‘setting of broken bones’ would be a specialization from ‘to force, compel’. – For a possible derivation of [v1] from ǧabala, see ↗ǧabara and root entry ↗ǦBR. – Irrespective of these considerations, ultimately, both values go prob. back to a 2-cons. pre-protSem root nucleus *GB ‘to assemble, amass, bring together, pile up’ (cf. Ehret1995: *GB ‘great’); for more details, cf. ↗√ǦBR.
▪ [v2] : (Kogan2011:) from protCSem *gabr- ‘man / (DRS:) homme fait, dans toute sa force’ (> Ar ǧabr ‘man’) < protSem *gbr ‘to be strong’. According to Palache1959: 18, the basic meaning of the root in Sem is *‘to rise, raise o.s.; hence [!] also: strength; to restore; to compel, overpower > man’. – According to Ehret1995#262, Ar ǧabbār ‘strong, powerful’ represents an extension in an adj. suffix *-R from a bi-consonantal “pre-Proto-Semitic” root *√GB ‘great’ < AfrAs *gâb- ‘great (esp. in size and number)’.26
▪ [v2d] ‘(predestined, inescapable) decree of fate’: means the alleged »doctrine of djabr, “compulsion”, viz. that man does not really act but only God. It was also used by later heresiographers to describe a group of sects. The Muʕtazila applied it, usually in the form Mudjbira, to Traditionists, Ashʕarite theologians and others who denied their doctrine of ḳadar or “free will” [↗qadar]«.27
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DRS GBR-1 Akk gabr- ‘fort’, gab/pāru ‘vaincre, être supérieur’; Hbr geber ‘homme’,45 gibbōr ‘héros’, gābar ‘être fort’; Phoen gbr ‘homme’, Pun gybrh ‘puissance’?; Moab gbrn ‘homme’; YaAram gbrh, epigAram gbrʔ, gbrtʔ ‘force’ ; JudPal Syr gᵊbar ‘être fort, gabrā, Mand gabra, nWAram gabrōnā ‘homme’, JudPal gibbār, Syr gabbārā, Mnd gabara, nSyr (aysor) gʸäbärä ‘héros, géant’, gʸörä, (Ur) gōrā ‘mari’, gōrūnā ‘garçon’; Ar ǧabr ‘puissant’, gabbār ‘puissant, orgueilleux’, ǧabr ‘esclave corvéable; force, contrainte’, ǧubār ‘violence’; Gz gabr ‘travailleur, valet, esclave’, gabra ‘faire’; Te gäbr ‘esclave’, gäbrä ‘faire, faire violence’; Te Amh gəbr ‘tribut’, gäbbärä ‘payer le tribut’; Ar ǧabara ‘se ressouder (os), se rétablir, se raffermir; aider’; Te gäbbärä ‘réparer, sauver’. -2-7 […].
▪ Leslau2006: Akk gapāru ‘to surpass’, gabru, gapru ‘strong’, Hbr gāḇar ‘to prevail’, gibbōr ‘manly’, Phoen gbr-t ‘mighty deeds’, Syr gabber ‘to prevail’, Mnd gbr ‘to be strong, prevail’, Ar ǧabara ‘to force to do s.th., submit’, ǧabr ‘powerful man, constraint, coercion’, Gz gabra (yəgbar) ‘to act, do, work, make, be active, practice, labor, perform, manufacture, produce, bring forth, create, build, fashion, function, carry out, prepare, achieve, execute, procure, enact, keep (ordinances), observe (ordinances, fast)’; gabbara ‘to cultivate land, till land, pay taxes’; ʔagabbara ‘to constrain, force, compel, coerce, impose tribute’; gəbr ‘affair, matter, thing, act, work, workmanship, manner, mode, action, task, office, duty, event, deed, service, business, function, procedure, charge, activity, occupation, doing of work, situation, product, produce, conduct, tribute, contribution, religious service, magical activity, force, reality, compulsion, constraint, necessity, (K*) taxes’; gabir ‘practice, conduct, prescription against black magic, practice of magic’; gabbār ‘workman, laborer, farmer, peasant; one who pays taxes’, gəbrat ‘work, working, construction, building, workmanship’; gabbārāwi ‘workman, laborer, farmer, peasant’; gəbrənāt ‘service, action, servitude, enslavement, bondage’, ʔagbərtāwi (< ʔagbər , pl. of gabr + āwi) ‘pertaining to servants’, Te gäbra ‘to do, make’, gäbbära ‘to enslave, subdue’, Tña gäbärä ‘to make, do’, Amh gäbbärä ‘to farm’, agäbbärä ‘to force’, Har agäbära ‘to tame’, Gur gäbbärä. For Gz gəbr ‘taxes’, cp. Tña Amh gäbbärä ‘to pay taxes’, Te Arg gäbbära, Gur gäbärä, Amh Te Gur gəbər ‘taxes’, Tña Har gəbri. The root passed into Cush: Kam gabbárro ‘to tame’, Ṭem gäbärre, Sa gibr-e ‘to work’, Had gibirā-kko ‘to pay taxes’, Kam gibirro.
▪ Sabaweb: Sab gbr ‘Arbeit, Werk’, gbry ‘Arbeiter, Beauftragter’ (both not reliably attested)
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▪ Does the associative L-stem ↗ǧābara ‘to treat with kindness, with friendliness, be nice to s.o.’ reflect ǧabr ‘man’, thus orig. *‘to treat as a fellow human being’, or is it a *‘(friendly) coercion’, or rather *‘to make it easy/comfortable for s.o.’ (↗ǧabara)? As a support of the first option could serve ClassAr ʔaǧbara ‘to consider (s.o.) as honest’ (Hava1899), perh. denom., thus *‘to consider as a man’; on the other hand, an expression like ClassAr ǧabara ḫāṭira-hū ‘to converse kindly with s.o’ (ibid.) may mean *‘to force/exert [mild?] coercion on s.o.’s mind, oblige s.o.’ or *‘to make s.o. feel at ease/comfortable’. Cf. also the ClassAr expression fulān ǧābirᵘⁿ/mustaǧbirᵘⁿ lī ‘s.o. exerting himself much/exceedingly/to the utmost in paying frequent attention to me, taking care of me, putting my affairs into a right/proper state’ (Lane ii 1865) / Wahrmund: ‘einem ( mit etw.) ein Vergnügen machen’.
▪ The ClassAr values ‘king’ and ‘slave’ for ǧabr are with all likelihood instances special use of the underlying *‘strong one, strong man’ (though ‘slave’ may be an Ethiopism as the notion of ‘slave, servant’ is prevalent in the EthSem region.117 ) – al-mutaǧabbir ‘the lion’ is prob. *‘the one boasting of his power’; cf. also ↗ǧibriyāʔᵘ ‘pride, arrogance’.
▪ In MSA, ǧabr is no longer used in the sense of ‘man’ but is attested as such in ClassAr: ‘(young, courageous) man | homme, surtout fort, puissant’ (Lane|BK); cf. also DaṯAr ǧuburraẗ ‘naturel de l’homme’ (Landberg1920). – Cf., however, Kogan’s remark that this attestation may be spurious, built on only one single verse.118
▪ Perh. ClassAr ²ǧubār ‘torrent’ is connected to [v2] as *‘the powerful one’? –Cf. also yawm ǧabr al-baḥr, name for a local holiday of Cairo, orig. *‘day of “forcing”, i.e., channeling the water (of the Nile) (into the now-abandoned ↗ḫalīǧ, or City Canal)’. Thus, the meaning ‘torrent’ could also be *‘water masses forced into a narrow bed’.
³ǧubār ~ ǧibār in the meaning of ‘(pre-Islamic name of) Tuesday’ seems to go back to an original attestation apparently only in a single verse, according to Fischer1896 a »distichon memoriale« made by a little gifted poet for his students to help them memorize the names of the pre-Islamic weekdays.119 Fischer considered the possibility of a specifically South Arabian origin of these names, but no SAr or EthSem cognates seem to have been found until today. Moreover, he questioned the reliability of the transmission of the verse in general. In contrast, Rotter1993 is convinced that ³ǧubār can be equated with Mars, the Roman god of war, and that therefore the name for the weekday is identical with Lat Martis dies (> Fr mardi, It martedi etc.).120 If this is correct, the “martial” name is related to [v2] ‘strength, power; man’.
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▪ Engl algebra, from Ar al-ǧabr ‘the might, force; restoration’, from ǧabara, vb. I, ‘to force; to restore, set (bones)’ – Huehnergard2011.
▪ For related Engl Gabriel see ↗Ǧibrīl.
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NB: Given that the etymological relation between [v1] and [v2] is still unclear, this section lists derivations from both, but tries to keep them apart for systematic reasons

[v1]
ʕilm al-ǧabr, algebra: orig. *‘reparing’.
ǧabara, u (ǧabr, ǧubūr), vb. I, 1a to set (broken bones); b to restore, bring back to normal; c to help back on o.’s feet, help up (e.g., one fallen into poverty); 2 see [v2] : vn. I
ǧabbara, vb. II, to set (broken bones): D-stem, ints.
taǧabbara, vb. V, 1a see [v2]; 2 to be set (broken bones): tD-stem, self-ref.
ĭnǧabara, vb. VII, to be mended, repaired, restored: N-stem, pass.
ǧibāraẗ, n.f., (art of) bonesetting: vn. I
ǧabīraẗ and ǧibāraẗ, pl. ǧabāʔirᵘ, n.f., splint (surg.): quasi-PP I.f.
taǧbīr, n., taǧbīr al-ʕiẓām, orthopedics: vn. II
ǧābir and muǧabbir, n., bonesetter: PA I and PA II

[v2]
yawm ǧabr al-baḥr, a local holiday of Cairo (the day on which, in former times, the water of the Nile was channeled into the now-abandoned ↗ḫalīǧ, or City Canal, thus marking the beginning of the irrigation season)
ǧabara, u (ǧabr, ǧubūr), vb. I, 1 see [v1]; 2 to force, compel (s.o. ʕalà to do s.th.) | ǧabara ḫāṭira-hū, expr., to console, comfort, gratify, oblige s.o.; to treat (s.o.) in a conciliatory or kindly manner: vn. I
ʔaǧbara, vb. IV, 1 to force, compel (s.o. ʕalà to do s.th.); 2 to hold sway (ʕalà over): *Š-stem, ints.
taǧabbara, vb. V, 1a to show o.s. proud, haughty; b to act strong, throw one’s weight around; c to show o.s. strong or powerful, demonstrate one’s strength or power; 2 see [v1]: tD-stem, self-ref. | taǧabbara ḷḷāhu bi-bni-ka, God has demonstrated His power on your son, i.e., He has taken him unto Himself
ǧabrī, adj., 1 algebraic; 2 compulsory, forced: nsb-adj. of ↗¹ǧabr
ǧabarī, adj./n., 1a adherent of the doctrine of predestination and the inescapability of fate; b fatalist: nsb-adj., from ↗¹ǧabr (2.d)
ǧabariyyaẗ, n.f., 1a an Islamic school of thought teaching the inescapability of fate; b fatalism: abstr. formation in -iyyaẗ, from ↗¹ǧabr (2.d)
BP#4246ǧabbār, pl. -ūn, ǧabābirᵘ, ǧabābiraẗ, 1 n., a giant; colossus; b tyrant, oppressor; 2 adj., a almighty, omnipotent (God); b gigantic, giant, colossal, huge; 3 Orion [perh. *‘the Giant’] : ints. formation; see also ↗s.v. | ǧabbār al-ḫuṭwaẗ, striding powerfully, taking huge strides
ǧabarūt, n.f., 1a omnipotence; b power, might; 2 tyranny: n. formation along the FaʕaLūt pattern
ǧibriyāʔᵘ, n., pride, haughtiness: see ↗s.v.
ʔiǧbār, n., compulsion, coercion: vn. IV
ʔiǧbārī, adj., forced, forcible, compulsory, obligatory: nsb-adj., from vn. IV | al-taǧnīd al-ʔiǧbārī, compulsory recruitment; military conscription
maǧbūr and muǧbar, adj., forced, compelled: PP I and PP IV
Ǧabraʔīlᵘ, Ǧibrīlᵘ, Gabriel: see also ↗s.v.

[v1] or [v2]?
ǧabara ḫāṭira-hū, expr., to console, comfort, gratify, oblige s.o.; to treat (s.o.) in a conciliatory or kindly manner
ǧābara, vb. III, to treat with kindness, with friendliness, be nice (to s.o.): L-stem, assoc., see also ↗s.v.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ǧabbār, ↗ǧabara, ↗ǧābara, ↗ǧibriyāʔᵘ, and ↗Ǧibrīlᵘ as well as, for the overall picture, root entry √ǦBR.

 
ǧabbār جَبّار , pl. -ūn, ǧabābirᵘ, ǧabābiraẗ 
ID – • Sw – • BP4246 • APD … • © SG | 23Oct2022, last updated 9Dec2022
√ǦBR 
n., adj. 
1 n., a giant; colossus; b tyrant, oppressor; 2 adj., a almighty, omnipotent (God); b gigantic, giant, colossal, huge; 3 Orion (astron.) – WehrCowan1976 
▪ Ints. formation on the FaʕʕāL pattern, from ǧabara ‘to force, compel’ (see ↗¹ǧabr ‘strength, power; man’), from protSem *gbr ‘to be strong’ (Kogan2011) / protCSem *gabr- ‘man / (DRS:) homme fait, dans toute sa force’. According to Palache1959: 18, the basic meaning of the root in Sem is *‘to rise, raise o.s.; hence [!] also: strength; to restore; to compel, overpower > man’. Cf., however, Ehret1995#262, according to whom Ar ǧabbār represents an extension in an adj. suffix *-R from a bi-consonantal “pre-Proto-Semitic” root *√GB ‘great’28 < AfrAs *gâb- ‘great (esp. in size and number)’.29
▪ [v3] : »For Orion, the translators introduced al-djabbār, “the Giant”, perhaps adopting an older Syr designation, gabbārā30
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▪ ↗ǧabr
▪ ↗ 
▪ See above, section CONC.
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– 
NB: Below only items of most direct / immediate relation are listed (no derivations in the proper sense). For other values, ultimately prob. all related, cf. ↗ǧabara, ↗ǧābara, ↗¹ǧabr, ↗ǧibriyāʔᵘ, and ↗Ǧibrīlᵘ as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ǦBR.

ǧabbār al-ḫuṭwaẗ, striding powerfully, taking huge strides

taǧabbara, vb. V, 1a to show o.s. proud, haughty; b to act strong, throw one’s weight around; c to show o.s. strong or powerful, demonstrate one’s strength or power; 2ǧabara: tD-stem, self-ref. | taǧabbara ’ḷḷāhu bi-’bni-ka, God has demonstrated His power on your son, i.e., He has taken him unto Himself
ǧabarūt, n.f., 1a omnipotence; b power, might; 2 tyranny
ǧibriyāʔᵘ, n., pride, haughtiness: see also ↗s.v. 
ǧibriyāʔᵘ جِبْرِياءُ 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 23Oct2022, last updated 9Dec2022
√ǦBR 
n.f. 
pride, haughtiness – WehrCowan1976 
▪ Coined on the rather rare FiʕLiyāʔᵘ pattern, perh. in analogy to the almost synonymous and similarly sounding ↗kibriyāʔᵘ ‘grandeur, glory, magnificence, majesty; pride, haughtiness, presumption, arrogance’. According to Lane ii 1865, in its essence, the noun signifies the ‘(quality denoted by the epithet ↗ǧabbār, i.e.) self-magnification, pride, haughtiness, insolence […]’, and is thus dependent on ↗¹ǧabr ‘strength, power; man’, from protSem *gbr ‘to be strong’, protCSem *gabr- ‘man’ (Kogan2011), ‘homme fait, dans toute sa force’ (DRS).
▪ Given the many synonyms, listed below (section HIST), that are coined on similarly rare “un-Arabic” patterns, esp. those in -iyyāʔᵘ, -uwwaẗ, -ūt, -aʔūt, -ūtà, as well as the taFʕāL pattern, it seems safe to assume that these items are borrowings, prob. from Aram.
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▪ also ǧabariyyaẗ, ǧabriyyaẗ, ǧibriyyaẗ, ǧibiriyyaẗ, ǧabariyyāʔᵘ, ǧabaruwwaẗ, ǧabarūt, ǧubrūt, ǧabraʔūt, ǧabrūtà, ǧabbūr(aẗ), ǧubbūr, ǧubūraẗ, taǧbār
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▪ ↗ǧabr
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– 
NB: Below only items of most direct / immediate semantic proximity are listed (no derivations in the proper sense). For other values, ultimately prob. all related, cf. ↗ǧabara, ↗ǧābara, ↗¹ǧabr, ↗ǧabbrār, and ↗Ǧibrīlᵘ as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ǦBR.

taǧabbara, vb. V, 1a to show o.s. proud, haughty; b to act strong, throw one’s weight around; c to show o.s. strong or powerful, demonstrate one’s strength or power; 2 to be set (broken bones): tD-stem, self-ref. | taǧabbara ḷḷāhu bi-bni-ka, God has demonstrated His power on your son, i.e., He has taken him unto Himself
BP#4246ǧabbār, pl. -ūn, ǧabābirᵘ, ǧabābiraẗ, 1 n., a giant; colossus; b tyrant, oppressor; 2 adj., a almighty, omnipotent (God); b gigantic, giant, colossal, huge; 3 Orion (astron.): ints. formation, see also ↗s.v. | ǧabbār al-ḫuṭwaẗ, striding powerfully, taking huge strides
ǧabarūt, n.f., 1a omnipotence; b power, might; 2 tyranny
 
Ǧibrīl جِبْريل , var. Ǧabraʔīlᵘ 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 23Oct2022, last updated 9Dec2022
√ǦBR 
n.prop. 
Gabriel – WehrCowan1976 
▪ According to Jeffrey1938 ultimately from Hbr Gaḇrīʔēl, »name of one of the high angels and the agent of Revelation, just as he is in the Qurʔān«, prob. via (ChrPal Syr) Aram Gaḇrīlā.
▪ The underlying Hbr words – Hbr geḇer ‘strong one, man’, and Hbr ʔēl ‘god’ – are of course etymologically related to Ar ↗¹ǧabr and Ar ăḷḷāh (↗ʔLH).
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▪ eC7 Q ii, 91, 92; lxvi, 4.
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▪ ↗¹ǧabr
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▪ Jeffery1938: »Always as the Angel of Revelation, and by name only in Madinan passages. (There is possibly a reference to his name [Hbr] Gaḇrîʔēl ‘mighty one of God’, in liii, 5, ‘one mighty in power’.) / There was considerable uncertainty among the early authorities as to the spelling of the name, for we find Ǧibrīlᵘ, Ǧabraʔīlᵘ, Ǧabrāʔilᵘ, Ǧabrayīlᵘ, Ǧabrāʔīlᵘ, Ǧabraʔillᵘ, Ǧabrīlᵘ, Ǧabrāllᵘ, and even Ǧabrīnᵘ and Ǧibrīnᵘ.121 as-Suyūṭī, Muzhir, i, 140, notes that these variants point to its non-Arabic origin,122 and this was admitted by some of the philologers, cf. Ṭab. on ii, 91; al-Ǧawālīqī, 144, and al-Khafājī, 60. / The ultimate origin, of course, is the Hbr Gaḇrīʔēl, and in Dan. viii, 16; ix, 21, Gabriel is one of the high angels and the agent of Revelation, just as he is in the Qurʔān. There is, however, the possibility that the Gabriel of the Qurʔān is of Christian rather than Jewish origin, and the form Gbrylʔ which is found in the Christian Palestinian dialect,123 gives us the closest approximation to the usual Arabic form. / There is some question how well the name was known in Arabia before Muḥammad’s time. Gabriel was known and honoured among the Mandaeans,124 and this may have been a pre-Islamic element in their faith. The name occurs also in verses of poets contemporary with Islam, but seems there to have been influenced by Qurʔānic usage. Cheikho, Naṣrāniyya, 235, gives an instance of a personal name containing the word, but Horovitz, KU, 107, rightly insists on the incorrectness of this.125 Muḥammad seems to have been able to assume in his Madinan audience some familiarity with the name, and the probabilities are that it came to him in its Syr form.«
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▪ Not from Ar ↗ǧabr, though ultimately from the same source is Engl Gabriel, from Hbr gaḇrîʔēl ‘my strong one (is) God’, from Hbr gabrî ‘my strong one’, from gabr‑, presuffixal form of geber ‘strong one, man’, from gābar ‘to be strong’ (for Hbr ʔēl ‘god’, cf. Ar ↗allāh, ʔLH) – Huehnergard2011.
 
For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ǧabr, ↗ǧabbār, ↗ǧabara, ↗ǧābara, and ↗ǧibriyāʔᵘ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ǦBR.

 
ǦBL جبل 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 9Jan2023
√ǦBL 
“root” 
▪ ǦBL_1 ‘to mold, form, shape, fashion, knead, create’ ↗ǧabala
▪ ǦBL_2 ‘mountain’ ↗ǧabal
▪ ǦBL_ ‘…’ ↗…

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘mountain; to form, to shape, to create with a firm natural disposition; intrinsic nature, idiosyncrasy; population, crowd, multitude’ 
▪ ǦBL_1 : from protWSem *gbl ‘to be massive, solid’ – Kogan2015: 426 n.1223.
▪ ǦBL_2 : prob. related to ǦBL_1, though dealt with as distinct value in DRS.
▪ According to Ehret1995#262, the value ‘numerous’ (as in ǧabl ‘numerous’) is the result of an extension in an “adjective suffix” *-l from a 2-cons. “pre-Proto-Semitic” root *GB ‘great’, from AfrAs *gâb- ‘great (esp. in size and number)’. Other 3-cons. extensions from the same pre-protSem root include ↗ǦBǦ (vn. ǧabǧ) ‘to recover and regain strength’ and ↗√ǦBR (adj. ↗ǧabbār) ‘strong, powerful’.
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– 
DRS 2 (1994) #GBL-1 nHbr gābal ‘pétrir, délayer’; ChrPal gbl, Talm Syr gᵊbal ‘coaguler; former, façonner, créer’; Talm gublā, gᵊbīlā ‘pâte’; Syr gᵊbīlāttā ‘masse; image; création’; Mnd gbal ‘prendre forme, être formé’; nSyr gāwil ‘former, façonner; mélanger’; (Aysor) gʸävil ‘mélanger’, gʸämbil ‘tournoyer’; Ar ǧabala ‘former, créer; mêler de la terre avec de l’eau, de la chaux, du sable’. – Palm gbl ‘collectivité, peuple’; nSyr ǧablā ‘troupe, troupeau’; Ar ǧabl ‘foule, multitude (d’hommes)’, ǧibl ‘nombreux’; Liḥ gbl ‘rassemblement (de gens)’; Te gäbbälä ‘rassembler du butin’, təgäbbälä ‘être rassemblé, entassé; être noble, honoré’, gäbil(ät) ‘tribu (étrangère); population’; ? Amh gubl ‘enfant’. -2 Soq gibʔéleh ‘flaque d’eau, creux empli d’eau’; Gz gablā, gəblā ‘abreuvoir, bassin’, Te gäbla ‘abreuvoir’. -3 Ar ǧabal ‘montagne’, ǧubulaẗ ‘bosse’; SAr gblt ‘région montagneuse’; nSyr ǧabāl ‘montagne; forêt naturelle; lit de roseaux’. -?4 Hbr gᵊbūl, gᵊbūlā ‘frontière’, gōbel ‘lisière de champ’; Phoen gbl, Pun gubulim (?); oYaAram gbl ‘frontière’, ‘territoire’. -?5 Te gobal ‘côte’. -6 Har (ta)gēbälä ‘s’asseoir, rester’. -7 Amh gäbälo: espèce de lézard; Tña gäbäl ‘serpent’.

▪ ǦBL_1 : Hbr gābal, Aram gᵊbal ‘to knead’, Syr gᵊbal ‘to form, mould; to mix, make up (medicine); gᵊbīltā ‘that which is formed or moulded, formation, creation; a mass (of dough or clay)’, SAr gbl ‘tribus’ (?), Ar ǧibill(aẗ) ‘a crowd, multitude’ (Zammit2002)
▪ ǦBL_2 : Akk gablu ‘Hügel’, Ug gbl ‘Berg, Fels’, Hbr gᵊbūl ‘border, boundary, territory’, Phoen gbl ‘boundary; territory with boundary’, Aram gbwl ‘territory, border, district’, SAr gblt ‘(hill) country; territory, district; cultivated land (surrounding village or dwelling)’, Ar ǧabal ‘mountain’ (Zammit2002)
▪ ǦBL_2 : Ar ǧabala ‘formen, bilden, schaffen | mix water with clay’, Kǝndērīb ǧǝbbālǝt ṭīn ‘Lehmmörtel’ (O. Jastrow 2005: 29), AlepAr ǧabal ‘délayer avec de l’eau (du plâtre, du mortier); pétrir’ (Barthélemy 1935–69: 102), ʕAqra yǝǧbǝl ‘anrühren’ (O. Jastrow 1990: 331), PalAr ǧabal ‘Mörtel anmachen, bereiten’; ǧabbāl ‘Mörtelzurichter’; maǧbal ‘Mörtelplatz’ (Bauer 1957: 210; Dalman VII 45). | Outside Sem, the author compares Eg (MK) dbn (<*dbl < *ǧbl) ‘builder’s mortar | etwas das Maurer und Töpfer gebrauchen’ (Faulkner 1962: 311; Wb V 438); dbn n jqdw ‘Ton des Töpfers; Dung des Maurers (zum Bau des Hauses)’ (Hannig 1995: 975) -- Borg2021 #86 ǧ-b-l.
▪ … 
▪ ǦBL_1/2 : Kogan2015 426 n.1223 : The value ‘territory, border’ (oAram Hbr Phoen) has no obvious cognates outside Can, except perh. for Sab gblt ‘cultivated land surrounding village or dwelling’. Comparison with Ar ǧabal ‘mountain’, widely accepted in Semitological literature, must remain hypothetical because of the semantic difference (cf. DRS where ‘mountain’ and ‘border’ are carefully separated). If it is nevertheless accepted, one cannot exclude an eventual connection with protWSem *gbl ‘to be massive, solid’
▪ ad ǦBL_2 : Ug gbl ‘summit, mount’ is a hapax legomenon; translation as ‘mountain’ possible, but hardly compelling (alternatively, Renfroe1992 suggested ‘Byblos’; tentatively accepted in Parker1997) – Kogan2015: 325 #7. – oAram gbl ‘territory, border’: identical with Hbr gəbūl, Phoen gbl; in later Aram dialects replaced by təḥūmā, presumably borrowed from Akk taḫūmu; JudPalAram gbwl is almost certainly a Hebraism – Kogan2015: 426 #4.

▪ … 
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl javelinaǧabal
ǧabal- جَبَلَ , u, i (ǧabl
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Oct2022, last update 9Jan2023
√ǦBL 
vb., I 
1 to mold, form, shape, fashion (s.th.); 2 to knead (s.th.); 3 to create (ʕalà s.o. with a natural disposition or propensity for); 4 pass. ǧubila ʕalà to be born for, be naturally disposed to, have a propensity for – WehrCowan1976 
▪ from protWSem *gbl ‘to be massive, solid’ – Kogan2015: 426 n.1223.
▪ Cf. also ↗ǧabal ‘mountain’ (?)
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
DRS 2 (1994) #GBL-1 nHbr gābal ‘pétrir, délayer’; ChrPal gbl, Talm Syr gᵊbal ‘coaguler; former, façonner, créer’; Talm gublā, gᵊbīlā ‘pâte’; Syr gᵊbīlāttā ‘masse; image; création’; Mnd gbal ‘prendre forme, être formé’; nSyr gāwil ‘former, façonner; mélanger’; (Aysor) gʸävil ‘mélanger’, gʸämbil ‘tournoyer’; Ar ǧabala ‘former, créer; mêler de la terre avec de l’eau, de la chaux, du sable’. – Palm gbl ‘collectivité, peuple’; nSyr ǧablā ‘troupe, troupeau’; Ar ǧabl ‘foule, multitude (d’hommes)’, ǧibl ‘nombreux’; Liḥ gbl ‘rassemblement (de gens)’; Te gäbbälä ‘rassembler du butin’, təgäbbälä ‘être rassemblé, entassé; être noble, honoré’, gäbil(ät) ‘tribu (étrangère); population’; ? Amh gubl ‘enfant’. -2-6 […].
▪ Zammit2002: Hbr gābal, Aram gᵊbal ‘to knead’, Syr gᵊbal ‘to form, mould; to mix, make up (medicine); gᵊbīltā ‘that which is formed or moulded, formation, creation; a mass (of dough or clay)’, SAr gbl ‘tribus’ (?), Ar ǧibill(aẗ) ‘a crowd, multitude’
▪ Kogan2015 426 n.1223 : Syr gbal ‘coagulavit; finxit, formavit’, Ar ǧbl ‘to create’, ǧabl ‘big, thick, coarse’, ǧibill ‘a great company of men’, Te gäbbälä ‘to gather booty’.
▪ Borg2021 #86 ǧ-b-l: Ar ǧabala ‘formen, bilden, schaffen | mix water with clay’, Kǝndērīb ǧǝbbālǝt ṭīn ‘Lehmmörtel’ (O. Jastrow 2005: 29), AlepAr ǧabal ‘délayer avec de l’eau (du plâtre, du mortier); pétrir’ (Barthélemy 1935–69: 102), ʕAqra yǝǧbǝl ‘anrühren’ (O. Jastrow 1990: 331), PalAr ǧabal ‘Mörtel anmachen, bereiten’; ǧabbāl ‘Mörtelzurichter’; maǧbal ‘Mörtelplatz’ (Bauer 1957: 210; Dalman VII 45). | Outside Sem, the author compares Eg (MK) dbn (<*dbl < *ǧbl) ‘builder’s mortar | etwas das Maurer und Töpfer gebrauchen’ (Faulkner 1962: 311; Wb V 438); dbn n jqdw ‘Ton des Töpfers; Dung des Maurers (zum Bau des Hauses)’ (Hannig 1995: 975).
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
– 
ǧiblaẗ, var. ǧibillaẗ, pl. -āt, n.f., natural disposition, nature, temper

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ǧabal as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ǦBL.
 
ǧabal جَبَل , pl. ǧibāl, ʔaǧbāl 
ID 129 • Sw 86/98 • BP 830 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 15Oct2022
√ǦBL 
n. 
1a mountain; b mountains, mountain range – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Etymology obscure, but perh. based on protWSem *gbl ‘to be massive, solid’ (see ↗ǧabala) – Kogan2015 426 n.1223.
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994) #GBL-1-2 […]. -3 Ar ǧabal ‘montagne’, ǧubulaẗ ‘bosse’; SAr gblt ‘région montagneuse’; nSyr ǧabāl ‘montagne; forêt naturelle; lit de roseaux’. -?4 Hbr gᵊbūl, gᵊbūlā ‘frontière’, gōbel ‘lisière de champ’; Phoen gbl, Pun gubulim (?); oYaAram gbl ‘frontière’, ‘territoire’. -?5 Te gobal ‘côté’. -6-7 […].
▪ Zammit2002: Akk gablu ‘Hügel’, Ug gbl ‘Berg, Fels’, Hbr gᵊbūl ‘border, boundary, territory’, Phoen gbl ‘boundary; territory with boundary’, Aram gbwl ‘territory, border, district’, SAr gblt ‘(hill) country; territory, district; cultivated land (surrounding village or dwelling)’, Ar ǧabal ‘mountain’
▪ …
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ Kogan2011 : There is no common Sem designation of ‘mountain’. Ar ǧabal is etymologically obscure (cf., however, Huehnergard2011: From CSem *√GBL, appearing in various n.s denoting ‘border,’ ‘frontier,’ ‘mountain’). At the same time, a few common terms for landscape elevations can be detected, e.g, protSem *k˅rm‑ ‘hill, mound’ > protCSem *karm- ‘vineyard’ > Ar karm.
▪ Kogan2015 426 n.1223 : The value ‘territory, border’ (oAram Hbr Phoen) has no obvious cognates outside Can, except perh. Sab gblt ‘cultivated land surrounding village or dwelling’. Comparison with Ar ǧabal ‘mountain’, widely accepted in Semitological literature, must remain hypothetical because of the semantic difference (cf. DRS where ‘mountain’ and ‘border’ are carefully separated). If it is nevertheless accepted, one cannot exclude an eventual connection with protWSem *gbl ‘to be massive, solid’.
▪ … 
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl javelina, from Ar (ḫinzīr) ǧabalī ‘mountain (swine)’, from ǧabal ‘mountain’. 
ǧibāl al-ʔalb, n. pl., the Alps;
ǧibāl al-ʔawrās, n. pl., the Awes Mountains (in E Algeria);
ǧabal ǧalīd, n., iceberg;
ǧabal Sīnā, n., Mount Sinai;
ǧabal Ṭāriq, n., Gibraltar;
ǧabal nār, n., volcano

ǧabalī, 1 adj., a mountainous, hilly; b mountain (adj.); c montane; 2 n., pl. -ūn, highlander, mountaineer: nsb-formation
EgAr ǧabalāwī, n., highlander, mountaineer: extended nsb-formation
EgAr ǧabalāyaẗ, pl. -āt, n.f., grotto, cave

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ǧabala as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ǦBL.
 
ǦBN جبن 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 30Oct2022
√ǦBN 
“root” 
▪ ǦBN_1 ‘cowardice’ ↗¹ǧubn
▪ ǦBN_2 ‘cheese’ ↗²ǧubn
▪ ǦBN_3 ‘forehead; facade, front’ ↗ǧabīn
▪ ǦBN_4 ‘cemetry’ ↗ǧabbānaẗ
▪ ǦBN_ ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘forehead, the two sides of the forehead; to be cowardly; to be flat; cheese; cemetery’ 
▪ All values may have developed from the basic idea of a *‘shrinking together, forming a bumpy surface’, from a Sem *√GBN ‘to be curved, bowed, hunchback’ (SED I #67 Sem *gVb(V)b-, *gVb(b)-an- ‘hump, hunch’), itself prob. an extension in -N from the 2-rad. root nucleus ↗*ǦB- with the basic value ‘difference in altitude, elevation, level’ (see, however, below, section DISC).
▪ ǦBN_1 (≙ DRS #GBN-3): ‘cowardice’ is separated from the other values in DRS, but may easily be fig. use of ǦBN_2, likening a coward to s.o. who is *‘contracting, shrinking’, like cheese. – Cf., however, also ↗ǦBʔ_2.
▪ ǦBN_2 (≙ DRS #GBN-4): from protCSem *g˅bn-at- ‘cheese’ – Kogan2015. – Prob. lit. *‘shrinking substance, showing wrinkles, furrows’.
▪ ǦBN_3 : etymology problematic (see below, section DISC), but perh. from CSem *g˅b(b)īn- ‘eyebrow, front’. Jeffery1938 considered it a borrowing from Aram gbynʔ (Syr gᵊbīnā) ‘brow, eyebrow’. In any case, also these regions of the face show ‘wrinkles, furrows’ and are thus *‘contracting’ parts, showing wrinkles.
▪ ǦBN_4 : Cf. DRS #GBN-1? If related, ǧabbānaẗ ‘cemetry’ may originally have been an *‘elevated plain with some hills, or bumps’, fitting into the general picture of ǦBN originally meaning a *‘shrinking, or bumpy, surface, with “wrinkles”’.
▪ ǦBN_ : …
 
– 
DRS #GBN-1 Hbr gibbēn ‘bossu’, *gabnōn ‘sommet, crête (de montagne)’, JP gᵊbintā, Syr gibnā ‘bosse’, JP Syr gᵊbīn ‘bossu’, Mand gabnia ‘sommets’; Gz gʷəbən, gʷəbər ‘bossu’; ? Ar ǧabbān ‘terrain élevé de forme plate mais où on trouve des monticules’. -2 PhlvAram gbyn, JP Syr gᵊbīnā, Mand gbina, nSyr (aysor) gnīvä ‘sourcil’, Ar ǧabīn ‘côté du front, front, tempe’; Te gäbäna ‘front’. -3 Ar ǧabuna, ǧabana ‘être lâche, poltron’. -4 Akk gubnat-, Hbr gᵊbīnā; PhlvAram gbnth, JP gubnā, Syr gᵊbettā (pl. gubnē), nAram(W) gbečča, Ar ǧubn, ǧubun(n) , Gz g(ʷ)əbnat ‘fromage’; Syr gᵊban ‘contracter, coaguler’. -5 Tña Amh gäbän ‘faute, culpabilité’; ? Amh gʷäbbäññä ‘espionner’.
SED I #67 Hbr gibbēn ‘hunchbacked’,46 , JudAram gibnā, gəbintā ‘hump’; gbynh (det. gbynth) ‘hump, hill’, Syr gəbībā ‘gibbosus’, Ar ǧabab ‘plaie faite par le bât à la bosse du chameau’, ʔaǧabbᵘ ‘qui a la bosse endommagée ou coupé (chameau); qui n’a pas de bosse’ [↗ǦBː (ǦBB)]; Amh gʷäbäbb alä ‘to be hunchbacked’, also ‘to be curved, bowed, bent’, Muh gᵊbᵊn, Gog gʷäbana ‘hunchbacked’.
▪ ǦBN_2 : Kogan2015 207-8 #5 : Hbr gᵊbīnā ‘cheese’,47 Syr gbettā (pl. gubne), Ar ǧubn
▪ ǦBN_3 : SED I #69 : (?) Hbr gibbēn ‘one having defective eyebrow’; EmpAram gbyn ‘forehead’, JudAram gᵊbīnā ‘eyebrow, eyelash’, gbyn ‘eyebrow’, Syr gᵊbīnā ‘supercilia; vertex, cacumen’, gᵊbīnūtā ‘supercilia’, Mnd gbina, gbana ‘brow, eyebrow, eyelash’, mMnd gᵊḇīna ‘brow’, nAss gnīvä ‘eyebrow’ (metath.), Zkh gubʔēna ‘forehead’; Ar ǧabīn ‘front’, al-ǧabīnāni (du.) ‘les deux extremites du front, les deux parties comprises entre les sourcils et les cheveux’
▪ ǦBN_4 : See prob. above, DRS #GBN-1.
▪ …
 
SED I #67 (Sem *gVb(V)b-, *gVb(b)-an- ‘hump, hunch’) thinks that »the root is likely related to [Sem] *ganb- ‘side and back of torso’ (#85). – Though traditionally identified with Sem *GBB ‘to be bent’, the [it] is rather influenced by, than related to, the latter. – Note a meaning shift in Ar.«
▪ ǦBN_2 : Kogan2015 207-8 #5: protCSem *g˅bn-at- ‘cheese’ is likely connected with the root *gbn ‘to be curved, bowed, hunchback’.126 – Mhr gəbn and Jib gəbn are likely borrowed from Ar. – Akk (lBab) gubnatu is a transparent Aramaism (contra Abraham-Sokoloff2011: 33). – According to Leslau (CDG 177, 1990: 72), Gz gəbnat, gʷəbnat is borrowed from Ar ǧubn, but this question requires further study in view of several potentially early attestations listed in LLA 1168. The Ar origin is certain for modEthSem forms like Tña ǧəbäna.
▪ ǦBN_3 : SED I #69 : Problematic. CSem *g˅b(b)īn- ‘eyebrow, front’, if Hbr gibbīn is related and Ar ǧabīn is not an Aram (Syr?) borrowing. – Related to *gabb(-at)- ‘eyebrow, eye-pit, front’ (SED I #66) (cf. Ar ↗ǧubb). – Cf. Ug /gabīnu/ ‘hillock (?)’, prob. derived with a feasible meaning shift. – Te ǧäbäna ‘forehead’ prob. an Arabism.
▪ …
 
– 
– 
¹ǧubn جُبْن
 
ID 130 • Sw – • BP 5366 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 30Oct2022
√ǦBN 
n. 
cowardice – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Entry ǦBN in DRS separates the value ‘cowardice’ from the other values in the root. But it is easily conceivable that it is fig. use of ↗ǦBN_2, likening a coward to s.o. who is *‘contracting, shrinking’, like cheese (↗ǧubnaẗ). The basic idea of a *‘shrinking together, forming a bumpy surface’ seems to be connected to Sem *√GBN ‘to be curved, bowed, hunchback’ (SED I #67 Sem *gVb(V)b-, *gVb(b)-an- ‘hump, hunch’), itself prob. an extension in -N from the 2-rad. root nucleus ↗*ǦB- with the basic meaning of ‘difference in altitude, elevation, level’ (see, however, section DISC in entry *ǦB-).
▪ …
 
▪ … 
DRS #GBN-1 Hbr gibbēn ‘bossu’, *gabnōn ‘sommet, crête (de montagne)’, JP gᵊbintā, Syr gibnā ‘bosse’, JP Syr gᵊbīn ‘bossu’, Mand gabnia ‘sommets’; Gz gʷəbən, gʷəbər ‘bossu’; ? Ar ǧabbān ‘terrain élevé de forme plate mais où on trouve des monticules’. -2 PhlvAram gbyn, JP Syr gᵊbīnā, Mand gbina, nSyr (aysor) gnīvä ‘sourcil’, Ar ǧabīn ‘côté du front, front, tempe’; Te gäbäna ‘front’. -3 Ar ǧabuna, ǧabana ‘être lâche, poltron’. -4 Akk gubnat-, Hbr gᵊbīnā; PhlvAram gbnth, JP gubnā, Syr gᵊbettā (pl. gubnē), nAram(W) gbečča, Ar ǧubn, ǧubun(n) , Gz g(ʷ)əbnat ‘fromage’; Syr gᵊban ‘contracter, coaguler’. -5 […].
SED I #67 Hbr gibbēn ‘hunchbacked’,48 , JudAram gibnā, gəbintā ‘hump’; gbynh (det. gbynth) ‘hump, hill’, Syr gəbībā ‘gibbosus’, Ar ǧabab ‘plaie faite par le bât à la bosse du chameau’, ʔaǧabbᵘ ‘qui a la bosse endommagée ou coupé (chameau); qui n’a pas de bosse’ [↗ǦBː (ǦBB)]; Amh gʷäbäbb alä ‘to be hunchbacked’, also ‘to be curved, bowed, bent’, Muh gᵊbᵊn, Gog gʷäbana ‘hunchbacked’.
▪ …
 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
ǧabuna, u (ǧubn, ǧabānaẗ), vb. I, 1a to be a coward, be fearful; b to be too much of a coward (ʕan to do s.th.), shrink (ʕan from s.th.)
ǧabbana, vb. II, 1-3 ↗²ǧubn; 4 to accuse of cowardice, call a coward (s.o.): D-stem, appellative.

BP#4084ǧabān, pl. ǧubanāʔᵘ, n./adj., 1a coward; b cowardly
ǧabānaẗ, n.f., cowardice: vn. I
ʔaǧbanᵘ, adj., more cowardly: elat. formation

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗²ǧubn, ↗ǧabīn, and ↗ǧabbānaẗ as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ǦBN.
 
²ǧubn جُبْن 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Oct2022, last update 30Oct2022
√ǦBN 
n. 
cheese – WehrCowan1976 
▪ From protCSem *g˅bn-at- ‘cheese’ – Kogan2015. – Prob. lit. *‘shrinking substance, showing wrinkles, furrows’, from the basic idea of *‘shrinking together, forming a bumpy surface’, from a Sem *√GBN ‘to be curved, bowed, hunchback’ (SED I #67 Sem *gVb(V)b-, *gVb(b)-an- ‘hump, hunch’), itself prob. an extension in -N from the 2-rad. root nucleus ↗*ǦB- with the basic value ‘difference in altitude, elevation, level’ (see, however, below, section DISC).
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
DRS #GBN-1 Hbr gibbēn ‘bossu’, *gabnōn ‘sommet, crête (de montagne)’, JP gᵊbintā, Syr gibnā ‘bosse’, JP Syr gᵊbīn ‘bossu’, Mand gabnia ‘sommets’; Gz gʷəbən, gʷəbər ‘bossu’; ? Ar ǧabbān ‘terrain élevé de forme plate mais où on trouve des monticules’. -2 PhlvAram gbyn, JP Syr gᵊbīnā, Mand gbina, nSyr (aysor) gnīvä ‘sourcil’, Ar ǧabīn ‘côté du front, front, tempe’; Te gäbäna ‘front’. -3 Ar ǧabuna, ǧabana ‘être lâche, poltron’. -4 Akk gubnat-, Hbr gᵊbīnā; PhlvAram gbnth, JP gubnā, Syr gᵊbettā (pl. gubnē), nAram(W) gbečča, Ar ǧubn, ǧubun(n) , Gz g(ʷ)əbnat ‘fromage’; Syr gᵊban ‘contracter, coaguler’. -5 […].
▪ Kogan2015 207-8 #5 : Hbr gᵊbīnā ‘cheese’,49 Syr gbettā (pl. gubne), Ar ǧubn
▪ …
 
▪ Kogan2015 207-8 #5: protCSem *g˅bn-at- ‘cheese’ is likely connected with the root *gbn ‘to be curved, bowed, hunchback’.127 – Mhr gəbn and Jib gəbn are likely borrowed from Ar. – Akk (lBab) gubnatu is a transparent Aramaism (contra Abraham-Sokoloff2011: 33). – According to Leslau (CDG 177, 1990: 72), Gz gəbnat, gʷəbnat is borrowed from Ar ǧubn, but this question requires further study in view of several potentially early attestations listed in LLA 1168. The Ar origin is certain for modEthSem forms like Tña ǧəbäna.
▪ …
 
– 
ǧabbana, vb. II, 1 to cause to curdle (milk); 2 to make into cheese (s.th.); 3 to curdle; 4 ↗¹ǧubn: D-stem, caus.
taǧabbana, vb. V, to curdle (milk), turn into cheese: tD-stem, intr.

ǧubūn, n., cheese: var. of ǧubn
ǧabbān, n., cheese merchant: n.prof.
taǧbīn, n., cheese making, processing into cheese: vn. II

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹ǧubn, ↗ǧabīn, and ↗ǧabbānaẗ as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ǦBN.
 
ǧabīn جَبِين , pl. ǧubun, ʔaǧbinaẗ, ʔaǧbun 
ID 131 • Sw – • BP 3327 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last update 30Oct2022
√ǦBN 
n. 
1 forehead, brow; 2 facade, front; 3 face – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ Etymology problematic (see below, section DISC), but perh. from CSem *g˅b(b)īn- ‘eyebrow, front’. Jeffery1938 considered it a borrowing from Aram gbynʔ (Syr gᵊbīnā) ‘brow, eyebrow’. In any case, these regions of the face show ‘wrinkles, furrows’ and are thus *‘contracting’ parts, showing wrinkles, and may thus have developed from the basic idea of a *‘shrinking together, forming a bumpy surface’, from a Sem *√GBN ‘to be curved, bowed, hunchback’ (SED I #67 Sem *gVb(V)b-, *gVb(b)-an- ‘hump, hunch’), itself prob. an extension in -N from the 2-rad. root nucleus ↗*ǦB- with the basic value ‘difference in altitude, elevation, level’.
▪ …
 
eC7 (‘temple, side of forehead’) Q 37:103 fa-lammā ʾaslamā wa-talla-hū li-l-ǧabīni ‘Then, when they had both surrendered (to Allah), and he had flung him down upon his face’ 
DRS #GBN-1 Hbr gibbēn ‘bossu’, *gabnōn ‘sommet, crête (de montagne)’, JP gᵊbintā, Syr gibnā ‘bosse’, JP Syr gᵊbīn ‘bossu’, Mand gabnia ‘sommets’; Gz gʷəbən, gʷəbər ‘bossu’; ? Ar ǧabbān ‘terrain élevé de forme plate mais où on trouve des monticules’. -2 PhlvAram gbyn, JP Syr gᵊbīnā, Mand gbina, nSyr (aysor) gnīvä ‘sourcil’, Ar ǧabīn ‘côté du front, front, tempe’; Te gäbäna ‘front’. -3 Ar ǧabuna, ǧabana ‘être lâche, poltron’. -4 Akk gubnat-, Hbr gᵊbīnā; PhlvAram gbnth, JP gubnā, Syr gᵊbettā (pl. gubnē), nAram(W) gbečča, Ar ǧubn, ǧubun(n) , Gz g(ʷ)əbnat ‘fromage’; Syr gᵊban ‘contracter, coaguler’. -5 […].
SED I #69 : (?) Hbr gibbēn ‘one having defective eyebrow’; EmpAram gbyn ‘forehead’, JudAram gᵊbīnā ‘eyebrow, eyelash’, gbyn ‘eyebrow’, Syr gᵊbīnā ‘supercilia; vertex, cacumen’, gᵊbīnūtā ‘supercilia’, Mnd gbina, gbana ‘brow, eyebrow, eyelash’, mMnd gᵊḇīna ‘brow’, nAss gnīvä ‘eyebrow’ (metath.), Zkh gubʔēna ‘forehead’; Ar ǧabīn ‘front’, al-ǧabīnāni (du.) ‘les deux extremites du front, les deux parties comprises entre les sourcils et les cheveux’
▪ …
 
SED I #69 : Problematic. CSem *g˅b(b)īn- ‘eyebrow, front’, if Hbr gibbīn is related and Ar ǧabīn is not an Aram (Syr?) borrowing. – Related to *gabb(-at)- ‘eyebrow, eye-pit, front’ (SED I #66) (cf. Ar ↗ǧubb). – Cf. Ug /gabīnu/ ‘hillock (?)’, prob. derived with a feasible meaning shift. – Te ǧäbäna ‘forehead’ prob. an Arabism.
▪ Jeffery1938: »The sole occurrence of the word is in the story of Abraham preparing to sacrifice his son, when he laid him down on his forehead. The exegetes got the meaning right, but neither they nor the Lexicons have any satisfactory explanation of the origin of the word from a root ǦBN. / Barth has suggested an Aram origin. [Aram] gbynʔ means ‘brow, eyebrow’ and is fairly common in the Rabbinic writings. Similarly [Syr] gbynʔ is ‘eyebrow’ and a commonly used word. From either of these it may have been an early borrowing into Ar.«
▪ …
 
– 
min ǧabīnī, adv., alone;
ʕalà ǧabīn al-samāʔ, adv., in the sky

ǧabīnī, adj., frontal: nsb-adj.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹ǧubn, ↗²ǧubn, and ↗ǧabbānaẗ as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ǦBN.
 
ǧabbānaẗ جَبّانة , pl. -āt 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Oct2022, last update 30Oct2022
√ǦBN 
n.f. 
cemetery – WehrCowan1976 
▪ Ar ǧabbānaẗ ‘cemetry’ may originally have been an *‘elevated plain with some hills, or bumps’, fitting into the general picture of ǦBN originally meaning a *‘shrinking, or bumpy, surface, with “wrinkles”’, from the basic idea of *‘shrinking together, forming a bumpy surface’, from a Sem *√GBN ‘to be curved, bowed, hunchback’ (SED I #67 Sem *gVb(V)b-, *gVb(b)-an- ‘hump, hunch’), itself prob. an extension in -N from the 2-rad. root nucleus ↗*ǦB- with the basic value ‘difference in altitude, elevation, level’ (see, however, below, section DISC).
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
COGN ▪ DRS #GBN-1 Hbr gibbēn ‘bossu’, *gabnōn ‘sommet, crête (de montagne)’, JP gᵊbintā, Syr gibnā ‘bosse’, JP Syr gᵊbīn ‘bossu’, Mand gabnia ‘sommets’; Gz gʷəbən, gʷəbər ‘bossu’; ? Ar ǧabbān ‘terrain élevé de forme plate mais où on trouve des monticules’. -2 PhlvAram gbyn, JP Syr gᵊbīnā, Mand gbina, nSyr (aysor) gnīvä ‘sourcil’, Ar ǧabīn ‘côté du front, front, tempe’; Te gäbäna ‘front’. -3 Ar ǧabuna, ǧabana ‘être lâche, poltron’. -4 Akk gubnat-, Hbr gᵊbīnā; PhlvAram gbnth, JP gubnā, Syr gᵊbettā (pl. gubnē), nAram(W) gbečča, Ar ǧubn, ǧubun(n) , Gz g(ʷ)əbnat ‘fromage’; Syr gᵊban ‘contracter, coaguler’. -5 Tña Amh gäbän ‘faute, culpabilité’; ? Amh gʷäbbäññä ‘espionner’.
SED I #67 Hbr gibbēn ‘hunchbacked’,50 , JudAram gibnā, gəbintā ‘hump’; gbynh (det. gbynth) ‘hump, hill’, Syr gəbībā ‘gibbosus’, Ar ǧabab ‘plaie faite par le bât à la bosse du chameau’, ʔaǧabbᵘ ‘qui a la bosse endommagée ou coupé (chameau); qui n’a pas de bosse’ [↗ǦBː (ǦBB)]; Amh gʷäbäbb alä ‘to be hunchbacked’, also ‘to be curved, bowed, bent’, Muh gᵊbᵊn, Gog gʷäbana ‘hunchbacked’.
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
– 
For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹ǧubn, ↗²ǧubn, and ↗ǧabīn as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ǦBN.
 
ǦBH جبه 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 18Oct2022, last updated 9Jan2023
√ǦBH 
“root” 
▪ ǦBH_1 ‘forehead, front; to meet, face, confront’ ↗ǧabhaẗ
▪ ǦBH_ ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘forehead, to strike on the forehead; chief; to embarrass, to hold the head down, to be humiliated; group of horses’ 
SED I #68 reconstructs Sem *g˅bh(-at)- ‘forehead, front’, adding that this latter is very likely related to Sem *gabb(-at)- ‘eyebrow, eye-pit, front’ (#66) (see ↗ǦBː(ǦBB)) (with ‑h‑ as a triconsonantizer?) and comparable as a variant root with h vs. to, or probably contaminated with, *gbḫ ‘to be bald (on the forehead)’ (see Verbal Roots, #15).
▪ … 
– 
▪ Zammit2002 : Hbr gōbah ‘height’, Aram gūbhā ‘height, elevation’, Ar ǧibāh ‘forehead’
SED I #68 : (?) postBiblHbr gōbah ‘thick, fleshy part’ (?), Mhr gəbhēt ‘front’, Ḥrṣ yábheh ‘brow’ (y- < *g-), Jib gəbhɛ́t ‘front, brow’, Ar ǧabhaẗ ‘front (tant chez l’homme que chez animaux)’, ǧabah ‘front large, vaste et beau’, Te gəbbəhit ‘forehead’, gäbbah ‘broadfronted’
▪ Borg2021 #87 ǧ-b-h : Jib gǝbhέt ‘brow’ (Johnstone 1981: 69), Ar ǧabhaẗ ‘forehead’ (Hava 1982: 77). | Outside Sem, the author compares Eg (MK) gmḥt ‘forehead | Locke oder Flechte des Haares’ (Ember 1930: 80; Wb V 171).
▪ … 
SED I #68 : It is not clear whether the basis of cognates is sufficient for reconstructing a comSem protoform since borrowing of the Te and modSAr forms from Ar is possible, while the postBiblHbr term is semantically problematic. Sometimes compared to Hbr gbh ‘to be high’, gābōᵃh ‘high’, JudArma gbh ‘to be high, elated’, which is perhaps a folk etymology (see [DRS 95]).
▪ … 
– 
– 
ǧabhaẗ جَبْهة , pl. ǧibāh, ǧabahāt 
ID – • Sw … • BP 1447 • APD … • © SG | 21Nov2022, last updated 9Jan2023
√ǦBH 
n.f. 
1 forehead, brow; 2 front, face, façade; 3 frontline, battle front – WehrCowan1976
 
SED I #68: From Sem *g˅bh(-at)- ‘forehead, front’.
▪ … 
▪ (Hava1899:) ǧabaha, a (ǧabh), vb. I, 1 to strike s.o. on the forehead; 2 to take (people) unawares (winter); 3 to come to (water) without means for drawing it; 4 to receive harshly (bi‑ s.o.); ǧabbaha, vb. II, to lower (the head); ĭǧtabaha, vb. VIII, to dislike (water); ǧabah ‘broadness and beauty of the forehead’; ǧabhaẗ, n.f., 1 forehead; 2 chief (al-qawm of a tribe); 3 insult; 4 mansion of the moon; 5 ignominy; ʔaǧbahᵘ, f. ǧabhāʔᵘ, 1 adj., who has a broad and fine forehead; 2 n., lion
▪ … 
▪ Zammit2002 : Hbr gōbah ‘height’, Aram gūbhā ‘height, elevation’, Ar ǧibāh ‘forehead’
SED I #68 : (?) postBiblHbr gōbah ‘thick, fleshy part’ (?), Mhr gəbhēt ‘front’, Ḥrṣ yábheh ‘brow’ (y- < *g-), Jib gəbhɛ́t ‘front, brow’, Ar ǧabhaẗ ‘front (tant chez l’homme que chez animaux)’, ǧabah ‘front large, vaste et beau’, Te gəbbəhit ‘forehead’, gäbbah ‘broadfronted’
▪ Borg2021 #87 ǧ-b-h : Jib gǝbhέt ‘brow’ (Johnstone 1981: 69), Ar ǧabhaẗ ‘forehead’ (Hava 1982: 77). | Outside Sem, the author compares Eg (MK) gmḥt ‘forehead | Locke oder Flechte des Haares’ (Ember 1930: 80; Wb V 171).
▪ … 
SED I #68 : It is not clear whether this basis [of cognates] for reconstructing a comSem protoform is sufficient since borrowing of the Te and modSAr forms from Ar is possible, while the postBiblHbr term is semantically problematic. Sometimes compared to Hbr gbh ‘to be high’, gābōᵃh ‘high’, JudArma gbh ‘to be high, elated’, which is perhaps a folk etymology (see [DRS 95]).
▪ … 
– 
ǧabaha, a, vb. I, to meet, face, confront: G-stem, prob. denom.
ǧābaha, vb. III, 1 to face, confront, oppose, defy, show a bold front to; 2 to face (a problem, a difficulty): L-stem, assoc.

muǧābahaẗ, n.f., facing, confrontation, opposition: vn. III
 
ǦBY جبي 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 18Oct2022, last update 22Oct2022
√ǦBY 
“root” 
▪ ǦBY_1 ‘to collect, raise, levy (taxes, duties)’ ↗ǧabà
▪ ǦBY_2 ‘to prostrate o.s. (in prayer)’ ↗ǧabbà
▪ ǦBY_3 ‘pool, basin’ ↗ǧābiyaẗ
▪ ǦBY_ ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘pools; basins, cauldrons, to collect water in a basin, collected drinking water; to request; to select; to invent; to kneel down’ 
▪ Ultimately, all values in the root ǦBY may be derived from a basic *‘to gather, collect, amass, coagulate, etc.’, featuring in several extensions from ↗*ǦB- (cf., e.g., also ↗√ǦBʔ).
ǦBY_1 (≙ DRS #GBʔ/W/Y-1) : the notion of ‘collecting’ is the primary value, ‘levying taxes’ evidently being a later specialization.
ǦBY_2 : ? – perh. a folding/bringing-together of the limbs?
ǦBY_3 : Jeffery1938 reproduces Fraenkel’s view who would derive ǧābiyaẗ ‘pool, basin’ from Syr qabīṯā ‘cistern, collection of water’ (with Ar ǧ < Syr q). Against this etymology one may argue that ‘pool, basin’ can easily be linked to the basic notion of *‘collecting, gathering, amassing’ underlying both ǦBY_1 and (now extinct) ↗ǦBʔ; for the latter, cf., e.g., the obsolete ¹ǧabʔ (pl. ǧabʔaẗ, ǧibʔaẗ, ʔaǧbuʔ) ‘hollow of stagnating water’, i.e., *‘pit where water has assembled’.
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
DRS #GBʔ/W/Y-1 nHbr gābā ‘encaisser’, gibbuy ‘collecte’, gabbāy ‘collecteur’; TalmAram gᵊbā ‘faire rentrer’, gabbāyā, gābōyā ‘collecteur’, cf. Palm gbʔ, gby ‘taxer, lever des impôts’, Syr gᵊbā ‘recueillir (de l’eau, les impôts), choisir, élire’, Mnd gba ‘rassembler, choisir’, nSyr gāwi ‘mendier, recueillir (des souscriptions, etc.), choisir’; (Aysor) gʸävi ‘mendier’, gʸäb ‘rassembler; fermenter, déborder’; Ar ǧabā (w/y) ‘recueillir (de l’eau, un tribut), rebrousser chemin’; MġrAr ǧbā ‘descendre; passer’, ǧtabā ‘choisir’, SAr gbʔ ‘revenir’, ʔgbyw ‘temps de la collecte des impôts’, Soq *gébe ‘trouver’, Gz gabʔa ‘revenir à, se réunir à’, tagabʔa ‘confluer’ ; Te gäbʔa, gäʔa ‘arriver, se produire’, təgabʔa ‘rencontrer’, Tña gäbʔe ‘se tourner’, Amh gäbba, čaha gäpa-m ‘entrer’, Har gäbaʔa ‘retourner’, Gz gubāʔe, Te Tña Amh gubaʔe ‘réunion’, Hbr gebē ‘étang, marais’, gēb ‘fossé, réservoir à eau’, Nab Palm gbʔ, Ar ǧabʔ ‘fosse, anfractuosité où l’eau s’amasse‘, Hbr *gēb, gōb (coll. gobay, gōbay), JudPalAram gōbā, gōbay ‘sauterelle’, Ar ǧabiʔa, ǧabaʔa ‘surgir, s’abattre sur’, ǧābiʔ ‘nuée de criquets’, Akk gabb- ‘totalité; ?Ar ǧabʔ ‘truffe’.51 -2-3 […]. -4 ǧabiʔa, ǧabaʔa ‘s’émousser (sabre), s’affaiblir (vue)’, ǧubbaʔ ‘poltron’. -5 […].
▪ Zammit2002: nHbr gābā ‘to collect (a bill, taxes)’, Aram gᵊbā ‘to collect tax’, Syr gᵊbā ‘to exact tribute’, SAr gbʔ ‘to impose tithes’, Ar ǧabā ‘to collect tribute’, Gz ʔagbeʔa ‘restituere; reddere’, ʔastagābeʔa ‘ad se recipere; cogere, colligere; congregare’
▪ …
 
▪ See above, section CONC, and individual sub-entries.
▪ …
 
– 
– 
ǧabà / ǧabay- جَبَى / جَبَيْـــ , i (ǧibāyaẗ
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 22Oct2022
√ǦBY 
vb., I 
to collect, raise, levy (taxes, duties) – WehrCowan1976
 
▪ Ultimately, all values in the root ǦBY may be derived from a basic *‘to gather, collect, amass, coagulate, etc.’, featuring in several extensions from ↗*ǦB- (cf., e.g., also ↗√ǦBʔ).
▪ Thus, ‘levying taxes’ is prob. a secondary, specialized value. This value is widespread already in early times, however. Nevertheless, the Ar term may have been borrowed from, or at least been influenced by, Syr.
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
DRS #GBʔ/W/Y-1 nHbr gābā ‘encaisser’, gibbuy ‘collecte’, gabbāy ‘collecteur’; TalmAram gᵊbā ‘faire rentrer’, gabbāyā, gābōyā ‘collecteur’, cf. Palm gbʔ, gby ‘taxer, lever des impôts’, Syr gᵊbā ‘recueillir (de l’eau, les impôts), choisir, élire’, Mnd gba ‘rassembler, choisir’, nSyr gāwi ‘mendier, recueillir (des souscriptions, etc.), choisir’; (Aysor) gʸävi ‘mendier’, gʸäb ‘rassembler; fermenter, déborder’; Ar ǧabā (w/y) ‘recueillir (de l’eau, un tribut), rebrousser chemin’; MġrAr ǧbā ‘descendre; passer’, ǧtabā ‘choisir’, SAr gbʔ ‘revenir’, ʔgbyw ‘temps de la collecte des impôts’, Soq *gébe ‘trouver’, Gz gabʔa ‘revenir à, se réunir à’, tagabʔa ‘confluer’ ; Te gäbʔa, gäʔa ‘arriver, se produire’, təgabʔa ‘rencontrer’, Tña gäbʔe ‘se tourner’, Amh gäbba, čaha gäpa-m ‘entrer’, Har gäbaʔa ‘retourner’, Gz gubāʔe, Te Tña Amh gubaʔe ‘réunion’, Hbr gebē ‘étang, marais’, gēb ‘fossé, réservoir à eau’, Nab Palm gbʔ, Ar ǧabʔ ‘fosse, anfractuosité où l’eau s’amasse‘, Hbr *gēb, gōb (coll. gobay, gōbay), JudPalAram gōbā, gōbay ‘sauterelle’, Ar ǧabiʔa, ǧabaʔa ‘surgir, s’abattre sur’, ǧābiʔ ‘nuée de criquets’, Akk gabb- ‘totalité; ?Ar ǧabʔ ‘truffe’.52 -2-3 […]. -4 ǧabiʔa, ǧabaʔa ‘s’émousser (sabre), s’affaiblir (vue)’, ǧubbaʔ ‘poltron’. -5 […].
▪ Zammit2002: nHbr gābā ‘to collect (a bill, taxes)’, Aram gᵊbā ‘to collect tax’, Syr gᵊbā ‘to exact tribute’, SAr gbʔ ‘to impose tithes’, Ar ǧabā ‘to collect tribute’, Gz ʔagbeʔa ‘restituere; reddere’, ʔastagābeʔa ‘ad se recipere; cogere, colligere; congregare’
▪ Hoch1994 #209: Ug gbb (N-stem) ‘to gather together, assemble (troops)’, MishnaHbr gābāʰ ‘to collect taxes, collect debts’, (Hi) ‘to cause taxes to be collected’, gabbāyy ‘tax collector; customs collector’, gabbāyūṯ ‘the office of (Roman) tax collector’, TalmAram gəbī ‘to collect (taxes, debts); to tax’, (Af) ‘to make s.o. pay’, gabbōyāyâ ‘(tax) collector; (customs) collector’, and the by-form gḇaḇ ‘to collect; rake up’, Palm gby ‘to collect (tax, toll)’ (common), Syr gəḇā ‘to levy impost, collect tax’, gabbāyā ‘tax collector’, Ar ǧabà ‘to collect (taxes, duties)’, ǧibāyaẗ ‘tax, duty, impost’, ǧābiⁿ ‘tax collector, revenue officer’, maǧbaⁿ ‘tax, impost’. | Outside Sem: perh. Eg (NK) ma=ša=ka=ba53 */maskaba/? (sg.), */maskabayu/a/? (pl.), a ‘state official’, prob. ‘tax official’ or ‘customs officer’. See below, section DISC.
▪ …
 
▪ Hoch1994 #209 discusses possible relation of a late Eg word for ‘(tax-)collector’ with the Sem root: »This officer is found in connection with ships, taxes, and the military (foreign campaigns). The term also occurs in the title ḥry mškb ‘superintendent of the mškb’.« The author dismisses association, made in earlier research, with Hbr škb, since the root means ‘to lie down’. However, if the word means ‘(tax) collector’, it »may possibly be connected to the [Sem] root gby or its by-form gbb ‘to collect’. The root is not attested with this meaning in BiblHbr, but is very well attested in the languages in which it does occur […; see above, section COGN]. The form would be the Š-stem participle, with the /g/ being devoiced under the influence of the sibilant. An exact parallel is not found, however, as the words for tax/customs officials are either the G-stem participle or the ‘professional’ qattāla form.[…]«
▪ …
 
– 
ĭǧtabà, vb. VIII, to pick, choose, elect (s.th., s.o.): Gt-stem, self-ref.

ǧibāyaẗ, n.f., raising, levying (of taxes); (pl. ‑āt) tax, duty, impost: vn. I
ǧibāʔī, adj., 1a tax- (in compounds); b fiscal: nsb-formation from ǧibāyaẗ
maǧbaⁿ, pl. maǧābiⁿ, n., tax, impost: quasi-n.loc.
ǧābiⁿ, pl. ǧubāẗ, n., tax collector, revenue officer, collector; (IrAr) (bus, etc.) conductor: PA I

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ǧabbà and ↗ǧābiyaẗ as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ǦBY.
 
ǧabbà / ǧabbay- جَبَّى / جَبَّيْــ 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 22Oct2022
√ǦBY 
vb., II 
to prostrate o.s. (in prayer) – WehrCowan1976
 
▪ Ultimately, all values in the root ǦBY may be derived from a basic *‘to gather, collect, amass, coagulate, etc.’, featuring in several extensions from ↗*ǦB- (cf., e.g., also ↗√ǦBʔ).
▪ But how exactly ‘to prostrate o.s.’ is dependent on *‘to collect’ will need further investigation. According to Lane ii 1865, some Class lexicographers give the meaning more specifically as ‘to bend down, lower one’s body (in prayer), placing one’s hands upon one’s knees’ etc., explain these body movements as a »bringing-together of the limbs«.
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
DRS #GBʔ/W/Y-1 nHbr gābā ‘encaisser’, gibbuy ‘collecte’, gabbāy ‘collecteur’; TalmAram gᵊbā ‘faire rentrer’, gabbāyā, gābōyā ‘collecteur’, cf. Palm gbʔ, gby ‘taxer, lever des impôts’, Syr gᵊbā ‘recueillir (de l’eau, les impôts), choisir, élire’, Mnd gba ‘rassembler, choisir’, nSyr gāwi ‘mendier, recueillir (des souscriptions, etc.), choisir’; (Aysor) gʸävi ‘mendier’, gʸäb ‘rassembler; fermenter, déborder’; Ar ǧabā (w/y) ‘recueillir (de l’eau, un tribut), rebrousser chemin’; MġrAr ǧbā ‘descendre; passer’, ǧtabā ‘choisir’, SAr gbʔ ‘revenir’, ʔgbyw ‘temps de la collecte des impôts’, Soq *gébe ‘trouver’, Gz gabʔa ‘revenir à, se réunir à’, tagabʔa ‘confluer’ ; Te gäbʔa, gäʔa ‘arriver, se produire’, təgabʔa ‘rencontrer’, Tña gäbʔe ‘se tourner’, Amh gäbba, čaha gäpa-m ‘entrer’, Har gäbaʔa ‘retourner’, Gz gubāʔe, Te Tña Amh gubaʔe ‘réunion’, Hbr gebē ‘étang, marais’, gēb ‘fossé, réservoir à eau’, Nab Palm gbʔ, Ar ǧabʔ ‘fosse, anfractuosité où l’eau s’amasse‘, Hbr *gēb, gōb (coll. gobay, gōbay), JudPalAram gōbā, gōbay ‘sauterelle’, Ar ǧabiʔa, ǧabaʔa ‘surgir, s’abattre sur’, ǧābiʔ ‘nuée de criquets’, Akk gabb- ‘totalité; ?Ar ǧabʔ ‘truffe’.54 -2-3 […]. -4 ǧabiʔa, ǧabaʔa ‘s’émousser (sabre), s’affaiblir (vue)’, ǧubbaʔ ‘poltron’. -5 […].
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
– 
For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ǧabà and ↗ǧābiyaẗ as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ǦBY.
 
ǧābiyaẗ جابِيَة , pl. ǧawābiⁿ 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 22Oct2022
√ǦBY 
n.f. 
pool, basin – WehrCowan1976
 
▪ Ultimately, all values in the root ǦBY may be derived from a basic *‘to gather, collect, amass, coagulate, etc.’, featuring in several extensions from ↗*ǦB-.
▪ Jeffery1938 reproduces Fraenkel’s view who would derive Ar ǧābiyaẗ from Syr qabīṯā ‘cistern, collection of water’ (with Ar ǧ < Syr q). Against this etymology one may argue that ‘pool, basin’ can easily be linked to the basic notion of *‘collecting, gathering, amassing’ underlying both ↗ǦBY and (now extinct) ↗ǦBʔ; for the latter, cf., e.g., the obsolete, but certainly related ¹ǧabʔ (pl. ǧabʔaẗ, ǧibʔaẗ, ʔaǧbuʔ) ‘hollow of stagnating water’, i.e., *‘pit where water has assembled’.
▪ …
 
eC7 (‘cistern, well’) Q 34:13 yaʕmalūna la-hū mā yašāʔu min maḥārība wa-tamāṯīla wa-ǧifānin ka-l-ǧawābi wa-qudūrin rāsiyātin ‘they made for him what he willed: synagogues and statues, basins like wells and boilers built into the ground’
▪ …
 
DRS #GBʔ/W/Y-1 nHbr gābā ‘encaisser’, gibbuy ‘collecte’, gabbāy ‘collecteur’; TalmAram gᵊbā ‘faire rentrer’, gabbāyā, gābōyā ‘collecteur’, cf. Palm gbʔ, gby ‘taxer, lever des impôts’, Syr gᵊbā ‘recueillir (de l’eau, les impôts), choisir, élire’, Mnd gba ‘rassembler, choisir’, nSyr gāwi ‘mendier, recueillir (des souscriptions, etc.), choisir’; (Aysor) gʸävi ‘mendier’, gʸäb ‘rassembler; fermenter, déborder’; Ar ǧabā (w/y) ‘recueillir (de l’eau, un tribut), rebrousser chemin’; MġrAr ǧbā ‘descendre; passer’, ǧtabā ‘choisir’, SAr gbʔ ‘revenir’, ʔgbyw ‘temps de la collecte des impôts’, Soq *gébe ‘trouver’, Gz gabʔa ‘revenir à, se réunir à’, tagabʔa ‘confluer’ ; Te gäbʔa, gäʔa ‘arriver, se produire’, təgabʔa ‘rencontrer’, Tña gäbʔe ‘se tourner’, Amh gäbba, čaha gäpa-m ‘entrer’, Har gäbaʔa ‘retourner’, Gz gubāʔe, Te Tña Amh gubaʔe ‘réunion’, Hbr gebē ‘étang, marais’, gēb ‘fossé, réservoir à eau’, Nab Palm gbʔ, Ar ǧabʔ ‘fosse, anfractuosité où l’eau s’amasse‘, Hbr *gēb, gōb (coll. gobay, gōbay), JudPalAram gōbā, gōbay ‘sauterelle’, Ar ǧabiʔa, ǧabaʔa ‘surgir, s’abattre sur’, ǧābiʔ ‘nuée de criquets’, Akk gabb- ‘totalité; ?Ar ǧabʔ ‘truffe’.55 -2-3 […]. -4 ǧabiʔa, ǧabaʔa ‘s’émousser (sabre), s’affaiblir (vue)’, ǧubbaʔ ‘poltron’. -5 […].
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
– 
For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ǧabà and ↗ǧabbà as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ǦBY.
 
ǦṮː (ǦṮṮ) جثّ / جثث 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 11Jan2023
√ǦṮː (ǦṮṮ) 
“root” 
▪ ǦṮː (ǦṮṮ)_1 ‘to tear out, uproot’ ↗ǧaṯṯa
▪ ǦṮː (ǦṮṮ)_2 ‘body; corpse, cadaver; carcass’ ↗ǧuṯṯaẗ
▪ ǦṮː (ǦṮṮ)_3 ‘mujtathth’ (a poetic metre) ↗muǧtaṯṯ

Other values, now obsolete, include (Hava1899):

ǦṮː (ǦṮṮ)_4 ‘remains of bees mixed with honey; wax’: ǧaṯṯ; cf. also ǧuṯṯ ‘remains of bees in honey; dead locust; envelope of a date; hillock’
ǦṮː (ǦṮṮ)_5 ‘palm-tree grove; shoot of palm-tree’: ǧaṯīṯ
ǦṮː (ǦṮṮ)_ ‘…’

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘seedling, to transplant; to uproot, eradicate; body, corpse; impurities’
 
▪ [v1]/[v2] : References mostly deal with [v1] and [v2] as distinct values (the other values seem to be based on the latter, see below). However, the two may be related: [v2] ǧuṯṯaẗ could be, originally, the ‘carcass (of an animal)’ left over after predatory animals have eaten from it by [v1] ‘tearing out’ pieces of flesh etc. from it. Also an inverse derivation – [v1] denominal from [v2] – is not inconceivable, perhaps even more likely.
▪ [v1] : Cognates in Akk and EthSem, perh. also Ug (and Cush). – DRS 3 (1993) thinks one should compare Sem √GD (Ar ǧadda ‘to cut’, see ↗ǦDː (ǦDD)_7).
▪ [v2] : Cognates in Nab, Soq and Mhr. – DRS 3 (1993) thinks the item is comparable to Sem GŠD (> Ar ↗ǧasad ‘body’), GŠM (> Ar ↗ǧism ‘body; form, shape’), and GṮM (> Ar ↗ǧuṯmān ‘body, mortal frame’). – Borg2021 #88 juxtaposes Eg (Pyr) ḏt ~ ḏs ‘body of person, image, bodily form of god | Leib’. – According to Landberg1920, DaṯAr has ǧuffaẗ ‘cadavre, charogne’, while the North and Oman say ǧīfaẗ. The author thinks that ǧuṯṯaẗ might be a variant – « une très vieille pronunciation » – of ǧuffaẗ (with < *f ); « Cela semble conformé par [Hbr] gap̄ ‘corps; personne’ [so also Gesenius2015 s.v. gap̄] et [Hbr] gûp̄āʰ ʻcorps mortʼ [related to Ar ↗ǦWF ‘hollow’?]. »
▪ [v3] : According to Lane, the poetic metre with the syllabic pattern mustafʕilun fāʕilātun fāʕilātun is called muǧtaṯṯ because it looks »as if cut off from the ḫafīf [another poetic metre]«, thus derived from [v1].
[v4] : The values ‘remains of (dead) bees in honey; wax; envelope of a date’ resemble the [v2] ‘carcasses’ left over after predatory animals have satisfied their hunger from a dead animal body; the meaning ‘hillock’ remains obscure.
[v5] : The FaʕīL form ǧaṯīṯ for ‘palm-tree grove; shoot of palm-tree’ suggests that it is a quasi-PP of [v1] ‘to tear out’, likening the grove or shoot of a palm-tree to a trunk.
▪ …
 
– 
▪ [gnrl] DRS 3 (1993) GṮṮ-1 [=v1] Akk gašāšu ‘couper, trancher’, Ar ǧaṯṯa ‘déraciner, arracher’, ǧaṯṯ ‘arrachage’, Amh gässäsä ‘annuler, effacer, abîmer, vaincre, déflorer une fille’, Har agäsäsä ‘faire détester’, Gur ‘refuser, désobéir; être abîmé’.56 -?2 Akk gašīš- ‘poteau, pieu, pal’. -3 [=v2] Nab gt, Ar ǧuṯṯaẗ ‘corps, cadavre’, ǧaṯṯ ‘restes, débris (d’insectes, etc.)’, ǧiṯṯaẗ ‘vétusté, ruine’, Soq gitteh, Mhr diśśet ‘cadavre’.
▪ [v1] Zammit2002, Leslau2006: Akk gašāšu ‘abschneiden’, ?(Ug mgṯ ‘ein Lamm, zum Schlachten geeignet | fatling’), Gz gasasa ‘to scrape away, shave of, pluck out (hair)’, Te gässa ‘to wipe off with the hand, sweep’, Amh gässäsä ‘to efface, wipe out’, Gur (a)gäsäsä ‘to remove completely by cutting and digging’, Ar ĭǧtaṯṯa ‘to tear up, root up’. – Outside Sem: (Cush) Bil Sa gäsäs ‘to wipe’, Kham gis.
▪ [v2] Landberg1920: « ǧuṯṯaẗ ‘cadavre’, inusité dans notre dialecte, qui a pour cela [DaṯAr] ǧuffaẗ ‘cadavre, charogne’, = ǧīfaẗ dans le Nord et en ʿOmān […], et qui est aussi ancient […]; en Ḍofārī ǧiššaẗ ‘Rumpf einer Leiche | tronc d’un mort’ […]. On est en droit de se demander si le classique et dialectal ǧuṯṯaẗ ‘corps’ n’est pas une très vieille prononciation pour ǧuffaẗ: < f ? Cela semble conformé par [Hbr] gap̄ ‘corps; personne’ [so also Gesenius2015 s.v. gap̄]. Cf. Hbr gûp̄āʰ ʻcorps mortʼ [related to Ar ↗ǦWF ‘hollow’?]. »
▪ [v2] Borg2021 #88 ǧ-ṯ-ṯ : Ar ǧuṯṯaẗ ‘corps, taille et volume du corps (tout de l’homme que des animaux …)’, Saf ǧṯ ‘body, corpse’ (Winnett & Lankester Harding 1978: 633). – Outside Sem, the author compares Eg (Pyr) ḏt ~ ḏs ‘body of person, image, bodily form of god | Leib’ (Faulkner 1962: 317, 251; Wb V 503, 199): jp.n.f ḏt.f ‘er hat seinen Leib bezahlt’ (Assmann 1969: 113).
▪ …
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ …
 
– 
– 
ǧaṯṯ‑ / ǧaṯaṯ‑ جَثَّ / جَثَثْــ , u (ǧaṯṯ)
 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 11Jan2023
√ǦṮː (ǦṮṮ) 
vb., I
 
to tear out, uproot (a tree, also fig.) – WehrCowan1976
 
▪ References mostly deal with the vb. ǧaṯṯa ‘to tear out, uproot’ and the n.f. ↗ǧuṯṯaẗ ‘body; corpse, cadaver; carcass’ as distinct values. However, the former (and esp. its Gt-stem, ĭǧtaṯṯa) may be denominative from the latter, describing the action of ‘tearing out’ (pieces of flesh etc. from a dead animal body) performed by a predatory animal or others, resulting in the hollow, empty ‘carcass’. But also the inverse – ǧuṯṯaẗ derived from the vb. – is not inconceivable, though perh. less likely.
▪ Direct cognates in Akk and EthSem, perh. also Ug (and Cush) (see below, section CONC). – DRS 3 (1993) thinks one should compare Sem √GD (Ar ǧadda ‘to cut’, see ↗ǦDː (ǦDD)_7). However, if ǧaṯṯa is based on ǧuṯṯaẗ (see preceding paragraph), there may be other and different cognates (see entry ↗ǧuṯṯaẗ).
▪ According to Lane, the poetic metre ↗muǧtaṯṯ got its name from the fact that it looks »as if cut off from the ḫafīf [another poetic metre]«. Obviously, the word is a PP of the vb. VIII ĭǧtaṯṯa, Gt-stem of ǧaṯṯa.
▪ …
 
eC7 (ŭǧtuṯṯa, pass. of ĭǧtaṯṯa, vb. VIII) Q 14:26 wa-maṯalu kalimaẗin ḫabīsaẗin ka-šaǧaraẗin ḫabīsaẗin-i ’ǧtuṯṯat min fawqi ’l-ʔarḍi mā la-hā min qarārin ‘and the likeness of an evil word is as an evil tree, uprooted from the surface of the earth, with no power to endure’
▪ Hava1899: miǧaṯṯaẗ, miǧṯāṯ ‘gardener’s trowel’, n.instr.
▪ …
 
DRS 3 (1993) GṮṮ-1 Akk gašāšu ‘couper, trancher’, Ar ǧaṯṯa ‘déraciner, arracher’, ǧaṯṯ ‘arrachage’, Amh gässäsä ‘annuler, effacer, abîmer, vaincre, déflorer une fille’, Har agäsäsä ‘faire détester’, Gur ‘refuser, désobéir; être abîmé’.57 -2 […]. -3ǧuṯṯaẗ.
▪ Zammit2002, Leslau2006: Akk gašāšu ‘abschneiden’, ?(Ug mgṯ ‘ein Lamm, zum Schlachten geeignet | fatling’), Gz gasasa ‘to scrape away, shave of, pluck out (hair)’, Te gässa ‘to wipe off with the hand, sweep’, Amh gässäsä ‘to efface, wipe out’, Gur (a)gäsäsä ‘to remove completely by cutting and digging’, Ar ĭǧtaṯṯa ‘to tear up, root up’. – Outside Sem: (Cush) Bil Sa gäsäs ‘to wipe’, Kham gis.
▪ …
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ …
 
– 
ĭǧtaṯṯa, vb. VIII, = I: Gt-stem, self-ref.

muǧtaṯṯ, 1 adj., uprooted (also fig.); 2 n., a poetic metre: PP VIII; nominalisation in the special sense of the “cut off” metre (see above).

For other meanings attached to the root, cf. ↗ǧuṯṯaẗ as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ǦṮː (ǦṮṮ).
 
ǧuṯṯaẗ جُثّة , pl. ǧuṯaṯ, ʔaǧṯāṯ
 
ID … • Sw – • BP 1482 • APD … • © SG | 11Jan2023
√ǦṮː (ǦṮṮ) 
n.f.
 
1a body; b corpse, cadaver; c carcass – WehrCowan1976
 
▪ References mostly deal with ǧuṯṯaẗ ‘body; corpse, cadaver; carcass’ and the vb. ↗ǧaṯṯa ‘to tear out, uproot’ as distinct values. However, the two may be related: ǧuṯṯaẗ could be, originally, the ‘carcass (of an animal)’ left over after predatory animals have eaten from it by ‘tearing out’ pieces of flesh etc. from it. Perhaps even more likely is also the inverse, i.e., ǧaṯṯa (and esp. its Gt-stem, ĭǧtaṯṯa) denominal from ǧuṯṯaẗ.
▪ Direct cognates in Nab, Soq and Mhr (see below, section COGN). – For the case that ǧuṯṯaẗ is independent from ǧaṯṯa, DRS 3 (1993) suggests to compare Sem GŠD (> Ar ↗ǧasad ‘body’), GŠM (> Ar ↗ǧism ‘body; form, shape’), and GṮM (> Ar ↗ǧuṯmān ‘body, mortal frame’). – Borg2021 #88 juxtaposes Eg (Pyr) ḏt ~ ḏs ‘body of person, image, bodily form of god | Leib’. – According to Landberg1920, DaṯAr has ǧuffaẗ ‘cadavre, charogne’, while the North and Oman say ǧīfaẗ. Based on these data, the author thinks that ClassAr ǧuṯṯaẗ might be a variant – « une très vieille prononciation » – of ǧuffaẗ (with < *f ); « [c]ela semble conformé par [Hbr] gap̄ ‘corps; personne’ [so also Gesenius2015 s.v. gap̄] et [Hbr] gûp̄āʰ ʻcorps mortʼ [related to Ar ↗ǦWF ‘hollow’?]. »
▪ If related to the vb. ǧaṯṯa, cognates may be different (see entry ↗ǧaṯṯa).
▪ Cf. also ↗ǦṮː (ǦṮṮ)_ 4 and DRS 3 (1993) GṮṮ-3 (section COGN) for similar “carcasses”.
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
DRS 3 (1993) GṮṮ-1ǧaṯṯa. -2 […]. -3 Nab gt, Ar ǧuṯṯaẗ ‘corps, cadavre’, ǧaṯṯ ‘restes, débris (d’insectes, etc.)’, ǧiṯṯaẗ ‘vétusté, ruine’, Soq gitteh, Mhr diśśet ‘cadavre’.
▪ Landberg1920: Ar ǧuṯṯaẗ ‘cadavre’ ≙ DaṯAr ǧuffaẗ (↗√ǦFː (ǦFF)), NYem ʿOmānAr ǧīfaẗ ‘cadavre, charogne’ [↗√ǦWF], thus also Hbr gap̄ ‘corps; personne’ (so also Gesenius2015 s.v. gap̄) and Hbr gûp̄āʰ ʻcorps mortʼ (cf. Ar ↗ǦWF ‘hollow’?).
▪ Borg2021 #88 ǧ-ṯ-ṯ : Ar ǧuṯṯaẗ ‘corps, taille et volume du corps (tout de l’homme que des animaux …)’, Saf ǧṯ ‘body, corpse’ (Winnett & Lankester Harding 1978: 633). – Outside Sem, the author compares Eg (Pyr) ḏt ~ ḏs ‘body of person, image, bodily form of god | Leib’ (Faulkner 1962: 317, 251; Wb V 503, 199): jp.n.f ḏt.f ‘er hat seinen Leib bezahlt’ (Assmann 1969: 113).
▪ …
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ …
 
– 
For other meanings attached to the root, cf. ↗ǧaṯṯa and ↗muǧtaṯṯ as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ǦṮː (ǦṮṮ).
 
muǧtaṯṯ مُجْتَثّ 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 11Jan2023
√ǦṮː (ǦṮṮ) 
¹adj.; ²n.
 
1 adj., uprooted (also fig.); 2 a poetic metre (mustafʕilun fāʕilātun fāʕilātun) – WehrCowan1976
 
▪ Lane: the metre muǧtaṯṯ is so called because it looks »as though it were cut off from the ḫafīf«. The name would thus be derived from (the Gt-stem of) ↗ǧaṯṯa ‘to tear out, uproot’.
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
▪ ↗ǧaṯṯa.
 
▪ …
 
– 
For other meanings attached to the root, cf. ↗ǧaṯṯa and ↗ǧuṯṯaẗ as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ǦṮː (ǦṮṮ).
 
ǦṮM 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 5Mar2023
√ǦṮM 
“root” 
▪ ǦṮM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ǦṮM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ǦṮM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘body, corpse; structure; to crouch, to lie down on one’s chest, to lie face down; to be heavily laden’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ǦṮW/Y 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 5Mar2023
√ǦṮW/Y 
“root” 
▪ ǦṮW/Y_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ǦṮW/Y_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ǦṮW/Y_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘rock-pile, mound, a small hill; to kneel; body; a grave mound’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ǦḤD 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 5Mar2023
√ǦḤD 
“root” 
▪ ǦḤD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ǦḤD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ǦḤD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘barren land, stifled plants, (of plants) to fail to grow properly; to deny, disown, reject; to become penniless, paucity’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ǦḤŠ جحش 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 9Jan2023
√ǦḤŠ 
“root” 
▪ ǦḤŠ_1 ‘young donkey’ ↗ǧaḥš
▪ ǦḤŠ_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
▪ … 
– 
▪ …
▪ Borg2021 #89 ǧ-ḥ-š : Ar ǧaḥš, pl ǧiḥāš, ǧiḥšān ‘young ass, colt, gazelle’. | Outside Sem, the author compares Eg (OK) gḥś, Dem kḥsꜢt/gḥs.t, Copt ϭϩⲟⲥ ‘gazelle’.
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
ǧaḥš جَحْش , pl. ǧiḥāš , ǧiḥšān , ʔaǧḥāš ; ǧuḥūš 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last update 9Jan2023
√ǦḤŠ 
n. 
young donkey; (pl. ǧuḥūš) trestle, horse – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Youssef2003 suggests that the word is from Eg gḥs, Copt čḥos which, according to the author, means ‘young donkey’; both ErmanGrapow1921 and TLÆ however have ‘gazelle’. 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ Borg2021 #89 ǧ-ḥ-š : Ar ǧaḥš, pl. ǧiḥāš, ǧiḥšān ‘young ass, colt, gazelle’. | Outside Sem, the author compares Eg (OK) gḥś, Dem kḥsꜢt/gḥs.t, Copt ϭϩⲟⲥ ‘gazelle’.
▪ … 
▪ Youssef2003: from Eg gḥs, Copt čḥos ‘young donkey’ [Erman 5:191 gives ‘gazelle’] 
– 
ǧaḥšaẗ, n.f., young female donkey: f. 
ǦḤM جحم 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 12Jan2023
√ǦḤM 
“root” 
▪ ǦḤM_1 ‘Hell, hell-fire’ ↗ǧaḥīm

Other values, now obsolete, include (Hava1899):

ǦḤM_2 ‘to open (the eyes)’: ǧaḥama (a, ǧaḥm); cf. also ǧaḥḥama (vb. II) ‘to cast a piercing look (bi at)’, and ǧuḥām ‘swelling of the eyes’
ǦḤM_3 ‘to abstain; to depart (ʕan from)’: ʔaǧḥama (vb. IV)
ǦḤM_ ‘…’:

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘great fire, blaze, intense fire, to light a fire, to burn’ 
▪ [v1]/[v2] : It is not totally clear whether [v2] is the result of fig. use of [v1] or whether the latter is dependent on the former. But both seem to belong together. DRS even sees ǧaḥama ‘allumer et attiser le feu’ and ǧaḥīm ‘feu ardent’ in one group together with ǧuḥām ‘inflammation (de l’œil)’.
▪ [v1] : According to DRS 2 (1994) is Sem GḤM a little attested (cognates only in Te and Amh!) doublet of Sem GḤL (not realized in Ar). – Cf. also Sem GHM (> Ar ↗ǧahuma ‘to frown, glower’, ↗ǧahām ‘clouds’), GḤR (no relevant items in MSA), GMR (> Ar ↗ǧamara ‘to roast’), PḤM (> Ar ↗faḥm ‘coal’). – For another word for ‘hell’ see ↗ǧahannamnᵘ.
[v2] : Prob. fig. use of [v1]. – According to Borg2021, the Ar word is cognate with an Eg (MK) vb.
[v3] : etymology obscure.
▪ …
 
– 
DRS 2 (1994) #GḤM-1 Ar ǧaḥama ‘allumer et attiser le feu’, ǧaḥīm ‘feu ardent’, ǧuḥām ‘inflammation (de l’œil)’; Te gäḥam ‘charbon’, gäḥamä ‘réduire en charbon; perdre la vue’; Amh gamä ‘être chaud, chauffé’. -2 Soq géḥam ‘acquérir, pouvoir, gagner’. -3 Te ʔagḥamä ‘être assis (chien)’.
▪ [v1] : Zammit2002 : Aram gaḥᵃmūn ‘burn them’,58 Ar ǧaḥīm ‘Hell, hell-fire, fiercely burning fire’.
▪ [v2] : Borg2021 #90 ǧ-ḥ-m compares Ar ǧaḥama ‘to open (the eyes) | die Augen öffnen und auf etwas richten’ with Eg (MK) gmḥ (metathesis!) ‘catch sight of, espy, look at | sehen, erblicken; weit blicken (vom Auge)’ (Faulkner 1962: 289; Wb V 170; Ember 1930: 79).
▪ [v3] : ?
▪ … 
▪ … 
– 
– 
ǧaḥīm جَحِيم 
ID 132 • Sw – • BP 3067 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 12Jan2023
√ǦḤM 
n./n.f. 
fire, hellfire, hell – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ According to DRS 2 (1994) is Sem GḤM a little attested (cognates only in Te and Amh!) doublet of Sem GḤL (not realized in Ar). – Cf. also Sem GHM (> Ar ↗ǧahuma ‘to frown, glower’, ↗ǧahām ‘clouds’), GḤR (no relevant items in MSA), GMR (> Ar ↗ǧamara ‘to roast’), and PḤM (> Ar ↗faḥm ‘coal’).
▪ It is not totally clear whether other meanings, now obsolete, that all have s.th. to do with “burning” eyes (see ↗ǦḤM_2), are simply fig. use of the values connected to ‘fire’ or whether the latter is dependent on the former. But both seem to belong together. DRS even groups ǧaḥama ‘allumer et attiser le feu’, ǧaḥīm ‘feu ardent’, etc. together with ǧuḥām ‘inflammation (de l’œil)’ as forming one semantic unit.
▪ For another word for ‘hell’ see ↗ǧahannamnᵘ.
▪ … 
▪ (Hava1899) ǧaḥama (a, ǧaḥm) ‘to light and stir up (the fire)’, ǧaḥima (a, ǧaḥm, ǧaḥam, ǧuḥūm) and ǧaḥuma (u, ǧuḥūm) ‘to be intense (fire)’, ǧāḥim ‘burning (coal); (fig.) affray; thick of a fight; hot (place)’, taǧaḥḥama (vb. V) ‘to burn with desires; to be in pangs (heart)’
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994) #GḤM-1 Ar ǧaḥama ‘allumer et attiser le feu’, ǧaḥīm ‘feu ardent’, ǧuḥām ‘inflammation (de l’œil)’; Te gäḥam ‘charbon’, gäḥamä ‘réduire en charbon; perdre la vue’; Amh gamä ‘être chaud, chauffé’. -2-3 […].
▪ Zammit2002 : Aram gaḥᵃmūn ‘burn them’,59 Ar ǧaḥīm ‘Hell, hell-fire, fiercely burning fire’
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
ǧaḥīmī, adj., hellish, infernal: nsb-adj.

 
ǦD‑ 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦD‑ 
"2-cons. nucleus" 
DRS 2 (2012)#GD: *trancher, couper, etc.; (souvent connotation de violence:) arracher; frapper, broyer, etc.
▪ Ehret1995#295 ‘to cut, lop, prune’ 
A bi-consonantal nucleus that is at the basis of several 3-consonantal themes, cf. section DERIV below. Etymologically, there also seems to be a relation with ↗*ǦḎ- and ↗*ǦZ-. 
– 
DRS 2 (1994)#GD: De nombreuses racines contenant la séquence ‘G (et aussi K, Q) + dentale’. Voir GDʔ, GḎʔ/ʕ, GDY, GDGD, GDD, GDʕ, GD/ḎP. Voir aussi à leurs places les séquences avec d’autres dentales.
For the most common representations of (some of) the ǦD+x roots in Ar, cf. the items given below in the DERIV section. 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
ǦDː (ǦDD): ↗ǧadda ‘to be serious’.
ǦDʕ: ↗ǧadaʕa ‘to cut off, amputate’; cf. also ↗taǧazzaʕa ‘to break apart, break, snap’.
ǦDF: ↗ǧadafa ‘to row (a boat)’.

▪ According to Ehret1995#295, extensions from the same pre-protSem root *√GD ‘to cut’ are:
  • ↗√ǦDʕ: extension in “partive” *
  • ↗√ǦDF: extension in “intensive” *-P
  • ↗√ǦDM: extension in “fortative” *-M
 
ǦDː (ǦDD) جدّ / جدد 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 9Nov2022
√ǦDː (ǦDD) 
“root” 
▪ ǦDː (ǦDD)_1 ‘grandfather’ ↗¹ǧadd
▪ ǦDː (ǦDD)_2 ‘good luck, good fortune’ ↗²ǧadd
▪ ǦDː (ǦDD)_3 ‘seriousness’ ↗ǧidd
▪ ǦDː (ǦDD)_4 ‘to be new, recent’ ↗ǧadda
▪ ǦDː (ǦDD)_5 ‘Jidda (seaport in Saudi Arabia)’ ↗Ǧuddaẗᵘ
▪ ǦDː (ǦDD)_6 ‘main street’ ↗ǧāddaẗ

Other values, now obsolete, include (BK1860, Hava1899):

ǦDː (ǦDD)_7 I.a ‘couper (se dit du fabricant qui coupe d’une pièce d’étoffe autant qu’il en faut pour une robe); couper, séparer, retrancher en coupant | to cut out (a garment), cut off (a fruit); tailler un palmier, enlever les épines des branches’: ǧadda (u, ǧadd); cf. also b (ṯiyāb) ǧudād ‘coupons; pièces coupées sur le métier: chaque pièce pour faire une robe’; c ǧadīd (pl. ǧudud) ‘cut, cut off | coupé, séparé de son tout; pièce d’étoffe, coupon suffisant pour une pièce de vêtement’; d ʔaǧaddᵘ (f. ǧaddāʔᵘ) ‘having some part(s) cut, or cut off (e.g., ear, teats, udder), lop-eared (ewe)’: hence also
  • II.a ǧadād ‘taille de palmiers, action de les tailler’, ǧidād ‘époque, saison à laquelle on taille les palmiers’, ǧuddād ‘petits arbres (palmiers ou autres)’
  • b ʔaǧaddᵘ (f. ǧaddāʔᵘ) ‘dry (breast, udder, road), small-breasted (female)’; ǧadūd (pl. ǧadāʔidᵘ) ‘having little milk (L) | brebis ou chamelle qui ne donne que fort peu ou point de lait’, taǧaddada, vb. V, ‘to dry out (udder)’;
  • c ǧaddāʔᵘ ‘waterless, cut off from the water (desert)’; ǧadda (i, ǧadd) ‘dégoutter d’eau, de pluie (se dit d’une maison ou d’une tente où l’eau dégoutte des toits) | to drip, let fall drops (a house, tent, etc.)’ (L), ǧudd ‘abundant, or scanty (well) | eau aux confins du désert’;
  • d ʔaǧaddᵘ (f. ǧaddāʔᵘ) ‘hard, more easy to walk/ride upon, plain, level (road); ǧadad (pl. ʔaǧdād), also ǧadǧad (L), ‘hard level ground; thin sand’, ǧadd (pl. ǧudūd; BK), ǧudd (BK), ǧadīd (Hava, BK) , ‘surface of the earth | terrain uni et dur’; ǧadīd al-turāb ‘sol dur, neuf’; ʔaǧadda (vb. IV) ‘to become smooth (road) [prob.: hard, hence easy to walk/ride upon; see above]’
ǦDː (ǦDD)_8 ‘mark, dividing line’: a ǧuddaẗ (pl. ǧudad) ‘stripe/streak on the back of an ass, differing from his general colour (L); b streak in anything (as in a mountain) differing in colour from the rest, line, mark, sign | ligne d’une nuance différente, et telle, qu’elle paraît de loin, le long d’une plaine ou sur le versant d’une montagne; c signe, marque de route; d tracé d’une route, raie | beaten way, marked with lines (cut by the feet of the men and beasts that have travelled along it), road, way, path, track, forming lines upon the ground’
ǦDː (ǦDD)_9 ‘way, manner | manière, façon, moyen’: ǧuddaẗ; cf. also rakiba ǧuddaẗan min al-ʔamr ‘he set upon a way, or manner, of performing the affair, he formed an opinion respecting the affair, or case’
ǦDː (ǦDD)_10 ‘shore, bank/side of a river’: ǧudd (also ǧadd and ǧidd (pl. ǧudūd), (BK: ‘côté, bord (de toute chose); littoral, côte, littoral du Hedjaz, de la Mecque’), ǧiddaẗ (pl. ǧudad; H)
ǦDː (ǦDD)_11 ‘collier au cou du chien’: ǧidd(aẗ)
ǦDː (ǦDD)_12 ‘fat(ness), obesity’: ǧadīd ‘fat (she-ass)’ (H), ǧadūd (pl. ǧidād) ‘anesse grasse’, ǧudd ‘obésité, corpulence; homme puissant’ (BK)
ǦDː (ǦDD)_13 ‘marchand de vin; vigneron, celui qui fait le vin’: ǧaddād
ǦDː (ǦDD)_14 a ‘intertwisted boughs | branches entrelacées, fils embrouillés, mêlés, b [fig.] chemins battus; c rags (Pers) | vêtements usés’: ǧuddād

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘ancestor, grandparent; luck, good fortune; greatness, glory, majesty; hard work, seriousness; new, to renew; middle of the road, main road, straight, correct path, level land’ 
▪ With the exception of [v2] ‘good luck, fortune’, values [v1] through [v11] may all be based on [v7] ‘to cut, cut off’. – In contrast, Kogan2015: 33 thinks that »[t]here is hardly any immediate connection betw. [v7] *‘to cut, cut off’, [v3] *‘to be great; serious’, or [v2] *‘fortune, success, luck’.« – For values [v12]–[v14] see below.
▪ [v1] ‘grandfather’: etymology uncertain, but prob. either related to [v3] ‘great, serious’ or [v2] ‘good luck, fortune’ and corresponding Can names of divinities (and tribes) (see next paragraph).
▪ [v2] (≙ DRS #GDD-3) ‘good luck, good fortune’: from protSem *gadd- ‘fortune, chance’. – Accord. to Kogan2015: 33, there is hardly any immediate connection betw. this value and [v3] *‘to be great; serious’ or [v7] *‘to cut, cut off’, a relation that is not excluded by DRS, however. ¬– Perh. the value can also be linked to [v1] ‘grandfather’ and to Can names of divinities (and tribes), such as Hbr Gad ‘Gad’, a god of fortune as well as a personal name and name of a tribe. – It is possibly also underlying Ar ↗maǧd ‘glory, honor, dignity, nobility’ (< ma- + protWSem *GD ‘to be good, lucky, excellent’; cf. also ↗ǦWD ‘to be good, approvable, excellent’).
▪ [v3] ‘to be great; seriousness’: Accord. to DRS to be analyzed, ultimately, as belonging to the complex of derivations from [v7] ‘to cut, cut off’ (> [v8] ‘mark, dividing line’ > *‘standing out, prominent, marking o.s. as different from the surroundings, “cutting edge”’ > greatness, “majesty”, seriousness etc.’). Against this assumption, Kogan2015: 33 thinks there is hardly any immediate connection betw. this value and [v7] *‘to cut, cut off’ (nor [v2] *‘fortune, success, luck’). – Related to [v1] ‘grandfather, ancestor’ (*‘the great, serious one, “majesty”)?
▪ [v4] ‘(to be) new, recent’: Accord. to Kogan2015: 33 (and of uncertain origin, but »[a]n ultimate derivation from [v7] protSem *gdd ‘to cut, make an incision’ is not improbable« (so also DRS and ClassAr lexicographers, though differing in the details/ways of derivation).
▪ [v5] ‘Jidda’: accord. to ClassAr authors, the name refers either to the city’s location at the coast (< [v10] ‘shore, bank/side of a river’, seen as as [v8] ‘mark, dividing line’ < [v7] ‘to cut, cut off’) or to the [v1] ‘grandmother’ (whose tomb was said to be situated close to the city wall). However, given the city’s environment, the origin of its name may also be [v7-II.c] *‘scarcity of water’ (< [v7-I] ‘to be cut off (sc. from water supply), dryness, scarcity of water’).
▪ [v6] ‘main street’: accord. to Rolland2014a a borrowing from oPers ǧadd ‘road’, related to Av yātem and Skr yātam ‘id.’ – Cf., however, [v8] below, with the extended meaning of ‘track, beaten way, path, road’ (prob. < [v7] ‘to cut’, thus orig. a path *“cut” by the feet of men and hoofs of animals)’; if this etymology should be valid, ǧāddaẗ may be genuine Ar (and, hence, a loan in Pers?), a PA I signifying a main axis in a town/city, *‘cutting’ it into clearly distinct sectors/quarters.
[v7] (≙ DRS #GDD-1) I.a ‘to cut, cut off, cut out (a garment)’: from protSem *GDD ‘to cut, make an incision’ – Kogan2015: 33 #59; cf. also Ehret1995#295, who thinks Ar ǦDː (ǦDD) (in ǧadd ‘to cut, lop, prune’) reflects a “pre-Proto-Semitic” bi-consonantal root *√GD ‘to cut’, from AfrAs *-gʷad-/*-gʷad- ‘to cut’. | Derivations: b ‘cut-out piece’ c ‘cut, cut off’, d ‘having some part(s) cut, or cut off (ear, teats, udder), lop-eared (ewe)’; hence also II semantic extensions: a ‘taille de palmiers, action de les tailler; époque, saison à laquelle on taille les palmiers; petits arbres (palmiers ou autres)’, b ‘dry (breast, udder, road), small-breasted (female), having little milk (goat, sheep, camel), to dry out (udder)’, c ‘waterless, cut off from the water (desert); to drip, let fall drops (house, tent, etc.); abundant, or scanty (well) | eau aux confins du désert’, d [< II.c?] ‘hard, more easy to walk/ride upon, to become smooth (road), plain and hard level ground; surface of the earth | terrain uni et dur, sol dur, neuf’. – Both DRS and Kogan2015 would not exclude a derivation of [v4] ‘to be new, recent’ from [v7] ‘to cut’ (‘new’ as *‘unusual, cutting, breaking the usual’?). – [v6] ǧāddaẗ ‘main street, boulevard’ is considered a loanword from Pers by some, but could also be a PA I, orig. meaning the *‘(clearly) dividing, “cutting” one (line, track, street)’.
[v8] ‘mark, dividing line’: likely from [v7], a ‘dividing line’ (?< ‘stripe/streak on the back of an ass; streak in anything differing in colour from the rest’) being conceived as a distinguishing *‘cut’. From this, the more general meaning ‘sign, road mark’ is easy to derive. Hence also ‘track, beaten way, path, road’ (< *‘“cut” by the feet of men and beasts that have travelled along it’). – For [v6] ǧāddaẗ ‘main street, boulevard’, see preceding paragraph.
[v9] ‘way, manner’: prob. fig. use of [v8] in the sense of ‘path, track’.
[v10] (≙ DRS #GDD-1) ‘shore, bank/side of a river’: accord. to ClassAr lexicographers »so called because cut off from the river, or because cut by the water« (Lane), thus special use of [v8] ‘dividing line, mark’ (< [v7] ‘to cut, cut out’). – A special use of this value may be [v5] ‘Jidda’ (see above).
[v11] ‘collier au cou du chien’: listed as distinct item in DRS (#GDD-4), but perh. simply special use of [v8], the collar around a dog’s neck being termed a *‘dividing line’.
[v12] ‘fat(ness), obesity (?> mighty man)’: related to, or dependent on, [v2] ‘good luck, good fortune’?
[v13] ‘marchand de vin; vigneron, celui qui fait le vin’: etymology obscure. – Steingass1892 gives a Pers ǧaddād ‘seller or producer of wine’ but marks this as a loan from Ar rather than into it.
[v14] : Accord. to Rolland2014a, ǧuddād ‘intertwisted boughs, ravelled threads, entangled branches, [fig.] chemins battus; rags, worn garments’ is from Pers ǧudād ‘vêtement usé, rapiécé’. For the latter, however, Steingass1892 gives also ‘short trees; low mountains’, i.e., values that could be related to [v7-II.a].
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– 
DRS 2 (1994) #GDD-1 Akk gadādu ‘découdre? taillader?’; Hbr *hitgōded ‘se faire des incisions’; nHbr gādad ‘couper, inciser’; Aram gᵊdad ‘couper autour, rogner’; Talm ‘couper, partager’; Syr gadd ‘amputer, retrancher’; Mnd ʕgadad ‘être coupé, raccourci’; Qat šgdd ‘répartir, accorder’; Ar ǧadda ‘couper, retrancher’; Ar ǧudd ‘puits intermittent’, ǧadda ‘être décidé, paraître sérieux (événement, fait)’, ǧidd ‘zèle, effort’; SAr gdd ‘grand’, Sab hgdd ‘magnifier’; Gz gədud ‘sérieux’; Te gäddä ‘être plus grand, surpasser, étonner’, gäddo, gado, Tña gado, Amh (way)gud: interj. admirative ‘oh! étonnant!’. – Akk gudūd- ‘bande, troupe’; Hbr gᵊdūd ‘bande de brigands’; Phoen (bʕl)ʔgddm ‘(chef de) bandes’; Syr gūddā ‘bataillon, chœur’; Mnd gud, guda ‘bande, groupe’; Talm giddūdā ‘troupe, bande’; Gz gədud, Te gäda ‘brigand’. – Gz gadada ‘empirer’; Amh gʷädda ‘endommager, nuire’, gʷäddada ‘endommager par places (comme font les sauterelles)’; Hbr *gādad, *gād ‘se précipiter ensemble contre, attaquer’; Te ʔagdoda ‘se précipiter aveuglément’, gəd ‘contrainte, force’; Amh (as)gäddädä ‘obliger, contraindre’, (a)gäddädä ‘refuser, résister’, gäddädä ‘manquer, être nécessaire’. – Hbr gᵊdūd (?), JP Syr guddā ‘mur, rempart’; Ar ǧadd, ǧudd ‘remblai (délimitant un champ)’. – Hbr giddūd ‘précipice’; Aram giddūdā ‘précipice escarpé, bord élevé’; Mnd gada, g(a)dada, gida ‘bord d’un fleuve’. – Ar ǧadad ‘terrain uni et dur; surface du sol’. -?2 Syr gaddūdā ‘adolescent’; Ar ǧadīd ‘nouveau’, ǧadda ‘être neuf’; SAr gdd ‘assignation, distribution’. -?3 Hbr gad, Aram gaddā, Ar ǧadd, Te gäd, Tña gäddi ‘fortune, chance’; Amh gäd ‘augure’, gäddam ‘qui porte chance’. -4 Ar ǧidd ‘collier (de chien)’; Amh gädda ‘entraver, enchaîner’; ?Te godädä ‘se tenir tranquille; ne pas bouger’. -5 nHbr gad, gādād ‘âpre, amer’; JP giddā, Syr geddē, Mnd g(a)dida, gida ‘absinthe’; Syr gadīdā ‘amer’. -6 Ug gdm (pl.?) – Pun goid, Hbr gad, nHbr gīd, JP giddā ‘coriandre’. -7 Akk giddē: boisson? aliment?
▪ [v1] ‘grandfather’: no immediate cognates, but cf. sections CONC and DISC.
▪ [v2] ‘good luck, good fortune’: Hbr gad ‘fortune’, JudPalAram gaddā ‘luck’, Syr gaddā ‘fortuna, sors’, Mnd gada ‘fortune, success, luck’ (MD, Ar ǧdd ‘to be fortunate’, ǧadd ‘fortune’, Te gäd ‘luck, fortune’, Tña gäddi ‘luck, good luck or good fortune’, Amh gädd ‘luck’ – Kogan2015: 33 #59 n.64.
▪ [v3] ‘seriousness’ : Aram gaddā ‘genius, godhead’, SAr(Sab) gdd ‘great’, Ar ǧadd ‘majesty, glory’ (Zammit), ‘to be great; to be serious’ (Kogan), Gz gedūd ‘serius, gravis’ (Z) | gədud ‘serious, severe’ (K), geddat ‘vehementia, gravitas’ – Zammit2002, Kogan2015: 33 #59 n.64. – Cf. prob. also ↗ǦWD.
▪ [v4] ‘new, recent’: Ar ǧadīd ‘new’, Syr gaddudā ‘adolescens, juvenis’, Sab h-gdd ‘to enforce, validate a decree’, Qat s₁-gdd ‘to renew, validate’; for less immediate parallels see perh. [v7] – Kogan2015: 33 #59.
▪ [v4][v7][v8] Zammit2002: Akk gadādu ‘abtrennen’ (?), nHbr gīddūd ‘steep or straight embankment’, Phoen, Aram gīddūdā ‘a wady between steep embankments’, Syr gūdā ‘a hedge, mount’, Qat sgdd ‘repartir, accorder’, Ar ǧudad ‘track, way on a hill side’, ǧadīd ‘new’, Gz gadgad ‘murus, macerial ambiens, septum’
▪ [v5] ‘Jidda’: no immediate cognates, but cf. either [v1], or [v10] < [v7].
▪ [v6] ‘main street’: no immediate cognates, but cf. perh. [v8] < [v7].
▪ [v7] (≙ DRS #GDD-1) ‘to cut, cut off’ : Akk gadādu ‘to chop’, Hbr gdd ‘to make incisions upon oneself’, JudBiblAram gədad ‘to cut off’, Syr gad ‘abscidit, amputavit’, Mnd gdd ‘to cut off’, Ar ǧdd ‘to cut, cut off’, Cha Eža gädädä, Eža Muh Msq Gog Sod gäddädä, Enm gätädä, End gättädä ‘to tear, make a hole’ – Kogan2015: 33 #59 n.64. – Dependent on/derived from ‘to cut off’: ‘having some part(s) cut, or cut off (e.g., ear, teats, udder, palm twigs), trim palm trees, season of trimming palm trees; (*cut off from milk or water >) dry (breast, udder, well, road, desert region), small-breasted (female), intermittent well, to drip, let fall drops (a house, tent, etc.); (*dry >) hard, level, plain ground, more easy to walk/ride upon > surface of the earth’
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▪ According to DRS 2 (1994) #GDD, the many values they group under #GDD-1 »semblent toutes fondées sur la notion générale ‘couper, inciser, etc.«, i.e., the obsolete value listed here as [v7]. This would include also [v3] ‘(to be) great; serious’ (as < *‘making a “cutting, decisive” difference, standing out’) (and with [v3] perh. also [v1] ‘grandfather, ancestor’, as *‘the great one, “majesty”’), as well as prob. [v5] ‘Jidda’ (perh. orig. *‘region on the West coast’), which in turn may be based on [v8] ‘dividing line’, hence (?) also [v10] ‘shore, river bank’; cf. perh. also [v6] ‘main street, boulevard’ (main road that clearly “cuts” the city into quarters). [v11] ‘dog’s collar’ is treated separately in DRS (their #GDD-4); but why shouldn’t it be *‘streak/dividing line on the neck of a dog’? – Thus, with the exception of [v2] ‘good luck, fortune’, values [v1] through [v11] may all be based on [v7] ‘to cut, cut off’. – In contrast, Kogan2015: 33 #59 n.64 thinks that »[t]here is hardly any immediate connection betw. [v7] *‘to cut, cut off’, [v3] *‘to be great; serious’, or [v2] *‘fortune, success, luck’.« – For values [v12]–[v14] see below.
▪ [v1] ‘grandfather’: DRS quotes Blachère (in DAFA) who maintains that Ar ¹ǧadd ‘aïeul, grand-père’ reflects a more general notion of ‘ancêtre’ underlying [v3] ‘gravité, sérieux’. In contrast, Nöldeke1904: 94 saw ‘grandfather’ connected to [v2] ‘good luck, fortune’ and corresponding Can names of divinities and tribes (see next paragraph).
▪ [v2] (≙ DRS #GDD-3) ‘good luck, good fortune’: from protSem *gadd- ‘fortune, chance’. – Accord. to Kogan2015: 33 #59 n.64, there is hardly any immediate connection betw. this value and [v3] *‘to be great; serious’ or [v7] *‘to cut, cut off’. The latter is not excluded by DRS, however, where the separation by a distinct number is preceded by a question mark. ¬– DRS further refers to Nöldeke1904: 94 who saw [v1] ‘grandfather’ connected to ‘good luck, fortune’ and the latter to Can names of divinities and, hence, also of tribes and individuals, such as Hbr Gad ‘Gad’, a god of fortune as well as a personal name (BDB1906: cf. Lat Fortunatus) and the name of a tribe (cf. also the n.prop.loc. Mᵊgiddô ‘Mageddo’). – Related is perh. also Ar ↗maǧd ‘glory, honor, dignity, nobility’ (Hbr mägäd ‘excellence (of gifts of nature)’, Syr magdā ‘fructus’, all < protCSem *magd- ‘excellence’), possibly to be analyzed as composed of an old ma-prefix derivate from the protWSem biconsonantal element *GD ‘to be good, lucky, excellent’. – Cf. also ↗ǦWD ‘to be good, approvable, excellent’.
▪ [v3] ‘to be great; seriousness’: DRS groups this value under their #GDD-1, assuming that ‘greatness, “majesty”, seriousness etc.’ are essentially a form of *‘standing out’, thus being prominent, marking o.s. as different from the surroundings, “cutting edge”, thus related to [v8] ‘mark, dividing line’, from [v7] ‘to cut, cut off’. Against this assumption, Kogan2015: 33 #59 n.64 thinks there is hardly any immediate connection betw. this value and [v7] *‘to cut, cut off’ (nor [v2] *‘fortune, success, luck’). – Perh. related to [v1] ‘grandfather, ancestor’ (as *‘the great, serious one, “majesty”).
▪ [v4] ‘(to be) new, recent’: Accord. to Kogan2015: 33 #59, the origin of Ar ǧadīd- is uncertain (immediate parallels only in Syr, Sab and Qat, see above, section COGN). However, »[a]n ultimate derivation from [v7] protSem *gdd ‘to cut, make an incision’ is not improbable« (so also DRS where the grouping of ‘to be new, recent’ as a separate value #GDD-2 is preceded by an interrogation mark, i.e., doubtful). ClassAr lexicographers suggest a semantic development along the line *‘to cut off, separate from the whole > piece of tissue sufficient to sew a garment > new garment (cf. labisa l-ǧadīd ‘he put on a new garment’) > new; youth, young age’ (BK1860).
▪ [v5] ‘Jidda’: According to U. Freitag, most ClassAr authors »agree that the correct name is Ǧuddaẗ (‘coastline’), while others mention the designation Ǧaddaẗ (‘grandmother’) or, in dialect, Ǧiddaẗ, as referring to the tomb of Eve, which, among other locales given in the traditions, was said to be situated north of what was once the city wall […]. As the city did not have any springs, rain was collected in large cisterns both inside and outside the city walls, or to be supplied from sources outside.«128 These remarks allow for three etymologies: (a) from – or actually identical with – [v10] ‘shore, bank/side of a river’, itself prob. based on [v7] ‘to cut’ (see above/below); (b) from – or actually identical with – ǧaddaẗ ‘grandmother’, f. of [v1] ǧadd; (c) from [v7-II.c] *‘scarcity of water’ (< [v7-I] ‘to be cut off (sc. from water supply), dryness’).
[v6]–[v14] : see above, section CONC.
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– 
– 
¹ǧadd جَدّ , pl. ǧudūd, ʔaǧdād 
ID - • Sw – • BP 1226 • APD … • © SG | 30Oct2022, last updated 12Nov2022
√ǦDː (ǦDD) 
n. 
1 grandfather; 2 ancestor, forefather – WehrCowan1976 
▪ Etymology obscure, but prob. either related to ↗ǧidd ‘greatness, seriousness, majesty’ or ↗²ǧadd ‘good luck, good fortune’ (via ↗ ǦDː (ǦDD)_12 ‘fat(ness), obesity’?). See below, section DISC.
▪ Cf. perh. also ↗Ǧuddaẗ ‘Jidda’, poss. named after “grandmother” Eve (whose tomb was said to be situated close to the city wall).
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▪ no immediate cognates, but cf. perh. ↗ǧidd or ↗²ǧadd (see sections CONC and DISC).
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DRS quotes Blachère (in DAFA) who maintains that Ar ¹ǧadd ‘grandfather’ reflects a more general notion of ‘ancestor’ underlying ↗ǧidd ‘greatness, seriousness, majesty’. If this is a valid etymology, ¹ǧadd may, ultimately, perh. be traced back to ↗ ǦDː (ǦDD)_7 ǧadda ‘to cut, cut out, cut off’ (protSem *GDD ‘to cut, make an incision’). In this case, one would have to assume a semantic development along the line *‘to cut, cut out > to divide, make/mark a difference > to stand out, greatness, majesty > grandfather’. ¹ǧadd ‘grandfather’ would then also be cognate to ↗ǧadda ‘to be new, recent’ which likewise seems to be an essential *‘standing out, making a difference’.
▪ In contrast, Nöldeke1904: 94 saw ‘grandfather’ connected to ²ǧadd ‘good luck, fortune’. Should this be correct, ¹ǧadd would be related to Can names of divinities (and tribes), such as Hbr Gad, a god of fortune as well as a personal name and name of a tribe (protWSem *gadd- ‘fortune, chance’, *GD ‘to be good, lucky, excellent’; cf. also ↗ǦWD ‘to be good, approvable, excellent’). In this case, ‘grandfather’ would be, originally, *‘the “Gad” (= honorable, venerable person, “deity”) in our family’. – Alternatively, one could think of a development along the line *‘good fortune, luck > fat(ness), obesity [↗ ǦDː (ǦDD)_12] > mighty man > grandfather’.
▪ Cf., however, Kogan2015: 33, who thinks that »[t]here is hardly any immediate connection betw. *‘to cut, cut off’, *‘to be great; serious’, or *‘fortune, success, luck’« (though he would not exclude an ultimate derivation of ‘new, recent’ from ǧadda ‘to cut, cut out, cut off’; so also DRS and ClassAr lexicographers).
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– 
al-ǧadd al-ʔaʕlà, n., ancestor

BP#1226ǧaddaẗ, pl. -āt, n.f., grandmother

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗²ǧadd, ↗ǧidd, ↗ǧadda, ↗Ǧuddaẗᵘ, and ↗ǧāddaẗ as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ǦDː(ǦDD).
 
ǧadd- / ǧadad- جَدّ / جَدَدْ , i (ǧiddaẗ
ID - • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 30Oct2022, lasst update 9Nov2022
√ǦDː (ǦDD) 
vb., I 
1 to be new; 2 to be a recent development, have happened lately, have recently become a fact; 3 to be added, crop up or enter as a new factor (circumstances, costs); 4 to appear for the first time (also, e.g., on the stage); 5-10ǧidd – WehrCowan1976
 
▪ Accord. to Kogan2015: 33 the value ‘to be new, recent’ is of uncertain origin, but »[a]n ultimate derivation from protSem *gdd ‘to cut, make an incision’ [↗ǦDː (ǦDD)_7] is not improbable« (so also DRS and ClassAr lexicographers, though differing in the details/ways of derivation).
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▪ …
 
DRS 2 (1994) #GDD-1 Akk gadādu ‘découdre? taillader?’; Hbr *hitgōded ‘se faire des incisions’; nHbr gādad ‘couper, inciser’; Aram gᵊdad ‘couper autour, rogner’; Talm ‘couper, partager’; Syr gadd ‘amputer, retrancher’; Mnd ʕgadad ‘être coupé, raccourci’; Qat šgdd ‘répartir, accorder’; Ar ǧadda ‘couper, retrancher’; Ar ǧudd ‘puits intermittent’, ǧadda ‘être décidé, paraître sérieux (événement, fait)’, ǧidd ‘zèle, effort’; SAr gdd ‘grand’, Sab hgdd ‘magnifier’; Gz gədud ‘sérieux’; Te gäddä ‘être plus grand, surpasser, étonner’, gäddo, gado, Tña gado, Amh (way)gud: interj. admirative ‘oh! étonnant!’. – Akk gudūd- ‘bande, troupe’; Hbr gᵊdūd ‘bande de brigands’; Phoen (bʕl)ʔgddm ‘(chef de) bandes’; Syr gūddā ‘bataillon, chœur’; Mnd gud, guda ‘bande, groupe’; Talm giddūdā ‘troupe, bande’; Gz gədud, Te gäda ‘brigand’. – Gz gadada ‘empirer’; Amh gʷädda ‘endommager, nuire’, gʷäddada ‘endommager par places (comme font les sauterelles)’; Hbr *gādad, *gād ‘se précipiter ensemble contre, attaquer’; Te ʔagdoda ‘se précipiter aveuglément’, gəd ‘contrainte, force’; Amh (as)gäddädä ‘obliger, contraindre’, (a)gäddädä ‘refuser, résister’, gäddädä ‘manquer, être nécessaire’. – Hbr gᵊdūd (?), JP Syr guddā ‘mur, rempart’; Ar ǧadd, ǧudd ‘remblai (délimitant un champ)’. – Hbr giddūd ‘précipice’; Aram giddūdā ‘précipice escarpé, bord élevé’; Mnd gada, g(a)dada, gida ‘bord d’un fleuve’. – Ar ǧadad ‘terrain uni et dur; surface du sol’. -?2 Syr gaddūdā ‘adolescent’; Ar ǧadīd ‘nouveau’, ǧadda ‘être neuf’; SAr gdd ‘assignation, distribution’. -?3 […]. -4-7 […].
▪ Kogan2015: 33 #59 : Ar ǧadīd ‘new’, Syr gaddudā ‘adolescens, juvenis’, Sab h-gdd ‘to enforce, validate a decree’, Qat s₁-gdd ‘to renew, validate’; for less immediate parallels see perh. ↗ǦDː (ǦDD)_7.
▪ …
 
▪ See above, section CONC. – ClassAr lexicographers suggest a semantic development along the line *‘to cut off, separate from the whole > to cut off/out pieces of tissue > piece of tissue sufficient to sew a garment > new garment (cf. labisa l-ǧadīd ‘he put on a new garment’) > new > youth, young age’.
▪ …
 
– 
BP#2950ǧaddada, vb. II, 1a to renew (s.th.); b to make anew, remake (s.th.); c to modernize (s.th.); d to restore, renovate, remodel, refit, recondition, refurbish (s.th.); e to be an innovator, a reformer; f to feature s.th. new or novel, produce s.th. new; g to rejuvenate, regenerate, revive, freshen up (s.th.); h to renew, extend (a permit); i to begin anew, repeat (s.th.), make a new start (in s.th,); j to try again (ḥaẓẓa-hū one’s luck)
ʔaǧadda, vb. IV, 1-3ǧidd; 4 to renew, make new (s.th.): *Š-stem, caus.
BP#4399taǧaddada, vb. V, 1 to become new, be renewed; 2 to revive: tD-stem, intr.
ĭstaǧadda, vb. X, 1 to be new, be added or enter as a new factor, come newly into existence; 2 to make new, renew (s.th.): *Št-stem, desid./request.

ǧiddaẗ, n.f., 1 newness, recency, novelty; 2 modernness, modernity; 3 rebirth, renaissance
BP#60ǧadīd, pl. ǧudud, ǧudad, adj., 1a new, recent; b renewed; 2a modern; b novel, unprecedented | ǧidd wa-ṭarāfaẗ, expr., day and night; min ǧadīd, adv., anew, again; EgAr ǧadīd lanǧ, adj., brand-new
ʔaǧaddᵘ, adj., 1ǧidd; 2 newer, more recent: elat. formation
BP#2076taǧdīd, n., 1a renewal (also, e.g., of a permit); b reorganization, reform; c renovation, restoration, remodeling, refitting, reconditioning, refurbishing; d rejuvenation, regeneration; 2 new presentation, new production (theat.); 3a creation of s.th. new, origination; b modernization; c innovation; d pl. -āt, innovations; new achievements: vn. II
taǧaddud, n., renewal, regeneration, revival: vn. V
muǧaddid, n., 1a renewer; b reformer; 2 innovator: PA II
BP#2074muǧaddad, adj., 1a renewed, extended; b remodeled, reconditioned, renovated, restored; c rejuvenated, regenerated; 2 new, recent, young: PP II
BP#4261mustaǧidd, adj., 1 new, recent; 2 incipient

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹ǧadd, ↗²ǧadd, ↗ǧidd, ↗Ǧuddaẗᵘ, and ↗ǧāddaẗ as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ǦDː(ǦDD).
 
²ǧadd جَدّ , pl. ǧudūd 
ID - • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 30Oct2022, last updated 12Nov2022
√ǦDː (ǦDD) 
n. 
good luck, good fortune – WehrCowan1976
 
▪ According to Kogan2015: 33, »[t]here is hardly any immediate connection« between the notion of ‘good luck, fortune, success’ and the most prominent value in the root ↗√ǦDː(ǦDD) on which most others appear to be based, namely ↗√ǦDː(ǦDD)_7 ‘to cut, cut off’. However, there is sufficient evidence to reconstruct protSem *gadd- ‘fortune, chance’ (DRS #GDD-3) or at least protWSem *GD ‘to be good, lucky, excellent’ (Kogan). The latter shows its clearest reflexes in Can names of divinities (and tribes), such as Hbr Gad ‘Gad’, a god of fortune as well as a personal name and name of a tribe.
▪ Unlike Kogan, DRS would not exclude a relation of ‘luck, fortune, success’ to *‘to cut, cut off’ – the authors let the numbering that otherwise would indicate a new, distinct value be preceded by a question mark (see below, section COGN); however, they remain silent about the nature of such a possible semantic relation (‘luck’ as positive *‘share, portion’ granted by a divine power?).
▪ Perhaps, the value can also be linked to the homonymous ↗¹ǧadd ‘grandfather’ which is without obvious cognates in Sem and thus probably derives from, or is somehow related to, one of the other items in √ǦDː(ǦDD). So, is ‘grandfather’ perhaps *‘the fortunate one’ or *‘the one who deserves as much respect, devotion, reverence as the fortune god Gad’? – Accord. to DRS , it was already Nöldeke1904: 94 who maintained that ‘grandfather’ related to ‘good luck, fortune’ etc. br> ▪ ²ǧadd ‘good luck, fortune, success’ may also be at the origin of the notion, now obsolete, of ↗ǦDː (ǦDD)_12 ‘fat(ness), obesity’ (fortune allowing people to consume much food) and, hence, ‘power’, as attested in ǧudd ‘obésité, corpulence; homme puissant’ (BK1860), ǧadīd (Hava1899) ~ ǧadūd (pl. ǧidād; BK1860) ‘fat (she-ass) | anesse grasse’.
▪ According to Kogan2015: 33, ²ǧadd is also likely related to ↗maǧd ‘glory, honor, dignity, nobility’ (< ma- + protWSem *GD ‘to be good, lucky, excellent’; cf. also ↗ǦWD ‘to be good, approvable, excellent’).
▪ …
 
ǧadd (a, ǧadd), and pass. ǧudda bi- ‘to succeed in (an affair)’; ǧadd, ǧadīd (pl. ǧudud) ‘happy, lucky | heureux, fortuné’, fulān ḏū ǧadd fī kaḏā ‘such a one is possessed of good fortune in such a thing’ (Lane ii)
▪ …
 
DRS 2 (1994) #GDD-1 Akk gadādu ‘découdre? taillader?’; Hbr *hitgōded ‘se faire des incisions’; nHbr gādad ‘couper, inciser’; Aram gᵊdad ‘couper autour, rogner’; Talm ‘couper, partager’; Syr gadd ‘amputer, retrancher’; Mnd ʕgadad ‘être coupé, raccourci’; Qat šgdd ‘répartir, accorder’; Ar ǧadda ‘couper, retrancher’; Ar ǧudd ‘puits intermittent’, ǧadda ‘être décidé, paraître sérieux (événement, fait)’, ǧidd ‘zèle, effort’; SAr gdd ‘grand’, Sab hgdd ‘magnifier’; Gz gədud ‘sérieux’; Te gäddä ‘être plus grand, surpasser, étonner’, gäddo, gado, Tña gado, Amh (way)gud: interj. admirative ‘oh! étonnant!’. […] -?2 Syr gaddūdā ‘adolescent’; Ar ǧadīd ‘nouveau’, ǧadda ‘être neuf’; SAr gdd ‘assignation, distribution’. -?3 Hbr gad, Aram gaddā, Ar ǧadd, Te gäd, Tña gäddi ‘fortune, chance’; Amh gäd ‘augure’, gäddam ‘qui porte chance’. -4-7 […]
▪ Kogan2015: 33 #59 n.64: Hbr gad ‘fortune’, JudPalAram gaddā ‘luck’, Syr gaddā ‘fortuna, sors’, Mnd gada ‘fortune, success, luck’ (MD, Ar ǧdd ‘to be fortunate’, ǧadd ‘fortune’, Te gäd ‘luck, fortune’, Tña gäddi ‘luck, good luck or good fortune’, Amh gädd ‘luck’. – Cf. also Can names of divinities and, hence, also of tribes and individuals, such as Hbr Gad ‘Gad’, a god of fortune as well as a personal name (BDB1906: cf. Lat Fortunatus) and the name of a tribe (cf. also the n.prop.loc. Mᵊgiddô ‘Mageddo’).
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
– 
maǧdūd, adj., fortunate, lucky

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹ǧadd, ↗ǧidd, ↗ǧadda, ↗Ǧuddaẗᵘ, and ↗ǧāddaẗ as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ǦDː(ǦDD).
 
ǧidd جِدّ 
ID - • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 30Oct2022, last update 13Nov2022
√ǦDː (ǦDD) 
n. 
1 seriousness, earnestness; 2 diligence, assiduity, eagerness – WehrCowan1976 
▪ According to DRS 2 (1994) #GDD, the many values they group under #GDD-1 »semblent toutes fondées sur la notion générale ‘couper, inciser, etc.« [see ↗ǦDː (ǦDD)_7 in EtymArab]. This would include also ǧidd and related items signifying ‘greatness, seriousness, majesty’ (as < *‘making a “cutting, decisive” difference, standing out’?). – In contrast, Kogan2015: 33 #59 n.64 thinks that »[t]here is hardly any immediate connection betw. *‘to cut, cut off’ [and] *‘to be great; serious’ […].«
▪ Dependent on ‘greatness, seriousness, majesty’ is perh. ↗¹ǧadd ‘grandfather’ (*‘the great, serious one, “his majesty”’; cf. also below, section HIST) (but other etymologies have been suggested).
▪ …
 
▪ Lane ii 1865: ǧadda fī ʕaynī, fī ʕuyūn al-nās, fī ṣudūrihim ‘he was, or became, great, or of great dignity or estimation, in my eye, or in the eyes of men, and their minds’; ǧadda (i, u, ǧidd) ‘to endeavour to, exert o.s. in, acquire credit (amongst)’
▪ Hava1899: ǧadda ‘to be respectable, important (man); to be serious, grievous (affair)’
▪ …
 
DRS 2 (1994) #GDD-1 Akk gadādu ‘découdre? taillader?’; Hbr *hitgōded ‘se faire des incisions’; nHbr gādad ‘couper, inciser’; Aram gᵊdad ‘couper autour, rogner’; Talm ‘couper, partager’; Syr gadd ‘amputer, retrancher’; Mnd ʕgadad ‘être coupé, raccourci’; Qat šgdd ‘répartir, accorder’; Ar ǧadda ‘couper, retrancher’; Ar ǧudd ‘puits intermittent’, ǧadda ‘être décidé, paraître sérieux (événement, fait)’, ǧidd ‘zèle, effort’; SAr gdd ‘grand’, Sab hgdd ‘magnifier’; Gz gədud ‘sérieux’; Te gäddä ‘être plus grand, surpasser, étonner’, gäddo, gado, Tña gado, Amh (way)gud: interj. admirative ‘oh! étonnant!’. […]. -2-7 […].
▪ Zammit2002, Kogan2015: 33 #59 n.64: Aram gaddā ‘genius, godhead’, SAr(Sab) gdd ‘great’, Ar ǧadd ‘majesty, glory’, ǧadda ‘to be great; to be serious’, Gz gədud ‘serious, severe’, geddat ‘vehementia, gravitas’.
▪ …
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ …
 
– 
BP#171ǧiddan, adv., very, much
bi-ǧidd, and min ǧidd, adv., earnestly, seriously;
ǧiddᵘ bāhiẓⁱⁿ, n., very high (price);
ǧiddᵘ ʕaẓīmⁱⁿ, adj., very great;
yaḫtalifūnᵃ ǧiddᵃ l-ĭḫtilāf, expr., they differ widely;
waqafa ʕalà sāq al-ǧidd li-, vb., to apply o.s. with diligence to, take pains in, make every effort to

ǧadda, i, vb. I, 1-4ǧadda; 5 to be or become serious, grave; 6 to be weighty, significant, important; 7 to take ( s.th.) seriously; 8 to strive earnestly ( for), go out of one’s way ( to do s.th.), make every effort ( in); 9 to be serious, be in earnest ( about), mean business; 10 to hurry ( one’s step)
ʔaǧadda, vb. IV, 1 to strive, endeavor, take pains; 2 to apply o.s. earnestly and assiduously ( to), be bent, be intent ( on s.th.); 3 to hurry ( one’s step); 4ǧadda: *Š-stem, applicative

BP#2505ǧiddī, adj., 1a serious; b earnest; c ǧiddiyyan, adv., in earnest, earnestly, seriously: nsb-formation
BP#2627ǧiddiyyaẗ, n.f., 1a earnestness; b seriousness, gravity (of a situation): abstr. formation in ‑iyyaẗ
ʔaǧaddᵘ, adj., 1 more serious, more intent; 2ǧadda: elat. formation
BP#1808ǧādd, adj., 1 in earnest, earnest; 2 serious (as opposed to comic, funny): PA I
muǧidd, adj., painstaking, diligent, assiduous: PA IV

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹ǧadd, ↗²ǧadd, ↗ǧadda, ↗Ǧuddaẗᵘ, and ↗ǧāddaẗ as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ǦDː(ǦDD).
 
Ǧuddaẗᵘ جُدّة 
ID - • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 11Nov2022
√ǦDː (ǦDD) 
n.f.topogr. 
Jidda (seaport in W Saudi Arabia, on Red Sea) – WehrCowan1976
 
▪ Accord. to ClassAr authors, the name refers either to the city’s location at the coast (< ↗ǦDː (ǦDD)_10 ‘shore, bank/side of a river’, seen as ǦDː (ǦDD)_8 ‘mark, dividing line’ < ǦDː (ǦDD)_7 ‘to cut, cut off’) or to ǧiddaẗ ‘grandmother’, f. of ↗¹ǧadd ‘grandfather’, i.e., Eve (whose tomb was said to be situated close to the city wall). However, given the city’s environment, the origin of its name may also be ↗ǦDː (ǦDD)_7-II.c *‘scarcity of water’ (< ǦDː (ǦDD)_ v7-I ‘to be cut off from water supply, dryness’).
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
▪ no immediate cognates, but cf. either ↗¹ǧadd, or ↗ǦDː(ǦDD)_10 < ↗ǦDː(ǦDD)_7.
▪ …
 
▪ According to U. Freitag, most ClassAr authors »agree that the correct name is Ǧuddaẗ (‘coastline’), while others mention the designation Ǧaddaẗ (‘grandmother’) or, in dialect, Ǧiddaẗ, as referring to the tomb of Eve, which, among other locales given in the traditions, was said to be situated north of what was once the city wall […]. As the city did not have any springs, rain was collected in large cisterns both inside and outside the city walls, or to be supplied from sources outside.«129 These remarks allow for 3 etymologies: (a) from – or actually identical with – ↗ǦDː (ǦDD)_10 ‘shore, bank/side of a river’, itself prob. based on ↗ǦDː (ǦDD)_7 ‘to cut, cut off’; (b) from – or actually identical with – ǧaddaẗ ‘grandmother’, f. of ↗¹ǧadd; (c) from ↗ǦDː (ǦDD)_7-II.c *‘scarcity of water’ < ǦDː (ǦDD)_7-I ‘to be cut off (sc. from water supply), dryness’.
▪ …
 
– 
For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹ǧadd, ↗²ǧadd, ↗ǧidd, ↗ǧadda, and ↗ǧāddaẗ as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ǦDː(ǦDD).
 
ǧadīd جَديد , pl. ǧudud, ǧudad 
ID 134 • Sw 96/104 • BP 60 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last update 15Nov.2022
√ǦDː (ǦDD) 
adj. 
1a new, recent; b renewed; c novel, unprecedented; 2 modern – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ ↗ǧadda
▪ …
 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ǧadda
▪ …
 
▪ ↗ǧadda
▪ …
 
– 
ǧadīd wa-ṭarāfaẗ, expr., day and night;
min ǧadīd, adv., anew, again;
EgAr gidīd lang, adj., brand-new

ǧadda, i (ǧiddaẗ), vb. I, 1 to be new; 2 to be a recent development, have happened lately, have recently become a fact; 3 to be added, crop up or enter as a new factor (circumstances, costs); 4 to appear for the first time (also, e.g., on the stage): see ↗s.v. – 5-10ǧidd.
BP#2950ǧaddada, vb. II, 1a to renew (s.th.); b to make anew, remake (s.th.); c to modernize (s.th.); d to restore, renovate, remodel, refit, recondition, refurbish (s.th.); e to be an innovator, a reformer; f to feature s.th. new or novel, produce s.th. new; g to rejuvenate, regenerate, revive, freshen up (s.th.); h to renew, extend (a permit); i to begin anew, repeat (s.th.), make a new start (in s.th,); j to try again (ḥaẓẓa-hū one’s luck): D-stem, caus. (denom.?)
ʔaǧadda, vb. IV, 1-3ǧidd; 4 to renew, make new (s.th.): *Š-stem, caus.
BP#4399taǧaddada, vb. V, 1 to become new, be renewed; 2 to revive: tD-stem, intr.
ĭstaǧadda, vb. X, 1 to be new, be added or enter as a new factor, come newly into existence; 2 to make new, renew (s.th.): *Št-stem, desid./request.

ǧiddaẗ, n.f., 1 newness, recency, novelty; 2 modernness, modernity; 3 rebirth, renaissance
ʔaǧaddᵘ, adj., 1ǧidd; 2 newer, more recent: elat. formation
BP#2076taǧdīd, n., 1a renewal (also, e.g., of a permit); b reorganization, reform; c renovation, restoration, remodeling, refitting, reconditioning, refurbishing; d rejuvenation, regeneration; 2 new presentation, new production (theat.); 3a creation of s.th. new, origination; b modernization; c innovation; d pl. -āt, innovations; new achievements: vn. II
taǧaddud, n., renewal, regeneration, revival: vn. V
muǧaddid, n., 1a renewer; b reformer; 2 innovator: PA II
BP#2074muǧaddad, adj., 1a renewed, extended; b remodeled, reconditioned, renovated, restored; c rejuvenated, regenerated; 2 new, recent, young: PP II
BP#4261mustaǧidd, adj., 1 new, recent; 2 incipient

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹ǧadd, ↗²ǧadd, ↗ǧidd, ↗Ǧuddaẗᵘ, and ↗ǧāddaẗ as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ǦDː(ǦDD).
 
taǧdīd تَجْديد 
ID - • Sw – • NahḍConBP 2076 • APD … • © SG | 30Oct2022
√ǦDː (ǦDD) 
n. 
1a renewal (also, e.g., of a permit); b reorganization, reform; c renovation, restoration, remodeling, refitting, reconditioning, refurbishing; d rejuvenation, regeneration; 2 new presentation, new production (theat.); 3a creation of s.th. new, origination; b modernization; c innovation; d pl. -āt, innovations; new achievements – WehrCowan1976
 
▪ vn., from ǧaddada, vb. II, ‘to make new, renew, restore, renovate, remodel, etc.; to modernize; to rejuvenate, regenerate, revive, freshen up’, from ↗ǧadda, vb. I, ‘to be new’ or denom. from ǧadīd ‘new, recent’. – Cf. also ↗muǧaddid.
 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ǧadda 
▪ … 
– 
– 
taǧaddud تَجَدُّد 
Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√ǦDː (ǦDD) 
n. 
▪ vn., V 
▪ … 
taǧaddudī تَجَدُّديّ 
Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√ǦDː (ǦDD) 
adj. 
innovative, creative 
▪ nsb-formation, from vn. V 
ǧādd جادّ 
ID 133 • Sw – • BP 1808 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦDː (ǦDD) 
adj. 
1a in earnest, earnest; b serious (as opposed to comic, funny) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ PA of ǧadda, vb. I, ‘to be(come) serious, grave’, see ↗ǧidd
▪ … 
▪ …
 
▪ ↗ǧidd
▪ …
 
▪ ↗ǧidd
▪ …
 
– 
– 
ǧāddaẗ جادّة , pl. -āt, ǧawāddᵘ 
ID - • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 30Oct2022, last update 11Nov2022
√ǦDː (ǦDD) 
n.f. 
1a main street; b street – WehrCowan1976
 
▪ Accord. to Rolland2014a a borrowing from oPers ǧadd ‘road’, related to Av yātem and Skr yātam ‘id.’ – Cf., however, ↗ǦDː(ǦDD)_8 ‘mark, dividing line’, with the extended meaning of ‘track, beaten way, path, road’ (prob. < ↗ǦDː(ǦDD)_7 ‘to cut, cut off’, thus orig. a path *“cut” by the feet of men and hoofs of animals)’; if this etymology should be valid, ǧāddaẗ might be genuine Ar (and, hence, a loan in Pers?), a PA I signifying a main axis in a town/city that clearly *‘cuts’, i.e., divides it into distinct sectors/quarters.
▪ …
 
▪ Lane: ‘main part of a road; its middle, or even, part; or the beaten track, or part along which one walks, or travels; the conspicuous part thereof: or a main road that comprises other roads, or tracks, and upon which one must pass’
▪ …
 
▪ No immediate cognates if borrowed from Pers (see above, section CONC). If genuine Ar, cf. ↗ǦDː(ǦDD)_8 < ↗ǦDː(ǦDD)_7.
▪ …
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ …
 
– 
For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹ǧadd, ↗²ǧadd, ↗ǧidd, ↗ǧadda, and ↗Ǧuddaẗᵘ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ǦDː(ǦDD).
 
muǧaddid مُجَدِّد , pl. -ūn 
ID - • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 30Oct2022
√ǦDː (ǦDD) 
n. 
1a renewer; b reformer; 2 innovator – WehrCowan1976
 
▪ nominalized PA, from ǧaddada, vb. II, ‘to make new, renew, restore, renovate, remodel, etc.; to modernize; to rejuvenate, regenerate, revive, freshen up’, from ↗ǧadda, vb. I, ‘to be new’ or denom. from ǧadīd ‘new, recent’. – Cf. also ↗taǧdīd.
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ǧadda 
▪ … 
– 
– 
ǦDṮ جدث 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 5Mar2023
√ǦDṮ 
“root” 
▪ ǦDṮ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ǦDṮ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ǦDṮ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘(a doubtful verbal root) a grave, to make or prepare a grave’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ǦDR جدر 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Dec2022
√ǦDR 
“root” 
▪ ǦDR_1 ‘to befit, be suitable, proper, appropriate, be worthy (of s.th.), deserve’ ↗ǧadura
▪ ǦDR_2 ‘wall’ ↗ǧidār
▪ ǦDR_3 ‘smallpox’ ↗ǧudarī
▪ ǦDR_4 ‘dish made of rice or bulgur with lentils, onions and oil’ ↗EgAr LevAr muǧaddaraẗ

Other values, now obsolete, include (Hava1899):

ǦDR_5 ‘to sprout (plant)’: ǧadara (u, ǧadr), ǧadura (u, ǧadāraẗ), ǧaddara (vb. II), ʔaǧdara (vb. IV); cf. also ǧadira (a, ǧadar) ‘to form its grains and sprout (vine)’, ʔaǧdara (vb. IV) ‘to have young trees (land); to shoot forth (tree)’
ǦDR_ ‘…’: ǧdr
▪ …

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘wall, walling-in, an enclosure; pustules, smallpox; to be worthy of s.th.’
 
▪ [gnrl] Under the roof of the root √ǦDR at least 3 semantic complexes that do not show obvious interrelation are assembled: (a) ‘to be fit, suitable, worthy’ ≙ [v1]; (b) ‘wall, fencing, etc.’ ≙ [v2]; and (c) ‘to sprout, shoot forth’ ≙ [v5] (> [v3] > [v4]). Only (b)≙[v2] seems to have cognates in Sem.
▪ [v1] : etymology obscure. – Should one compare forms without -R, such as Ar ↗ǧadd ‘good luck, chance, fortune’ (< WSem *gadd- ‘happiness, fortune’, which Dolgopolsky2012#599 analyses as stemming from a Nostr *gad˅‑ ‘(to be) suitable\good; luck’)? Perhaps too far-fetched!
▪ [v2] : from protCSem *g˅d˅r- ‘fence, wall’ – Kogan2015:208 #6, Huehnergard2011. – See also below, section DISC.
▪ [v3] : Unless a loanword (where from?), the value ‘smallpox’ is prob. a specialization of the more general [v5] ‘to sprout, shoot forth; hence also: produce pustules on the skin, etc.’.
▪ [v4] : The name of the dish seems to be coined from [v3] ‘smallpox’, likening the view of lentils within rice or bulgur to smallpox pustules on the skin.
[v5] : etymology obscure. – [v5] seems to be at the origin of [v3] (> [v4]).
 
▪ …
 
▪ [all] DRS 2 (1994) #GDR-1 ≙ [v2] Hbr gādēr ‘mur en pierres’, ARAM cp gdrʔ ‘tas de pierres’, TalmAram gᵊdērā, gādērā ‘clôture séparation’; Ar ǧadr, ǧidār, Min gdr ‘mur’; Te gədar, gədor ‘aux alentours de, à côté de’, gudur ‘parois de la hutte, mur de la maison’, Tña gidar ‘sorte de hangar pour les animaux’. -?2 Akk gadar- ‘ceinture (?)’.60 -3 ≙ [v1] Ar ǧadura ‘être digne de, apte à’, Te gäddärä ‘s’habituer à’. -4 Te gadər ‘puissant’, Har gädärä, gidra ‘rang social, respect’.61 -?6 Amh gʷädärra ‘hurler, mugir (animal mâle)’.62 -7 ≙ [v5]/[v3] Ar ǧadura ‘poindre, bourgeonner’, ǧadar, ǧudar ‘pustule variolique’, ǧudriyy, ǧadariyy ‘petite vérole’, Soq gīdri, Te gədri ‘petite vérole’.63
▪ [v2] : Zammit2002, Kogan2015:208 #6: Ug gdrt ‘Umfriedung’,64 Hbr gādēr ‘wall’, JBA gādērā ‘fence’, gᵊdar ‘to fence in’,65 Syr gedrā ‘pond, pool’ (< Ar), Min gdr ‘mur’, Ar ǧadr, ǧidār, ǧadīraẗ ‘wall’; Te gədar ‘in the surroundings of, at the side of’, gudur ‘parois de hutte, mur de la maison’, Tña gidaro ‘a kind of enclosure made of sticks and thorns in which cattle spend the night while in the fields’, Mhr gīdōr, Jib gédɔ́r ‘wall, cairn, piled stones’.66
▪ …
 
▪ [v1] : Should one compare Ar ↗ǧadd ‘good luck, chance, fortune’? If related, then ǧadura ‘to be fit, suitable, be worth’ would have far cognates in the large complex given by Dolgopolsky2012#599: Nostr *gad˅ ‘(to be) suitable\good; luck’ > AfrAs > WSem *gadd- ‘happiness, fortune’ > Hbr gaḏ ‘fortune’, bə-g̱aḏ ‘feliciter’, Pun Nab Palm Htr gd, JA [Targ], JEA gadd-ā ‘genius, god of fortune; luck’, Syr gad / gaddā ‘fortune, luck, success’, Mnd gada ‘fortune, success, luck, fate’, nMnd gäd ‘Glück, chance’, Ar ↗ǧadd ‘good luck, chance, fortune’, Gz gadd ‘luck’; Cush Ag: Aw gud ‘good, nice’, gudi ‘good’, ECush *gudd-~*gūd- ‘big, much’ > Kns kutt- ‘id.’, Or guddaʔ, Dsn gudd-u, Elm g̣ūt-iḍa ‘big’, gūt ‘many’, Arr guḍḍá ‘big’, guḍḍa-haḍ- ‘grow big, become many\much’; ? Som gídd-i ‘whole, entire’, Bs gidd-i, ? Af gadd-a ‘wealth’ (unless < EthSem); HEC (< EthSem?): Hd gadaʔa ‘luck’; IE > NaIE *gʰedʰ-/*gʰodʰ- ‘to be suitable\good’ > Germ *gōδā ‘suitable’ > Gt gōÞs ~ gōds (tr. Grk agaθós, χrēstós, kalós) ‘gut, tüchtig, schön’, oNo góðr, oHGe guot, nHGe gut, oSax gōd, AngSax ȝōd ‘good’, nEngl good; Slav inf. *goditi (sę) ‘to suit, be fortunate’ > oChSlav inf. goditi ‘to satisfy | gratum esse, morem gerere, placere’, SerbCroat inf. gòditi ‘to make a deal’, Slov to mi godi ‘it is pleasant, I like it’, Cz inf. hoditi se, Ru inf. godit’sja ‘to be suitable’, Po inf. godzić ‘to bring to an agreement’, godzi się ‘it is permitted\lawful’; > (deriv.) Slav *godъ ‘appropriate time’ > oChSlav godъ ‘time (hora, tempus); year; appropriate time’, SerbCroat gōd ‘holiday, year, appropriate time’, Cz hod ‘religious feast’, oRu godъ ‘time, year’, Ru god ‘year’; Slav *god-ьnъ(jь) ‘suitable, appropriate’ > ChSlav godьnъ, Bulg goden, Po godny, Ru godnyj ‘id.’
▪ [v2] : Related to (or ultimately derived from?) forms without ‑R? If so, one may have to compare the complex listed by Dolgopolsky2012 sub #598: Nostr *gad˹a˺ ‘bank, shore, side of s.th.’ > CSem *giday- ~ *guday- ‘bank, side of a river’, *°gadd- ‘id.’ > BiblHbr gəḏ-ōṯ-āw ~ giḏy-ōṯ-āw ‘its banks’ (presumably forms of *giḏyā), Mnd gada, gida, g(i)dada ‘bank, riverside, waterside’, JA JEA gudd-ā ‘wall, side’, Ar ǧudd ‘côté, bord (de toute chose)’ [↗Ǧuddaẗ], ǧidd, ǧidd-aẗ ‘bord, rive (d’un fleuve)’, ǧadd ‘rivage, bord (d’un fleuve), surface de la terre’. – DRS 2 (1994) #GDR-1: outside Sem, cf. Berb agadir ‘fort, fortress, citadel’?
▪ [v3]-[v5] : As neither ‘smallpox’ nor ‘to sprout’ can be traced back to earlier forms it is difficult to tell whether [v3] is a specialization of [v5] or the latter is denominative from the former. For the time being, we may assume that in ǧudarī is a nisba ending, which would point to its being derived. However, the instability of the vowel in the first syllable (ǧudarī ~ ǧadarī) could be an indication of a foreign origin, in which case the vb. ‘to sprout’ would be denominative. – In any case, [v4] the muǧaddaraẗ dish is to be analyzed as a PP II from ǧaddara ‘to infect with smallpox, show pustules’ and is thus the *‘dish that looks like smallpox on the skin’.
▪ …
 
▪ For the name of the Andalusian city Cadiz, cf. ↗ǧidār
– 
ǧadur‑ جَدُر , u (ǧadāraẗ)
 
ID – • Sw – • BP 3370 • APD … • © SG | 15Dec2022
√ǦDR 
vb., I
 
1a to be fit, suitable, proper, appropriate (bi‑ for s.o., for s.th.); b to befit, behoove (bi‑ s.o., s.th.); 2 to be worthy (bi‑ of), deserve (bi‑ s.th.) – WehrCowan1976
 
▪ Etymology obscure. A relation with other ǦDR items (↗ǧidār ‘wall, fencing, etc.’, ↗ǧudarī ‘smallpox’) seems rather unlikely.
▪ Should one compare forms without -R, such as Ar ↗ǧadd ‘good luck, chance, fortune’ (< WSem *gadd- ‘happiness, fortune’, which Dolgopolsky2012#599 analyses as stemming from a Nostr *gad˅‑ ‘(to be) suitable\good; luck’)? Perhaps too far-fetched!
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
DRS 2 (1994) #GDR-1-2 […]. -3 Ar ǧadura ‘être digne de, apte à’, Te gäddärä ‘s’habituer à’. -4-7 […].
▪ …
 
▪ Should one compare Ar ↗ǧadd ‘good luck, chance, fortune’? If related, then ǧadura ‘to be fit, suitable, be worth’ would have far cognates in the large complex given by Dolgopolsky2012#599: Nostr *gad˅ ‘(to be) suitable\good; luck’ > AfrAs > WSem *gadd- ‘happiness, fortune’ > Hbr gaḏ ‘fortune’, bə-g̱aḏ ‘feliciter’, Pun Nab Palm Htr gd, JA [Targ], JEA gadd-ā ‘genius, god of fortune; luck’, Syr gad / gaddā ‘fortune, luck, success’, Mnd gada ‘fortune, success, luck, fate’, nMnd gäd ‘Glück, chance’, Ar ↗ǧadd ‘good luck, chance, fortune’, Gz gadd ‘luck’; Cush Ag: Aw gud ‘good, nice’, gudi ‘good’, ECush *gudd-~*gūd- ‘big, much’ > Kns kutt- ‘id.’, Or guddaʔ, Dsn gudd-u, Elm g̣ūt-iḍa ‘big’, gūt ‘many’, Arr guḍḍá ‘big’, guḍḍa-haḍ- ‘grow big, become many\much’; ? Som gídd-i ‘whole, entire’, Bs gidd-i, ? Af gadd-a ‘wealth’ (unless < EthSem); HEC (< EthSem?): Hd gadaʔa ‘luck’; IE > NaIE *gʰedʰ-/*gʰodʰ- ‘to be suitable\good’ > Germ *gōδā ‘suitable’ > Gt gōÞs ~ gōds (tr. Grk agaθós, χrēstós, kalós) ‘gut, tüchtig, schön’, oNo góðr, oHGe guot, nHGe gut, oSax gōd, AngSax ȝōd ‘good’, nEngl good; Slav inf. *goditi (sę) ‘to suit, be fortunate’ > oChSlav inf. goditi ‘to satisfy | gratum esse, morem gerere, placere’, SerbCroat inf. gòditi ‘to make a deal’, Slov to mi godi ‘it is pleasant, I like it’, Cz inf. hoditi se, Ru inf. godit’sja ‘to be suitable’, Po inf. godzić ‘to bring to an agreement’, godzi się ‘it is permitted\lawful’; > (deriv.) Slav *godъ ‘appropriate time’ > oChSlav godъ ‘time (hora, tempus); year; appropriate time’, SerbCroat gōd ‘holiday, year, appropriate time’, Cz hod ‘religious feast’, oRu godъ ‘time, year’, Ru god ‘year’; Slav *god-ьnъ(jь) ‘suitable, appropriate’ > ChSlav godьnъ, Bulg goden, Po godny, Ru godnyj ‘id.’
▪ …
 
– 
yaǧduru ḏikru-h and yaǧduru bi’l-ḏikr, worth mentioning

BP#2772ǧadīr, pl. ‑ūn, ǧudarāʔᵘ, adj., 1 worthy, deserving (bi‑ of s.th.); 2a becoming, befitting (bi‑ s.th.); b proper, suited, suitable, fit (bi‑ for), appropriate (bi‑ to): quasi-PP I. | ǧadīr bi’l-ḏikr, worth mentioning
ʔaǧdarᵘ, adj., 1 worthier; 2a more appropriate; b better suited, more suitable
ǧadāraẗ, n.f., 1 worthiness; 2a fitness, suitability, aptitude, qualification; b appropriateness

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ǧidār, ↗ǧudarī, and (EgAr LevAr) ↗muǧaddaraẗ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ǦDR.
 
ǧidār جِدار , pl. ǧudur, ǧudrān
 
ID – • Sw – • BP 1131 • APD … • © SG | 15Dec2022
√ǦDR 
n. 
wall – WehrCowan1976
 
▪ From protCSem *g˅d˅r- ‘fence, to wall, build walls’ – Kogan2015:208 #6; noun *gadir‑ ‘wall’ – Huehnergard2011. – See also below, section DISC.
▪ A relation to other ǦDR items (↗ǧadura ‘to be fit, suitable, worthy’; ↗ǧudarī ‘smallpox’ < *‘to sprout, shoot forth’) seems rather unlikely.
▪ …
 
▪ (Hava1899): ǧadara ‘to wall, inclose s.th. in a walls, conceal o.s. behind a wall’, ǧadīraẗ (quasi-PP.f) ‘inclosure for cattle; walled garden’, ǧaddara (II) and ĭǧtadara (VIII) ‘to raise (a building)’
▪ …
 
DRS 2 (1994) #GDR-1 Hbr gādēr ‘mur en pierres’, Aram gdrʔ ‘tas de pierres’, TalmAram gᵊdērā, gādērā ‘clôture séparation’; Ar ǧadr, ǧidār, Min gdr ‘mur’; Te gədar, gədor ‘aux alentours de, à côté de’, gudur ‘parois de la hutte, mur de la maison’, Tña gidar ‘sorte de hangar pour les animaux’. -?2 Akk gadar- ‘ceinture (?)’.67 -3-7 […].
▪ Zammit2002, Kogan2015:208 #6 : Ug gdrt ‘Umfriedung’,68 Hbr gādēr ‘wall’, JBA gādērā ‘fence’, gᵊdar ‘to fence in’,69 , Syr gedrā ‘pond, pool’ (< Ar), Min gdr ‘mur’, Ar ǧadr, ǧidār, ǧadīraẗ ‘wall’, Te gədar ‘in the surroundings of, at the side of’, gudur ‘parois de hutte, mur de la maison’, Tña gidaro ‘a kind of enclosure made of sticks and thorns in which cattle spend the night while in the fields’, Mhr gīdōr, Jib gédɔ́r ‘wall, cairn, piled stones’.70
▪ Outside Sem: cf. Berb agadir ‘fort, fortress, citadel’ (DRS 2 1994 ad #GDR-1)?
▪ …
 
▪ Also related to (or ultimately derived from?) forms without final ‑R ? If so, one may have to compare the complex listed by Dolgopolsky2012 sub #598: Nostr *gad˹a˺ ‘bank, shore, side of s.th.’ > CSem *giday- ~ *guday- ‘bank, side of a river’, *°gadd- ‘id.’ > BiblHbr gəḏ-ōṯ-āw ~ giḏy-ōṯ-āw ‘its banks’ (presumably forms of *giḏyā), Mnd gada, gida, g(i)dada ‘bank, riverside, waterside’, JA JEA gudd-ā ‘wall, side’, Ar ǧudd ‘côté, bord (de toute chose)’ [↗Ǧuddaẗ], ǧidd, ǧidd-aẗ ‘bord, rive (d’un fleuve)’, ǧadd ‘rivage, bord (d’un fleuve), surface de la terre’.
▪ …
 
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Cadiz, from Lat Gades, from Phoen *gadir ‘wall’, akin to Ar ǧadr, ǧidār ‘wall’. 
ǧadr, n., wall: var. of ǧidār, perh. orig. vn. I, from ǧadara ‘to inclose, infence’
ǧidārī, adj., mural, wall (adj.): nsb-adj.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ǧadura, ↗ǧudarī, and (EgAr LevAr)↗muǧaddaraẗ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ǦDR.
 
ǧudarī جُدَري, var. ǧadarī
 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Dec2022
√ǦDR 
n.
 
smallpox – WehrCowan1976
 
▪ Unless a loanword (where from?), ǧudarī ‘smallpox’ is prob. a specialization derived from the more general ǧadara (u, ǧadr), ǧadura (u, ǧadāraẗ), ǧadira (a, ǧadar) ‘to sprout, shoot forth; hence also: produce pustules on the skin’ (↗ǦDR_5). Oscillation of vowel in first syllable (ǧudarī~ ǧadarī) and earlier variant ǧudrī may point to a borrowing.
▪ A relation with other ǦDR items (↗ǧadura ‘to be fit, suitable, worthy’, ǧidār ‘wall, fencing, etc.’) seems rather unlikely.
▪ Fig. use in ↗muǧaddaraẗ ‘dish with lentils within rice or bulgur’ (resembling skin *‘covered with smallpox pustules’).
▪ …
 
▪ (Hava1899): ǧadar (pl. ʔaǧdār) ‘natural tumour, swelling caused by a wound; bite on an animal’s neck; sprout’, ǧadara (u, ǧadr) ‘to be covered with blisters (hand)’, ǧudira, ǧuddira, taǧaddara ‘to have the smallpox’, muǧaddar ‘seized with small-pox; pock-marked (face)’, maǧdaraẗ ‘country where small-pox is raging’
▪ …
 
DRS 2 (1994) #GDR-1-6 […]. -7 Ar ǧadura ‘poindre, bourgeonner’, ǧadar, ǧudar ‘pustule variolique’, ǧudriyy, ǧadariyy ‘petite vérole’, Soq gīdri, Te gədri ‘petite vérole’.71
▪ …
 
▪ As neither ‘smallpox’ nor ‘to sprout’ can be traced back to earlier forms it is difficult to tell whether the first is a specialization derived from the verb or the latter is denominative from the former. For the time being, we may assume that in ǧudarī is a nisba ending, which would point to its being derived.
▪ …
 
– 
ǧudira, vb. I (pass.), and ǧuddira, vb. II, to have smallpox: G- and D-stem, both pass., denom.
maǧdūr, and muǧaddar, adj., infected with smallpox; pock-marked: PP I and II, respectively
muǧaddaraẗ, n.f., a popular dish: see ↗s.v.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ǧadura and ↗ǧidār as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ǦDR.
 
EgAr LevAr muǧaddaraẗ مُجَدَّرة 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Dec2022
√ǦDR 
n.f.
 
dish made of rice or (in Syr.) of bulgur with lentils, onions and oil – WehrCowan1976
 
▪ The name of the Levantine dish seems to be coined from ↗ǧudarī ‘smallpox’ (< ǧad˅ra ‘to sprout, shoot forth; hence also: produce pustules on the skin’), likening the view of lentils within rice or bulgur to smallpox pustules on the skin.
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
▪ See ↗ǧudarī.
▪ …
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ …
 
– 
For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ǧadura, ↗ǧidār, and ↗ǧudarī, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ǦDR. 
ǦDL جدل 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Jul2021, last updated 12Jan2023
√ǦDL 
“root” 
▪ ǦDL_1 ‘to twist tight, braid, plait’ ↗ǧadala (ǧadl)
▪ ǦDL_2 ‘to quarrel, wrangle; to argue, debate, dispute, contest’ ↗ǧadal
▪ ǦDL_3 ‘flagstone, ashlar’ ↗¹miǧdāl
▪ ǦDL_4 (= ǦDWL) ‘creek, brook; column, list, index, chart, table, schedule’ ↗ǧadwal

The many other, now obsolete values (as given in BK1860, Hava1899) may be grouped as follows:
ǦDL_5 : specific interpretations, material and figurative, of the element of *‘twisting’ in [v1]. This group not only contains ǧadīl (pl. ǧudul) ‘twisted rope; rein, bridle; girdle’ but also ǧudālwhip’ (< *‘tightly twisted’), and ǧadīl(aẗ) (pl. ǧadāʔilᵘ) not only in the sense of ‘plait of hair’ but also in that of ceinture en cuir enrichie de toute sorte d’ornements portée par les femmes | a thing like a ʔitb, of hide, or leather, which boys, and menstruous women, wear round the waist in the manner of an ʔizār’ (whence also ǧadīlaẗ in the meaning ‘menstruous woman’); moreover, ǧadīlaẗ can mean a trap to catch pigeons, bird’s cage’ (< *woven from twigs etc.) and hence also ǧaddāl ‘maker of pigeon traps\bird cages | qui s’en sert pour prendre des pigeons’. In a metaphorical sense, ǧadīlaẗ (pl. ǧadāʔilᵘ) is also the way, mood | manière, façon, mode; habitude; nature; determination of the mind’ (*way a person is “knitted, made up”). As adj.s, we not only find maǧdūl ‘of slender make | mince sans maigreur, et bien fait’ (e.g., sāʕid maǧdūl ‘bras bien tourné’) but also the elative formation ʔaǧdalᵘ (pl. ʔaǧādilᵘ; f. ǧadlāʔᵘ, pl. ǧudl) ‘graceful, handsome, etc. | qui penche avec grâce’ (e.g., sāq ǧadlāʔ ‘cuisse bien tournée’, f. ǧadlāʔᵘ ‘cuirasse d’un travail solide; femme bien faite, aux formes gracieuses; chienne’).
ǦDL_6 : specific interpretations, material and figurative, of the element of *‘strength, firmness’ in [v1]. In this group we find vb.s like ǧadala (ǧudūl) ‘to be firm, strong, solid, hard’, ǧadila (a, ǧadal) ‘to become strong (gazelle), and ǧadala (ǧadl) ‘rendre fort, solide, en tressant et en tordant fortement (une corde)’, as well as adj.s like ǧadl, ǧadil ‘hard, strong, robust’ (with pl. ǧudūl, ʔaǧdāl also meaning ‘member, esp. penis; sinew’) and ǧudāl ‘strong, hard’; among the nouns belonging to this *‘strength, firmness, hardness’ group we may mention ǧadltomb’ (*‘the firmly built one’?), ǧadāl (coll., n.un. ǧadālaẗ) ‘unripe dates’, ǧadlaẗpestle | pilon de mortier’, and miǧdal (pl. maǧādilᵘ) ‘stronghold, fortress, palace, pavilion | château’. [v3] ¹miǧdāl ‘flagstone, ashlar’, listed above as a value in its own right as it is the only item from this group that has “survived” into MSA, actually belongs here, too. – For ǧadl~ǧidlmember; sinew | ¹en gén. membre quelconque du corps; ²verge, pénis; ³tendon (des mains ou des jambes); ⁴(pl.) bones of the legs’, MilitarevKogan2000 (SED I) #73 reconstruct a protSem *g˅d(˅)l‑ ‘limb’. – miǧdal ‘stronghold, fortress’ seems to be borrowed from Hbr migdāl rather than an inner-Ar formation.
ǦDL_7 : results of gaining *‘strength, firmness, hardness’, incl. acquired capacities, esp. *‘growth, maturity, ripeness’. This group contains items like ǧadalripe (corn, grain)’ (< *‘having become strong in the ears’), ǧadala, ǧadila (a, ǧadal) ‘to grow (grain, young men) | grandir et acquérir de la force, grossir (se dit d’un jeune homme, des grains dans les épis)’, ǧādil ‘grandi, adulte (jeune homme); qui peut déjà marcher tout seul (petit de chameau plus fort que celui rāšiḥ)’ and the corresponding denom. vb. IV,ʔaǧdala ‘to have a young one (ǧādil) able to follow its mother; (fig.) to cheer up | égayer, rendre gai’; cf. also (ǧadala and) the intens. vb. II, ǧaddala ‘to knock s.o. down | jeter, renverser par terre (d’un coup de lance)’, hence also taǧaddala (V) ‘to fall down | tomber par terre (et y rester étendu)’ and ĭnǧadala (VII) ‘to be thrown down | être jeté, renversé et étendu par terre’.
ǦDL_8 ‘earth, soil, ground, ground having fine sand | terre couverte d’un sable fin’: ǧadālaẗ; cf. also ǧadīlaẗ (pl. ǧadāʔilᵘ) ‘country, state; tribe | pays; plage’
ǦDL_9 ‘a kind of hawk | gerfault, espèce de faucon’: ʔaǧdalu(n?) (pl. ʔaǧādilᵘ)
ǦDL_10 ‘troop | troupe d’hommes’: maǧdal
ǦDL_11 ‘to melt fat | liquéfier, faire fondre (du beurre, de la graisse)’: ǧadala (ǧadl)

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to braid, twist tightly; to be well-built; to knock down; to dispute, argue in a contentious manner, debate’.
 
With the exception of [v4] and perh. [v8]-[v11] (where connection with other values is not, or nor immediately, evident), practically all values in the Ar root √ǦDL can easily be explained as derivations from the basic idea of [v1] ‘twisting strongly (a rope etc.)’. This “roof” value, and some of its derivatives, are also the most widely attested ones in Sem (cf. #GDL-1 in DRS, see below, section COGN).
▪ For an attempt to derive ǦDL from a 2-consonantal root nucleus *GD‑ see below, section DISC.
▪ Ar [v1] unites two basic notions which in other Sem langs appear as distinct values and have developed in many directions also in Ar: ‘twisting (rope)’ and ‘strength, firmness’. As rightly observed by DRS, a semantic relation between ‘twisting’ and ‘making firm\strong’ can be found also in other roots, such as ↗√BRM, ↗√KBR, ↗√KRB, ↗√MSD, ↗√MRR, ↗√ʕSD, ↗√ʕQD, ↗√FTL, and ↗√QWW/Y. In a similar vein, also ‘strong’ and ‘great, big, large’ are connected not only in ǦDL but also in ↗√ʕẒM.
▪ [v1] ‘to twist tight, braid, plait’ is the “roof” value from which most other values in the root can be thought to derive. The value is widely attested in Sem (Akk,31 Hbr, Aram, Ar, Soq, Te) and can thus be posited, with all likelihood, also for protSem *GDL.
▪ [v2] ‘to quarrel, wrangle; (esp.) to argue, debate, dispute, contest’: obviously a semantic extension from [v1] ‘twisting’, peculiar to Ar where the basic notion of ‘quarreling, fighting’ is found in ↗ǧadal ‘fight’, but mostly in the extended vb. forms. Given that the value is only very scarcely attested outside Ar (only in EthSem, where it came to mean ‘to kill’), it is hard to decide whether the fig. value ‘intellectual argument, dispute’, so prominent in Ar, developed from ‘clashing/quarelling physically’ or whether it is the result of a transfer of meaning directly from ‘twisting’ (in which case ‘physical clash\fighting’ could also be interpreted as a development from ‘firmness, strength, maturity’, etc. – see [v6] below). The value is attested from early on; in the Qurʔān, it is even the only one with which the root √ǦDL is present.
▪ [v3] ¹miǧdāl ‘flagstone, ashlar’: specified in Lane ii 1865 as »oblong roofing-stone, of those which, placed side by side, form the roof of a subterranean passage, &c.«. The value seems to be a specialisation based on [v6] *‘hard, firm, strong’, perh. influenced by miǧdal ‘stronghold, fortress’ (which is usually believed to be a loan from Hbr migdāl ‘tower, stronghold’).
▪ [v4] In ClassAr lexicography, ǦDWL is generally treated s.v. ǦDL. Lane ii 1865 specifies: ǧadwal, var. ǧidwal, ‘rivulet, streamlet (whether natural, or formed artificially for irrigation; being often applied to a streamlet for irrigation, in the form of a trench, or gutter]; (hence:) ĭstaqāma ǧadwaluhum, expr., their affair, or case, was, or became, in a right, a regular, or an orderly, state’, like the ǧadwal when its flow is uniform and uninterrupted; ĭstaqāma ǧadwal al-ḥāǧǧ, expr., the caravan of the pilgrins formed an uninterrupted line; (hence also:) kind of small vein; (and:) ǧadwal kitāb, ruled line (such as is ruled round a page, &c.); column, table (of a book)’. – Relation to ǦDL unclear; perh. *‘trickles uniting (“intertwining”) and thus forming a rivulet’; a (dimin.?) FaʕwaL~FiʕwaL formation (not classified as a standard pattern in any grammar so far)? Can the use of ǧadwal in the sense of ‘ruled line; column; list, roster; chart, table, schedule’ (in MSA the most prevalent use) help to explain the connection betw. ‘twisting’ and ‘rivulet’? Should, e.g., also a table\chart\roster be regarded as *‘intertwining’ lines, the result of some “twisting”?
[v5] : The group comprises other specific interpretations, material and figurative, which, like [v2], are based on the element of *‘twisting’ in [v1] (the only difference being that the values of [v5] have become obsolete in MSA). It is clear that things like ropes and girdles are ‘tightly twisted’ and that also whips and traps/cages belong here. A certain type of girdle (ǧadīlaẗ) that would be worn by menstruous women round their waists could become a synonym for ‘menstruous woman’ as such. In a similar vein, the way s.th. was twisted could take on more general meanings like ‘way, mood’ or (mental structure, the way s.o. is “knitted” =) ‘habit; nature; determination of the mind’. *‘Nicely\beautifully twisted\knitted\woven’ cound take the meaning ‘slender, well-formed, shapely’, hence also ‘graceful, handsome’.
[v6] : In this group we find the obsolete values corresponding to non-obsolete [v3], i.e., specific interpretations, material and figurative, of the other of the two core notions of [v1], namely *‘strength, firmness’. The value is not uncommon outside Ar, but only in forms with prefixed m‑, all meaning ‘tower, fortification’ (Ug, Hbr, Moab, Aram, Syr, LiḥAr, Min), and the cognate Ar term, miǧdal, may in fact be a borrowing (from Hbr), perh. also its relative, [v3] ¹miǧdāl ‘flagstone, ashlar’. In contrast, Ar displays a whole range of lexemes containing the basic notion of be(com)ing or making ‘firm, strong, solid, hard, robust’, incl. vb.s, adj.s, and n.s. While ‘tomb’ may be (like ‘tower, fortification’) *‘the firmly built one’, ‘unripe dates’ are hard, and such should also be the ‘pestle’ of a mortar. – A special case may be ǧadl~ǧidl ‘limb, any part of the body; penis; sinew; (pl.) bones of the legs’. ClassAr “etymology”, ĭštiqāq, tends to interpret the word (esp. the penis) as *‘the hard one’. In contrast, MilitarevKogan2000 (SED I) #73 think it may be independent from the other ǦDL items, going back to a protSem *g˅d(˅)l‑ ‘limb’. The authors concede that attestation in Sem is rather scarce – apart from Ar, there are only postBiblHbr (ʔª)gūdāl ‘thumb, great toe’, and modSAr ‘foot’ (Mhr gēdəl, Ḥrs gédəl, Jib gέdəl) –; nevertheless, they think this is reliable enough to assume a wider Sem dimension.32 Moreover, they assume that their hypothetical protSem *g˅d(˅)l‑ ‘limb’ might be »related with suffixed ‑l to [protSem] *g˅d-at‑ ‘(part or bone of) the leg of animal’« [SED I #71, no reflexes attested in Ar].
[v7] : Apart from ‘twisting, rope, etc.’ and ‘strength, firmness, etc.ʼ, the idea of *‘growth, greatness, maturity, ripeness’ and corresponding capacities is rather widespread beyond Ar (Ug, Hbr, Aram). In this group we find not only vb.s signifying ‘to grow (grain, young men)’ but also corresponding adj.s like ‘ripe (corn, grain)’, ‘grown up, being able to walk by itself (young camel) or o.s. (child)’. Here belongs also the vb. II, attested from early on, in the sense of ‘to knock s.o. down’ (with also vb. V ‘to fall down’ and vb. VII ‘to be thrown down’); these could likewise be interpreted as the result of having gained ‘strength’, thus belonging to the complex of [v6] rather than that of [v7]. ­– For MilitarevStolbova2007, the wider attestation outside Ar (and, perh., even some cognates outside Sem) are reason enough to posit a protSem *g˅d˅l‑ ‘(to be\come) big, strong’ (< AfrAs *g˅d˅l‑ ‘to be big’); see below, sections COGN and DISC, for further details).
[v8] : The specification ‘having fine sand | couverte d’un sable fin’ seems to contradict a derivation of ‘earth, soil, ground’ from the basic notion of [v6] ‘hard, solid, firm’; but also fine sand may be very hard, so it may well belong to [v6]. The same word can also mean ‘country, state; tribe’, which with all likelihood is a specialization of ‘firm ground’.
[v9] : The type of falcon or hawk called ʔaǧdal has its name either from its beautiful, well-shaped appearance (cf. [v5]) or its strength (cf. [v6]). Grammarians discussed whether the word was an elative formation (in which case it should not take nunation: ʔaǧdalu) or whether it should be treated like a “real” noun (hence ʔaǧdalun).
[v10] maǧdal ‘troop’: < *‘the strong one, standing firm’?
[v11] ǧadala (ǧadl) ‘to melt fat’: ?
 
▪ Earliest attestations accord. to DHDA (as of 13Jul2021):

528 ǧadwal ‘rivulet, streamlet’
529 ǧādil (674 ǧadīl, 791 ǧadl, ǧadil) ‘hard, strong, firm’
538 ǧaddala (642 ǧadala) ‘to knock s.o. down’; 600 taǧaddala ‘to fall down’, 600 ǧadīl ‘knocked down, thrown to earth’
538 ǧadīl, 631 ǧadīlaẗ, ‘twisted rope’
539 ǧidāl ‘quarrelsome argument, fight’
544 miǧdal ‘stronghold, fortress’
545 ʔaǧdal ‘a kind of hawk’
573 ǧadīl ‘girdle, ornamented belt (wišāḥ)’
604 ǧādala ‘to argue, quarrel with s.o.’
616 ǧadal ‘vehemence, violence, in altercation or disputation or litigation, sharpness, acrimony in dispute’
631 ǧadl (vn. I) ‘to twist strongly (a rope)’
633 ǧadāl ‘unripe dates’
636 ǧidl ‘bones of the legs’
643 maǧdūl ‘bien tourné, beautiful’
657 ǧadl ‘member, body part’
762 ǧadālaẗ ‘earth, hard soil’
791 ǧadīlaẗ ‘trap to catch pigeons, bird’s cage’
791 miǧdāl ‘qui aime à disputer, prompt, enclin à la dispute; fort et habile à la dispute’
 
All values: DRS 2 (1994) #GDL-1 Akk gidl- ‘cordon torsadé, cordelière’;72 Hbr gādal ‘tresser’, *gādil ‘tresse’; Aram gᵊdal ‘tresser’, gᵊdiltā ‘tresse’; Phlv gdyl ‘cordon’; Mand gdal ‘tresser’, gdalta ‘tresse, guirlande’; nSyr gʸädil ‘tresser’; Ar ǧadala ‘tresser une corde, la rendre solide en la tordant fortement’; Soq gadl ‘tresse’; Te gädlä ‘tresser les cheveux, coiffer’. – Ug gdl, Hbr gādōl ‘grand’, gādāl, Aram gᵊdal ‘être grand’; Mand *gdil ‘être exalté’; Ar ǧadala ‘être ferme, solide; jeter à terre, terrasser’, ǧādil ‘grand, adulte’, ǧādala ‘lutter, se quereller’; Soq gódil ‘être fort’; Gz gadala ‘être fort, l’emporter sur; tuer’, gadl ‘combat; exercice ascétique’, gadalā ‘cadavre, charogne’; Te gadälä, Tña Amh tägaddälä ‘lutter’; Amh gäddälä, *gällä ‘tuer’, gäla ‘corps’. – Ug mgdl, Hbr migdāl, Moab mgdlt (pl.), Aram migdᵊlā, Syr magdᵊlā, Ar miǧdal, LiḥAr Min mgdl ‘tour, château fort’. -2 Gz gʷadala ‘être incomplet’, gudāle ‘défaut’; Amh gʷäddälä ‘manquer de’. -3 Akk gudilū-: classe, sorte d’hommes.
[v6] MilitarevKogan2000 (SED I) #73: postBiblHbr gūdāl, ʔªgūdāl ‘thumb, great toe’, Ar ǧadl, ǧidl ‘membre quelconque du corps; verge, pénis; tendon (des mains ou des jambes); os entier, non fracture [BK1860]’, Mhr gēdəl, Ḥrs gédəl, Jib gέdəl ‘foot’.
[v7] MilitarevStolbova2007: Ug gdl ‘big’, Hbr gdl ‘to be big’, gādōl ‘big’, Aram gǝdal ‘to be big’, Ar ǧdl ‘to become big, strong’, ǧādil ‘big’. Outside Sem: dǜgōlù, digàl, dɨgàlu, dɨ̄galu, all meaning ‘big’ in 4 CCh langs.
[v6]/[v7] Borg2021 #91 ǧ-d-l compares Hbr migdāl ‘tower’, Ar miǧdal ‘castle’ and Lev Ar maǧdal (part of the names of many Lebanese and Syrian villages) with Eg (LE) mktr, mkdr, mgdr ‘tower’ (Wb V 631), Copt ⲙⲓⲕⲧⲟⲗ ‘tower’ (Crum 1939: 214b)
▪ …
 
▪ [v1]-[v11]: See above, section CONC.
[v6] MilitarevKogan2000 (SED I) #73: »Scarce though reliable attestation.« The authors reconstruct protSem *g˅d(˅)l‑ ‘limb’. »Possibly related with suffixed ‑l to [protSem] *g˅d-at‑ ‘(part or bone of) the leg of animal’« [SED I #71, not attested in Ar]. »The postBiblHbr forms may alternatively be derived from [Hbr] gādal ‘to be high, large’ (and then unrelated to the present root), or semantically influenced by the latter.«
[v7] MilitarevStolbova2007: The authors reconstruct protSem *g˅d˅l‑ ‘(to be\come) big, strong’ and protCCh *digwal‑ ‘big’, both from a hypothetical AfrAs *g˅d˅l‑ ‘to be big’, where ‑l is perh. a suffix so that AfrAs *g˅d˅l‑ could be composed of AfrAs *gid-/*gud- ‘to be big, be many’ + modifier ‑l.
▪ Blix1876 (s.v. Hbr nāgîd ‘leader; ruler, prince’) derives Hbr nāgîd from a 2-consonantal root nucleus *√GD‑ (gad) the basic meaning of which he defines as ‘strække, stramme, snøre, knytte; intr. strække sig, være stram, streng, fast’ (to stretch, tighten, lace, tie; intr. to stretch out, be tight, strict, firm); accord. to the author, this basic value is not only present in the 2-consonantal forms like Ar ↗ǧīd ‘neck’, ↗ǧāda ‘to be swift (horse); to be excellent, make s.th. well’, and ↗ǧadda ‘to be serious’, but also in extended, 3-rad. roots like, e.g., Hbr ʔāgad ‘to bind, tie’ (with ʔᵃgûdāʰ ‘band, bundle, bunch’), Hbr gāḏēr ‘fence, hedge, enclosure, wall’ (Aram gâdêrâ, gᵊdêrâ ‘fence’, Ar ǧadr ‘wall of enclosure’, ǧadīr ‘walled place’, Phoen n.top. hgdr, ʔgdr ‘Gadeira, Gades, now Cádiz’, Berb agadir ‘fortress, castle’), Hbr nāgîd, Syr nāgôdâ ‘leader, ruler’ (cf. Ar naǧd ‘highland, the Nejd’), and also Ar ǧadala ‘to twist tight, firmly; [mostly vb. II, ǧaddala] to throw down’, ǧidl ‘sinew, nerve’, ǧadula ‘to be solid, robust, firm’, Hbr gdl ‘to grow up, become great/big’, gādôl ‘big, large’. – There is much in Blix’s theory which looks untenable (esp. the value of the 2-cons. root nucleus), but there may also be some truth to it. Others have identified one or more 2-cons. root nuclei, too, though none meaning ‘to stretch, tighten, lace, tie; intr. to stretch out, be tight, strict, firm’, as claimed by Blix (for instance, Kogan2015: 193 #37 posits a protWSem *gd with a general meaning ‘to be good, lucky, excellent’; Ehret1995 #295 and Kogan2015 #33⁶⁴ assume a protSem *gd‑ ‘to cut, make an incision’; so also DRS 2, adding that *‘trancher, couper, etc.’ often has a »connotation de violence: arracher; frapper, broyer, etc.«); for an overview, see ↗*GD‑.
 
– 
– 
ǧadal‑ جَدَلـ , u, i (ǧadl
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Jul2021
√ǦDL 
vb., I 
1a to twist tight, tighten, stretch (a rope); b to braid, plait (the hair, etc.) – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ ‘To twist tight, braid, plait’ is the “roof” value from which most other values in the root ↗√ǦDL can be thought to derive. It unites two basic notions which in other Sem languages appear as distinct values and have developed in many directions also in Ar: ‘twisting (rope)’ and ‘strength, firmness’.
▪ As rightly observed by DRS, a semantic relation between ‘twisting’ and ‘strength, firmness’ can be found also in other roots, such as ↗√BRM, ↗√KBR, ↗√KRB, ↗√MSD, ↗√MRː(MRR), ↗√ʕSD, ↗√ʕQD, ↗√FTL, and ↗√QWY. In a similar vein, also ‘strong’ and ‘great, big, large’ are connected not only in √ǦDL but also in ↗√ʕẒM.
▪ This entry treats only ‘twisting’ proper (more precisely, the “remnants” of this value that have survived into MSA). For the wider semantic spectrum, see root entry ↗√ǦDL as well as individual entries ↗ǧadal (with the related complex of *‘quarreling, wrangling, fighting; arguing, debating, etc.’ – the most prominent complex in MSA), ↗¹miǧdāl (with *‘strength, firmness’) and ↗ǧadwal (prob. a specific interpretation of ‘twisting’, namely the “intertwining” of trickles of water, etc., forming a rivulet, hence also the intertwining of lines in a table, chart, etc.).
▪ The value is widely attested in Sem (Akk,33 Hbr, Aram, Ar, Soq, Te) and can thus be posited, with all likelihood, also for protSem *GDL.
▪ As the list of derivatives (see below) shows, there are only few items left in MSA that still display the original idea of ‘twisting tight, braiding, plaiting’. ClassAr contained a larger variety, including, e.g., ǧadīl(aẗ) ‘girdle, ornamented belt; menstruous woman (who wears that type of belt)’ and ǧadīlaẗ ‘trap for catching pigeons, bird’s cage (made from twigs by “weaving/twisting” them)’ (hence also the ǧaddāl ‘trap\cage-maker’). The way s.th. was twisted could also take the more general meaning of ‘way, mood’ or ‘habit; nature; determination of the mind’ (= the way s.o. is “knitted”, his/her mental structure). Perh. also a type of falcon or hawk was called ʔaǧdal on account of its well-shaped appearance (alternatively, due to its strength).
▪ Metaphorical use of *‘nicely twisted, well-knit’ has survived into MSA in the PP I, maǧdūl, in the meaning ‘slender and trim, shapely’ (in ClassAr also ‘graceful, handsome’).
 
▪ Earliest attestations of ‘twisting’ and directly related values accord. to DHDA (as of 13Jul2021) (for attestations of other values see “root” entry ↗√ǦDL; particular sub-values: for ‘quarelling, disputing’ see ↗ǧadal; for ‘strength, firmness’ see ↗miǧdāl; for ‘rivulet; table, chart’ see ↗ǧadwal):

538 ǧadīl, 631 ǧadīlaẗ ‘twisted rope’
573 ǧadīl(aẗ) ‘girdle, ornamented belt (wišāḥ)’
631 ǧadl (vn. I) ‘to twist strongly (a rope)’
643 maǧdūl ‘bien tourné, beautiful’
791 ǧadīlaẗ ‘trap for catching pigeons, bird’s cage’
 
All values: DRS 2 (1994) #GDL-1 Akk gidl- ‘cordon torsadé, cordelière’;73 Hbr gādal ‘tresser’, *gādil ‘tresse’; Aram gᵊdal ‘tresser’, gᵊdiltā ‘tresse’; Phlv gdyl ‘cordon’; Mand gdal ‘tresser’, gdalta ‘tresse, guirlande’; nSyr gʸädil ‘tresser’; Ar ǧadala ‘tresser une corde, la rendre solide en la tordant fortement’; Soq gadl ‘tresse’; Te gädlä ‘tresser les cheveux, coiffer’. – Ug gdl, Hbr gādōl ‘grand’, gādāl, Aram gᵊdal ‘être grand’; Mand *gdil ‘être exalté’; Ar ǧadala ‘être ferme, solide; jeter à terre, terrasser’, ǧādil ‘grand, adulte’, ǧādala ‘lutter, se quereller’; Soq gódil ‘être fort’; Gz gadala ‘être fort, l’emporter sur; tuer’, gadl ‘combat; exercice ascétique’, gadalā ‘cadavre, charogne’; Te gadälä, Tña Amh tägaddälä ‘lutter’; Amh gäddälä, *gällä ‘tuer’, gäla ‘corps’. – Ug mgdl, Hbr migdāl, Moab mgdlt (pl.), Aram migdᵊlā, Syr magdᵊlā, Ar miǧdal, LiḥAr Min mgdl ‘tour, château fort’. -2-3 […].
▪ …
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
 
– 
ǧaddala, vb. II, to braid, plait (s.th.): D-stem, ints.

ǧadīlaẗ, pl. ǧadāʔilᵘ, n.f., 1a braid, plait; b tress: quasi-PP, f.
maǧdūl, adj., 1a tightly twisted; b braided, plaited; c interwoven, intertwined (tress of hair); 2 slender and trim, shapely (e.g., leg): PP I.

For the related complex ‘to quarrel, wrangle; to argue, debate, dispute, contest’, see ↗ǧadal. For other values attached to the “root”, cf. ↗¹miǧdāl and ↗ǧadwal (ǦDWL) as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√ǦDL.
 
ǧadal جَدَل 
ID … • Sw – • BP 2186 • APD … • © SG | 15Jul2021
√ǦDL 
n. 
1a quarrel, argument; b debate, dispute, discussion, controversy – WehrCowan1976.
 
ǧadal is the vn. I of the (now obsolete) vb. I, ǧadila (a, ǧadal), vb. I, ‘to be quarrelsome, contentious’. In ClassAr, the vb. I (and esp. also vb.s II and III) could still refer to physical fighting, combat, cf., e.g. ǧaddala ‘to knock s.o. down’, ǧādala ‘to fight s.o.’). However, the most widespread use is as *‘fighting each other with words’. This is also the only sense with which ǧadal and related lexemes appear in the Qur’ān.
▪ Metaphorical use is based on an original *‘twisting tight, braiding, plaiting’ (↗ǧadala) which has developed a wide spectrum of semantic extensions, building, on the one hand, on figurative use of *‘twisting’ (> ‘getting into each other = quarreling, wrangling, fighting, disputing’; > ‘shapely, nicely “knitted”, well-formed, handsome’; > ‘way, mode; habit, nature, determination of mind [i.e., the way a person is “knitted, made up”]; > ‘rivulet, i.e., intertwining trickles of water’, > ‘table, chart, intersection of lines’, etc.) and, on the other hand, on *‘firmness, solidity, strength’ (> ‘maturity, ripeness’, > ‘growth, largeness, bigness’, > ‘stronghold, fortification’) – for an overview, see “root” entry ↗√ǦDL.
▪ The range of meanings of ǧadal in ClassAr is summarized by Lane ii 1865 as: ‘vehemence, violence, in altercation or disputation or litigation, sharpness, acrimony in dispute; ability\power to practise it; (also ǧadl, pl. ǧudūl, ʔaǧdāl) well-made syllogism’;34 (ʕilm al-) ǧadal ‘polemics’; ǧadalī ‘querelleur, disputeur’.
▪ The value ‘intellectual argument, dispute’, which is so prominent in Ar, is only very scarcely attested outside Ar (only in EthSem, where it came to mean ‘to kill’).
▪ …
 
▪ Earliest attestations of ‘fighting, quarelling, disputing’ and directly related values accord. to DHDA (as of 13Jul2021) (for attestations of other values see “root” entry ↗√ǦDL; particular sub-values: for ‘to twist; rope’ see ↗ǧadala; for ‘strength, firmness’ see ↗miǧdāl; for ‘rivulet; table, chart’ see ↗ǧadwal):

539 ǧidāl ‘quarrelsome argument, fight’
604 ǧādala ‘to argue, quarrel with s.o.’
616 ǧadal ‘vehemence, violence, in altercation or disputation or litigation, sharpness, acrimony in dispute’
eC7 ǧadal (disputation, contention, argument) Q 18:54 wa-kāna ’l-ʔinsānu ʔakṯara šayʔin ǧadalan ‘but man is the most contentious of all creatures [lit., things]’. – ǧādala [v. III, trans.] 1 (to argue or dispute with) Q 11:32 qālū yā Nūḥu qad ǧādaltanā fa-ʔakṯarta ǧidālanā ‘they said, “Noah!, you have disputed with us, and have put up a lot of disputation with us”’; 2 ([with prep. ʕan] to plead for, argue the case of) Q 4:109 hā-ʔantum hāʔulāʔi ǧādaltum ʕanhum fī ’l-ḥayāẗi ’l-dunyā fa-man yuǧādilu ’ḷḷāha ʕanhum yawma ’l-qiyāmaẗ? ‘here you are, the ones who argued on their behalf in the life of this world, but who will argue on their behalf with God on the Day of Resurrection?’. – ǧidāl (arguing/argument, disputing/disputation, contending/contention) Q 2:197 fa-lā rafaṯa wa-lā fusūqa wa-lā ǧidāla fī ’l-ḥaǧǧi ‘there is no intercourse [also interpreted as: abusive speech], misbehaviour nor disputation during/on the pilgrimage’
791 miǧdāl ‘qui aime à disputer, prompt, enclin à la dispute; fort et habile à la dispute’
 
All values: DRS 2 (1994) #GDL-1 Akk gidl- ‘cordon torsadé, cordelière’;74 Hbr gādal ‘tresser’, *gādil ‘tresse’; Aram gᵊdal ‘tresser’, gᵊdiltā ‘tresse’; Phlv gdyl ‘cordon’; Mand gdal ‘tresser’, gdalta ‘tresse, guirlande’; nSyr gʸädil ‘tresser’; Ar ǧadala ‘tresser une corde, la rendre solide en la tordant fortement’; Soq gadl ‘tresse’; Te gädlä ‘tresser les cheveux, coiffer’. – Ug gdl, Hbr gādōl ‘grand’, gādāl, Aram gᵊdal ‘être grand’; Mand *gdil ‘être exalté’; Ar ǧadala ‘être ferme, solide; jeter à terre, terrasser’, ǧādil ‘grand, adulte’, ǧādala ‘lutter, se quereller’; Soq gódil ‘être fort’; Gz gadala ‘être fort, l’emporter sur; tuer’, gadl ‘combat; exercice ascétique’, gadalā ‘cadavre, charogne’; Te gadälä, Tña Amh tägaddälä ‘lutter’; Amh gäddälä, *gällä ‘tuer’, gäla ‘corps’. – Ug mgdl, Hbr migdāl, Moab mgdlt (pl.), Aram migdᵊlā, Syr magdᵊlā, Ar miǧdal, LiḥAr Min mgdl ‘tour, château fort’. -2-3 […].
▪ …
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ …
 
– 
faraḍa ǧadalan, expr., to assume for the sake of argument, propose as a basis for discussion.

ǧādala, vb. III, 1a to quarrel, wrangle, bicker (DO with s.o.); b to argue, debate (DO with s.o.); c to dispute, contest ( s.th.): L-stem, fig. use, associative.
taǧādala, vb. VI, 1a to quarrel, have an argument; b to carry on a dispute: Lt-stem, reciproque.

ǧadalī, 1 adj., controversial; disputatious; 2 n., a disputant: nisba-formation.
ǧaddāl, adj., disputatious, argumentative: ints. formation (FaʕʕāL).
miǧdāl, pl. maǧādīlᵘ, 1 n., ↗¹miǧdāl; 2 adj., disputatious, argumentative: ints. formation (miFʕāL).
ǧidāl, n., and muǧādalaẗ, pl. -āt, n.f., 1a quarrel, argument; b dispute, discussion, debate: vn. III | lā yaqbalu ’l-ǧidāl, expr., incontestable, indisputable; lā ǧidālª and bi-lā ǧidālª, expr., incontestably, indisputably.
muǧādil, n., disputant, opponent in dispute: PA III.

For the related complex ‘to twist tight, braid, plait’, see ↗ǧadala (ǧadl). For other values attached to the “root”, cf. ↗¹miǧdāl and ↗ǧadwal (ǦDWL) as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√ǦDL.
 
miǧdāl مِجْدال , pl. maǧādīlᵘ 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Jul2021
√ǦDL 
n. 
1 flagstone, ashlar; 2 adj., ↗ǧadal – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ The meaning of the term is specified in Lane ii 1865 as »oblong roofing-stone, of those which, placed side by side, form the roof of a subterranean passage, &c.«. The word seems to belong to the complex of *‘strength, firmness’ (see [v6] in root entry ↗√ǦDL) which is a specialization from the basic *‘to twist tight, braid, plait’ ([v1] in ↗√ǦDL, ↗ǧadala).
▪ ¹miǧdāl ‘flagstone, ashlar’ is listed as a value in its own right for the simple reason that it is the only item from the *‘strength, firmness’ complex that has “survived” into MSA.
▪ It is not clear whether it is an inner-Ar formation or whether it has to be seen together with miǧdal ‘stronghold, fortress’, likewise from *‘strength, firmness’ but perh. via Hbr migdāl ‘tower, stronghold’.
▪ …
 
Earliest attestations of ‘strength, firmness; stronghold, castle, tower’ and related values accord. to DHDA (as of 13Jul2021) (for attestations of other values see “root” entry ↗√ǦDL; for particular sub-values: ‘to twist; rope’ ↗ǧadala; ‘fighting, quarelling, disputing’ ↗ǧidāl; ‘rivulet; table, chart’ ↗ǧadwal):

529 ǧādil (674 ǧadīl, 791 ǧadl, ǧadil) ‘hard, strong, firm’
538 ǧaddala (642 ǧadala) ‘to knock s.o. down’; 600 taǧaddala ‘to fall down’, 600 ǧadīl ‘knocked down, thrown to earth’
539 ǧidāl ‘quarrelsome argument, fight’
544 miǧdal ‘stronghold, fortress’
545 ʔaǧdal ‘a kind of hawk’
616 ǧadal ‘vehemence, violence, in altercation or disputation or litigation, sharpness, acrimony in dispute’
 
DRS 2 (1994) #GDL-1 Akk gidl- ‘cordon torsadé, cordelière’;75 Hbr gādal ‘tresser’, *gādil ‘tresse’; Aram gᵊdal ‘tresser’, gᵊdiltā ‘tresse’; Phlv gdyl ‘cordon’; Mand gdal ‘tresser’, gdalta ‘tresse, guirlande’; nSyr gʸädil ‘tresser’; Ar ǧadala ‘tresser une corde, la rendre solide en la tordant fortement’; Soq gadl ‘tresse’; Te gädlä ‘tresser les cheveux, coiffer’. – Ug gdl, Hbr gādōl ‘grand’, gādāl, Aram gᵊdal ‘être grand’; Mand *gdil ‘être exalté’; Ar ǧadala ‘être ferme, solide; jeter à terre, terrasser’, ǧādil ‘grand, adulte’, ǧādala ‘lutter, se quereller’; Soq gódil ‘être fort’; Gz gadala ‘être fort, l’emporter sur; tuer’, gadl ‘combat; exercice ascétique’, gadalā ‘cadavre, charogne’; Te gadälä, Tña Amh tägaddälä ‘lutter’; Amh gäddälä, *gällä ‘tuer’, gäla ‘corps’. – Ug mgdl, Hbr migdāl, Moab mgdlt (pl.), Aram migdᵊlā, Syr magdᵊlā, Ar miǧdal, LiḥAr Min mgdl ‘tour, château fort’. -2-3 […].
▪ …
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ …
 
– 
For other values attached to the “root”, cf. ↗ǧadala (ǧadl), ↗ǧadal, and ↗ǧadwal (ǦDWL) as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√ǦDL.
 
ǧadwal جَدْوَل , pl. ǧadāwilᵘ 
ID … • Sw – • BP 1889 • APD … • © SG | 15Jul2021
√ǦDL, ǦDWL 
n. 
1 creek, brook, little stream; 2a column; b list, roster; c index; d chart, table, schedule – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ In ClassAr lexicography, ǧadwal is generally treated s.r. ↗√ǦDL the basic meaning of which is ‘to twist tight, braid, plait’ (↗ǧadala).
▪ The relation between the two values, ‘twisting’ and ‘rivulet’, is not immediately evident, but if ǧadwal should indeed be dependent on ǧadala one could perh. explain it as *‘trickles uniting (“intertwining”) and thus forming a rivulet’. Interestingly enough, ǧadwal ‘rivulet’ is the very earliest lexeme that a search for first attestations of items from √ǦDL yields in DHDA.
▪ The use of ǧadwal [v1] ‘rivulet’ in the sense of [v2] ‘ruled line; column; list, roster; chart, table, schedule’ – the most prevalent value in MSA – can perh. support the above explanation ‘rivulet < twisting, intertwining’ as also a ‘table, chart, roster’ may be regarded as an assembly of *‘intertwining’ lines, the result of some “twisting”. Ar lexicographers, as summarized in Lane ii 1865, describe ǧadwal, var. ǧidwal, as »rivulet, streamlet (whether natural, or formed artificially for irrigation; being often applied to a streamlet for irrigation, in the form of a trench, or gutter]; (hence:) [expr.] ĭstaqāma ǧadwaluhum, their affair, or case, was, or became, in a right, a regular, or an orderly, state’, like the ǧadwal when its flow is uniform and uninterrupted; [expr.] ĭstaqāma ǧadwal al-ḥāǧǧ, the caravan of the pilgrins formed an uninterrupted line; (hence also:) kind of small vein; (and:) ǧadwal kitāb, ruled line (such as is ruled round a page, &c.); column, table (of a book)«.
▪ Morphologically, ǧadwal could be described as a (dimin.?) FaʕwaL~FiʕwaL formation (though no such pattern has been identified by grammarians so far…).
 
528 ǧadwal ‘rivulet, streamlet’ – DHDA.
 
▪ No direct cognates in Sem. – For the wider perspective (‘twisting’ etc.), cf. ↗√ǦDL.
▪ …
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ …
 
– 
ǧadwal dirāsī, n., curriculum;
ǧadwal al-būrṣaẗ, n., stock list;
ḫāriǧ ǧadwal al-būrṣaẗ, not quoted (stock exchange);
ǧadwal al-ʔaʕmāl, n., agenda; working plan

For values attached to the “root” √ǦDL under which ǧadwal is usually arranged in dictionaries, cf. ↗ǧadala (ǧadl), ↗ǧadal, and ↗¹miǧdāl as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√ǦDL.
 
ǦDY جدي 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦDY 
“root” 
▪ ǦDY_1 ‘kid, young goat; Capricorn; the North Star’ ↗ǧady
▪ ǦDY_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
DRS 2 (1994) #GDY-1: from protSem *gady‑ ‘chevreau’, (SED II #76:) from AfrAs *ga/uday/w(-m/n)- ‘kind of ungulate’.▪ …
 
– 
DRS 2 (1994) #GDY-1 protSem *gady- ‘chevreau’: Akk gadū ‘jeune bouc’; Ug gdy, Pun gdʔ, Hbr gᵊdī, Aram gadyā, oAram gdh, Pehl gdy, nWAram gaḏya ‘bouquetin’; Ar ǧady ‘chevreau’. -2 SAr gdy ‘trancher, décider’; Te gädda ‘arracher, séparer’; gədet ‘morceau de viande’; Tña Amh gədday ‘butin, trophée’. -3 Hbr gidyā ‘rive’; Ar ǧadyaẗ, ǧadiyyaẗ ‘côté, bord de qc’. -4 Ar ʔaǧdā (yuǧdī) ‘saigner (plaie)’.
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
… 
ǧady جدْي 
ID 135 • Sw – • BP 7607 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦDY 
n. 
1 kid, young billy goat; 2a Capricorn (astron.); b al‑~, the North Star – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Kogan2011: from protCSem *gady‑ ‘kid’.
DRS 2 (1994) #GDY-1: from protSem *gady‑ ‘chevreau’, (SED II #76:) from AfrAs *ga/uday/w(-m/n)- ‘kind of ungulate’.
▪ …
 
▪ … 
▪ Kogan2015:184-5 #12: Ug gdy, Hbr gədī, Syr gadyā, Ar ǧady.
DRS 2 (1994) #GDY-1 protSem *gady- ‘chevreau’: Akk gadū ‘jeune bouc’; Ug gdy, Pun gdʔ, Hbr gᵊdī, Aram gadyā, oAram gdh, Pehl gdy, nWAram gaḏya ‘bouquetin’; Ar ǧady ‘chevreau’. -2-4 […].
SED II #76: Ug gdy (gd) ‘kid’, Phoen gdʔ ‘goať, Hbr gədī ‘kid (of goat or sheep)’, gədiyyā ‘kid’, postBiblHbr ‘kid; young animal’, gədiyyā ‘she-kid’; oAram gdh ‘goať (context fragmentary), EmpAram gdy ‘kid’, JudAram gədī (det. gadyā) ‘kid, in gen. young animal; the Capricorn’, gədī (det. gdyyh) ‘kid’, gadyā ‘young goat, kid’, Syr gadyā ‘hoedus’, Mnd gadia ‘kid, young goat, Capricorn’, Maʕl γaḏya ‘Böckchen’, nSyr gidyâ ‘a kid’ […], Ar ǧady ‘chevreau; capricorne (signe du Zodiaque)’, ǧadāyaẗ ‘gazelle; petit de gazelle’. – Gz gadəy ‘Capricorn’ (sign of the Zodiac) and Amh žädi, žäǧi ‘kid (young goat)’ are obvious Ar loans. Akk gadû ‘male kid’, widely attested in late economic texts […] is rightly thought to be borrowed from WSem. – Outside Sem *gady-: CHAD (WChad) Ha gàdáa ‘antelope (duiker sp.)’, Kariya gudam, Miya gudən-zāku, Paʔa gudan-cəka ‘Western kob’, Ngizim gádùwà ‘duiker’; (CChad) Zime-Batna gódày ‘buck’; CUSH (ECush) Oromo gadam-sa ‘greater kudu’, Darasa gadansa ‘buffalo’, Sid goda ‘deer, gazelle’, Burji gadám-a ‘greater kudu’ (prob. < Oromo); (SCush) Iraqw gwanda ‘ram’, Alagwa gwando id., Burunge gondi ‘old ram’ (< *gʷand- with an inserted -n- or metathesis < *gʷad-n-); Omot: (NOmot) Zaysse gaaiddé ‘cattle’, gaidé-endo ‘buffalo’
▪ … 
▪ Kogan2015:184-5 #12 The origin of protCSem *gady- ‘kid’ is uncertain. For a tentative comparison with the verbal root *gdy ‘to cut’ v. DRS 100‒101. For a possible connection with protIE *gʰaid- v. Gamkrelidze–Ivanov 1984: 872. Related terms outside CSem are borrowed from Aram or Ar: Akk gadu ‘kid’,130 Gz gadəy ‘capricorn’.
▪ … 
– 
 
ǦḎ‑ 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦḎ‑ 
"2-cons. nucleus" 
▪ *to cut off, chop, devide, set apart 
A bi-consonantal nucleus that is at the basis of several 3-consonantal themes, cf. section DERIV below. Etymologically, there also seems to be a relation with also ↗*ǦD- and ↗*ǦZ-. 
– 
In DRS 2 (1994)#GḎ: Sur certaines des racines comportant la séquence ‘G + dentale’, v.s. GD [Ar ↗ǦD-]. Comp. les valeurs de GḎḎ, GḎʕ, GḎR; peut-être aussi GḎY, GḎL (et GḎW?). For the most common representations of (some of) the ǦḎ+x roots, cf. the items given below in the DERIV section. 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
ǦḎː (ǦḎḎ): ↗ǧaḏḏa ‘to cut off, clip’; cf. also ↗ǧazza ‘to cut off, clip; to shear, shear off’.
ǦḎʕ: ↗ǧaḏaʕa ‘to cut off, amputate’; cf. also ↗taǧazzaʕa ‘to break apart, break, snap’.
ǦḎM: ↗ǧaḏama ‘to cut off, chop off, excise’; cf. also ↗ǧazama ‘to off, cut short, clip; to judge, decide’. 
*GR- جرـ 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD© SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 15Jan2023
√*GR- 
2-cons. root nucleus 
▪ See below, section CONC.
▪ … 
DRS 3 (1994): « séquence consonantique qui entre dans la constitution de plusieurs séries de racines dont chacune présente une ou des valeurs communes à l’ensemble de la série : 1 La désignation de la ‘gorge’, du ‘gosier’ et l’expression des notions connexes d’ ‘avaler, engloutir’, etc. v. s. GR avec renvois, v. GRGṬ, GRGY, GRDB, GRDD, GRDM, GRZ, GRZʕ, GRṬ. ‑2. La dénomination apparemment onomatopéique de bruits produits par la gorge, la bouche, v. s. GR; v. GRDM, GRMRM; v. aussi s. ĠR. -3 La notion de ‘rondeur’ > ‘rouler’, etc. v. s. GR; v. GRGB, GRGL, GRGM, GRGR, GRḎ?, GRN?, GRNP?, GRR. Comp. GL-. -4 La notion de ‘couper’ > ‘enlever’, ‘arracher’, ‘casser’, etc. v. GRB, GRBB, GRGZ, GRGM, GRD, GRDD, GRDM, GRDP, GRDŠ, GRḤ, GRM, GRMŚ. -5 La notion de ‘couler’ : GRY. »
▪ Ehret1995#285 identifies a “pre-Proto-Semitic” bi-consonantal root *GR- ‘to go down’ (< AfrAs *-GǏR- ‘to sit’) at the basis of several 4-rad. Ar roots, see ↗ǦRBZ, ↗ǦRṮM, ↗ǦRǦM, ↗ǦRDL, ↗ǦRFS (for more details, see below, section DERIV).
▪ … 
– 
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
– 
▪ For reflections of 3-4-rad. root extensions in Ar according to DRS, cf. the following:
  • 1 *‘gorge’, *‘gosier’, *‘avaler, engloutir’: ↗ǦR (redupl. ǧurǧūr ‘(gorge) bruyante’, ǧurāǧir ‘qui boit à grandes gorgées’), ↗ǦRǦM (ǧarǧama ‘engloutir, dévorer’), ↗ǦRDB (ǧardaba ‘goinfrer’, ǧardabān ‘vorace’), ↗ǦRZ (ǧaraza ‘déchirer avec les dents, mordre, dévorer, ravager les cultures’, ǧaruza ‘être vorace’, ǧariza ‘être aride, dénudé, tari’), ↗ǦRʕ (↗ǧariʕa ‘boire d’un coup, avaler, ingurgiter’, with ǧurʕaẗ ~ ǧarʕaẗ ‘gorgée’; ǧaraʕ ‘terrain léger, perméable à l’eau, stérile’), ↗ǦRʕB (ǧarʕaba ‘boire’);
  • 2 onomatopéique (*‘bruits produits par la gorge, la bouche’): ↗ǦR (redupl., ↗ǧarǧara ‘murmurer, faire glouglou; grogner, blatérer, gronder (tonnerre)’), ↗ǦRDM (ǧardama ‘parler avec volubilité’);
  • 3 *‘rondeur’ > *‘rouler’, etc.: ↗ǦRː (ǦRR) (↗ǧarra ‘traîner, tirer’, ↗ǧurraẗ ‘tanière, repaire’, ǧarraẗ ‘piège, lacs’, ↗ǧirraẗ ‘rumination’, ǧārraẗ ‘chemin; bêtes de trait’, ǧārūr ‘cours d’eau, canal’), ↗ǦRǦB (TunAr gərgɛb ‘rouler’);
  • 4 *‘couper’ > *‘enlever’, *‘arracher’, *‘casser’, etc.: ↗ǦRǦM (ǧarǧama ‘terrasser qn, démolir (un mur)’), ↗ǦRḤ (↗ǧaraḥa ‘blesser’, with ǧurḥ ‘blessure’, ǧarīḥ ‘blessé’, and ǧarrāḥ ‘chirurgien’; ↗ǧāriḥaẗ ‘bête de proie’), ↗ǦRD (↗ǧarada ‘écorcer, peler, raser, racler’, with ǧarīd ‘nu, dépouillé’ and ʔaǧradᵘ ‘chauve, sans poils, dénudé’), ↗ǦRDM (ǧardama ‘dévaster’), ↗ǦRM (ǧarama ‘émonder, couper (les fruits desséchés); gagner de quoi nourrir sa famille’);
  • 5 *‘couler’: ↗ǦRY (↗ǧarà ‘courir, couler, avoir lieu’, with ǧary ‘course rapide, courant’ and ǧariyy ‘adolescent, serviteur’, as well as ↗ǧāriyaẗ ‘fillette, fille’).
▪ According to Ehret1995#285, the “pre-protSem” bi-consonantal root *GR- ‘to go down’ forms the basis of the following root extensions:
  • (unextended) > Ar ǧarr ‘foot of a mountain; valley’ (↗√ǦRː/ǦRR_9)
  • + “extendative” *-b + “intensive (manner)” *-z > Ar ǧarbaza ‘to fall’ (↗√ǦRBZ)
  • + “diffusive” * + “noun suffix” *-m > Ar ǧurṯum ‘root, origin; earth round the foot of a tree’ (↗√ǦRṮM)
  • + “finitive, fortative” *-g + *-m (“as fortative”) > Ar ǧarǧama ‘to throw down’ (↗√ǦRǦM)
  • + “durative” *-d + “finitive” *-l > Ar ǧardala ‘to stumble, fall’ (↗√ǦRDL)
  • + *-p (“intensive (manner)”) + *-s (“lexicalized PAA causative”) > Ar ǧarfasa ‘to throw on the ground’ (↗√ǦRFS)
▪ … 
ǦRː (ǦRR) جرّ / جرر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD© SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 5Mar2023
√ǦRː (ǦRR) 
“root” 
▪ ǦRː (ǦRR)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ǦRː (ǦRR)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ǦRː (ǦRR)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to draw, pull, drag along; track, trail, galaxy; crime, guilt; to ruminate’ 
▪ From WSem *√GRR ‘to drag, draw, pull’ – Huehnergard2011.
▪ …
 
– 
… 
… 
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl jar, from Ar ǧarraẗ ‘earthen jar’, from ǧarra, vb. I, ‘to draw, pull’. 
– 
ǦRB جرب 
Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√ǦRB 
“root” 
▪ … 
taǧribaẗ تَجْرِبة 
Sw – • NahḍConBP 587 • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√ǦRB 
n.f. 
experience, test 
▪ vn., II 
ǦRBZ جربز 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 14Jan2023
√ǦRBZ 
“root” 
▪ ǦRBZ_1 ‘impostor, confidence man, swindler’ ↗ǧurbuz

Other values, now obsolete, include (BK1860):

ǦRBZ_2 ‘s’éloigner, s’en aller’: ¹ǧarbaza
ǦRBZ_3 ‘tomber’: ²ǧarbaza
ǦRBZ_4 ‘se contracter, se ramasser’: ³ǧarbaza
ǦRBZ_ ‘…’:
 
▪ [v1] : Accord. to Rolland2014, ǧurbuz (~ qurbuz) ‘imposteur, frippon’ is from Pers gurbuz ‘malin, rusé, audacieux’. So also Ḍinnāwī2004.
[v2] : …
[v3] : According to Ehret1995#285, Ar ǧarbaza ‘to fall’ represents an extension in “extendative” *-b and “intensive (manner)” *-z from a bi-consonantal “pre-Proto-Semitic” root *GR-‘to go down’ < AfrAs *-GǏR- ‘to sit’. – Other extensions from the same pre-protSem root: ↗ǦRː (ǦRR), ↗ǦRṮM, ↗ǦRǦM, ↗ǦRDL, ↗ǦRFS .
[v4] : …
 
– 
… 
… 
– 
– 
ǦRṮM جرثم 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 14Jan2023
√ǦRṮM 
“root” 
▪ ǦRṮM_1 ‘to fall down (and gather)’ ↗ǧurṯūm
▪ ǦRṮM_2 ‘a to gather (after falling down), place of collection, heap, ant-hill; b lowest part, root, base; origin; source; root of the tongue, epiglottis; germ; microbe, bacillus’ ↗ǧurṯūm

Other values, now obsolete:

ǦRṮM_3 ‘a (to take) the largest part; b (pl.) grandees, lords’↗ǧurṯūm
ǦRṮM_4 ‘to shrink’↗ǧurṯūm
 
▪ All values belong somehow together. However, without cognates outside Ar it seems difficult to decide what was first: ǦRṮM_1 ‘to fall down (and gather)’ or ǦRṮM_2 ‘to gather (after falling down)’. DRS #GRṮM gives both Ar ǧurṯūm ‘petit amas de terre, obstacle; souche, noyau’ and taǧarṯama ‘tomber, choir; se pelotonner, se blottir’ as basic values. – For a suggested line of semantic development, see DISC, below.
▪ According to Ehret1995#285, Ar ǧurṯum ‘root, origin; earth round the foot of a tree’ represents an extension in “diffusive” * and “noun suffix” *-m from a bi-consonantal “pre-Proto-Semitic” root *GR-‘to go down’ < AfrAs *-GǏR- ‘to sit’. – Other extensions from the same pre-protSem root: ↗ǦRː (ǦRR), ↗ǦRBZ, ↗ǦRǦM, ↗ǦRDL, ↗ǦRFS .
▪ …
 
▪ Historically, the vb. and the n. seem to have existed alongside each other.
▪ From the root, vb.s I (ǧarṯama), II (taǧarṯama), and III (ĭǧranṯama) are attested, with II being the most frequent and enduring one (preserved even in WehrCowan1979) while I and III are rare and obviously coming out of use gradually by lC19 (Hava1899). In contrast, the n. (ǧurṯūm, -aẗ) is well-preserved until recently, probably due to its having taken on a modern meaning: ‘microbe, bacillus’. While older dictionaries list ‘germ, origin, source, root’ as the primary meaning, al-Mawrid1995 mentions ‘microbe, germ; bacterium, bacillus’ in the first place, before ‘germ, origin, source, root’. 
▪ No obvious cognates outside Arabic.
▪ If a relationship beyond the traditional root system is not excluded, one might perhaps connect √ǦRṮM with the bi-consonantal nucleus ↗ǦM- which has ‘to gather, accumulate, compile’ as one of its basic meanings, cf., e.g., √ǦMD, ↗√ǦMHR, ↗√ǦMʕ, ↗√ǦML. 
▪ As a hypothesis, one may perhaps assume a semantic development along the following line:

‘to fall down’ (ǦRṮM_1) > ‘to gather, pile up (where s.th. has fallen down); place of collection, of piling up, heap’ (ǦRṮM_2a, cf., e.g., ǧurṯūmaẗ al-naml ‘ant-hill’ ) (and ‘to shrink’, ǦRṮM_4) > ‘(to take) the largest part’, i.e., what has piled up in one place, condensed portion (ǦRṮM_3a), metaphorically used for the elite, ‘grandees, lords’ (ǧarāṯīmᵘ, ǦRṮM_3b) > ‘place on the earth where fallen things landed, lowest part, root, base’ (ǦRṮM_2b, MSA [v1]), hence ‘epiglottis’ (root of the tongue) and ‘origin; source’ [v2] > ‘to take root, come into existence, germinate; germ’ [v3], from eC20 onwards also used for ‘microbe, bacillus, bacterium’ [v4].
 
– 
– 
ǧurṯūm جُرْثوم , also ǧurṯūmaẗ, pl. ǧarāṯīmᵘ 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦRṮM 
n., and n.f., respectively 
1 root; 2 origin; 3 germ; 4 microbe, bacillus, bacterium – WehrCowan1979 
▪ As both √ǦRṮM and ǧurṯūm are without obvious cognates outside Ar, and as also the n.s and vb.s seem to have existed alongside each other from early on, it is difficult to decide what was first. DRS #GRṮM gives both Ar ǧurṯūm ‘petit amas de terre, obstacle; souche, noyau’ and taǧarṯama ‘tomber, choir; se pelotonner, se blottir’ as basic values. For a suggested line of semantic development, see DISC, below.
 
▪ Historically, the values given in DRS – ‘small heap of earth, obstacle; stump, snag, nucleus’ and ‘to fall, fall down; to shrink, contract’ – seem to have existed alongside each other from early on.
▪ al-Mawrid1995 does not have the verbal root any longer but only lists ǧurṯūm, -aẗ.
▪ For the n., the earliest attestation (according to HDAL) is in a verse by the pre-Islamic poet ʿĀmir b. Wahb al-Muḥāribī, dated around 538 CE (as a terminus ante quem): wa-nursī ʾilà ǧurṯūmaẗin ʾadrakat lanā / ḥadīṯan wa-ʿādiyan min-a ’l-maǧdi ḫiḍrimā (ed. M.N. Ṭarīfī 1999), where ǧurṯūmaẗ means ‘anything that falls down and piles up around its root’ (kull šayʾ mā yatarākamu minhu muǧtamiʿan ʿalā ʾaṣlih).
▪ Earlier values encountered in the root, but become obsolete in MSA, are:
ǦRṮM_3 ‘(to take) the largest part’ (ǧarṯama, taǧarṯama; ǧurṯūm, aẗ); ‘grandees, lords’ (ǧarāṯīmᵘ, pl. of ǧurṯūm, aẗ)
ǦRṮM_4 ‘to shrink’: taǧarṯama, ĭǧranṯama.
▪ [v4] Monteil1960: 1955 (Académie de langue arabe du Caire, Congrès scientifique arabe) ʕilm al-ǧarāṯīm ‘bacteriology’. 
▪ No obvious cognates outside Ar.
▪ Inside Ar, one may see a relation to the 2-cons. root nucleus √ǦM- which has ‘to gather, accumulate, pile up’ as one of its basic meanings, cf. ↗√ǦMD, ↗√ǦMʕ, ↗√ǦML, ↗√ǦMHR, etc. 
▪ As a hypothesis, one may perhaps assume a semantic development along the line:

‘to fall down’ (ǦRṮM_1) > ‘to gather, pile up (where s.th. has fallen down); place of collection, of piling up, heap’ (ǦRṮM_2a, cf., e.g., ǧurṯūmaẗ al-naml ‘ant-hill’ ) (and ‘to shrink’, ǦRṮM_4) > ‘(to take) the largest part’, i.e., what has piled up in one place, condensed portion (ǦRṮM_3a), metaphorically used for the elite, ‘grandees, lords’ (ǧarāṯīmᵘ, ǦRṮM_3b) > ‘place on the earth where the things that have fallen down landed, lowest part, root, base’ (ǦRṮM_2b, MSA [v1]), hence ‘epiglottis’ (root of the tongue) and ‘origin; source’ [v2] > ‘to take root, come into existence, germinate; germ’ [v3], from eC20 onwards also used for ‘microbe, bacillus, bacterium’ [v4].
 
– 
taḥt al-ǧurṯūm, n., inframicrobe
ʕilm al-ǧarāṯīm, n., bacteriology; for the latter, al-Mawrid1995 also gives ǧurṯūmiyyāt (n.f.pl.).

taǧarṯama, vb. II, to take root, come into existence, germinate: denominative? 
ǦRǦB جرجب 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Jan2023
√ǦRǦB 
“root” 
… 
▪ According to DRS 3 (1994), the Ar root √ǦRǦB (TunAr gərgɛb ‘rouler’) is an extension from a 2-cons. root nucleus ↗*ǦR- with the basic meaning (among others) of *‘rondeur’ > *‘rouler’, etc. – See also ↗ǦRː (ǦRR)_1.
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… 
… 
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ǦRǦR جرجر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Jan2023
√ǦRǦR 
“root” 
… 
▪ According to DRS 3 (1994), the Ar root √ǦRǦR (with ǧurǧūr ‘(gorge) bruyante’, ǧurāǧir ‘qui boit à grandes gorgées’) is an extension from a 2-cons. root nucleus ↗*ǦR- with the basic meaning (among others) of *‘gorge’, *‘gosier’, *‘avaler, engloutir’. – See also ↗ǦRǦM, ↗ǦRDB, ↗ǦRZ, ↗ǦRʕ, ↗ǦRʕB.
▪ According to DRS 3 (1994), the Ar root √ǦRǦR (with ↗ǧarǧara ‘murmurer, faire glouglou; grogner, blatérer, gronder (tonnerre)’) is an extension from a 2-cons. root nucleus ↗*ǦR- with the basic meaning (among others) of an onomatopoetic imitation of the *‘sounds produced by the throat or the mouth’. – See also ↗ǦRDM.
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… 
… 
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ǦRǦM جرجم 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 14Jan2023
√ǦRǦM 
“root” 
This root has become obsolete in MSA. Earlier values include (BK1860):

ǦRǦM_1 ‘renverser, démolir, faire crouler’: ¹ǧarǧama
ǦRǦM_2 ‘boire; manger’: ²ǧarǧama
ǦRǦM_3 ‘se blottir dans un trou (se dit des bêtes); descendre au fond, en bas (p.ex. dans un puits)’: taǧarǧama
ǦRǦM_ ‘…’:
 
[v1] : According to Ehret1995#285, Ar ǧarǧama ‘to throw down’ represents an extension in *-g (“finitive, fortative”) and *-m (“as fortative”) from a bi-consonantal “pre-Proto-Semitic” root *GR-‘to go down’ < AfrAs *-GǏR- ‘to sit’. – Other extensions from the same pre-protSem root: ↗ǦRː (ǦRR), ↗ ǦRBZ, ↗ǦRṮM, ↗ǦRDL, ↗ǦRFS .
[v1] : According to DRS 3 (1994), the Ar root √ǦRǦM (with ǧarǧama ‘terrasser qn, démolir (un mur)’) is an extension from a 2-cons. root nucleus ↗*ǦR- with the basic meaning (among others) of *‘couper’ > *‘enlever’, *‘arracher’, *‘casser’, etc. – See also ↗ǦRḤ, ↗ǦRD, ↗ǦRDM, ↗ǦRM.
[v2] : According to DRS 3 (1994), the Ar root √ǦRǦM (with ǧarǧama ‘engloutir, dévorer’) is an extension from a 2-cons. root nucleus ↗*ǦR- with the basic meaning (among others) of *‘gorge’, *‘gosier’, *‘avaler, engloutir’. – See also ↗ǦRǦR, ↗ǦRDB, ↗ǦRZ, ↗ǦRʕ, ↗ǦRʕB.
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… 
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ǦRḤ جرح 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last update 15Jan2023
√ǦRḤ 
“root” 
▪ ǦRḤ_1 ‘wound’ ↗ġurḥ, ‘surgery’ ↗ǧirāḥaẗ, ‘surgeon’ ↗ǧarrāḥ
▪ ǦRḤ_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to wound, to injure; to defame, to invalidate, deficiency; to strive to earn one’s living; birds and animals of prey’ 
▪ [v1] : According to DRS 3 (1994), the Ar root √ǦRḤ (with ↗ǧaraḥa ‘blesser’, etc., ↗ǧarrāḥ ‘chirurgien’, ↗ǧāriḥaẗ ‘bête de proie’) is an extension from a 2-cons. root nucleus ↗*ǦR- with the basic meaning (among others) of *‘couper’ > *‘enlever’, *‘arracher’, *‘casser’, etc. – See also ↗ǦRǦM, ↗ǦRD, ↗ǦRDM, ↗ǦRM.
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
DRS 3 (1993) #GRḤ-1 Syr garāḥā ‘blessure’, Ar ǧaraḥa ‘blesser’, ǧurḥ ‘blessure’, ǧarīḥ ‘blessé’, ǧarrāḥ ‘chirurgien’, ǧāriḥat ‘bête de proie’, Sab grḥ ‘blessé’, Jib géraḥ, egórḥ ‘faire une coupure’, egórḥ ‘insulter’, gerḥún ‘blessé, insulté’, Soq gorḥ ‘blessure’, Te (tə)gärräḥa ‘être blessé’. -2 Gz garḥ ‘cheval dressé’, Te gärḥa ‘être bien dressé (cheval)’, Tña gärḥe, gärhe, Amh gärra, Arg gärräha, Gur gärra ‘domestiquer, dompter’. -3 Aram gūrḥā ‘grenier’. -?4 Ar ǧaraḥa ‘gagner, acquérir’, Jib géraḥ ‘mettre du riz bien réparti sur une assiette’, s̃əgraḥ ‘être nourri’, Soq gáraḥ ‘ramasser’. – ? Gz garḥ, garoḥ ‘marchandise’. -5 Ḥrs gerḥét ‘dune de sable’.
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▪ … 
▪ …
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… 
ǧurḥ جُرْح 
ID 138 • Sw – • BP 1011 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦRḤ 
n. 
wound, injury, lesion – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 3 (1993) #GRḤ-1 Syr garāḥā ‘blessure’, Ar ǧaraḥa ‘blesser’, ǧurḥ ‘blessure’, ǧarīḥ ‘blessé’, ǧarrāḥ ‘chirurgien’, ǧāriḥat ‘bête de proie’, Sab grḥ ‘blessé’, Jib géraḥ, egórḥ ‘faire une coupure’, egórḥ ‘insulter’, gerḥún ‘blessé, insulté’, Soq gorḥ ‘blessure’, Te (tə)gärräḥa ‘être blessé’. -2-5 […].
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
 
ǧarrāḥ جرّاح 
ID 136 • Sw – • BP 5724 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦRḤ 
n. 
surgeon – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ See ↗ǧurḥ.
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
 
ǧirāḥaẗ جِراحَة 
ID 137 • Sw – • BP 3490 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦRḤ 
n.f. 
surgery – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ See ↗ǧurḥ
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
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ǦRD جرد 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 15Jan2023
√ǦRD 
“root” 
▪ ǦRD_1 ‘to remove the shell, peel, rind, husk’ ↗ǧarada; ‘inventory, stocktaking’ ↗ǧard; ‘palm branches stripped of their leaves’ ↗ǧarīd; ‘list, register, roster, index; newspaper’ ↗ǧarīdaẗ
▪ ǦRD_2 ‘locust(s)’ ↗ǧarād

Other values, now obsolete, include (Hava1899):

ǦRD_3 ‘…’: ǧrd
ǦRD_ ‘…’: ǧrd

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to peel, to bare, to strip; barren land, locust, land savaged by locusts; cloudless sky’ 
▪ [v1] : According to DRS 3 (1994), the Ar root √ǦRD (with ↗ǧarada ‘écorcer, peler, raser, racler’, etc.) is an extension from a 2-cons. root nucleus ↗*ǦR- with the basic meaning (among others) of *‘couper’ > *‘enlever’, *‘arracher’, *‘casser’, etc. – See also ↗ǦRǦM, ↗ǦRḤ, ↗ǦRDM, ↗ǦRM.
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
DRS 3 (1993) #GRD-1 Phoen mgrd ‘grattoir’, Hbr hitgārēd ‘se gratter’, nHbr gārad, Aram gᵊrad ‘racler, gratter’, Syr gared ‘raser’, gᵊrādā ‘chauve’, Mnd grida ‘râpé, pauvre’, Ar ǧarada ‘écorcer, peler, raser, racler’, ǧarid ‘nu, dépouillé’, ʔaǧrad ‘chauve, sans poils, dénudé’, Ḥass žerred ‘abstraire’; Mhr gərōd, Jib góród ‘enlever les branches d’un arbre, dévêtir, désarmer’, Mhr agōrəd, Jib egōrəd ‘couper les cheveux (de femme) sur le front’, Jib egōrd ‘prendre de force’, gərdẹ́t, Mhr (poét.) gərdāt ‘région désertique’; Ar ǧarād, Jib géród ‘sauterelles’; Ar ǧarīd(aẗ) ‘palme; verge, baguette’; Mhr gəráydət: planche en bois de palmier, Jib gərídt ‘barre de fer’, Soq giridih ‘branche d’un petit palmier’, migridoh ‘propreté’; Te ǧärid ‘branche; muscles du cou’, Gz gorada ‘être réduit (semi-consonne à une voyelle)’, Tña gʷärädä, Amh gʷärrädä; Gz garad ‘retirer la balle (du grain)’, Te Amh gərd, Te gʷərd, Tña gurdi ‘balle (du grain)’, gərade, Tña Amh Gur gʷärade, Gaf Har gurade: sorte d’épée. -2 Akk garīd, Syr gᵊrādā ‘castor’. -3 Akk gard, EmpAram grd: catégorie d’employés. -4 Gz garada, Tña Gur garädä, Amh garrädä, Har garäda ‘cacher derrière un rideau’, Amh mägaräǧa ‘rideau’. -5 Te gərǧa ‘vache qui donne du lait après que son veau a été tué; sans enfant’. -6 Tña Amh Arg Gur gäräd ‘fille, servante’. -7 Har gärād ‘chef de tribu, juge’. -8 EgAr ǧardān ‘baril’.
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ǧarīdaẗ جَرِيدَة 
ID 139 • Sw – • BP 1339 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦRD 
n.f. 
1 palm-leaf stalk; 2 list, register, roster, index; 3 newspaper – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 3 (1993) #GRD-1 Phoen mgrd ‘grattoir’, Hbr hitgārēd ‘se gratter’, nHbr gārad, Aram gᵊrad ‘racler, gratter’, Syr gared ‘raser’, gᵊrādā ‘chauve’, Mnd grida ‘râpé, pauvre’, Ar ǧarada ‘écorcer, peler, raser, racler’, ǧarid ‘nu, dépouillé’, ʔaǧrad ‘chauve, sans poils, dénudé’, Ḥass žerred ‘abstraire’; Mhr gərōd, Jib góród ‘enlever les branches d’un arbre, dévêtir, désarmer’, Mhr agōrəd, Jib egōrəd ‘couper les cheveux (de femme) sur le front’, Jib egōrd ‘prendre de force’, gərdẹ́t, Mhr (poét.) gərdāt ‘région désertique’; Ar ǧarād, Jib géród ‘sauterelles’; Ar ǧarīd(aẗ) ‘palme; verge, baguette’; Mhr gəráydət: planche en bois de palmier, Jib gərídt ‘barre de fer’, Soq giridih ‘branche d’un petit palmier’, migridoh ‘propreté’; Te ǧärid ‘branche; muscles du cou’, Gz gorada ‘être réduit (semi-consonne à une voyelle)’, Tña gʷärädä, Amh gʷärrädä; Gz garad ‘retirer la balle (du grain)’, Te Amh gərd, Te gʷərd, Tña gurdi ‘balle (du grain)’, gərade, Tña Amh Gur gʷärade, Gaf Har gurade: sorte d’épée. -2-8 […].
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ǦRDB جردب 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Jan2023
√ǦRDB 
“root” 
… 
▪ According to DRS 3 (1994), the Ar root √ǦRDB (with ǧardaba ‘goinfrer’, ǧardabān ‘vorace’) is an extension from a 2-cons. root nucleus ↗*ǦR- with the basic meaning (among others) of *‘gorge’, *‘gosier’, *‘avaler, engloutir’. – See also ↗ǦRǦR, ↗ǦRǦM, ↗ǦRZ, ↗ǦRʕ, ↗ǦRʕB.
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ǦRDL جردل 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 14Jan2023
√ǦRDL 
“root” 
▪ ǦRDL_1 ‘bucket’ ↗ǧardal

Other values, now obsolete, include (BK1860):

ǦRDL_2 ‘menacer ruine, menacer de tomber’: ǧardala
ǦRDL_3 ‘…’:
 
[v2] : According to Ehret1995#285, Ar ǧardala ‘to stumble, fall’ represents an extension in “durative” *-d and “finitive” *-l from a bi-consonantal “pre-Proto-Semitic” root *GR-‘to go down’ < AfrAs *-GǏR- ‘to sit’. – Other extensions from the same pre-protSem root: ↗ǦRː (ǦRR), ↗ǦRBZ, ↗ǦRṮM, ↗ǦRǦM, ↗ǦRFS .
 
– 
… 
… 
– 
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ǦRDM جردم 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Jan2023
√ǦRDM 
“root” 
… 
▪ According to DRS 3 (1994), the Ar root √ǦRDM in ¹ǧardama ‘parler avec volubilité’ is an extension from a 2-cons. root nucleus ↗*ǦR- with the basic meaning (among others) of an onomatopoetic imitation of the *‘sounds produced by the throat or the mouth’. – See also ↗ǦRǦR.
▪ Also according to DRS 3 (1994), √ǦRDM in ²ǧardama ‘dévaster’ is an extension from a 2-cons. root nucleus ↗*ǦR- with the basic meaning (among others) of *‘couper’ > *‘enlever’, *‘arracher’, *‘casser’, etc. – See also ↗ǦRǦM, ↗ǦRḤ, ↗ǦRD, ↗ǦRM.
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ǦRḎ جرذ 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Jan2023
√ǦRḎ 
“root” 
▪ ǦRḎ_1 ‘large rat’ ↗ǧuraḏ
▪ ǦRḎ_2 ‘…’ ↗ǧrḏ
 
▪ MilitarevKogan2005 (SED II) #84: prot(?)Sem *g˅r˅ḏ(-˅n)- // *g˅r˅ǧ(-˅n)- ‘kind of rodent’. »The protSem status of the present reconstruction is not fully reliable since intersemitic borrowings are possible« – see below, section DISC.
▪ From CSem *guraḏ‑ (exact form uncertain) ‘rodent’ – Huehnergard2011.
▪ …
 
– 
▪ [v1] MilitarevKogan2005 (SED II) #84: Syr gārədā ‘castor’, Mhr gərḏīn ‘rat’, Ḥrṣ gerḏīn ‘rat, mouse’, Ar ǧuraḏ ‘espèce de gros rat des champs’, ǧirḏawn ‘rat’. – For further possible parallels (Gz, Akk), see below, section DISC. – Outside Sem: Exact AfrAs parallels in Berb *g(ʷ)arziz- ‘hare’, perfectly corresponding to Sem *g˅r˅ḏ-: Shawiya a-gʷerzíz, Mzab Wargla a-gergīz (-g- < *-z- assimilated to g-), Rif a-yerziz, Ghadames ta-ǧerǧīs, pl. ta-ǧerzaz. Cf. also (EChad) Dangla gârzè ‘rat sp.’ (unless an Arabism), (CChad) Gude tángə̀rə̀žáne ‘type of animal (like squirrel or weasel)’ (< *tan-g˅r˅ǧ-an-).
▪ …
 
▪ [v1] MilitarevKogan2005 (SED II) #84: »The protSem status of the present reconstruction is not fully reliable since intersemitic borrowings are possible. Cf. Akk garīdu translated as ‘Biber’ in AHw 282 and ‘a mammal’ in CAD (with the following remark: “Identified with the beaver for etymological reasons”). In view of -d- instead of the expected -z-, this term is likely to be an Aram loanword as suggested by Salonen1976 and Landsberger 1934 […]. According to Militarev, forms in -d in Gz and Berb (below) make this assumption less certain. Cf. Gz ḳərādin, ḳərdān ‘field mouse’ with ḳ- and -d- instead of the expected g- and -z- […]. [A] striking parallel to Gz ḳərādin, ḳərdān is represented by Berb *ḳard- ‘rat’: Fojaha γérdé, Rif aγarda, Mzab Shawiya Qabyle Shilḥ aγerda, etc. – [Also:] One wonders whether some other phonetically perfect but semantically too distant matches to Sem *g˅r˅ḏ- may be compared: (EChad) Dangla gírzìbó ‘varan’ (Fedry 326), (NOmot) Sheko góržu ‘gecko’, goržube ‘lizard’ (-b- here and in the Dangla term is a fossilized suffix), on the one hand, and (SOmot) Dirne gerž ‘cat’, on the other hand.
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– 
ǧuraḏ جُرَذ , pl. ǧirḏān, ǧurḏān 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 16Jan2023
√ǦRḎ 
n. 
large rat – WehrCowan1976 
▪ MilitarevKogan2005 (SED II) #84: from prot(?)Sem *g˅r˅ḏ(-˅n)- // *g˅r˅ǧ(-˅n)- ‘kind of rodent’. »The protSem status of the present reconstruction is not fully reliable since intersemitic borrowings are possible« – see below, section DISC.
▪ From CSem *guraḏ‑ (exact form uncertain) ‘rodent’ – Huehnergard2011.
▪ …
 
… 
▪ MilitarevKogan2005 (SED II) #84: Syr gārədā ‘castor’, Mhr gərḏīn ‘rat’, Ḥrṣ gerḏīn ‘rat, mouse’, Ar ǧuraḏ ‘espèce de gros rat des champs’, ǧirḏawn ‘rat’. – For further possible parallels (Gz, Akk), see below, section DISC. – Outside Sem: Exact AfrAs parallels in Berb *g(ʷ)arziz- ‘hare’, perfectly corresponding to Sem *g˅r˅ḏ-: Shawiya a-gʷerzíz, Mzab Wargla a-gergīz (-g- < *-z- assimilated to g-), Rif a-yerziz, Ghadames ta-ǧerǧīs, pl. ta-ǧerzaz. Cf. also (EChad) Dangla gârzè ‘rat sp.’ (unless an Arabism), (CChad) Gude tángə̀rə̀žáne ‘type of animal (like squirrel or weasel)’ (< *tan-g˅r˅ǧ-an-).
▪ …
 
▪ MilitarevKogan2005 (SED II) #84: »The protSem status of the present reconstruction is not fully reliable since intersemitic borrowings are possible. Cf. Akk garīdu translated as ‘Biber’ in AHw 282 and ‘a mammal’ in CAD (with the following remark: “Identified with the beaver for etymological reasons”). In view of -d- instead of the expected -z-, this term is likely to be an Aram loanword as suggested by Salonen1976 and Landsberger 1934 […]. According to Militarev, forms in -d in Gz and Berb (below) make this assumption less certain. Cf. Gz ḳərādin, ḳərdān ‘field mouse’ with ḳ- and -d- instead of the expected g- and -z- […]. [A] striking parallel to Gz ḳərādin, ḳərdān is represented by Berb *ḳard- ‘rat’: Fojaha γérdé, Rif aγarda, Mzab Shawiya Qabyle Shilḥ aγerda, etc. – [Also:] One wonders whether some other phonetically perfect but semantically too distant matches to Sem *g˅r˅ḏ- may be compared: (EChad) Dangla gírzìbó ‘varan’ (Fedry 326), (NOmot) Sheko góržu ‘gecko’, goržube ‘lizard’ (-b- here and in the Dangla term is a fossilized suffix), on the one hand, and (SOmot) Dirne gerž ‘cat’, on the other hand.
▪ …
 
– 
ǧirḏawn, pl. ǧarāḏīnᵘ, n., large rat 
ǦRZ جرز 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Jan2023, last update 5Mar2023
√ǦRZ 
“root” 
▪ ǦRZ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ǦRZ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ǦRZ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘barren land, land afflicted by drought, famine; to eat up, devour, to cut off, kill’ 
▪ According to DRS 3 (1994), the Ar root √ǦRZ (ǧaraza ‘déchirer avec les dents, mordre, dévorer, ravager les cultures’, ǧaruza ‘être vorace’, ǧariza ‘être aride, dénudé, tari’) is an extension from a 2-cons. root nucleus ↗*ǦR- with the basic meaning (among others) of *‘gorge’, *‘gosier’, *‘avaler, engloutir’. – See also ↗ǦRǦR, ↗ǦRǦM, ↗ǦRDB, ↗ǦRʕ, ↗ǦRʕB.
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ǦRS جرس 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 18Oct2022
√ǦRS 
“root” 
▪ … 
ǦRʕ جرع 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Jan2023, last update 5Mar2023
√ǦRʕ 
“root” 
▪ ǦRʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ǦRʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ǦRʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘barren land that does not hold water; to drink, sip, gulp down, a mouthful of drink’ 
▪ According to DRS 3 (1994), the Ar root √ǦRʕ (with ↗ǧariʕa ‘boire d’un coup, avaler, ingurgiter’, etc., ǧaraʕ ‘terrain léger, perméable à l’eau, stérile’) is an extension from a 2-cons. root nucleus ↗*ǦR- with the basic meaning (among others) of *‘gorge’, *‘gosier’, *‘avaler, engloutir’. – See also ↗ǦRǦR, ↗ǦRǦM, ↗ǦRDB, ↗ǦRZ, ↗ǦRʕB.
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ǦRʕB جرعب 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Jan2023
√ǦRʕB 
“root” 
… 
▪ According to DRS 3 (1994), the Ar root √ǦRʕB (with ǧarʕaba ‘boire’) is an extension from a 2-cons. root nucleus ↗*ǦR- with the basic meaning (among others) of *‘gorge’, *‘gosier’, *‘avaler, engloutir’. – See also ↗ǦRǦR, ↗ǦRǦM, ↗ǦRDB, ↗ǦRZ, ↗ǦRʕ.
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ǦRF جرف 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 5Mar2023
√ǦRF 
“root” 
▪ ǦRF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ǦRF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ǦRF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘cliff, precipice, undercut bank, slippery mountainside; to sweep away, wash away, shovel away’ 
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ǦRFS جرفس 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 14Jan2023
√ǦRFS 
“root” 
This root has become obsolete in MSA. Earlier values include (BK 1860, Hava1899):

ǦRFS_1 ‘renverser, jeter par terre | to throw s.o. down; to bind tightly’: ǧarfasa
ǦRFS_2 ‘lion’: ǧirfās
ǦRFS_ ‘…’:
 
[v1] : According to Ehret1995#285, Ar ǧarfasa ‘to throw on the ground’ represents an extension in *-p (“intensive (manner)”) and *-s (“lexicalized PAA causative”) from a bi-consonantal “pre-Proto-Semitic” root *GR-‘to go down’ < AfrAs *-GǏR- ‘to sit’. – Other extensions from the same pre-protSem root: ↗ǦRː (ǦRR), ↗ǦRBZ, ↗ǦRṮM, ↗ǦRǦM, ↗ǦRDL.
 
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ǦRM جرم 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 15Jan2023
√ǦRM 
“root” 
▪ ǦRM_1 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ǦRM_2 ‘criminal’ ↗muǧrim

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘body, mass, volume; to cut off, to pick, to harvest, to acquire for o.s., to earn, to deserve; to commit a crime, an unlawful act, aggression, crime; to pass away’ 
▪ According to DRS 3 (1994), the Ar root √ǦRM (with ǧarama ‘émonder, couper (les fruits desséchés); gagner de quoi nourrir sa famille’) is an extension from a 2-cons. root nucleus ↗*ǦR- with the basic meaning (among others) of *‘couper’ > *‘enlever’, *‘arracher’, *‘casser’, etc. – See also ↗ǦRǦM, ↗ǦRḤ, ↗ǦRD, ↗ǦRDM.
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DRS 3 (1993) #GRM-1 Hbr gerem, EmpAram grm, JP garmā ‘os’, Syr gᵊrūmā ‘os, noyau’, ʔagrūmtā ‘cadavre’, gāromtā ‘massue’, Mnd girma ‘os, articulation’ Ar ǧirm ‘charpente, ossature, corps, volume, ampleur’, Sab grm ‘corps d’un animal’. – Ar ǧarima ‘avoir bonne mine’, ʔaǧrama ‘avoir une forte carrure’, ǧarama ‘être digne de, mériter’, Gz garama ‘être formidable, terrifiant, magnifique’, Te gärräma ‘effrayer, être beau, en bon état’, Tña Gur gärämä, Amh Arg ‘mériter’, Gz garama ‘être formidable, terrifiant, magnifique’, Te gärräma ‘effrayer, être beau, en bon état’, Tña Gur gärämä, Amh Arg Gaf gärrämä ‘être étonnant, émerveiller’. – YemAr ǧarm ‘couverture, vêtement faits de peaux de moutons cousues’, Sab grm ‘peau d’animal servant d’outre’, Te gərm ‘peaux cousues ensemble’. -2 nHbr gāram ‘causer, occasionner’, Syr gᵊram ‘établir, constituer’. -3 Syr ʔagrem ‘commettre un crime’, Ar ǧaruma ‘être criminel’, ǧurm ‘crime, péché’, Sab mgrmtm ‘à tort’, Jib egrím ‘commettre un crime’, gérém, gérĩt ‘crime’ -4 Hbr gāram ‘mettre de côté, réserver’, Syr gᵊram ‘décider, trancher’, Ar ǧarama ‘émonder, couper (les fruits desséchés); gagner de quoi nourrir sa famille’, taǧarrama (ʕan) ʼse séparer, se détacher (de)ʼ, Tham grm ‘cueillir des dattes’, collAr (Marâzîg) žᵃṛám ‘raviner profondément, laisser le gravier à nu (eau de ruissellement)’, Soq grm ‘cueillir’, Te ǧärrämä ‘couper, déchirer en morceaux’, Amh gʷärämmämä ‘couper le sommet’, Gur gurma ‘souche, tronc’, gurämmä ‘raclures du tronc de l’asät pour la confection du pain’, ? gärmomät ‘écume du lait’. -5 Akk garāmu ‘parcourir son orbite (planète)’. -6 Te təgärrämä ‘se porter garant’, gäräm ‘garant, caution’. -7 Mhr gīremōt, Ḥrs gərəmēt, Jib źirĩt, Soq gírámeh: fruit du dōm. -8 Ar ǧarm ‘péniche’. -9 Soq górem ‘jeter des pierres’. -10 Ar ǧarm ‘chaleur torride’. -11 Ḥrs yerām ‘baleine’.
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muǧrim مُجْرِم 
ID 140 • Sw – • BP 2250 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦRM 
n. 
1 adj., criminal; 2a n.,(pl. ‑ūn) a criminal; b evildoer, culprit, delinquent – WehrCowan1979. 
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DRS 3 (1993) #GRM-1-2 […]. -3 Syr ʔagrem ‘commettre un crime’, Ar ǧaruma ‘être criminel’, ǧurm ‘crime, péché’, Sab mgrmtm ‘à tort’, Jib egrím ‘commettre un crime’, gérém, gérĩt ‘crime’. -4-11 […].
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ǦRN جرن 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 18Oct2022
√ǦRN 
“root” 
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ǦRY جري 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦRY 
“root” 
▪ ǦRY_1 ‘to run’ ↗ǧarà
▪ ǦRY_2 ‘slave girl; maid, servant; ship, vessel’ ↗ǧāriyaẗ

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to run, to flow, to stream, to sail; stream, channel, the way of things; vessel, boat; to continue, to be constant; young female, overseer’ 
▪ [v1]/[v2] : According to DRS 3 (1994), the Ar root √ǦRY (with ↗ǧarà ‘courir, couler, avoir lieu’, ǧariyy ‘adolescent, serviteur’, ↗ǧāriyaẗ ‘fillette, fille’) is an extension from a 2-cons. root nucleus ↗*ǦR- with the basic meaning (among others) of *‘couler’.
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DRS 3 (1993) #GRY-1 Syr gərā ‘couler’, Ar ǧarà ‘courir, couler, avoir lieu’, ǧary ‘course rapide, courant’, ǧariyy ‘adolescent, serviteur’, ǧāriyaẗ ‘fillette, fille’, Ḥrs gerō, Jib egóri ‘courir, couler’, Mhr gərō ‘aller devant, passer (temps), se produire’, Jib géré ‘se passer, suivre; boire, têter (animal)’, Te ǧära ‘venir, se passer, rencontrer’. -2 Akk girīt-, JP gīrītā, Syr gerrītā, gernītā ‘murène’, Mnd girita ‘anguille’, Ar ǧiriyy ‘poisson-chat; silure’. -3 məgrẹ́, Mhr məgrē: bois sous le canon d’un fusil.
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ǧāriyaẗ جارِية 
ID 141 • Sw – • BP 5713 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦRY 
n.f. 
1 girl; 2a slave girl; b maid, servant; 3 ship, vessel – WehrCowan1979. 
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DRS 3 (1993) #GRY-1 Syr gərā ‘couler’, Ar ǧarà ‘courir, couler, avoir lieu’, ǧary ‘course rapide, courant’, ǧariyy ‘adolescent, serviteur’, ǧāriyaẗ ‘fillette, fille’, Ḥrs gerō, Jib egóri ‘courir, couler’, Mhr gərō ‘aller devant, passer (temps), se produire’, Jib géré ‘se passer, suivre; boire, têter (animal)’, Te ǧära ‘venir, se passer, rencontrer’. -2-3 […].
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ǦZ‑ 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦZ‑ 
"2-cons. nucleus" 
▪ *ǦZ–_1 ‘…’ ↗
▪ *ǦZ–_2 ‘…’ ↗
*to cut off, chop, devide, set apart 
A bi-consonantal nucleus that is at the basis of several 3-consonantal themes, cf. section DERIV below. Etymologically, there also seems to be a relation with also ↗*ǦḎ- and ↗*ǦD-. 
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In DRS 2 (1994)#GZ, the user is advised to consult the following Sem roots: GWZ, GZʔ, GZB, GZW/Y, GZZ, GZḤ, GZL, GZM, GZʕ, GZR, GRZ, WGZ, as well as the references given under GD (see ↗ǦD-). For the most common representations of (some of) these roots, cf. the items given below in the DERIV section. 
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ǦZː (ǦZZ): ↗ǧazza ‘to cut off, clip; to shear, shear off’; cf. also ↗ǧaḏḏa ‘to cut off, clip’.
ǦZʔ: ↗ǧuzʔ ‘part’.
ǦZR: ↗ǧazara ‘to slaughter’, orig. *‘to cut (off)’.
ǦZʕ: ↗taǧazzaʕa ‘to break apart, break, snap’; cf. also ↗ǧadaʕa ‘to cut off, amputate’.
ǦZL: ↗ǧizlaẗ ‘piece, slice’.
ǦZM: ↗ǧazama ‘to off, cut short, clip; to judge, decide’; cf. also ↗ǧaḏama ‘to cut off, chop off, excise’. 
ǦZʔ جزء 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦZʔ 
“root” 
▪ ǦZʔ_1 ‘part’ ↗ǧuzʔ, ‘molecule’ ↗ǧuzayʔ
▪ ǦZʔ_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘part, portion, share; to divide, to partition; to make do with; to fill in’ 
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DRS 2 (1994) #GZʔ-1 Ar ǧazaʔa ‘partager’, ǧuzʔ ‘partie, section’; Soq giźaḥa ‘part’; Gz gazʔa ‘traiter des convives, servir à un festin’, gəzʔ ‘festin’. -2 Gz ʔəgziʔ ‘maître’; Te gäzʔa, Tña gäzʔe, Amh gäzza ‘posséder, acquérir’.
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ǧuzʔiyyaẗ جُزْئِيّة 
Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√ǦZʔ 
n.f. 
▪ abstr. formation in -iyyaẗ 
ǧuzayʔ جُزَيْء 
ID 142 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦZʔ 
n. 
molecule – WehrCowan1979. 
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DRS 2 (1994) #GZʔ-1 Ar ǧazaʔa ‘partager’, ǧuzʔ ‘partie, section’; Soq giźaḥa ‘part’; Gz gazʔa ‘traiter des convives, servir à un festin’, gəzʔ ‘festin’. -2 […].
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ǦZR جزر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦZR 
“root” 
▪ ǦZR_1 ‘to slaughter; to kill, butcher; massacre’ ↗ǧazara
▪ ǦZR_2 ‘to sink, fall, drop, ebb (water)’ ↗ǧazara
▪ ǦZR_3 ‘island; Algeria(n)’ ↗ǧazīraẗ, ǧazara
▪ ǦZR_4 ‘carrot(s)’ ↗ǧazar
 
▪ The variety of meanings within this root can be reduced to two basic values: [DRS#GZR-1] *‘to cut’ (Huehnergard2011: WSem *√GZR ‘to cut off, destroy’) and [DRS#GZR-2] *‘beet, carrot’. While the latter is probably of Pers origin, the former has developed along the lines ‘*to cut > [ǦZR_1] to slaughter > to butcher; to kill > massacre’ and ‘*to cut > to cut off (land from sea, etc.) > [ǦZR_3] island; [ǦZR_2] to drop, ebb (water)’. ‘Algeria’ is lit. *‘The Isles’.
▪ The complex that has the value *‘to cut’ at its basis seems to be an extension in *‑r of a bi-consonantal nucleus ↗*ǦZ- (also ↗*ǦḎ-, ↗*ǦD-) from which also other roots derive. Cf., in this context, especially the MSA items ↗ǧazza ‘to cut off, clip; to shear, shear off’ (also ↗ǧaḏḏa ‘to cut off, clip’), ↗ǧuzʔ ‘part’, ↗taǧazzaʕa ‘to break apart, break, snap’ (also ↗ǧadaʕa ‘to cut off, amputate’), ↗ǧizlaẗ ‘piece, slice’, ↗ǧazama ‘to off, cut short, clip; to judge, decide’ (also ↗ǧaḏama ‘to cut off, chop off, excise’). 
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DRS 2 (1994)#GZR–1 Hbr gāzar ‘couper en deux; décider’, oAram gzr, EmpAram gzyr, gzr (?) ‘couper; conclure un pacte; ordonner(?)’, JP gᵉzar ‘tailler, couper, trancher, décider’, Mand gzar ‘couper, égorger, décider, condamner; circoncire’, Ar ǧazara ‘égorger, découper une pièce de boucherie’, SAr gzr ‘circoncire’, Soq gtzr ‘être moitié plein’, Gz gazara, Amh gäzzärä ‘circoncire’, Tña Te Amh gəzrät ‘circoncision’. – Syr gᵉzīrtā, Ar ǧazīraẗ, Gz gazirat ‘île’; Ar ǧazar ‘partie de la côté découverte à marée basse’, ǧazara ‘être à sec (marée, etc.)’. – Hbr *gāzar ‘manger (animal)’, Syr gezrā ‘proie’, Mand gizra ‘troupeau’, Ar ǧazar ‘animaux de boucherie’, Ar ǧazzār ‘boucher’, Śḥr eñgezrót ‘animal de boucherie, animal abattu’. –2 Syr gezārā ‘rave’, Mand gizar, Ar ǧazar, ǧizar ‘carotte’. [–3 and –4: not attested in Ar.] 
▪ ǦZR_1-3: Huehnergard2011 reconstructs WSem *GZR ‘to cut off, destroy’.
▪ ǦZR_1-3: For the wider context of roots derived from related biconsonantal bases, cf. ↗ǦZ-, ↗ǦḎ-, ↗ǦD-.

▪ ǦZR_4: From Pers gazar ‘carrot(s)’ – DRS, Rolland2014. Cf. however Rolland2015, where the author believes the word to be a re-import, since Pers gazar ‘carrot(s) may be from Ar ↗ǧiḏr ‘root’. 
▪ (Algeria, Algiers: ↗ǧazara
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ǧazar‑ جَزَرَ
1 u (ǧazr); 2 i , u (ǧazr
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦZR 
vb., I 
1 to slaughter; to kill, butcher (an animal). – 2 to sink, fall, drop, ebb (water) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ The 2 meanings of the vb. go both back to an original value *‘to cut’. From there, the semantics seem to have developed along two lines: 1 ‘*to cut > to slaughter > to butcher; to kill > massacre’, and 2 ‘*to cut > to cut off (land from sea, etc.) > island; to drop, ebb (water)’.
al-Ǧazāʔir ‘Algeria’ is a pl. of the quasi-PP f. ǧazīraẗ, lit. *‘cut off (from land)’, hence ‘island’.
▪ Ar ǦZR is from WSem *GZR ‘to cut off, destroy’.
▪ Like its cognate roots in other Sem langs, ǦZR / GZR seems to be an extension in *‑R of a bi-consonantal nucleus ↗*ǦZ- (also ↗*ǦḎ-, ↗*ǦD-) from which also other roots derive. Cf., in this context, especially the MSA items ↗ǧazza ‘to cut off, clip; to shear, shear off’ (also ↗ǧaḏḏa ‘to cut off, clip’), ↗ǧuzʔ ‘part’, ↗taǧazzaʕa ‘to break apart, break, snap’ (also ↗ǧadaʕa ‘to cut off, amputate’), ↗ǧizlaẗ ‘piece, slice’, ↗ǧazama ‘to off, cut short, clip; to judge, decide’ (also ↗ǧaḏama ‘to cut off, chop off, excise’). 
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DRS 2 (1994)#GZR-1 Hbr gāzar ‘couper en deux; décider’, oAram gzr, EmpAram gzyr, gzr (?) ‘couper; conclure un pacte; ordonner(?)’, JP gᵉzar ‘tailler, couper, trancher, décider’, Mand gzar ‘couper, égorger, décider, condamner; circoncire’, Ar ǧazara ‘égorger, découper une pièce de boucherie’, SAr gzr ‘circoncire’, Soq gtzr ‘être moitié plein’, Gz gazara, Amh gäzzärä ‘circoncire’, Tña Te Amh gəzrät ‘circoncision’. – Syr gᵉzīrtā, Ar ǧazīraẗ, Gz gazirat ‘île’; Ar ǧazar ‘partie de la côté découverte à marée basse’, ǧazara ‘être à sec (marée, etc.)’. – Hbr *gāzar ‘manger (animal)’, Syr gezrā ‘proie’, Mand gizra ‘troupeau’, Ar ǧazar ‘animaux de boucherie’, Ar ǧazzār ‘boucher’, Śḥr eñgezrót ‘animal de boucherie, animal abattu’. 
See section CONCISE above. 
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Algeria, Algiers, from Ar al-ǧazāʔir ‘the islands, Algeria’, pl. of al-ǧazīraẗ ‘the island’ (lit. *‘cut off, sc. from land’). 
ǧazr, n., 1 slaughter; butchering; 2 ebb (of the sea): vn. I.
ǧazraẗ, n.f., blood sacrifice: n.un. of vn. I.
ǧazūr, pl. ǧuzur, n., slaughter camel: quasi PP I.
ǧazzār, pl. ‑ūn, n., butcher: n.prof.
ǧizāraẗ, n.f., butcher’s trade, butchery: n. of profession.
BP#1733ǧazīraẗ, pl. ǧuzur, rarely ǧazāʔirᵘ, n., island: quasi-PP I, lit. *‘the cut-off one’ | šibh ~, n., peninsula; al-~, the Jazira, (Northwest) Mesopotamia; al-Ǧazāʔir, n.prop.topon., Algeria; Algiers; ~ al-ʕarab, n., Arabia, the Arabian Peninsula; al-Ǧazāʔir al-Ḫālidāt, n.prop.topon., the Canary Islands; al-~ al-Ḫaḍrāʔ, n.prop.topon., Algeciras (seaport in SW Spain); ~ al-ʔamān, n., safety island.
ǧazarī, adj., insular; (pl. ‑ūn) islander: nsb-adj. of ǧazīraẗ.
BP#1663ǧazāʔirī, pl. ‑ūn, adj./n., Algerian (adǧ. and n.); islander: nsb-adj. of ǧazāʔir, pl. of ǧazīraẗ.
maǧzir, pl. maǧāzirᵘ, n., slaughterhouse, abattoir; butchery: n.loc.
BP#2347maǧzaraẗ, pl. maǧāzirᵘ, n., butchery; massacre, carnage: n.loc.

For ǧazar ‘carrot(s)’ see ↗s.v.
maǧzaraẗ مَجْزَرَة , pl. maǧāzirᵘ 
ID 143 • Sw – • BP 2347 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦZR 
n.f. 
1 butchery; 2 massacre, carnage – WehrCowan1979. 
The word is a n.loc., formed from the vb. I ↗ǧazara, and thus literally means ‘place of slaughtering, butchering’. [v2] seems to be a modern development. 
[v2]: earliest attestation needed. 
ǧazara
ǧazara
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ǧazar جَزَر 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦZR 
n.coll.; (n.un. ‑aẗ
carrot(s) – WehrCowan1979. 
From Pers gazar ‘carrot(s)’ – DRS 2 (1994)#GZR-2, Rolland2014. Cf. however Rolland2015, where the author believes the word to be a re-import, since Pers gazar may be from Ar ↗ǧiḏr ‘root’. 
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DRS 2 (1994)#GZR-2: Syr gezārā ‘rave’, Mand gizar, Ar ǧazar, ǧizar ‘carotte’. 
▪ See section CONCISE, above.
▪ Rolland2015b thinks that Pers gazar probably is from Ar ↗ǧaḏr ‘root’ and Ar ǧazar < Pers gazar therefore is a case of re-import. This hypothesis presupposes the import of carrots/roots from Arabia to Iran, not vice versa. 
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ǦZʕ جزع 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 5Mar2023
√ǦZʕ 
“root” 
▪ ǦZʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ǦZʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ǦZʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to break into two, traverse, to divide up; anxiety, shock, to be distressed, be disturbed’ 
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ǦZM جزم 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 18Oct2022
√ǦZM 
“root” 
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ǦZY جزي 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦZY 
“root” 
▪ ǦZY_1 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ǦZY_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘recompense, to repay, to reward, to punish for bad deeds, judgement; to stand in for; taxation, tribute’ 
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DRS 2 (1994) #GZW/Y-1 Akk guzzū ‘disparaître’, gutezzū ‘se cacher (?)’; Hbr *gāzā ‘séparer, couper’; JP gazzē, Talm gᵊzā, gᵊzē ‘couper’; Syr gᵊzī ‘être privé de’; Ar ǧazà ‘rétribuer, donner sa juste part’; Te gäza ‘distribuer de façon que le meilleur revienne à chacun alternativement; agir injustement’, gäza ‘portion plus grande (par suite d’un partage non équitable)’, gäzayät ‘partialité’; SAr gzyt ‘décision, ordre’; Soq gózi ‘destin; mort’; Gz Amh gize ‘temps’. -2 Te Tña gəzwa ‘tumeur’. -3 Akk guzū: plante médicinale.
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ǧizyaẗ جِزْية 
ID 144 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦZY 
n.f. 
1a tax; b tribute; c head tax on free non-Muslims under Muslim rule – WehrCowan1979. 
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DRS 2 (1994) #GZW/Y-1 Akk guzzū ‘disparaître’, gutezzū ‘se cacher (?)’; Hbr *gāzā ‘séparer, couper’; JP gazzē, Talm gᵊzā, gᵊzē ‘couper’; Syr gᵊzī ‘être privé de’; Ar ǧazà ‘rétribuer, donner sa juste part’; Te gäza ‘distribuer de façon que le meilleur revienne à chacun alternativement; agir injustement’, gäza ‘portion plus grande (par suite d’un partage non équitable)’, gäzayät ‘partialité’; SAr gzyt ‘décision, ordre’; Soq gózi ‘destin; mort’; Gz Amh gize ‘temps’.
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ǦSː (ǦSS) جسّ/جسس 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Mar2023
√ǦSː (ǦSS) 
“root” 
▪ ǦSː (ǦSS)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ǦSː (ǦSS)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ǦSː (ǦSS)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to test by hand, probe, examine; to spy, probe into other people’s private lives’ 
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ǦSD جسد 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 18Oct2022
√ǦSD 
“root” 
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ǦSR جسر 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 18Oct2022
√ǦSR 
“root” 
▪ … 
ǦSM جسم 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 18Oct2022
√ǦSM 
“root” 
▪ … 
ǦṢː (ǦṢṢ) جصّ / جصص 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦṢː (ǦṢṢ) 
“root” 
▪ ǦṢː (ǦṢṢ)_1 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ǦṢː (ǦṢṢ)_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
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DRS 2 (1994) #GṢṢ-1 Akk giṣṣ-: buisson épineux; épine. -2 Akk gaṣṣ-, nHbr gēṣ, JP giṣṣā, Syr gaṣṣā, Ar ǧiṣṣ, ǧaṣṣ ‘plâtre, gypse’, ? Jib məgṣéṣ ‘boue’, ? Mhr Ḥrs gəṣ ‘dégoûter’. – Ar ǧaṣṣ ‘dur’, EAr ǧaṣṣ ‘durcir, sécher (terre)’. -3 nHbr gēṣṣ, Talm giṣṣā ‘étincelle’. -4 Ar ǧaṣṣa ‘être garroté, ligoté’, ǧaṣṣaṣa ‘remplir à ras bord’. -5 ‘entrouvrir les yeux; éclore (bourgeon)’. -?6 Śḥr ‘couper, fendre’; Mhr gəṣ ‘élaguer, couper à la hache’. -7 Eth gaṣṣ, Te Tña Amh gäṣṣ, Amh gäṭṭ ‘face, visage’; Gz gaṣṣawa ‘être, devenir une personne’, ? Tña tägač̣č̣äwä, Amh Gur tägač̣č̣ä, Amh tangäč̣aggäč̣ä, Arg əggač̣č̣a, Har tagāč̣a ‘entrer en collision’, Amh gäč̣č̣ alä ‘faire face’.
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ǧiṣṣ جِصّ 
ID 145 • Sw – • BP??? • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦṢː (ǦṢṢ) 
n. 
1 gypsum; 2 plaster of Paris – WehrCowan1979. 
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DRS 2 (1994) #GṢṢ-2 Akk gaṣṣ-, nHbr gēṣ, JP giṣṣā, Syr gaṣṣā, Ar ǧiṣṣ, ǧaṣṣ ‘plâtre, gypse’, ? Jib məgṣéṣ ‘boue’, ? Mhr Ḥrs gəṣ ‘dégoûter’. – Ar ǧaṣṣ ‘dur’, EAr ǧaṣṣ ‘durcir, sécher (terre)’.
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ǦʕL جعل 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Mar2023
√ǦʕL 
“root” 
▪ ǦʕL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ǦʕL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ǦʕL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘reward/payment set for a task to be carried out, bribe; to put, to place; to make, create, constitute; to attribute; scarab, seedling’ 
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ǦFː (ǦFF) جفّ / جفف 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦFː (ǦFF) 
“root” 
▪ ǦFː (ǦFF)_1 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ǦFː (ǦFF)_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
▪ … 
– 
DRS 3 (1993) #GPP-1 Ug gpn ‘harnais’, Ar tiǧfāf ‘caparaçon, barde’. – nHbr gippep, JP gapēp ‘entourer, embrasser’, Hbr *gap ‘corps; dos ?’, nHbr gappā: sorte de clôture, ? EmpAram *gap ‘dépouille ?’, Syr gappā ‘maison’ gᵊpīpā ‘voûté, cintré’. – ? Ar ǧuff: enveloppe de certains fruits, corps, substance d’une chose, outre à beurre’, DaṯAr ǧiffaẗ ‘cadavre, charogne’, Śḥr mgoffót, mgofóf, Ḥrs məgəfōt ‘charogne, carcasse’, -2 Ar ǧaffa ‘être sec, sécher’, ǧuff ‘terrain sec; récipient, seau grossier’, ǧafāf ‘sécheresse, insensibilité’, Mhr gəf, Jib geff ‘sécher, se dessécher’, géfof ‘feuilles de ṭéḳ utilisées comme fourrage’, Te gəffät ‘grand sac fait de palmes’. - ?3 gäffä, Tña Amh gäffäfä ‘emmener comme butin, piller’, Te gäfäfä, gəfaf ‘butin’. -4 Amh gäffä, gäffäfä ‘devenir gros, obèse’, gäf ‘grand, gros, imbécile’, Te Tña gäfäf belä ‘traîner, marcher avec difficulté’. -5 Te gəfof, gəfofät, Tña gəfaf, gäfäfa ‘lie de bière’. -6 Gur gäf barä, gäf balä ‘se coucher pour se reposer’. -7 Gur guf barä, guff *balä ‘se lever (poussière)’.
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ǧaff‑ / ǧafaf‑ جَفَّ / جَفَفْـ 
ID 146 • Sw –/32 • BP 4485 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦFː (ǦFF) 
vb., I 
to dry, become dry; to dry out – WehrCowan1979. 
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DRS 3 (1993) #GPP-2 Ar ǧaffa ‘être sec, sécher’, ǧuff ‘terrain sec; récipient, seau grossier’, ǧafāf ‘sécheresse, insensibilité’, Mhr gəf, Jib geff ‘sécher, se dessécher’, géfof ‘feuilles de ṭéḳ utilisées comme fourrage’, Te gəffät ‘grand sac fait de palmes’.
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ǦFʔ جفأ 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Mar2023
√ǦFʔ 
“root” 
▪ ǦFʔ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ǦFʔ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ǦFʔ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘scum, flotsam; corruption, falsehood; to cleanse, uproot, knock down’ 
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ǦFN جفن 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 18Oct2022
√ǦFN 
“root” 
▪ … 
ǦFW جفو 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Mar2023
√ǦFW 
“root” 
▪ ǦFW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ǦFW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ǦFW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘separation, to move away, keep a distance; to shun, dislike, be antagonistic, be coarse in manner’ 
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ǦLː (ǦLL) جلّ/جلل 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 18Oct2022
√ǦLː (ǦLL) 
“root” 
▪ From protSem *√GLL ‘to roll’ – Huehnergard2011.
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▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Galilee, from Lat Galilea, either from Aram gᵊlilā ‘circuit, district’ (from gᵊlal ‘to roll’) or from Hbr gᵊlîlâ ‘circuit, district’ (from gālal ‘to roll’).
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Golgotha, from Aram gulgultā ‘skull’ (cf. Ar ↗ǧumǧumaẗ), from Aram galgel ‘to roll’, deriv. stem of gᵊlal ‘to roll’. 
maǧallaẗ مَجَلّة 
Sw – • NahḍConBP 1132 • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√ǦLː (ǦLL) 
n.f. 
▪ … 
ǦLB جلب 
ID 147 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦLB 
“root” 
▪ ǦLB_1 ‘to fetch, get, bring, import; motive, reason; clamour, tumult; slave; galabia (garment)’ ↗ǧalab‑ (ǧalb)
▪ ǦLB_2 ‘to scar over, heal; ǧilbāb (garment, veil)’ ↗ǧulbaẗ
▪ ǦLB_3 ‘rose water, julep’ ↗ǧulāb
▪ ǦLB_4 ‘jalap (bot.)’ ↗ǧalabā

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘commotion, raised and mixed voices, excitement; to attack, to assail; to fetch, to earn, to seek pasture’ 
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–.. 
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▪ Engl djellaba ↗Ar ǧallābaẗ, ǧallābiyyaẗ
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ǧalab‑ جلب , i , u (ǧalb
ID 148 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦLB 
vb., I 
1 to attract; 2a to bring along, bring to the spot; b to arraign; c to present (the accused before the court); d to fetch, get, bring; e to import (goods); f to bring about (a state, condition); g to bring (harm, shame, etc., ʕalā upon s.o.); 3 to gain, win, obtain; to earn – WehrCowan1979. 
Etymology not clear yet. If (as DRS suggests) the notion of ‘crying, shouting, turmoil’ (ǧalab, ‑aẗ, and the denominative vb. II ǧallab‑) is related to ‘catch, fetch’, then one could assume both to have developed from the meaning, preserved in ClassAr, of ‘to incite, or assemble, or bring together, through shouting’ (camels, horses, etc.). – The etymologies given by Huehnergard2011 (< WSem *√GLB ‘to catch, fetch’) and Orel&Stolbova1994 (< Sem *g˅l˅b ‘to procure’ < AfrAs *galab‑ ‘to give’) have to be treated with caution and need further verification. 
lC6 ǧalabā ḥaynan wa-ḥarban ʕaẓīman ‘they brought death and a terrible war’ (ʕAntaraẗ b. šaddād), ka-ḏāka▪ … ’l-ḥaynu lil-marʔi yuǧlabu ‘this is how death is brought upon man’ (Zuhayr b. Ǧaḏīmaẗ), ǧalabtuhū min ʔahli ʔUbḍata ṭāʔiʕan ḥattà taḥakkama fīhi ʔahlu ʔIrābi ‘I brought him from the Ubda people as s.o. who submits/surrenders so that the Irāb people may judge upon him’ (Musāwir b. Hind). Polosin1995. 
Ar ǧalab‑ ‘traîner, tirer, attirer, pousser à; pêcher’76 , ǧulbaẗ ‘année stérile, malheur’, ǧalib‑ ‘rassembler; exciter les chevaux par des cris’, ǧalab‑ ‘tumulte, cris confus’; SAr glb ‘malheur’; Gz galaba ‘pêcher’ [only post-classical], galab, maglabt ‘hameçon’, maglab ‘pêcheur’; Ar ʔaǧlaba ʕalā ‘fondre sur’77 ; dial. ǧallab ‘se cabrer’;? Te gälbä ‘courir, s’enfuir’, gälaläbä, Tña gäläbä ‘s’enfuir’; Amh galläbä ‘galoper’. DRS_ǧlb-2.
AfrAs: WCh *galab‑ (recnstr. from Mnt gallap) ‘to give’ – Orel&Stolbova1994. 
DRS groups together two main themes under one item (ǧlb-2) without commenting on the relation between them: (a) ‘to attract, draw, push to’ and (b) ‘clamour, tumult, turmoil’. Most of the items listed below under deriv could indeed be grouped under one of these two headings:
(a) I ǧalab - ‘to bring, fetch’ (< ‘to draw to o.s.’), spedified also as ‘fishing’ as well as extended to mean ‘to import, trade’, ‘to gain, earn’, and ‘to bring (s.th. harmful upon s.o.)’, IV ʔaǧlab - (caus. of I, *‘make to be brought’), VIII iǧtalab‑ (autobenef. of I), X ĭstaǧlab‑ with vn. ĭstiǧlāb (autobenef. of IV), ǧalb (vn. of I, also with the latter’s extended values), ǧalab and ǧalīb (adj., originally s.th. ‘brought along’, then ‘imported’, then equated with ‘foreign’, ǧalīb taking the special meaning of ‘foreign slave’), ǧulbaẗ (n., originally s.th. ‘brought about’ or ‘brought upon’ s.o., then specified as some kind of difficulty or calamity), ǧallāb (n., designating the profession of s.o. who imports, or trades in, s.th., esp. slaves; the adj. meaning ‘attractive, captivating’ seems to be a later development – Huehnergard2011), gallābiyyaẗ (nisba-adj.f., n., originally probably the garment worn by those who import, ǧallāb, i.e., slave traders, or slaves), ʔaǧlab 2 (elat. of adj. ǧallāb), maǧlabaẗ and ǧālib (n.instr. and PA, respectively, both ‘s.th. that brings about, causes’), and maǧlūb (PP of vb. I, specialized as ‘imported from a foreign country, exotic’. Some of these notions are to be found in Sem cognates, such as the Gz words for ‘fishing’ (i.e., to catch, sc. fish), ‘fisherman’ and ‘fishing-hook’ or SAr ‘calamity’ (s.th. ‘brought upon’ s.o.);
(b) II ǧallab‑ (vb., probably denominative from ǧalab, ‑aẗ or ǧulbaẗ), IV ʔaǧlab‑ (in the sense of II), and ǧalab, ‑aẗ (n., perhaps the etymon of the verbs just mentioned).
If (a) and (b) indeed are related, one could imagine the notion of ‘to incite, or urge, make move, through shouting’ (camels, horses, etc.), as preserved in ClassAr ǧalab‑, to form the basis of both, (a) having dropped the ‘shouting’ and focusing on ‘bringing about, causing to move’, (b) having dropped the latter and just retained the ‘shouting’. Huehnergard’s reconstruction (Ar ǧlb ‘to attract, bring fetch, import’ < WSem *√glb ‘to catch, fetch’, Huehnergard2011) does not account for the ‘shouting’, which, if Huehnergard is right, then would have to be regarded as an Ar innovation and thus secondary, if not at all unrelated. Also, DRS does not give sufficient explanation for the Eth meanings ‘to run, flee, gallop’. The evidence from AfrAs provided by Orel&Stolbova1994 (Ar ǧlb [i, u] < Sem *g˅l˅b - ‘to procure’ < AfrAs *galab‑ ‘to give’) does not help much and is too thin to build on.
▪ Apparently no connection whatsoever with the homonymous rooted treated under ↗ǧulbaẗ ‘scar’. 
– 
ǧallaba, vb. II, to shout, clamor; to be noisy, boisterous
ʔaǧlaba, vb. IV, to earn, gain, acquire (a s.th.); = II
iǧtalaba, vb. VIII, to procure, bring, fetch, get (s.th.); to draw (on s.th.); to import (goods).
ĭstaǧlaba, vb. X, to import (goods); to fetch, summon, call in (s.o.); to attract, draw (s.o., s.th.); to seek to attract or win (s.o., s.th.); to get, procure (s.th.)
ǧalb, n., bringing, fetching; procure ment; acquisition; importation, import; causation, bringing on, bringing about : vn. I
ǧalab, adj., imported; foreign
ǧalab and ǧalabaẗ, n.f., clamor; uproar, tumult, turmoil:
ǧulbaẗ, n.f., ‘severity, pressure (of time or fortune); (vehemence of) hunger; adversity, difficulty, trouble; a hard, distressful, or calamitous year’ (Lane)
ǧalīb, adj., imported, foreign; n., (pl. ǧalbā, ǧulabāʔᵘ) foreign slave
ǧallāb, adj., attractive, captivating; n., importer, trador
gallābiyyaẗ (eg.) n., pl. ‑āt, galālībᵘ galabia, a loose, shirtlike garment, the common dress of the male population in Egypt
ǧilbāb, n. ↗s.v.
ʔaǧlabᵘ, adj., more attractive, more captivating: el.
maǧlabaẗ, n.f., pl. maǧālibᵘ causative factor, motive, reason, cause, occasion: n.instr.
ĭstiǧlāb, n., procurement, acquisition; importation, import; supply; attraction: vn. X
ǧālib, n., causative factor, motive, reason, cause, occasion: nominalized PA I
maǧlūb, adj., imported from a foreign country, exotic: PP I 
ǧulbaẗ جُلْبة 
ID 149 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦLB 
n.f. 
scar – WehrCowan1979. 
The word goes back to Sem *glb ‘to flay, shave; (nude, wounded) skin’. 
▪ ….. 
Akk gullubu ‘couper, tondre’, gallāb‑ ‘barbier’; Phn (plur.) glbm, Pun glb, Hbr gallāb, JP gallābā ‘couteau, rasoir; barbier’, gᵉlab ‘raser’, galbā ‘écaille’; Nab glbʔ ‘barbier’; Syr gallābā ‘rasoir’; Amh gäläbä ‘paille’, gʷälläbä ‘être mondé, tamisé (grain), être égrené; couvrir le tambour de peau’; gälläbä ‘découvrir, dénuder’;? Akk gulbūt‑, gulubūt‑ céréale; Talm gulbā ‘céréale’ – DRS, glb-1. 
According to Cohen et al. (DRS, 1994), the Ar word for ‘scar’, more specifically the “small piece of skin, or crust, or scrab, that forms over a wound when it heals” [Lane], has the same etymon as the Akk vb. for ‘cutting, shearing, shaving’ and for the profession of a ‘barber’, as well as for ‘corn, cereal’, the common denominator being ‘nudity’ (of the skin and the grains, or the covering of it, respectively). Akk gallāb ‘barber’ seems to have passed into other languages “qui ont pu en tirer des dérivés”; the Ar n. ǧulb ‘flayed skin’, now obsolete, is one of the results of this process, as are the Can and Aram forms mentioned above, while ǧulbaẗ‑ seems to look at the ‘flayed skin’, the wound, when it is already recovering. The obsolete Ar n. ǧulb ‘spelt, einkorn’, on the other side, seems to belong to the ‘nude’ grain of Akk gul(u)būt‑.
According to DRS (1994), Sem *glbb which, among others, gave Gz gəlbāb‑ (loaned into Ar as ↗ǧilbāb), is an extension of Sem *glb in the meaning of ‘skin, etc.’ DRS, glbb-2. The values ‘to cover, cloak’ and ‘garment’ would then be explicable as ‘to put on, cover o.s. with (s.th. like) a skin’. 
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ǧalaba, u (ǧulūb) ‘to scar over, heal (wound)’: denominative (?)
ǧulb ‘dépouille, peau ôtée’ : n.
ǧilbāb ‘loose garment’ : not directly derived from ǧulbaẗ but probably going back to the same Sem ancestor, cf. ↗s.v.
ǧulb ‘épeautre’ (spelt, einkorn) : n. 
ǧallābiyyaẗ جلّابيّة , var. gallābiyyaẗ (eg.), pl. ‑āt , galālībᵘ 
ID 150 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦLB 
n.f. 
galabia, a loose, shirtlike garment, the common dress of the male population in Egypt – WehrCowan1979. 
1) Unless a secondary formation (by dissimilative dropping of final ‑b) from ↗ǧilbāb, which with all probability is a pre-Islamic loan from Ethiopian (Gz gəlbāb ‘covering, veil, wrapper’), gallābiyyaẗ / ǧallābiyyaẗ seems to be a nisba formation from ‎↗ǧallāb ‘trader, importer’ (esp. of slaves), a word formed after the faʕʕāl pattern for professions from the vb. ↗ǧalab‑ (< Sem *glb ‘to attract, bring, fetch, import’), cf. Huehnergard2011. As such, its original meaning, like that of ↗ǧallābaẗ, is likely to have been ‘dress of the (slave) traders (or of the slaves themselves?)’.
Given the phonological proximity of ǧallābaẗ, gallābiyyaẗ / ǧallābiyyaẗ, and ǧilbāb, as well as the semantic overlapping, if not identity, it seems difficult to decide whether ǧallābaẗ and gallābiyyaẗ / ǧallābiyyaẗ are ‘contaminated’ from ǧilbāb or whether they derive from ǧallāb, or from distinct sources. In the first case, the semantics would be ‘garment, veil, “second skin”’ (↗ǧilbāb, connected to a Sem *glb ‘skin, etc.’, cf. Ar ↗ǧulbaẗ), in the latter it would be ‘dress of a (slave) trader (or, of a slave)’. Even if we assume distinct origins we will still have to reckon with a high possibility of collapsing meanings.
2) The form gallābiyyaẗ is limited to EgAr (today?), while similar forms of loose garments are called ǧallābaẗ (or ǧillābaẗ) in the Maghreb. 
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DRS (1994), s.v. glb, lists “dial. ǧillābaẗ : vêtement (djellaba)” as a separate item, distinct from other values of Sem *glb, and, in the commentary section, states that it is “< glbb”, without however specifying which of the two values of *glbb‑ the authors think the word goes back to: *glbb-1 ‘esclave’ (Ar ǧilbāb), or *glbb-2‑ ‘robe très ample, suaire’ (Ar ↗ǧilbāb), etc.? Both *glbb values then are explained to derive from a Sem *glb value: *glbb-1 from *glb ‘traîner, emmener, etc.’, and *glbb-2 from *glb ‘peau, etc.’ – DRS#GLB-6; GLBB-1 and -2.
Dozy1881 maintained that the form ↗ǧallābaẗ and an even shorter one, ǧallāb, are modifications of the more original ǧallābiyyaẗ which he claims is the garment worn either by slave traders (↗ǧallāb) or by slaves. More or less the same position is also taken by Huehnergard2011 (s.v. glb) for whom ǧallābaẗ‑ and g/ǧallābiyyaẗ as well as ǧilbāb both go back, ultimately, to the vb. ↗ǧalab‑, which in turn can be traced to a WSem *glb ‘to catch, fetch’.
▪ In contrast, Marçais1956 thinks that Dozy’s assumption of ǧallāb‑ and ǧallābaẗ as corruptions of ǧallābiyyaẗ “seems philologically untenable”;in his opinion, it is rather “the Old Arabic djilbāb ‘outer garment’” that is the origin of ǧallābaẗ, or ǧallābiyyaẗ. It is not surprising, he says, that these should have developed from ǧilbāb‑ secondarily, the “dissimilative dropping” of a doubled last consonant being a common phenomenon, especially with loanwords like ǧilbāb.
▪ Youssef2003 suggests (for EgAr) a derivation from Eg grb, Copt čolbe, a man’s overgarment. 
▪ Cf. Engl djellaba, see ↗ǧilbāb
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ǧilbāb جِلْباب , pl. ǧalābībᵘ 
ID 151 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦLBB 
n. 
long, flowing outer garment, loose robe-like garment – WehrCowan1979. 
1) Weninger2007 follows Jeffery1938 in assuming that the word ‎is a loan from Gz gəlbāb ‘covering, veil, wrapper’. ǧilbāb may therefore have an origin that is different from that of ↗ǧallābaẗ or ↗gallābiyyaẗ to which it is often connected. These, too, denote some kind of loose garment, but seem to be derived from ↗ǧallāb ‘trader, importer’, thus probably being originally the name of a dress worn by (slave) traders, or by slaves themselves. (Another opinion sees ǧallābaẗ and gallābiyyaẗ as a contamination of ǧilbāb.)
2) The borrowing from Gz is likely to have occurred already in pre-Islamic times, its cultural background being the intensive trading contacts between the Arabian peninsula and Ethiopia. 
▪ eC7 10 Q 33:59 qul li-ʔazwāǧika wa-banātika wa-nisāʔi ’l-muʔminīna yudnīna ʕalayhinna min ǧalābībihinna ḏālika ʔadnā ʔan yuʕrafna fa-lā yuʔḏayna ‘Sag deinen Gattinen und Töchtern und den Frauen der Gläubigen, sie sollen (wenn sie austreten) sich etwas von ihrem Gewand (über den Kopf) herunterziehen. So ist es am ehesten gewährleistet, daß sie (als ehrbare Frauen) erkannt und daraufhin nicht belästigt werden’ (Paret). 
Gz galbaba ‘voiler, couvrir d’un voile, recouvrir’, gəlbāb ‘voile, couverture, envelope; Te gälbäbä, Tña (ʔa)gʷälbäbä ‘cacher, voiler, couvrir’; Tña ǧälbäbä (ǧ!) ‘loucher, cligner’ – DRS, glbb-2. 
▪ According to Jeffery1938, 102, ǧilbāb is »an article of women’s attire […] mentioned in the Qur’ān, though the Lexicons differ considerably as to the exact meaning (cf. ‎LA, i, 265). – The difficulty of deriving the word from ǧalab‑ is of course obvious, and ‎Nöldeke, Neue Beiträge, 53, recognized it as the Eth [Gz] gəlbāb, from galbaba ‘to cover’ or ‘cloak’, which is quite common in the oldest texts. It was apparently an early borrowing, for it ‎occurs in the early poetry, e.g. Div. Hudh, xc, 12«. – This opinion is maintained also by DRS (1994) and Weninger2007: probably a pre-Islamic loan from Gz gəlbāb ‘covering, veil, wrapper’.
▪ According to DRS (1994), the Eth forms ultimately go back to a Sem *glb ‘skin, etc.’ (cf. Ar ↗ǧulbaẗ). DRS, glbb-2. The meanings ‘to cover, cloak’ and ‘garment’ would then be explicable as ‘to put on (s.th. like) a skin’.
In contrast, Huehnergard2011 (s.v. glb) holds that ǧilbāb, together with the dialectal ↗ǧallābaẗ‑ and ↗ǧallābiyyaẗ, ultimately, goes back to the vb. ↗ǧalab-‑ ‘to attract, bring, fetch, import’, which in turn can be traced back to a WSem *glb ‘to catch, fetch’. While ǧallāb(iyy)aẗ, according to Huehnergard, derives from ↗ǧallāb‑ and would thus originally have meant the dress of the a ‘(slave) trader, importer’, the author does not give details on the semantics of ǧilbāb.
▪ Yet another opinion is held by Marçais1956, who thinks that »the Old Arabic djilbāb ‘outer garment’« (which he, too, believes to be a foreign word) is prior to forms like ǧallābaẗ or ǧallābiyyaẗ; according to the author, it is not surprising that these should have developed from ǧilbāb by way of »dissimilative dropping« of the last b
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl djellaba, from Ar ǧallābaẗ, ǧallābiyyaẗ ‘djellaba’, from ǧallāb ‘trader, importer’; jilbab, from Ar ǧilbāb ‘jilbab’; both from ǧalaba, vb. I, ‘to attract, bring, fetch, import’. 
taǧalbaba ‘to clothe o.s. (bi‑), be clothed, be clad (bi‑ in a garment, also fig.): II, denominative of ǧilbāb
ǦLD جلد 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦLD 
“root” 
▪ ǦLD_1 ‘hide’ ↗
▪ ǦLD_2 ‘leather’ ↗ǧild
▪ ǦLD_3 ‘ice’ ↗ǧalīd

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘skin, hide, leather, to whip; to duel; to take heart, to be tough, toughness; hard rocky land, ice’ 
DRS 2 (1994) #GLD-1: from protSem *gild‑ ‘peau, cuir’ 
– 
DRS 2 (1994) #GLD- 1 protSem *gild- ‘peau, cuir’: Akk gild-, gilad-, Hbr *géled, EmpAram *gld, Palm (pl. emph.) gldyʔ, JP gildā, Syr geldā, nSyr gildā, nWAram ġelta, Ar ǧild, ǧalad, ǧilid, Mhr geld, ǧot, Śḥr god, Soq gad, Te ǧəld, ǧəlud, ǧəndi ‘peau, cuir’; Tña gandä, Amh žənde, žəndi ‘cuir’; Gz galada ‘se ceindre’; Te gäldä ‘écorcher’; Amh garädä ‘couvrir, envelopper’, gəld ‘peau dont se ceignent les ouvriers pour travailler’; Mnd gilda ‘testicule’; Ar ǧald ‘verge, pénis’; Amh gälädo ‘couteau à pointe recourbée pour tailler le cuir’; Te gäloda, Tña gälido ‘couteau’. -?2 Akk galādu, galātu ‘trembler, être épouvanté’; Ar ǧaluda ‘être fort, dur’; Te gäldä ‘battre durement, détruire’; Tña gälädä ‘fendre le bois, battre violemment’;? Te galädä ‘conclure un traité’. -3 nHbr gālīd, JP gᵊlīdā ‘gelée, glace’; Syr ʔaglīdā ‘froid, gelée’; nSyr gᵊdīlä, nWAram glīḏa ‘glace’; Ar ǧalīd ‘gelée, glace’. -4 Talm gildānā, Syr geldānā: petit poisson.
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– 
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ǧild جِلْد 
ID 152 • Sw 28/137 • BP 2178 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦLD 
n. 
1a hide; b leather – WehrCowan1979. 
DRS 2 (1994) #GLD-1 protSem *gild‑ ‘peau, cuir’.
▪ Kogan2011: from protWSem *gild‑, a Sem term for ‘skin’ that is less widespread than its synonym, protSem *mašk‑ (> Ar ↗mask).
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DRS 2 (1994) #GLD-1 protSem *gild- ‘peau, cuir’: Akk gild-, gilad-, Hbr *géled, EmpAram *gld, Palm (pl. emph.) gldyʔ, JP gildā, Syr geldā, nSyr gildā, nWAram ġelta, Ar ǧild, ǧalad, ǧilid, Mhr geld, ǧot, Śḥr god, Soq gad, Te ǧəld, ǧəlud, ǧəndi ‘peau, cuir’; Tña gandä, Amh žənde, žəndi ‘cuir’; Gz galada ‘se ceindre’; Te gäldä ‘écorcher’; Amh garädä ‘couvrir, envelopper’, gəld ‘peau dont se ceignent les ouvriers pour travailler’; Mnd gilda ‘testicule’; Ar ǧald ‘verge, pénis’; Amh gälädo ‘couteau à pointe recourbée pour tailler le cuir’; Te gäloda, Tña gälido ‘couteau’.
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ǧalīd جَلِيد 
ID 153 • Sw – • BP 4658 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦLD 
n. 
ice – WehrCowan1979. 
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▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994) #GLD-3 nHbr gālīd, JP gᵊlīdā ‘gelée, glace’; Syr ʔaglīdā ‘froid, gelée’; nSyr gᵊdīlä, nWAram glīḏa ‘glace’; Ar ǧalīd ‘gelée, glace’.
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(to be written) 
 
ǦLS جلس 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦLS 
“root” 
▪ ǦLS_1 ‘to sit, sit down’ ↗ǧalasa, ‘session, meeting; council, board’ ↗maǧlis
▪ ǦLS_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘mountain, rocky, hard land; heavy, deep-rooted tree; to sit down, seat, sitting place, social gathering, assembly, gathering; rank’ 
▪ … 
– 
DRS 3 (1993) #GLŠ-1 Ar ǧalasa ‘s’asseoir, s’accroupir’, maǧlis ‘lieu où on s’assied, salle de réception; assemblée, conseil’; ǧals ‘rocher, montagne, terrain élevé dominant un creux’; Soq galas ‘montagne, cap’, miglis ‘étage’, mägaləs ‘résidences’. – ? Akk gilš-, gišš- ‘hanche, flanc’. – ? Tña gäläsä ‘être enlevé, emporté’, Amh gʷälässäsä ‘dominer facilement un adversaire dans la lutte’, gulsəs alä ‘être faible’, guläša ‘faible’. 2 Gz galasa ‘couvrir de cuir’, Te gälsa, Tña gäläsä ‘couvrir de peau’, gəlās, Tña Amh Har Gur gəlas ‘housse de selle’, Te ‘prépuce, couverture’, gəlsa ‘abîme, gorge’ -3 JP gəlišā ‘chauve’, gəlēšūtā, Mnd gilšia ‘calvitie’, Syr gəlaš ‘déchirer, raser’. – Amh gälässäsä ‘écarter les cheveux de part et d’autre pour les peigner, effeuiller’. – Akk galāšu ‘aplatir (?)’.
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ǧalas‑ جَلَسَ 
ID 154 • Sw 68/136 • BP 924 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦLS 
vb., I 
1a to sit down (ʔilà with s.o., at a table, etc., ʕalà on a chair); b to sit (ʔilà with s.o., at a table, ʕalà on a chair) – WehrCowan1979. 
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DRS 3 (1993) #GLŠ-1 Ar ǧalasa ‘s’asseoir, s’accroupir’, maǧlis ‘lieu où on s’assied, salle de réception; assemblée, conseil’; ǧals ‘rocher, montagne, terrain élevé dominant un creux’; Soq galas ‘montagne, cap’, miglis ‘étage’, mägaləs ‘résidences’. – ? Akk gilš-, gišš- ‘hanche, flanc’. – ? Tña gäläsä ‘être enlevé, emporté’, Amh gʷälässäsä ‘dominer facilement un adversaire dans la lutte’, gulsəs alä ‘être faible’, guläša ‘faible’.
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maǧlis مَجْلِس 
ID 155 • Sw – • BP 101 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦLS 
n. 
1 seat; 2 session room, conference room; 3a party, gathering, meeting; b social gathering; c session, sitting; d council meeting; 4a council; b concilium; c collegium, college; d board, committee, commission; e administrative board; f court, tribunal – WehrCowan1979. 
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▪ See ↗ǧalasa.
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GLŠ, ǦLŠ جلش 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√GLŠ, ǦLŠ 
“root” 
▪ GLŠ, ǦLŠ ‘a kind of savory pastry stuffed with meat or cheese’ ↗gullāš 
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gullāš جُلّاش 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√GLŠ, ǦLŠ 
n. 
a kind of savory pastry stuffed with meat or cheese 
▪ According to Youssef2003 from Eg kršt, Copt kyllēčtiḥ ‘stuffed pastry’. 
▪ … 
– 
▪ Youssef2003: from Eg kršt, Copt kyllēčtiḥ, a kind of savory with meat or cheese 
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ǦLW جلو 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 18Oct2022
√ǦLW 
“root” 
▪ ǦLW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ǦLW_2 ‘to appear in glory’ ↗taǧallà
▪ ǦLW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘evacuation, to evacuate, clear away; to manifest, clarify, appear; to polish, remove; to go away’ 
▪ … 
taǧallà تَجَلَّى 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD 3314 • © SG | 2Jun2023
√ǦLW
 
vb., V 
to appear in glory – Jeffery1938
 
▪ … 
▪ eC7 Q vii, 139; xcii, 2 – Jeffery1938.
 
▪ Jeffery1938: »The simple verb ǧalā ‘to make clear’ is cognate with Hbr gālāʰ ‘to uncover’, Aram glʔ, Syr gᵊlā ‘to reveal’, and Eth [Gz] galaya ‘to manifest, explain’; and form II, ǧallà ‘to reveal, to manifest’ occurs in vii, 186; xci, 3. The form taǧallà, however, which is used once of God revealing Himself to Moses at Mt. Sinai, and once of the brightness of oncoming day, seems to have been formed under the influence of Syr etgallē, which, as Mingana, Syr Influence, 86, points out, had become specialized in this sense, and may have been known in religious circles at Mecca and Madina in this technical sense. It is at least suggestive that LA, xviii, 163, uses only Ḥadīṯ in explanation of the word.«
 
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ǦMː (ǦMM) جمّ/جمم 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Mar2023
√ǦMː (ǦMM) 
“root” 
▪ ǦMː (ǦMM)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ǦMː (ǦMM)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ǦMː (ǦMM)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘large group of people, multitude, to abound, be plentiful; forelock; to relax’ 
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ǦMD جمد 
Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√ǦMD 
“root” 
▪ From CSem *√GMD ‘to become hard, congeal, freeze, contract’ – Huehnergard2011.
▪ …
 
ǧumūd جُمود 
Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√ǦMD 
n. 
▪ vn., I 
ǦMRK جمرك 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦMRK 
“root” 
ǦMRK_1 ‘customs’ ↗gumruk 
gumruk 
gumruk 
gumruk 
gumruk 
– 
– 
EgAr gumruk ~ (MSA) ǧumruk جُمْرُك , pl. ǧamārikᵘ , var. kumruk, qumruq 
ID 156 • Sw – • BP 4318 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦMRK 
n. 
customs; customhouse – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Rolland2014a: Via Tu gümrük and ByzGrk kommérkion from lLat commercium ‘branch office, merchandise, relation, exchange’, from Lat merx ‘merchandise’. 
▪ … 
▪ Cf. DRS 3 (1993)#GMRK: Ar ǧumruk, Te ǧəmruk.
▪ … 
▪ Sources agree on Ar gumruk, ǧumruk going back, via Tu gümrük, to lLat commercium, a derivative of Lat merx ‘merchandise’.
▪ Rolland2014a adds that this Lat merx ‘merchandise’ perhaps is from Phoen mkr ‘to do business, trade’, »mot éminemment voyageur«. If this is correct one may have to compare (CAD:) Akk makāru ‘to do business, use (silver etc.) in business transactions’, mākiru, makkāru ‘trader’, makkūru ‘valuable, treasures, property, assets, estate’, tamkāru ‘merchant, trader, money-lender’ (> Ar ↗tāǧir ‘merchant’, ↗tiǧāraẗ ‘trade, commerce, merchandise’), (Tropper2008:) Ug mkr (N-, G-, D-stems pass.) ‘to be sold’, mkr /makkāru/ ‘tradesman’), (BDB1906:) Hbr māḵar ‘to sell’, mäḵär ‘merchandise, value’, Phoen mkr ‘to sell’, Aram Syr mᵊḵar ‘to marry’ (i.e. *‘to buy as a wife’), (Tropper2008:) Ar makkara ‘to buy up (grain)’. 
▪ Cf. Engl commerce (n.), 1530 s, from mFr commerce (C14), from Lat commercium ‘trade, trafficking’, from com- ‘together’ + merx (Gen mercis) ‘merchandise’.
▪ Cf. also Engl market (n.), eC12, ‘a meeting at a fixed time for buying and selling livestock and provisions’, from oNFr market ‘marketplace, trade, commerce’ (oFr marchiet, modFr marché), from Lat mercatus ‘trading, buying and selling, trade, market’ (> It mercato, Sp mercado, Du markt, Ge Markt), past participle of mercari ‘to trade, deal in, buy’, from merx (Gen mercis) ‘wares, merchandise’, accord. to etymonline.com from an Ital root *merk-, possibly from Etr, referring to various aspects of economics. Meaning ‘public building or space where markets are held’ first attested mC13. Sense of ‘sales, as controlled by supply and demand’ is from 1680
rasm al-gumruk, n., customs duty, tariff

gumrukī, adj., customs, tariff (used attributively): nsb-adj. | ĭttiḥād gumrukī, n., customs union.
mugamrak, n., duty paid: nominalized PP I. 
ǦMS جمس 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦMS 
“root” 
▪ ǦMS_1 ‘buffalo’ ↗ǧāmūs
▪ ǦMS_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
▪ … 
– 
DRS 3 (1993) #GMŠ-1 Te gämmäšä ‘être tiède (lait)’. -2 Te gämäš belä ‘tomber sur les genoux’. -3 gämmešay ‘chevelu’. -4 Syr gawmūš, gamīšā, Mnd gamušan, gamišan, gamšin, Ar ǧāmūs ‘buffle’, Gz Te gamus : tête de bétail européen sans bosse, Amh Arg goš, Har goōš, Gur gäs ‘buffle’; Gz gamas : anneau en corne de buffle, Te gamus : anneau fait d’ongle de buffle. -5 Śḥr gɛmš, Soq gamš, Mhr gamh ‘scinque (sorte de lézard)’.
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ǦMʕ جمع 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦMʕ 
“root” 
▪ ǦMʕ_1 ‘to gather’ ↗ǧamaʕa, ‘comprehensive; collector, compiler; mosque’ ↗ǧāmiʕ, ‘university’ ↗ǧāmiʕaẗ, ‘society’ ↗muǧtamaʕ
▪ ǦMʕ_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘gathering, collection, collection point, to collect, to unite, to combine, to accumulate; to assemble, to become close together, to become united, to decide; to be compact; assembly, gathering place; to be faultless; main points, essence’ 
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DRS 3 (1993) #GMʕ-1 Syr gᵊmāʕtā ‘poignée’, Ar ǧamaʕa ‘amasser, rassembler, réunir’, ǧumʕaẗ, ǧumuʕaẗ ‘poignée, réunion’, ǧamāʕaẗ ‘groupe, foule, assemblée’, ǧumʕ ‘contraction, poing’, SAr gmʕ, Mhr gatmaʔ, Śḥr gīʕ, gotmaʕ, Ḥrs egtōma ‘réunir, rassembler’, Mhr ǧamʕ, Jib ǧīʕ, yáma, yámi, yāmʕəh ‘poing’; Te təǧämməʕa ‘être ensemble’. – Ar ǧumʕaẗ ‘rassemblement, jour de la prière communautaire, vendredi, semaine’; Mhr gemaʕt, Śḥr gəmʕat, Soq gimʕa, Te ǧəmʕat, Har gumʔa ‘vendredi’. -2 Syr gᵊmaʕ ‘plonger, enfoncer’, gūmāʕtā ‘fosse’. -3 Gz gamʕa, gamməʕa ‘arracher, déchirer, raser’, Te (tə)gämmäʕa, Tña gämʕe ‘séparer, fendre’, Te gämʕa ‘tomber (pierre d’un mur)’, gəmʕ ‘pierre’, Gur (a)gʷäma ‘être sur le point d’apparaître (fleur, champignon)’.
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ǧāmiʕ جامِع 
ID 157 • Sw – • BP 2812 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦMʕ 
¹adj.; ²n. 
1 adj., comprehensive, extensive, broad, general, universal. – n., 2a collector; b compiler (of a book); c compositor, typesetter; 3 pl. ǧawāmiʕᵘ, mosque – WehrCowan1979. 
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▪ See ↗ǧamaʕa.
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muǧtamaʕ مُجْتَمَع 
ID 158 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 222 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦMʕ 
n. 
1a gathering place, place of assembly; b meeting place, rendezvous; 2 assembly, gathering, meeting; 3a society; b human society; c community, commune, collective – WehrCowan1979. 
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▪ See ↗ǧamaʕa.
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ǦML جمل 
ID 159 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦML 
“root” 
▪ ǦML_1 ‘camel’ ↗ǧamal
▪ ǦML_2 (a) ‘(be) polite, do a favour; (be) beautiful, handsome, pretty’ ↗ǧamul- u (ǧamāl). – (b) ‘sum, totality, whole; group, troop, crowd; sentence, clause’ ↗ǧamal- u (ǧaml), ǧumlaẗ .
▪ ǦML_3 ‘gable (arch.)’ ↗ǧamalūn
▪ ǦML_4 ? ‘letter of alphabet’ (?): only in ḥisāb al‑ ǧummal (or ǧumal) ‘use of the letters of the alphabet according to their numerical value’

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘camel, grace, beauty, elegance, to adorn, to make beautiful; to have good character, to be kindly, to ask nicely, to treat well; group of people, sentence, to add together, total, entirety; thick rope’ 
– 
–.. 
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DRS 3 (1993)#GML distinguishes eight main semantic values in Sem, out of which however only two or three (nos. #1, #2 and #5 in DRS) seem to be realised in Ar: -1 ‘camel’ (↗ǧamal). -2 a theme with many facets: [a] ‘be beautiful, developed, mature’ (↗ǧamul ); ‘to behave politely, make complete, put together’ (↗ǧāmal ); ‘full, fat (body)’; [b] ‘big, long’ (NHbr gamlōn, Aram gamlānā, not realised in Ar); [c] ‘to assemble, put together’ (↗ǧamal ), ‘totality’ (↗ǧumlaẗ), ‘cable, rope’ (ǧamal, ǧuml); [d] ‘grease, fat, fondue’ (ǧamīl), ‘to melt, liquify (the grease, etc.)’ (ǧamal ). – DRS is not sure whether or not also [e] ‘nightingale’ (ǧumlānaẗ, ǧumaylānaẗ) and [f] ‘(sort of) palm tree’ (ǧamal) should be grouped with #2a-d. The authors also remain silent about the details of the semantic relations within theme no. #2. – Classical dictionaries tend to see ‘fat’ (#2d) and ‘fatness’ as the original meaning, “hence” ‘beauty’ (#2b), “because, when a man becomes fat and in good condition, his ǧamāl becomes apparent”; from physical beauty then also ‘beauty of character’ – Lane, sv. ǧamīl. -3 ‘anger’ (Te only). -4 ‘to cook a little flour in order to add it to the bread’ (Amh only). -5 ‘sort of boomerang (Akk), sickle (Ug), yoke (JP), hooked (Syr)’, etc. (↗ǧummal). -6 ‘to burn, roast slowly; white freckles on the skin, esp. the legs’ (Amh only). -7 ‘cow without, or with small, horns’ (Amh only). -8 ‘clitoris’ (Gur only).
▪ For Sem *gamal _1 as an extension in * l (for tamed/domesticated, hence ‘weak’ animals) ↗gamal.
▪ For Sem √GML_2 as an extension of an AfrAs biconsonantal root *GM ↗gamal-.
▪ Any relation between ǦML_1 ‘camel’ and the ‘fat, beauty, completeness, politeness’ complex of ǦML_2 ?
 
▪ ? Engl gammagamalūn.
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Gemara, from Aram gᵊmārā ‘completion’, from gᵊmar ‘to complete’, cf. Ar ↗ǧamula
– 
ǧamal‑ جمل , u , (ǧaml
ID 160 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦML 
vb., I 
to sum up, summarize – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
1865 Lane gives the value of ǧamal‑ as ‘to collect’ (and ‘to melt grease or fat’). 
Hbr gāmal ‘to wean; ripen’, nHbr gamlōn ‘large-sized’, Aram itgəmal ‘to be laden with; be bestowed’, gamlānā ‘large-sized’ – Zammit2002#ǧumlaẗ
DRS thinks ǧamal‑ ‘to assemble, collect’ and ǧamul-‑ ‘to be beautiful, pretty; be nice to, do a favour to’ are related and belong to one and the same multifacetted Sem theme, the idea of ‘wholeness, completion, perfection’ probably resulting somehow from the ‘beauty’ (which in turn may derive from ‘fatness’). See ↗√ǦML.
▪ Ehret1995 (#280) regards the verb as secondary, formed from the noun ǧumul‑ ‘troop; addition’ which he believes is in turn an ‎extension in a “noun suffix” *‑l from a bi-consonantal “pre-‎Proto-Semitic” (pPS, i.e. preSem) root *gm ‘to come together’ < AfrAs *‑gim‑ ‘to come upon, ‎meet up with’ (cf. Eg gmi‑ ‘to find’, Som ǧimee‑ ‘to [bring together in order to] compare; measure’). – Other extensions from the same pre-Sem root according to Ehret: ǧamār ‘crowd, people’ (ǧamar‑ ‘to unite for a purpose’), ↗ǧamaʕ‑ ‘to gather, assemble, keep together; unite, reconcile; crowd, assembly’, and ↗ǧamhar‑ ‘to assemble, heap up’ (ǧumhur ‘principal part or majority; totality, all; troop, crowd; people, public’, cf. ↗ǧūmhūr).
▪ Any relation to ↗ǧamal‑ ‘camel’? 
– 
ʔaǧmala, vb. IV, to sum, total, add; to treat as a whole, mention collectively; to sum up, summarize; for other meanings ↗ǧamula.
ǧumlaẗ, n.f., pl. ǧumal totality, sum, whole; group, troop, body; crowd; wholesale; (gram.) sentence, clause
ʔiǧmāl, n., summation, summing up; summarization
ʔiǧmālī, adj., comprehensive, summary, general, overall, total, collective; the whole sum, total amount
muǧmil, n., pl. ‑ūn wholesaler, wholesale dealer: PA IV
muǧmal, n., summary, résumé, synopsis, compendium; general concept; sum, total: PP IV 
ǧamul‑ جمُل u , (ǧamāl
ID 161 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦML 
vb., I 
to be beautiful; to be handsome, pretty, comely, graceful; to be proper, suitable, appropriate, befit – WehrCowan1979. 
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Akk gamālu ‘récompenser, soigner’, gimill‑ ‘acte de bonté, faveur, complaisance, pitié’, gitmal‑ ‘noble, parfait, égal’, giml ‘bœuf au repos, à soigner’, Hbr gāmal ‘être prêt, être mûr (fruit)’, ‘sevrer (un enfant)’, ‘récompenser, rémunérer, faire du bien à qn’, gəmūl, gəmūlā ‘rémunération, bienfait’, Ar ǧamula) ‘être beau, bien se comporter’, ǧāmala ‘se conduire bien avec qn’. Cf. also nHbr gamlōn, Aram gamlānā ‘grand, long’. 
DRS thinks ǧamul-‑ ‘to be beautiful, pretty; be nice to, do a favour to’ and ǧamal‑ ‘to assemble, collect’ (cf. also ǧumlaẗ‑ ‘totality’) are related and belong to one and the same multifacetted Sem theme. For details ↗√ǦML
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Gemara, from Aram gᵊmārā ‘completion’, from gᵊmar ‘to complete’, cf. Ar ↗ǧamula
ǧammala, vb. II, to make beautiful, beautify, embellish, adorn : probably a denom. caus. from ↗ǧamīl.
ǧāmala, vb. III, to be polite, courteous, amiable : probably denom. from ↗ǧamīl.
ʔaǧmala, vb. IV, to act well, decently, be nice : probably denominative from ↗ǧamīl. – For other meanings ↗ǧamala.
taǧammala, vb. V, to make o.s. pretty, adorn o.s. : probably denominative from ↗ǧamīl.
taǧāmala, vb. VI, to be courteous, be friendly to one another : probably denominative from ↗ǧamīl.
ǧamāl, n., beauty :
ǧamālī, adj., aesthetic : nsb-adj. from ǧamāl.
ǧamīl, adj., n., beautiful, graceful, lovely, comely, pretty, handsome; friendly act, favor, service, good turn; courtesy : perhaps the main etymon from which ǧamula then would be denominative; if this is not the case ǧamīl is a ints. adj. formation from the vb.; ↗s.v.
ʔaǧmalᵘ, adj., more beautiful : el. of ↗ǧamīl.
taǧmīl, n., beautification, embellishment; cosmetics : vn. II.
taǧmīlī, adj., cosmetic : nsb-adj. of taǧmīl.
muǧāmalaẗ, n.f., pl. ‑āt (act of) courtesy; civility, amiability; flattery : vn. III. 
ǧamal جَمَل , pl. ǧimāl , ʔaǧmāl 
ID 162 • Sw – • BP 3969 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦML 
n. 
camel – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ The word (that is also the ancestor, via Grk > Lat, of Engl camel and similar terms in other European languages) forms part of the WSem basic vocabulary.
▪ According to EtymDuden, Europeans came to know camels probably during the crusades.
▪ Osman2002 quotes Brockhaus’ Konversationslexicon (of 1894) where it is held that one borrowing milieu was Asia Minor at the time of Arab-Byzantine wars, but that it came to Europe also both during the Arab conquest of Spain and the Turkish conquest of the Balkans.
▪ Kogan2011: Arabian Sem *gamal‑. – There is no protSem term for ‘camel’. The obvious similarity between camel designations in individual Sem languages must be due to diffusion from an Arabian source. For other terms, cf. ↗ʔibil, ↗nāqaẗ, ↗bakr.
▪ … 
▪ eC7 Q 7:40 ḥattā yaliǧa ’l-ǧamalu fī sammi ’l-ḫiyāṭi ‘until the camel goeth through the needle’s eye’ (the expression going back to Matth 19:24, cf. Paret1980) 
DRS 3 (1993)#GML: Hbr gāmāl, Phn gamal, EmpAram gmlʔ, Nab Palm gml, JP Syr gamlā, SAr (Sab) gml (pl), Soq gímal, Gz gamal, [rarely also gaml ], etc.etc. < Sem *gamal‑ ‘camel’; (Akk (NAss) gammal‑, gaml‑ is a loan from WSem.)1
▪ Outside Sem: Eg-Dem gmwl, Copt čamūl; Berb (with metathesis, when compared with the Sem and Eg/Copt forms): Taq alġwəm, Tamšq aġlam ‘chameau de selle’; Cush (probably loan-word from Sem): (forms with all 3 radicals) Ag Bil gimilā, others gimil, gimal, gamal, gamalā, (with the first two) Bed kam, (with the first and the third) Sa Af Or gālā, Sid gāla, Som gēl, gāl
▪ Etymonline assumes that the word is related also to ↗ǧamal‑ ‘to collect’, the camel being a principal beast of burden.
▪ Lipiński1997#30.10 thinks the word can be segmented into root plus ‎AfrAs “postpositive determinant” *‑l or *‑r “for domestic or tamed animals”, cf. also ʔimmar ‘ram, lamb’, ʔayyil ‘deer’, baqar ‘cattle’, ṯawr ‘ox’, ḥimār ‘donkey’, ḫinzīr ‘swine, pig’, ʕiǧl ‘calf’, ʕayr ‘ass-fowl’, karr ‘lamb’, naml ‘ant’.
▪ Any connection with Berb (Senhayi alġum, Ayt Seghrouchen alġm, Ghadamsi āḷæm)? – Bennett1998. DRS 3 (1993) assumes the Eg and Berb forms to be real cognates while the Cush ones “seem to be borrowed from Sem”. 
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl camel; camelopard, from Lat, from Grk kámēlos, from a Sem source akin to Hbr gāmāl, Aram gamlā, and Ar ǧamal ‘camel’.
▪ The Eur words for ‘camel’ go back to Grk kámēlos which, according to Osman2002, is a direct loan from Ar ǧamal; Huehnergard2011, however, is more reluctant, attributing the word’s appearance in Grk rather to some (unspecified) “Semitic source”, while EtymOnline identifies Hbr or Phoen gamal- as the origin. In any case, the borrowing is likely to have happened in Hellenistic times already, not as late as Byzantine times (as Osman assumes). From Grk the word was borrowed into Lat as camēlus, and from there into the Rom and Germ languages where it replaced the earlier term for this animal, olfend‑ ‘olifant’ (Goth ulbandus, oHGe olpentâ, mHGe olbente, oEngl olfend, “apparently based on confusion of camels with elephants in a place and time when both were known only from travelers’ vague descriptions” – EtymOnline). oEngl camel, perhaps via oNFr camel (oFr chamel, modFr chameau). In modern standard Ge, Kamḗl is attested from C16 onwards. Stress on the 2nd syllable seems to be a learned adaptation after Lat camēlus, while the mHGe forms (kembel, kemmel, kémel, kamel), when appearing in C13 texts, had first shown signs of Germanization (stress on first syllable) (Kluge2002). 
ǧamal al-yahūd, n., chameleon.

ǧammāl, pl. ‑ūn, n., camel driver: n.prof. 
ǧamāl جمال 
ID 163 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦML 
n. 
beauty – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ eC7 Q 16:6 wa-la-kum fī-hā ǧamālun ḥīna turīḥūna wa-ḥīna tasraḥūna ‘And wherein is beauty for you [Paret1980: Auch findet ihr es schön (und freut euch daran)], when ye bring them [the cattle] home, and when ye take them out to pasture’. 
ǧamul‑. – Cf. also Zammit2002#ǧamāl: Hbr gāmal ‘to deal fully or adequately with, deal out to’, gəmūl ‘recompense’, Aram gəmal ‘to do one good, (or) evil’, gəmūl ‘deed, reward, recompense’. 
vn. I of ǧamul‑.
DRS thinks ǧamul‑ ‘to be beautiful, pretty; be nice to, do a favour to’ and ǧamal‑ ‘to assemble, collect’ (cf. also ǧumlaẗ ‘totality’) are related and belong to one and the same multifacetted Sem theme. For details ↗√ǦML. According to Zammit2002#Appdx, Ibn Fāris I:481 suggests a derivation of ǧamāl from the same root as ǧumlaẗ (↗ǧamal) due to a camel’s corpulent structure. 
– 
ǧamālī, adj., aesthetic: nsb-adj. (For other items ↗ǧamula). 
ǧumlaẗ جُمْلة , pl. ǧumal 
ID 164 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦML 
n.f. 
totality, sum, whole; group, troop, body; crowd; wholesale; (gram.) sentence, clause – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ eC7 Q 25:32 law-lā nuzzila ʕalay-hi l-qurʔānu ǧumlatan wāḥidatan ‘Why is the Qur’an not revealed unto him all at once?’ 
(cf. ↗ǧamala :) Hbr gāmal ‘to wean; ripen’, nHbr gamlōn ‘large-sized’, Aram itgəmal ‘to be laden with; be bestowed’, gamlānā ‘large-sized’ – Zammit2002#ǧumlaẗ
▪ For a possible semantic dependence of the idea of ‘wholeness, completion, perfection’ from that of ‘beauty’ (which in turn may derive from ‘fatness’), see ↗√ǦML, ↗ǧamal‑ ‘to assemble, collect’ and ǧamul-‑ ‘to be beautiful, pretty; be nice to, do a favour to’.
▪ Related in any way to ↗ǧamal‑ ‘camel’ ? 
– 
ǧamala
ǧamalūn جملون , pl. ǧamāliyūn 
ID 165 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦML 
n. 
gable (arch.‑ ) – WehrCowan1979. 
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1865 Lane ‘building, or structure, in the form of a camel’s hump’ 
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The translation given by Lane suggests that the word is derived from ↗ǧamal ‘camel’. But this would be a rare pattern. The pl. raises doubts about that, too. 
▪ ? Cf. Engl gamma, from Grk gamma, from Phoen *gaml ‘throwstick (?), third letter of the Phoen alphabet’; gimel, from Hbr gîmel ‘gimel’, alteration of Phoen *gaml (see above) - Huehnergard2011. 
– 
ǦMHR جمهر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦMHR 
“root” 
▪ ǦMHR_1 ‘the public’ ↗ǧumhūr, ‘republic’ ↗ǧumhūriyyaẗ
▪ ǦMHR_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
▪ … 
– 
DRS 3 (1993) #GMHR-1 Ar ǧamhara ‘rassembler’, ǧamharaẗ ‘attroupement’, ǧumhūr ‘foule, multitude’. -2 ǧamhara ‘enlever la meilleure partie d’une chose, être injuste envers qn’.
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– 
ǧumhūr جُمْهور 
Sw – • NahḍConBP 724 • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√ǦMHR 
n. 
▪ … 
ǧumhūriyyaẗ جُمْهُورِيَّة 
ID 166 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 824 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦMHR 
n.f. 
republic – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ abstr. formation in -iyyaẗ 
▪ … 
DRS 3 (1993) #GMHR-1 Ar ǧamhara ‘rassembler’, ǧamharaẗ ‘attroupement’, ǧumhūr ‘foule, multitude’.
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ǦNː (ǦNN) جنّ / جنن 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦNː (ǦNN) 
“root” 
▪ ǦNː (ǦNN)_1 ‘to cover, veil; to become dark’ ↗ǧanna
▪ ǦNː (ǦNN)_2 ‘jinn, demon’ ↗ǧinn, ‘possessed, obsessed’ ↗maǧnūn
▪ ǦNː (ǦNN)_3 ‘garden; Paradise’ ↗ǧannaẗ

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to shield, to cover, to engulf, shield, enclosure, place of hiding; the world of the jinn, the hidden people; night; grave; heart, inside, foetus; garden, verdant; madness; snake’ 
▪ From WSem *√GNN ‘to cover, surround’ – Huehnergard2011.
DRS 3 (1993) #GNʔ/W/Y/N-2 WSem *gann‑ ‘jardin’.
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DRS 3 (1993) #GNʔ/W/Y/N-1 JP Syr gᵊnā ‘être couché, étendu’, Mnd gna ‘être étendu, dormir’, Syr magnᵊyā ‘lit’; Ar ǧaniʔa ‘avoir le dos voûté, convexe’, ǧanaʔa ‘se pencher sur’, ʔaǧnāʔ ‘voûté, bossu, courbé’, Jib egnín, Soq égnən ‘se pencher’, Ḥrs Mhr genō ‘être presque couché (soleil)’, Ḥrs gənō ‘descendre’; Gz ganaya ‘se pencher, s’incliner, se soumettre’. – ? Tña ʔagnäyä, Amh Gur (a)gäññä, Arg agäñña, Har agäña ‘trouver, rejoindre’. -2 Akk ganānu, kanānu ‘enfermer, confiner’; nPun *gn ‘couvrir’, Hbr gānan, nHbr hāgēn, EmpAram gnn, JP gᵊnan, ʔaggēn, ChrPal, ? Palm ʔgn, Syr gann ‘protéger; habiter’, gᵊnā ‘se cacher; être loin’; Mnd gnuna ‘accouplement (de chiens)’; Ar ǧanna ‘envelopper, couvrir’, SAr gnʔ ‘entourer d’un mur’, Jib egnï̀ʔ ‘protéger du froid’, gúnẹʔ, Mhr gōna ‘abrité, chaud’, həgnē ‘réchauffer’; – Ar ǧanna ‘être enveloppé (foetus dans l’utérus)’, ǧanīn ‘embryon’, Gz ganin, Te ǧənā ‘foetus, enfant nouveau-né’. – Pun ʔgnn, JP *gnn ‘clôture?’, Sab gnʔ ‘mur d’enceinte’, Min gnt ‘toit, couverture’, Śḥr guneʔ ‘endroit abrité’. – WSem *gann- ‘jardin’: Akk gann-, ? gannat- ‘jardin potager?’; Ug gn, Hbr gan, gannā, Pal *gnn ‘enclos’, EmpAram gn, Nab *gnh, JP ginnᵊtā, Syr Mnd ginta, Sab gnt. – Syr gannᵊtā, Ar ǧannaẗ, Mhr gənnēt, Jib gẹ́nt, Ḥrs gənnét, Amh gannat ‘jardin, Paradis’; Mhr gənnét, Jib gént, Ḥrs gennét, Soq gínnəh, Te gänna, Te Tña ǧännät, Amh gannat ‘Paradis’. – Ar ǧanan, muǧnaʔaẗ ‘tombe’, maǧannaẗ, DaṯAr maǧannaẗ, YemAr mgannaẗ, Mhr meǧennet; Jib migént, Soq mgə́nnəh ‘cimetière’. – Akk maginn-, Ug *mgn, Hbr māgēn, JP mᵊginnā, Syr mᵊgennā, Mnd ginia, Ar miǧann(aẗ), muǧnāʔ ‘bouclier’. -3 Ar ǧanna ‘devenir dense, abondant, luxuriant (herbage)’, Gz ganna ‘devenir important, être fier’, Te gänna ‘dépasser la mesure, être impétueux, arrogant’, Tña gänänä ‘être heureux’, Amh gännänä ‘être abondant, prendre de la force, augmenter’, Gur gännänä ‘être très grand’, genä ‘grand’, ? Gaf gunnä ‘bon’. – Ar ǧanā ‘cueillir (fruits)’, DaṯAr ‘déposer le miel cueilli (abeilles)’, Sab gtnn ‘récolter, moissonner’, ? Gz gʷanʔa ‘battre le blé, entasser les gerbes’, Gur ǧäññä ‘récolter le miel’. -4 ? Akk genû ‘heurter? encorner?’. – nHbr ginnā ‘faire honte, blâmer’, gᵊnay, gᵊnūt ‘honte’, mᵊgunnē ‘laid’, JP ʔitgannē, ʔiggannē ‘être objet de honte, être repoussant’, gēnāʔā ‘laid’, Syr gannī, Mnd ganī ‘blâmer, injurier’, Syr gūnāyā, Mnd gunia ‘honte, déshonneur’; Ar ǧanā ‘commettre un crime, outrager’, taǧannā ‘accuser faussement’, ǧaniyyaẗ, ǧināyaẗ ‘faute, crime’; Tña gənay ‘laid’, Te gənay ‘fausse couche, avorton, monstre’. -5 Akk ginû ‘sacrifice rituel’, Mnd ginia ‘sacrifices, offrandes aux idoles’, ? Gz ganāwi ‘prêtre sacrificateur des idoles’, gannawa ‘fabriquer une idole, servir l’idole’. -?6 Palm gny: génie, divinité; Ar ǧinn, ǧinniyy, Mhr gənnāy, Ḥrs génni, Jib gənní, Gz gānen, Te Tña Amh Gur ganen ‘djinn, génie, démon’, Te gənni ‘esprit mauvais qui provoque l’hystérie chez les femmes’. – Ar ǧānn: genre de serpent, serpent-démon; ǧunūn ‘folie, fureur, possession par les esprits’, Soq n-gnn ‘être, devenir fou’, Mhr šǧunûn ‘être possédé’, Ḥrs yann ‘folie, sottise’. -7 ? Tña gʷänäyä ‘couper’, ? Har gäña ‘jeter’, ? Gur (ta)ginna, (ta)ḫ’änʔa ‘traverser’. -8 Akk ganūn-, ganīn-, ginīn-: grande salle (dans un temple, un palais), nHbr gᵊnūn, ginnūn, JP gᵊnānā, Syr gᵊnūnā, Mnd gnana ‘chambre nuptiale, baldaquin de noces’. -9 ʕOmAr yūniyyaẗ, Ḥrs yūnīyet, Mhr gényet, Jib gúnét, Soq gúnyeh ‘sac’. -10 Gz ganəʔ/ʕ, Tña gänʔi, Te gänəʔ, Amh Gur gan, Har gān ‘grande jarre’. -11 Gz ganetā, gānetā ‘jument’, Amh gañña, geñña ‘mauvais cheval, rosse’, Gur gäñä ‘jument’. -12 Te gäno ‘peau, cuir’, Tña gʷəno ‘ustensile de cuir’. -13 Akk gann-: organe ou partie du corps d’un animal. – ? Te genne: pièce de viande de bœuf constituée par la partie située entre les pattes antérieures, cal sur la poitrine du chameau, ? gono, goro: nom d’une pièce de viande. -14 Amh gʷänn, Gur gʷän ‘côté du corps, endroit, côté’, Gaf gʷanä ‘côte, vertèbre’. -15 Amh gʷanä ‘partir vers le haut (balle), bondir, rebondir’; -16 Akk gunn- ‘élite, troupe d’élite’. -17 Akk ginn-: estampille sur l’argent. -18 ganūn- (ou k/qanūn- ?): poids ou lingot. -19 Gur gən ‘jour, temps’. -20 gunnān/r ‘tête, chevelure’. -21 gən, gənn ‘nain’. -22 Gz Tña Amh gennā, Te Gur gänna ‘Noël’. – Har gänna ‘saison des pluies’. -23 Gz genaya ‘fuir’.
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▪ Engl jinni ↗ Ar ǧinn
– 
ǧann‑ / ǧanan‑ جنن 
ID 170 • Sw – • BP 5402 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦNː (ǦNN) 
vb., I 
1 to cover, hide, conceal, veil (ʕalà s.th.); 2 to descend, fall, be or become dark (night); 3 pass. ǧunna: to be or become possessed, insane, mad, crazy – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 3 (1993) #GNʔ/W/Y/N-2 Akk ganānu, kanānu ‘enfermer, confiner’; nPun *gn ‘couvrir’, Hbr gānan, nHbr hāgēn, EmpAram gnn, JP gᵊnan, ʔaggēn, ChrPal, ? Palm ʔgn, Syr gann ‘protéger; habiter’, gᵊnā ‘se cacher; être loin’; Mnd gnuna ‘accouplement (de chiens)’; Ar ǧanna ‘envelopper, couvrir’, SAr gnʔ ‘entourer d’un mur’, Jib egnï̀ʔ ‘protéger du froid’, gúnẹʔ, Mhr gōna ‘abrité, chaud’, həgnē ‘réchauffer’; – Ar ǧanna ‘être enveloppé (foetus dans l’utérus)’, ǧanīn ‘embryon’, Gz ganin, Te ǧənā ‘foetus, enfant nouveau-né’. – Pun ʔgnn, JP *gnn ‘clôture?’, Sab gnʔ ‘mur d’enceinte’, Min gnt ‘toit, couverture’, Śḥr guneʔ ‘endroit abrité’. – WSem *gann- ‘jardin’: Akk gann-, ? gannat- ‘jardin potager?’; Ug gn, Hbr gan, gannā, Pal *gnn ‘enclos’, EmpAram gn, Nab *gnh, JP ginnᵊtā, Syr Mnd ginta, Sab gnt. – Syr gannᵊtā, Ar ǧannaẗ, Mhr gənnēt, Jib gẹ́nt, Ḥrs gənnét, Amh gannat ‘jardin, Paradis’; Mhr gənnét, Jib gént, Ḥrs gennét, Soq gínnəh, Te gänna, Te Tña ǧännät, Amh gannat ‘Paradis’. – Ar ǧanan, muǧnaʔaẗ ‘tombe’, maǧannaẗ, DaṯAr maǧannaẗ, YemAr mgannaẗ, Mhr meǧennet; Jib migént, Soq mgə́nnəh ‘cimetière’. – Akk maginn-, Ug *mgn, Hbr māgēn, JP mᵊginnā, Syr mᵊgennā, Mnd ginia, Ar miǧann(aẗ), muǧnāʔ ‘bouclier’.
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ǧinn جِنّ 
ID 167 • Sw – • BP 3617 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦNː (ǦNN) 
n. 
jinn, demons (invisible beings, either harmful or helpful, that interfere with the lives of mortals) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
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DRS 3 (1993) #GNʔ/W/Y/N-5 Akk ginû ‘sacrifice rituel’, Mnd ginia ‘sacrifices, offrandes aux idoles’, ? Gz ganāwi ‘prêtre sacrificateur des idoles’, gannawa ‘fabriquer une idole, servir l’idole’. -?6 Palm gny: génie, divinité; Ar ǧinn, ǧinniyy, Mhr gənnāy, Ḥrs génni, Jib gənní, Gz gānen, Te Tña Amh Gur ganen ‘djinn, génie, démon’, Te gənni ‘esprit mauvais qui provoque l’hystérie chez les femmes’. – Ar ǧānn: genre de serpent, serpent-démon; ǧunūn ‘folie, fureur, possession par les esprits’, Soq n-gnn ‘être, devenir fou’, Mhr šǧunûn ‘être possédé’, Ḥrs yann ‘folie, sottise’.
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▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl jinni, from Ar ǧinnī ‘demonic, demon’, from ǧinn ‘demons’ (< *‘invisible beings’), from ǧanna ‘to cover, hide, conceal’. 
 
ǧannaẗ جَنَّة 
ID 168 • Sw – • BP 984 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦNː (ǦNN) 
n.f. 
1 garden; 2 paradise – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ From WSem *√GNN ‘to cover, surround’ – Huehnergard2011.
DRS 3 (1993) #GNʔ/W/Y/N-2 WSem *gann‑ ‘jardin’.
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DRS 3 (1993) #GNʔ/W/Y/N-2 Akk ganānu, kanānu ‘enfermer, confiner’; nPun *gn ‘couvrir’, Hbr gānan, nHbr hāgēn, EmpAram gnn, JP gᵊnan, ʔaggēn, ChrPal, ? Palm ʔgn, Syr gann ‘protéger; habiter’, gᵊnā ‘se cacher; être loin’; Mnd gnuna ‘accouplement (de chiens)’; Ar ǧanna ‘envelopper, couvrir’, SAr gnʔ ‘entourer d’un mur’, Jib egnï̀ʔ ‘protéger du froid’, gúnẹʔ, Mhr gōna ‘abrité, chaud’, həgnē ‘réchauffer’; – Ar ǧanna ‘être enveloppé (foetus dans l’utérus)’, ǧanīn ‘embryon’, Gz ganin, Te ǧənā ‘foetus, enfant nouveau-né’. – Pun ʔgnn, JP *gnn ‘clôture?’, Sab gnʔ ‘mur d’enceinte’, Min gnt ‘toit, couverture’, Śḥr guneʔ ‘endroit abrité’. – WSem *gann- ‘jardin’: Akk gann-, ? gannat- ‘jardin potager?’; Ug gn, Hbr gan, gannā, Pal *gnn ‘enclos’, EmpAram gn, Nab *gnh, JP ginnᵊtā, Syr Mnd ginta, Sab gnt. – Syr gannᵊtā, Ar ǧannaẗ, Mhr gənnēt, Jib gẹ́nt, Ḥrs gənnét, Amh gannat ‘jardin, Paradis’; Mhr gənnét, Jib gént, Ḥrs gennét, Soq gínnəh, Te gänna, Te Tña ǧännät, Amh gannat ‘Paradis’. – Ar ǧanan, muǧnaʔaẗ ‘tombe’, maǧannaẗ, DaṯAr maǧannaẗ, YemAr mgannaẗ, Mhr meǧennet; Jib migént, Soq mgə́nnəh ‘cimetière’. – Akk maginn-, Ug *mgn, Hbr māgēn, JP mᵊginnā, Syr mᵊgennā, Mnd ginia, Ar miǧann(aẗ), muǧnāʔ ‘bouclier’.
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maǧnūn مَجْنُون 
ID 169 • Sw – • BP 2308 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦNː (ǦNN) 
¹adj.; ²n. 
1a adj., possessed, obsessed; b/b> insane, mad; c n., madman, maniac, lunatic; d adj., crazy, cracked; e n., crackpot; f adj., foolish; g n., fool – WehrCowan1979. 
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▪ See ↗ǧanna.
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ǦNʔ جنأ 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 18Oct2022
√ǦNʔ 
“root” 
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ǦNB جنب 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 23Oct2022
√ǦNB 
“root” 
▪ ǦNB_1 ‘to avert, ward off (from s.o. s.th.)’ ↗ǧanaba
▪ ǦNB_2 ‘side’ ↗ǧanb, ↗ǧānib
▪ ǦNB_3 ‘in a state of major ritual impurity; not belonging to the tribe, not a kinsman’ ↗ǧunub
▪ ǦNB_4 ‘foreign(er), alien’ ↗ʔaǧnabī
▪ ǦNB_5 ‘(title of respect)’ ↗ǧanāb
▪ ǦNB_6 ‘pleurisy’ ↗ǧunāb
▪ ǦNB_7 ‘south’ ↗ǧanūb
▪ ǦNB_ ‘…’ ↗¹²

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘side, part, the great part; partner, neighbour; to put to one side, avoid, disdain, ward off’ 
DRS 3 (1993) #GNB-1: from protSem *ganb‑ ‘côté’ | SED I #85: *ganb- ‘side and back of torso’.
▪ Prob. related to ‘side’ is the value ‘to steal’ (not represented in Ar): from NWSem *√GNB ‘to steal’ – Huehnergard2011.
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DRS 3 (1993) #GNB-1 prot Sem *ganb- ‘côté’: oAram gb, Palm gbʔ, Syr gabbā, Mnd gamba, ganba; Ar ǧanb; Mhr Jib ganb, Ḥrs yanb, Gz gabbō, Te gäbo, ǧäm, Tña gobo ‘côté, flanc’. – YemAr ǧanb, ǧamb ‘épaule’. – Mnd ganpa ‘aile, voile’. – nHbr ginnēb ‘se tenir derrière, éloigné’, JP gannēb ‘prendre une voie détournée, faire des circonlocutions’, Ar ǧanaba ‘s’éloigner, s’écarter en se mettant de côté’, ǧaniba ‘boiter’, Sab gnb ‘être à côté’, Mhr gátnəb ‘mettre qn à l’écart’, Jib šəgníb ‘pouvoir être attaché à l’autre (chameau)’, Jib gúnúb, Mhr gáynəb ‘ne pas aimer son petit et ne pas lui donner de lait (chamelle)’, Te gänbä, gämbä ‘ne pas donner de lait (vache)’, ʔätgämba ‘chasser, faire fuir’, təgämba ‘courir’, gənbəya ‘manière de courir du chameau qui lance les pattes de côté’, (tə)ǧännäbä ‘marcher lentement, à son rythme’. – Pun gnb, Hbr gānab, YaAram Palm Mnd *gnb, JP Syr gᵊnab, nSyr gāniw ‘voler, commettre un larcin’; Hbr gannāb, oAram *gnb, EmpAram gnb ‘voleur’, JP gannäbä, Mnd ganaba. – Mnd ganib, ganiba ‘impur, isolé en raison de son impureté, banni’; Ar ǧunub ‘étranger; récalcitrant; en état d’impureté légale’, YemAr aǧnabī ‘enfant naturel, illégitime’, Mhr əgtənōb, Jib əgténíb ‘avoir une éjaculation nocturne’. – Te gänab, gunub ‘faute, délit’. – Ar ǧanūb ‘sud’. – Ar ǧanbaẗ ‘pot, vase en cuir pour traire le lait’, Gz gənbāt ‘outre de cuir’, Te ganobät ‘peau, cuir’, Tña gänbo, gämbo ‘vase pour la bière’, Amh gänbo, gämbo, Gur gämba, gämbo ‘vase d’argile’. – Ar ǧanbiyyaẗ, Mhr jənbə́yyət, Ḥrs yənbī́yet, Soq gembíeh, Jib gimbít ‘poignard, dague portée à la taille’. – Mhr gənbēt ‘pleurésie, pollution nocturne, sperme, rhume’, Jib gi͗nẹ́b ‘pleurésie; rhume’. -2 Gz ganaba, Amh Arg gännäbä, Gur ginnäbä ‘construire un mur de pierre’, Amh Arg gənb ‘mur de pierre’. -3 Gz Tña Amh Gur gənbot: nom du 9ème mois (mai). -4 Te genb ‘ânesse’. -5 Jib mignẹ́b ‘matelas fait de cuir de vache’, Te gänobät ‘peau’, gänbät, gämbät ‘couverture sous la selle’. -6 JP gunbā, gunbᵊtā ‘queue’. -7 DaṯAr ǧanab ‘aboyer’.
▪ Zammit2002: Hbr gānab ‘to steal’, postBiblHbr ginnēb ‘to keep behind’, Pun gnb ‘to steal’, oAram gb ‘side’, TargAram gᵊnab ‘to steal’, gannēb ‘to keep behind, go round about’, Syr gabbā ‘side’, gᵊnab ‘to steal’, SAr gnb ‘to be or fight on the side of, for s.o.’, Ar ǧanb ‘side’, ǧanaba ‘to turn aside; to avoid’, Gz gabō ‘latus’
SED I #85: Ug gb ‘lomo, dorso’; Hbr gab ‘back’, postBiblHbr ‘body, esp. back’ (< *gabb-, poss. < *ganb-); AncPalm gb ‘side’, BiblAram gab ‘Seite’, JudAram gabbā ‘back, body’; cf. gōb, gūb, det. gubbā ‘body, trunk’, and gōnəbā, gənubtā ‘tail’, Syr gabbā, st.abs. and constr. ge(n)b ‘latus’, Mnd gamba, ganba ‘flank, side, border’; cf. also guba ‘body, trunk; thickness’; derived verbs in SAr: Sab gnb ‘to be beside s.th.’, Min gnb ‘se trouver à côté de qn/qc’; Ar ǧanb ‘côté’; Gz gabo ‘side, flank, rib, loins’,78 Te gäbo ‘side’79 , Tña gobo ‘fianco’, Enn gupa ‘height of body, stature’, Gye gʷəpa ‘height’ (all < *gubba, with a meaning shift ‘side; back; body’ > ‘height of body, stature’); Mhr ganb, gənbēt, Ḥrṣ yanb, Jib ganb ‘side’ (all perh. Arabisms).
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ǧanab- جَنَبَ , u 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 23Oct2022
√ǦNB 
vb., I 
to avert, ward off (from s.o. s.th.) – WehrCowan1976 
▪ Based on (denom.?), or at least related to, ↗ǧanb.
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DRS 3 (1993) #GNB-1 prot Sem *ganb- ‘côté’: oAram gb, Palm gbʔ, Syr gabbā, Mnd gamba, ganba; Ar ǧanb; Mhr Jib ganb, Ḥrs yanb, Gz gabbō, Te gäbo, ǧäm, Tña gobo ‘côté, flanc’. – YemAr ǧanb, ǧamb ‘épaule’. – Mnd ganpa ‘aile, voile’. – nHbr ginnēb ‘se tenir derrière, éloigné’, JP gannēb ‘prendre une voie détournée, faire des circonlocutions’, Ar ǧanaba ‘s’éloigner, s’écarter en se mettant de côté’, ǧaniba ‘boiter’, Sab gnb ‘être à côté’, Mhr gátnəb ‘mettre qn à l’écart’, Jib šəgníb ‘pouvoir être attaché à l’autre (chameau)’, Jib gúnúb, Mhr gáynəb ‘ne pas aimer son petit et ne pas lui donner de lait (chamelle)’, Te gänbä, gämbä ‘ne pas donner de lait (vache)’, ʔätgämba ‘chasser, faire fuir’, təgämba ‘courir’, gənbəya ‘manière de courir du chameau qui lance les pattes de côté’, (tə)ǧännäbä ‘marcher lentement, à son rythme’. – Pun gnb, Hbr gānab, YaAram Palm Mnd *gnb, JP Syr gᵊnab, nSyr gāniw ‘voler, commettre un larcin’; Hbr gannāb, oAram *gnb, EmpAram gnb ‘voleur’, JP gannäbä, Mnd ganaba. – Mnd ganib, ganiba ‘impur, isolé en raison de son impureté, banni’; Ar ǧunub ‘étranger; récalcitrant; en état d’impureté légale’, YemAr aǧnabī ‘enfant naturel, illégitime’, Mhr əgtənōb, Jib əgténíb ‘avoir une éjaculation nocturne’. – Te gänab, gunub ‘faute, délit’. – Ar ǧanūb ‘sud’. – Ar ǧanbaẗ ‘pot, vase en cuir pour traire le lait’, Gz gənbāt ‘outre de cuir’, Te ganobät ‘peau, cuir’, Tña gänbo, gämbo ‘vase pour la bière’, Amh gänbo, gämbo, Gur gämba, gämbo ‘vase d’argile’. – Ar ǧanbiyyaẗ, Mhr jənbə́yyət, Ḥrs yənbī́yet, Soq gembíeh, Jib gimbít ‘poignard, dague portée à la taille’. – Mhr gənbēt ‘pleurésie, pollution nocturne, sperme, rhume’, Jib gi͗nẹ́b ‘pleurésie; rhume’. -2 Gz ganaba, Amh Arg gännäbä, Gur ginnäbä ‘construire un mur de pierre’, Amh Arg gənb ‘mur de pierre’. -3 Gz Tña Amh Gur gənbot: nom du 9ème mois (mai). -4 Te genb ‘ânesse’. -5 Jib mignẹ́b ‘matelas fait de cuir de vache’, Te gänobät ‘peau’, gänbät, gämbät ‘couverture sous la selle’. -6 JP gunbā, gunbᵊtā ‘queue’. -7 DaṯAr ǧanab ‘aboyer’.
▪ Zammit2002: Hbr gānab ‘to steal’, postBiblHbr ginnēb ‘to keep behind’, Pun gnb ‘to steal’, oAram gb ‘side’, TargAram gᵊnab ‘to steal’, gannēb ‘to keep behind, go round about’, Syr gabbā ‘side’, gᵊnab ‘to steal’, SAr gnb ‘to be or fight on the side of, for s.o.’, Ar ǧanb ‘side’, ǧanaba ‘to turn aside; to avoid’, Gz gabō ‘latus’
SED I #85: Ug gb ‘lomo, dorso’; Hbr gab ‘back’, postBiblHbr ‘body, esp. back’ (< *gabb-, poss. < *ganb-); AncPalm gb ‘side’, BiblAram gab ‘Seite’, JudAram gabbā ‘back, body’; cf. gōb, gūb, det. gubbā ‘body, trunk’, and gōnəbā, gənubtā ‘tail’, Syr gabbā, st.abs. and constr. ge(n)b ‘latus’, Mnd gamba, ganba ‘flank, side, border’; cf. also guba ‘body, trunk; thickness’; derived verbs in SAr: Sab gnb ‘to be beside s.th.’, Min gnb ‘se trouver à côté de qn/qc’; Ar ǧanb ‘côté’; Gz gabo ‘side, flank, rib, loins’,80 Te gäbo ‘side’81 , Tña gobo ‘fianco’, Enn gupa ‘height of body, stature’, Gye gʷəpa ‘height’ (all < *gubba, with a meaning shift ‘side; back; body’ > ‘height of body, stature’); Mhr ganb, gənbēt, Ḥrṣ yanb, Jib ganb ‘side’ (all perh. Arabisms).
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ǧannaba, vb. II, to keep away, avert, ward off (from s.o. s.th.), keep s.o. out of the way of (s.th.), spare (s.o. s.th.): D-stem, ints.
ǧānaba, vb. III, 1a to be or walk by s.o.’s side; b to run alongside of (s.th.), run parallel to (s.th.), skirt, flank (s.th.); 2 to avoid (s.th.): L-stem, assoc.
taǧannaba, vb. V, 1 to avoid (s.th., s.o.); 2 to keep away (s.o. from), steer clear, get out of the way (of): tD-stem, self-ref.
taǧānaba, vb. VI, = V: tL-stem
ĭǧtanaba, vb. VIII, 1 = V; 2 to be at the side of (s.th.), run side by side with (s.th.), run alongside of (s.th.), skirt, flank (s.th.): Gt-stem, intr., self-ref.

BP#1984ǧanb, pl. ǧunūb, ʔaǧnāb, n., 1 side: the etymon proper?; 2 ǧanbᵃ, prep., beside, next to, near, at | ǧanbᵃⁿ ʔilà ǧanb, also ǧanbᵃⁿ li-ǧanb, adv., side by side; baynᵃ ǧanbay-h, adv., inside (it), within; mā baynᵃ ǧanbay-h, expr., what it contains, comprises, its contents; ʕalà ǧanbⁱ…, prep., aside, apart; ḏāt al-ǧanb, n.f., pleurisy
ǧanbaẗ, pl. ǧanabāt, n.f., 1 side; 2 region, area: n.un. of ǧanb ?| fī ǧanabāti-h, adv., in it, within, inside; ḍamma-hū bayna ǧanabāti-h, to comprise, hold, contain s.th.; ǧanabāt al-ġurfaẗ, nonhum.pl., the whole room; bayna ǧanabāt al-ġurfaẗ, adv., in (the middle of) the room; zāḫir al-ǧanabāt, adj., crammed, chock-full, brimful, filled to overflowing or bursting
ǧanbī, adj., lateral, side (adj.): nsb-adj., from ǧanb
ǧunub, adj., 1 in a state of major ritual impurity; 2 not belonging to the tribe, not a kinsman | al-ǧār al-ǧunub, n., the neighbor not belonging to the family
ǧanāb, adj. (title of respect), 1 approx.: Right Honorable; 2 ǧanābu-kum, Your Honor; 3 you (polite form)
ǧanābaẗ, n.f., major ritual impurity (Isl. Law)
ǧunāb (= ḏāt al-ǧanb), n., pleurisy
BP#416ǧanūb, n., adj., 1 south; 2 ǧanūbᵃⁿ, adv., southward, to the south
BP#1279ǧanūbī, adj., southern: nsb-adj., from ǧanūb | ǧanūbī ʔifrīqiyā, n., South Africa
BP#208ǧānib, pl. ǧawānibᵘ, n., 1a side; b lateral portion; c sidepiece; 2a flank; b wing; c face (geom.); 3a part, portion, partial amount; b partial view, section (min of a scene, picture or panorama); 4a quantity, amount; b a certain number (min of), a few, some | min ǧānibi-h, expr., on his part; min ǧānib… min ǧānibi ʔāḫar, on the one hand… on the other hand…; ʔilà ǧānibi-h, 1 to him, to his address; 2 at his (its) side, next to him (it); bi-ǧānibi-h, beside him (it), next to him (it); ʔilà ǧānibⁱ… and bi-ǧānibⁱ…, prep., 1 side by side with; 2 in addition to; 3 apart from, aside from; waḍaʕa-hū ǧānibᵃⁿ, to put s.th. aside; to leave s.th. aside, omit s.th.; fī ǧānibⁱ…, prep., 1 in comparison with, as compared with, as against; 2 regarding, with regard to; mā bayna ǧawānibi-him, expr., their hearts; ǧānibā l-fam, n.du., the corners of the mouth; ǧānibᵘⁿ min…, 1a a considerable, or certain, degree of; b a considerable amount of, a good deal of; ǧānibᵘⁿ kabīrᵘⁿ min, n., a great deal of, a large portion of; huwa ʕalà ǧānibⁱⁿ kabīrⁱⁿ min, expr., he is very ...; kāna ʕalà ǧānibⁱⁿ ʕaẓīmⁱⁿ min al-karam, to be very generous; ʕalà ǧānibⁱⁿ ʕaẓīmⁱⁿ min al-ʔahammiyyaẗ, of great importance; ʕalà ʔaʕẓamⁱ ǧānibⁱ l-ḫuṭūraẗ, of utmost importance, of greatest significance; fī kullⁱ ǧānib, adv., everywhere, on all sides; ḫafaḍa la-hū ǧānibu-h, vb., 1 to show o.s. condescending, affable or gracious to s.o.; 2 to meet s.o. on fair terms; ʔamina ǧāniba-h, vb., to be safe from s.o.; lam ʔuʕir-hu ǧānibᵃ ĭhtimām, expr., I paid not the least attention to him; ḫāfa (rahiba, hāba) ǧāniba-h, vb., to fear s.o., be afraid of s.o.; milk al-ǧānib, n., crown lands; ǧānib al-mīrī, n., fisc, treasury (EgAr); layyin al-ǧānib, adj., 1 gentle; 2 docile, tractable, compliant; līn al-ǧānib, n., gentleness; raḥb al-ǧānib, adj., 1 roomy; 2 spacious, unconfined; raqīq al-ǧānib, adj., friendly, amiable, gentle; marhūb al-ǧānib, adj., feared, dreaded; ʕazīz al-ǧānib, adj., powerful, mighty, strong; ʕizzaẗ al-ǧānib, n.f., power; mahīb al-ǧānib, adj., dreaded, respected; fī ǧānib al-dār, expr., 1 about the house, all over the house; 2 often fī ǧānibi-h = fī-h
BP#3452ǧānibī, adj., lateral, side, by- (in compounds): nsb-adj., from ǧānib
BP#723ʔaǧnabī, 1 adj., foreign, alien; 2 n., pl. -ūn, ʔaǧānibᵘ, foreigner, alien | al-bilād al-ʔaǧnabiyyaẗ, non-hum.pl., the foreign countries, the outside world; firqaẗ al-ʔaǧānib, n.f., the Foreign Legion
EgAr ǧannābiyyaẗ, pl. -āt, n.f., 1 curb; 2 embankment, levee; 3 side channel, lateral (following a road or railroad tracks); 4 bypass (of a lock or sluice)
BP#3109taǧannub, n., avoidance: vn. V
ĭǧtināb, n., avoidance: vn. VIII
muǧannibaẗ, n.f., flank, wing (of an army): PA II

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ǧanb, ↗ǧānib, ↗ǧunub, ↗ʔaǧnabī, ↗ǧanāb, ↗ǧunāb, and ↗ǧanūb, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ǦNB.
 
ǧanb جَنْب , pl. ǧunūb, ʔaǧnāb 
ID – • Sw – • BP 1984 • APD … • © SG | 23Oct2022
√ǦNB 
n. 
1 side; 2 ǧanbᵃ, prep., beside, next to, near, at – WehrCowan1976 
DRS 3 (1993) #GNB-1: from protSem *ganb‑ ‘côté’ | SED I #85: *ganb- ‘side and back of torso’.
▪ Prob. related to ‘side’ is the value ‘to steal’ (not represented in Ar, but rather widespread in Can): from NWSem *√GNB ‘to steal’ – Huehnergard2011.
▪ the etymon proper for the whole root, or deverb. from ganaba, vb. I?
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DRS 3 (1993) #GNB-1 prot Sem *ganb- ‘côté’: oAram gb, Palm gbʔ, Syr gabbā, Mnd gamba, ganba; Ar ǧanb; Mhr Jib ganb, Ḥrs yanb, Gz gabbō, Te gäbo, ǧäm, Tña gobo ‘côté, flanc’. – YemAr ǧanb, ǧamb ‘épaule’. – Mnd ganpa ‘aile, voile’. – nHbr ginnēb ‘se tenir derrière, éloigné’, JP gannēb ‘prendre une voie détournée, faire des circonlocutions’, Ar ǧanaba ‘s’éloigner, s’écarter en se mettant de côté’, ǧaniba ‘boiter’, Sab gnb ‘être à côté’, Mhr gátnəb ‘mettre qn à l’écart’, Jib šəgníb ‘pouvoir être attaché à l’autre (chameau)’, Jib gúnúb, Mhr gáynəb ‘ne pas aimer son petit et ne pas lui donner de lait (chamelle)’, Te gänbä, gämbä ‘ne pas donner de lait (vache)’, ʔätgämba ‘chasser, faire fuir’, təgämba ‘courir’, gənbəya ‘manière de courir du chameau qui lance les pattes de côté’, (tə)ǧännäbä ‘marcher lentement, à son rythme’. – Pun gnb, Hbr gānab, YaAram Palm Mnd *gnb, JP Syr gᵊnab, nSyr gāniw ‘voler, commettre un larcin’; Hbr gannāb, oAram *gnb, EmpAram gnb ‘voleur’, JP gannäbä, Mnd ganaba. – Mnd ganib, ganiba ‘impur, isolé en raison de son impureté, banni’; Ar ǧunub ‘étranger; récalcitrant; en état d’impureté légale’, YemAr aǧnabī ‘enfant naturel, illégitime’, Mhr əgtənōb, Jib əgténíb ‘avoir une éjaculation nocturne’. – Te gänab, gunub ‘faute, délit’. – Ar ǧanūb ‘sud’. – Ar ǧanbaẗ ‘pot, vase en cuir pour traire le lait’, Gz gənbāt ‘outre de cuir’, Te ganobät ‘peau, cuir’, Tña gänbo, gämbo ‘vase pour la bière’, Amh gänbo, gämbo, Gur gämba, gämbo ‘vase d’argile’. – Ar ǧanbiyyaẗ, Mhr jənbə́yyət, Ḥrs yənbī́yet, Soq gembíeh, Jib gimbít ‘poignard, dague portée à la taille’. – Mhr gənbēt ‘pleurésie, pollution nocturne, sperme, rhume’, Jib gi͗nẹ́b ‘pleurésie; rhume’. -2 Gz ganaba, Amh Arg gännäbä, Gur ginnäbä ‘construire un mur de pierre’, Amh Arg gənb ‘mur de pierre’. -3 Gz Tña Amh Gur gənbot: nom du 9ème mois (mai). -4 Te genb ‘ânesse’. -5 Jib mignẹ́b ‘matelas fait de cuir de vache’, Te gänobät ‘peau’, gänbät, gämbät ‘couverture sous la selle’. -6 JP gunbā, gunbᵊtā ‘queue’. -7 DaṯAr ǧanab ‘aboyer’.
▪ Zammit2002: Hbr gānab ‘to steal’, postBiblHbr ginnēb ‘to keep behind’, Pun gnb ‘to steal’, oAram gb ‘side’, TargAram gᵊnab ‘to steal’, gannēb ‘to keep behind, go round about’, Syr gabbā ‘side’, gᵊnab ‘to steal’, SAr gnb ‘to be or fight on the side of, for s.o.’, Ar ǧanb ‘side’, ǧanaba ‘to turn aside; to avoid’, Gz gabō ‘latus’
SED I #85: Ug gb ‘lomo, dorso’; Hbr gab ‘back’, postBiblHbr ‘body, esp. back’ (< *gabb-, poss. < *ganb-); AncPalm gb ‘side’, BiblAram gab ‘Seite’, JudAram gabbā ‘back, body’; cf. gōb, gūb, det. gubbā ‘body, trunk’, and gōnəbā, gənubtā ‘tail’, Syr gabbā, st.abs. and constr. ge(n)b ‘latus’, Mnd gamba, ganba ‘flank, side, border’; cf. also guba ‘body, trunk; thickness’; derived verbs in SAr: Sab gnb ‘to be beside s.th.’, Min gnb ‘se trouver à côté de qn/qc’; Ar ǧanb ‘côté’; Gz gabo ‘side, flank, rib, loins’,82 Te gäbo ‘side’83 , Tña gobo ‘fianco’, Enn gupa ‘height of body, stature’, Gye gʷəpa ‘height’ (all < *gubba, with a meaning shift ‘side; back; body’ > ‘height of body, stature’); Mhr ganb, gənbēt, Ḥrṣ yanb, Jib ganb ‘side’ (all perh. Arabisms).
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ǧanbᵃⁿ ʔilà ǧanb, also ǧanbᵃⁿ li-ǧanb, adv., side by side;
baynᵃ ǧanbay-h, adv., inside (it), within;
mā baynᵃ ǧanbay-h, expr., what it contains, comprises, its contents;
ʕalà ǧanbⁱ…, prep., aside, apart;
ḏāt al-ǧanb, n.f., pleurisy

ǧanaba, u, vb. I, to avert, ward off (from s.o. s.th.): G-stem, denom. from ǧanb (?)
ǧannaba, vb. II, to keep away, avert, ward off (from s.o. s.th.), keep s.o. out of the way of (s.th.), spare (s.o. s.th.): D-stem, ints.
ǧānaba, vb. III, 1a to be or walk by s.o.’s side; b to run alongside of (s.th.), run parallel to (s.th.), skirt, flank (s.th.); 2 to avoid (s.th.): L-stem, assoc.
taǧannaba, vb. V, 1 to avoid (s.th., s.o.); 2 to keep away (s.o. from), steer clear, get out of the way (of): tD-stem, self-ref.
taǧānaba, vb. VI, = V: tL-stem
ĭǧtanaba, vb. VIII, 1 = V; 2 to be at the side of (s.th.), run side by side with (s.th.), run alongside of (s.th.), skirt, flank (s.th.): Gt-stem, intr., self-ref.

ǧanbaẗ, pl. ǧanabāt, n.f., 1 side; 2 region, area: n.un. of ǧanb ?| fī ǧanabāti-h, adv., in it, within, inside; ḍamma-hū bayna ǧanabāti-h, to comprise, hold, contain s.th.; ǧanabāt al-ġurfaẗ, nonhum.pl., the whole room; bayna ǧanabāt al-ġurfaẗ, adv., in (the middle of) the room; zāḫir al-ǧanabāt, adj., crammed, chock-full, brimful, filled to overflowing or bursting
ǧanbī, adj., lateral, side (adj.): nsb-adj., from ǧanb
ǧunub, adj., 1 in a state of major ritual impurity; 2 not belonging to the tribe, not a kinsman | al-ǧār al-ǧunub, n., the neighbor not belonging to the family
ǧanāb, adj. (title of respect), 1 approx.: Right Honorable; 2 ǧanābu-kum, Your Honor; 3 you (polite form)
ǧanābaẗ, n.f., major ritual impurity (Isl. Law)
ǧunāb (= ḏāt al-ǧanb), n., pleurisy
BP#416ǧanūb, n., adj., 1 south; 2 ǧanūbᵃⁿ, adv., southward, to the south
BP#1279ǧanūbī, adj., southern: nsb-adj., from ǧanūb | ǧanūbī ʔifrīqiyā, n., South Africa
BP#208ǧānib, pl. ǧawānibᵘ, n., 1a side; b lateral portion; c sidepiece; 2a flank; b wing; c face (geom.); 3a part, portion, partial amount; b partial view, section (min of a scene, picture or panorama); 4a quantity, amount; b a certain number (min of), a few, some | min ǧānibi-h, expr., on his part; min ǧānib… min ǧānibi ʔāḫar, on the one hand… on the other hand…; ʔilà ǧānibi-h, 1 to him, to his address; 2 at his (its) side, next to him (it); bi-ǧānibi-h, beside him (it), next to him (it); ʔilà ǧānibⁱ… and bi-ǧānibⁱ…, prep., 1 side by side with; 2 in addition to; 3 apart from, aside from; waḍaʕa-hū ǧānibᵃⁿ, to put s.th. aside; to leave s.th. aside, omit s.th.; fī ǧānibⁱ…, prep., 1 in comparison with, as compared with, as against; 2 regarding, with regard to; mā bayna ǧawānibi-him, expr., their hearts; ǧānibā l-fam, n.du., the corners of the mouth; ǧānibᵘⁿ min…, 1a a considerable, or certain, degree of; b a considerable amount of, a good deal of; ǧānibᵘⁿ kabīrᵘⁿ min, n., a great deal of, a large portion of; huwa ʕalà ǧānibⁱⁿ kabīrⁱⁿ min, expr., he is very ...; kāna ʕalà ǧānibⁱⁿ ʕaẓīmⁱⁿ min al-karam, to be very generous; ʕalà ǧānibⁱⁿ ʕaẓīmⁱⁿ min al-ʔahammiyyaẗ, of great importance; ʕalà ʔaʕẓamⁱ ǧānibⁱ l-ḫuṭūraẗ, of utmost importance, of greatest significance; fī kullⁱ ǧānib, adv., everywhere, on all sides; ḫafaḍa la-hū ǧānibu-h, vb., 1 to show o.s. condescending, affable or gracious to s.o.; 2 to meet s.o. on fair terms; ʔamina ǧāniba-h, vb., to be safe from s.o.; lam ʔuʕir-hu ǧānibᵃ ĭhtimām, expr., I paid not the least attention to him; ḫāfa (rahiba, hāba) ǧāniba-h, vb., to fear s.o., be afraid of s.o.; milk al-ǧānib, n., crown lands; ǧānib al-mīrī, n., fisc, treasury (EgAr); layyin al-ǧānib, adj., 1 gentle; 2 docile, tractable, compliant; līn al-ǧānib, n., gentleness; raḥb al-ǧānib, adj., 1 roomy; 2 spacious, unconfined; raqīq al-ǧānib, adj., friendly, amiable, gentle; marhūb al-ǧānib, adj., feared, dreaded; ʕazīz al-ǧānib, adj., powerful, mighty, strong; ʕizzaẗ al-ǧānib, n.f., power; mahīb al-ǧānib, adj., dreaded, respected; fī ǧānib al-dār, expr., 1 about the house, all over the house; 2 often fī ǧānibi-h = fī-h
BP#3452ǧānibī, adj., lateral, side, by- (in compounds): nsb-adj., from ǧānib
BP#723ʔaǧnabī, 1 adj., foreign, alien; 2 n., pl. -ūn, ʔaǧānibᵘ, foreigner, alien | al-bilād al-ʔaǧnabiyyaẗ, non-hum.pl., the foreign countries, the outside world; firqaẗ al-ʔaǧānib, n.f., the Foreign Legion
EgAr ǧannābiyyaẗ, pl. -āt, n.f., 1 curb; 2 embankment, levee; 3 side channel, lateral (following a road or railroad tracks); 4 bypass (of a lock or sluice)
BP#3109taǧannub, n., avoidance: vn. V
ĭǧtināb, n., avoidance: vn. VIII
muǧannibaẗ, n.f., flank, wing (of an army): PA II

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ǧanaba, ↗ǧānib, ↗ǧunub, ↗ʔaǧnabī, ↗ǧanāb, ↗ǧunāb, and ↗ǧanūb, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ǦNB.
 
ǧānib جانِب , pl. ǧawānibᵘ 
ID – • Sw – • BP 208 • APD … • © SG | 23Oct2022
√ǦNB 
n. 
1a side; b lateral portion; c sidepiece; 2a flank; b wing; c face (geom.); 3a part, portion, partial amount; b partial view, section (min of a scene, picture or panorama); 4a quantity, amount; b a certain number (min of), a few, some – WehrCowan1976 
▪ Var. of ↗ǧanb, related to ↗ǧanaba.
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
▪ ↗ǧanb.
▪ …
 
▪ …
 

 
min ǧānibi-h, expr., on his part; min ǧānib… min ǧānibi ʔāḫar, on the one hand… on the other hand…;
ʔilà ǧānibi-h, 1 to him, to his address; 2 at his (its) side, next to him (it);
bi-ǧānibi-h, beside him (it), next to him (it);
ʔilà ǧānibⁱ… and bi-ǧānibⁱ…, prep., 1 side by side with; 2 in addition to; 3 apart from, aside from;
waḍaʕa-hū ǧānibᵃⁿ, to put s.th. aside; to leave s.th. aside, omit s.th.;
fī ǧānibⁱ…, prep., 1 in comparison with, as compared with, as against; 2 regarding, with regard to;
mā bayna ǧawānibi-him, expr., their hearts;
ǧānibā l-fam, n.du., the corners of the mouth;
ǧānibᵘⁿ min…, 1a a considerable, or certain, degree of; b a considerable amount of, a good deal of;
ǧānibᵘⁿ kabīrᵘⁿ min, n., a great deal of, a large portion of; huwa ʕalà ǧānibⁱⁿ kabīrⁱⁿ min, expr., he is very ...; kāna ʕalà ǧānibⁱⁿ ʕaẓīmⁱⁿ min al-karam, to be very generous; ʕalà ǧānibⁱⁿ ʕaẓīmⁱⁿ min al-ʔahammiyyaẗ, of great importance; ʕalà ʔaʕẓamⁱ ǧānibⁱ l-ḫuṭūraẗ, of utmost importance, of greatest significance;
fī kullⁱ ǧānib, adv., everywhere, on all sides;
ḫafaḍa la-hū ǧānibu-h, vb., 1 to show o.s. condescending, affable or gracious to s.o.; 2 to meet s.o. on fair terms;
ʔamina ǧāniba-h, vb., to be safe from s.o.;
lam ʔuʕir-hu ǧānibᵃ ĭhtimām, expr., I paid not the least attention to him;
ḫāfa (rahiba, hāba) ǧāniba-h, vb., to fear s.o., be afraid of s.o.;
milk al-ǧānib, n., crown lands; ǧānib al-mīrī, n., fisc, treasury (EgAr);
layyin al-ǧānib, adj., 1 gentle; 2 docile, tractable, compliant; līn al-ǧānib, n., gentleness;
raḥb al-ǧānib, adj., 1 roomy; 2 spacious, unconfined;
raqīq al-ǧānib, adj., friendly, amiable, gentle;
marhūb al-ǧānib, adj., feared, dreaded;
ʕazīz al-ǧānib, adj., powerful, mighty, strong; ʕizzaẗ al-ǧānib, n.f., power;
mahīb al-ǧānib, adj., dreaded, respected;
fī ǧānib al-dār, expr., 1 about the house, all over the house; 2 often fī ǧānibi-h = fī-h

ǧanaba, u, vb. I, to avert, ward off (from s.o. s.th.): G-stem, denom. from ǧanb (?)
ǧannaba, vb. II, to keep away, avert, ward off (from s.o. s.th.), keep s.o. out of the way of (s.th.), spare (s.o. s.th.): D-stem, ints.
ǧānaba, vb. III, 1a to be or walk by s.o.’s side; b to run alongside of (s.th.), run parallel to (s.th.), skirt, flank (s.th.); 2 to avoid (s.th.): L-stem, assoc.
taǧannaba, vb. V, 1 to avoid (s.th., s.o.); 2 to keep away (s.o. from), steer clear, get out of the way (of): tD-stem, self-ref.
taǧānaba, vb. VI, = V: tL-stem
ĭǧtanaba, vb. VIII, 1 = V; 2 to be at the side of (s.th.), run side by side with (s.th.), run alongside of (s.th.), skirt, flank (s.th.): Gt-stem, intr., self-ref.

BP#3452ǧānibī, adj., lateral, side, by- (in compounds): nsb-adj., from ǧānib
BP#3109taǧannub, n., avoidance: vn. V
ĭǧtināb, n., avoidance: vn. VIII
muǧannibaẗ, n.f., flank, wing (of an army): PA II

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ǧanaba, ↗ǧanb, ↗ǧunub, ↗ʔaǧnabī, ↗ǧanāb, ↗ǧunāb, and ↗ǧanūb, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ǦNB.
 
ǧunub جُنُب 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 23Oct2022
√ǦNB 
adj. 
1 in a state of major ritual impurity; 2 not belonging to the tribe, not a kinsman – WehrCowan1976 
▪ Based on ↗ǧanb and ↗ǧanaba.
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
▪ ↗ǧanb.
▪ …
 
▪ …
 

 
al-ǧār al-ǧunub, n., the neighbor not belonging to the family

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ǧanaba, ↗ǧanb, ↗ǧānib, ↗ʔaǧnabī, ↗ǧanāb, ↗ǧunāb, and ↗ǧanūb, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ǦNB.
 
ʔaǧnabī أَجْنَبِيّ , pl. -ūn, ʔaǧānibᵘ 
ID 171 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 723 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 23Oct2022
√ǦNB, ʔǦNB 
¹adj.; ²n. 
1a foreign, alien; b pl. ‑ūn, ʔaǧānibᵘ, foreigner, alien – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Based on ↗ǧanb and ↗ǧanaba.
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
▪ ↗ǧanb.
▪ …
 
▪ …
 

 
al-bilād al-ʔaǧnabiyyaẗ, non-hum.pl., the foreign countries, the outside world;
firqaẗ al-ʔaǧānib, n.f., the Foreign Legion

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ǧanaba, ↗ǧanb, ↗ǧānib, ↗ǧunub, ↗ǧanāb, ↗ǧunāb, and ↗ǧanūb, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ǦNB.
 
ǧanāb جَناب 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 23Oct2022
√ǦNB 
n. 
(title of respect), 1 approx.: Right Honorable; 2 ǧanābu-kum, Your Honor; 3 you (polite form)
– WehrCowan1976 
▪ Based on, or at least related to, ↗ǧanb and ↗ǧanaba.
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
▪ ↗ǧanb.
▪ …
 
▪ …
 

 

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ǧanaba, ↗ǧanb, ↗ǧānib, ↗ǧunub, ↗ʔaǧnabī, ↗ǧunāb, and ↗ǧanūb, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ǦNB.
 
ǧunāb جُناب 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 23Oct2022
√ǦNB 
n. 
(= ḏāt al-ǧanb) pleurisy – WehrCowan1976 
▪ Related to ↗ǧanb and/or ↗ǧanaba.
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
▪ ↗ǧanb.
▪ …
 
▪ …
 

 

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ǧanaba, ↗ǧanb, ↗ǧānib, ↗ǧunub, ↗ʔaǧnabī, ↗ǧanāb, and ↗ǧanūb, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ǦNB.
 
ǧanūb جَنوب 
ID – • Sw – • BP 416 • APD … • © SG | 23Oct2022
√ǦNB 
n. 
1 south; 2 ǧanūbᵃⁿ, adv., southward, to the south – WehrCowan1976 
▪ Based on, or at least related to, ↗ǧanb.
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
▪ ↗ǧanb.
▪ …
 
▪ …
 

 
BP#1279ǧanūbī, adj., southern: nsb-adj., from ǧanūb | ǧanūbī ʔifrīqiyā, n., South Africa

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ǧanaba, ↗ǧanb, ↗ǧānib, ↗ǧunub, ↗ʔaǧnabī, ↗ǧanāb, and ↗ǧunāb, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ǦNB.
 
ǦNḤ جنح 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 13Apr2023, last update 21May2023
√ǦNḤ 
“root” 
▪ ǦNḤ_1 ‘side’ ↗ǧinḥ, ‘wing; side, flank’ ↗ǧanāḥ, ‘to incline, tend to, lean toward; to strand (ship)’ ↗ǧanaḥa
▪ ǦNḤ_2 ‘darkness, gloom’ ↗ǧunḥ
▪ ǦNḤ_3 ‘misdemeanor; sin’ ↗ǧunāḥ
▪ ǦNḤ_4 ‘rib; bosom, heart, soul’ ↗ǧāniḥaẗ

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘wings of a bird; side; arm, hand; to lean on, tilt, incline, go over, turn away; error, crime, harm’. 
▪ [gnrl] : Ultimately, almost all values in √ǦNḤ seem to go back to the same etymon ([v3] may be a borrowing from Pers). Militarev&Kogan2005 (SED I #86) concede that attestation in Sem is very scarce (only Ar and Soq, where it may be an Arabism); nevertheless, they believe that it is reasonable to postulate Sem *ganaḥ- ‘chest with upper arm/wing’, meanly due to extra-Sem (Eg) evidence. (See below, sections COGN and DISC.) If their assumption is valid, the authors may be right in reconstructing AfrAs *g˅n˅ḥ- ‘arm/leg; wing’.
▪ [v1],[v4] : If Militarev&Kogan2005 are right, the original meaning (Sem *‘chest with upper arm/wing’) has been reduced in Ar to either ‘wing’ (ǧinḥ) or ‘rib’ (ǧāniḥaẗ), each producing new derived values, such as ‘side, flank’ (> ǧanaḥa ‘to lean toward, tend to’, denom.) and ‘bosom, heart, soul’ (fig. use).
▪ [v2] : The semantic connection betw. ǧunḥ ‘darkness, gloom’ and the basic notions as found in [v1] and [v4] remains somewhat unclear. Prob., [v2] is derived from one of them. However, one should perh. not exclude fig. use of [v3] either.
▪ [v3] : Following Jeffery1938, ǧunāḥ ‘misdemeanor; sin’ is usually regarded as a borrowing from Pers gonāh. If from Pers, final instead of h will have arisen due to possible association with √ǦNḤ; after all, the value ‘misdemeanor; sin’ can easily be imagined as fig. use of ǧanaḥa ‘to incline’ > ‘to incline to the wrong side, deviate from the right path’. Cf., however, the fact that DRS classifies the item neither as a borrowing nor as belonging to ‘wing’ etc., but as forming a distinct group together with some Syr and EthSem items.
▪ [v4] : While the meaning ‘rib’ is a reduction of the original *‘chest with upper arm/wing’, the spiritual meaning ‘bosom, heart, soul’ is clearly fig. use of the latter.
▪ … 
▪ [gnrl] : DRS 3 (1993) #GNḤ-1 JudPalAram gannaḥ ‘couper’. -2 [with Engl accord. to Leslau2006 (CDG)] Akk ganāḫu ‘to have a fit of coughing’, postBiblHbr gānaḥ ‘to groan, moan’, Syr gᵊnaḥ ‘s’étonner, admirer’, gūnḥā ‘stupeur, crainte, calamité’, Ar ǧunāḥ ‘méfait, faute’; reproche | reproach, remonstrance’, Gz ganḥa ‘être orgueilleux et violent | to behave impetuously, arrogantly, get angry, speak vehemently, reprimand’, gənāḥ ‘orgueil, violence | vehemence, haughtiness, rebuke, reprimand, scolding’, Te gänḥä ‘voir, observer; négliger’, gənḥät ‘regard, observation’, perh. Te təganḥa ‘to show o.s. > be proud > behave impetously’, Tña gänḥe ‘faire des reproches, améliorer | to get angry, make reproaches’. -3 Ar ǧanāḥ ‘aile, bord, côté’, ǧinḥ ‘bord, côté’, ǧunḥ ‘crépuscule’, ǧanaḥa ‘(se) pencher, s’incliner, décliner’, Jib génaḥ ‘aile’, Mhr agonəḥ ‘voler’, Soq ganḥ ‘côté’.
▪ [v1],[v4] : MilitarevKogan2005 (SED II) #86: Ar ǧanāḥ, ǧāniḥaẗ, Soq ganḥ. | Outside Sem: Eg ḏnḥ (Pyr) ‘wing’, (18th Dyn) ‘leg or part of it’. Also related may be certain terms meaning ‘hand/arm’, ‘foot/leg’ and ‘wing’ in those Cush, Omot and Chad languages which do not differenciate between AfrAs *-ḥ and * and are usually united under AfrAs *ga/in(a)ʕ- ‘hand’; the last may be eventually related to the present entry as a variant root.
▪ ... 
▪ MilitarevKogan2005 (SED II) #86: Reconstruction of Sem etymon is questionable. Anatomic terms valid for comparison are scarcely attested only in Ar and Soq where it can be an Ar loan. Cf. Mhr agōnəḥ ‘to fly’, likely related; Jib gɛ́naḥ ‘wing’ is an Arabism, according to Johnstone. The protSem reconstruction is, however, supported by the existence of an AfrAs (Eg) parallel.
▪ ... 
ǧanaḥ‑ جَنَحَ , a (ǧunūḥ)
 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 13Apr2023, last update 21May2023
√ǦNḤ 
vb., I 
1a to incline, be inclined, tend (li‑, ʔilà to); b to lean (li‑, ʔilà to, toward); c to turn, go over (ʔilà to), join (ʔilà s.th.), associate o.s. (ʔilà with); 2 to strand (ʕalà, ʔilà on a coast; ship); 3a to diverge, deviate, depart (ʕan from); b to turn away (ʕan from), break (ʕan with) – WehrCowan1976
 
▪ The vb. I ǧanaḥa is prob. denom. from ↗ǧinḥ ‘side’ for which Militarev&Kogan2005 suggest (with some reluctance) Sem *ganaḥ- ‘chest with upper arm/wing’ as protSem origin (< AfrAs *g˅n˅ḥ- ‘arm/leg; wing’).
▪ …
 
▪ ↗ǧinḥ
▪ ...
 
▪ A connection betw. ǧanaḥa and ↗ǧunḥ ‘darkness, gloom’ is not impossible though semantically problematic.
▪ ↗ǧunāḥ ‘misdemeanor; sin’ is usually regarded as a borrowing from Pers gonāh (with final *-h > -ḥ, perh. due to association with √ǦNḤ, as a ‘misdemeanor; sin’ can easily be imagined as fig. use of ǧanaḥa ‘to incline’ > ‘to incline to the wrong side, deviate from the right path, go astray’).
▪ ...
 
ʔaǧnaḥa, vb. IV, 1a to incline, be inclined, tend (li‑, ʔilà to); b to lean (li‑, ʔilà to, toward); c to turn (li‑, ʔilà to s.th.); 2 to strand (ship): *Š-stem, (?) denom., from ǧinḥ or ǧanāḥ

ǧunḥaẗ, pl. ǧunaḥ, n.f., misdemeanor (jur., less than a felony, ǧināyaẗ, and more than an infraction, ↗muḫālafaẗ)
ǧunāḥ, n., 1a misdemeanor (jur.); b sin | lā ǧunāḥᵃ ʕalayh ʔin... it won’t be held against him if he... ; it won't do any harm if he...
ʔaǧnaḥᵘ, adj., more inclined (ʔilà to): elat. formation
ǧanūḥ, adj., inclined (ʔilà to s.th.)
ǧunūḥ, n., inclination, leaning, bent, tendency (ʔilà to): vn. I

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ǧinḥ, ↗ǧunḥ, ↗ǧanāḥ, ↗ǧunāḥ, and ↗ǧāniḥaẗ, as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗ǦNḤ.
 
ǧinḥ جِنْح
 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 13Apr2023, last update 21May2023
√ǦNḤ 
n.
 
1 side; 2 var. of ↗ǧunḥ – WehrCowan1976
 
▪ [v1] Ar ǧinḥ ‘side’ is a reflexion of a Sem word that Militarev&Kogan2005 (SED I #86) reconstruct (with some reluctance) as Sem *ganaḥ- ‘chest with upper arm/wing’ (< AfrAs *g˅n˅ḥ- ‘arm/leg; wing’). If their hypothesis is valid, ǧinḥ can be seen as the result of a semantic reduction and generalisation, orig. meaning *‘side of the chest where an arm/wing is’. The *‘wing’ component of the Sem etymon lives on in ↗ǧanāḥ ‘wing’, while *‘chest’ is still present in ↗ǧāniḥaẗ ‘rib; bosom’. The vb. I ↗ǧanaḥa ‘to lean toward, tend to’ is prob. denom. from ǧinḥ.
▪ [v2] : ǧinḥ sometimes also is exchangeable with ↗ǧunḥ ‘darkness, gloom’, perh. due to lexicalisation of frequent fig. expressions like fī ǧunḥ al-layl ‘in the dark of night, under cover of night’ (< *‘under the wings of the night’) or bayna ǧunḥay al-karà, lit. ‘between the two halves (*‘sides’) of slumber’, i.e., ‘at night when everyone’s asleep’.
▪ …
 
DRS 3 (1993) #GNḤ-1-2 .... -3 Ar ǧanāḥ ‘aile, bord, côté’, ǧinḥ ‘bord, côté’, ǧunḥ ‘crépuscule’, ǧanaḥa ‘(se) pencher, s’incliner, décliner’, Jib génaḥ ‘aile’, Mhr agonəḥ ‘voler’, Soq ganḥ ‘côté’.
▪ MilitarevKogan2005 (SED II) #86: Ar ǧanāḥ, ǧāniḥaẗ, Soq ganḥ. | Outside Sem: Eg ḏnḥ (Pyr) ‘wing’, (18th Dyn) ‘leg or part of it’. Also related may be certain terms meaning ‘hand/arm’, ‘foot/leg’ and ‘wing’ in those Cush, Omot and Chad languages which do not differenciate between AfrAs *-ḥ and * and are usually united under AfrAs *ga/in(a)ʕ- ‘hand’; the last may be eventually related to the present entry as a variant root.
▪ ... 
▪ MilitarevKogan2005 (SED II) #86: Reconstruction of Sem etymon is questionable. Anatomic terms valid for comparison are scarcely attested only in Ar and Soq where it can be an Ar loan. Cf. Mhr agōnəḥ ‘to fly’, likely related; Jib gɛ́naḥ ‘wing’ is an Arabism, according to Johnstone. The protSem reconstruction is, however, supported by the existence of an AfrAs (Eg) parallel.
▪ ... 
ǧanaḥa, a (ǧunūḥ), vb., I, 1a to incline, be inclined, tend (li‑, ʔilà to); b to lean (li‑, ʔilà to, toward); c to turn, go over (ʔilà to), join (ʔilà s.th.), associate o.s. (ʔilà with); 2 to strand (ʕalà, ʔilà on a coast; ship); 3a to diverge, deviate, depart (ʕan from); b to turn away (ʕan from), break (ʕan with)
ʔaǧnaḥa, vb. IV, 1a to incline, be inclined, tend (li‑, ʔilà to); b to lean (li‑, ʔilà to, toward); c to turn (li‑, ʔilà to s.th.); 2 to strand (ship): *Š-stem, (?) denom., from ǧinḥ or ǧanāḥ

ʔaǧnaḥᵘ, adj., more inclined (ʔilà to): elat. formation
ǧanūḥ, adj., inclined (ʔilà to s.th.)
ǧunūḥ, n., inclination, leaning, bent, tendency (ʔilà to): vn. I
ǧāniḥ, n., side, flank, wing
ǧāniḥaẗ, pl. ǧawāniḥᵘ, n.f., 1 rib; 2 (pl. also:) bosom, heart, soul | bayna ǧawāniḥī, in my bosom, at heart; ṭafarat ǧawāniḥu-hā, she became happily excited, she trembled with joy

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ǧanaḥa, ↗ǧunḥ, ↗ǧanāḥ, ↗ǧunāḥ, and ↗ǧāniḥaẗ, as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗ǦNḤ.
 
ǧunḥ جُنْح , var. ǧinḥ 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 13Apr2023, last update 21May2023
√ǦNḤ 
n.
 
darkness, gloom – WehrCowan1976
 
▪ It seems that ǧunḥ ‘darkness, gloom’ belongs to ↗ǧinḥ ‘side’ (with which it sometimes is exchangeable) and ↗ǧanāḥ ‘wing; side, flank’, perh. as a result of lexicalisation of frequent fig. expressions like fī ǧunḥ al-layl ‘in the dark of night, under cover of night’ (< *‘under the wings of the night’) or bayna ǧunḥay al-karà, lit. ‘between the two halves (*‘sides’) of slumber’, i.e., ‘at night when everyone’s asleep’. Such an etymology is supported by DRS where ǧunḥ ‘crépuscule | dawn, dusk’ is treated as belonging to the same group as ǧinḥ etc. – For the latter’s etymology, see ↗s.v.
▪ … 
DRS 3 (1993) #GNḤ-1-2 .... -3 Ar ǧanāḥ ‘aile, bord, côté’, ǧinḥ ‘bord, côté’, ǧunḥ ‘crépuscule’, ǧanaḥa ‘(se) pencher, s’incliner, décliner’, Jib génaḥ ‘aile’, Mhr agonəḥ ‘voler’, Soq ganḥ ‘côté’.
▪ See also ↗ǧinḥ.
▪ ...
 
▪ ...
 
fī ǧunḥ al-layl, expr., in the dark of night, under cover of night;
bayna ǧunḥay al-karà, expr., lit.: between the two halves of slumber, i.e., at night when everyone’s asleep

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ǧanaḥa, ↗ǧinḥ, ↗ǧanāḥ, ↗ǧunāḥ, and ↗ǧāniḥaẗ, as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗ǦNḤ.
 
ǧanāḥ جَناح , pl. ʔaǧniḥaẗ, ʔaǧnuḥ
 
ID – • Sw – • BP 2000 • APD … • © SG | 13Apr2023, last update 21May2023
√ǦNḤ 
n. 
1 wing (of a bird, of an airplane, of a building, of an army); 2a side; b flank – WehrCowan1976
 
▪ Ar ǧanāḥ ‘wing; side, flank’ is a reflexion of a Sem word that Militarev&Kogan2005 (SED I #86) reconstruct (with some reluctance) as Sem *ganaḥ- ‘chest with upper arm/wing’ (< AfrAs *g˅n˅ḥ- ‘arm/leg; wing’). If their reconstruction is valid, ǧanāḥ has preserved one of the aspects of the Sem etymon (in [v1] ‘wing’) while the notion of ‘chest’ underwent semantic change, becoming *‘side of the chest where an arm/wing is’, then finally [v2] ‘side, flank’. In contrast, original *‘chest’ lives on in ↗ǧāniḥaẗ ‘rib; bosom’.
▪ …
 
DRS 3 (1993) #GNḤ-1-2 .... -3 Ar ǧanāḥ ‘aile, bord, côté’, ǧinḥ ‘bord, côté’, ǧunḥ ‘crépuscule’, ǧanaḥa ‘(se) pencher, s’incliner, décliner’, Jib génaḥ ‘aile’, Mhr agonəḥ ‘voler’, Soq ganḥ ‘côté’.
▪ MilitarevKogan2005 (SED II) #86: Ar ǧanāḥ, ǧāniḥaẗ, Soq ganḥ. | Outside Sem: Eg ḏnḥ (Pyr) ‘wing’, (18th Dyn) ‘leg or part of it’. Also related may be certain terms meaning ‘hand/arm’, ‘foot/leg’ and ‘wing’ in those Cush, Omot and Chad languages which do not differenciate between AfrAs *-ḥ and * and are usually united under AfrAs *ga/in(a)ʕ- ‘hand’; the last may be eventually related to the present entry as a variant root.
 
▪ MilitarevKogan2005 (SED II) #86: Reconstruction of Sem etymon is questionable. Anatomic terms valid for comparison are scarcely attested only in Ar and Soq where it can be an Ar loan. Cf. Mhr agōnəḥ ‘to fly’, likely related; Jib gɛ́naḥ ‘wing’ is an Arabism, according to Johnstone. The protSem reconstruction is, however, supported by the existence of an AfrAs (Eg) parallel.
 
ʔanā fī ǧanāḥi-h, expr., I am under his protection;
ʕalà ǧanāḥ al-ʔaṯīr, expr., over the ether, by radio;
ʕalà ǧanāḥ al-surʕaẗ, expr., with winged haste

ǧannaḥa, vb. II, to provide (s.th.) with wings, lend wings (to s.th.): D-stem, denom. from ǧanāḥ
ǧāniḥ, n., side, flank, wing
muǧannaḥ, adj., winged: PP II, denom. from ǧinḥ or ǧāniḥ

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ǧanaḥa, ↗ǧinḥ, ↗ǧunḥ, ↗ǧunāḥ, and ↗ǧāniḥaẗ, as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗ǦNḤ.
 
ǧunāḥ جُناح
 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 18Oct2022, last updated 23May2023
√ǦNḤ 
n. 
1a misdemeanor (jur.); b sin – WehrCowan1976
 
▪ Cheung2017rev: prob. a direct borrowing from early nPers gunāh ‘id.’. For details, see below, section DISC.
▪ Following Jeffery1938 (see below, section DISC), ǧunāḥ ‘misdemeanor; sin’ is usually regarded as a borrowing from Pers gonāh. If from Pers, the emphatisation -h > -ḥ may have arisen due to possible association with ↗ǧanaḥa; after all, the value ‘misdemeanor; sin’ can easily be imagined as fig. use of ‘to incline, lean towards’ > ‘to incline to the wrong side, deviate from the right path’. Cf., however, the fact that DRS classifies the item neither as a borrowing nor as belonging to ‘wing’ etc., but as forming a distinct group together with some Syr and EthSem items.
▪ …
 
▪ eC7 (‘sin, wrong, crime’) Q 5:93, 33:55:5, 51, 55, etc. (25 occurrences), e.g.,1 (sin, crime; blame, censure, discordance) Q 4:128 wa-ʔini mraʔaẗun ḫāfat min baʕli-hā nušūzan ʔaw ʔiʕrāḍan fa-lā ǧunāḥa ʕalay-himā ʔan yuṣliḥā bayna-humā ṣulḥan ‘and if a-woman experiences discordance or alienation from her husband, there is no blame on them if they agree between them on a settlement’; 2 (jur., financial obligations) Q 2:236 lā ǧunāḥa ʕalay-kum ʔin ṭallaqtumu n-nisāʔa mā lam tamassū-hunna ʔaw tafriḍū la-hunna farīḍaẗan ‘there are no financial obligations on you if you divorce women unless you have touched them or have appointed a dowry for them’
▪ ...
 
DRS 3 (1993) #GNḤ-1 .... -2 [with Engl accord. to Leslau2006 (CDG)] Akk ganāḫu ‘to have a fit of coughing’, postBiblHbr gānaḥ ‘to groan, moan’, Syr gᵊnaḥ ‘s’étonner, admirer’, gūnḥā ‘stupeur, crainte, calamité’, Ar ǧunāḥ ‘méfait, faute’; reproche | reproach, remonstrance’, Gz ganḥa ‘être orgueilleux et violent | to behave impetuously, arrogantly, get angry, speak vehemently, reprimand’, gənāḥ ‘orgueil, violence | vehemence, haughtiness, rebuke, reprimand, scolding’, Te gänḥä ‘voir, observer; négliger’, gənḥät ‘regard, observation’, perh. Te təganḥa ‘to show o.s. > be proud > behave impetously’, Tña gänḥe ‘faire des reproches, améliorer | to get angry, make reproaches’. – ?Cf. also 3 Ar ǧanāḥ ‘aile, bord, côté’, ǧinḥ ‘bord, côté’, ǧunḥ ‘crépuscule’, ǧanaḥa ‘(se) pencher, s’incliner, décliner’, Jib génaḥ ‘aile’, Mhr agonəḥ ‘voler’, Soq ganḥ ‘côté’?
▪ Cf. perh. also ↗ǧinḥ.
▪ ...
 
▪ Jeffery1938: »A favourite Madina word, occuring only in late passages. The favourite phrase is lā ǧunāḥᵃ ʕalà, and it is used as a technical term in Muḥammad’s religious legislation.131 – The Lexicons give no satisfactory explanation of the word, though they apparently treat it as a genuine Ar formation. As Hübschmann showed in 1895 in his Persische Studien, 162, 212, it is the Pers gunāh,132 through the Pazend gunāh (Shikand, Glossary, 247) from Phlv vinās,133 a ‘crime’ or ‘sin’ (as is obvious from the Arm vnas = [Grk] ʰamártēma in the old Bible translation),134 and the fact that venāh still occurs in one of the Pers dialects as a direct descendant from the Phlv vinās,135 which is related to Skr vināša and is quite a good Indo-European word. In Phlv the word is used technically just as in the Qurʔān, and we find such combinations as avinās ‘sinless’ (PPGl, 77); vināskārīh ‘sinfulness, iniquity’ (West, Glossary, 248); and vināskār ‘a criminal, sinner’ (PPGl, 225).136 – The word was borrowed in the pre-Islamic period and occurs in the old poetry, e.g., in the Muʕallaqa of al-Ḥārith, 70, etc., and was doubtless adopted directly into Arabic from the spoken Persian of the period, for the word is not found in Syriac.«
▪ According to Nişanyan_1Jul2021, Tu günah ‘crime, guilt’ too is based on Pers gunāh ‘guilt’ < mPers vināh or vinās ‘id.’ < oPers vi-nath ‘damage’ (with protIran prefix vi ). Syr gunāyā ‘guilt, crime’ < oPers; cf. Ar ↗ǧināyaẗ (> Tu cinayet). Arm vnas ‘damage’ < mPers ‘damage’. mPers vināskār > Arm vnasagar = Pers gunahkār > Tu günahkâr ‘guilty’
▪ ...
 
▪ Not from Ar ǧunāḥ but prob. from the same source is Tu günah: 1303 [Codex Cumanicus] Lat culpa – Pers guna – Tu günah yazuk | Lat culpabilis – Pers guna kar – Tu yazuklamiş günahkâr. | 1317 [Gülşehri, Manṭıḳu'ṭ-Ṭayr] biz perişānuz Ġanī Perverdigār / biz günehkāruz Ġafūr Âmürzigār. | 1330 [Aşık Paşa, Ġarīb-nāme] yavuz işden ḥāṣıl oldı çok günāh – Nişanyan_1Jul2021
▪ ...
 
lā ǧunāḥᵃ ʕalay-hi ʔin ..., expr., it won’t be held against him if he ... ; it won't do any harm if he ...
ǧunḥaẗ, pl. ǧunaḥ, n.f., misdemeanor (jur., less than a felony, ǧināyaẗ, and more than an infraction, ↗muḫālafaẗ)

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ǧanaḥa, ↗ǧinḥ, ↗ǧunḥ, ↗ǧanāḥ, and ↗ǧāniḥaẗ, as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗ǦNḤ.
 
ǧāniḥaẗ جانِحة , pl. ǧawāniḥᵘ
 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 13Apr2023, last update 21May2023
√ǦNḤ 
n.f.
 
1 rib; 2 (pl. also:) bosom, heart, soul – WehrCowan1976
 
▪ Ar ǧāniḥaẗ ‘rib; bosom, heart, soul’ is a reflexion of a Sem word that Militarev&Kogan2005 (SED I #86) reconstruct (with some reluctance) as Sem *ganaḥ- ‘chest with upper arm/wing’ (< AfrAs *g˅n˅ḥ- ‘arm/leg; wing’). If their reconstruction is valid, ǧāniḥaẗ has preserved one of the aspects of the Sem etymon (*‘chest’ > [v2] ‘bosom’, hence also [v1] ‘rib’) while *‘arm/wing’ lives on in ↗ǧanāḥ ‘arm/wing is’ (hence also ‘side, flank’).
▪ …
 
DRS 3 (1993) #GNḤ-1-2 .... -3 Ar ǧanāḥ ‘aile, bord, côté’, ǧinḥ ‘bord, côté’, ǧunḥ ‘crépuscule’, ǧanaḥa ‘(se) pencher, s’incliner, décliner’, Jib génaḥ ‘aile’, Mhr agonəḥ ‘voler’, Soq ganḥ ‘côté’.
▪ MilitarevKogan2005 (SED II) #86: Ar ǧanāḥ, ǧāniḥaẗ, Soq ganḥ. | Outside Sem: Eg ḏnḥ (Pyr) ‘wing’, (18th Dyn) ‘leg or part of it’. Also related may be certain terms meaning ‘hand/arm’, ‘foot/leg’ and ‘wing’ in those Cush, Omot and Chad languages which do not differenciate between AfrAs *-ḥ and * and are usually united under AfrAs *ga/in(a)ʕ- ‘hand’; the last may be eventually related to the present entry as a variant root.
 
▪ MilitarevKogan2005 (SED II) #86: Reconstruction of Sem etymon is questionable. Anatomic terms valid for comparison are scarcely attested only in Ar and Soq where it can be an Ar loan. Cf. Mhr agōnəḥ ‘to fly’, likely related; Jib gɛ́naḥ ‘wing’ is an Arabism, according to Johnstone. The protSem reconstruction is, however, supported by the existence of an AfrAs (Eg) parallel.
▪ ... 
bayna ǧawāniḥī, expr., in my bosom, at heart
ṭafarat ǧawāniḥu-hā, expr., she became happily excited, she trembled with joy

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ǧanaḥa, ↗ǧinḥ, ↗ǧunḥ, ↗ǧanāḥ, and ↗ǧunāḥ, as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗ǦNḤ.
 
ǦND جند 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 19Oct2022
√ǦND 
“root” 
▪ ǦND_1 ‘soldiers, army’ ↗ǧund
▪ ǦND_ ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘troops, forces, host, army; helpers, supporters; thick rocky land; to enlist a fighting force, to muster’ 
▪ ǦND_1 : prob. via Aram (so Jeffery1938) from the same oPers etymon from which is Pers kund ‘courageous, brave, strong’, gundāvar ‘combattant’, from Skr kunthah ‘raw; strong; hero’, IE *kund- ‘raw/brutal, strong, massive, rude’ – Rolland2014.
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
– (loanword) 
▪ …
 
– 
– 
ǧund جُنْد , pl. ǧunūd, ʔaǧnād 
ID – • Sw – • BP 4277 • APD … • © SG | 23Oct2022, last updated 11Apr2023
√ǦND 
n.m/f. 
1a soldiers; b army – WehrCowan1976
 
▪ Rolland2014a: prob. via Aram (so Jeffery1938) from the same oPers etymon from which also Pers kund ‘courageous, brave, strong’ and gundāvar ‘combattant’ are derived; these from Skr kunthah ‘raw; strong; hero’, IE *kund- ‘raw/brutal, strong, massive, rude’.
▪ Cheung2017(rev): ultimately of Ir origin, but prob. borrowed indirectly, via EmpAram or dialAram (*)gund. For details, see below, section DISC.
▪ …
 
eC7 (‘host, army, troop, force’) Q: Some twenty-nine times, in various forms, cf. ii, 250; ix, 26, etc.
▪ …
 
– 
▪ Jeffery1938: »The word has no verbal root in Arabic, the verbs ǧannada ‘to levy troops’ and taǧannada ‘to be enlisted’ being obviously denominative, as indeed is evident from the treatment of the word in the Lexicons (cf. LA, iv, 106). / It is clearly an Iranian borrowing through Aram as Fraenkel, Vocab, 13, notes, on the authority of Lagarde, GA, 24.137 Phlv gund, meaning an ‘army’ or ‘troop’,138 is related to Skr vṛinda139 and was borrowed on the one hand into Arm gund ‘army’140 and Kurdish ǧwnd ‘village’, and on the other into Aram where we find the gwndʔ of the Bab.Talmud, the Mnd gwndʔ (Nöldeke, Mand. Gramm. 75), and, with suppression of the weak n, in Syr gūdā. The word may possibly have come into Arabic directly from the Iranian, but the probabilities are that it was through Aram.141 In any case it was an early borrowing, for the word is found in the old poetry, e.g. in al-ʔAʕšà (Geyer, Zwei Gedichte, i, 24 = Dīwān, i, 56) and ʕAlqamaẗ.« ▪ …
 
– 
ǧund al-ḫalāṣ, Salvation Army

ǧannada, vb. II, 1 to draft, conscript, enlist, recruit (mil.); 2 to mobilize (an army, ʕalà against): D-stem, denom.
taǧannada, vb. V, to be drafted, be conscripted, be enlisted (for military service): tD-stem, denom., self-ref.

BP#654ǧundī, n., pl. ǧunūd, soldier, private: nominalized nsb-adj. | ǧundī ʔawwal, private first class (lr., Syr.); ǧundī mustaǧidd, recruit (Ir., Syr.); al-ǧundī al-maǧhūl, the Unknown Soldier
ǧundiyyaẗ, n.f., 1 military affairs; 2 the army, the military; 3 military service: abstr. formation in -iyyaẗ
taǧnīd, n., 1 draft, enlistment (mil.); 2a recruitment; b mobilization: vn. II | al-taǧnīd al-ʔiǧbārī, military conscription
taǧannud, n., military service: vn. V.
muǧannad, n., recruit: nominalized PP II.

 
ǦNDB جندب 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 19Oct2022
√ǦNDB 
“root” 
▪ … 
ǧundub جُنْدُب , pl. ǧanādib 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 19Oct2022
√ǦNDB 
n. 
grasshopper – WehrCowan1976 
▪ … 
ǦNZR جنزر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦNZR 
“root” 
▪ ǦNZR_1 ‘chain’ ↗ǧinzīr
▪ ǦNZR_2 ‘verdigris’ ↗ǧinzār 
▪ The whole root seems to be a metathetical var. of ↗ZNǦR. All items are of Pers origin.
 
– 
DRS #GNZR-1 Ar ǧinzīr ‘chaîne’, EAr ǧenzīr ‘corde du joug qui entoure le cou du boeuf’. -2 Ar ǧinzār ‘vert-de-gris’, ǧanzara ‘se couvrir de vert-de-gris’. -3 Te gänzärä ‘découper, vendre de la viande’, mägänzəray ‘boucher’ [»sans doute forme à dissimilation de GZR (↗ǦZR), peut-être par l’intermédiaire de l’Ar ǧazzara «]. 
▪ For the whole root cf. also (with metathesis) ↗ZNǦR, which may be the primary form.
▪ ǦNZR_1 ǧinzīr : from Pers, cf. ↗zinǧīr.
▪ ǦNZR_2 ǧinzār : from Pers ǧenǧīr (DRS). – Cf. also ↗zinǧār.
 
– 
– 
ǧinzīr جِنْزِير , pl. ǧanāzīrᵘ 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦNZR 
n. 
1 chain; track (of a caterpillar, of a tank, etc.); 2 a linear measure (= 5 qaṣaba = 17.75 m; also = 20 m; Eg .) 
▪ From Pers, see ↗zinǧīr
▪ … 
DRS #GNZR-1 Ar ǧinzīr ‘chaîne’, EAr ǧenzīr ‘corde du joug qui entoure le cou du boeuf’.
 
▪ From Pers, cf. ↗zinǧīr.
 
– 
ṭāraẗ ǧinzīr, n.f., track sprocket, sprocket wheel.

muǧanzar, n., track-laying (vehicle) 
ǧinzār جِنْزار , var. zinǧār 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦNZR 
n. 
verdigris ‒ WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Rolland2014a: zinǧār ~ ǧinzār ‘verdigris’, and zinǧafr ~ zunǧufr ‘cinnabar’, from oPers sinkadruš ‘cinnabar, mercuric sulphide’.
▪ Cf. also ↗zinǧār
▪ … 
zinǧār
zinǧār
– 
ǧanzara, vb. I, to be(come) covered with verdigris: denom.
 
ǦNS جنس 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦNS 
“root” 
▪ ǦNS_1 ‘kind, sort, variety, species; class, category; sex (m./f.); gender (gram.); race; nation’ ↗ǧins, ‘ǧinsiyyaẗ’ ↗citizenship, nationality
▪ ǦNS_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
▪ … 
– 
DRS 3 (1993) #GNS-1 Palm gns, Syr gensā, Mnd ginsa ‘genre, espèce, famille’, ginsia ‘anniversaires’, Ar ǧins ‘nation, race, espèce, genre’, Mhr gans, Jib gẹns, Te ǧens ‘sorte, espèce’; Mhr agṓnəs ‘faire changer de nationalité’, šəgēnəs ‘adopter les usages d’un autre groupe’, Jib gótnəs ‘changer de forme, de couleur, se transformer’, s̃əgíns ‘se lier d’amitié avec qn hors de son propre groupe’ ? – Gz ganās ‘rayé, tacheté, bariolé’. -2 Ar ǧanasa ‘être mûre (datte)’. -3 Ar ǧans ‘congélation de l’eau’. -4 Gz genasa ‘être pauvre, en difficulté’, genās ‘pauvreté, situation difficile’. -5 Gur guns ‘pain’.
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
ǧins جِنْس 
ID 172 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 1980 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦNS 
n. 
1a kind, sort, variety, species, class, genus; b category; 2a sex (male, female); b gender (gram.); 3a race; b nation – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 3 (1993) #GNS-1 Palm gns, Syr gensā, Mnd ginsa ‘genre, espèce, famille’, ginsia ‘anniversaires’, Ar ǧins ‘nation, race, espèce, genre’, Mhr gans, Jib gẹns, Te ǧens ‘sorte, espèce’; Mhr agṓnəs ‘faire changer de nationalité’, šəgēnəs ‘adopter les usages d’un autre groupe’, Jib gótnəs ‘changer de forme, de couleur, se transformer’, s̃əgíns ‘se lier d’amitié avec qn hors de son propre groupe’ ? – Gz ganās ‘rayé, tacheté, bariolé’.
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
… 
 
ǧinsiyyaẗ جِنْسِيَّة 
ID 173 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 1635 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦNS 
n.f. 
nationality, citizenship – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ abstr. formation in -iyyaẗ 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ǧins.
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
 
ǦNF جنف 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Mar2023
√ǦNF 
“root” 
▪ ǦNF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ǦNF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ǦNF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘hunchback, to incline, deviate, go over, be crooked, crookedness’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ǦNY جني 
Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√ǦNY 
“root” 
▪ … 
ǧināʔī جِنائيّ 
Sw – • NahḍConBP 3311 • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√ǦNY 
adj. 
▪ nsb-formation 
ǦHD جهد 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦHD 
“root” 
▪ ǦHD_1 ‘to fight’ ↗ǧahada, ‘fight, battle; jihad’ ↗ǧihād, ‘effort, pains; industry, diligence; independent judgment’ ↗ĭǧtihād, ‘freedom fighter’ ↗muǧāhid, ‘…’ ↗
▪ ǦHD_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘barren land, desert land; hardship, strive, to tire o.s., to exert o.s.; ability, capacity, exertion; to become emaciated, to squander one’s wealth’ 
▪ Huehnergard2011: Ar root √ǦHD ‘to strive’.
 
– 
DRS 2 (1994) #GHD-1 Ar ǧahada ‘s’appliquer avec zèle’, ǧāhada ‘combattre’, ǧahida ‘être pénible, dur’; ? Gz gāhd, gahād ‘jeûne de l’Epiphanie et de Noël’. – nSyr ǧāid ‘faire effort’. -2 Ar ʔaǧhada ‘apparaître, se montrer’; Gz gahada ‘être manifeste, public’; Te gähad ‘ouvert, manifeste’; Tña gähadä ‘être clair, ouvert’; Amh ba-gähad ‘clairement’. -3 Ar ǧahād: fruit de l’arak.
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ Engl jihadǧihād; mujahidmuǧāhid
– 
ǧihād جِهاد 
ID 175 • Sw – • BP 1443 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦHD 
n. 
1 fight, battle; 2 jihad, holy war (against the infidels, as a religious duty) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994) #GHD-1 Ar ǧahada ‘s’appliquer avec zèle’, ǧāhada ‘combattre’, ǧahida ‘être pénible, dur’; ? Gz gāhd, gahād ‘jeûne de l’Epiphanie et de Noël’. – nSyr ǧāid ‘faire effort’.
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl jihad, from Ar ǧihād ‘battle, holy war’, from ǧahada, vb. I, ‘to strive’ (sense prob. influenced by L-stem ǧāhada ‘to fight’). 
 
ĭǧtihād اِجْتِهاد 
ID 174 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 4724 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦHD 
n. 
1a effort, exertion, endeavor, pains, trouble; b application, industry, diligence; 2a (Isl. Law) independent judgment in a legal or theological question, based on the interpretation and application of the four ʔuṣūl, as opposed to taqlīd, q.v.; b individual judgment – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ǧihād.
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
 
muǧāhid مُجاهِد 
ID 176 • Sw – • BP 2039 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦHD 
¹adj.; ²n. 
1a fighter, freedom fighter; b warrior; c sergeant (Eg 1939) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ǧihād.
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl jihad, from Ar ↗ǧihād
 
ǦHR جهر 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Mar2023
√ǦHR 
“root” 
▪ ǦHR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ǦHR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ǦHR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘plain treeless land; the outer appearance of a person, appearance; to declare, say openly, be loud, be open, a loud voice; to be pure’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ǦHZ جهز 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦHZ 
“root” 
▪ ǦHZ_1 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ǦHZ_2 ‘equipment, outfit; apparatus, system’ ↗ǧihāz

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘equipment, gear, rig; to fit out, to prepare, to equip, to make ready; to finish off, to be quick and light-footed’ 
▪ … 
– 
DRS 2 (1994) #GHZ-1 Ar ǧahaza ‘donner le coup de grâce, achever un blessé’. -2 ǧahz ‘objets nécessaires, équipement, trousseau’.
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
ǧihāz جِهاز 
ID 177 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 338 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦHZ 
n. 
1a equipment, appliances, outfit, gear, rig; b trousseau; c contrivance, gadget; d implement, appliance, utensil; e installation, apparatus (techn.); f system, apparatus (anat.) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994) #GHZ-2 ǧahz ‘objets nécessaires, équipement, trousseau’.
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
 
ǦHL جهل 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦHL 
“root” 
▪ ǦHL_1 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ǦHL_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘ignorance, lack of knowledge, to ignore; foolishness, quick temper, to be peevish, to be rash’ 
▪ From WSem *√GHL ‘to become foolish, ignorant. – Huehnergard2011.
… 
– 
DRS 2 (1994) #GHL- 1 Syr gᵊhīlā ‘lubrique, salace’; Ar ǧahila ‘être ignorant, insensé, sot’; Te ǧähalä ‘être insensé; vivre dans la luxure’; Amh ǧällä ‘être sot, grossier’. -2 YemAr ǧayhal, miǧhal ‘tisonnier’.
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Medjool date, from Ar maǧhūl ‘unknown’, PP of ǧahila, vb. I, ‘to be ignorant of, not to know’.– 
– 
ǧāhiliyyaẗ جاهِلِيَّة 
ID 178 • Sw – • BP 4299 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦHL 
n.f. 
1 state of ignorance; 2 pre-Islamic paganism, pre-Islamic times – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ From WSem *√GHL ‘to become foolish, ignorant. – Huehnergard2011.
… 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994) #GHL- 1 Syr gᵊhīlā ‘lubrique, salace’; Ar ǧahila ‘être ignorant, insensé, sot’; Te ǧähalä ‘être insensé; vivre dans la luxure’; Amh ǧällä ‘être sot, grossier’.
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
 
ǦHNM جهنم 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦHNM 
“root” 
▪ ǦHNM_1 ‘hell’ ↗ǧahannam
▪ ǦHNM_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ǧahannam, a borrowing from Hbr (also thought to be from Pers) 
▪ … 
– 
DRS 2 (1994) #GHNM, v. #GWW.
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ Engl Gehennaǧahannam
– 
ǧahannam جَهَنَّم 
ID 179 • Sw – • BP 3680 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦHNM 
n. 
hell – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ Not from Ar ǧahannam, but from the Hbr word from which also the Ar term is borrowed, is Engl Gehenna: from Hbr gêʔ (ben) hinnōm ‘valley of (the son of) Hinnom’, from gêʔ, bound form of gayʔ ‘valley’ (Hinnōm, a man’s name; see hnn) – Huehnergard2011. 
 
ǦWː (ǦWW) جوّ / جوو 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦWː (ǦWW) 
“root” 
▪ ǦWː (ǦWW)_1 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ǦWː (ǦWW)_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘atmosphere, the arch of the sky, air, the space between the face of the earth and what appears to be the sky; large expanse of open land’ 
▪ … 
– 
DRS 2 (1994) #GWW/ʔ-1 Phoen *gw, Hbr gaw, nHbr gaw, gēw, oAram EmpAram Nab Palm ChrPal gw, Nab gwyh, gwytʔ, gwyth (?), Palm gwyʔ, JP gēw, gaw, gawwā, gawwāʔā, Mnd gawa, gawaya, Ar ǧaww ‘intérieur’; Hbr gᵊwiyyā, JP giwyᵊtā, nWAram gawwa ‘corps’, JP gᵊwāyā, Syr gawwā, Mnd giwta ‘viscères, intestins’; Soq gehe, Śḥr egehe ‘poitrine’; Amh guya ‘sein, giron, poitrine’; Hbr gayʔ ‘vallée’; Ar ǧiwāʔ ‘vallée large’; SAr gwʔ ‘pénétrer dans les profondeurs de la terre’; ? SEth ge ‘terre; côté’. -2 Hbr *gaw, *gew ‘dos’. -3 Ar ǧuwwaẗ ‘couleur noirâtre’. -4 ǧuwwaẗ ‘pièce cousue’. -5 Te Tña gäw belä ‘devenir dur’.
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ǧaww جَوّ 
ID 180 • Sw – • BP 667 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦWː (ǦWW) 
n. 
1a air; b atmosphere (also fig.); c sky; d weather; 2 sphere, milieu, environment – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994) #GWW/ʔ-1 Phoen *gw, Hbr gaw, nHbr gaw, gēw, oAram EmpAram Nab Palm ChrPal gw, Nab gwyh, gwytʔ, gwyth (?), Palm gwyʔ, JP gēw, gaw, gawwā, gawwāʔā, Mnd gawa, gawaya, Ar ǧaww ‘intérieur’; Hbr gᵊwiyyā, JP giwyᵊtā, nWAram gawwa ‘corps’, JP gᵊwāyā, Syr gawwā, Mnd giwta ‘viscères, intestins’; Soq gehe, Śḥr egehe ‘poitrine’; Amh guya ‘sein, giron, poitrine’; Hbr gayʔ ‘vallée’; Ar ǧiwāʔ ‘vallée large’; SAr gwʔ ‘pénétrer dans les profondeurs de la terre’; ? SEth ge ‘terre; côté’.
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
 
ǦWB جوب 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 19Oct2022
√ǦWB 
“root” 
▪ … 
ǦWD جود 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦWD 
“root” 
▪ ǦWD_1 ‘(to be) excellent, generous; racing horse; heavy rain; art of Qur’an recitation’ ↗ǧāda
▪ ǦWD_2 ‘to be warm; flame, passion, thurst; to consume, destroy, kill’
▪ ǦWD_3 ‘water skin, gourd’: only SyrAr.

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘horses, to seek a horse; generosity, generous person; goodness, excellence, nobility; rain-laden clouds’ 
Of the three basic values listed in DRS, only ǦWD_1 seems to have survived into MSA. This latter value, however, shows quite a variety of diversifications and specialisations, such as ‘to be good, excellent’, ‘generosity, liberality, openhandedness’, ‘racing horse’, ‘the art of Qur’an recitation’, and ‘heavy rain’, see ↗ǧāda. – In ClassAr, one still finds (Lane ii-1865) the pass. vb. ǧīda, ipfv. yuǧādu ‘to become affected by thirst, be at the point of death or destruction; to become affected, or overcome, or distressed, by drowsiness, or slumber’, ʔaǧāda (vb. IV) ‘to slay, kill’, ǧawdaẗ ‘a single affection with thirst, a thirsting’, ǧuwād ‘thirst; drowsiness, slumber’, belonging to ǦWD_2. 
– 
▪ See below, section DISC.
▪ … 
DRS 2: 105-6 distinguishes three items where Ar is involved: (1) Ar ǧāda ‘être excellent, généreux’; ǧawād‑; SAr gwd ‘cheval de course’; Mhr gid ‘bon, habile’. Syr gᵉwād ‘cheval noble’ is believed to be from Ar ǧawād. »Faut-il rapprocher Tna gado and Te Amh gud ‘merveilleux’? En Amh le sens est souvent péjoratif: ‘monstreux’.« – (2) Syr gād ‘être chaud’, Ar ǧāda ‘consumer, épuiser qn.’, ǧūd ‘flamme, passion, soif’. – (3) Akk gūd‑, nHbr god, JP gōdā, Syr gawdā ‘outre’; Mand guda ‘sac de cuir, bourse'; SyrAr ǧūd ‘utricule, gourde’.
▪ Leslau 1987 relates Gz gāyada ‘be quick (horse), be fast, be nimble’ and gayyəd, gāyəd ‘fast (horse), quick, nimble’ to Ar ‘be swift (horse)’, Ḥrs ged (gyd) ‘good, fine’, SAr gwd ‘swift’. 
– 
– 
ǧād‑ , ǧud‑ جاد , ū (ǧūdaẗ
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦWD 
vb., I 
1a to be or become good, become better, improve; b to be swift (horse) – 2a (jūd) to grant generously (bi‑ s.th.), be so generous as to do s.th.; b to be liberal, openhanded, bestow liberally, grant, give lavishly, shower (ʕalà s.o. bi‑ with); to donate | […] – WehrCowan1979. 
Difficult to decide what should be considered as the etymon proper: ‘good, excellent’ or ‘bounteous, copious’. In any case, the basic notion is an abundance, generosity, or excellence in quantity or quality. 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994)#GWD-1: Ar ǧāda ‘être excellent, généreux’; ǧawād‑; SAr gwd ‘cheval de course’; Mhr gid ‘bon, habile’.84  
Both vn.s ǧūd ‘generosity’ and ǧawd ‘copious rain’ have an abundance, an affluence, a copiousness in common (be it in quantity or in quality) that is identified as s.th. ‘good, excellent’. Hence it is difficult to decide whether the one was prior to the other (in terms of semantic history), and if so, then which one, or both are secondary specialisations of an earlier ‘goodness, excellency’ in general. Both corresponding adjectives, ǧawād ‘generous’ and ǧayyid ‘good, excellent’, seem to be secondary intensive formations (patterns FaʕāL and FayʕaL), so none qualifies as the etymon proper. In any case, ‘generosity’ as an ethical concept builds on ‘giving in abundance, openhandedly’. The meaning ‘race horse’ is probably a specialisation, denoting a horse that unites in itself all the ‘excellent’ qualities needed to compete in a horse race. Similarly, ‘the art of beautifull Qur’an recitation’ is a specialized term applied to ‘excellent performance’ of the holy text. 
– 
ǧawwada, vb. II, 1 to do well; 2 to make better, improve: denom., from ǧayyid (?); 3 to recite (the Koran): specialisation of meaning, originally *‘to do it [sc. the recitation of the Qur’an] well, correctly, beautifully’.
BP#4443ʔaǧāda, vb. IV, 1a to do well, do excellently; b to master, be skilled, proficient; c to ameliorate; d to accomplish or say good, excellent things; e to achieve excellent results; f to be excellent, outstanding, distinguish o.s. (e.g., as a poet): denom./caus. from ǧayyid (?).
ĭstaǧāda, vb. X, 1a to think good or excellent, approve of; b to consider suitable for or appropriate: denom. from ǧayyid (?), t-stem of IV.

ǧūd, n., openhandedness, liberality, generosity: an important cultural concept, see s.v. (↗ǧūd). – Perhaps the etymon proper?
ǧawd, n., heavy rains: another candidate for the position of the etymon proper.
BP#2378ǧūdaẗ, n.f., (also ǧawdaẗ) goodness, excellence; good quality (of commodities, products):.
BP#488ǧayyid, pl. ǧiyād, adj., good, perfect, faultless; outstanding, excellent, firstrate; good (as an examination degree): explained by some as a fayʕil form, i.e., from *ǧaywid.
ʔaǧwadᵘ, adj., better: elat.
BP#5414ǧawād, pl. ʔaǧwād, ʔaǧāwidᵘ, ʔaǧāwīdᵘ, ǧūd, adj., openhanded, liberal, generous, magnanimous: ints. | ĭbn al-ʔaǧwād noble man.
ǧawād, pl. ǧiyād, ʔaǧyād, ʔaǧāwīdᵘ, n., horse; race horse, racer; charger, steed: nominalization of the preceding, or an item in its own right?
taǧwīd, n., art of reciting the Koran, Koran reading (in accordance with the established rules of pronunciation and intonation): vn. II. See also s.v. (↗taǧwīd).
ʔiǧādaẗ, n.f., good, excellent performance or accomplishment, etc.; improvement, amelioration: vn. IV.
muǧawwid, n., Koran reciter: PA II.
muǧīd, n., adept, efficient, proficient: PA IV.

For other (obsolete) items see ↗ǦWD.
For ‘neck’ see ↗ǧīd (ǦYD). 

ǧūd جود 
ID 182 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦWD 
n. 
openhandedness, liberality, generosity – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ For etymology of this old concept that is known already from pre-Islamic times, see ↗ǧāda.
▪ For related items, cf. ↗zakāẗ, saḫāʔ, ṣadaqaẗ, karam 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ǧāda.
▪ … 
▪ ↗ǧāda.
▪ … 
– 
Cf. ↗ǧāda
taǧwīd تجْويد 
ID 181 • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦWD 
n. 
art of reciting the Koran, Koran reading (in accordance with established rules of pronunciation and intonation) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ vn. II, from ǧawwada ‘to do well, make good/better, improve; (esp.) to recite the Koran (in a correct and beautiful way)’, D-stem, either from the G-stem ↗ǧāda or denom. from ↗ǧayyid ‘good’.
▪ … 
DHDA (as of 16Nov2022): 791 (fī l-ʕadw) ‘quick, fast (walking)’; 815 ‘doing s.th. in a good, beautiful way, improve, master s.th.’; 936 ‘Koran recitation’ 
▪ ↗ǧāda.
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▪ …
▪ … 
– 
 
ǧayyid جَيِّد 
ID 183 • Sw 97/61 • BP 488 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦWD 
adj. 
1a good, perfect, faultless; b outstanding, excellent, first rate; c good (as an examination grade) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ From ↗ǧāda (ints. formation?).
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ǧāda.
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
ǧāda.
 
ǦWR جور 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦWR 
“root” 
▪ ǦWR_1 ‘neighbour, to protect, grant asylum’ ↗ǧār
▪ ǦWR_2 ‘to deviate; to oppress, tyrannize, be unjust, despotic’ ↗ǧāra
▪ ǦWR_3 ‘pit, hole’ ↗ǧūraẗ
▪ ǦWR_4 ‘jury’ ↗ǧūrī (1)
▪ ǦWR_5 ‘damask rose; crimson’ ↗ǧūrī (2)

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘neighbour, adjacent; to protect, to shelter, to give refuge, to seek refuge, protege, spouse; to veer away, to tilt, to deviate; to be unjust, injustice’ 
▪ Out of the 8 values DRS registers for the root GWR in Sem, only 4 are represented in Ar. DRS #GWR-3 (Ar ‘attaquer’) does not seem to differ essentially from #GWR-2 (Ar ‘être injuste envers qn., pécher’). Given the many cognates of #GWR-1 and #GWR-2, these are without doubt genuine Sem (for #GWR-1 = ǦWR_1, Kogan 2015 reconstructs Sem *gwr ‘to dwell together, be a neighbour’). – As for #GWR-6, the obsol. ǧuwār ‘caverne’ given by DRS seems to correspond to our ǦWR_3 ǧūraẗ ‘pit, hole’, which Rolland 2014 thinks is a Pers borrowing. – ǦWR_4 and _5 are clearly non-Sem. 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994)#GWR-1. Ug gr [Tropper 2008: /gêru/ < *gawiru ] ‘hôte étranger’; Phoen *gr, Hbr gēr, Nab Palm gr, JP Syr gīyōrā ‘étranger, hôte public ou privé, client’; Mand guara ‘demeure temporaire’; Ar ǧār- ‘voisin, client’, ǧārat , Tham grt ‘protection’; SAr gr, Šḫ ger, Mhr ǧawīr ‘étranger’; Soq gārheten ‘voisine’; Gz gor ‘étranger, voisin’, gəyur ‘étranger, hôte’; Te Tña gor ‘voisin’; Amh gorä-bet ‘voisin’; ?Har gār ‘maison, chambre’. -?2. JP Syr Mand gār, nSyr gāir ‘commettre l’adultère’; Ar ǧāra ‘s’écarter du chemin; être injuste envers qn., pécher’, ǧīrat- ‘bord, angle, crête’; Te gorä, ǧawärä ‘être hautain, audacieux’. ? -3. Akk giāru ‘provoquer(?)’ [CAD: gerû (garû) ‘to be hostile, start a lawsuit’, gērû (gārû) ‘foe, adversary’]; Ug gr; Hbr *gār, Ar ǧāra ‘attaquer’. -4. Hbr gar ‘avoir peur’. -5. Phoen *gr ‘jeune garçon’, Moab *grn (pl.) ‘jeunes garçons’, *grt (pl.) ‘jeunes filles’, Hbr *gōr, gūr ‘petit d’animal (lion, etc.)’. -? Mhr giyór ‘croître, augmenter’. -6. nHbr mᵉgūrā ‘grange, magasin’;? Ar ǧuwār- ‘caverne’. -7. Syr gawrā ‘colonne (de livre)’. -?8. Te gar, garät ‘affaire, matière, requête’. 
▪ ǦWR_1: From Sem *gwr ‘to dwell together, be a neighbour’ (Kogan2015). For the semantic ambiguity found within this value in many languages—both ‘seeking protection’ (as a neighbour) and ‘providing protection (to a stranger, treating him as neighbour)’—cf. below, entry ↗ǧār.
▪ ǦWR_2: According to DRS (and ClassAr lexicography), ǧāra ‘to do injustice’ and ‘to attack’ are perhaps related to ǦWR_1 ‘protected stranger’: If one assumes a basic meaning of ‘s’écarter du chemin, être à côté’, we get a constellation that is similar to the one discussed in the ḌYF and ḍayf entries: the one who deviates from his path and inclines to s.o. else’s direction can become both a ‘neighbour’ and an ‘attacker’.
▪ ǦWR_3: According to Rolland2014, Ar ǧūraẗ ‘pit, hole’ is from Pers gor ‘tomb, grave’, an etymology not given in DRS (#GWR-6) where the word ǧuwār is paralleled, though not without hesitation, with nHbr mᵉgūrā ‘granary, storehouse, reservoir’, an item that for Klein 1987 is »of uncertain origin; perhaps formed from gwr (= to sojourn, dwell)’«.
▪ ǦWR_4: From Engl jury, < oFr juré ‘jury’ < oFr jurer ‘to swear, endorse law by swearing an oath’ < Lat iurare, from ius (iur-) ‘law’.
▪ ǦWR_5: After a town named Ǧur in Iran (the one in Kerman?) (Rolland2014). 
– 
– 
ǧār‑ / ǧur‑ جار / جُرْـ (ǧawr 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦWR 
vb., I 
1 to deviate, stray (ʕan from); 2 to commit an outrage (ʕalà on), bear down (ʕalà upon), wrong, persecute, oppress, tyrannize (ʕalà s.o.); 3 to encroach, make inroads (ʕalà on another’s territory) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994) #GWR-1. Ug gr [Tropper 2008: /gêru/ < *gawiru ] ‘hôte étranger’; Phoen *gr, Hbr gēr, Nab Palm gr, JP Syr gīyōrā ‘étranger, hôte public ou privé, client’; Mand guara ‘demeure temporaire’; Ar ǧār- ‘voisin, client’, ǧārat , Tham grt ‘protection’; SAr gr, Šḫ ger, Mhr ǧawīr ‘étranger’; Soq gārheten ‘voisine’; Gz gor ‘étranger, voisin’, gəyur ‘étranger, hôte’; Te Tña gor ‘voisin’; Amh gorä-bet ‘voisin’; ?Har gār ‘maison, chambre’. -?2. JP Syr Mand gār, nSyr gāir ‘commettre l’adultère’; Ar ǧāra ‘s’écarter du chemin; être injuste envers qn., pécher’, ǧīrat- ‘bord, angle, crête’; Te gorä, ǧawärä ‘être hautain, audacieux’. ? -3. Akk giāru ‘provoquer(?)’ [CAD: gerû (garû) ‘to be hostile, start a lawsuit’, gērû (gārû) ‘foe, adversary’]; Ug gr; Hbr *gār, Ar ǧāra ‘attaquer’. 
… 
– 
ǧawr, n., 1 injustice; 2 oppression, tyranny; 3 outrage; 4 wanton deviation (ʕan from): vn. I.
ǧāʔir pl. ǧawaraẗ, ǧāraẗ, 1 adj., unjust, unfair; tyrannical, despotic; 2 n., tyrant, oppressor, despot: PA I.

For other values attached to √GWR cf. ↗ǧār, ↗ǧūraẗ, ↗ǧūrī (1) and ↗ǧūrī_2, as well as, for the whole picture, ↗ǦWR.

For other values attached to √GWR cf. ↗ǧār, ↗ǧūraẗ, ↗ǧūrī (1) and ↗ǧūrī_2, as well as, for the whole picture, ↗ǦWR.
 
ǧār جار , pl. ǧīrān 
ID … • Sw – • BP 1550 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦWR 
n. 
1 neighbour; 2 refugee; 3 protégé, charge – Wehr/Cowan 1979. 
▪ The n. which originally meant s.o. forming part in a mutual relationship of protecting and protection (an important cultural institution), belongs to the Sem root *GWR ‘to dwell together, be a neighbour’ (Militarev/Stolbova: Sem *gūr- ‘to live; to be close by’ < AfrAs *gir- ‘to live’; Dolgopolsky: WSem *-gūr- ‘to dwell’ < Nostr *gû˹w˺RV ‘(roof of a) hut; to dwell’). 
ǧār Alongside with ‘neighbour’, the Qurʔān still has also the value ‘protector’: (neighbour) Q 4:36 wa’l-ǧāri ḏī ’l-qurbà ‘and unto the neighbour who is of kin’; (one who protects, grants asylum or sanctuary) Q 8:48 lā ġāliba la-kumu ’l-yawma mina ’l-nāsi wa-ʔinnī ǧārun la-kum ‘no man shall conquer you today for I am a protector for you’

ǧāwara (vb. III, to dwell in the neighbourhood of, be\come adjacent to, be a neighbour of) Q 33:60 ṯumma lā yuǧāwirūna-ka fī-hā ʔillā qalīlan ‘then they will not be your neighbours in it but for a short time’. – ʔaǧāra (vb. IV, to protect, grant asylum or sanctuary) Q 72:22 ʔinnī lan yuǧīra-nī mina ’llāhi ʔaḥadun ‘no one will protect me against God’. – ĭstaǧāra (vb. X, to ask for protection, seek asylum, seek sanctuary) Q 9:6 wa-ʔin ʔaḥadun mina ’l-mušrikīna ’staǧāra-ka fa-ʔaǧir-hu ḥattà yasmaʕa kalāma ’llāhi ‘And if anyone of the idolaters should seek your protection (O Muhammad), then protect him so that he may hear the Word of God’. 
DRS 2 (1994)#GWR-185 Ug gr ‘to lodge, take refuge, be protected’, gr [Tropper2008: /gêru/ < *gawiru ] ‘hôte étranger / protected, guest, foreigner’; Hbr gwr ‘to dwell as alien’, gēr ‘protected citizen, stranger’, Phoen *gr, Nab Palm gr, JP Syr giyyorā ‘étranger, hôte public ou privé, client / peregrinus, cliens’; Mand guara ‘demeure temporaire’; Ar ǧār- ‘voisin, client’, ǧārat , Tham grt ‘protection’; Sab gr ‘master, lord; business partner’, SAr gr, Šḫ ger, Mhr ǧawīr ‘étranger’; Gz gor ‘étranger, voisin’, gəyur ‘étranger, hôte’; Te Tña gor ‘voisin’; Amh gorä-bet ‘voisin’; ?Har gār ‘maison, chambre’. 86 – This value is perhaps also cognate to those given in DRS as #GWR-2 and #GWR-3, cf. section cogn in disambiguation entry ↗ǦWR.

▪ Outside Sem, Militarev&Stolbova1995#932 compare (LEC) Som gir-, Or gir, Rend *gir-, u.a. ‘to be, exist’; Dolgopolsky2012#663 juxtaposes evidence from Sem languages with (LEC) Som guri ‘house, home’, Rend gūra ‘to move to a new dwelling place’, Sid gare ‘tribe, people, village’ and (WCh) Hau gàrī́, ‘town, inhabited environment’.
 
▪ Like ↗ḍayf, also ǧār may ultimately be *‘s.o. who has deviated from the path and inclined towards the side’. This—unattested—hypothetical basic meaning must be assumed if we try to see Sem *GWR ‘to dwell together, be a neighbour’ together with *GWR ‘to be hostile, attack, oppress’; the *‘stranger (who has lost his way)’ may both ‘ask for protection as a neighbour’ and ‘attack’, become a ‘foe’; see disambiguation entry ↗ǦWR.

▪ Irrespective of the preceding, ǧār is treated in ClassAr lexicography as one of the ʔaḍdād (sg. ḍidd), i.e., words that, apart from one meaning, may take another that is—or at least seems to be—its exact opposite. Even in MSA, the two values [v1] ‘neighbour’ and [v2] ‘refugee’ still seem to be contradictory. [v3] ‘protégé, charge’, however, gives the modern speaker a hint as to how [v1] and [v2] are related: a refugee is s.o. who asks for and/or is granted protection like/as a neighbour. In ClassAr, the neutral value ‘neighbour’ and the passive ‘foreigner, seeker of protection’ or ‘protected one’ are complemented by the active ‘giver of protection, one who grants refuge, protects, preserves, an aider, assister, confederate’ (Lane). As Nöldeke has shown in his famous study on the ʔaḍdād (Wörter mit Gegensinn, 1910, 72-73), the semantic “riddle” can be explained through a change of perspective: primarily, the ǧār is neither the ‘protector’ nor the ‘protected’ (or ‘seeker of protection’) but a person who is involved, as either the giver or the recipient, in a ǧiwār, which is a mutual relationship (known also from Eur languages, cf. e.g. Lat hospes, It ospite, Fr hôte ‘host; foreigner, guest’), an institution of customary law that includes rights and obligations on both parts, cf. art. “Djiwār” (J. Lecerf), in EI².

▪ Militarev&Stolbova1995#932 reconstruct Sem *gūr- ‘to live; to be close by’ and LEC *gir- ‘to be, exist’, both going back to AfrAs *gir- ‘to live’. Very similarly, Dolgopolsky2012 #663 reconstructs WSem *-gūr- ‘to dwell’, which he thinks is derived, together with the ECu and WCh (*gar˅ ‘town’) vocabulary as well as some alleged Dravidic and Altaic cognates, ultimately from Nostr *gû(w)R˅ ‘(roof of a) hut; to dwell’.
 
– 
ǧāwara, vb. III, to be the neighbour of s.o. (DO), live next door to; to be adjacent, be next (DO to s.th.), adjoin; to be in the immediate vicinity of, be close to; to border (DO on): L-stem, denom., associative.
ʔaǧāra, vb. IV, to grant asylum or a sanctuary (DO to s.o.); to protect (DO s.o., min from), take (s.o.) under one’s wing; to stand by s.o. (DO), aid: Š-stem, denom., caus. (*to make s.o. one’s protégé)
taǧāwara, vb. VI, to be neighbours; to be adjacent; to have a common border: tL-stem, intr.
ĭstaǧāra, vb. X, to seek protection, seek refuge (bi¬ with s.o., min from s.th.), appeal for aid (DO to s.o., min against s.th.): Št-stem, requestative.

ǧāraẗ, pl. āt, n.f., neighbouress: f. of ǧār.
ǧīraẗ, n.f., neighbourhood: quasi-vn. I.
BP#1721ǧiwār, n., neighbourhood, proximity: vn. III; bi-~, prep., in the neighbourhood of, in the vicinity of, near, close to | ʔilà ~i-hī, adv., beside him, at his side
muǧāwaraẗ, n.f., neighbourhood, proximity: vn. III.
ʔiǧāraẗ, n.f., protection, granting of asylum: vn. IV.
taǧāwur, n., neighbourhood (reciprocal); contiguity, relationship (of several things): vn. VI.
BP#1793muǧāwir, 1. adj., neighbouring, adjacent; near, close by; 2. (pl. -ūn), n., student (esp. of Al Azhar University; living in the vicinity of the Mosque): PA III.
muǧīr, n., protector: PA IV.
mutaǧāwir, adj., having a common border; adjoining, adjacent, contiguous: PA VI.

For other values attached to √GWR cf. ↗ǧār, ↗ǧāra, ↗ǧūraẗ, ↗ǧūrī (1) and ↗ǧūrī_2, as well as, for the whole picture, ↗ǦWR.
 
ǧūraẗ جُورة , pl. ǧuwar 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦWR 
n.f. 
pit, hole – WehrCowan1979. 
Loan word of uncertain origin. According to Rolland2014a, it is from Pers gor ‘tomb, grave’, an etymology not given in DRS; Klein thinks that it is »perhaps formed from gwr (= to sojourn, dwell)’«.
 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994)#GWR-6:
nHbr mᵉgūrā ‘grange, magasin’; ? Ar ǧuwār- ‘caverne’.
 
▪ According to Rolland2014a, Ar ǧūraẗ ‘pit, hole’ is from Pers gor ‘tomb, grave’, an etymology not given in DRS (#GWR-6) where Ar ǧuwār is paralleled, though not without hesitation, with nHbr mᵉgūrā ‘granary, storehouse, reservoir’, an item that for Klein 1987 is »of uncertain origin; perhaps formed from gwr (= to sojourn, dwell)’«.
 
– 
–. For other values attached to √GWR cf. ↗ǧār, ↗ǧāra, ↗ǧūrī (1) and ↗ǧūrī_2, as well as, for the whole picture, ↗ǦWR.
 
¹ǧūrī جُوري 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦWR 
n.; adj. 
1 n., damask rose (Rosa damascena, bot.); 2 adj., crimson – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ After a town named Ǧur in Iran (the one in Kerman?) – Rolland2014a. 
▪ … 
– 
See above, section CONC. 
– 
–. For other values attached to √GWR cf. ↗ǧār, ↗ǧāra, ↗ǧūraẗ and ↗ǧūrī_2, as well as, for the whole picture, ↗ǦWR.
 
²ǧūrī جُوري 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦWR 
n. 
jury – WehrCowan1979. 
From Engl jury, ultimately belonging to Lat ius (iur-) ‘law’.
 
▪ … 
… 
▪ From Engl jury, < oFr juré ‘jury’ < oFr jurer ‘to swear, endorse law by swearing an oath’ < Lat iurare, from ius (iur-) ‘law’.
 
– 
–. For other values attached to √GWR cf. ↗ǧār, ↗ǧāra, ↗ǧūraẗ, and ↗ǧūrī_1, as well as, for the whole picture, ↗ǦWR.
 
ǦWZ جوز 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦWZ 
“root” 
▪ ǦWZ_1 ‘to be(come) allowed’ ↗ǧāza, ‘passport’ ↗ǧawāz, ‘permission, license’ ↗ʔiǧāzaẗ
▪ ǦWZ_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘beam; to cross, to traverse, road, crossing; to allow, to pass off, to help to cross; to pardon, to disregard; to reward, prize’ 
▪ From CSem *√GWZ ‘to pass through’ – Huehnergard2011.
… 
– 
DRS 2 (1994) #GWZ-1 Hbr gāz ‘passer, disparaître’; JP ChrPal Syr gāz ‘traverser, passer, disparaître’; Talm ‘couper’, Mnd giuza ‘canal’; nSyr ǧaiz ‘être permis’; Ar ǧāza ‘passer par, traverser; être permis, licite’, ǧīz ‘bord d’un fleuve, côté d’une vallée’; SAr gz, gwz ‘traverser; s’écouler (temps)’; ? Gz gize ‘temps’. -2 Hbr ʔᵊgōz, Aram ʔᵊgōzā, ʔamgōzā, Syr gawzā, Mnd ʔngwzʔ, ʔmgwzʔ, Ar ǧawz, Gz gawz, Te Amh gäwz ‘noix’. -3 JP Syr gawāzā, gawāwzā, Mnd gauaza ‘bâton’.
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Betelgeuse, from Ar yad al-ǧawzāʔ ‘hand of Orion’, from al-ǧawzāʔ ‘Gemini’, later also ‘Orion’, perh. from ǧawz ‘center, middle’, from ǧāza, vb. I, ‘to pass through’ (yad ‘hand’; see yd). 
– 
ʔiǧāzaẗ إِجازَة 
ID 184 • Sw – • BP 2114 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦWZ 
n.f. 
1 permission, authorization; approval; license; 2 = Fr licence, as an academic degree; 3a permit; b vacation, leave (of absence) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994) #GWZ-1 Hbr gāz ‘passer, disparaître’; JP ChrPal Syr gāz ‘traverser, passer, disparaître’; Talm ‘couper’, Mnd giuza ‘canal’; nSyr ǧaiz ‘être permis’; Ar ǧāza ‘passer par, traverser; être permis, licite’, ǧīz ‘bord d’un fleuve, côté d’une vallée’; SAr gz, gwz ‘traverser; s’écouler (temps)’; ? Gz gize ‘temps’.
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
 
ǦWS جوس 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Mar2023
√ǦWS 
“root” 
▪ ǦWS_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ǦWS_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ǦWS_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to rummage, peer about, play havoc, overrun; to investigate, spy’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ǦWʕ جوع 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦWʕ 
“root” 
▪ ǦWʕ_1 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ǦWʕ_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘hunger, to hunger, to yearn for s.th., to starve, starvation, famine’ 
▪ … 
– 
DRS 2 (1994) #GWʕ-1 Hbr gāwaʕ ‘mourir’. -?2 Ar ǧāʕa ‘avoir faim’; SAr gwʕ ‘affamé’. -3 Syr gāʕ ‘mépriser’, gōʕ: interjection de mépris. -4 goʕatā ‘glanage’.
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
ǧūʕ جُوع 
ID 185 • Sw – • BP 2187 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦWʕ 
n. 
hunger, starvation – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994) #GWʕ-1 Hbr gāwaʕ ‘mourir’. -?2 Ar ǧāʕa ‘avoir faim’; SAr gwʕ ‘affamé’.
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
 
ǦWF جوف 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦWF 
“root” 
▪ ǦWF_1 ‘hollow, cavity; inside, centre; abdomen’ ↗ǧawf
▪ ǦWF_2 ‘guava (fruit, brush)’ ↗ǧuwāfaẗ
▪ ǦWF_3 ‘corpse, cadaver; (hence also:) to stink’ ↗ǧīfaẗ (formally √ǦYF, but etymologically probably √ǦWF)

Other items, now obsolete:
▪ ǦWF_4 : ǧūfī ‘(name of a species of fish)’

BAH2008: ‘belly, interior, inside; valley, to be hollow; to penetrate’ 
▪ ǦWF_1: < Sem *gawp‑ ‘heart, middle, interior; body’ (Orel&Stolbova) or WSem *gawp‑ ‘hollow’ < Sem *GWP ‘hollow; to be empty’ (Dolgopolsky); perh. < AfrAs *gaw˅f‑ ‘interior’ (Orel&Stolbova). (Dolgopolsky reconstructs even Nostr *gup˅ʔ˹û˺ ‘hollow, empty; hole’).
▪ ǦWF_2: < Span < Arawakian (Antilles).
▪ ǦWF_3: Ar ǧīfaẗ ‘corpse, cadaver’ is believed to be a development from ǦWF_1 ‘hollow, cavity; inside, centre; abdomen’, cf. ↗ǧīfaẗ, ↗ǧawf.
▪ ǦWF_4 : < Aram kwfyʔ (Fraenkel1886: 123). 
– 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
ǧawf جَوْف , pl. ʔaǧwāf 
ID … • Sw – • BP 4351 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦWF 
n. 
1 hollow, cavity; depression; 2 interior, inside, center, heart; 3 belly, abdomen; 4 north (maġr.) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ From WSem *gawp‑ ‘hollow’ < Sem *GWP ‘hollow; to be empty’ (Dolgopolsky, who even reconstructs Nostr *gup˅ʔ˹û˺ ‘hollow, empty; hole’). Orel&Stolbova reconstruct Sem *gawp‑ ‘heart, middle, interior; body’, from AfrAs *gaw˅f‑ ‘interior’. 
▪ eC7 (interior, inside, cavity) Q 33:4 mā ǧaʕala ’llāhu li-raǧulin min qalbayni fī ǧawfi-hī ‘God does not give a man two hearts inside him’.
▪ Hava1899 still lists some older forms, now obsolete: ǧawifa a (ǧawaf), vb. I, ‘to be hollow, empty’; ǧāfa u (ǧawf), vb. I, and ʔaǧāfa, vb. IV, ‘to pierce the abdomen (with a spear)’; ǧāʔifaẗ, pl. ǧawāʔifᵘ, nominalized adj., ‘penetrating (thrust)’; maǧūf and ǧuwafī, adj., ‘big-bellied’. 
DRS 2 (1994)#GWP-1: Hbr *gūpā ‘cadavre’, *gap dans be -gappō ‘avec son corps = seul’; nHbr gūp, EmpAram gp, Ḥat gwph ‘dépouille (?)’, JP gūpā ‘corps, personne’, Ar ǧawf ‘creux, ventre, poitrine, entraille, cœur’, ǧīfaẗ ‘cadavre’; Te gof ‘intérieur du corps, cœur, âme’.
▪ Zammit2002: Ug gpt ‘caves’ (Tropper2008: sg. or pl., ‘inner part of mountain area’), Aram gūpā ‘body; self, substance’, Hbr gūpā (late; < Aram) ‘body, corpse’.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#909: Hbr gūp ‘body’, Arab ǧawf, Te gof ‘heart, middle, interior’. – Outside Sem: guguvi, gugufɛ, guguf-in ‘heart’, gugufi, guguf-in (partial redupl.) ‘lungs’ in some CCh langs.
▪ Dolgopolsky2002#651: Ug gpt (= *gōp-āt-) ‘caves’, Ar ǧawf ‘hollow, inside of a house, belly’, ǧawfu ’l-layl ‘middle of the night’, pl. ʔaǧwāf ‘entrails’, Te gof (pl. ʔagwāf) ‘interior, heart, soul’, Mhr Ḥrs gawf- ‘chest’; Ar √ǧwf (impfv -ǧwaf-) ‘to be hollow; to be empty’. – Outside Sem: [Cush:] Som N {Abr.} gōf ‘empty hollow in ground; empty well, dried-up well’, Som {ZMO} gōf ‘dried-up well; dry riverbed’, {DSI} gōf ‘id.; orbita dell’occhio’; [Chad: ECh:] Smr {J} gúbɜ̀ ‘hole’; [WCh:] Dw {ChL} gup, Zar {ChL} gŭp ‘chest’; Dir {Sk., ChC} gúbàḍú ‘chest’; [CCh:] Gude {ChL} guwa, FlJ gùwì, Nz {Mch} gọ́wę, {ChL} gòʔo, FlB {ChL} gùʔùn, Bcm {ChC} gwé, {ChL} gwɛ́y, FlM {ChL} ɛ̀gʷō̆ ‘hole’, Lmn {Lk.} òghùbù, óghbù ‘id.’. – Also related is #650: BiblHbr *gūp̄āh ‘corpse’ (st.constr. gūp̄aṯ, pl. gūp̄ōṯ), JA mHbr gūp̄ ‘body’ (JA kem. gūp̄ā), JEA gūp̄ā ‘body, self’, Htr gwp ‘person’ (or ‘corpse, dead body’), Ar ǧīf-aẗ ‘corpse’, Jib C mgɔffɔt, Jib E mɜgɜfɔt ‘corpse, carcass’. – Outside Sem: oTu k|gövdöŋ, Tkm göwde ‘corpse, torso, trunk of a body’, Uz gavda ‘id.’, Tu gövde ‘trunk of a body\tree’. – [IE:] Grk gýpē [Call.] ‘cave’, [Hs.] ‘hollow in the earth; lurking place, den; vulture’s nest’; [Germ:] oNo kofi ‘small chamber, hut’, Isl kofi ‘hut’, nNor kove ‘larder, storeroom’, mHGe kobe ‘stall, pigsty; cage; cavity (Höhlung)’, nHGe Koben, nLGe Kofen ‘pigsty’, oSax cofa ‘cave, chamber, pigsty’, nEngl cove ‘concavity or recessed place in a structure’; [Slav] Pol żupa, Uk župa ‘salt pit’, oChSlav župište ‘grave’. 
DRS 2 (1994)#GWP-1: La notion de base est celle de ‘creux’ d’où ‘intérieur du corps, corps’. – Les formes Hbr sont des aramaïsmes (so also Zammit2002). – Te < Ar. – Cf. GWṮ, GYP.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#909: From Sem *gawp- ‘¹body; ²heart, middle, interior’; together with CCh *gu-guf- ‘¹heart; ²lungs’ from AfrAs *gaw˅f- ‘interior’.
▪ Dolgopolsky2002#651 reconstructs WSem *gawp- ‘hollow’ < Sem *GWP ‘id.; to be empty’. On account of the evidence from ECush, EChad and WChad, the author also assumes an AfrAs dimension (no reconstruction given), which he then puts together with IE *geu̪p- / *gou̪p- / *gup- ‘hollow, pit’, all having as their ultimate ancestor Nostr *gup˅ʔ˹û˺ ‘hollow, empty; hole’. 
– 
fī ǧawf…, prep., inside, in the interior of, in the middle of | fī ǧawf al-layl or ǧawfa ’l-layl, adv., in the middle of the night

ǧawwafa, vb. II, to make hollow, hollow out: denom.

ǧawfī, adj., 1 inner, interior, inside; 2 subterranean, underground, subsurface (of geological strata); 3 northern (maġr.): nsb-adj. | miyāh ǧawfiyyaẗ, n.pl., ground water
ʔaǧwafᵘ, f. ǧawfāʔᵘ, pl. ǧūf, adj., 1 hollow; empty; 2 vain, futile, inane, pointless, senseless: elat.
taǧwīf, pl. taǧāwīfᵘ, n., hollow, hollow space; cavity (also anat.): originally a vn. II, then resultative | ~ al-baṭn, n., abdominal cavity (anat.); ~ al-qalb, n., heart ventricle (anat.)
muǧawwaf, adj., hollowed out, hollow: PP II.
 
ǧuwāfaẗ جُوافة , var. ǧawāfaẗ 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦWāF, ǦWF 
n.f. 
(EgAr) guava (fruit); guava shrub – WehrCowan1979. 
Rolland2014a: from Span guyaba ‘guava’, from Arawakan of the Antilles. 
▪ … 
… 
See section CONCISE above. 
▪ Cf. Engl guava, Ge Guave, etc. For Engl guava, EtymOnline gives: 1550 s, from Span guaya, variant of guayaba, from Arawakan (West Indies) guayabo ‘guava tree’ or Tupi guajava
– 
ǦWQ جوق 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 29Mar2021
√ǦWQ 
“root” 
▪ ǦWQ_1 ʻtroop, group; troupe, company; choir, band, orchestra’ → ǧawq(aẗ)

Other values, now obsolete, include (Steingass1884, Hava1899):

ǦWQ_2 ʻcontorted’ : ǧawiq
ǦWQ_3 ʻto muster a crowd’ → ǧawwaqa
 
▪ While [v1] is prob. a borrowing from Phl, and [v3] perh. derived from [v1], [v2] does not immediately seem related to any of the other two values (see however below s.v.).
▪ According to Rolland2014a, [v1] has as its origin the same Phl etymon from which also modPe ǧawḫ ʻtroupe, assembly of people or animals’ is derived. According to the DHDA, ǧawq ʻgroup, troop’ is the first item of the root to be attested (at the rather late date of 791 CE). Given also the fact that the Ar root does not exhibit any obvious Sem cognates (except for a Te word?), the probability of a borrowing is quite high.
▪ [v2] : related to Gz gʷəḥqʷa ʻto bend (intr.), be distorted, to stooped, bent, curved, bowed (because of old age), to become weak’ (accord. to DRS a relation considered by Dillmann)? – Accord. to DHDA, the first attestation of this value is the adj. ʔaǧwaqᵘ ʻwry-mouthed’. As also this is from a very late date – 845 CE –, and as the Gz parallel is quite doubtful, one should not exclude the possibility of a development *ʻ[v1] troop, group > [v3] to call together a group, muster a crowd; to cry at s.o. > [v2] to have a wry mouth (like s.o. crying at a group/troop to make them assemble)’. But this is highly speculative.
▪ [v3] : prob. denom. from [v1].
▪ … 
▪ [v1] : 791 ǧawq ʻgroup, troop’; 861 ǧawqaẗ ʻgroup of people’ – DHDA.
▪ [v2] : 845 ʔaǧwaq ʻwry-mouthed’, ǧawaq 963 ʻinclination, distortion’ – DHDA.
▪ [v3] : 960 taǧawwaqa ʻto get together, assemble o.s.’, 995 ǧawwaqa ʻto call, muster, assemble s.o.’
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994) #GWQ-1 Ar ǧawiqa ʻêtre de travers (bouche, figure)’. -2 ǧawwaqa ʻrassembler; crier à qn’. -3 Te goq, goǧ ʻtrou, fenêtre’.
▪ … 
▪ [v1] : cf. ǧawqaẗ, pl. -āt, n.f., ʻcrowd, numerous party’ – Hava1899
▪ [v2] (= DRS #GWQ-1) : cf. also ǧawiqa (a, ǧawaq), vb. I, ʻto have a wry face’; ʔaǧwaqᵘ, f. ǧawqāᵘ, pl. ǧūq, adj., ʻwry-mouthed; big-necked’ – Hava1899.
▪ [v3] (= DRS #GWQ-2) : ǧawwaqa, vb. II, ʻto muster a crowd’; taǧawwaqa, vb. V, ʻto meet in large numbers’ – Hava1899.
 
– 
– 
ǧawq جَوْق , pl. ʔaǧwāq, and
ǧawqaẗ جَوْقة , pl. ‑āt 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 29Mar2021
√ǦWQ 
n. and n.f., respectively 
1 troop, group; 2a theatrical troupe, operatic company; 2b choir (mus.); 2c orchestra, band (also ǧawqaẗ mūsīqiyyaẗ) – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ According to Rolland2014a, ǧawq has as its origin the same Phl etymon from which also modPe ǧawḫ ʻtroupe, assembly of people or animals’ is derived. According to the DHDA, ǧawq ʻgroup, troop’ is the first item of the root to be attested (at the rather late date of 791 CE). Given also the fact that the Ar root does not exhibit any obvious Sem cognates (except for a Te word?), the probability of a borrowing is quite high.
▪ … 
791 ǧawq ʻgroup, troop’; 861 ǧawqaẗ ʻgroup of people’ – DHDA.
 
DRS 2 (1994) #GWQ-1 Ar ǧawiqa ʻêtre de travers (bouche, figure)’. -2 ǧawwaqa ʻrassembler; crier à qn’. -3 […].
▪ … 
▪ Cf. also ǧawqaẗ, pl. -āt, n.f., ʻcrowd, numerous party’ – Hava1899.
▪ The obsolete ǧawwaqa, vb. II, ʻto muster a crowd’ (= DRS #GWQ-2), and taǧawwaqa, vb. V, ʻto meet in large numbers’ (Hava1899) are prob. denom. from ǧawq.
▪ ClassAr also knows the value ʻdistortion’ as a value of ǦWQ = DRS #GWQ-1, cf. e.g. ǧawiqa (a, ǧawaq), vb. I, ʻto have a wry face’; ʔaǧwaqᵘ, f. ǧawqāᵘ, pl. ǧūq, adj., ʻwry-mouthed; big-necked’ (Hava1899). For these, DRS notes that Dillmann considered a relation to Gz gʷəḥqʷa ʻto bend (intr.), be distorted, to stooped, bent, curved, bowed (because of old age), to become weak’. However, given that (accord. to DHDA) the first attestation of this value – the adj. ʔaǧwaqᵘ ʻwry-mouthed’ – is from a very late date (845 CE) and given also the doubtfulness of the Gz parallel, one should not exclude the possibility of a development *ʻtroop, group > to call together a group, muster a crowd; to cry at s.o. > to have a wry mouth (like s.o. crying at a group/troop to make them assemble)’. But this is highly speculative.
▪ …
 
– 
mudīr al-ǧawq, n., conductor, bandleader, choir leader
ǧawqaẗ al-šaraf, n.f., Legion of Honor.

For other values of the root, now obsolete, cf. root entry ↗√ǦWQ. 
ǦWL جول 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 19Oct2022
√ 
“root” 
▪ … 
ǦWHR جوهر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦWHR 
“root” 
▪ ǦWHR_1 ‘essence, substance, matter; jewel’ ↗ǧawhar
▪ ǦWHR_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
▪ … 
– 
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– 
– 
ǧawhar جَوْهَر 
ID 186 • Sw – • BP 3210 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦWHR 
n. 
1 intrinsic, essential nature, essence; 2a content, substance (as opposed to form; philos.); b matter, substance; 3 atom; 4 jewel, gem; pl. jewelry – WehrCowan1979. 
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ǦYʔ جيئ 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦYʔ 
“root” 
▪ ǦYʔ_1 ‘to come’ ↗ǧāʔa
▪ ǦYʔ_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to come, to arrive, to reach, to get, to bring; large ditch for collecting rain’ 
▪ ….
▪ From Hbr root *√GYʔ, assumed root of Hbr gayʔ ‘valley’ – Huehnergard2011.
▪ … 
– 
DRS 2 (1994) #GYʔ-1 Ar ǧāʔa ‘venir’. -2 Akk gāʔu ‘vomir, cracher’.
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▪ …
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– 
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ǧāʔ‑ / ǧiʔ‑ جاء 
ID 187 • Sw 66/23 • BP 109 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦYʔ 
vb., I 
1a to come (to); b to get (to), reach (a place); c to arrive; 2a to bring (bi- s.th.); b to bring forth, produce (bi- s.th.); c to set forth (bi- s.th.); 3a to do, perform; b to commit, perpetrate (s.th.); 4 to occur, be mentioned, be said ( in an article, document or book); 5 (with foll. imperf.) to be about or set out to do s.th. – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994) #GYʔ-1 Ar ǧāʔa ‘venir’.
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ǦYD جيد 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦYD 
“root” 
▪ ǦYD_1 ‘neck’ ↗ǧīd
▪ ǦYD_2 ‘good, excellent; generous, copious’ ↗ǧāda (↗ǦWD)
▪ ǦYD_3 ‘racing horse’ ↗ǧāda (↗ǦWD)

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘neck, long beautiful neck, to have a long beautiful neck’ 
Only ǧīd ‘neck’ has the root ǦYD. All other items actually belong to ǦWD ‘good, excellent’. 
ǧīd 
ǧīd 
ǧīd 
– 
– 
ǧīd جيد , pl. ʔaǧyād , ǧuyūd 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦYD 
n. 
neck – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Kogan2011: prob. related (with a meaning shift) to protSem *gīd‑ ‘nerve, tendon, sinew’.
▪ The Sem form goes perhaps back, via contraction (*gīd‑ < *giy˅d‑), to AfrAs *giyad‑ / *giHad‑
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994)#GYD: Akk gīd‑ ‘tendon, muscle de l’animal’, Ug *gd, Hbr gīd, JP Syr gᵉyādā, Mand giada ‘nerf, tendon’, nWAram gyoḏa ‘artère’; Syr gyādānā ‘nerveux, musculeux’, Mand gaiid ‘atteindre’, Soq žīd, Śḥr giyod ‘nerf’.87
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#924: Akk gīdu ‘tendon; muscle’, Hbr gīd, Aram gᵉyādā ‘tendon; nerve’, Ar jīd ‘neck’, Soq žid ‘nerve’. – Outside Sem there are forms like ngiḍo, ngirya ‘neck’ in some WCh languages, as well as gaaḍya, geer, ger‑, get-im, gere ‘neck’ in ECh. Perhaps is also Som gaaddo ‘breast’ related.
▪ Kogan2011: Akk gīdu, Ug gd, Hbr gīd, Syr gyādā, Jib z˜éd, Soq žid
DRS 2 (1994) reconstructs Sem *gīd‑ ‘nerf, tendon’.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#924 reconstruct Sem *gīd‑ ‘tendon; muscle; nerve; neck’, WCh *n˅-giḍ‑ < *n˅-giH˅d‑ (prefix!) ‘neck’, ECh *giHad‑ ‘neck’ (Som gaaddo, if cognate, from LEC *gaHad‑ ‘breast’), all from AfrAs *giHad‑ / *giyad‑ ‘neck’. Sem *gīd‑ would be a contraction of *giy˅d‑ from the AfrAs *giyad‑. – The authors do not explain why they reduce the meaning of the AfrAs ancestor to ‘neck’ only (probably on account of the WCh and ECh evidence); however, they add that »[t]he semantic variety of Sem makes the whole comparison dubious«.
▪ Kogan2011 reconstructs Sem *gīd‑ ‘tendon, sinew’ and thinks that the value ‘neck’ in Ar is the result of a meaning shift. 
– 
– 
ǦYR جير 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦYR 
“root” 
▪ ǦYR_1 ‘lime’ ↗¹ǧīr
▪ ǦYR_2 ‘surely, truly, verily (adv.)’ ↗ǧayri
▪ ǦYR_3 ‘gear’ ↗ (EgAr) ²gīr
▪ ǦYR_4 ‘neighbourhood’ : ǧīraẗ ǧār (√ǦWR)
▪ ǦYR_5 ‘endorsement (fin.)’ ↗ǧīrū
 
▪ Out of the 4 values DRS registers for Sem GYR, only the first two are represented in Ar (corresponding to ǦYR_1 and ǦYR_2). The first has perh. entered Ar via Aram, while the second prob. has gone the other way, from Ar to Aram. ǦYR_3 and ǦYR_5 are loan words from Engl and It, respectively, while ǦYR_4 actually belongs to ǦWR. 
– 
DRS 2 (1994)#GYR-1 Hbr gīr, BiblAram JudPal gīrā, Ar ǧīr ‘chaux’, SAr gyr ‘chaux’; ‘crépir’; Gz gayyara ‘enduire de chaux’. -2 Syr gēr, Ar ǧayri, ǧayriⁿ ‘assurément, certainement’. -3 JudPal gīr, gīrā, girᵉrā, Syr gērā ‘flèche, lance, projectile’. -4 PehlAram gyry ‘myrte’.  
▪ ǦYR_1 ǧīr ‘lime’ : prob. from Aram gīrā ‘id.’, perh. akin to Akk kīru (kēru) ‘kiln (for lime and bitumen’. For details cf. ↗ǧīr.
▪ ǦYR_2 ǧayri ‘surely, truly, verily (adv.)’ : etymology obscure.
▪ ǦYR_3 EgAr gīr ‘gear’ : < Engl gear.
▪ ǦYR_4 ǧīraẗ ‘neighbourhood’ : < *ǧiwraẗ (√ǦWR), akin to ↗ǧār ‘neighbour, protected stranger’.
▪ ǦYR_5 ǧīrū ‘endorsement (fin.)’ : < It giro . For details cf. ↗ǧīrū
– 
– 
¹ǧīr جِير 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦYR 
n. 
lime – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Perh. from Aram gīrā ‘lime’. – In contrast, Fraenkel mentions the traditional attribution to ǧāra ‘to come to the boil, boil briskly’ as well as Pers gil ‘clay, mud’ as another option without confirming any of them. Klein is sure that Ar ǧīr is from Aram gīrā and that »[a]ll these words« go back to Akk kīru ‘chalkstone’ < Sum gir ‘id.’. However, these Akk and Sum words actually mean ‘kiln’ rather than ‘lime’ or ‘chalkstone’, and others (like already Zimmern1914) are much more reluctant to accept such an etymology; it is not found in DRS, nor with Dolgopolsky. 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994)#GYR-1: Hbr gīr, BiblAram JudPal gīrā, Ar ǧīr ‘chaux’, SAr gyr ‘chaux’; ‘crépir’; Gz gayyara ‘enduire de chaux’
▪ Klein1987: Hbr gīr ‘lime; (nHbr) chalk’, BiblAram gīrā ‘plaster’, JudAram gīrā ‘lime’, Syr gīrā ‘birdlime’, SAr gyr ‘lime’, Te gerger ‘chalkstone’. 
▪ Fraenkel1886 mentions that Ar ǧayyār and ǧīr traditionally are derived from ǧāra ‘aufkochen, aufwallen’ (to come to the boil, boil briskly), »where prob. also GRR ‘to excite’ belongs«. Furthermore, he mentions Pers gil ‘clay, mud’ as another possibility but is eager to add that he would not want to decide whether or not the word might be related to it.
▪ Klein1987 (s.v. Hbr gîr) is convinced that »[a]ll these words [those he gives as cognates] are ultimately borrowed from Akk kīru ‘chalkstone’,142 which itself is a loan word from Sum gir (of same meaning)«.143 . In contrast, Zimmern1914 formulated more cautiously: Given that Akk kīru ‘oven’ (cf. Ar ↗Ar kūr, kīr) was particularly used as the shipper’s kiln, it might not be impossible (»wäre es nicht unmöglich«) that it was at the origin of Syr JudAram qīrā ‘asphalt, bitumen’ (whence Ar ↗qīr, ↗qār ‘tar, pitch’), and »then probably [!] also« Aram gīr, gīrā ‘lime’ (which »probably« [!] gave lHbr gîr, Ar ǧayyār, ǧīr, SAr gyr ‘lime’, as well as Gz gayyara ‘to limewash’).
 
– 
ǧīrī, adj., calcareous, lime (adj.): nsb-formation.
ǧayyār, n., unslaked lime: looks as if it were formed from ǧīr after a FaʕʕāL pattern, but is actually an independent loan, prob. from the same or a similar Aram source as ǧīr.
ǧayyāraẗ, n.f., limekiln: quasi-PA f., from ǧīr after the FaʕʕāLaẗ pattern. 
²gīr جِير 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦYR 
n. 
(EgAr) gear. 
▪ From Engl gear (in the mod. sense of ‘parts by which a motor communicates motion’). 
▪ not earlier than 1890 s. 
– 
▪ The Engl word from which the EgAr gīr is taken is attested from c. 1200 and meant originally ‘fighting equipment, armor and weapons’. It is »prob. from oNo gørvi (pl. gørvar) ‘apparel, gear’, related to görr, gørr, gerr ‘skilled, accomplished; ready, willing’, and to gøra, gørva ‘to make, construct, build; set in order, prepare’, a very frequent vb. in oNo, used in a wide range of situations from writing a book to dressing meat. This is from protGerm *garwjan ‘to make, prepare, equip’ (source also of oEngl gearwe ‘clothing, equipment, ornament’, which may be the source of some uses; oSax garwei; Du gaar ‘done, dressed’; oHGe garo ‘ready, prepared, complete’, garawi ‘clothing, dress’, garawen ‘to make ready’; Ge gerben ‘to tan’). – From eC14 as ‘wearing apparel, clothes, dress’, also ‘harness of a draught animal; equipment of a riding horse.’ From lC14 as ‘equipment generally; tools, utensils’, especially the necessary equipment for a certain activity, as the rigging of a sailing ship. Meaning ‘toothed wheel in machinery’ first attested 1520 s; specific mechanical sense of ‘parts by which a motor communicates motion’ is from 1814; specifically of a vehicle (bicycle, automobile, etc.) by 1888. Slang for ‘male sex organs’ from 1670 s« – EtymOnline
– 
– 
ǧayri جَيْرِ 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦYR 
adv. 
surely, truly, verily – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Of unknown etymology. 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994)#GYR-2: Syr gēr, Ar ǧayri, ǧayriⁿ ‘assurément, certainement’. 
DRS 2 (1994)#GYR-2 holds that the Aram (Syr) is from Ar. Thus, the Ar adv. remains without any real cognate at all. 
– 
– 
ǧīrū جِيرو 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦYR 
n. 
endorsement (fin.) – WehrCowan1979. 
From It giro ‘tour, turn, circulation’. 
▪ … 
– 
▪ Rolland2014a: < It giro < Lat gyrus ‘cercle, rond, circuit; volte’, from Grk gŷros ‘rond, cercle’, par les dresseurs de chevaux.
 
– 
ǧayyara, vb. II, to endorse (fin.): denom. 
ǦYŠ جيش 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦYŠ 
“root” 
▪ ǦYŠ_1 ‘army, troops’ ↗ǧayš
▪ ǦYŠ_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
▪ … 
– 
DRS 2 (1994) #GYŚ-1 nHBr gayis, Talm Syr gaysā ‘troupe, troupe de brigands’; Talm gayyāsā, Mnd gaisa ‘voleur’; Ar ǧayš, SAr gyś ‘troupe, armée’. -2 Gz geša, gesa ‘partir au matin, faire qc au matin’, gešam, gesam, Te gesäm, Har gīš ‘demain, le lendemain’; Te gesa ‘voyager’; Tña gäsgäsa ‘partir le matin, précipitamment’; Amh gäsäggäsä ‘voyager rapidement’. -3 Akk gāšu ‘aller, venir, courir rapidement, tourbillonner’, gūšt- ‘danse tourbillonnante?’; Ar ǧāša ‘s’agiter, être agité; être en ébullition, en fureur (mer, fleuve)’.
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ǧayš جَيْش 
ID 188 • Sw – • BP 337 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦYŠ 
n. 
army, troops, armed forces – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994) #GYŚ-1 nHBr gayis, Talm Syr gaysā ‘troupe, troupe de brigands’; Talm gayyāsā, Mnd gaisa ‘voleur’; Ar ǧayš, SAr gyś ‘troupe, armée’.
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ǦYF جيف 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦYF 
“root” 
▪ ǦYF_1 ‘corpse, cadaver; to stink’ ↗ǧīfaẗ
▪ For other values cf. ↗ǦWF.
 
DRS regards the value ‘corpse, cadaver’ as the result of a development ‘hollow, cavity’ (↗ǧawf, ǦWF) > ‘interior of the body, body’ > ‘dead body, corpse’ and accordingly groups it under GWP, cf. ↗ǧawf, ↗ǧīfaẗ
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ǧīfaẗ جِيفة , pl. ǧiyaf , ʔaǧyāf 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦYF 
n.f. 
corpse, cadaver – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ According to DRS, the notion of ‘corpse, cadaver’ is secondary, the primary meaning of the root being ‘hollow, cavity’ (hence ‘interior of the body, body’ > ‘dead body, corpse’).
▪ Dolgopolsky2002#650 assumes a WSem *gīp‑ ~ *gūp‑ ‘body’, but also WSem *gawp‑ ‘hollow’ (< Sem *GWP ‘hollow; to be empty’), to which the former is related, see ↗ǦWF, ↗ǧawf
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994) regards the value ‘corpse, cadaver’ as the result of a development ‘hollow, cavity’ > ‘interior of the body, body’ > ‘dead body, corpse’88 and accordingly groups it as follows: #GWP-1 Hbr *gūpā ‘cadavre’, *gap dans be -gappō ‘avec son corps = seul’; nHbr gūp, EmpAram gp, Ḥat gwph ‘dépouille (?)’, JP gūpā ‘corps, personne’, Ar ǧawf ‘creux, ventre, poitrine, entraille, cœur’, ǧīfaẗ ‘cadavre’; Te gof ‘intérieur du corps, cœur, âme’.89
▪ Dolgopolsky2002#650: Nostr *gæ˹ʔ˺Up˅ ‘body’ > AfrAs: WSem *gūp- ~ *gīp- ‘body’ BiblHbr *gūp̄āh ‘corpse’ (st.constr. gūp̄aṯ, pl. gūp̄ōṯ), JA mHbr gūp̄ ‘body’ (JA kem. gūp̄ā), JEA gūp̄ā ‘body, self’, Htr gwp ‘person’ (or ‘corpse, dead body’), Ar ǧīf-at- ‘corpse’, Jib C mgɔffɔt, Jib E mɜgɜfɔt ‘corpse, carcass’ (all connect the root with WS *gawp- ‘hollow’. – Outside Sem: [Turk] oTu k|gövdöŋ (NişanyanSözlük_17Mar2015 kövtöŋ), Tkm göwde ‘corpse, torso, trunk of a body’, Uz gavda ‘id.’, Tu gövde ‘trunk of a body\tree’. 
▪ Dolgopolsky2002#650 reconstructs WSem *gīp- ~ *gūp- ‘body’ (connected with WSem *gawp- ‘hollow’, cf. Ar ↗ǧawf) and, outside Sem, Turk *k˺|k_æbdæ(ŋ) ‘body, trunk of a body, corpse’ < Alt *k˺æp˹a˺- ‘body, trunk of a body’. For both, the author assumes an origin in Nostr *gæ˹ʔ˺Up˅ ‘body’. 
– 
ǧāfa i, vb. I, ǧawwafa, vb. II, and taǧawwafa, vb. V, to be putrid, stink (decaying cadaver) : denom. 
ǦYL جيل 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦYL 
“root” 
▪ ǦYL_1 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ǦYL_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
▪…
▪…
▪ From WSem *√GYL ‘to rejoice’ – Huehnergard2011.
▪…
 
– 
DRS 2 (1994) #GW/YL-1 nHbr Aram gwl ‘faire le cercle, rouler’; Ar ǧāla ‘tourner, faire un cercle’, ǧāl ‘parapets d’un puits’, maǧāl ‘cercle, arène’, ǧūl, ǧawīl ‘poussière soulevée en tourbillons’; SAr gwl ‘propriété; année’; Gz Te gol ‘étable’; Amh gäwäl alä ‘tourner, se mouvoir lourdement’; Syr gāl ‘bouillonner’, ʔagīl ‘écarter’; nSyr ǧāil ‘faire un tour, une promenade; chercher’; Te golälä ‘séparer’; Tña gʷälälä ‘tamiser’; nHbr gīl ‘former un cercle, se rassembler’; Ar ǧīl ‘troupe d’hommes; tribu; âge d’homme, génération’; Ug *gyl ‘se réjouir’; Hbr *gāl ‘exulter, sauter de joie’; ? Te gola ‘chanter et danser’; Te Tña goyla: danse. -?2 Ar ǧulaẗ ‘champ’; SAr gwl, Gz gʷəlt ‘terre concédée en usufruit’. -3 nHbr gāwīl ‘pierre non taillée’. -4 Ug gwl ‘parler (?)’. -5 Soq g(y)ōle, g(y)ʕole, Mhr ǧōlū, Śḥr géle ‘maladie’, gíli ‘être malade’; Te guyul ‘être pris d’une maladie durable’.
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ǧīl جِيل 
ID 189 • Sw – • BP 1103 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ǦYL 
n. 
1 people, nation, tribe; 2 generation; 3a century; b epoch, era – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 2 (1994) #GW/YL-1 nHbr Aram gwl ‘faire le cercle, rouler’; Ar ǧāla ‘tourner, faire un cercle’, ǧāl ‘parapets d’un puits’, maǧāl ‘cercle, arène’, ǧūl, ǧawīl ‘poussière soulevée en tourbillons’; SAr gwl ‘propriété; année’; Gz Te gol ‘étable’; Amh gäwäl alä ‘tourner, se mouvoir lourdement’; Syr gāl ‘bouillonner’, ʔagīl ‘écarter’; nSyr ǧāil ‘faire un tour, une promenade; chercher’; Te golälä ‘séparer’; Tña gʷälälä ‘tamiser’; nHbr gīl ‘former un cercle, se rassembler’; Ar ǧīl ‘troupe d’hommes; tribu; âge d’homme, génération’; Ug *gyl ‘se réjouir’; Hbr *gāl ‘exulter, sauter de joie’; ? Te gola ‘chanter et danser’; Te Tña goyla: danse. -?2 Ar ǧulaẗ ‘champ’; SAr gwl, Gz gʷəlt ‘terre concédée en usufruit’.
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– 
 
ḥāʔ حاء 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ 
R₁ 
The letter of the Arabic alphabet. 
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ḥānūt حانوت , pl. ḥawānītᵘ 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 5Sep2022
√ 
n. (m./f.) 
1a store, shop; b wineshop, tavern – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ See ↗ḤNW/Y. 
– 
– 
– 
– 
– 
ḤBː (ḤBB) حبّ/حبب 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9Mar2023
√ḤBː (ḤBB) 
“root” 
▪ ḤBː (ḤBB)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤBː (ḤBB)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤBː (ḤBB)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘grains, seeds, plants, bulbs; core of the heart, affection, love, to love, prefer; loved one, a friend; dew’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ḤBR حبر 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9Mar2023
√ḤBR 
“root” 
▪ ḤBR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤBR_2 ‘Jewish Doctor of the Law’ ↗ḥabr
▪ ḤBR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘trace of an old mound, striped cloth made in the Yemen; embroidery, to embroider, silken material; to make beautiful, make happy, make pleasant; ink, writing; learned person, priest, rabbi, an authority in matters of faith’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ḥabr حَبْر , var. ḥibr, pl. ʔaḥbār 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 2Jun2023
√ḤBR
 
n. 
Jewish Doctor of the Law – Jeffery1938. 
▪ … 
▪ eC7 Q v, 48, 68; ix, 31, 34 – Jeffery1938. 
▪ Jeffery1938: »The Commentators knew that it was a technical Jewish title and quote as an example of its use Kaʕb al-Aḥbār144 , the well-known convert from Judaism. It was generally taken, however, as a genuine Arabic word derived from ḥabira, to leave a scar (as of a wound), the Divines being so called because of the deep impression their teaching makes on the lives of their students; so Rāġib, Mufradāt, 104. / Geiger, 49, 53, claims that it is derived from [Hbr] ḥāḇēr ‘teacher’, commonly used in the Rabbinic writings as a title of honour, e.g. Mish. Sanh. 60b mh ʔhrn ḥbr ʔp bnyw ḥbrym ‘as Aaron was a Doctor so were his sons Doctors’.145 Geiger’s theory has been accepted by von Kremer, Ideen, 226 n., and Fraenkel, Vocab, 23, and is doubtless correct, though Grünbaum, ZDMG, xxxix: 582, thinks that in coming into Arabic it was not uninfluenced by the Ar ḫabara, ʔaḫbara, ḫabīr. Mingana, Syr Influence, 87, suggests that the word is of Syr origin (see also Cheikho, Naṣrāniyya, 191), but this is unlikely. The word was evidently quite well known in pre-Islamic Arabia,146 and thus known to Muḥammad from his contact with Jewish communities. It was borrowed in the form of the singular and given can Arabic plural.«
 
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– 
ḤBS حبس 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9Mar2023
√ḤBS 
“root” 
▪ ḤBS_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤBS_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤBS_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to detain, restrict, confine, prison; to endow’ 
▪ … 
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– 
– 
ḤBṬ حبط 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9Mar2023
√ḤBṬ 
“root” 
▪ ḤBṬ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤBṬ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤBṬ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘cattle disease of swelling of the stomach caused by overeating and gas, to bloat; to be frustrated, come to nothing, be undone, be futile, be of no avail’ 
▪ … 
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ḤBK حبك 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤBK 
“root” 
▪ ḤBK_1 ‘to weave, twist, tighten, knit; fabric, tissue, texture’ ↗ḥabaka
▪ ḤBK_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘knot, belt, girdle; to weave tightly, to braid; track, lines, trails of ships, wake, orbits of stars and planets’ 
▪ … 
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DRS 9 (2010)#ḤBK: cette forme radicale fait partie d’un ensemble de racines reliées sémantiquement et voisines par la constitution consonantique: ḤBKR, ḤBLK, ḤBQ, ḤBLQ, ḤBQQ, ḤPQ, ḤQP. Chacune de ces variantes radicales sera traitée à sa place. L’entrée Ḥ(/ʕ?)B/PK/Q vise à marquer les liens qui existent entre elles, doublant ainsi partiellement les notices particulières.
DRS 9 (2010)#Ḥ(/ʕ?)B/PK/Q--1 Akk epēqu, nSyr ḥāpiq; Ug ḥbq, Hbr ḥibbēq, JP ḥabbēq, Syr ḥᵊbaq ‘étreindre, embrasser’, Mhr ḥǝbūk, Jib ḥɔ̄k ‘réunir par une couture, repriser’, Soq ḥǝ́bɔk ‘étreindre’, ḥtbq ‘s’embrasser’, Mhr eḥtefōq, Śḥr eḥtefeq ‘étreindre’, Jib ḥfɔḳ, Ḥrs ḥəfōq, Mhr ḥátfəq ‘embrasser’. – ? Soq ḥéybaq ‘précipice étroit’. – Syr ḥᵊbak ‘mélanger, réunir’, Ar ḥabbaqa ‘rassembler ses effets, ranger ses affaires, etc.’; – Mhr ḥáyfǝḳ, Jib ḥfɔḳ ‘protéger, faire un rempart de son corps, couver’, Mhr ḥəfōḳ ‘faire la sourde oreille à qui demande à recouvrer un bien gagé’, Jib ḥfɔḳ ‘couvrir les pis pour préserver le lait’. Gz taḥabqaqa ‘mélanger’. – Ar ḥabaka ‘ramasser ses effets, ranger ses affaires, tisser solidement, lier fortement, relier’, EgAr ḥabak ‘ajuster; s’imposer’, ḥibāk ‘corde (qu’on s’enroule autour de la taille); taille (partie du corps); enclos pour du bétail fait avec des roseaux croisés et attachés; traînée, ligne’, SudAr ḥibāk ‘manière de s’envelopper étroitemen dans ses vêtements en en serrant les bords’, maḥbūkaẗ ‘sorte de chaussure ornée’; ? ḥabak ‘arriver au lieu où on chasse l’éléphant et la girafe’. – Gz ḥāqafa, Te ḥaqfa, Tña ḥaqʷäfä, Arg ḥaqqäfä, Amh aqqäfä, Gur ḥanqäfä, Har ḥafäqa ‘étreindre, embrasser’; – nHbr ḥębęq: boucle, ruban de cou, bande avec laquelle on attache la selle autour du ventre de l’animal. – ? Syr ʕᵊpaq ‘embrasser, enclore, étreindre’. -2 Ar ḥabaka, ḥabaqa ‘péter’, ḥabq ‘coup de fouet’. -3 ḥabaka ‘couper, tronquer’, ḥubuk ‘morceau’. – Outside Sem: (Cush) Kambatta hanqáffo, Sid hanqáfi, Sa haqaf sont des emprunts au Sem. 
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▪ … 
▪ [actually pertinent to ḤBQ rather than ḤBK] The name Habakkuk appears in the Hbr Bible only in Habakkuk 1:1 and 3:1. Masoretic writing: חֲבַקּוּק‎ Ḥăḇaqqûq. This name does not occur elsewhere. Septuagint Ἀμβακοὺμ (Ambakoùm), Vulgate Abacuc. – Etymology unclear, form has no parallel in Hbr. Possibly related to Akk ḫabbaququ (name of a fragrant plant) [CAD: < ḫambaququ 1 (a plant), 2 (a fruit tree); Wehr: Ar ḥabaq ‘basil’ (bot.); EgAr ‘a variety of speedwell (Veronica anagallis aquatica L.)’] or the Hbr root ḤBQ ‘to embrace’. 
– 
ḥabak‑ حَبَك , i, u (ḥabk
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤBK 
vb., I 
1a to weave well and tight; 1b to braid, plait (hair), twist (a rope); 1c to knit (stockings); 1d to tighten, draw tight, make firm and solid; 1e to bind (a book); 2 to devise, contrive (a plan, a plot) – WehrCowan1979. 
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▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
ḥabbaka, vb. II, 1a to plait, twist; 1b to tighten, make firm, fasten; 1c to interlace: D-stem, ints.
ĭḥtabaka, vb. VIII, 1a to weave well and tight; 1b to be(come) interlaced, interwoven, be arranged crosswise (like threads of a fabric): Gt-stem.

ḥabk: ǧayyid al-ḥabk, adj., well and tighty woven; tight-fitting, well-made.
ḥabkaẗ, n.f., 1a texture, structure; 1b web of the plot, plot (of a drama, novel): vn. I, n.un.
ḥubkaẗ, pl. ḥubak, n.f., belt, girdle.
ḥubuk: ḥubuk al-nuǧūm, the orbits of the celestial bodies.
ḥibākaẗ, n.f., weaver’s trade, weaving: FiʕāLaẗ pattern for professions.
maḥbūk, adj., 1a tightly woven; 1b tight, tightly drawn; 1c well-knit, sturdy, firm, solid; 1d solidly worked, well-made: PP I.

 
ḤBL حبل 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤBL 
“root” 
▪ ḤBL_1 ‘rope, cable’ ↗ḥabl
▪ ḤBL_2 ‘to conceive, be(come) pregnant’ ↗ḥabila

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘rope, halter; connection, link, means, covenant, pledge; snare, wiles, stratagem; to conceive a child’ 
▪ [v1] From protSem *ḥabl‑ ʻcord, rope’.
▪ [v2] (Militarev&Kogan2000 SED I: #110, #21ᵥ:) From protSem *ḥabal‑ , *ḥibl‑ ʻfoetus; umbilical cord’ (> Hbr Aram Ar modSAr, ?Akk) and a corresponding (less frequently attested) vb., protCSem *ḥbl ʻto be pregnant, conceive’ (> Hbr Aram Ar). The authors think that »ʻ[f]oetus’ is possibly the original meaning, the other meaning ʻumbilical cord’ having developed through contamination with [v1] protSem *ḥabl‑ ʻcord, rope’«. – Kogan’s wording in Kogan2015 is slightly less exclusive; here, the author interprets the evidence discussed in SED I as »perhaps« pointing to a »possible connection«. 
– 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤBL-1 protSem *ḥabl‑ ‘corde (pour lier)’: Akk ebl‑, Ug ḥbl, Hbr ḥȩbȩl, EmpAram *ḥbl ‘corde (?)’, Syr ḥablā, Mnd habla, Ar ḥabl, Soq ḥábehol; Gz ḥabl, ḫabl, Te ḥabl, Tña ḥabli, Amh ḥabl; Mhr ḥōbəl ‘lanière de cuir ceignant le front’, Ḥrs ḥōbəl ‘entrave’ Soq ḥábhol ‘harnais de cuir servant à monter au tronc des palmiers’, Mhr maḥbēl ‘ligne’. – Akk ebēlu ‘prendre au filet’, Ar ḥabala ‘tendre un filet pour prendre une bête; prendre au filet’; ḥibl ‘fin, rusé, habile’, Soq šḥabil ‘remarquer’. – Ug ḥbl ‘troupeau, volée (d’oiseaux) bande, compagnie’, Hbr ḥebel ‘bande, compagnie’ Ar ḥabala ‘lier avec une corde; faire un traité’, DaṯAr ḥabl ‘parentèle, tribu’, Sab Min ḥbl ‘alliance, pacte’, Sab ḥbl ‘conclure un pacte’, Qat ḥbl ‘troupe, bande’; Te ḥabbälä ‘tresser’; Akk ebl‑: mesure de surface, Hbr ḥȩbȩl: corde pour mesurer, surface, portion mesurée, YemAr ḥabīl: terre inculte située en hauteur; – ? -2 Pun ḥ(?)bl, Hbr ḥobel ‘batelier, marin’. -3 Hbr *ḥibbel ‘concevoir, enfanter’, JP Syr ḥᵊbal ‘être enceinte, concevoir, mettre au monde’, Ar ḥabila ‘concevoir, être enceinte’, ḥublāʔ ‘(femme, femelle) enceinte’; Hbr ḥébel, Syr ḥeblā ‘douleurs de l’enfantement’, JP ḥabbel ‘sentir les douleurs de l’ enfantement’, Ar ḥabal ‘foetus dans la matrice’, maḥbil ‘utérus’; Mhr ḥəblēt, Ḥrs həbəlēt, EJib ḥablɛ́t ‘cordon ombilical’; – Ar ḥabl ‘lourdeur, pesanteur’, ḥablān ‘lourd de, empli de colère, etc.’, ḥibl ‘calamité, infortune’. -4 Ar ḥābalat ‘pied de vigne’, Sab ḥblt (pl.) ‘champs, vignes en terrasse’. -5 Ar ḥublat: fruit de tout arbre à épines, Soq ḥébehal ‘tamarin’, Ḥrs ḥōbəl: plante arbustive; ḥəbəlēt ‘fruit du samr (un acacia)’, Mhr ḥəbəlīt, EJib ḥīźét: cosse de diverses plantes. -6 Tña ḥabbälä ‘être borgne’. – 7 ḥabal ‘colère, tristesse’.
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▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
– 
– 
ḥabil‑ حَبِلَ , a (ḥabal
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤBL 
vb., I 
to be or become pregnant, conceive – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ Akin to ↗ḥabl ʻrope’? Schulthess does not think so: »Mit […] ʻSeil’ werden die eben besprochenen Wörter [to be\become pregnant, conceive, labor pain] kaum zusammenhängen« (1900: 25). Militarev&Kogan2000, too, keep ʻrope’ apart from Ar ḥabal ʻfoetus’ (SED I #110) and ḥabila ʻconcevoir, devenir enceinte, grosse (d’un foetus) [BK]’ (SED I #21ᵥ) and its cognates.
▪ On account of the inner-Sem cognates, Militarev&Kogan2000 (SED I: #110, #21ᵥ) reconstruct protSem *ḥabal‑ , *ḥibl‑ ʻfoetus; umbilical cord’ (> Hbr Aram Ar modSAr, ?Akk) and a corresponding (less frequently attested) vb., protCSem *ḥbl ʻto be pregnant, conceive’ (> Hbr Aram Ar). The authors think that »ʻ[f]oetus’ is possibly the original meaning, the other meaning ʻumbilical cord’ having developed through contamination with protSem *ḥabl‑ ʻcord, rope’«.
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤBL-1-2 […]. -3 Hbr *ḥibbel ‘concevoir, enfanter’, JP Syr ḥᵊbal ‘être enceinte, concevoir, mettre au monde’, Ar ḥabila ‘concevoir, être enceinte’, ḥublà ‘(femme, femelle) enceinte’; Hbr ḥébel, Syr ḥeblā ‘douleurs de l’enfantement’, JP ḥabbel ‘sentir les douleurs de l’enfantement’, Ar ḥabal ‘foetus dans la matrice’, maḥbil ‘utérus’; Mhr ḥəblēt, Ḥrs həbəlēt, EJib ḥablɛ́t ‘cordon ombilical’ […]. -4-7 […].
▪ … 
▪ See above, section CONC. 
– 
ḥabbala, vb. II, and ʔaḥbala, vb. IV, to make pregnant (‑hā, a woman): D- and *Š-stems, respectively; denom., caus.

ḥabal, n., 1 conception; 2 pregnancy
ḥublà, pl. ḥabālà and ḥablānaẗ, adj.f., pregnant: elative formation for physical affliction.

For other values of the root, see ↗ḥabl and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤBL.
 
ḥabl حَبْل , pl. ḥibāl, ʔaḥbul, ḥubūl, ʔaḥbāl 
ID 190 • Sw –/122 • BP 3039 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤBL 
n. 
1a rope, cable, hawser; b cord, string, thread; 2 pl. ḥibāl, beam, ray (e.g., of the sun, of light), jet (e.g., of water); 3 vein; 4 sinew, tendon – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ (DRS 9 #ḤBL-1, Kogan2015: 189) From protSem *ḥabl‑ ʻcord, rope’.
▪ Related to ↗ḥabila ‘to be(come) pregnant’? – See below, section DISC.
▪ … 
eC7 Q 3:103, 112, 20:66, 26:44, 50:16, 111:5 ʻrope, cordʼ
▪ The meaning ʻto snare a wild beast with a halterʼ of the obsol. vb. I is »obviously denominative«, as remarked already by Jeffery1938.
▪ … 
▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘rope’) Akk eblu, Hbr ḥéḇel, Syr ḥaḇlā, Gz ḥabl.
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤBL-1 protSem *ḥabl‑ ‘corde (pour lier)’: Akk ebl‑, Ug ḥbl, Hbr ḥȩbȩl, EmpAram *ḥbl ‘corde (?)’, Syr ḥablā, Mnd habla, Ar ḥabl, Soq ḥábehol; Gz ḥabl, ḫabl, Te ḥabl, Tña ḥabli, Amh ḥabl; Mhr ḥōbəl ‘lanière de cuir ceignant le front’, Ḥrs ḥōbəl ‘entrave’ Soq ḥábhol ‘harnais de cuir servant à monter au tronc des palmiers’, Mhr maḥbēl ‘ligne’. – Akk ebēlu ‘prendre au filet’, Ar ḥabala ‘tendre un filet pour prendre une bête; prendre au filet’; ḥibl ‘fin, rusé, habile’, Soq šḥabil ‘remarquer’. – Ug ḥbl ‘troupeau, volée (d’oiseaux) bande, compagnie’, Hbr ḥebel ‘bande, compagnie’ Ar ḥabala ‘lier avec une corde; faire un traité’, DaṯAr ḥabl ‘parentèle, tribu’, Sab Min ḥbl ‘alliance, pacte’, Sab ḥbl ‘conclure un pacte’, Qat ḥbl ‘troupe, bande’; Te ḥabbälä ‘tresser’; Akk ebl‑: mesure de surface, Hbr ḥȩbȩl: corde pour mesurer, surface, portion mesurée, YemAr ḥabīl: terre inculte située en hauteur.
▪ … 
▪ Jeffery1938, 107-108 follows Zimmern1914 in assuming an Aram (< Akk?) origin of the Qur’ānic ḥabl ʻrope’ : »The original meaning of ‘cordʼ occurs in cxi: 5, ‘a cord of palm fibre,ʼ and in the Aaron story in xx: 66; xxvi: 44; all of which are Meccan passages. In L:16, it is used figuratively of a ‘veinʼ in the neck, and in the Madinan Sūra, iii, the ‘cord of Godʼ, ʻcord of menʼ, apparently means a compact. – Zimmern, Akkad. Fremdw, 15 (cf. also his Babylonische Busspsalmen, 93 n.), declares that the Akk ḫbl is the source of the Hbr חֶבֶל; Aram חבלא; Syr ḥablā, and that this Aram form is the source of both the Ar ḥabl and the Eth [Gz] ḥabala . – While there may be some doubt about the ultimate derivation from Akk (see BDB, 286), the Ar verb ḥbl is obviously denominative ʻto snare a wild beast with a halterʼ, and we may accept its derivation from the Aram as certain.147 – The Syr ḥablā seems to have been the origin of the Arm hałrk’,148 and we may suspect that the Ar word came from the same source. In any case it must have been an early borrowing as it occurs in the old poetry.« – Jeffery’s conclusion is contested by Pennacchio: »In the Qur’ān, the word ḥabl means both ‘rope’ and ‘link’ in the figurative sense, in the same way that the BiblHbr term ḥeḇel designates both ‘a rope’ (Josh 2:15) and ‘a territory, a region’ (Josh 19:9 and Deut 3:4). The origin of the Hbr ḥeḇel and of the Aram and Syr ḥblʔ could well be the Akk naḫabalu meaning ‘rope, trap’. For Jeffery, the Ar ḥabl may come from Aram or from Syr; the scholar is certain that the Ar vb. ḥbl is a loanword because it is a denominative. Jeffery relies on Zimmern, who nonetheless doubts the Aram origin of the loanword. It seems that the Akk vb. ḫabâlu first meant ‘to oppress, to deceive (s.o.)’. The word then evolved to mean ‘to tie, to trap’, then ‘to capture, to take’, and finally ‘to damage, to destroy’. The word ḥabl appears in pre-Isl poetry, which points to its ancient existence in the Ar language, a hypothesis further supported by the fact that the Ar broken pl. ḥibāl ‘ropes’ is mentioned twice in the Qur’ān. However, the Ug m.n. ḥbl ‘rope, string’ has the same form as the Ar term, which could mean that it is a common Sem word. Nothing proves that it was borrowed from Aram, as Jeffery suggests« (2011: 6).
▪ Any connection with ↗ḥabila ‘to be(come) pregnant’? – Schulthess does not think so: »Mit […] ʻSeil’ werden die eben besprochenen Wörter [to be\become pregnant, conceive, labor pain] kaum zusammenhängen« (1900: 25). Militarev&Kogan2000, too, keep ʻrope’ apart from Ar ḥabal ʻfoetus’ (SED I #110) and ḥabila ʻconcevoir, devenir enceinte, grosse (d’un foetus) [BK]’ (SED I #21ᵥ), but think that some contamination may have happened between the two values, producing a meaning like ʻumbilical cord’. Nevertheless, Kogan2015 would not exclude that a relation »perhaps« exists.
▪ …
▪ … 
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ḥabl al-warīd, n., jugular vein
al-ḥabl al-surrī, n., umbilical cord
al-ḥabl al-šawkī, n., spine
ḥibāl ṣawtiyyaẗ, n.pl., vocal cords;
ḥabl al-musākayn, n. (bot.), ivy;
ḥibāl al-māʔ, n.pl., jets of water;
ʔalqà (ʔaṭlaqa) ’l-ḥabl ʕalà ’l-ġārib, expr., to let things go, slacken the reins, give a free hand, impose no restraint;
ĭrtiḫāʔ al-ḥabl, n., 1 slackening of the reins, yielding; 2 relenting;
ĭḍṭaraba ḥablu-hū, vb. VIII, to get into a state of disorder, of disorganization, of disintegration, get out of control;
laʕiba ʕalà ’l-ḥablayn, vb. I, to play a double game, work both sides of the street

ĭḥtabala, vb. VIII, to ensnare, catch (s.o., s.th.) in a snare: Gt-stem, denom., self-ref.

ʔuḥbūlaẗ, pl. ʔaḥābilᵘ, n.f., 1 snare, net; 2 rope with a noose; 3 pl. ʔaḥābilᵘ, tricks, wiles, artifices, stratagems (in order to get s.th.)
ḥibālaẗ, pl. ḥabāʔilᵘ, n.f., snare, net
ḥābil: ĭḫtalaṭa ’l-ḥābil bi’l-nābil, expr., everything became confused, got into a state of utter confusion; ḥābilu-hum wa-nābilu-hum, expr., together, all in a medley

For other values of the root, see ↗ḥabila and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤBL.
 
ḤTM حتم 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9Mar2023
√ḤTM 
“root” 
▪ ḤTM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤTM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤTM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘fate, decree, to ordain, make absolutely irreversible; black; ill-fated’ 
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ḤṮː (ḤṮṮ) حثّ/حثث 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9Mar2023
√ ḤṮː (ḤṮṮ) 
“root” 
▪ ḤṮː (ḤṮṮ)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤṮː (ḤṮṮ)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤṮː (ḤṮṮ)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to urge, spur on; to be fast, energetic; agitation; continuous motion’ 
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– 
– 
ḤǦː (ḤǦǦ) حجّ / حجج 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤǦː(ḤǦǦ) 
“root” 
▪ ḤǦː (ḤǦǦ)_1 ‘hajj, pilgrimage to Mecca’ ↗ḥaǧǧ
▪ ḤǦː (ḤǦǦ)_2 ‘to dispute, debate, argue, reason’ ↗ḥaǧǧa
▪ ḤǦː (ḤǦǦ)_3 ‘circumorbital ring (anat.)’ ↗ḥaǧāǧ

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘head fracture, to test the depth of a head fracture; proof, argument, to argue, to defeat in an argument; to visit, to make a pilgrimage – particularly to the Holy Mosque in Mecca, pilgrim; a year’s work, year’. 
▪ [v1] From CSem *√ḤGG ‘to make a pilgrimage’ – Huehnergard2011.
▪ [v1] DRS 9 (2010) #ḤGG-1 protSem *ḤaGG ‘fête religieuse’.
▪ The primary value may have been ‘to danse\move around s.th. in a circle’, as already suggested by Nöldeke ZDMG 41: 719 (qtd in Landberg1920: 353).
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DRS 9 (2010) #ḤGG-1 Hbr ḥāgag ‘danser, tournoyer’, ḥāg, JP ḥᵃgag ‘décrire un cercle’, Ar ḥaǧāǧ ‘os de l’orbite’. – protSem *ḤaGG ‘fête religieuse’: Hbr ḥāg, ḥag(g‑), Nab ḥgg ‘faire un pèlerinage’, Palm ḥᵃgīgā ‘fête religieuse (avec pèlerinage)’, Syr ḥaggā ‘ fête; réunion’, Ar ḥaǧǧ ‘pèlerinage à la Mecque ou à Jérusalem’, ḥaǧǧa ‘marcher, aller, se rendre à, ou vers qc de révéré, faire le pèlerinage’, maḥaǧǧaẗ ‘route, partie (de la route sur laquelle on marche)’, Ṣaf ḥg ‘se porter vers’, Sab Qat ḥg, Mhr ḥag, Ḥrs ḥəg, Jib ḥegg, Soq ḥgg ‘aller au pèlerinage’; Mhr Soq ḥag, Jib ḥagg, EJib ḥag ‘pèlerinage’; Mhr ḥəggōg, Jib ḥag, EJib ḥɔ́gɔ́g ‘pèlerin’, Mhr ḥəjōjī ‘derviche’; – Syr ḥaggā ‘retranchement, confluent’. -2 Ar ḥaǧǧa ‘l’emporter dans la dispute, réfuter par des arguments’, ḥuǧǧaẗ ‘preuve, argument’, SudAr ĭḥtažž ‘s’opposer’, ḥužža ‘querelle’, Sab Min ḥg ‘ordonnance, droit, titre’, Mhr ḥag, Ḥrs ḥəg, Jib ḥegg ‘empêcher une/sa femme d’épouser un autre homme’; Gz ḥaggaga ‘faire des lois, décréter, ordonner’, Tña ḥəggi ‘loi, règlement, coutume’, Iḥaggägä ‘faire une loi’, Te ḥagga ‘être fixé, sûr’, ḥaggägä ‘délimiter’, Amh Gur ḥəgg ‘loi, coutume’; Sab Qat ḥg, bḥg, ḥgn, ḥngn, Gz ḥəgga ‘comme, selon’. -3 Ar ḥaǧǧa ‘explorer, sonder (une blessure à la tête); trépaner’, ĭḥtaǧǧa ‘être dur, solide (crâne)’. – ḥiǧǧaẗ, ḥaǧǧaẗ ‘trou (au lobe de l’oreille), pendant d’oreille’. -4 Tña ḥagägä ‘exhaler une odeur forte’. -5 ḥagəg: locution exprimant grondement et menaces, ḥagəg bälä ‘gronder, grogner (chien)’. -6 ḥagʷägʷä ‘être échaudé par le soleil ou la gelée, roussir, dépérir, être stérile; oublier par inadvertance; importuner’.
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▪ Engl Dhu'l-Hijjah, hajḥaǧǧ
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ḥaǧǧ‑ / ḥaǧaǧ‑ حَجّ , u 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤǦː (ḤǦǦ) 
vb., I 
1a to overcome, defeat (s.o., with arguments, with evidence), confute (s.o.); b to convince (s.o.); – 2ḥaǧǧ – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ Originally *‘to circulate around s.th.’? Cf. Hbr ḥāgag ‘danser, tournoyer’, ḥāg, JP ḥᵃgag ‘décrire un cercle’, Ar ḥaǧāǧ ‘os de l’orbite’ (DRS #ḤGG-1).
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DRS 9 (2010) #ḤGG-2 Ar ḥaǧǧa ‘l’emporter dans la dispute, réfuter par des arguments’, ḥuǧǧaẗ ‘preuve, argument’, SudAr ĭḥtažž ‘s’opposer’, ḥužža ‘querelle’, Sab Min ḥg ‘ordonnance, droit, titre’, Mhr ḥag, Ḥrs ḥəg, Jib ḥegg ‘empêcher une/sa femme d’épouser un autre homme’; Gz ḥaggaga ‘faire des lois, décréter, ordonner’, Tña ḥəggi ‘loi, règlement, coutume’, Iḥaggägä ‘faire une loi’, Te ḥagga ‘être fixé, sûr’, ḥaggägä ‘délimiter’, Amh Gur ḥəgg ‘loi, coutume’; Sab Qat ḥg, bḥg, ḥgn, ḥngn, Gz ḥəgga ‘comme, selon’. -3-6 […].
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– 
ḥāǧǧa, vb. III, to dispute, debate, argue, reason (with s.o.): L-stem, associative.
ʔaḥaǧǧa, vb. IV, 1 to argue against each other, carry on a dispute, to debate; 2 to take counsel: *Š-stem, denom.
ĭḥtaǧǧa, vb. VIII, 1 to advance (bi‑ s.th.) as an argument, plea, excuse, or pretext; 2 to allege in support or vindication, plead (bi‑ s.th.); 3 to vindicate, justify (li‑ s.th.); 4 to protest, remonstrate (ʕalà against), object, raise objections (ʕalà to): Gt-stem, self-refer.

ḥiǧāǧ, n., argument, dispute, debate.
taḥaǧǧuǧ, n., argumentation, pleading, offering of a pretext, pretence, excuse: vn. V, from an obsol. Dt-stem, denom., self-ref. (<*‘to make use of s.th. as an argument, ḥuǧǧaẗ, for o.s.’).
BP#2662ĭḥtiǧāǧ, pl. ‑āt, n., 1 argumentation; 2 pretext, excuse, plea, pretence; 3 protest, remonstrance (ʕalà against), objection, exception (ʕalà to): vn. VIII.
BP#1851ḥuǧǧaẗ, pl. ḥuǧaǧ, n.f., 1 argument; 2 pretence, pretext, plea; 3 proof, evidence; 4 document, writ, deed, record; 5 authoritative source, competent authority | bi‑~ ʔanna, expr., under the pretence that…, on the plea…, on the pretext of…: perh. the etymon proper from which the vb. I ḥaǧǧa is derived.

For other values of the root, see ↗ḥaǧǧ and ↗ḥaǧāǧ as well as, for the overall picture, ↗√ḤǦː (ḤǦǦ). 
ḥaǧǧ حَجّ 
ID 191 • Sw – • BP 2463 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤǦː (ḤǦǦ) 
n. 
the official Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca – WehrCowan1979. 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤGG-1 protSem *ḤaGG ‘fête religieuse’.
▪ From an original *‘to form a circle round s.th.’?
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▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤGG-1 Hbr ḥāgag ‘danser, tournoyer’, ḥāg, JP ḥᵃgag ‘décrire un cercle’, Ar ḥaǧāǧ ‘os de l’orbite’. – protSem *ḤaGG ‘fête religieuse’: Hbr ḥāg, ḥag(g‑), Nab ḥgg ‘faire un pèlerinage’, Palm ḥᵃgīgā ‘fête religieuse (avec pèlerinage)’, Syr ḥaggā ‘ fête; réunion’, Ar ḥaǧǧ ‘pèlerinage à la Mecque ou à Jérusalem’, ḥaǧǧa ‘marcher, aller, se rendre à, ou vers qc de révéré, faire le pèlerinage’, maḥaǧǧaẗ ‘route, partie (de la route sur laquelle on marche)’, Ṣaf ḥg ‘se porter vers’, Sab Qat ḥg, Mhr ḥag, Ḥrs ḥəg, Jib ḥegg, Soq ḥgg ‘aller au pèlerinage’; Mhr Soq ḥag, Jib ḥagg, EJib ḥag ‘pèlerinage’; Mhr ḥəggōg, Jib ḥag, EJib ḥɔ́gɔ́g ‘pèlerin’, Mhr ḥəjōjī ‘derviche’; – Syr ḥaggā ‘retranchement, confluent’.
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▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Dhu'l-Hijjah, from Ar ḏū ’l-ḥiǧǧaẗ ‘the one of the pilgrimage’; haj, from Ar ḥaǧǧ ‘pilgrimage’; both from Ar ḥaǧǧa, vb. I, ‘to make a pilgrimage’; haji, from Ar ḥāǧǧ ‘pilgrim’, PA of ḥaǧǧa (see above). 
ḥaǧǧa, u, vb. I, 1ḥaǧǧa; – 2 (ḥaǧǧ) to make the pilgrimage (to Mecca), perform the hadj: denom.

maḥaǧǧ, n., destination (of a journey): n.loc.,lit., *‘destination of pilgrimage’ (?).
maḥaǧǧaẗ, pl. maḥāǧǧ, n.f., 1a destination of a pilgrimage, object of pilgrimage, shrine; b destination (of a journey); c goal; 2a road; b way; 3 procedure, method: n.loc. | ~ al-ṣawāb, n.f., the Right Way, the Straight Path; ~ al-ḥadīd, n.f., railroad
BP#1155ḥāǧǧ, pl. ḥuǧǧāǧ, var. ḥaǧīǧ, n., hadji, Mecca pilgrim, honorific title of one who has performed the pilgrimage to Mecca: PA I.
ḥaǧāǧ, pl. ʔaḥiǧǧaẗ, n., circumorbital ring (anat.)

For other values of the root, see ↗ḥaǧǧa and ↗ḥaǧāǧ as well as, for the overall picture, ↗√ḤǦː (ḤǦǦ). 
ḥaǧāǧ حَجاج , pl. ʔaḥiǧǧaẗ 
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√ḤǦː (ḤǦǦ) 
n. 
circumorbital ring (anat.) – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ Based on an original *‘to form a circle round s.th.’?
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▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤGG-1 Hbr ḥāgag ‘danser, tournoyer’, ḥāg, JP ḥᵃgag ‘décrire un cercle’, Ar ḥaǧāǧ ‘os de l’orbite’. […]. -2-6 […].
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– 
For other values of the root, see ↗ḥaǧǧa and ↗ḥaǧǧ, as well as, for the overall picture, ↗√ḤǦː (ḤǦǦ). 
ḤǦB حجب 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤǦB 
“root” 
▪ ḤǦB_1 ‘to veil, cover, hide’ ↗ḥaǧaba, ‘a woman’s veil’ ↗ḥiǧāb, ‘doorman, gatekeeper; eye-brow’ ↗ḥāǧib
▪ ḤǦB_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘barrier, cover; to veil, to screen, to seclude, to prevent; to disappear, to vanish; eyebrow; doorkeeper’ 
▪ From CSem *√ḤGB ‘to cover, conceal’ – Huehnergard2011.
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DRS 9 (2010) #ḤGB-1 Palm ḥgbʔ, Syr ḥugbā ‘idole, sanctuaire’, ḥugbānā ‘gardien’, Ar ḥaǧaba ‘cacher, masquer, dérober aux regards’, ḥiǧāb ‘voile, rideau, portière, charme, talisman’, ? ḥāǧib ‘arcade sourcilière, sourcil’, ḥaǧabāni (dual): les deux crêtes iliaques. – Mhr ḥəgūb, Jib ḥɔ́gɔ́b ‘poser les bases, l’armature d’une construction’; Mhr ḥəgūb ‘veiller aux intérêts de qn’; Jib ḥɔ́tgəb ‘être assis en tailleur, les genoux retenus par un tissu noué’. -2 Hbr ḥāgāb: sorte de sauterelle. -3 Soq ḥágib: petit palmier. -4 Ar ḥaǧab ‘respiration’.
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▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl hijabḥiǧāb
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ḥaǧab‑ حَجَبَ , u (ḥaǧb
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤǦB 
vb., I 
1a to veil, cover, screen, shelter, seclude (ʕalà s.th. from); 1b to hide, obscure (ʕan s.th. from s.th. else, e.g., from sight); c to eclipse, outshine, overshadow (s.o.); d to make imperceptible, invisible (ʕan s.th. to); e to conceal (ʕan s.th. from s.o.); 2 to make or form a separation (bayna … wa-bayna … between … and …) – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ From CSem *√ḤGB ‘to cover, conceal’ – Huehnergard2011.
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DRS 9 (2010) #ḤGB-1 Palm ḥgbʔ, Syr ḥugbā ‘idole, sanctuaire’, ḥugbānā ‘gardien’, Ar ḥaǧaba ‘cacher, masquer, dérober aux regards’, ḥiǧāb ‘voile, rideau, portière, charme, talisman’, ? ḥāǧib ‘arcade sourcilière, sourcil’, ḥaǧabāni (dual): les deux crêtes iliaques. – Mhr ḥəgūb, Jib ḥɔ́gɔ́b ‘poser les bases, l’armature d’une construction’; Mhr ḥəgūb ‘veiller aux intérêts de qn’; Jib ḥɔ́tgəb ‘être assis en tailleur, les genoux retenus par un tissu noué’. -2-4 […].
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▪ See above, section CONC.
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▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl hijabḥiǧāb
ḥaǧǧaba, vb. II, 1a to veil, hide, conceal; b to hide from sight, keep in seclusion (‑hā a woman); c to disguise, mask (bi‑ s.th. with): D-stem, partly ints. formation, partly perh. dependent on ḥiǧāb.
taḥaǧǧaba, vb. V, to conceal o.s., hide (ʕan from), flee from sight, veil o.s.: Dt-stem, refl. of II.
ĭnḥaǧaba, vb. VII, 1 to veil o.s., conceal o.s.; 2 to be covered up, become hidden, be obscured: N-stem, refl.-pass.
ĭḥtaǧaba, vb. VIII, 1 to vanish, become invisible, disappear from sight; 2 to veil o.s., conceal o.s., hide; 3 to become hidden, be concealed (ʕan from); 4 to withdraw; 5 to elude perception; 6 to cease or interrupt publication (newspaper, periodical): Gt-stem, self-ref.

BP#4843ḥaǧb, n., 1 seclusion; 2 screening off; 3 keeping away, keeping off: vn. I.
BP#2373ḥiǧāb, pl. ḥuǧub, var. ʔaḥǧibaẗ, n., 1 cover, wrap, drape; 2 curtain; 3 woman’s veil; 4 screen, partition, folding screen; 5 barrier, bar; 6 diaphragm (also al-ḥiǧāb al-ḥāǧiz, n. (anat.)); 7 amulet
ḥiǧābaẗ, n.f., office of gatekeeper: from ḥāǧib in value [v2]
ĭḥtiǧāb, n., 1 concealment, hiddenness, seclusion; 2 veiledness, veiling, purdah: vn VIII.
ḥāǧib, n., 1 concealing, screening, protecting; 2 (pl. ḥuǧǧāb, var. ḥaǧabaẗ) a doorman, gatekeeper; b chamberlain; c orderly (Syr., mil.) | ~ al-maḥkamaẗ, n., court usher; ~ al-hawāʔ, n., airtight, hermetic; – 3 (pl. ḥawāǧibᵘ) eyebrow: PA I and semantic extensions; but [v3] may have a different etymology, see s.v., ↗ ḥāǧib | ~ al-maḥkamaẗ, n., court usher; ~ al-hawāʔ, n., airtight, hermetic
maḥǧūb, adj., concealed, hidden, veiled: PP I.
muḥaǧǧab, adj., veiled, wearing a ḥiǧāb: PP II, denom. from ḥiǧāb
ḥiǧāb حِجاب , pl. ḥuǧub, var. ʔaḥǧibaẗ 
ID 192 • Sw – • BP 2373 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤǦB 
n. 
1 cover, wrap, drape; 2 curtain; 3 woman’s veil; 4 screen, partition, folding screen; 5 barrier, bar; 6 diaphragm (also al-ḥiǧāb al-ḥāǧiz, n. (anat.)); 7 amulet – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ From ↗ḥaǧaba ʻto veil, screen, separate, shelter, protect’.
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▪ See ↗ḥaǧaba.
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▪ See above, section CONC.
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▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl hijab, from Ar ḥiǧāb ‘curtain, veil’, from ḥaǧaba ‘to veil, cover’. 
ḥaǧǧaba, vb. II, 1a to veil, hide, conceal; b to hide from sight, keep in seclusion (‑hā a woman); c to disguise, mask (bi‑ s.th. with): D-stem, can in some respects be regarded as denom. deriv. from ḥiǧāb.
taḥaǧǧaba, vb. V, to conceal o.s., hide (ʕan from), flee from sight, veil o.s.: Dt-stem, refl. of II.

muḥaǧǧab, adj., veiled, wearing a ḥiǧāb: PP II, denom. from ḥiǧāb.

For other values of the root, cf. ↗ḥaǧaba and ↗ḥāǧib as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤǦB. 
ḥāǧib حاجِب , pl. [v2] ḥuǧǧāb, ḥaǧabaẗ, [v3] ḥawāǧibᵘ 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤǦB 
adj.; n. 
1 concealing, screening, protecting; 2a (pl. ḥuǧǧāb, var. ḥaǧabaẗ) a doorman, gatekeeper; b chamberlain; c orderly (Syr., mil.); 3 (pl. ḥawāǧibᵘ) eyebrow – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ PA I, from ↗ḥaǧaba ʻto veil, screen, separate, shelter, protect’. [v2] and [v3] are semantic extensions.
▪ Cf., however, below, section DISC, for a possible different etymology of ḥāǧib ʻeyebrow’ [v3]. 
▪ … 
▪ See ↗ḥaǧaba.
▪ For [v3], cf. also sections CONC and DISC.
▪ … 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ For [v3], Kogan2015:557 (#45) remarks that although in the Ar lexicographic tradition ḥāǧib in the sense of ʻeyebrow’ is thought to be derived from the verbal root ↗√ḤǦB ‘to protect’, one should wonder »whether this interpretation reflects a secondary rearrangement of a more original *ḥāǧil- via popular etymology« (fn.1457). The remark is motivated by the fact that the similarity between Ar ḥāǧib ‘eyebrow’ and Mhr ḥāgəl, Jib ḥágəl, Soq ḥágaḷ (< proto-modMSAr *ḥāgVl-) ‘eyebrow’ »can hardly be accidental« (fn.1456). »One may be tempted to connect [the latter] with the verbal root [protSem] *ḥgl ‘to encircle, surround,’ well attested both within and outside modSAr.«
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ḥāǧib al-maḥkamaẗ, n., court usher
ḥāǧib al-hawāʔ, n., airtight, hermetic.

For other values of the root, cf. ↗ḥaǧaba and ↗ḥiǧāb, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤǦB. 
ḤǦR حجر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤǦR 
“root” 
▪ ḤǦR_1 ʻto deny access, detain, hinder, forbid, interdict; to place under guardianship’ ↗ḥaǧara; ʻroom, cell, compartment’ ↗ḥuǧraẗ; ʻeye socket’ ↗maḥǧir
▪ ḤǦR_2 ʻlap’ ↗ ¹ḥiǧr
▪ ḤǦR_3 ʻmare’ ↗ ²ḥiǧr
▪ ḤǦR_4 ʻstone’ ↗ḥaǧar

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘stone, to stone; to solidify; enclosure, room; to confine; to deny access, to limit, to declare legally incompetent, to freeze; cunning person, brains, discerning faculty’ 
▪ [v1] : Widely attested in Sem; from protSem *ḤǦR ʻto surround, gird, enclose, hence also: to hinder, bar’. – Ar ḥuǧraẗ ʻroom, cell, compartment’ is *ʻenclosure’. Likewise, maḥǧir ʻeye socket’ describes he cavity in the skull which encloses the eyeball. – Cf. also the values of the (now obsol.) vb. II, ḥaǧǧara, ʻêtre entouré du halo (se dit de la lune)’ and ʻavoir l’œil entouré d’une cautérisation’ (BK1860).
▪ [v2] : ʻlap’ is another kind of *ʻenclosure’ and therefore belongs to [v1].
▪ [v3] : Accord. to some Ar lexicographers, ²ḥiǧr is a ʻmare kept for breeding, as though her womb were forbidden to all but generous horses’ (Lane ii: 517). If this interpretation is correct, the word belongs to [v1] and the complex of *ʻto enclose’, hence also ʻto hinder, bar, separate’.
▪ [v4] : For Ar ḥaǧar ʻstone’, Kogan2015: 43 (fn.109) states that »no clear cognates have been discovered so far« in Sem. At the same time, the author asks: »Shall we tentatively surmise a derivation from ḥǧr ‘to prevent, hinder, restrain’, with the semantic development ʻobstacle, border’ > ʻstone’?« If this is a correct etymology, also ḥaǧar ʻstone’ would be dependent on [v1].
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▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘?’) Akk egēru ‘to twist, be(come) twisted, perverse, cross, confuse’, Hbr ḥgr a (o) ‘to gird’, Syr ḥgr a (u) ‘to hinder’, Gz (ḥagl ‘ankle, chain’).
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤGR-1 Akk egeru ‘tordre, être ou devenir tordu, pervers; croiser sur, envelopper, entortiller; empêcher, barrer la route’, Ug ḥgr, Hbr *ḥāgar ‘ceindre’, oAram (Warka) ḫa-gi-ir-ta-ʔ ‘boiteuse’, Nab ḥgr ‘enceinte’, JP ḥagirā, ChrPal ḥgr, mḥgr, JP ḥᵃgar ‘ceindre, sangler’, Mnd *hngr ‘réprimer, retenir’, Syr ḥᵊgar ‘retenir, empêcher, rendre boiteux, boiter’, ḥəgīrā ‘boiteux’; Ar ḥaǧara ‘empêcher d’approcher, interdire’, ḥaǧǧara ‘être entouré d’un halo (lune), faire un enclos’, ḥāǧir ‘mur, haie, digue’, ḥuǧraẗ ‘enclos, chambre’, YemAr maḥǧar: terrain enclos cultivé, cour intérieure’; ḥaǧr, ḥiǧr ‘protection, tutelle, giron; bas-ventre, basque d’un vêtement’, Sab ḥgr ‘réserver (à un usage)’, mḥgr, mḥgrt ‘terre réservée (à un usage)’, Qat ḥgr ‘ordonner, commander’, Mhr ḥəgūr, Ḥrs ḥəgōr, Jib ḥɔ́gɔ́r, Soq ḥə́gɔr ‘surveiller, protéger, être bienveillant’, Ḥrs ḥəgōr, Jib ḥɔ́gɔ́r ‘attendre’, Soq hə́ghər ‘gardien’. – Jib ḥágɛ́r (f.) ‘réunion publique’, Mhr həgrēt, Jib ḥágrɛ́t ‘groupe d’hommes assis en cercle’. Śḥr ḥagerít ‘entourage’, ? Soq ḥižáreh ‘animaux domestiques’; – ? Mhr məḥgēr ‘fossette jugulaire’. – Amh ʔaggärä ‘interdire, arrêter’, ? Gz ḥagarit ‘indigène’. – ? 2 Ar ḥaǧar, SAr ḥgr ‘pierre’, ? Gz ḥagʷər, ḥəgʷər, ḥəgur dans zabiba ḥəgur ‘pépins de raisin’. -3 ḥəgur ‘clarifié (beurre)’. -4 Tña ḥagärä ‘s’inquiéter, abandonner un projet par crainte de fâcheux résultats’.
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▪ The tentative derivation, suggested by Kogan2015, of [v4] ḥaǧar ʻstone’ from √ḤǦR ‘to prevent, hinder, restrain’, does not seem impossible, but is also not really convincing. A semantic development in the opposite direction, i.e. *ʻstone > obstacle, border > to prevent, hinder, restrain’ would look more plausible. For the time being, however, inner-Sem evidence does not allow such a reconstruction – if it reflected historical truth, Ar would be the only Sem lang to have preserved the primary meaning. The latter, however, is rather unlikely, not only because of the absence of the meaning ʻstone’ in other Sem langs, but also in light of the fact that protSem had another word for ʻstone’ which is widely attested in many langs – but completely lost is Ar! (For further details, see ↗ḥaǧar).
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ḥaǧar‑ حَجَرَ , u (ḥaǧr, ḥiǧr, ḥuǧr, ḥiǧrān, ḥuǧrān
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤǦR 
vb., I 
1a to deny access (ʕalà to s.o.); b to stop, detain, hinder (ʕalà or s.o.); c to forbid, interdict (ʕalà s.th. to s.o.), prohibit (ʕalà s.o.) from doing s.th.; 2 to place (ʕalà s.o.) under guardianship, declare (ʕalà s.o.) legally incompetent – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ Widely attested in Sem; from protSem *ḤǦR ʻto surround, gird, enclose, hence also: to hinder, bar’. – Ar ↗ḥuǧraẗ ʻroom, cell, compartment’ is originally an *ʻenclosure, separé’ (cf. also ḥaǧǧara, vb. II, ʻêtre entouré du halo [se dit de la lune]; avoir l’œil entouré d’une cautérisation’ – BK1860).
▪ Another kind of ʻenclosure’ – a protecting one – is ↗¹ḥiǧr ʻlap’. Likewise, ↗maḥǧir ʻeye socket’ describes he cavity in the skull which encloses and protects the eyeball. In contrast, the notion of ʻpreventing access’ accounts for the value ʻmare’, as ḥiǧr also seems to have signified a place where female horses meant for breeding were kept apart; the word for the seclusion was then transferred to the animal itself ʻwhose womb was forbidden to all but generous horses’ (Lane ii: 517, ↗²ḥiǧr).
▪ For a discussion of the possibility of a semantic dependence of ḥaǧar ʻstone’ on ‘to prevent, hinder, restrain’, tentatively suggested by Kogan2015, see s.v. ↗ḥaǧar.
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▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤGR-1 Akk egeru ‘tordre, être ou devenir tordu, pervers; croiser sur, envelopper, entortiller; empêcher, barrer la route’, Ug ḥgr, Hbr *ḥāgar ‘ceindre’, oAram (Warka) ḫa-gi-ir-ta-ʔ ‘boiteuse’, Nab ḥgr ‘enceinte’, JP ḥagirā, ChrPal ḥgr, mḥgr, JP ḥᵃgar ‘ceindre, sangler’, Mnd *hngr ‘réprimer, retenir’, Syr ḥᵊgar ‘retenir, empêcher, rendre boiteux, boiter’, ḥəgīrā ‘boiteux’; Ar ḥaǧara ‘empêcher d’approcher, interdire’, ḥaǧǧara ‘être entouré d’un halo (lune), faire un enclos’, ḥāǧir ‘mur, haie, digue’, ḥuǧraẗ ‘enclos, chambre’, YemAr maḥǧar: terrain enclos cultivé, cour intérieure’; ḥaǧr, ḥiǧr ‘protection, tutelle, giron; bas-ventre, basque d’un vêtement’, Sab ḥgr ‘réserver (à un usage)’, mḥgr, mḥgrt ‘terre réservée (à un usage)’, Qat ḥgr ‘ordonner, commander’, Mhr ḥəgūr, Ḥrs ḥəgōr, Jib ḥɔ́gɔ́r, Soq ḥə́gɔr ‘surveiller, protéger, être bienveillant’, Ḥrs ḥəgōr, Jib ḥɔ́gɔ́r ‘attendre’, Soq hə́ghər ‘gardien’. – Jib ḥágɛ́r (f.) ‘réunion publique’, Mhr həgrēt, Jib ḥágrɛ́t ‘groupe d’hommes assis en cercle’. Śḥr ḥagerít ‘entourage’, ? Soq ḥižáreh ‘animaux domestiques’; – ? Mhr məḥgēr ‘fossette jugulaire’. – Amh ʔaggärä ‘interdire, arrêter’, ? Gz ḥagarit ‘indigène’. – ? 2 Ar ḥaǧar, SAr ḥgr ‘pierre’, ? Gz ḥagʷər, ḥəgʷər, ḥəgur dans zabiba ḥəgur ‘pépins de raisin’. -3-4 […].
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ḥaǧr, n., 1 restriction, curb(ing), check(ing), obstruction, impeding, limitation, curtailing (ʕalà of s.th.); 2 barring, closing, debarment, preclusion; 3 detention; 4 blocking, confinement, containment, suppres sion (as a protective measure); 5 interdiction, prohibition, ban; 6 revocation, or limitation, of s.o.’s (ʕalà) legal competence: vn. I | ~ al-ṣiḥḥī, n., quarantine.
ḥiǧr, 1 adj., forbidden, interdicted, prohibited. – n., 2 lap (↗¹ḥiǧr); 3 (pl. ʔaḥǧār, var. ḥuǧūr, ḥuǧūraẗ) mare (↗²ḥiǧr).
BP#3106ḥuǧraẗ, pl. ḥuǧarāt, var. ḥuǧar, n.f., 1 room; 2 cell; 3 (railroad) compartment; 4 chamber | ~ al-ĭntiẓār, n.f., waiting room; ~ al-nawm, n.f., bedroom; al‑~ al-fallāḥiyyaẗ, n.f., chamber of agriculture.
maḥǧar, pl. maḥāǧirᵘ, n., 1 military hospital, infirmary; 2 prison, jail, dungeon: n.loc., *ʻplace of detention’ | ~ al-ṣiḥḥī, n., quarantine, quarantine station.
maḥǧir, var. miḥǧar, maḥǧar, pl. maḥāǧirᵘ, n., 1ḥaǧar; 2 (= ~ al-ʕayn), eye socket: n.loc., *ʻplace enclosing (and protecting) the eye’
taḥǧīr, n., 1 interdiction, prohibition, ban; 2ḥaǧar: vn. II.
maḥǧūr, pl. maḥāǧīrᵘ (and maḥǧūr ʕalayh), n., 1 one placed under guardianship; 2 minor; 3 ward, charge

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ḥaǧar, as well as, for the overall picture, ↗√ḤǦR.
 
¹ḥiǧr حِجْر 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤǦR 
n. 
1 lap; 2 ↗²ḥiǧr – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ From ↗ḥaǧara ʻto surround, gird, enclose, hence also: to hinder, bar, and to protect, defend’. The value ʻlap’ is either a kind of *ʻenclosure’ (e.g., children sitting on the mother’s lap) or a generalisation of the meaning of ʻanterior pudendum of a man and of a woman’, now obsoleted but attested in ClassAr (Lane ii 1865), in which case one would have to assume a development from *ʻforbidden, prohibited, unlawful, inviolable’, i.e., s.th. one is denied access to.
▪ For other derivations from ↗ḥaǧara, see , e.g., ↗²ḥiǧr ʻmare (kept for breeding)’ or ↗ḥuǧraẗ ʻcompartment, chamber, room, enclosure for camels’, as well as perh. even ↗ḥaǧar ʻstone’.
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▪ … 
▪ See ↗ḥaǧara.
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– 
For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ḥaǧara, ↗²ḥiǧr, ↗ḥuǧraẗ, ↗maḥǧir, and ↗ḥaǧar, as well as, for the overall picture, ↗√ḤǦR.
 
²ḥiǧr حِجْر , pl. ʔaḥǧār, var. ḥuǧūr, ḥuǧūraẗ 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤǦR 
n. 
1 ↗¹ḥiǧr; 2 mare – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ From ↗ḥaǧara ʻto surround, gird, enclose, hence also: to hinder, bar’. Accord. to some Ar lexicographers, ²ḥiǧr is a ʻmare kept for breeding, as though her womb were forbidden to all but generous horses’ (Lane ii: 517). If this interpretation is correct, one has to regard the value as specialisation from a more general *ʻforbidden, prohibited, unlawful, inviolable’, i.e., s.th. one is denied access to.
▪ For other derivations from ↗ḥaǧara, see , e.g., ↗¹ḥiǧr ʻlap’ or ↗ḥuǧraẗ ʻcompartment, chamber, room, enclosure for camels’, as well as perh. even ↗ḥaǧar ʻstone’.
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▪ … 
▪ See ↗ḥaǧara.
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▪ …
▪ … 
– 
For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ḥaǧara, ↗¹ḥiǧr, ↗ḥuǧraẗ, ↗maḥǧir, and ↗ḥaǧar, as well as, for the overall picture, ↗√ḤǦR.
 
ḥuǧraẗ حُجْرة , pl. ḥuǧarāt, var. ḥuǧar 
ID … • Sw – • BP 3106 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤǦR 
n.f. 
1 room; 2 cell; 3 (railroad) compartment; 4 chamber – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ From ↗ḥaǧara ʻto surround, gird, enclose, hence also: to hinder, bar, and to protect, defend’. In ClassAr, the word is attested also with the meaning ʻenclosure for camels’ (Lane ii: 518).
▪ For other derivations from ↗ḥaǧara, see , e.g., ↗¹ḥiǧr ʻlap’, ↗²ḥiǧr ʻmare (kept for breeding)’ or ↗maḥǧir ʻeye socket’, perh. even ↗ḥaǧar ʻstone’.
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▪ … 
▪ See ↗ḥaǧara.
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– 
ḥuǧraẗ al-ĭntiẓār, n.f., waiting room
ḥuǧraẗ al-nawm, n.f., bedroom
ḥuǧraẗ al-fallāḥiyyaẗ, n.f., chamber of agriculture

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ḥaǧara, ↗¹ḥiǧr, ↗²ḥiǧr, ↗maḥǧir, and ↗ḥaǧar, as well as, for the overall picture, ↗√ḤǦR.
 
maḥǧir مَحْجِر , var. miḥǧar, maḥǧar, pl. maḥāǧirᵘ 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤǦR 
n. 
1ḥaǧar; 2 (= maḥǧir al-ʕayn) eye socket – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ n.loc., from ↗ḥaǧara ʻto surround, gird, enclose, hence also: to hinder, bar, and to protect, defend’. Thus, the word originally describes the cavity in the skull which encloses and protects the eyeball. Cf., however, also ḥaǧǧara, vb. II, ʻto be(come) surrounded by a thin line, a halo in the clouds (the moon); to burn a mark round the eye of the camel with a circular cauterizing instrument’ (Lane ii, BK1860).
▪ For other derivations from ↗ḥaǧara, see , e.g., ↗¹ḥiǧr ʻlap’, ↗²ḥiǧr ʻmare (kept for breeding)’ or ↗ḥuǧraẗ ʻroom, chamber, compartment’, perh. even ↗ḥaǧar ʻstone’.
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▪ … 
▪ See ↗ḥaǧara.
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– 
For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ḥaǧara, ↗¹ḥiǧr, ↗²ḥiǧr, ↗ḥuǧraẗ, and ↗ḥaǧar, as well as, for the overall picture, ↗√ḤǦR.
 
ḥaǧar حَجَر , pl. ʔaḥǧār, var. ḥiǧāraẗ, ḥiǧār 
ID 193 • Sw 77/154 • BP 1363 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤǦR 
n. 
1 stone; 2 weight (placed as an equipoise on the scale of a balance) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Scarcely attested outside Ar. According to Kogan2015: 43 (fn.109), »no clear cognates have been discovered so far« for Ar ḥaǧar ʻstone’. At the same time, the author asks whether one should not »tentatively surmise a derivation from ḥǧr ‘to prevent, hinder, restrain’, with the semantic development ʻobstacle, border’ > ʻstone’?« If this should be the correct etymology, ḥaǧar ʻstone’ would, like many other items, dependend on ↗ḥaǧara ʻto surround, gird, enclose, hence also: to hinder, bar, be an obstacle’.
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▪ … 
▪ See perh. also ↗ḥaǧara.
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤGR-1 [see ↗ḥaǧara]. – ? 2 Ar ḥaǧar, SAr ḥgr ‘pierre’, ? Gz ḥagʷər, ḥəgʷər, ḥəgur dans zabiba ḥəgur ‘pépins de raisin’. -3-4 […].
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▪ The tentative derivation, suggested by Kogan2015, of [v4] ḥaǧar ʻstone’ from √ḤǦR ‘to prevent, hinder, restrain’, does not seem impossible, but it is also not really convincing. A semantic development in the opposite direction, i.e. *ʻstone > obstacle, border > to prevent, hinder, restrain’ would sound more plausible. For the time being, however, inner-Sem evidence does not allow such a reconstruction – if it reflected historical truth, Ar would be the only Sem lang to have preserved the hypothetical primary meaning *ʻstone’. This, however, is rather unlikely, not only because no other Sem lang (except perh. SAr) connects √ḤG/ǦR with the meaning ʻstone’, but also in light of the fact that protSem had another word for ʻstone’ (protSem *ʔabn‑ – Kogan2015: 43 #81) which is widely attested in many Sem langs – but completely ousted is Ar!149
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al-ḥaǧar al-ʔasāsī, and ḥaǧar al-ʔasās, n., the foundation stone, cornerstone; waḍʕ al-ḥaǧar al-ʔasāsī, n., laying of the cornerstone;
ḥaǧar al-balāṭ, n., flagstone, paving stone;
ḥaǧar ǧahannam, n., lunar caustic, silver nitrate;
ḥaǧar al-ǧīr, n., limestone;
ḥaǧar al-summāqī or al‑~ al-summāqī, n., porphyry;
al-ḥaǧar al-ʔaswad, n., the Black Stone (of the Kaaba);
ḥaǧar al-šādanaẗ, n., hematite (min.);
ḥaǧar al-ʕaṯraẗ, n., stumbling block;
ḥaǧar al-falāsifaẗ, n., philosopher’s stone;
ḥaǧar al-qamar, n., salenite (tech.);
ḥaǧar ṯamīn and ḥaǧar karīm, n., precious stone, gem;
ṭabʕ ʕalà ’l-ḥaǧar , n., litograph;
ṭabāʕaẗ al-ḥaǧar, n.f., lithography.

ḥaǧǧara, vb. II, 1 to petrify, turn into stone (s.th.); 2 to make hard as stone (s.th.): D-stem, denom., caus.
taḥaǧǧara, vb. V, to turn to stone, petrify, become petrified: Dt-stem, refl. of II.

ḥaǧarī, adj., stony, stone (adj.): nisba formation | al-ʕaṣr al-ḥaǧarī , n., the Stone Age; al-ʕaṣr al-ḥaǧarī al-ḥadīṯ, n., the Neolithic period; al-ʕaṣr al-ḥaǧarī al-qadīm, n., the Paleolithic period
ḥaǧir, adj., stony, petrified.
ḥaǧǧār, n., stone mason, stone cutter: n.prof.
maḥǧir, pl. maḥāǧirᵘ, n., 1 (stone) quarry; 2s.v.: n.loc.
taḥǧīr, n., 1 petrification; 2 stone quarrying: vn. II.
taḥaǧǧur, n., petrification: vn. V.
mutaḥaǧǧir, adj., petrified: PA V.
mustaḥǧir, adj., petrified: PA X.
 
ḤǦZ حجز 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9Mar2023
√ḤǦZ 
“root” 
▪ ḤǦZ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤǦZ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤǦZ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘barrier, dam, to separate, put a stop to, deny; to knot a belt, truss up a camel in order to treat body sores’ 
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– 
– 
ḤDː (ḤDD) حدّ / حدد 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤDː(ḤDD) 
“root” 
▪ ḤDː (ḤDD)_1 ‘cutting edge; border; limit; degree; legal punishment’ ↗ḥadd
▪ ḤDː (ḤDD)_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘boundary, edge; to limit, to delimit; to sharpen, to hone; to define, to distinguish; to become angry; (of sight) to be sharp; to be in mourning; to oppose, to act contrary to, iron’ 
▪ From protSem *√ḤDD ‘to be(come) sharp’ – Huehnergard2011.
… 
– 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤDD- 1 Akk edēdu ‘être ou devenir pointu’, edd‑ ‘pointu’, Hbr ḥad ‘aigu’, Aram ḥadded, Ar ḥadda (u) ‘aiguiser’, (i) ‘être aiguisé’, ḥadd ‘tranchant d’une lame, force, bravoure; pénétration’. – Akk eddetu ‘buis’. – -?2 Ar ḥadīd ‘fer’, ḥidādaẗ ‘métier de forgeron’, Mhr ḥədáyd (f.), Ḥrs ḥədéd, Jib ḥádíd ‘fer’, ḥədd ‘travailler le métal’; Gz ḥadid ‘fer’, ḥadada ‘être fort, marteler, piler, moudre’, Te ḥaddad ‘forgeron’, Amh ḥadid ‘rail’. -3 Ar ḥadda ‘limiter, tracer des limites, contenir, limiter, refuser qc à qn’, ḥadd ‘limite, terme; châtiment’, maḥdūd ‘limité, circonscrit, borné’, ḥadda, ʔaḥadda ‘observer la retraite légale (veuve), porter le deuil (femme)’, YemAr yiḥidd(oh) ‘même, au plus, au maximum’, Mhr Jib Soq ḥad, Ḥrs ḥəd, ḥad ‘limite, frontière’, Jib aḥdéd ‘fixer des limites’; Sab ḥdd ‘consacrer?’, Min s¹ḥd ‘interdire’, Ar ḥadda ‘s’emporter contre qn’, Soq inḥádid ‘se fâcher’, Jib ḥədd ‘pousser; harceler qn pour obtenir qu’il fasse ce que l’on souhaite’; Mhr ḥáttəd-əm, Jib ḥɔ́ttəd ‘se quereller en gesticulant’. -4 Mhr Ḥrs ḥəd ‘tirer; se retirer, se détourner, fuir’, EJib ḥéd ‘tirer’, Soq ḥdd ‘courir’, Ḥrs ḥátted ‘s’égarer’.
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▪ Engl hududḥadd
– 
ḥadd حَدّ 
ID 194 • Sw – • BP 3283 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤDː (ḤDD) 
n. 
1 (cutting) edge (of a knife, of a sword); 2a edge, border, brink, brim, verge; b border (of a country), boundary, borderline; 3a limit (fig.), the utmost, extremity, termination, end, terminal point, terminus; b a (certain) measure, extent, or degree (attained); 4 (math.) member (of an equation), term (of a fraction, of a proportion); 5a divine ordinance, divine statute; b legal punishment (Isl. Law) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ From protSem *√ḤDD ‘to be(come) sharp’ – Huehnergard2011.
… 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤDD-1 Akk edēdu ‘être ou devenir pointu’, edd‑ ‘pointu’, Hbr ḥad ‘aigu’, Aram ḥadded, Ar ḥadda (u) ‘aiguiser’, (i) ‘être aiguisé’, ḥadd ‘tranchant d’une lame, force, bravoure; pénétration’. – Akk eddetu ‘buis’. – -?2 Ar ḥadīd ‘fer’, […]. -3 Ar ḥadda ‘limiter, tracer des limites, contenir, limiter, refuser qc à qn’, ḥadd ‘limite, terme; châtiment’, maḥdūd ‘limité, circonscrit, borné’, ḥadda, ʔaḥadda ‘observer la retraite légale (veuve), porter le deuil (femme)’, YemAr yiḥidd(oh) ‘même, au plus, au maximum’, Mhr Jib Soq ḥad, Ḥrs ḥəd, ḥad ‘limite, frontière’, Jib aḥdéd ‘fixer des limites’; Sab ḥdd ‘consacrer?’, Min s¹ḥd ‘interdire’, Ar ḥadda ‘s’emporter contre qn’, Soq inḥádid ‘se fâcher’, Jib ḥədd ‘pousser; harceler qn pour obtenir qu’il fasse ce que l’on souhaite’; Mhr ḥáttəd-əm, Jib ḥɔ́ttəd ‘se quereller en gesticulant’.
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▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl hudud, from Ar ḥudūd, pl. of ḥadd ‘edge, limit, divine ordinance, punishment’, from ḥadda ‘to sharpen, delimit’. 
 
ḤDB حدب 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9Mar2023
√ḤDB 
“root” 
▪ ḤDB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤDB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤDB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘rocky hill; to be a hunchback; high waves, hardship, difficult situation; to dote on, take care of, care’ 
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– 
– 
ḤDṮ حدث 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤDṮ 
“root” 
▪ ḤDṮ_1 ‘new, unprecedented thing, novelty, event, happening; to happen, occur’ ↗ḥadaṯ, ‘new, modern’ ↗¹ḥadīṯ, ‘newness, novelty; youthfulness; modernity’ ↗ḥadāṯaẗ
▪ ḤDṮ_2 ‘young man, youth, juveniles’ ↗ḥadaṯ
▪ ḤDṮ_3 ‘evil symptom; misdeed; misfortune; excrement, feces; ritual impurity’ ↗ḥadaṯ
▪ ḤDṮ_4 ‘tale, story, report; to talk, discuss; Prophetic Hadith’ ↗²ḥadīṯ
▪ ḤDṮ_x ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘new, novel, youth; to originate, to create; to happen, incident, occurrence: to tell, to narrate, to speak to, to disclose’ 
▪ From protSem *√ḤDṮ ‘to be(come) new’ – Huehnergard2011.
▪ The basic Sem *ʻnewness’ was further interpreted in some languages as a) [v2] ʻyouth’ and, in Ar, also as b) [v1, v4] ʻnews item, news’ (to be reported, discussed, talked, told about, transmitted, esp. also about the Prophet’s life) as well as as c) ʻevent (*s.th. new happening)’, the latter also with development into two negative connotations, namely [v3] 1 ʻevil symptoms’, hence also ʻmisfortune’, and 2 ʻexcrements, feces’, hence also ʻritual impurity’.
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▪ [v2] Bergsträsser1928: (*‘new’) Akk eššu, Hbr ḥāḏāš, Syr ḥattā, Gz (ḥadī́s), Ar ḥadaṯ ‘young man’.
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤDṮ: Akk edēšu ‘être nouveau’, Pun ḥdš ‘restaurer’, Hbr ḥaddeš, Nab Palm ḥdt ‘restaurer, renouveler; consacrer, dédier’, JP ḥaddet ‘restaurer, renouveler’, Syr ḥᵊdet ‘être nouveau’, Ar ḥaduṯa ‘se produire; être jeune, nouveau’, ḥādaṯa ‘rénover, polir’, ḥudṯ ‘fait nouveau’, ḥadaṯ ‘jeune’, ḥādiṯ ‘accident’, Sab ḥdṯ ‘survenir, se passer; causer, provoquer’, hḥdṯ ‘fonder, établir, faire débuter, inaugurer’, Qat Min s¹ḥdṯ ‘construire, renouveler, restaurer, inaugurer’, EthSAr hḥds ‘créer, faire, dédier’, Gz ḥaddasa, Tña ḥaddäsä, ḫaddäsä ‘renouveler’, Te ḥaddäsa Amh Gaf addäsä ‘être neuf’, Gur iddäsä ‘rénover, réparer’. – Akk ešš‑, Ug ḥdṯ, Hbr *ḥādāš, Pun *ḥdš, oAram ḥds, ‘nouveau’, EmpAram Palm ḥdt, JP ḥᵃdat, Syr ḥattā, Ar ḥadaṯ, Gz ḥaddis, Amh addis, Har ḥaǧīs, Arg haǧəs ‘nouveau’. – Ug ḥdṯ ‘mois’, ym ḥdṯ ‘jour de la nouvelle lune’, Phoen Pun ḥdš, h. ḥodęš ‘nouvelle lune, néoménie, mois’. – Ar ḥaddaṯa ‘rapporter, raconter, dire à’, taḥaddaṯa ‘converser’, ḥidṯ ‘conteur, causeur’, ḥadīṯ ‘propos’.
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▪ Engl hadith, Carthage, Addis Ababa ↗¹ḥadīṯ
– 
ḥadaṯ حَدَث , pl. ʔaḥdāṯ; [v9]: ḥudṯān 
ID … • Sw – • BP 599 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤDṮ 
n. 
1 a new, unprecedented thing, a novelty, innovation; 2 event, incident, occurrence, happening; 3 phenomenon; 4 evil symptom; 5 misdeed; 6 misfortune; 7 ritual impurity (Isl. Law); 8 excrement, feces; 9 (pl. ʔaḥdāṯ, var. ḥudṯān) young man, youth; 10 pl. ʔaḥdāṯ, juveniles – WehrCowan1976. 
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▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘new’) Akk eššu, Hbr ḥāḏāš, Syr ḥattā, Gz (ḥadī́s), Ar ḥadaṯ ‘young man’.
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤDṮ: Akk edēšu ‘être nouveau’, Pun ḥdš ‘restaurer’, Hbr ḥaddeš, Nab Palm ḥdt ‘restaurer, renouveler; consacrer, dédier’, JP ḥaddet ‘restaurer, renouveler’, Syr ḥᵊdet ‘être nouveau’, Ar ḥaduṯa ‘se produire; être jeune, nouveau’, ḥādaṯa ‘rénover, polir’, ḥudṯ ‘fait nouveau’, ḥadaṯ ‘jeune’, ḥādiṯ ‘accident’, Sab ḥdṯ ‘survenir, se passer; causer, provoquer’, hḥdṯ ‘fonder, établir, faire débuter, inaugurer’, Qat Min s¹ḥdṯ ‘construire, renouveler, restaurer, inaugurer’, EthSAr hḥds ‘créer, faire, dédier’, Gz ḥaddasa, Tña ḥaddäsä, ḫaddäsä ‘renouveler’, Te ḥaddäsa Amh Gaf addäsä ‘être neuf’, Gur iddäsä ‘rénover, réparer’. – Akk ešš‑, Ug ḥdṯ, Hbr *ḥādāš, Pun *ḥdš, oAram ḥds, ‘nouveau’, EmpAram Palm ḥdt, JP ḥᵃdat, Syr ḥattā, Ar ḥadaṯ, Gz ḥaddis, Amh addis, Har ḥaǧīs, Arg haǧəs ‘nouveau’. – Ug ḥdṯ ‘mois’, ym ḥdṯ ‘jour de la nouvelle lune’, Phoen Pun ḥdš, h. ḥodęš ‘nouvelle lune, néoménie, mois’. – Ar ḥaddaṯa ‘rapporter, raconter, dire à’, taḥaddaṯa ‘converser’, ḥidṯ ‘conteur, causeur’, ḥadīṯ ‘propos’.
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ḥaduṯa, u (ḥadāṯaẗ), vb. I, 1 to be new, recent; 2 to be young
BP#408ḥadaṯa, u (ḥudūṯ), vb. I, to happen, occur, take place, come to pass.
BP#3378ʔaḥdaṯa, vb. IV, 1a to bring forth, produce, create, originate ( s.th.); b to found, establish (a s.th.); c to bring about, cause, occasion, provoke, effect (s.th.); d to drop excrement | ~ ḥadaṯan, vb., 1 to bring about s.th.; 2 to cause or do s.th., esp., s.th. evil, do mischief
ĭstaḥdaṯa, vb. X, 1 to renew (s.th.); 2 to buy new (s.th.); 3 to introduce, start, invent, originate, create (s.th.); 4 to find or deem (s.o.) to be young

BP#769ḥadīṯ, pl. ḥidāṯ, ḥudaṯāʔᵘ, adj., 1 new, novel, recent, late; 2 modern: adj. formation, quasi-PP I. | ḥadīṯan, adv., recently, lately; ~ al-bināʔ, adj., new-built, recently built; ~ al-sinn, adj., young; ~ al-ʕahd, adj., of recent date, recent, new, young; ~ ʕahdin bi‑, var. ~ al-ʕahd bi‑, expr., 1 having adopted or acquired s.th. recently; 2 not long accustomed to (s.th.), inexperienced at (s.th.), new at (s.th.), newly; e.g. ~ al-ʕahd bi’l-wilādaẗ, expr., new-born, ~ al-ʕahd bi’l-zawāǧ, newly-wed; kāna ~ al-ʕahd bi-ʔūrubbā, expr., he had not known Europe until recently
BP#2113ḥudūṯ, n., 1a setting in (of a state or condition), occurrence, incidence (of a phenomenon); b occurrence, incident, happening
BP#3712ḥadāṯaẗ, n.f., 1 newness, recency, novelty; 2 youth, youthfulness
BP#2481ʔaḥdaṯᵘ, adj., newer, more recent
ḥidaṯān, var. ḥadaṯān, al-dahr, n., misfortune, adversities, reverses
BP#2552taḥdīṯ, pl. ‑āt, n., 1a renewing; b update: vn. II.
BP#3853ʔiḥdāṯ, n., 1 production, creation, invention, origination; 2 causation, effectuation: vn. IV.
ʔiḥdāṯiyyāt, n. pl., co-ordinates (math.) | ~ ʕamūdiyyaẗ, nonhum.pl., ordinates; ~ ʔufqiyyaẗ, nonhum.pl., abscissas
ĭstiḥdāṯ, n., invention, creation, production, origination: vn. X.
BP#1431ḥādiṯ, adj., n., 1 occurring, happening, taking place; 2 new, recent, fresh; – 3 (pl. ḥawādiṯᵘ, also ‑āt), n., a occurrence, incident, event, happening; b episode; c case (jur.); d accident, mishap: PA I. | ~ tazwīr, n., a case of forgery; makān al‑~, n., site of action, scene of the crime, locus delicti
BP#1270ḥādiṯaẗ, pl. ḥawādiṯᵘ, n.f., 1 occurrence, event, happening; 2 plot (of a play); 3a incident, episode; b accident, mishap: PA I, f. | ~ al-murūr, n., traffic accident
muḥdaṯ, 1 adj., a new, novel, recent, late; b modern; 2 n., a upstart, nouveau riche; b al-muḥdaṯūn, n.pl., the Moderns: PP IV.
mustaḥdaṯ, 1 adj., new, novel; 2 (pl. ‑āt), n., a novelty, innovation; b recent invention, modern product; c neologism: PP X.

For other values of the root, cf. ↗²ḥadīṯ and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤDṮ. 
ḥadāṯaẗ حَداثَة 
ID 195 • Sw – • BP 3712 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤDṮ 
n.f. 
1 newness, recency, novelty; 2 youth, youthfulness – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ ↗ḥadīṯ.
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▪ ↗ḥadaṯ, ↗¹ḥadīṯ.
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– 
For other values of the root, cf. ↗ḥadaṯ, ↗¹ḥadīṯ, ↗²ḥadīṯ, and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤDṮ. 
¹ḥadīṯ حَديث , pl. ḥidāṯ, ḥudaṯāʔᵘ 
ID 196 • Sw –/104 • NahḍConBP 769 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤDṮ 
adj. 
1 new, novel, recent, late; 2 modern – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ From protSem *√ḤDṮ ‘to be(come) new’ – Huehnergard2011.
… 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤDṮ: Akk edēšu ‘être nouveau’, Pun ḥdš ‘restaurer’, Hbr ḥaddeš, Nab Palm ḥdt ‘restaurer, renouveler; consacrer, dédier’, JP ḥaddet ‘restaurer, renouveler’, Syr ḥᵊdet ‘être nouveau’, Ar ḥaduṯa ‘se produire; être jeune, nouveau’, ḥādaṯa ‘rénover, polir’, ḥudṯ ‘fait nouveau’, ḥadaṯ ‘jeune’, ḥādiṯ ‘accident’, Sab ḥdṯ ‘survenir, se passer; causer, provoquer’, hḥdṯ ‘fonder, établir, faire débuter, inaugurer’, Qat Min s¹ḥdṯ ‘construire, renouveler, restaurer, inaugurer’, EthSAr hḥds ‘créer, faire, dédier’, Gz ḥaddasa, Tña ḥaddäsä, ḫaddäsä ‘renouveler’, Te ḥaddäsa Amh Gaf addäsä ‘être neuf’, Gur iddäsä ‘rénover, réparer’. – Akk ešš‑, Ug ḥdṯ, Hbr *ḥādāš, Pun *ḥdš, oAram ḥds, ‘nouveau’, EmpAram Palm ḥdt, JP ḥᵃdat, Syr ḥattā, Ar ḥadaṯ, Gz ḥaddis, Amh addis, Har ḥaǧīs, Arg haǧəs ‘nouveau’. – Ug ḥdṯ ‘mois’, ym ḥdṯ ‘jour de la nouvelle lune’, Phoen Pun ḥdš, h. ḥodęš ‘nouvelle lune, néoménie, mois’. – Ar ḥaddaṯa ‘rapporter, raconter, dire à’, taḥaddaṯa ‘converser’, ḥidṯ ‘conteur, causeur’, ḥadīṯ ‘propos’.
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▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl hadith, from Ar ḥadīṯ ‘news, report, tradition’, from ḥaddaṯa, vb. II, ‘to report’, D-stem of ḥadaṯa, vb. I, ‘to be new’.
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Carthage, from Phoen (Pun) *qart-ḥadašt ‘new town’, from *ḥadašt, f.sg. of *ḥadaš ‘new’, akin to Ar ↗ḥadīṯ ‘new’ (Phoen *qart ‘town’, cf. Ar qaryaẗ ‘village’). – Addis Ababa, from Amh addis abäba ‘new flower’, from addis ‘new’, akin to addäsä (< *ḥaddaṯa) ‘to renew’, cf. Ar ↗ḥadīṯ ‘new’ (Amh abäba ‘flower’, cf. Ar ↗√ʔBB). 
ḥadīṯan, adv., recently, lately
ḥadīṯ al-bināʔ, adj., new-built, recently built
ḥadīṯ al-sinn, adj., young
ḥadīṯ al-ʕahd, adj., of recent date, recent, new, young
ḥadīṯ ʕahd bi‑, var. ḥadīṯ al-ʕahd bi‑, expr., 1 having adopted or acquired s.th. recently; 2 not long accustomed to (s.th.), inexperienced at (s.th.), new at (s.th.), newly; e.g. ḥadīṯ al-ʕahd bi’l-wilādaẗ, expr., new-born, ḥadīṯ al-ʕahd bi’l-zawāǧ, newly-wed; kāna ḥadīṯ al-ʕahd bi-ʔūrubbā, expr., he had not known Europe until recently

ḥaduṯa, u (ḥadāṯaẗ), vb. I, 1 to be new, recent; 2 to be young
BP#3378ʔaḥdaṯa, vb. IV, 1a to bring forth, produce, create, originate ( s.th.); b to found, establish (a s.th.); c to bring about, cause, occasion, provoke, effect (s.th.); d to drop excrement | ~ ḥadaṯan, vb., 1 to bring about s.th.; 2 to cause or do s.th., esp., s.th. evil, do mischief
ĭstaḥdaṯa, vb. X, 1 to renew (s.th.); 2 to buy new (s.th.); 3 to introduce, start, invent, originate, create (s.th.); 4 to find or deem (s.o.) to be young

BP#599ḥadaṯ, pl. ʔaḥdāṯ, n., 1 a new, unprecedented thing, a novelty, innovation; 2 event, incident, occurrence, happening; 3 phenomenon; 4 evil symptom; 5 misdeed; 6 misfortune; 7 ritual impurity (Isl. Law); 8 excrement, feces; 9 (pl. ʔaḥdāṯ, var. ḥudṯān) young man, youth; 10 ʔaḥdāṯ, juveniles
BP#2113ḥudūṯ, n., 1a setting in (of a state or condition), occurrence, incidence (of a phenomenon); b occurrence, incident, happening
BP#3712ḥadāṯaẗ, n.f., 1 newness, recency, novelty; 2 youth, youthfulness
BP#2481ʔaḥdaṯᵘ, adj., newer, more recent
ḥidaṯān, var. ḥadaṯān, al-dahr, n., misfortune, adversities, reverses
BP#2552taḥdīṯ, pl. ‑āt, n., 1a renewing; b update: vn. II.
BP#3853ʔiḥdāṯ, n., 1 production, creation, invention, origination; 2 causation, effectuation: vn. IV.
ʔiḥdāṯiyyāt, n. pl., co-ordinates (math.) | ~ ʕamūdiyyaẗ, nonhum.pl., ordinates; ~ ʔufqiyyaẗ, nonhum.pl., abscissas
ĭstiḥdāṯ, n., invention, creation, production, origination: vn. X.
BP#1431ḥādiṯ, adj., n., 1 occurring, happening, taking place; 2 new, recent, fresh; – 3 (pl. ḥawādiṯᵘ, also ‑āt), n., a occurrence, incident, event, happening; b episode; c case (jur.); d accident, mishap: PA I. | ~ tazwīr, n., a case of forgery; makān al‑~, n., site of action, scene of the crime, locus delicti
BP#1270ḥādiṯaẗ, pl. ḥawādiṯᵘ, n.f., 1 occurrence, event, happening; 2 plot (of a play); 3a incident, episode; b accident, mishap: PA I, f. | ~ al-murūr, n., traffic accident
muḥdaṯ, 1 adj., a new, novel, recent, late; b modern; 2 n., a upstart, nouveau riche; b al-muḥdaṯūn, n.pl., the Moderns: PP IV.
mustaḥdaṯ, 1 adj., new, novel; 2 (pl. ‑āt), n., a novelty, innovation; b recent invention, modern product; c neologism: PP X.
For other values of the root, cf. ↗ḥadaṯ, ↗²ḥadīṯ, and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤDṮ. 
²ḥadīṯ حَديث , pl. ʔaḥādīṯᵘ, ḥidṯān 
ID … • Sw – • NahḍConBP 369 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤDṮ 
n. 
1a speech; b chat, chitchat, small talk; c conversation, talk, discussion; d interview; e prattle, gossip; f report, account, tale, narrative; g Prophetic tradition, Hadith, narrative relating deeds and utterances of the Prophet and his Companions – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ ↗¹ḥadīṯ.
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl hadith, from Ar ḥadīṯ ‘news, report, tradition’, from ḥaddaṯa, vb. II, ‘to report’, D-stem of ḥadaṯa, vb. I, ‘to be new’.
▪ … 
ḥadīṯ ḫurāfaẗ, n., fabulous story, silly talk
ḥadīṯ ṣuḥufī, n., press interview
ḥadīṯ qudsī, n., Muslim tradition in which God himself speaks, as opposed to ḥadīṯ nabawī, n., an ordinary Prophetic tradition
ḥadīṯ al-nafs, pl. ʔaḥādīṯ al-nafs, n., 1 s.th. one talks o.s. into; 2 premonition

BP#3249ḥaddaṯa, vb. II, 1 to tell, relate, report (to s.o., bi‑ or s.th., , ʕan about); 2 to speak, talk (to s.o., ʕan or about, of) | ḥaddaṯa-hū qalbuh and ḥaddaṯat-hū nafsuh, expr., his heart, his innermost feeling told him (bi‑ s.th.); ~ nafsah bi‑, vb., 1 to talk o.s. into (s.th.), try to believe s.th. or see s.th. (as factual); 2 to resolve, make up one’s mind to do s.th.; ~ nafsah ʔanna, expr., he said to himself, told himself that…
ḥādaṯa, vb. III, 1a to speak, talk (DO to s.o., ʕan or about s.th.); b to discuss (DO with s.o., ʕan or s.th.), converse (DO with s.o., ʕan or about); c to negotiate, confer (with s.o.); d to address, accost (s.o.); e to call up (s.o., by telephone)
BP#453 taḥaddaṯa, vb. V, to speak, talk (ʔilà to s.o.; ʕan, bi‑ or , about or of s.th.), converse, chat (ʔilà or maʕ with s.o.; ʕan, bi‑ or , about s.th.)
taḥādaṯa, vb. VI, to talk with one another, converse, have a conversation

ʔuḥdūṯaẗ, pl. ʔaḥādīṯᵘ, n.f., 1a speech; b discussion, talk, conversation; c chatter; d fabling, fibbing; e topic, subject of a conversation; f gossip, rumor (about a person) | ḥusn al‑~, n., praise (of s.o.); sūʔ al‑~, n., slander, defamation
BP#2219muḥādaṯaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., discourse, conversation, discussion, talk, parley: vn. III.
BP#3538taḥadduṯ, n., 1a speaking; b discussion: vn. V.
muḥaddiṯ, pl. ‑ūn, n., 1a speaker, talker; b spokesman; 2a a transmitter of Prophetic traditions, traditionary; b representative of the science study of Hadith; 3 phonograph, gramophone: PA II.
BP#1759mutaḥaddiṯ, n., spokesman, speaker: PA V.

For other values of the root, cf. ↗ḥadaṯ, ↗¹ḥadīṯ, and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤDṮ. 
muḥādaṯaẗ مُحادَثة 
Sw – • NahḍConBP 2219 • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√ḤDṮ 
n.f. 
▪ vn., III 
ḤDQ حدق 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9Mar2023
√ḤDQ 
“root” 
▪ ḤDQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤDQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤDQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘pupil of the eye, to gaze; to encircle, encompass; walled garden or cultivated land, large deep ditch for storing water’ 
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– 
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ḤḎR حذر 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9Mar2023
√ḤḎR 
“root” 
▪ ḤḎR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤḎR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤḎR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘rough, stony, difficult-going land; caution, alertness, precaution; to beware, be on one’s guard; to warn, caution’ 
▪ From CSem *√ḤḎR ‘to go around, encompass’ – Huehnergard2011.
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– 
– 
– 
*ḤR‑ (disambig.) ـ حرـ 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤR‑ 
Polyvalent 2-cons. "root nucleus" 
▪ *ḤR-_1 ‘to be hot, boiling, to burn; to be angry, furious, enraged’ ↗ḤR- (1)
▪ *ḤR-_2 ‘to scratch’ ↗ḤR- (2)

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘heat, thirst, to become hot, to intensify; volcanic rocky land; free person, to liberate, to set free; the best of anything, to dedicate to the service of God; silk, to set right’ 
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*¹ḤR‑ حرـ 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤR‑ 
2-cons. "root nucleus" 
Basic meaning *‘to be hot, boiling, to burn’ – DRS 9 (2010). 
According to DRS 9 (2010), Sem *-ḤR- (1) is a 2-consonantal basis with the meaning ‘to be hot, boiling, to boil’, hence also (figurative use) ‘to be angry, furious’. From this basis, several 3-radical roots are formed by extension, see section DERIV below. 
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(lengthening of R2) > ↗ḤRː (ḤRR)_1, ↗ḥarr ‘heat, hot’
+ *-B > ↗ḥarb ‘war; fight, combat’, ↗ḥarbaẗ ‘lance, spear’, perh. also ↗ḥirbāʔ ‘chameleon’
+ *-Ṣ > ↗ḥirṣ ‘greed; desire; aspiration; avarice’
+ *-Ḍ > ↗ḥarraḍa ‘to goad, prod, spur on, egg on, incite, rouse, provoke, instigate, stir up, agitate’
+ *-Q > ↗ḥaraqa (i) ‘to burn’
+ *-K > ↗ḥarik ‘lively, active, brisk, agile, nimble’
+ *-M- > ↗ʔaḥmarᵘ ‘red’
+ *-Y > ↗taḥarrà ‘to seek, pursue, strive, aspire’
 
*²ḤR‑ حرـ 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤR‑ 
2-cons. "root nucleus" 
Basic meaning *‘to scrape’ – Ehret1989. 
According to Ehret1989, *ḤR- (2) is a pre-pSem 2-consonantal basis with the meaning ‘to scrape’ from which several 3-radical roots are formed by extension, see section DERIV below. 
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+ extendative *‑b > ḥaraba ‘to sharpen’, ↗ḥarb ‘war; fight, combat’, ↗ḥarbaẗ ‘lance, spear’
+ durative *‑t > ḥarata ‘to rub hard’ (still registered in Hava1899)
+ diffusive *‑ṯ > ↗ḥaraṯa ‘to till and sow the ground, plow, cultivate’
+ venitive *‑ɬ > ↗ḥaraša ‘to scratch, wound with the claws’
+ andative *‑ḳ > ↗ḥaraqa u ‘to rub two things against each other’
 
ḤRː (ḤRR) حرّ / حرر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤRː (ḤRR) 
“root” 
▪ ḤRː (ḤRR)_1 ‘heat, to burn’ ↗ḥarr
▪ ḤRː (ḤRR)_2 ‘stony area, rocky terrain’ ↗ḥarraẗ
▪ ḤRː (ḤRR)_3 ‘(to be born) free, freedom; nobility; (fig.:) the best of anything; to write elegantly; to dedicate to the service of God’ ↗ḥurr
▪ ḤRː (ḤRR)_4 ‘silk’ ↗ḥarīr
 
▪ From the seven values attached to the root *ḤRR in Sem (according to DRS), five are represented in ClassAr. Out of these five, four have survived into MSA. The values are all very different so that a relation even between individual values seems unlikely at first sight. However, it has been suggested that ḤRR_2 ‘stony area’ depends on ḤRR_1 ‘heat’ (*‘the burnt area’), and ḤRR_4 ‘silk’ could be derived from ḤRR_3 ‘to be free’ (*‘fabric/tissue free from unevenness’).
▪ With the notion of ‘heat, to burn’ (ḤRR_1), the 3-radical root seems to be based on the 2-rad. sequence *-ḤR- with a similar meaning, which appears also in other 3-rad. roots like ↗ḤRQ or ↗ḤMR.
 
– 
DRS 9 (2010)#ḤRR–1 Akk erēru(m) ‘être chaud, brûlant, sec’ [CAD: ‘to become moldy’ (bread, grain)], Ug ḥrr ‘brûler, rôtir’, Hbr ḥārar, JP ḥᵃrar ‘brûler, flamber’, Mand hrr ‘être chaud’, Syr ḥar ‘être sec’, Ar ḥarra ‘être chaud, brûlant’, ḥarr, Liḥ ḥarr, Sab mḥr ‘fièvre’, Jib ḥar ‘chaleur’, Mhr ḥəráwrət, Ḥrs ḥərōrət ‘chaleur, boutons de chaleur; température’, – Mhr ḥəráwrət, Jib ḥɔ́r, ḥárɔ́rt ‘couche de brûlé au fond d’un récipient’, Jib ḥerr ‘gratter le brûlé du fond d’un récipient’, Soq ḥrr ‘être noir’, Gz ḥarara, ḥarra ‘être sec, brûlé par le feu’, Tña ḥarärä ‘brûler (feu), se brûler, être brûlé’, Te har ‘brûler’, härär wäda ‘briller, étinceler’, Har ḥarärä ‘être chaud’, Amh Gur ʔarrärä 90 ‘être carbonisé’, Te ḥarri ‘maladie du grain’. –2 Ar ḥarraẗ, Qat mḥrr ‘terrain rocheux, terre pierreuse’. –3 *ḥurr‑ ‘né libre’: Hbr *ḥor (pl. ḥorīm) ‘libre, noble’; EmpAram ḥr, JP ḥarā, Syr ḥērā ‘libre’, bar ḥorīn, Nab Palm br ḥry ‘affranchi’, Syr ḥr ‘libre’, Ar ḥurr ‘libre, pur, franc’, SAr ḥr ‘noble, libre’, Mhr ḥarr, Soq ḥor ‘libre’, Gz ḥarrāwī ‘né libre, noble’, Amh hurr, ʔara, ʔarənnät ‘condition de l’homme libre’; ? Gz ḥarā ‘armée, officiers’, ḥarrāwī ‘soldat’, Tña Te ḥara ‘armée, troupe’.914 Ar ḥir(r) ‘vulve (de la femme)’.925 Ar ḥarīr, Jib ḥárír, Soq ḥárhir, Gz ḥarīr, Te Tña ḥarir, Te har, Amh harir, har ‘soie’.936 Sab Qat Min ḥrt ‘canal d’irrigation, digue’, mḥrt ‘système d’irrigation’, Qat ḥrt ‘aqueduc’. –7 Mhr ḥər, Jib ḥɔhr : abri pour les chevreaux, Mhr ḥər, Jib ḥerr ‘mettre à l’abri (des chevreaux)’. 
▪ The variety of meanings within the root in ClassAr as given by Badawi2008 matches EtymArab ’s assessment very well (numbering as in disambiguation above): [ḤRR_1] ‘heat, thirst, to become hot, to intensify’; [ḤRR_2] ‘volcanic rocky land’; [ḤRR_3] ‘free person, to liberate, to set free; the best of anything; to set right; to dedicate to the service of God’; [ḤRR_4] ‘silk’. The additional meanings under ḤRR_3 (‘the best of anything; to set right; to dedicate to the service of God’) are metaphorical extensions and will be treated under ↗ḥurr.
DRS 9 (2010): »Pour la notion de chaleur, on rapprochera les rac. ḤRR, ḤRQ, et, pour ‘brûler’, les rac. ḤRQ, ḤLQ. Voir les renvois sous -ḤR-.« There we find: »La séquence -ḤR- est, avec des élargissement divers, à la base de plusieurs racines trilitères dont le sens fondamental paraît être celui de ‘être chaud, brûlant, brûler’, une valeur dérivée étant ‘être animé de colère, de haine’ et autres sens équivalents ou apparentés. Les élargissements apparaissent, comme W- initial: WḤR, comme -W final: ḤRW, dans la gémination de la seconde consonne radicale: ḤRR, dans le redoublement de la séquence: ḤRḤR. […] Des valeurs similaires se trouvent dans d’autres racines comportant cette séquence: par exemple ↗ḤRB, ↗ḤRW/Y, ↗ḤRK, […] ↗ḤRḌ, ↗ḤRQ, ↗ḤMR. Voir aussi la remarque sous ↗ḤWR.«
▪ Ǧabal2010-I: 395-6 assumes the basic value of ḤRR to be ḫulūṣ al-šayʔ min al-ġalīẓ allaḏī yaʕrūhu ʔaw yuḫāliṭu ʔaṯnāʔahū (bi-ʔan yaḫruǧa minhā) fa-yaṣfū wa-yanqà. Consequently, in his view, ḥarīr ‘silk’ depends on ḥurr ‘free’ (the fabric/tissue free from unevenness). 
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– 
ḥarr حَرّ 
ID 197 • Sw 93/– • BP 3237 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤRː (ḤRR) 
n.; adj. 
heat, warmth; adj., warm, hot, spicy – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ From Sem *ḤR ‘to burn’ which displays the biradical sequence *-ḤR- (with the same meaning) which seem to form the basis for extensions to some triradical roots with similar/derived values. (See "Discussion" below.)
▪ A relation between ḥarr and other values of Ar √ḤRR (‘stony area’, ‘to be born free’, ‘silk’) seems rather unlikely, cf. ↗ḤRR.
 
▪ eC7 Q 9:81 wa-qālū lā tanfirū fī ’l-ḥarri qul nāru ǧahannama ʔašaddu ḥarran ‘And they said: Go not forth in the heat! Say: The fire of hell is more intense of heat’ ▪ (heat of the sun, intense heat) 35:21 wa-lā ’l-ẓillu wa-lā ’l-ḥarūru ‘nor is the shadow equal with the sun’s full heat’ 
DRS 9 (2010)#ḤRR 1. Akk erēru(m) ‘être chaud, brûlant, sec’ [CAD: ‘to become moldy’ (bread, grain)], Ug ḥrr ‘brûler, rôtir’, Hbr ḥārar, JP ḥᵃrar ‘brûler, flamber’, Mand hrr ‘être chaud’, Syr ḥar ‘être sec’, Ar ḥarra ‘être chaud, brûlant’, ḥarr, Liḥ ḥarr, Sab mḥr ‘fièvre’, Jib ḥar ‘chaleur’, Mhr ḥəráwrət, Ḥrs ḥərōrət ‘chaleur, boutons de chaleur; température’, – Mhr ḥəráwrət, Jib ḥɔ́r, ḥárɔ́rt ‘couche de brûlé au fond d’un récipient’, Jib ḥerr ‘gratter le brûlé du fond d’un récipient’, Soq ḥrr ‘être noir’, Gz ḥarara, ḥarra ‘être sec, brûlé par le feu’, Tña ḥarärä ‘brûler (feu), se brûler, être brûlé’, Te har ‘brûler’, härär wäda ‘briller, étinceler’, Har ḥarärä ‘être chaud’, Amh Gur ʔarrärä ‘être carbonisé’, Te ḥarri ‘maladie du grain’. — Outside Sem: Des formes Cush sont signalées par Leslau CDG 243: Bil harär, Af ur ‘brûler’,94 Tembaro harrūre, Sid āri, Or aru ‘être carbonisé’, ār ‘être en colère’.
▪ Zammit2002: Akk erēru ‘dürr sein (?)’, Ug ḥrr ‘to scorch; to roast’, Hbr ḥārar ‘to be hot, scorched, burn’ (poet., late), Aram ḥᵃrar ‘to burn, be blackened, charred’, Syr ḥar ‘to burn’, SAr m-ḥr ‘drought (or perh. fever)’, Gz ḥarūr ‘ardor, fervor, aestus’. 
▪ StarLing (Militarev2006)#814 gives cognates almost identical to those in DRS and reconstructs Sem *ḤR ‘to burn’.
DRS 9 (2010): »Pour la notion de chaleur, on rapprochera les rac. ḤRR, ḤRQ, et, pour ‘brûler’, les rac. ḤRQ, ḤLQ. Voir les renvois sous ḤR.« There we find: »La séquence ḤR est, avec des élargissement divers, à la base de plusieurs racines trilitères dont le sens fondamental paraît être celui de ‘être chaud, brûlant, brûler’, une valeur dérivée étant ‘être animé de colère, de haine’ et autres sens équivalents ou apparentés. Les élargissements apparaissent, comme W initial: WḤR, comme W final: ḤRW, dans la gémination de la seconde consonne radicale: ḤRR, dans le redoublement de la séquence: ḤRḤR. […] Des valeurs similaires se trouvent dans d’autres racines comportant cette séquence: par exemple ↗ḤRB, ↗ḤRW/Y, ↗ḤRK, […] ↗ḤRḌ, ↗ḤRQ, ↗ḤMR. Voir aussi la remarque sous ↗ḤWR.«
▪ A relation between ḥarr and other values of √ḤRR (‘stony area’, ‘to be born free’, ‘silk’) seems rather unlikely, cf. ↗ḤRR. 
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ḥarra, u, i (ḥarr, ḥarāraẗ), vb. I, to be hot: impossible to decide wheter the vb. is denom. from ḥarr, or ḥarr is deverbative from ḥarra.
ĭstaḥarra, vb. X, to become hot, be heated, flare up (quarrel, fight); to be kindled, be ardent or burning (feeling, desire):…

BP#1370ḥarāraẗ, n.f., heat; warmth; fever heat, fever; temperature; ardor, fervor (of emotion), passion; eagerness, enthusiasm, zeal; vehemence, violence, intensity; burning (of the skin): vn. I.
ḥurayraẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., calorie: neologism, dim.f.
BP#4041ḥarārī, adj, thermal, thermic, thermo-, heat (used attributively); caloric: neolog., nsb-adj from ḥarāraẗ | waḥdaẗ ḥarāriyyaẗ, n., calorie.
ḥarāriyyaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., calorie: neolog., f. nsb-adj from ḥarāraẗ.
ḥarār, pl. ḥarāʔirᵘ, n.f., hot wind:…
ḥarrānᵘ, f. ḥarrà, pl. ḥirār, ḥarārà, adj., thirsty; passionate, fervent, hot (fig.): ints. | zafraẗ ḥarrà, n., a fervent sigh; dumūʕ ḥarrà, n.pl., hot tears.
ʔaḥarrᵘ, adj., hotter, warmer: elat. | ʔaḥarr al-tahānī, n., warmest congratulations; ʕalà ʔaḥarr min al-ǧamr, adv., on pins and needles, on tenterhooks, in greatest suspense or excitement.
miḥarr, n., heating system, heating installation: neolog., n.instr.
BP#2459ḥārr, adj., hot; warm; ardent, glowing, fervent, passionate: PA I.
maḥrūr, adj., hot-tempered, hot-headed, fiery, passionate, furious: PP I. 

ḥarraẗ حَرّة , pl. ‑āt 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤRː (ḤRR) 
n.f. 
stony area; volcanic country, lava field – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ A relation between ḥarraẗ and other values of √ḤRR (‘heat, to burn’, ‘to be born free’, ‘silk’) seems rather unlikely, cf. ↗ḤRR. Some ClassAr dictionaries describe it as »though burned with fire« (Lane) and thus tend to explain it as dependent on ↗ḥarr ‘heat’. 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010)#ḤRR–2 Ar ḥarraẗ, Qat mḥrr ‘terrain rocheux, terre pierreuse’. 
▪ Any relation between ḥarraẗ and other values of √ḤRR (‘heat, to burn’, ‘to be born free’, ‘silk’)? Cf. ↗ḤRR.
▪ Some ClassAr dictionaries describe ḥarraẗ as a »stony tract… though burned with fire« (Lane) and thus tend to explain it as dependent on ↗ḥarr ‘heat’. Doubtful! 
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– 
ḥārr حارّ 
ID 198 • Sw – • BP 2459 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤRː (ḤRR) 
adj. 
hot; warm; ardent, glowing, fervent, passionate – WehrCowan1979. 
The word, used as adj., has the form of a PA from the vb. I ḥarra ‘to be hot’ (see ↗ḥarr) and thus means, properly, ‘being hot’. 
▪ … 
ḥarr
ḥarr
– 
– 
ḥurr حُرّ , pl.m. ʔaḥrār , pl.f. ḥarāʔirᵘ 
ID 199 • Sw – • BP 793 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤRː (ḤRR) 
adj. 
adj., noble, free-born; genuine (jewels, etc.), pure, unadulterated; free; living in freedom; freeman; independent; free, unrestrained; liberal (pol.; al-ʔaḥrār the Liberals); frank, candid, open; free, available, uninvested (money) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ From Sem *ḥurr‑ ‘free-born’.
▪ Relations between ḥurr and other values of √ḤRR have been suggested (esp. ‘stony area’ and ‘silk’), while ‘heat, to burn’ definitely does not seem to be akin, cf. ↗ḤRR.
▪ The abstract notion of ‘freedom, nobility’ may be based on a primary meaning *‘free from defects or default, pure, unadulterated’.
▪ The notions of ‘the best of anything’, ‘to write elegantly’ and ‘to dedicate to the service of God’ etc. are explainable as metaphorical extensions: ‘the best of anything’ = lit. *‘free from defects’; ‘to write elegantly’ = lit. *‘to make a writing free from defects, by forming its characters rightly and rectifying its faults’ (Lane); and ‘to dedicate to the service of God’ = *‘to make o.s. (or s.o.) free for the service of God’.
▪ From ḥurr is derived the abstr. n. ḥurriyyaẗ which in ClassAr means ‘the state, or condition, of freedom’ as opposed to slavery, but from eC19 became the equivalent of one of the ideals of the French Revolution, Fr ‘liberté’, see ↗s.v.
▪ eC7 (a free man as opposed to a slave) Q 2:178 kutiba ʕalay-kumu ’l-qiṣāṣu fī ’l-qatlā ’l-ḥurru bi’l-ḥurri wa’l-ʕabdu bi’l-ʕabdi wa’l-ʔunṯā bi’l-ʔunṯā ‘Retaliation is prescribed for you in the matter of the murdered; the freeman for the freeman, and the slave for the slave, and the female for the female’, (liberating, setting free) 4:92 wa-man qatala muʔminan ḫaṭaʔan fa-taḥrīru raqabatin muʔminatin wa-diyatun musallamatun ‘He who hath killed a believer by mistake must set free a believing slave [lit. liberate a neck], and pay the blood-money to his [the latter’s] family’ ▪ (person dedicated, or consecrated, to the service of God) Q 3:35 rabb-i ʔin-nī naḏartu la-ka mā fī baṭn-ī muḥarraran fa-taqabbal minn-ī ‘My Lord! I have vowed unto Thee that which is in my belly as a consecrated (offering). Accept it from me.’
1875 1. Libre, de condition libre, non esclave. – 2. Bien né, de parents libres et qui n’ont pas été esclaves. – 3. Pur, bon, de bon aloi, franc (se dit de diverses choses sans mélange d’un corps étranger). – 4. Pur, verteux (syn. birr). – 5. Généreux, de race (cheval). – 6. Belle action, belle conduite. | mā hāḏā min-ka bi-ḥurrin Ce n’est pas bien de ta part. – 7. Milieu, intérieur. (Kazimirski1875) 
DRS 9 (2010)#ḤRR–3 Hbr *ḥor (pl. ḥorīm) ‘libre, noble’; EmpAram ḥr, JP ḥarā, Syr ḥērā ‘libre’, bar ḥorīn, Nab Palm br ḥry ‘affranchi’, Syr ḥr ‘libre’, Ar ḥurr ‘libre, pur, franc’, SAr ḥr ‘noble, libre’, Mhr ḥarr, Soq ḥor ‘libre’, Gz ḥarrāwī ‘né libre, noble’, Amh hurr, ʔara, ʔarənnät ‘condition de l’homme libre’; ? Gz ḥarā ‘armée, officiers’, ḥarrāwī ‘soldat’, Tña Te ḥara ‘armée, troupe’.95
▪ Zammit2002: Ar ḥurr ‘a free-man’: Hbr (late) ḥōr ‘noble’, Aram ḥᵃrar ‘to set free’, ḥōrā ‘free man’, Syr ḥarar ‘to set free’, SAr ḥr ‘free man, free-born man’, Gz ḥarā ‘liber homo, ingenuus’ 
DRS 9 (2010) reconstruct Sem *ḥurr‑ ‘né libre’.
▪ Some ClassAr dictionaries assume that the primary meaning of the adj. refers to earth or sand, as, e.g., in ramlaẗ ḥurraẗ ‘sand in which is no mixture of any other thing’, or ʔarḍ ḥurraẗ ‘land in which is no salt earth’ (i.e., good earth, earth that has good herbage, etc.), and that the abstract meaning ‘free’ is a metaphorical use. This would explain vb. II in the sense of ‘to write accurately’ better (as a direct caus.) than by ‘deviation’. But the meaning ‘free-born’ throughout Sem as the primary value does not corroborate this explanation.
▪ Ǧabal 2010-I: 395 assumes the basic value of ḤRR to be ḫulūṣ al-šayʔ min al-ġalīẓ allaḏī yaʕrūhu ʔaw yuḫāliṭu ʔaṯnāʔahū (bi-ʔan yaḫruǧa minhā) fa-yaṣfū wa-yanqà. Should this be true then also ḥarīr ‘silk’ could be seen as derived from here (the tissue/fabric ‘free from unevenness, or faults’). 
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ḥarrara, vb. II, to liberate; to free, set free, release; to emancipate: caus.; to consecrate (s.o.) to the service of God: lit., *‘to make o.s. free for…’; to draw up, make out accurately (an account, a calculation); to adjust, render accurate (a weight, a mesure); to point or direct (a gun at s.o.); to revise (a book); to edit, redact (a book, a periodical); to write, pen, indite, compose (s.th.): explained by ClassAr lexicographers as *‘to make a writing free from defects, by forming its characters rightly and rectifying its faults’ (Lane). – For other meanings see ↗ḥarīr.
taḥarrara, vb. V, to become free; to be freed, be liberated; to be emancipated; to be written, be composed: pseudo-pass. of II.
BP#529ḥurriyyaẗ, pl. ‑āt, freedom, liberty; independence, unrestraint, license (e.g., poetic): abstr. formation | ḥurriyyaẗ al-ʕibādaẗ, n., freedom of worship; ḥurriyyaẗ al-fikr, n., freedom of thought; ḥurriyyaẗ al-kalām, n., freedom of speech; ḥurriyyaẗ al-našr / al-ṣaḥāfaẗ, n., liberty of the press; ḥurriyyaẗ al-taṣarruf, n., free disposal, right of disposition; authority, free hand: neologisms.
BP#906taḥrīr, n., liberation; release; emancipation; record(ing), writing; editing, redaction; editorship (of a newspaper, a periodical): vn. II; (pl. ‑āt, taḥārīrᵘ) piece of writing, record, brief, document: resultative, lexicalized. | raʔīs al-taḥrīr, n., editor-in-chief; ʔidāraẗ al-taḥrīr, n., board of editors, editorial staff: neolog.; taḥrīran fī…, adv., issued, made out on (with the date; on documents and certifications).
taḥrīrī, adj., liberational; emancipational; liberal; recorded in writing, written, in writing: nsb-adj from taḥrīr.
BP#3623taḥarrur, n., liberation, emancipation (intr.): vn. V, refl. of II.
muḥarrir, pl. ‑ūn, n., liberator, emancipator; writer, clerk; issuer (of a document); editor (of a newspaper, of a periodical): lexicalized PA II.
muḥarrar, adj., consecrated to God; set down in writing, recorded in writing, written; booked; pl. ‑āt, bookings, entries: PP II.
mutaḥarrir, adj., emancipated; n., an advocate of emancipation: lexicalized PA V. 
ḥurriyyaẗ حُرِّيَّة 
ID 200 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 529 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤRː (ḤRR) 
n.f. 
freedom, liberty; independence, unrestraint, license (e.g. poetic) – WehrCowan1979. 
The word is an abstract formation in ‑iyyaẗ from ↗ḥurr. In ClassAr it denotes the status of a free-born, as opposed to a slave. During C19 it came to express the modern concept of ‘freedom’, as a translation of one of the slogans of the French Revolution, liberté. By the early 1880s (at the latest), ḥurriyyaẗ had become a key concept of political discourse, as documented by the fact that al-Marṣafī mentions it as one of the words that were »on everybody’s tongue« during those days. 
1875 »1. État d’homme libre, non esclave. – 2. Pureté (de ce qui est sans mélange). – 3. Bonne maison, origine noble et pure. – 4. Affranchissement des passions et des affections de l’âme. – 5. Libre examen de la verité. – 6. [!] mod. Liberté politique. [!] - 7. pl. de حُرٌّ Hommes libres, nobles (ce mot s’applique aux Arabes purs, sans mélange d’autre race).« (Kazimirski1875)
▪ »La devise de la Révolution française, ḥurriyyaẗ, ↗musāwāt, ↗ʔiḫāʔ, est adopté par Miṣr al-Qāhiraẗ, le journal d’ʔAdīb ʔIsḥāq exilé à Paris. Le Docteur Šiblī Šumayyil publie un article enthousiaste sur cette révolution, Al-Ṯawraẗ al-firansiyyaẗ wa’l-ǧumhūriyyaẗ al-ʔūlā, dans Miṣr, 9 mai 1879. Son frère, ʔAmīn Šumayyil, commence dans al-Tiǧāraẗ, quotidien d’ʔAdīb ʔIsḥāq, à partir du 2 mai 1879, une série d’études sur al-Niẓām al-šūrawī ‘Le régime parlementaire’ [↗šūrà ], se référant surtout aux règles du parlement britannique. En 1882, Miṣr, alors dirigé par ʕAwn ʔIsḥāq, frère d’ʔAdīb, donnera, sous le titre al-↗qānūn al-ʔasāsī, la traduction de la Déclaration des Droits de l’Homme et du Citoyen de 1789 (23 mars 1882). Cependant le vocabulaire politique est encore incertain à cette époque, puisqu’on désignait tantôt par qānūn ʔasāsī, tantôt par lāʔiḥaẗ ʔasāsiyyaẗ le projet de constitution élaboré par Šarīf Pacha en 1882 (cf. Rāfiʕī, Ṯawraẗ, 185).« (Delanoue 1963: 9-10, fn. 2).
1881 ḥurriyyaẗ is one of Ḥ. al-Marṣafī’s al-Kalim al-ṯamān, i.e., the eight key concepts that were »on everybody’s tongue« these days. 
Cf. ↗ḥurr
▪ …
▪ See also ↗ḥurr
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– 
ḥarīr حَرِير , pl. ḥarāʔirᵘ 
ID 201 • Sw – • BP 4769 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤRː (ḤRR) 
n. 
silk; pl. ḥarāʔirᵘ, silken wares, silks – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ »The etymology of the word is obscure; its synonyms ↗ibrīsam and ↗qazz, as well as ↗dībāǧ which more particularly denotes silk brocade, are Persian loanwords; ↗ḫazz, properly speaking a mixture of silk and wool, but sometimes also used for silk, is etymologically isolated in Arabic, and perhaps connected with qazz. ḥarīr occurs in the Qurʔān, sūras 23:23 = 35:33, and 76:12, where it is said that the raiment of the people of Paradise will be silk« – EI² (red.).
▪ Any relation between ḥarīr and other values of ↗√ḤRR? Perhaps with ↗ḥurr as the tissue is ‘free’ from defects, has a ‘faultless’, smooth fabric.
 
▪ eC7 Q 35:33 wa-libāsu-hum fī-hā ḥarīrun ‘and their clothes therein [sc. Paradise] will be [of] silk’ 
* DRS 9 (2010)#ḤRR 5 Ar ḥarīr, Jib ḥárír, Soq ḥárhir, Gz ḥarīr, Te Tña ḥarir, Te har, Amh harir, har ‘soie’.96 — Outside Sem: (Cush) Sa harīr, Af harēr.97  
▪ A relation between ḥarīr and other values of √ḤRR (‘heat, to burn’, ‘stony area’, ‘to be born free’) seems rather unlikely at first sight, cf. ↗ḤRR. But it may be akin to ↗ḥurr if the latter’s primary meaning could be established as *‘free from defects, default’. In this case, silk would properly be the ‘faultless’, smooth fabric. Cf. Ǧabal 2010-I: 395-6 where the basic value of ḤRR is assumed to be ḫulūṣ al-šayʔ min al-ġalīẓ allaḏī yaʕrūhu ʔaw yuḫāliṭu ʔaṯnāʔahū (bi-ʔan yaḫruǧa minhā) fa-yaṣfū wa-yanqà, and silk is al-ḥarīr min al-ṯiyāb, i.e., raqīq nāʕim laysa fīhi ġalaẓ.
▪ Hassan1986 suggested a Chinese origin of the word,150 but although the idea should not be rejected from the outset his study does not fulfil scientific standards and can therefore not be taken as a serious contribution to etymological research. 
▪ Any relation to Grk Sêres, Lat Seres, the term used in Antiquity as a name for Chin traders? According to Lokotsch1927#1878, this name derives from Chin 丝儿 (絲兒) sī-ér, composed of ‘silk’ and the nominal suffix designating persons, -ér, »common among the inhabitants of the NChin provinces«. From the n.gent. Lat Seres are the name of the country Serica, the adj. seric-us ‘Seric, made from silk’, as n. serica ‘silk dress’. The Lat serica (~ sarica ~ sirica) gave Fr serge, sarge, Prov serga, It sargia, Cat sarja, Span Port sarga, Rum sarecă ‘serge, kind of woolen material, (wiki:) type of twill fabric that has diagonal lines or ridges on both sides, made with a two-up, two-down weave’, Span jergo, Port xergo ‘paillasse, straw mattress’, Span jergon, Port enxergão ‘paillasse’, Span sirgo ‘waste silk’, (Calabr)It siricu ‘silk worm’, Ge Sarsche; Ru sarža, Bulg sarža, Cz sarše, Pol sarza, szarsza ‘type of woolen material’. From Lat seric-um, adj.neutr., ‘silken, made of silk’, are also (mediated by oFr) Engl silk, as well as oSlav šelkŭ ‘silk’ > Ru šëlk, Ukr šołk ‘silk’, Ru (deriv.) šelkovica, šelkovnik ‘mulberry tree’. – It seta, Span Port Prov seda, Fr soie, Ge Seide go back to mLat seta ‘silk’ which is probably short for seta serica ‘Seric hair’, from Lat saeta ‘thick hair, bristle’ and the adj.f. seric-a, described above. 
ḥarīr ṣaḫrī, n., asbestos.
ḥarīr ṣināʕī, n., rayon.

ḥarrara, vb. II, to mercerize (cotton yarn or fabrics to achieve a silky lustre). – For other meanings see ↗ḥurr.

ḥarīrī, adj., silken, silky, of silk: nsb-adj.
ḥarāʔirī, adj., silken, silk (in compounds), of silk: nsb-adj from pl.; silk weaver: n.prof., nominalized nisba adj.
ḥarrār, n., silk weaver: n.prof.
 

ḤRB حرب 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤRB 
“root” 
▪ ḤRB_1 ‘war, combat’ ↗ḥarb
▪ ḤRB_2 ‘prayer niche’ ↗miḥrāb

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘spear; to extort; war, to wage war; to become angry; lion’s den; palace; temple, prayer niche, place of honour; studs in a coat of armour’ 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤRB-1 ProtSem *ḥarb‑ ‘épée, lance’. 
– 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤRB-1 Ug ḥrb, Hbr ḥęręb, oAram EmpAram ḥrb, JP Syr ḥarbā, Mnd harba ‘couteau, épée’, Ar ḥarbaẗ ‘lance’, ḥaraba ‘aiguiser’, Jib ḥarbɛ́t ‘flèche, baïonnette’, Arg harb ‘lance’. – Ar ḥariba ‘être en colère, être pillé, dépouillé’, ḥaraba ‘piller, dépouiller qn’, ḥāraba, Sab ḥrb ‘faire la guerre contre’; Syr ḥarbā, Ar ḥarb, Sab ḥrbt ‘guerre’, Soq ḥárib ‘combattre’, Ḥrs ḥərōb ‘faire la guerre’, Mhr ḥōrəb ‘être en guerre avec’, Jib oḥúrb ‘combattre’, Ar ḥarībaẗ ‘butin, prise’; Gz ḥarb, Te ḥarəb, Har ḥarbi, Amh, Gur harb, arb ‘guerre’, Arg harb ‘bataille’, Amh ḥarbäña ‘brave, valeureux’. – 2 Ar miḥrāb: place haute, élevée, place réservée aux plus hauts dignitaires; dans une mosquée, niche dans la direction de la Mecque où l’imam dirige la prière, ‘asile’; YemAr miḥrāb ‘château’; Sab mḥrb ‘palais royal; chefs’. -3 Ar ĭḥranbaʔa, ĭḥranbaʔā(y) ‘se disposer à la colère et au mal’. -4 ḥurbaẗ ‘sac à blé, à farine’. -5 ḥirbāʔ ‘terrain rocailleux’. -6 Tña ḥarbi ‘outre’. -7 Te ḥərab ‘repas’, Arg herbad, Har ḥirāb: second repas pendant la période de Ramadan pris avant l’aube, ḥirāt, Amh ərat: repas du soir, tarräbä ‘prendre le repas du soir, dîner’, Gur ärbat, ärwad ‘repas du soir’. -8 Gz ḥeraba ‘racler, tanner’. -9 Mhr ḥáyrəb, Jib ḥérb ‘être laissé pour le lendemain (reste de nourriture)’, Mhr ḥáyrəb ‘rester célibataire’, Mhr ḥərēb ‘reste de nourriture; célibataire’, Jib ḥarbún, ḥarmún ‘reste de nourriture’. -10 Ar ḥirbāʔ ‘dos, chair du dos’. -11 ‘caméléon’.
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ Engl mihrabmiḥrāb
– 
ḥarb حَرْب 
ID 202 • Sw – • BP 165 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤRB 
n. 
1a war, warfare; b fight, combat, battle; 2 enemy, enemies (ʕalà or li‑ of s.o.) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Akin to ProtSem *ḥarb‑ ‘épée, lance’ – DRS 9 (2010) #ḤRB-1
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤRB-1 Ug ḥrb, Hbr ḥęręb, oAram EmpAram ḥrb, JP Syr ḥarbā, Mnd harba ‘couteau, épée’, Ar ḥarbaẗ ‘lance’, ḥaraba ‘aiguiser’, Jib ḥarbɛ́t ‘flèche, baïonnette’, Arg harb ‘lance’. – Ar ḥariba ‘être en colère, être pillé, dépouillé’, ḥaraba ‘piller, dépouiller qn’, ḥāraba, Sab ḥrb ‘faire la guerre contre’; Syr ḥarbā, Ar ḥarb, Sab ḥrbt ‘guerre’, Soq ḥárib ‘combattre’, Ḥrs ḥərōb ‘faire la guerre’, Mhr ḥōrəb ‘être en guerre avec’, Jib oḥúrb ‘combattre’, Ar ḥarībaẗ ‘butin, prise’; Gz ḥarb, Te ḥarəb, Har ḥarbi, Amh, Gur harb, arb ‘guerre’, Arg harb ‘bataille’, Amh ḥarbäña ‘brave, valeureux’.
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
 
miḥrāb مِحْراب 
ID 203 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤRB 
n. 
a recess in a mosque indicating the direction of prayer, prayer niche, mihrab – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤRB-2 Ar miḥrāb: place haute, élevée, place réservée aux plus hauts dignitaires; dans une mosquée, niche dans la direction de la Mecque où l’imam dirige la prière, ‘asile’; YemAr miḥrāb ‘château’; Sab mḥrb ‘palais royal; chefs’.
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl mihrab, from Ar miḥrāb ‘recess, prayer niche’, prob. from SAr (Sab) mḥrb, part of a temple, from ḥrb ‘to fight, to perform a certain ritual in a temple’. 
 
ḤRṮ حرث 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9Mar2023
√ḤRṮ 
“root” 
▪ ḤRṮ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤRṮ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤRṮ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘plantation, cultivated land; plough, to plough, sow seeds, to till, tillage; earnings, to earn, work for one’s living; to study footprints’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ḤRǦ حرج 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9Mar2023
√ḤRǦ 
“root” 
▪ ḤRǦ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤRǦ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤRǦ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘thick tangle of reeds or trees; arbour; to oppress; distress, critical situation; to commit an offence; prohibition, to impede; to refrain from doing’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ḤRD حرد 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9Mar2023
√ḤRD 
“root” 
▪ ḤRD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤRD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤRD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘severance of the tendon of a camel’s front leg; to cut, perforate; to deny, hold back, stop; to intend, resolution; anger; to stay away from a group, to be twisted’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ḤRZ حرز 
Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√ḤRZ 
“root” 
▪ … 
muḥtariz مُحْتَرِز 
Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√ḤRZ 
adj. 
▪ PA, VIII 
ḤRS حرس 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9Mar2023
√ḤRS 
“root” 
▪ ḤRS_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤRS_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤRS_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘guard, to stand guard, watch, protect’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ḤRŠ حرش 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤRŠ 
“root” 
▪ ḤRŠ_1 ‘(to be/come) rough, coarse, scabrous’ ↗ḥariš
▪ ḤRŠ_2 ‘to scratch; (D-stem) to instigate, provoke, sew discord’ ↗ḥaraša
▪ ḤRŠ_3 ‘forest, woods’ ↗ḥurš

Other values, now obsolete, include:
  • ḤRŠ_4 ‘rhinoceros’ : ḥarīš
 
See section DISC below. 
– 
DRS 9 (2010)#ḤRŚ–1 Ar ḥariša ‘être rugueux, rude au toucher’, ʔaḥraš ‘rugueux’. –2 Hbr ḥōrā̈š ‘lieu boisé’, (BDB1906: Aram ḥûršāh), Ar ḥarš ‘bois, forêt’, Jib ḥɔ́rɔ́ś, aḥréś ‘apporter des branchages pour construire un râtelier, un lit, etc.’. –3 Ar ḥarīš, Gz ḥariš, ḥaris, ḥoras, Te Tña ḥariš, Amh ḥaris ‘rhinocéros’. [–4 not represented in Ar].
DRS 9 (2010)#Ḥ/ḪRŚ–1 Hbr ḥäräš ‘démangeaison, gale’, Syr ḥarsā ‘irritation des paupières’, Ar ḥarš ‘marque, trace, aspérité’, ḥaraša, ḫaraša ‘griffer avec les ongles’, ḫaraša ‘gratter’, naḥwariš, naḫwariš ‘qui gratte beaucoup avec les griffes (chien)’, ḥarraša ‘exciter les uns contre les autres’, taḫāraša ‘s’exciter les uns contre les autres’, Mhr ḥōrəś, Jib oḥōrś ‘créer de l’agitation (contre qn)’, Ḥrs ḥārəś ‘raconter des choses contre qn’, 2 Ar ḥaraša, ḫaraša ‘travailler pour subvenir aux besoins des siens’, ḥarīšaẗ ‘avoir, ce qu’on possède’.
DRS 9 (2010)#ḤRŚ–1 cf. also ḤRS/Ś and Ḥ/ḪRŚ. 
▪ In ḤRŠ_1 and ḤRŠ_2, the root shows some overlapping with ↗ḪRŠ, but also with ↗ḤRS.
▪ In spite of the cautiousness speaking from the separation, made in DRS, between ḤRŠ_1 ‘(to be/come) rough, coarse, scabrous’ (reflecting Sem *ḤRŚ) and ḤRŠ_2 ‘to scratch; to instigate, provoke, sew discord’ (< Sem *Ḥ/ḪRŚ), the two values may be related (‘roughness’ being a result of ‘scratching’, or ‘scratching’ so called after its association with the ‘roughness’ of a surface).
▪ ḤRŠ_2 : according to Ehret1989, ḥaraša is an extension in venitive *‑ɬ from a pre-pSem 2-consonantal basis ↗*ḤR- ‘to scrape’. Other extensions from the same basis include ↗ḥarbaẗ ‘lance, spear’ and ↗ḥarb ‘war; fight, combat’, ↗ḥaraṯa ‘to till and sow the ground’, and ↗ḥaraqa u ‘to rub two things against each other’.
▪ ḤRŠ_3 : Sem words for ‘forest, woods’ go perhaps back, via Akk, to a Sum word for ‘hill-country; mountainous region’. For details, see ↗ḥurš.
ḤRŠ_4 ‘rhinoceros’: called ḥarīš because of the ‘roughness’ (ḤRŠ_1) of its skin or after its habit to ‘scratch’ (ḤRŠ_2) the soil?
 
– 
– 
ḥariš حَرِش 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤRŠ 
adj. 
rough, coarse, scabrous – WehrCowan1979. 
See DISC below. 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010)#ḤRŚ-1 Ar ḥariša ‘être rugueux, rude au toucher’, ʔaḥraš ‘rugueux’ (without direct cognates in Sem).
▪ ? Cf. also DRS 9 (2010)#Ḥ/ḪRŚ-1 Hbr ḥäräš ‘démangeaison, gale’, Syr ḥarsā ‘irritation des paupières’, Ar ḥarš ‘marque, trace, aspérité’, ḥaraša, ḫaraša ‘griffer avec les ongles’, ḫaraša ‘gratter’, naḥwariš, naḫwariš ‘qui gratte beaucoup avec les griffes (chien)’, ḥarraša ‘exciter les uns contre les autres’, taḫāraša ‘s’exciter les uns contre les autres’, Mhr ḥōrəś, Jib oḥōrś ‘créer de l’agitation (contre qn)’, Ḥrs ḥārəś ‘raconter des choses contre qn’.
 
▪ In DRS, the complex represented by Ar ḥariša ‘to be rough’ and ʔaḥraš ‘rough, coarse’ does not seem to have any cognates in Sem. The hypothetical Sem root *ḤRŚ under which it is grouped, reappears in a lemma in which R1 oscillates between *Ḥ- and *Ḫ-. This is why ‘(to be/come) rough, coarse’ in DRS is separated from ‘to scratch; to instigate, provoke, sew discord’ (↗ḥaraša), although the two values may be related (‘roughness’ being a result of ‘scratching’, or ‘scratching’ so called after its association with the ‘roughness’ it produces), cf. ↗ḤRŠ.
▪ Should also ↗ḥurš ~ ḥirš ‘forest, wood(s)’ and ḥarīš ‘rhinoceros’ be connected to this root? The value ‘forest, woods’ goes back to an original *‘mountainous region’—a “rough” surface of the landscape, so to speak; and the morphology of ḥarīš, which follows the faʕīl pattern typical of adj.s (cf. kabīr, ṣaġīr, ǧamīl, etc.), suggests that ‘rhinoceros’ originally is *‘the rough one’ or *‘the one who scratches a lot’.
 
– 
ḥaraš, ḥuršaẗ, ḥarāšaẗ, n.f., roughness, coarseness, scabrousness: vn. of an obsol. vb. I ḥariša.
ʔaḥrašᵘ, adj., rough, coarse, scabrous: ʔafʕal adj. (for colours, physical handicaps, etc.).

NB: According to DRS 9 (2010), the following items do not belong to the Sem *ḤRŚ reflected in Ar ḥariš ‘rough, coarse, scabrous’ but rather form a complex of their own (grouped in DRS s.v. Ḥ/ḪRŚ), developed from the central idea of ‘to scratch’ (cf. ↗ḥaraša and, for the whole picture, ↗ḤRŠ, and section DISC above).

ḥaraša, i (ḥarš), vb. I, to scratch: related to ḥariš ?
ḥarraša, vb. II, to instigate, prod, incite, provoke, incense; to set (bayn people against each other), sow discord, dissension (bayn among): D-stem, ints. of vb. I, ḥaraša.
taḥarraša, vb. V, to pick a quarrel, start a brawl (bi‑ with s.o.), provoke (bi‑ s.o.): tD-stem, intr. of II.
taḥrīš, n., instigation, prodding, incitement, provocation, agitation, incensement: vn. II.
taḥarruš, n., provocation, importunity, obtrusion, meddling, uncalled-for interference; sexual harrassment: vn. V. | ‑āt, n.pl., trespasses, encroachments.
 
ḥaraš‑ حَرَشَ , i (ḥarš
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤRŠ 
vb., I 
to scratch – WehrCowan1979. 
See DISC below. 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010)#Ḥ/ḪRŚ-1 Hbr ḥäräš ‘démangeaison, gale’, Syr ḥarsā ‘irritation des paupières’, Ar ḥarš ‘marque, trace, aspérité’, ḥaraša, ḫaraša ‘griffer avec les ongles’, ḫaraša ‘gratter’, naḥwariš, naḫwariš ‘qui gratte beaucoup avec les griffes (chien)’, ḥarraša ‘exciter les uns contre les autres’, taḫāraša ‘s’exciter les uns contre les autres’, Mhr ḥōrəś, Jib oḥōrś ‘créer de l’agitation (contre qn)’, Ḥrs ḥārəś ‘raconter des choses contre qn’.
DRS 9 (2010)#ḤRŚ-1 Ar ḥariša ‘être rugueux, rude au toucher’, ʔaḥraš ‘rugueux’, without direct cognates in Sem.
 
DRS cautiously separates the idea of ‘scratching’ (hence also ‘instigating, provoking, sewing discord’) from that of ‘(be(com)ing) rough, coarse’ (↗ḥariš) because of a certain oscillation of R1 between *Ḥ and *Ḫ in the former, while it is clearly *Ḥ in the latter. But the two values may be related nevertheless, ‘roughness’ being a result of ‘scratching’, or ‘scratching’ so called after its association with the ‘roughness’ of a surface.
▪ According to Ehret1989, ḥaraša is an extension in venitive *‑ɬ from a pre-pSem 2-consonantal basis ↗*ḤR- ‘to scrape’. Other extensions from the same basis include ↗ḥarbaẗ ‘lance, spear’ and ↗ḥarb ‘war; fight, combat’, ↗ḥaraṯa ‘to till and sow the ground’, and ↗ḥaraqa (u) ‘to rub two things against each other’.
▪ Should also ↗ḥurš ~ ḥirš ‘forest, wood(s)’ and ḥarīš ‘rhinoceros’ be connected to this root? The value ‘forest, woods’ goes back to an original *‘mountainous region’—a “rough” surface of the landscape, so to speak; and the morphology of ḥarīš, which follows the faʕīl pattern typical of adj.s (cf. kabīr, ṣaġīr, ǧamīl, etc.), suggests that ‘rhinoceros’ originally is *‘the rough one’ or *‘the one who scratches a lot’.
 
– 
ḥarraša, vb. II, to instigate, prod, incite, provoke, incense; to set (bayn people against each other), sow discord, dissension (bayn among): D-stem, ints.
taḥarraša, vb. V, to pick a quarrel, start a brawl (bi‑ with s.o.), provoke (bi‑ s.o.): tD-stem, intr. of II.
taḥrīš, n., instigation, prodding, incitement, provocation, agitation, incensement: vn. II.
taḥarruš, n., provocation, importunity, obtrusion, meddling, uncalled-for interference; sexual harrassment: vn. V. | ‑āt, n.pl., trespasses, encroachments.

NB: According to DRS 9 (2010), the following items do not belong to the Sem *Ḥ/ḪRŚ reflected in Ar ḥaraša ‘to scratch’ but rather form a complex of their own, developed from the central idea of ‘roughness, coarseness’ (cf. ↗ḥariš and section DISC above; for the whole picture, cf. also ↗ḤRŠ).

ḥariš and ʔaḥrašᵘ, adj., rough, coarse, scabrous: see also ↗s.v.
ḥaraš, ḥuršaẗ, ḥarāšaẗ, n.f., roughness, coarseness, scabrousness: vn. of an obsol. vb. I ḥariša.
ḥurš, var. ḥirš, pl. ʔaḥrāš, ḥurūš, n., forest, wood(s): originally, *‘rough landscape’ or *‘region that looks as if scratched, roughened’ ?
 
ḥurš حُرْش , var. ḥirš حِرْش , pl. ʔaḥrāš , ḥurūš 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤRŠ 
n. 
forest, wood(s) – WehrCowan1979. 
Probably via LevAr from Aram ḥūršā ‘wooded height’. Unless belonging to the complex of Sem *ḤRŚ (Ar ↗ḥariš ‘rough, coarse’) or *Ḥ/ḪRŚ (Ar ↗ḥaraša ‘to scratch’), the latter may go back to Akk ḫuršānu ‘mountain region’, itself a borrowing from Sum ḫur-sag̃ ‘mountainous region, hill-country’. 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010)#ḤRŚ-2: Hbr ḥōrā̈š ‘lieu boisé’, (BDB1906: Aram ḥûršāh), Ar ḥarš ‘bois, forêt’, Jib ḥɔ́rɔ́ś, aḥréś ‘apporter des branchages pour construire un râtelier, un lit, etc.’.
▪ Zimmern1914: (? Akk ḫuršānu (pl.) ‘mountain region’), lHbr ḥōräš, Aram ḥūršā ‘wooded height’, LevAr ḥurs, ḥirs ‘forest’.
▪ Calice1936#271 compares LevAr ḥirš ‘forest’, (? Akk ḫuršu ‘mountain region’,) Hbr ḥōrā̈š and Syr ḥuršā ‘forest’ to Eg (Pyr) ḫ3s.t ‘mountainous region’. 
▪ The item is absent from Freytag1830, Lane1877, and Bustānī1869, but listed in Kazimirski1860 (ḥarš), Dozy1881 (ḥirš), Wahrmund1887 (ḥurš) and Hava1899 (ḥarš). Bustānī1867 has it (as ḥirš), but qualifies it as “foreign” (muwalladaẗ). Given
  • that the word is missing in the more “rigorous” ClassAr dictionaries and mentioned only in those which draw on more modern and popular sources;
  • that vocalisation varies considerably in those dictionaries that have it;
  • that Calice1936 and some earlier sources think that it is specific to the Levant,
it seems justified to follow Bustānī1867 in assuming that the word is of foreign origin, and to further assume that it has entered MSA through a local dialect. According to Calice1936 (basing himself on Gesenius), and also to Zimmern1914, this was LevAr (note however that with Zimmern it is ḥurs ~ ḥirs, rather than ḥurš ~ ḥirš). If this is correct, then the donor lang is very likely to have been Aram, and the fact that there is a cognate Aram ḥūršā ‘wooded height’, Syr ḥuršā ‘forest’ fits very well.
▪ Zimmern1914 would not exclude the possibility that Hbr ḥōräš and Aram ḥūršā are borrowed from Akk ḫuršānu (pl.) ‘mountain region’, a word that according to CAD is of Sum origin. Should this be correct, then the ultimate source may be Sum ḫur-sag̃ ‘hill-country; mountainous region’ (composed of ‘holes, valleys’ + ‘points, peaks’ – Halloran3.0).
▪ In contrast, Calice1936 puts the Akk, Hbr, Aram and Ar forms together with Eg (Pyr) ḫ3s.t ‘mountainous region’ (TLA: ‘id., foreign land, desert’).151
▪ While both an Akk < Sum connection and the possible Eg parallel are quite charming, the cognates in Jib (unless themselves borrowings) may also let us think of a purely Sem etymology. Should one, then, link ‘forest, wood’ (perh. from ‘mountainous region’) to the complex(es) of ‘roughness’ and ‘scratching’ (↗ḥariš, ḥaraša), a forest and, even more so, a mountainous region properly being a *‘rough landscape’ or a *‘region that looks as if scratched, roughened’? 
– 
– 
taḥarruš تَحَرُّش , pl. ‑āt 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤRŠ 
n. 
1 provocation, importunity, obtrusion, meddling, uncalled-for interference – WehrCowan1979. – 2 sexual harrassment 
▪ Vn. of taḥarraša, vb. V, ‘to pick a quarrel, start a brawl (bi‑ with s.o.), provoke (bi‑ s.o.)’, t-stem (with intr./self-refer. meaning) of ḥarraša, vb. II, ‘to instigate, prod, incite, provoke, incense; to set (bayn people against each other), sow discord, dissension (bayn among)’, D-stem (with ints. meaning) of ↗ḥaraša, vb. I, ‘to scratch’.
▪ The value ‘sexual harrassment’ is not a completely new development, but not yet registered as such in WehrCowan1979. The term received deplorable prominence during the mass demonstrations in connection with the “Arab Spring”. 
▪ … 
See ↗ḥaraša
See ↗ḥaraša
– 
– 
ḤRṢ حرص 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9Mar2023
√ḤRṢ 
“root” 
▪ ḤRṢ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤRṢ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤRṢ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to peel off; to split, rip open; intense desire, greed, to covet; to show concern for, take great care of’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ḤRḌ حرض 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9Mar2023
√ḤRḌ 
“root” 
▪ ḤRḌ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤRḌ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤRḌ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘base person, corruption, to corrupt; to perish, be in danger of death, be mentally and physically degenerate; to urge, spur on, rouse, foolish person’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ḤRF حرف 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9Mar2023
√ḤRF 
“root” 
▪ ḤRF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤRF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤRF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘edge, ledge, side; to deviate, to veer, to slant; to distort, pervert; a profession, a craft; to take up a trade; to be hot and spicy’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ḤRQ حرق 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤRQ 
“root” 
▪ ḤRQ_1 ‘to burn’ ↗ḥaraqa
▪ ḤRQ_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘fire, flame, to bum, to scorch; to eradicate; to erode, to file away; to be bad-tempered; to long for; palm-tree pollen’ 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤRQ-1 Hbr *ḥāraq, JP ‘rechercher, examiner, explorer’; -2 Ar ḥariqa ‘être brûlé’, ḥarraqa ‘brûler à grand feu, incendier’; ʔaḥraqa ‘brûler (tr.), blâmer, causer de la peine’, ḥarq, ḥaraq ‘brûlure, flamme’, SudAr ĭnḥaraq (ʕalà) ‘se mettre en colère contreʼ; Mhr Ḥrs ḥárḳ ‘chaleur, temps chaud’, Mhr Ḥrs ḥáyrəḳ, EJib ḥerḳ ‘brûler (intr.)’, Mhr ḥrūḳ, Ḥrs ḥrōḳ, Jib aḥreḳ ‘brûler (tr.)’, Jib ḥáríḳ ‘amorce pour le feu’, Mhr ḥərráwḳət ‘mégots, cendres’; Tña ḥaräqä ‘être, se mettre en colère’. -3 Hbr ḥāraq, Aram ḥᵊraq ‘grincer des dents’, Ar ḥaraqa ‘limer, frotter une partie contre l’autre: grincer des dents’. -4 Tña ḥərəqrəq bälä ‘bourdonner (dans l’oreille), sentir une démangeaison d’une poussière (dans les yeux)’. -5 Ar ḥāriqat: (articulation de la) tête du fémur. -6 Har ḥaraq, haraq ‘bras’. -7 Mhr šḥərūḳ ‘faire un bond pour éviter une gifle’, Jib s̃ḥɛréḳ ‘refuser de se laisser maltraiter’. -8 Ar ḥariqa ‘tomber (cheveux)’. 
– 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤRQ-1 Hbr *ḥāraq, JP ‘rechercher, examiner, explorer’; -2 Ar ḥariqa ‘être brûlé’, ḥarraqa ‘brûler à grand feu, incendier’; ʔaḥraqa ‘brûler (tr.), blâmer, causer de la peine’, ḥarq, ḥaraq ‘brûlure, flamme’, SudAr ĭnḥaraq (ʕalà) ‘se mettre en colère contreʼ; Mhr Ḥrs ḥárḳ ‘chaleur, temps chaud’, Mhr Ḥrs ḥáyrəḳ, EJib ḥerḳ ‘brûler (intr.)’, Mhr ḥrūḳ, Ḥrs ḥrōḳ, Jib aḥreḳ ‘brûler (tr.)’, Jib ḥáríḳ ‘amorce pour le feu’, Mhr ḥərráwḳət ‘mégots, cendres’; Tña ḥaräqä ‘être, se mettre en colère’. -3 Hbr ḥāraq, Aram ḥᵊraq ‘grincer des dents’, Ar ḥaraqa ‘limer, frotter une partie contre l’autre: grincer des dents’. -4 Tña ḥərəqrəq bälä ‘bourdonner (dans l’oreille), sentir une démangeaison d’une poussière (dans les yeux)’. -5 Ar ḥāriqat: (articulation de la) tête du fémur. -6 Har ḥaraq, haraq ‘bras’. -7 Mhr šḥərūḳ ‘faire un bond pour éviter une gifle’, Jib s̃ḥɛréḳ ‘refuser de se laisser maltraiter’. -8 Ar ḥariqa ‘tomber (cheveux)’.
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
ḥaraq‑ حَرَقَ , i (ḥarq
ID 204 • Sw 84/19 • BP 3372 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤRQ 
vb., I 
1 to burn (s.th.); 2 to burn, hurt, sting, smart – WehrCowan1979. 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤRQ-2: Ar ḥariqa ‘être brûlé’, ḥarraqa ‘brûler à grand feu, incendier’; ʔaḥraqa ‘brûler (tr.), blâmer, causer de la peine’, ḥarq, ḥaraq ‘brûlure, flamme’, SudAr ĭnḥaraq (ʕalà) ‘se mettre en colère contreʼ; Mhr Ḥrs ḥárḳ ‘chaleur, temps chaud’, Mhr Ḥrs ḥáyrəḳ, EJib ḥerḳ ‘brûler (intr.)’, Mhr ḥrūḳ, Ḥrs ḥrōḳ, Jib aḥreḳ ‘brûler (tr.)’, Jib ḥáríḳ ‘amorce pour le feu’, Mhr ḥərráwḳət ‘mégots, cendres’; Tña ḥaräqä ‘être, se mettre en colère’.
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤRQ-2 Ar ḥariqa ‘être brûlé’, ḥarraqa ‘brûler à grand feu, incendier’; ʔaḥraqa ‘brûler (tr.), blâmer, causer de la peine’, ḥarq, ḥaraq ‘brûlure, flamme’, SudAr ĭnḥaraq (ʕalà) ‘se mettre en colère contreʼ; Mhr Ḥrs ḥárḳ ‘chaleur, temps chaud’, Mhr Ḥrs ḥáyrəḳ, EJib ḥerḳ ‘brûler (intr.)’, Mhr ḥrūḳ, Ḥrs ḥrōḳ, Jib aḥreḳ ‘brûler (tr.)’, Jib ḥáríḳ ‘amorce pour le feu’, Mhr ḥərráwḳət ‘mégots, cendres’; Tña ḥaräqä ‘être, se mettre en colère’.
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
ḥaraqa qalba-hū, pl. ~ qulūba-hum, vb., to vex, exasperate s.o.

ḥarraqa, vb. II, to burn (s.th.): D-stem, tr.
ʔaḥraqa, vb. IV, 1a to burn (s.th.); b to destroy by fire (s.th.); c to singe, scorch, parch (s.th.); d to scald (s.th.); e to kindle, ignite, set on fire (a s.th.): *Š-stem, tr./caus./denom. | ~ faḥmaẗa laylih fī, expr., to spend the night doing (s.th.), burn the midnight oil over …
taḥarraqa, vb. V, 1 to burn, be aflame, burn up, take fire, be consumed by fire, be burned; 2 to be consumed (by an emotion), pine away (with), be pained (by), eat one’s heart out: Dt-stem, intr./pass. | ~ šawqan, vb., to be overcome with longing or nostalgia
ĭḥtaraqa, vb. VIII, to burn, be aflame, burn up, take fire, be consumed by fire, be burned: Gt-stem.


BP#4119ḥarq, n., 1 burning, incineration, combustion; 2 kindling, igniting, setting afire; 3 arson, incendiarism; 4 pl. ḥurūq, burns (med.): vn. I.

ḥaraq, n., fire, conflagration: vn. I.
ḥurqaẗ, var. ḥarqaẗ, n.f., 1 burning, incineration, combustion; 2 stinging, smarting, burning (as a physical sensation); 3 torture, torment, agony, pain, ordeal.
ḥurāq, var. ḥurrāq, n., tinder.
ḥarrāq, adj., 1a burning, aflame, afire; 1b hot: ints. formation
BP#2391ḥarīq, n., var. ḥarīqaẗ, n.f, pl. ḥarāʔiqᵘ, 1 fire; 2 conflagration: quasi PP I.
ḥarrāqaẗ, n.f., torpedo (tech.): ints. formation, f.
ḥaraqān, n., burning, stinging, smarting (as a painful sensation; e.g., of the feet)
maḥraq, pl. maḥāriqᵘ, n., focus (phys.): n.loc.; neologism (?)
EgAr taḥārīqᵘ, n., season of the Nile’s lowest water level, hottest season of the year
ʔiḥrāq, n., burning, incineration, combustion: vn. IV.
taḥarruq, n., 1 burning, combustion; 2 burning desire (ʔilà for): vn. V.
ĭḥtirāq, n., 1a burning, combustion; 1b fire, conflagration: vn. VIII | ġurfaẗ al‑~, n.f., combustion chamber (tech.); qābil al‑~, adj., combustible
ḥāriq, pl. ‑ūn, var. ḥurrāq, n., arsonist, incendiary: PA I.
maḥrūq, adj., 1 burned, charred, scorched, parched; 2 reddish, bronze-colored; 3 pl. ‑āt, n., fuel: PP I | faḫḫār al‑~, n., fired clay
muḥriq, adj., PA IV: qunbulaẗ muḥriqaẗ, n.f., incendiary bomb
muḥraq, n., crematory (tech.): n.loc.
muḥraqaẗ, n.f., burnt sacrifice: PP IV f.

For other values of the root, see ↗²ḥaraqa and, for the overall picture, ↗√ḤRQ. 
ḥaraq‑ حَرَقَ , u (ḥarq
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤRQ 
vb., I 
to rub together (s.th.) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤRQ-1-2 […]. -3 Hbr ḥāraq, Aram ḥᵊraq ‘grincer des dents’, Ar ḥaraqa ‘limer, frotter une partie contre l’autre: grincer des dents’. -4-8 […].
▪ …… 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
ḥaraqa ʔasnānah, expr., to gnash one’s teeth

For other values of the root, see ↗¹ḥaraqa and, for the overall picture, ↗√ḤRQ. 
ḤRK حرك 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤRK 
“root” 
▪ ḤRK_1 ʻmovement, to move’ ↗ḥarakaẗ
▪ ḤRK_2 ʻwithers’ ↗ḥārik
▪ ḤRK_3 ʻpoker, fire iron’ ↗miḥrāk

Other values, now obsolete, include:

ḤRK_4 ʻimpotence’: ḥarak; cf. also ḥarika (a, ḥarak) ʻto be impotent’ (Steingass1884), ḥarīk ʻimpuissant (à la cohabitation)’ (BK1860)
ḤRK_x ʻ…’:

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘movement, to move, to be agile, to be lively and intelligent; the joint between the head and the neck’ 
▪ Scarce attestation outside Ar prevents deeper etymological investigation into the possibly primary value(s), nor does it allow for an analysis that would be more than speculative of the relation betw. the extant values.
▪ The widest semantic field covered by ḤRK lexemes today is that of [v1] ‘to move, movement’ (= DRS #ḤRK-1). No obvious relation between this value and the others.
▪ [v2] (= DRS #ḤRK-4): Etymology obscure. No obvious relation to [v1] and [v3], but perh. connected to [v4]. See DISC below.
▪ [v3] : While it might seem natural, from an inner-Ar perspective, to link miḥrāk ʻpoker, fire iron’ to [v1] ‘to move, stir’ (as *‘instrument with which to stir the fire’), a caveat is in place in light of the Ug Hbr Aram cognates, which have ‘fire, to burn, roast’ as their basic idea, not ‘to move, stir’.
▪ [v4] : see [v2], above and section DISC, below.
▪ … 
– 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤRK-1 Ar haruka ‘se mouvoir’, harraka ‘déplacer, mouvoir’, Mhr ḥōrək, Jib oḥōrk, Ḥrs ḥārək ‘déplacer, agiter; faire un signe de tête’, Jib ənḥérək ‘se déplacer’. -2 Ar ḥarika ‘devenir impuissant’, Jib aḥrék ‘boiter’, SMhr ḥərēk, Jib ḥarkún ‘boiteux’. -3 Ug ḥrk ‘mettre au feu’, Hbr ḥārak ‘rôtir’, Aram ḥᵊrak ‘être chaud, brûler’, Ar miḥrāk ‘fourgon pour remuer le feu’. -4 Ar ḥārik ‘garrot du cheval’, muḥrak ‘extrémité supérieure du cou’.
▪ … 
▪ [v2], [v4] : Morphologically, Ar ḥārik ‘withers (of a horse)’ is a PA I, suggesting a derivation from a vb. I as *ʻthe …-ing one, the …-ing part of the body’; but there is also ClassAr muḥrak ‘extrémité supérieure du cou’ (DRS), a PP IV, suggesting an interpretation based on an original *ʻpart of the body that is made to …’. None of the values attested for ḤRK in Ar or Sem produces plausible etymologies if put in place of the missing ʻ…’ here. The authors of DRS think ḥārik is akin to the 4-rad. ḥarkakaẗ (pl. ḥarākikᵘ, ḥarākīkᵘ) ʻhipbone’ (Steingass1884), showing reduplication of R₃ – an interesting observation, though it does not bring more light into the etymology of the root as such, as also ḥarkakaẗ does not have cognates outside Ar. (To a certain degree, however, it may encourage a treatment of ḥārik / muḥrak as distinct from ḥaruka ‘to move’.) A little bit more helpful is the fact that it seems to be possible to draw a line of semantic development from [v2] ‘withers; (hipbone)’ to [v4] (= DRS #ḤRK-2) ʻimpotence, to be(come) impotent’, a value no longer attested in MSA (as documented in WehrCowan or Mawrid), but earlier dictionaries still have the items given above in the value overview (ḥarak ʻimpotence’ and corresp. adj. and vb. I): the link between ‘withers; (hipbone)’ and ʻimpotence’ may be items such as ḥaraka (u, ḥark) ʻto wound a horse on the withers (Hava1899) / atteindre, blesser qn, lui causer une lésion à la partie ḥārik (BK1860), to beat on the back (Steingass1884) / frapper, porter un coup avec un sabre, etc. (BK1860)’, with the corresponding quasi-PP, ḥarīk ʻdégingandé, qui marche comme s’il était brisé par le milieu, disloqué (BK1860)’. Thus, one could imagine a development *‘to beat on the back, to wound on the withers’ > ‘to walk like s.o. who has been beaten\is wounded’ > ‘to be handicapped’ > ‘to be impotent’. – A bold additional hypothesis: *ʻto beat’ < ʻto move, stir’? If such a development could be established, [v2] were dependent on [v1].
▪ If the hypothesis just made at the end of the preceding paragraph should turn out to be tenable, one could imagine a semantic differentiation along three lines: a) *ʻ[v1] to move, stir > [v3] to stir the fire, poker [> Ug Hbr Aram: fire, to roast]’; b) *ʻ[v1] to move, stir > to beat (on the back, on the withers) > [v2] withers’; and c) *ʻ[v1] to move, stir > to beat (on the back, on the withers) > to wound (by beating on the back/withers) > to walk like s.o. who has been beaten\is wounded > to be handicapped > to be impotent’. – Caveat: This hypothesis does not explain the morphology of ḥārik (PA I) or muḥrak (PP IV), nor does it account for the first value given for ḥaraka in BK1860, namely ʻse refuser à faire ou à rendre ce qu’on doit’ (to refuse to do or give back what you should).
▪ … 
– 
– 
ḥarakaẗ حَرَكة , pl. ‑āt 
ID 205 • Sw – • BP 193 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤRK 
n.f. 
1 movement, motion; 2 commotion; 3 physical exercise; 4 stirring, impulse; 5 proceeding, procedure, policy; 6 action, undertaking, enterprise; 7 military operation; 8 continuation, progress; 9 traffic (rail, shipping, street); 10 movement (as a social phenomenon); 11 vowel (gram.) – WehrCowan1976. 
ḥarakaẗ is one of the vn.s of the vb. I, ḥaruka, u (ḥark, ḥarakaẗ) ʻto move about, shake, stir up’, now obsol., but still attested in Steingass1884 or Hava1899. Given the scarcity of cognates (only in modSAr), the further etymological background remains obscure, also with regard to the value’s relation to a horse’s withers (↗ḥārik) and the idea of impotence (ḥarak, see [v4] in root entry ↗√ḤRK).
miḥrāk ʻpoker, fire iron’ is treated as a deriv. of ḥaruka ʻto stir, stir up’ here, positing that it belongs together with ḥarakaẗ; however, DRS deals with it as distinct item in. For details, ↗miḥrāk.
▪ For *ʻmovement’ as the starting point of a hypothetical semantic development that would include not only miḥrāk ʻpoker, fire iron’, but also ḥārik ʻwithers’ and ʻimpotence’, see section DISC in root entry ↗√ḤRK. 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤRK-1 Ar ḥaruka ‘se mouvoir’, ḥarraka ‘déplacer, mouvoir’, Mhr ḥōrək, Jib oḥōrk, Ḥrs ḥārək ‘déplacer, agiter; faire un signe de tête’, Jib ənḥérək ‘se déplacer’. -2-4 […].
▪ … 
▪ See above, section CONC. 
– 
fī ḥarakāti-hī wa-sakanāti-hī, expr., 1 in all his doings; 2 in every situation;
ḥarakaẗ al-murūr, expr., (through) traffic;
ḥarakaẗ al-marākib, n.f., shipping traffic;
ḥarakaẗ al-biḍāʔiʕ, n.f., exchange of goods;
ḥarakaẗ al-ʔamwāl, n.f., turnover (com.);
al-ḥarakaẗ al-niswiyyaẗ, n.f., feminist movement;
ḫafīf al-ḥarakaẗ, adj., nimble, lithe, light, quick, agile, adroit;
ṯaqīl al-ḥarakaẗ, adj., slow in motion, heavy-handed, clumsy, sluggish, lumbering, inert, indolent

BP#2279ḥarraka, vb. II, 1 to move, set in motion, drive, propel, operate (s.th.); 2 to march, move (troops); 3 to stir (s.th.); 4 to start, get started, get underway (s.th.); 5 to agitate, excite, stimulate (s.th.); 6 to incite, instigate, goad, prod, provoke, actuate, urge (ʕalà s.o. to do s.th.); 7 to awaken, arouse, foment, stir up (s.th.); 8 to vowel, vowelize (gram., a consonant): D-stem, caus., either from the obsol. vb. I, or denom. from ḥarakaẗ. | ~ mašāʕira-hū, vb., to grip, excite, thrill s.o.; ~ al-ʕawāṭif, vb., to affect the feelings, be touching, moving, pathetic; lā yuḥarrik sākinan, expr., he doesn’t budge, he doesn’t bend his little finger, he remains immobile, apathetic; ~ sākina-hū, vb., to rouse s.o., put s.o. in a state of excitement, commotion or agitation
BP#1381taḥarraka, vb. V, 1 to move, be in motion, stir, budge; 2 to start moving, get moving; 3 to start out, get underway (traveler); 4 to depart, leave (train); 5 to put out, to sail (fleet); 6 to be set in motion, be driven, be operated; 7 to be agitated, be excited, be stimulated; 8 to be awakened, be roused, be fomented, be provoked, be caused: Dt-stem, refl./self-ref. of vb. II.
ḥarik, adv., active, brisk, agile, nimble.
ḥarakī, adj., kinetic (phys.): nisba formation from ḥarakaẗ.
BP#2923ḥarāk, n., movement, motion.
maḥrak, n., path, trajectory (of a projectile): n.loc., *ʻplace where s.th. moves’.
miḥrāk, n., poker, fire iron: n.instr., *ʻtool used to stir’ (? – cf. also ↗s.v.).
BP#3488taḥrīk, n., stimulation, activation: vn. II.
taḥrīkī, adj., dynamic: nisba formation, from the preceding.
BP#1921taḥarruk, pl. ‑āt, 1 movement, motion; 2 forward motion; 3 start; 4 departure; 5 sailing (of a fleet): vn. V.
BP#3440muḥarrik, n., 1 mover, stirrer; 2 rouser, inciter, fomenter, awakener, agent; 3 instigator; 4 – (pl. ‑āt), motive, springs, incentive, spur, motivating circumstance, causative factor; 5 motor, engine (tech.): PA II.
BP#3695mutaḥarrik, adj., 1 moving, movable, mobile; 2 pronounced with following vowel, voweled, vowelized (consonant; gram.): PA V. | ṣuwar mutaḥarrikaẗ, n., nonhum.pl., movies, motion pictures.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ḥārik and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤRK. 
ḥārik حارِك 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤRK 
n. 
withers – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ Of obscure etymology. No obvious relation to ↗ḥarakaẗ ʻmovement’ or ↗miḥrāk ʻpoker, fire iron’, but perh. connected to the obsol. ḥarak ʻimpotence’. See DISC below. 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤRK-1-3 […]. 4 Ar ḥārik ‘garrot du cheval’, muḥrak ‘extrémité supérieure du cou’.
▪ … 
▪ Morphologically, Ar ḥārik ‘withers (of a horse)’ is a PA I, suggesting a derivation from a vb. I as *ʻthe …-ing one, the …-ing part of the body’; but there is also ClassAr muḥrak ‘extrémité supérieure du cou’ (DRS), a PP IV, suggesting an interpretation based on an original *ʻpart of the body that is made to …’. None of the values attested for ḤRK in Ar or Sem produces plausible etymologies if put in place of the missing ʻ…’ here. The authors of DRS think ḥārik is akin to ḥarkakaẗ (pl. ḥarākikᵘ, ḥarākīkᵘ) ʻhipbone’ (Steingass1884), with reduplication of R₃ – an interesting observation, though it does not bring more light into the etymology of the item as such, as also ḥarkakaẗ is without cognates outside Ar. A little bit more helpful is the fact that it seems to be possible to draw a line of semantic development from ‘withers; (hipbone)’ to the now obsol. ḥarak ʻimpotence’ (and corresp. adj. and vb. I): the link between ‘withers; (hipbone)’ and ʻimpotence’ may be items such as ḥaraka (u, ḥark) ʻto wound a horse on the withers (Hava1899) / atteindre, blesser qn, lui causer une lésion à la partie ḥārik (BK1860), to beat on the back (Steingass1884) / frapper, porter un coup avec un sabre, etc. (BK1860)’, with the corresponding quasi-PP, ḥarīk ʻdégingandé, qui marche comme s’il était brisé par le milieu, disloqué (BK1860)’. Thus, one could imagine a development *‘to beat on the back, to wound on the withers’ > ‘to walk like s.o. who has been beaten\is wounded’ > ‘to be handicapped’ > ‘to be impotent’. – A bold additional hypothesis: *ʻto beat’ < ʻto move, stir’? If such a development could be established, ḥārik ‘withers’ would be akin to ↗ḥarakaẗ ‘movement’.
▪ … 
– 
For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ḥarakaẗ and ↗miḥrāk, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤRK. 
miḥrāk مِحْراك 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤRK 
n. 
poker, fire iron – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ While it might seem natural, from an inner-Ar perspective, to link miḥrāk ʻpoker, fire iron’ to the notion of ‘to move, stir’ (↗ḥarakaẗ), as *‘instrument with which to stir the fire’, a caveat is in place in light of the Ug Hbr Aram cognates, which have ‘fire, to burn, roast’ as their basic idea, not ‘to move, stir’. For further discussion, see root entry ↗√ḤRK.
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤRK-1 Ar haruka ‘se mouvoir’, harraka ‘déplacer, mouvoir’, Mhr ḥōrək, Jib oḥōrk, Ḥrs ḥārək ‘déplacer, agiter; faire un signe de tête’, Jib ənḥérək ‘se déplacer’. -2 […]. -3 Ug ḥrk ‘mettre au feu’, Hbr ḥārak ‘rôtir’, Aram ḥᵊrak ‘être chaud, brûler’, Ar miḥrāk ‘fourgon pour remuer le feu’. -4 […].
▪ … 
▪ See above, section CONC. 
– 
For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ḥarakaẗ and ↗ḥārik, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤRK. 
ḤRM حرم 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤRM 
“root” 
▪ ḤRM_1 ‘forbidden, prohibited, taboo, sacred’ ↗ḥarām; ‘inviolable place, sacred precinct, sanctuary; wife’ ↗ḥaram; ‘harem; female members of the family, women’ ↗ḥarīm
▪ ḤRM_2 ‘thief, robber, bandit’ ↗ḥarāmī
▪ ḤRM_3 ‘woolen blanket (worn as a garment around head and body)’ ↗ḥirām
▪ ḤRM_4 ‘handkerchief’ ↗maḥramaẗ

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘inviolable place, sanctuary, that which is under one’s protection; womenfolk, wife; to forbid, forbidden; sinful, illegitimate, taboo; to deny s.o. s.th., to preclude, exclusion; to respect, to honour, to revere, to venerate’ 
▪ [v1] : Huehnergard2011 reconstructs protSem *X̣RM ‘to separate, ban, prohibit’, while Kogan2015 is reluctant to accept suggested Akk cognates and, pointing also to the »noteworthy … complete absence of *ḥrm from extant Ug texts«, restricts his reconstruction to protWSem *ḤRM ‘to forbid’. – The term has developed three important connotations: religious (sanctuary, holy place, etc.), sexual-moral-legal (women, forbidden for others to see\touch\marry), and ethical (respect, dignity) – see section DERIV in entry ↗ḥaram.
▪ Ultimately, all other values [v2]–[v4] may be derived from [v1] so that one could imagine a development along the line *ʻto forbid, sanctity, inviolability, taboo > to cover and thereby protect (from being violated) > piece of cloth used for veiling head\body (and thereby protecting it from violation), scarf, foulard, turban > handkerchief’.
▪ [v2] : prob. a simple nisba formation from ḥarām ‘forbidden, prohibited, taboo, sacred’, thus depending on [v1].
▪ [v3] : According to DRS (#ḤRM-1), Ar ḥirām ‘woolen blanket (worn as a garment around head and body)’ is cognate to Akk ḫarāmu ‘to cover’ (CAD: ʻto stretch or place a membrane, skin or a layer of metal over and object; to place a tablet in a clay case’). Moreover, the authors think the value [v3] ʻto cover’ and the complex [v1] ‘to forbid, exclude, deny, prohibit’ »peuvent être liées« – see below, section DISC.
▪ [v4] : In MSA and many Ar dialects, the word maḥramaẗ means ‘handkerchief’, while it signifies ‘turban’ in ḤḍrAr (as does also Soq mḥármeh). For Soq, Leslau suggests a connection with Ar ↗ḫimār ʻveil covering head and face of a woman’.35 In contrast, the authors of DRS rather feel inclined to compare [v4] to [v3] ʻto cover’ (and in this way also [v1] ʻto forbid’). Thus, etymologically, [v3] and [v4] may indeed be essentially one. – Any interference of Engl handkerchief or Fr mouchoir? Like the Ar ‘handkerchief’, the Eur words seem to have been, originally, pieces of cloth to veil/protect the head or body… See below, section DISC.
▪ … 
– 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤRM-1 Akk ḫarāmu ‘couvrir’ (CAD: arāmu~ḫarāmu~erēmu ʻto stretch or place (a membrane, skin or a layer of metal) over and object, place a tablet in a clay case’), Ar ḥirām ‘couverture’. -?2 Akk ḫarāmu ‘séparer’; – Moab *hḥrm, Hbr hęḥęrīm ‘consacrer, vouer’; Hbr ‘vouer à la destruction totale’, JP ḥarem ‘excommunier, interdire, déclarer qc mise à part pour l’usage du Temple, vouer à la destruction’, Nab ḥrm ‘chose sacrée, inviolable’, hḥrm ‘vouer’, Mnd ḥrm ‘interdire, maudire’; Ar ḥarama ‘repousser, tenir à distance, prohiber, déclarer illicite’, ḥarima ‘être illicite, être sacré et interdit à l’usage profane’, ḥaram ‘chose illicite, sacrée; enceinte sacrée; femme’; ḥurumāt ‘ordres et interdits inviolables (de Dieu)’, DaṯAr miḥrām ‘sanctuaire’; SAr ḥrm (vb.): Sab ‘être interdit, proscrit; être en état de sacralisation (pèlerin)’, Qat ‘être prohibé, puni; décréter, commander’, Soq ḥrm ‘maudire’, Ḥrs ḥerm ‘être privé (de droits conjugaux)’, Mhr ḥōrəm, Ḥrs ḥārəm ‘se repentir, jurer de ne pas’, Jib oḥúrm ‘jurer de ne pas’, Mhr ḥrūm ‘provoquer un désastre en enfreignant un interdit’, Jib aḥrím ‘interdire’; – ḥrm (n.): Sab ḥrm, Sab Qat Min mḥrm ‘enclos, sanctuaire’, Mhr Ḥrs ḥərōm, Jib ḥárúm ‘interdit, tabou’, Ḥrs ḥərām ‘mariage, légitimité’, Mhr ḥərmēt ‘femme, épouse; femme sans défense, veuve’, Jib ḥarmɛ́t ‘veuve’; Gz ḥarama, Te ḥarräma, Amh harrämä,arrämä ‘interdire’, Te məḥram ‘sanctuaire’, Tña ḥarämä ‘être interdit’. – ? YemAr ḥaram(ä) ‘mort naturelle’. -3 ḤḍrAr maḥrameh ‘foulard de tête’, EAr maḥrameh, MġrAr maḥramah, mḥarmah ‘mouchoir, foulard’, Soq mḥármeh ‘turban’. -4 Mhr ḥōrem ‘route, voie’.
▪ [v1] Kogan2015: 84 #23: Hbr ḥrm (hip.) ‘to put under a ban’, Syr ḥrm (ap.) ‘devovit, Ar ḥrm ‘to be forbidden, prohibited’, Sab ḥrm ‘to put under restraint’, Min ḥrm ‘proclamer sacre’, Qat ḥrm ‘to be forbidden’, Gz ḥarama ‘to forbid’, Mhr ḥōrəm ‘to repent; to swear not to do s.th.’, ḥrūm ‘to bring disaster by doing s.th. forbidden’, Jib aḥrím ‘to forbid’, Soq ḥórim ‘maudire’.
▪ … 
▪ [v1] Kogan2015: 84 #23 reports that protWSem *ḤRM ‘to forbid’ has been often compared with Akk ḫarimtu ‘prostitute’, which, however, as Kogan himself thinks, »is far from evident either phonologically or semantically.« Moreover, »[t]he presumably related verb [Akk] ḫarāmu ‘to separate’ is very sparsely attested« (ibid., n.246), and Akk does not seem to have an »exact verbal match corresponding to the semantic sphere of protWSem *ḤRM.«152 Taken together with the absence of Ug cognates, the lack of an Akk verbal match and the doubtfulness of Akk ḫarimtu as a parallel, Kogan feels it is safer to posit the basic *ḤRM ʻto forbid’ only for protWSem rather than for the common protSem lexicon.
▪ [v1] : DRS asks whether one should perh. also compare protSem √ḪRM »dont certaines valeurs sont assez proches de celles de ḤRM, pour qu’il soit difficile, parfois, de différencier avec certitude, celles qui relèvent de l’une ou l’autre racine; ainsi par exemple dans le cas de Akk ḫarāmu ʻséparer’« (which, in their opinion, could be either from *ḤRM or *ḪRM). – See root entry ↗ḪRM (basic value: ‘to pierce, make a hole’).
▪ [v2] : The very widespread word for ‘thief, robber, bandit’, Ar ḥarāmī, is not mentioned in DRS, prob. because the authors regard its dependence on ḥarām as unquestionable. It could indeed be a simple nisba formation from the latter, thus meaning *ʻs.o. dealing with forbidden\unlawful things’ or (from ḥarām in the sense of ʻcursed, accursed’) *ʻperson who may\should be cursed’.
▪ [v4] (≙ DRS #ḤRM-3) : If we assume that [v3] ʻwoolen blanket’ and [v4] ʻhandkerchief’ essentially are one and that they are related to [v1] ʻto forbid’, one may posit the hypothetical semantic development within the root as follows: *ʻto forbid, sanctity, inviolability, taboo (incl. women, and dignity, respect) > to cover and thereby protect (s.th. taboo from being violated) > piece of cloth used for veiling head\body (and thereby protecting it from violation), scarf, foulard, turban > handkerchief’. The transition ʻhead\body cloth > handkerchief’ was perh. motivated by, or itself a motivating factor behind, a similar development in Eur langs, where e.g. Engl kerchief originally was a *ʻsquare piece of fabric folded and worn about the head, cloth for covering the head’, from mEngl kovrechief ʻpiece of cloth used to cover part of the head’, esp. a woman’s head-cloth or veil, from AngloFr courchief, oFr couvrechief ʻa kerchief’, lit. *ʻcover head’, from couvrir ʻto cover’ + chief ʻhead’ (< Lat caput ʻhead’). It was from lC14 that the Engl word came to be used as ʻpiece of cloth used about the person’ generally, for purposes other than covering the head; and from c. 1400 as ʻpiece of cloth used about the person, carried in the hand’ to wipe the face, etc., »a curious confluence of words for ʻhand’ and ʻhead’« (EtymOnline, as of 25Nov2020). If the parallel is not a mere coincidence, or due to a typologically similar development in Eastern and Western cultural history, esp. court culture, then one would have to search for the environment of cultural contact in which a calquing may have happened – in whatever direction.
▪ … 
▪ Engl harem, harmattan, ihram, Marrano, Muharramḥaram (with further references). 
– 
ḥaram حَرَم , pl. ʔaḥrām 
ID 207 • Sw – • BP 1688 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤRM 
n. 
I adj., 1a forbidden, prohibited, interdicted; b taboo; 2a holy, sacred, sacrosanct; II n., 2b s.th. sacred, sacred object; c sacred possession; d sanctum, sanctuary, sacred precinct; 3 wife – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ From protWSem *ḤRM ‘to forbid’ (Kogan2015). If the Akk evidence can be counted in, one may perh. even posit a common protSem *X̣RM ‘to separate, ban, prohibit’ (Huehnergard2011).
▪ The term and derivations from it cover three semantic fields of high cultural importance: religious (sanctuary, holy place, etc.), sexual-moral-legal (women, forbidden for others to see\touch\marry), and ethical (respect, dignity) – see section DERIV, particularly the terms figuring in BuckwalterParkinson’s frequency list (marked »BP«).
▪ Perh. also ↗ḥirām ʻwoolen blanket’ and ↗maḥramaẗ ʻhandkerchief’ are ultimately akin, as both seem to be built, originally, on the idea of ʻcovering, protecting’, which is a kind of ‘separating, denying, prohibiting, forbidding’, sc. others from seeing or touching taboo parts.
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤRM-?1 Akk ḫarāmu ‘couvrir’ (CAD: arāmu~ḫarāmu~erēmu ʻto stretch or place (a membrane, skin or a layer of metal) over and object, place a tablet in a clay case’), Ar ḥirām ‘couverture’. -2 Akk ḫarāmu ‘séparer’; – Moab *hḥrm, Hbr hęḥęrīm ‘consacrer, vouer’; Hbr ‘vouer à la destruction totale’, JP ḥarem ‘excommunier, interdire, déclarer qc mise à part pour l’usage du Temple, vouer à la destruction’, Nab ḥrm ‘chose sacrée, inviolable’, hḥrm ‘vouer’, Mnd ḥrm ‘interdire, maudire’; Ar ḥarama ‘repousser, tenir à distance, prohiber, déclarer illicite’, ḥarima ‘être illicite, être sacré et interdit à l’usage profane’, ḥaram ‘chose illicite, sacrée; enceinte sacrée; femme’; ḥurumāt ‘ordres et interdits inviolables (de Dieu)’, DaṯAr miḥrām ‘sanctuaire’; SAr ḥrm (vb.): Sab ‘être interdit, proscrit; être en état de sacralisation (pèlerin)’, Qat ‘être prohibé, puni; décréter, commander’, Soq ḥrm ‘maudire’, Ḥrs ḥerm ‘être privé (de droits conjugaux)’, Mhr ḥōrəm, Ḥrs ḥārəm ‘se repentir, jurer de ne pas’, Jib oḥúrm ‘jurer de ne pas’, Mhr ḥrūm ‘provoquer un désastre en enfreignant un interdit’, Jib aḥrím ‘interdire’; – ḥrm (n.): Sab ḥrm, Sab Qat Min mḥrm ‘enclos, sanctuaire’, Mhr Ḥrs ḥərōm, Jib ḥárúm ‘interdit, tabou’, Ḥrs ḥərām ‘mariage, légitimité’, Mhr ḥərmēt ‘femme, épouse; femme sans défense, veuve’, Jib ḥarmɛ́t ‘veuve’; Gz ḥarama, Te ḥarräma, Amh harrämä,arrämä ‘interdire’, Te məḥram ‘sanctuaire’, Tña ḥarämä ‘être interdit’. – ? YemAr ḥaram(ä) ‘mort naturelle’. -3 ḤḍrAr maḥrameh ‘foulard de tête’, EAr maḥrameh, MġrAr maḥramah, mḥarmah ‘mouchoir, foulard’, Soq mḥármeh ‘turban’. -4 […].
▪ Kogan2015, 84 #23: Hbr ḥrm (hip.) ‘to put under a ban’, Syr ḥrm (ap.) ‘devovit, Ar ḥrm ‘to be forbidden, prohibited’, Sab ḥrm ‘to put under restraint’, Min ḥrm ‘proclamer sacre’, Qat ḥrm ‘to be forbidden’, Gz ḥarama ‘to forbid’, Mhr ḥōrəm ‘to repent; to swear not to do s.th.’, ḥrūm ‘to bring disaster by doing s.th. forbidden’, Jib aḥrím ‘to forbid’, Soq ḥórim ‘maudire’.
▪ … 
▪ Kogan2015: 84 #23 is reluctant to accept an ESem dimension. He points to the absence of Ug cognates; the lack of an exact verbal match in Akk – ḫarāmu ‘to separate’ is »presumably related«, but only »very sparsely attested« (n.246) – ; and the doubtfulness of Akk ḫarimtu ‘prostitute’ as a parallel. Taken together, he posits protWSem *ḤRM ‘to forbid’, while others, like Huehnergard2011, reconstruct a common protSem *X̣RM.
▪ The values treated in DRS as #ḤRM-1 (incl. Ar ḥirām ‘woolen blanket, worn as a garment around head and body)’ and #ḤRM-3 (incl. Ar maḥramaẗ ʻhandkerchief’) »peuvent être liées«, not only among each other, but also to ḥaram etc., i.e., the complex ‘to forbid, deny, prohibit’, as covering the head and\or body is a form of protecting one’s sanctity\inviolability\dignity by denying, preventing, forbidding others to see and\or touch the head or body, or because wrapping one’s head with a piece of cloth resembles the wrapping of a writing tablet in a protecting clay case (as in Akk arāmu~ḫarāmu~erēmu). See also s.v. ↗ḥirām and ↗maḥramaẗ.
▪ … 
▪ Accord. to Huehnergard2011, Engl harem ‘part of a Middle Eastern house reserved for women’ is directly from Ar ↗ḥarīm ‘sanctuary, inviolable place, harem’. In contrast, EtymOnline thinks the borrowing happened in the 1630s via Tu harem, from Ar ḥaram ‘wives and concubines’, orig. ‘women’s quarters’, lit. *‘s.th. forbidden or kept safe’, from ḥarama ‘to guard, forbid’. From 1784 in Engl as ‘wives, female relatives and female slaves in a Middle Eastern household’. The harem-skirt was introduced in fashion 1911. Harem pants attested from 1921; fashionable c. 1944 EtymOnline (as of 25Nov2020).
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Muharram, from Ar muḥarram ‘forbidden’, PP of ḥarrama, vb. II, ‘to declare sacred or unlawful, forbid’, D-stem of ḥarama, vb. I, ‘to exclude, deny, prohibit’. – Engl ihram, from Ar ʔiḥrām ‘state of ritual purity of pilgrims to Mecca’, vn. of ʔaḥrama, vb. IV, ‘to enter ihram’, *Š-stem of ḥarama, vb. I (see preceding).
▪ Accord. to Huehnergard2011, Engl Marrano ‘a Jew or Moor in Spain who, to avoid persecution, publicly professed conversion to Christianity while privately continuing in the practices and beliefs of their old religion’ is prob. from Ar maḥram ‘something forbidden’, quasi-n.loc., from ḥarama (as preceding). – In contrast, EtymOnline has: »1580s, from Span, prob. lit. *‘pig, swine’, an expr. of contempt, from Ar muḥarram ‘forbidden thing’ (eating of pork is forbidden by Muslim and Jewish religious law), from ḥaruma ‘to be forbidden’ – EtymOnline (as of 25Nov2020).
▪ For Engl harmattan , cf. ↗ḥarām
al-ḥaramān, n.du., the two Holy Places, Mecca and Medina
ṯāliṯ al-ḥaramayn, n., the third Holy Place, i.e., Jerusalem.

ḥaruma, u, var. ḥarima, a, vb. I, to be forbidden, prohibited, interdicted, unlawful, unpermitted (ʕalà to s.o.): vb.intr., perh. denom. from ḥaram or ḥarām.
BP#2430ḥarama, i (ḥirm, var. ḥirmān), vb. I, 1 to deprive, bereave, dispossess, divest (s.th. or min s.o. of s.th.), take away, withdraw, withhold (s.th. or min from s.o. s.th.), deny, refuse (s.th. or min to s.o. s.th.); 2 to exclude, debar, preclude, cut off (s.o., s.th. or min s.o. from s.th.); 3 to excommunicate (s.o.; Chr.): vb.tr., perh. denom. from ḥaram or ḥarām.
BP#3966ḥarrama, vb. II, 1 to declare (s.th.) sacred, sacrosanct, inviolable, or taboo, to taboo (s.th.); 2 to declare (s.th.) unlawful, not permissible, forbid, interdict, proscribe (s.th., to s
.o.); 3 to render (s.o.) immune or proof (min against), immunize (min s.o. against): D-stem, declar./caus. | ~ ʕalà nafsi-hī, vb., to deny o.s. s.th., abstain, refrain from s.th.
ʔaḥrama, vb. IV, 1 to excommunicate (s.o.; Chr.); 2 to enter into the state of ritual consecration (esp., of a Mecca pilgrim; see ʔiḥrām): *Š-stem, [v1] declar., specialised used in rel. context, from ḥirm (see below), [v2] denom. from ʔiḥrām.
taḥarrama, vb. V, 1 to be forbidden, interdicted, prohibited; 2 to be holy, sacred, sacrosanct, inviolable: Dt-stem, intr./self-ref.
BP#3070ĭḥtarama, vb. VIII, to honor, revere, venerate, esteem, respect (s.o., s.th.): Gt-stem, self-ref. (*ʻto have o.s. a respectful attitude towards’) | ~ nafsa-hū, vb., to be self-respecting.
ĭstaḥrama, vb. X, 1 to deem (s.th.) sacrosanct, sacred, holy, inviolable; 2 to deem (s.th.) unlawful or unpermissible: *Št-stem, desid.-declar.

ḥirm, n., excommunication (Chr.): vn. I.
BP#1688ḥaram, pl. ʔaḥrām, I adj., 1a forbidden, prohibited, interdicted; b taboo; 2 holy, sacred, sacrosanct; II n., 3a s.th. sacred, sacred object; b sacred possession; c sanctum, sanctuary, sacred precinct; 4 wife | al-ḥaramān, n.du., the two Holy Places, Mecca and Medina; ṯāliṯ al-ḥaramayn, n., the third Holy Place, i.e., Jerusalem.
BP#3581ḥurmaẗ, pl. ḥuram, var. ḥurumāt, ḥuramāt, n.f., 1 holiness, sacredness, sanctity, sacrosanctity, inviolability; 2 reverence, veneration, esteem, deference, respect; 3 that which is holy, sacred, sacrosanct, inviolable, or taboo; 4 pl. ḥuram, a woman, lady; b wife.
BP#1261ḥarām, pl. ḥurum, I adj., 1a forbidden, interdicted, prohibited, unlawful; b inviolable, taboo; 2 sacred, sacrosanct; 3 cursed, accursed; II n., 4 s.th. forbidden, offense, sin | ĭbn ~, n., illegitimate son, bastard; al-ʔarāḍī al-ḥarām, nonhum.pl., 1a no man’s land; b neutral territory; al-bayt al-ḥarām, n., the Kaaba; al-šahr al-ḥarām, n., the Holy Month Muḥarram; al-masǧid al-ḥarām, n., the Holy Mosque in Mecca; ḥarām ʕalay-ka, expr., you mustn’t do (say) that; bi-ḥarām, adv., illicitly, illegally, unlawfully.
ḥirām, pl. ‑āt, var. ʔaḥrimaẗ, n., a woolen blanket (worn as a garment around head and body): prob. akin to ḥaram etc.; see ↗s.v. and sections CONC and DISC, above.
BP#4832ḥarīm, pl. ḥurum, n., 1 a sacred, inviolable place, sanctum, sanctuary, sacred precinct; 2a harem; b female members of the family, women; c wife: quasi-PP I.
ḥarīmī, adj., women’s (in compounds), for women: nisba formation from the preceding.
ḥurūm, pl. ‑āt, n., excommunication (Chr.): < vn. I ?
ḥarāmī, pl. ‑iyyaẗ, n., thief, robber, bandit: nisba formation, from ḥarām in the sense of ʻcursed, accursed’ (?) or *ʻs.o. dealing with forbidden\unlawful things’.
BP#3004ḥirmān, n., 1a deprivation, bereavement, dispossession (of s.o., of a.th.); b debarment, exclusion, preclusion (min from); c privation; 2 excommunication (Chr.): vn. I. | ḥirmān al-ʔirṯ, n., exclusion from inheritance, disinheritance (Isl. Law).
maḥram, pl. maḥārimᵘ, n., 1 s.th. forbidden, inviolable, taboo, sacrosanct, holy, or sacred; 2 unmarriageable, being in a degree of consanguinity precluding marriage (Isl. Law): n.loc., with specialised sense [v2].
maḥramaẗ, pl. maḥārimᵘ, n.f., handkerchief: orig. perh. *ʻpiece of cloth used to cover head\body and protect taboo parts from being violated’? See DISC in root entry ↗√ḤRM as well as own entry ↗maḥramaẗ.
taḥrīm, n., forbiddance, interdiction, prohibition, ban: vn. II.
ʔiḥrām, n., 1 state of ritual consecration of the Mecca pilgrim (during which the pilgrim, wearing two seamless woolen or linen sheets, usually white, neither combs nor shares, and observes sexual continence); 2 garments of the Mecca pilgrim: vn. IV, [v2] synecdoch. use.
BP#1044ĭḥtirām, pl ‑āt, 1a deference, respect, regard, esteem, reverence; b honoring (e.g., of a privilege); c pl. honors, respects, tributes: vn. VIII.
maḥrūm, adj., 1 deprived, bereaved, bereft (min of); 2 excluded, precluded, debarred (min from); 3 suffering privation (as opposed to marzūq); 4 excommunicated (Chr.): PP I.
BP#3580muḥarram, adj., n., 1 forbidden, interdicted; 2 Muharram, name of the first Islamic month: PP II. | Muḥarram al-ḥarām, honorific name of this month.
muḥrim, n., Mecca pilgrim who has entered the state of ritual consecration (see ʔiḥrām): PA IV.
BP#2905muḥtaram, adj., 1 honored, revered, venerated, esteemed, respected; 2 (in the salutation of letters:) my dear; 3 venerable, reverend; 4 notable, remarkable, considerable: PP VIII.

See also ↗ḥarām, ↗ḥirām, ↗ḥarīm, ↗ḥarāmī, ↗maḥramaẗ, and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤRM. 
ḥarām حَرام, pl. ḥurum 
ID 206 • Sw – • BP 1261 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤRM 
adj.; n. 
I adj., 1a forbidden, interdicted, prohibited, unlawful; b inviolable, taboo; 2 sacred, sacrosanct; 3 cursed, accursed; II n., 4 s.th. forbidden, offense, sin – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ From protWSem *ḤRM ‘to forbid’ (Kogan2015) or protSem *X̣RM ‘to separate, ban, prohibit’ (Huehnergard2011). For discussion and further details, cf. ↗ḥaram and root entry ↗√ḤRM.
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥaram.
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥaram.
▪ … 
▪ Engl harmattan, possibly from Ar ḥarām ‘evil thing’, from ḥarama, vb. I, ‘to exclude, deny, prohibit’ – Huehnergard2011. – Cf., however, TLFi which, for Fr harmattan says that it is borrowed from Fanti (a language of Ghana) haramata ʻid.’ (as of 29Nov2020).
 
ĭbn ḥarām, n., illegitimate son, bastard
al-ʔarāḍī al-ḥarām, nonhum.pl., 1a no man’s land; b neutral territory
al-bayt al-ḥarām, n., the Kaaba
al-šahr al-ḥarām, n., the Holy Month Muḥarram
al-masǧid al-ḥarām, n., the Holy Mosque in Mecca
ḥarām ʕalay-ka, expr., you mustn’t do (say) that
bi-ḥarām, adv., illicitly, illegally, unlawfully.

ḥarāmī, pl. ‑iyyaẗ, n., thief, robber, bandit: nisba formation, from ḥarām in the sense of ʻcursed, accursed’ (?) or *ʻs.o. dealing with forbidden\unlawful things’.

See also ↗ḥaram, ↗ḥirām, ↗ḥarīm, ↗ḥarāmī, ↗maḥramaẗ, and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤRM. 
ḥirām حِرام , pl. ‑āt, var. ʔaḥrimaẗ 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤRM 
n. 
a woolen blanket (worn as a garment around head and body) – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ Together with what is likely to be an Akk cognate, Ar ḥirām ‘woolen blanket (garment around head and body)’ seems to be based on the notion of ‘covering’ and thereby ʻprotecting’. The authors of DRS think (s.v. #ḤRM-1) that this ʻcovering-protecting’ could be related to the larger semantic complex ʻforbidding, denying, preventing’ (DRS #ḤRM-2, see ↗ḥaram), prob. because covering the head and\or body is a form of protecting one’s sanctity\inviolability\dignity by denying, preventing, forbidding others to see and\or touch the head\body, or because wrapping one’s head with a piece of cloth resembles the wrapping of a writing tablet in a protecting clay case (cf. Akk arāmu~ḫarāmu~erēmu).
▪ Akin, and etymologically perh. even identical, is prob. ↗maḥramah ‘handkerchief’, as also this latter may originally have been a head/body cover or scarf.
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤRM-1 Akk ḫarāmu ‘couvrir’ [CAD: arāmu~ḫarāmu~erēmu ʻto stretch or place (a membrane, skin or a layer of metal) over and object, place a tablet in a clay case’], Ar ḥirām ‘couverture’. -?2 Akk ḫarāmu ‘séparer’; – Moab *hḥrm, Hbr hęḥęrīm ‘consacrer, vouer’; Hbr ‘vouer à la destruction totale’, JP ḥarem ‘excommunier, interdire, déclarer qc mise à part pour l’usage du Temple, vouer à la destruction’, Nab ḥrm ‘chose sacrée, inviolable’, hḥrm ‘vouer’, Mnd ḥrm ‘interdire, maudire’; Ar ḥarama ‘repousser, tenir à distance, prohiber, déclarer illicite’, ḥarima ‘être illicite, être sacré et interdit à l’usage profane’, ḥaram ‘chose illicite, sacrée; enceinte sacrée; femme’; ḥurumāt ‘ordres et interdits inviolables (de Dieu)’, DaṯAr miḥrām ‘sanctuaire’; SAr ḥrm (vb.): Sab ‘être interdit, proscrit; être en état de sacralisation (pèlerin)’, Qat ‘être prohibé, puni; décréter, commander’, Soq ḥrm ‘maudire’, Ḥrs ḥerm ‘être privé (de droits conjugaux)’, Mhr ḥōrəm, Ḥrs ḥārəm ‘se repentir, jurer de ne pas’, Jib oḥúrm ‘jurer de ne pas’, Mhr ḥrūm ‘provoquer un désastre en enfreignant un interdit’, Jib aḥrím ‘interdire’; – ḥrm (n.): Sab ḥrm, Sab Qat Min mḥrm ‘enclos, sanctuaire’, Mhr Ḥrs ḥərōm, Jib ḥárúm ‘interdit, tabou’, Ḥrs ḥərām ‘mariage, légitimité’, Mhr ḥərmēt ‘femme, épouse; femme sans défense, veuve’, Jib ḥarmɛ́t ‘veuve’; Gz ḥarama, Te ḥarräma, Amh harrämä,arrämä ‘interdire’, Te məḥram ‘sanctuaire’, Tña ḥarämä ‘être interdit’. – ? YemAr ḥaram(ä) ‘mort naturelle’. -3 ḤḍrAr maḥrameh ‘foulard de tête’, EAr maḥrameh, MġrAr maḥramah, mḥarmah ‘mouchoir, foulard’, Soq mḥármeh ‘turban’. -4 […].
▪ …
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 

 
See also ↗ḥaram, ↗ḥarām, ↗ḥarīm, ↗ḥarāmī, ↗maḥramaẗ, and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤRM. 
ḥarīm حَريم , pl. ḥurum 
ID 208 • Sw – • BP 4832 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤRM 
n. 
1 a sacred, inviolable place, sanctum, sanctuary, sacred precinct; 2a harem; b female members of the family, women; c wife – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ A quasi-PP I, *ʻseparated, secluded, taboo’, from ḥarama ʻto deprive, withdraw, withhold, deny; to exclude, preclude, cut off’, perh. denom. from ↗ḥaram ‘forbidden, prohibited, inviolable, taboo, sacred’, hence also especially ‘female members of the family, women’.
▪ Accord. to Huehnergard2011, ḥarīm is the source of Engl harem; see below, section WEST, as well as s.v. ↗ḥaram.
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥaram.
▪ … 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
▪ Engl harem, from Ar ḥarīm ‘sanctuary, inviolable place, harem’, from ḥarama, vb. I, ‘to exclude, deny, prohibit’ – Huehnergard2011. – According to EtymOnline, the etymology of Engl harem is rather via Tu ḥarem from Ar ↗ḥaram
ḥarīmī, adj., women’s (in compounds), for women: nisba formation from the preceding.

For further related items, see ↗ḥaram, ↗ḥarām, ↗ḥirām, ↗ḥarāmī, ↗maḥramaẗ, and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤRM. 
ḥarāmī حَراميّ , , pl. ‑iyyaẗ 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤRM 
n. 
thief, robber, bandit – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ Prob. a nisba formation from ↗ḥarām in the sense of ʻcursed, accursed’, or *ʻs.o. dealing with forbidden\unlawful things’.
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥarām, ↗ḥaram.
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥarām, ↗ḥaram.
▪ … 

 
See also ↗ḥaram, ↗ḥarām, ↗ḥirām, ↗ḥarīm, ↗maḥramaẗ, and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤRM. 
maḥramaẗ مَحْرَمة , pl. maḥārimᵘ 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤRM 
n.f. 
handkerchief – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ In MSA and many Ar dialects, both eastern and western, the word maḥramaẗ means ‘handkerchief’, while it signifies ‘head-scarf, turban’ in ḤḍrAr (as does also Soq mḥármeh) –see DRS #ḤRM-3. For Soq mḥármeh, Leslau suggests a connection with Ar ↗ḫimār ʻveil covering head and face of a woman’.36 In contrast, the authors of DRS rather feel inclined to relate it to the basic notion of ʻcovering’, cf. ↗ḥirām ʻwoolen blanket (worn as a garment around head and body)’ (DRS #ḤRM-1), which in turn may be related to the largest semantic field associated with the root √ḤRM, namely ʻto forbid, taboo, respect\dignity’ – see ↗ḥaram.
▪ Any interference of, or influence on, Engl (hand)kerchief or Fr mouchoir? Originally, the Eur words seem to have designated, like Ar maḥramaẗ, pieces of cloth used to veil/protect the head or body…
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤRM-1 Akk ḫarāmu ‘couvrir’ (CAD: arāmu~ḫarāmu~erēmu ʻto stretch or place (a membrane, skin or a layer of metal) over and object, place a tablet in a clay case’), Ar ḥirām ‘couverture’. -?2 Akk ḫarāmu ‘séparer’; – Moab *hḥrm, Hbr hęḥęrīm ‘consacrer, vouer’; Hbr ‘vouer à la destruction totale’, JP ḥarem ‘excommunier, interdire, déclarer qc mise à part pour l’usage du Temple, vouer à la destruction’, Nab ḥrm ‘chose sacrée, inviolable’, hḥrm ‘vouer’, Mnd ḥrm ‘interdire, maudire’; Ar ḥarama ‘repousser, tenir à distance, prohiber, déclarer illicite’, ḥarima ‘être illicite, être sacré et interdit à l’usage profane’, ḥaram ‘chose illicite, sacrée; enceinte sacrée; femme’; ḥurumāt ‘ordres et interdits inviolables (de Dieu)’, DaṯAr miḥrām ‘sanctuaire’; SAr ḥrm (vb.): Sab ‘être interdit, proscrit; être en état de sacralisation (pèlerin)’, Qat ‘être prohibé, puni; décréter, commander’, Soq ḥrm ‘maudire’, Ḥrs ḥerm ‘être privé (de droits conjugaux)’, Mhr ḥōrəm, Ḥrs ḥārəm ‘se repentir, jurer de ne pas’, Jib oḥúrm ‘jurer de ne pas’, Mhr ḥrūm ‘provoquer un désastre en enfreignant un interdit’, Jib aḥrím ‘interdire’; – ḥrm (n.): Sab ḥrm, Sab Qat Min mḥrm ‘enclos, sanctuaire’, Mhr Ḥrs ḥərōm, Jib ḥárúm ‘interdit, tabou’, Ḥrs ḥərām ‘mariage, légitimité’, Mhr ḥərmēt ‘femme, épouse; femme sans défense, veuve’, Jib ḥarmɛ́t ‘veuve’; Gz ḥarama, Te ḥarräma, Amh harrämä,arrämä ‘interdire’, Te məḥram ‘sanctuaire’, Tña ḥarämä ‘être interdit’. – ? YemAr ḥaram(ä) ‘mort naturelle’. -3 ḤḍrAr maḥrameh ‘foulard de tête’, EAr maḥrameh, MġrAr maḥramah, mḥarmah ‘mouchoir, foulard’, Soq mḥármeh ‘turban’. -4 […].
▪ … 
▪ As the meaning ‘head-scarf, turban’ of ḤḍrAr maḥrameh and Soq mḥármeh as well as the more general ‘scarf’ of EAr maḥrameh and MġrAr maḥramah~mḥarmah (alongside ‘handkerchief’) show, the exact meaning of the words vacillates between ‘handkerchief’ and ‘piece of tissue used to cover/protect (the head, or parts of the body)’. Therefore, maḥramaẗ ‘handkerchief’ is quite likely to be akin to ↗ḥirām ‘wooden blanket (worn as a garment around head and body)’ (DRS #ḤRM-1). Interestingly enough, a semantic shift from ‘head-cloth’ (via ‘scarf’) to ‘(hand)kerchief’ can be observed also for Engl kerchief: according to EtymOnline (as of 25Nov2020), Engl kerchief was originally a *ʻsquare piece of fabric folded and worn about the head, cloth for covering the head’, from mEngl kovrechief ʻpiece of cloth used to cover part of the head’, esp. a woman’s head-cloth or veil, from AngloFr courchief, oFr couvrechief ʻa kerchief’, lit. *ʻcover head’, from couvrir ʻto cover’ + chief ʻhead’ (< Lat caput ʻhead’). From lC14 onwards the Engl word came to be used as ʻpiece of cloth used about the person’ generally, for purposes other than covering the head; and from c. 1400 as ʻpiece of cloth used about the person, carried in the hand’ to wipe the face, etc., »a curious confluence of words for ʻhand’ and ʻhead’«. So, is this parallel a mere coincidence? Or is it due to a typological similarity in the development of Eastern and Western cultural history, esp. court culture? Or is it perh. the result of cultural contact and borrowing? In other words, is Ar maḥramaẗ in some way a calque from Engl kerchief, or the latter calqued on the model of the former? If this should be the case, one would have to search for the contact milieu through which the borrowing was initiated.
▪ … 
▪ Was the semantic shift in Engl kerchief from ʻhead-cloth, veil’ to ʻhandkerchief’ (see above, section DISC) influenced by a similar shift in Ar, or the shift in Ar motivated by the development in Engl?
▪ … 
See also ↗ḥaram, ↗ḥarām, ↗ḥirām, ↗ḥarīm, ↗ḥarāmī, and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤRM. 
ḤRW/Y حرو/ي 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9Mar2023
√ḤRW/Y 
“root” 
▪ ḤRW/Y_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤRW/Y_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤRW/Y_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘nest, den, inviolable place; to take great care, be intent; to be worthy; to be hot’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ḤZB حزب 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤZB 
“root” 
▪ ḤZB_1 ‘to befall, happen, occur’ ↗ḥazaba
▪ ḤZB_2 ‘group, troop, band, gang; party’ ↗ḥizb
▪ ḤZB_3 ‘old hag’ ↗ḥayzabūn

Other values, now obsolete, include:
  • ḤZB_4 ‘rocky hill, rugged ground’: ḥizbāʔ
  • ḤZB_5 ‘thick, coarse, rude, bulky and short’: ḥazābin, ḥinzāb (meaning also ‘wild carrot’ and ‘cock’)
BAH2008: ‘1 hardship, to afflict; 2 group, faction, to devide, partition, gang up; 3 rocky hill’ 
▪ Relations within this root still rather unclear. According to DRS, ḤZB_3-5 may be related to ḤZB_1. 
– 
DRS 9 (2010)#ḤZB-1 Ar ḥazaba ‘advenir, survenir, atteindre qn. soudainement’, ḥazb ‘difficultés’; ? Mhr ḥəzūb ‘être vigilant, prêt à agir’. -2 Ar ḥizb ‘portion, part, lot, troupe, parti’, ḥazaba ‘être partisan’, ḥazzaba ‘assembler, réunir; partager’; SAr ʔḥzb (pl.) ‘bandes armées’; Gz ḥəzb ‘nation, tribu, secte, foule’, Te ‘peuple, nation’, Tña ḥəzbi, Amh Gur həzb, Gur äzb, kəzb, kəbz ‘peuple, foule’. -3 Gz ḥazzaba ‘attacher, lier’, Tña ḥəzab, Amh Gur (ə)zab ‘rêne, bride’, Arg zab, Amh azzäbä ‘tresser, faire de courroies’. -4 Gz ḥazaba, ḥazzaba ‘penser, considérer, supposer, soupçonner’, Te täḥazzäba ‘douter’, täḥazäba ‘jeter la suspicion sur’, Amh azzäbä : entendre qc. qu’on désapprouve tacitement, tazzäbä ‘être témoin silencieux, soupçonner, juger à part soi’; Gur azzäbä, Har ḥazäba ‘garder en mémoire ce que qn. a fait’.98 -5 Ar ḥizbāʔ ‘terrain raboteux’; ḥazābin ‘épais, rude, courtaud, massif’, ḥayzabūn ‘vieille femme (rusée, mauvaise)’. 
▪ ḤZB_2: Ar ḥizb is believed to be from Gz ḥəzb. – On DRS #3 (EthSem only): »Peut-être la notion de ‘lier, attacher’ est-elle en rapport avec celle de ‘rassembler, grouper, unir dans un parti, etc.’ [ḤZB_2]«.
▪ ḤZB_3: Ar ḥayzabūn ‘old hag’ is the last remnant of a value that in DRS #5 is treated as one, together with ḤZB_4 ḥizbāʔ ‘rocky hill, rugged ground’ and ḤZB_5, comprising the strange items ḥazābin ‘thick, coarse, rude, (etc.)’ and ḥinzāb ‘dto.; wild carrot; cock’. The common denominator here would be the coarseness, rudeness, compactness. The authors of DRS also consider the possibility that all this “perhaps” should be connected ḤZB_1, »comme les aspérités et surprises de la vie et du chemin.« 
– 
– 
ḥazab‑ حَزَبَ , u (ḥazb
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤZB 
vb., I 
to befall, happen, occur – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Etymology obscure. A relation to ↗ḥizb ‘group, party’ seems rather unlikely. 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010)#ḤZB-1 Ar ḥazaba ‘advenir, survenir, atteindre qn. soudainement’, ḥazb ‘difficultés’; ? Mhr ḥəzūb ‘être vigilant, prêt à agir’. 
▪ Etymology obscure.
DRS 9 (2010) suggests that the complex treated under ḥayzabūn ‘old hag’ may perhaps be related. 
– 
ḥazaba ’l-ʔamr, vb. I, expr., the matter became serious.
ḥāzib: ḥazaba-hū ~, expr., he met with a mishap

For other items of the root cf. ↗ḥizb, ↗ḥayzabūn and (for the general picture) ↗ḤZB. 
ḥizb حِزْب , pl. ʔaḥzāb 
ID 209 • Sw – • BP 289 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤZB 
n. 
1 group, troop, band, gang; 2 party (pol.); 3 the 60th part of the Koran – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ The word is believed to be a loan from Gz that is to be found already in the Q
▪ eC7 (group, party) Q 23:53 fa-taqaṭṭaʕū ʔamra-hum bayna-hum zuburan kullu ḥizbin bi-mā laday-him fariḥūna ‘but they split their affair into sects, each faction rejoicing in what they have’, (supporters, faction, partisans) Q 58:22 ʔulāʔika ḥizbu ’llāhi ʔa-lā ʔinna ḥizba ’llāhi hum-u ’l-mufliḥūna ‘these are on God’s side, and God’s side are the successful’ ▪ Cf. also 5:56, 30:32, 35:6; in the dual, al-ḥizbayn : 18:12; in the pl., al-ʔaḥzāb : 11:17, 13:36, 19:37, 33:20,22, 38:11,13, 40:5,30, 43:65 
DRS 9 (2010)#ḤZB-2: Ar ḥizb ‘portion, part, lot, troupe, parti’, ḥazaba ‘être partisan’, ḥazzaba ‘assembler, réunir; partager’; SAr ʔḥzb (pl.) ‘bandes armées’; Gz ḥəzb ‘nation, tribu, secte, foule’, Te ‘peuple, nation’, Tña ḥəzbi, Amh Gur həzb, Gur äzb, kəzb, kəbz ‘peuple, foule’.
▪ … 
▪ Jeffery1938: 108-9: »The philologers derive it from a verbal root ḤZB, but this primitively had quite a different meaning, and the sense of ‘divide into parties’, or ḥazzaba ‘to form a party’, are clearly denominative. / The word is doubtless to be explained with Nöldeke, Neue Beiträge, 59, n., from the Gz ḥəzb, pl. ʔäḥzab153 meaning ‘people, class, tribe’ which in the Ethiopic Bible translates [Gr] laós; phylaí; dēmos and háiresis, as in [Gz] ḥəzəb säduqawəyn or ḥəzəb färisawəyn for the parties of the Sadducees and the Pharisees, which closely parallels the Qur'ānic usage. Nöldeke thinks it probable that the word was first made prominent by the Qur'ān, though from the way Muḥammad makes use of it one would judge that its meaning was not altogether unfamiliar to his hearers. As a matter of fact we find the word in the SAr inscriptions, as e.g. in Glaser 424, ḏ-rydn w-ʔḥzb ḥbšt ‘of Raidan and the folks of Ḥabashat’,154 so that it is more likely that it came into use among the Northern Arabs from this area than that Muḥammad got it from Abyssinians.155 «
▪ Schall 1982: Ar ḥizb ‘party, sect’ is a loan, to be found already in the Q, from Gz ḥəzb ‘group of people, tribe’.
▪ Glaß 2011, 839-40: The word was also used, in C19, within the phrase ḥizb al-muḍāddaẗ, to render Fr ‘parti de l’opposition’. As such, it can serve as an example of one of the »methods [that] have been used to create new vocabulary«, namely »Translation of foreign words and phrases«.
▪ … 
– 
ḥazzaba, vb. II, to rally; to form or found a party: D-stem, denom.
ḥāzaba, vb. III, to side, take sides, be an adherent: L-stem, associative.
taḥazzaba, vb. V, to take sides; to form a party, make common cause, join forces: tD-stem, reflexive/autobenef.

BP#3038ḥizbī, adj., party (adj.), factional: nisba formation; (pl. ‑ūn) party man, party-liner: nominalization.
ḥizbiyyaẗ, n.f., party activities; partisanship, partiality; factionalism: n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ.
taḥazzub, n., factiousness; factionalism: vn. V
ḥāzib: ḥazaba-hū ḥāzib, expr., he met with a mishap: PA I.
mutaḥazzib, adj., partial, biased; n., partisan: PA V.

For other values attached to the root, see ↗ḥazaba ‘to befall, happen, occur’, ↗ḥayzabūn ‘old hag’, and (for the general picture) ↗ḤZB.

 
ḥayzabūn حَيْزَبُون 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤZB 
n.f. 
old hag – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Etymology obscure. A relation to ↗ḥizb ‘group, party’ seems rather unlikely. 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010)#ḤZB-5 Ar ḥizbāʔ ‘terrain raboteux’; ḥazābin ‘épais, rude, courtaud, massif’, ḥayzabūn ‘vieille femme (rusée, mauvaise)’.
▪ Cf. perhaps also DRS 9 (2010)#ḤZB-1 Ar ḥazaba ‘advenir, survenir, atteindre qn. soudainement’, ḥazb ‘difficultés’; ? Mhr ḥəzūb ‘être vigilant, prêt à agir’. 
▪ Etymology obscure.
DRS 9 (2010) suggests to put ḥayzabūn together with other items, now obsolete, like ḥizbāʔ ‘rocky hill, rugged ground’ (ḤZB_4 in ↗ḤZB), ḥazābin ‘thick, coarse, rude, bulky and short’ (ḤZB_5), and ḥinzāb ‘dto. (as ḥazābin); wild carrot; cock’. The common denominator here would be the coarseness, rudeness, compactness. The authors of DRS also mention the possibility that this complex “perhaps” should can be connected with ↗ḥazaba ‘to befall, happen, occur’ (ḤZB_1 in ↗ḤZB), »comme les aspérités et surprises de la vie et du chemin« (like the unevenness and asperity of a path or the surprises of life). 
– 

For other items of the root cf. ↗ḥazaba, ↗ḥizb and (for the general picture) ↗ḤZB. 
ḤZN حزن 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤZN 
“root” 
▪ ḤZN_1 ʻsadness, to be sad, to grieve, mourn’ ↗ḥazina
▪ ḤZN_2 ʻrough, rugged, hard ground’ ↗ḥazn

Other values, now obsolete, include

ḤZN_3 ʻcharge of a household, family’: ḥuzānaẗ
ḤZN_4 ʻ(a certain right Arabs enjoyed over foreigners in whose territory they arrived)’: ḥuzānaẗ

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘rocks, boulders, rocky hard-going terrain; to cause hardship, to distress; to afflict; to become sad, to grieve, sadness; responsibility’ 
▪ [v1]–[v3] : Any relation between these values? Some ClassAr lexicographers explain [v1] ḥuzn ‘sadness’ as *‘roughness in the spirit, occasioned by grief’ (Lane ii 1865) – as if [v2] ‘roughness’ was the basic value… In a similar way, some relate [v3] ʻcharge of a household, family’ to [v1], explaining it as ʻa man’s family or household for whose case he suffers grief and anxiety’.
[v4] : For the same ḥuzānaẗ that can mean [v3] ʻcharge of a household, family’, Lane also reports the value ʻa prior right which the Arabs enjoy over the foreigners, on their first arrival [in the territory of the latter], with respect to the houses and lands; or a condition which the Arabs used to impose upon the foreigners in Khurāsān, when they took a town, or district, pacifically, that when the soldiery [of the former] passed by them, singly or in companies, they should lodge them, and entertain them, and supply them with provisions for their march to another district’. The value seems to be basically identical with [v3], as it means a kind of caring for people living under one’s roof, be they family [v3] or invaders/conquerors [v4].
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤZN-1 Ar ḥazina, Mhr ḥzūn, Jib aḥzín, Ḥrs ḥayzen, ḥezōn, Soq ḥázon, Gz ḥazana, ḥazna, ḫazana ‘être triste, être en deuil’, Te ḥazna, Tña ḥazänä, ḫazänä, Arg hazzänä, Amh azzänä, Gur azänä ‘être triste’, Har ḥuzni ‘tristesse’, ? Sab hḥzn ‘abîmer, endommager’. -2 Ar ḥazn ‘terrain dur, raboteux’, ḥuznaẗ ‘montagne escarpée’.
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ The root is prob. too sparsely attested as to allow for reconstructions of hypothetical predecessors or speculations about a primary value. Both ʻsadness, grief’ and ʻrough, difficult ground’ could be plausible. The more “natural” development would seem to be one of metaphoral extension, from the physical hardship of a ʻrough, difficult ground’ to the mental\psychological hardship of ʻsadness, grief’. But the latter is much more widespread and found in modSAr as well as EthSem, while ʻrough, difficult ground’ is not attested anywhere else but in Ar.
▪ … 
– 
– 
ḥazin‑ حَزِنَ , a (ḥuzn, ḥazan
ID 210 • Sw – • BP 4480 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤZN 
vb., I 
1 to be sad, grieved (li‑ or ʕalà at or because of); 2 to grieve, mourn (ʕalà over) – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ Any relation to ↗ḥazn ‘rough, rugged, hard ground’? Some ClassAr lexicographers explain ḥuzn ‘sadness’ as *‘roughness in the spirit, occasioned by grief’ (Lane ii 1865) – as if ‘roughness’ was the basic value…
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤZN-1 Ar ḥazina, Mhr ḥzūn, Jib aḥzín, Ḥrs ḥayzen, ḥezōn, Soq ḥázon, Gz ḥazana, ḥazna, ḫazana ‘être triste, être en deuil’, Te ḥazna, Tña ḥazänä, ḫazänä, Arg hazzänä, Amh azzänä, Gur azänä ‘être triste’, Har ḥuzni ‘tristesse’, ? Sab hḥzn ‘abîmer, endommager’. -2 […].
▪ … 
▪ The root is prob. too sparsely attested as to allow for reconstructions of hypothetical predecessors or speculations about a primary value. Both ʻsadness, grief’ and ʻrough, difficult territory’ (↗ḥazn) could be plausible. The more “natural” development would seem to be one of metaphoral extension, from the physical hardship of a ʻrough, rugged, difficult ground’ to the mental\psychological hardship of ʻsadness, grief’. But the latter is much more widespread and found in modSAr as well as EthSem, while ʻrough, difficult ground’ is not attested anywhere else but in Ar.
▪ … 
– 
ḥazana, u, vb. I, to make sad, sadden, grieve (s.o.): tr.
ḥazzana, vb. II, and ʔaḥzana, vb. IV, to make sad, sadden, grieve (s.o.): D- and *Š-stem, respectively, both caus.

BP#821ḥuzn, pl. ʔaḥzān, n., sadness, grief, sorrow, affliction.
ḥazin, adj., sad, mournful, grieved.
BP#1766ḥazīn, pl. ḥuzanāʔᵘ, ḥizān, ḥazānà, adj., 1 sad; 2 mourning (for a deceased person); 3 sorrowing, mournful, grieved: FaʕīL formation, *ʻfull of sadness, grief, sorrow’. | al-ǧumʕaẗ al‑~, Good Friday (Chr.).
ḥaznānᵘ, adj., 1 very sad, very grieved, worried; 2 in mourning: ints. formation in ‑ān.
ḥazāyinī, var. ḥazāʔinī, adj. (coll.), 1 sad, mournful, melancholic; 2 mourning (in compounds), mortuary, funereal: nisba formation, from a hypothetical *ḥazīnaẗ ʻsad case, grievous thing’ | qumāš ~, n., cloth for mourning garments.
taḥazzun, n., 1 sadness; 2 behavior of a mourner: vn. V.
maḥzūn, adj., grieved, grief-stricken, pained, sad, saddened: PP I.
muḥzin, adj., 1a grievous, saddening; b sad; c melancholic; d tragic; 2 muḥzināt, nonhum.pl., grievous things: PA IV. | qiṣṣaẗ tamṯīliyyaẗ muḥzinaẗ and riwāyaẗ muḥzinaẗ, n.f., tragedy (theat.).

For other values of the root, cf. ↗ḥazn and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤZN. 
ḥazn حَزْن , pl. ḥuzūn 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤZN 
n. 
rough, rugged, hard ground – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ Any relation to ↗ḥazina ‘to be sad’? Some ClassAr lexicographers explain ḥuzn ‘sadness’ as *‘roughness in the spirit, occasioned by grief’ (Lane ii 1865) – as if ‘roughness’ was the basic value…
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤZN-1 […]. -2 Ar ḥazn ‘terrain dur, raboteux’, ḥuznaẗ ‘montagne escarpée’.
▪ … 
▪ The root is prob. too sparsely attested as to allow for reconstructions of hypothetical predecessors or speculations about a primary value. Both ʻrough, difficult territory’ and ʻsadness, grief’ (↗ḥazina) could be plausible. The more “natural” development would seem to be one of metaphoral extension, from the physical hardship of a ʻrough, rugged, hard ground’ to the mental\psychological hardship of ʻsadness, grief’. But the latter value of ḤZN is much more widespread and found in modSAr as well as EthSem, while ʻrough, difficult ground’ is not attested anywhere else but in Ar.
▪ … 
– 
For other values of the root, cf. ↗ḥazina and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤZN. 
ḤSː (ḤSS) حسّ/حسس 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9Mar2023
√ ḤSː (ḤSS) 
“root” 
▪ ḤSː (ḤSS)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤSː (ḤSS)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤSː (ḤSS)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘faint noise, hissing sound, whispering sound, concealed gentle sound; to feel, perceive through the senses, find out, probe, spy; to kill, rout, strike hard; movement; to remove the dust’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ḤSB حسب 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤSB 
“root” 
▪ ḤSB_1 ‘to compute, reckon, calculate, count; to charge, credit’ ↗ḥasaba; ʻto think, believe, suppose, assume, regard as, consider’ ↗ḥasiba; ʻto be of noble origin, be highborn’ ↗ḥasuba; ʻsufficiency’ ↗ḥasb; ʻmeasure, extent, degree’ ↗ḥasab; ʻbill, invoice; (bank) account’ ↗ḥisāb; ʻcomputer’ ↗ḥāsūb, ʻaccounting, bookkeeping’ ↗muḥāsabaẗ
▪ ḤSB_2 ʻpet, favorite; obedient, subservient’ ↗maḥsūb

Other values, now obsolete, include

ḤSB_3 ‘small pillow’: ḥusbān(aẗ)
ḤSB_4 ‘burial, to bury’: ḥasb
ḤSB_5 ‘tawny, red-haired’: ʔaḥsabᵘ
ḤSB_6 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘good lineage, great ancestry; honour and glory; sufficiency, to suffice; to submit to; to reckon, to calculate, to take to task; to consider, to assume, to presume; to investigate’ 
▪ [v1] (= DRS 9/2010 #ḤŠB-1): The basic idea of this main value – for which one may posit a protSem *ḤŠB – is ‘to count’ and ‘to take into account’. From this basic value, many secondary meanings were derived, the most widespread (WSem) prob. being ‘to consider, estimate, reckon with, think, believe’ (Hbr, Aram, Ar, EthSem). Ar itself displays the highest degree of variation within derivation, spanning from ‘charging, debiting, crediting’ and ‘sufficiency, satiety’ (< *‘to content o.s. with, or resign in, what God has decreed to be one’s lot, in this way adding a pious deed to one’s account with God’) over ‘paying respect, holding in high esteem, merits earned by way of a honorable life, nobility’ to modern developments such as ‘book-keeping, accounting’ and ‘computer’. – [v2] ‘pet, favorite’ prob. also belongs here (< *‘held in high esteem’). – The notion of ‘sufficiency’ has itself produced some interesting, religiously connotated aspects, such as in the vb. VIII, ĭḥtasaba which, among other things, can mean ‘to anticipate a reward in the hereafter by resigning in God’s will at the death of a relative’, hence ĭḥtasaba waladan ‘to give a son, be bereaved of a son’. It seems that also [v4] ‘burial, to bury’, listed as a separate value in DRS (#ḤŠB-3), has to be regarded as a derivative of [v1].
▪ [v2] : ʻpet, favorite’ is prob. orig. *‘held in high esteem’. The meaning ʻobedient, subservient’ is secondary, expressing the perspective of the object that is held in high esteem with regard to the subject who does so.
[v3] (=DRS #ḤŠB-2): etymology obscure.
[v4] (=DRS #ḤŠB-3): ‘burial, to bury’ is prob. a secondary development from [v1], a special meaning that arose on occasions when s.o. had suffered the loss of a dear person and resigned in God’s will, in this way adding a pious deed to one’s account with God’ – see above, sub [v1].
[v5] (=DRS #ḤŠB-4): etymology obscure.
▪ … 
– 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤŠB-1 Akk ḥašābu, ḫašābu ‘compter’, Phoen Pun ḥšb, Hbr ḥāšab ‘compter, tenir compte de, faire attention, penser’, Aram ḥᵃšeb, Nab ḥšb ‘compter, imputer, penser’, Syr ḥᵊšab, Mnd hšb ‘penser’; Ar ḥasaba ‘compter’, ḥasiba ‘estimer, supposer’, ḥasb ‘suffisance’, ḥasab ‘mérite’, ḥisāb ‘compte, calcul’, ḥisbān ‘conjecture’; Sab ḥtšb ‘prendre en compte’, Mhr ḥəsūb, Ḥrs ḥəsōb, Jib ḥsɔ́b, Soq ḥoseb, ‘compter; compter sur’, Mhr Ḥrs ḥəsōb, Jib ḥsɔ́b ‘compte’; Gz hasaba ‘estimer, croire’, ḥassaba ‘compter’, Tña hasäbä, Te ḥasba, Har ḥēsäba, Amh assäbä, Gur asäbä ‘penser, réfléchir’. – Ug ḥṯbn [Tropper2008: /ḥi/uṯbānu/], Hbr ḥešbôn, EmpAram Palm hšbn, JP ḥešbānā, Syr Mnd ḥūšbānā, Ar ḥusbān ‘compte’; ḥusbān ‘peine, calamité’, Jib oḥōsub ‘tourmenter; rembarrer en permanence’. -2 Ar ḥusbān ‘coussin’. -3 ḥasb ‘inhumation d’un mort’. -4 ʔaḥsab ‘roux mêlé d’autres couleurs; lépreux’.
▪ … 
▪ [v1] (=DRS #ḤŠB-1): See above, section CONC. – In the classical Islamicate world, the institution of ḥisbaẗ and the muḥtasib played an important role in urban life. At the time, the non-Qur’ānic term ḥisbaẗ, which originally means ʻaccount’, hence also ‘reward’, »is used to mean on the one hand the duty of every Muslim to ‘promote good and forbid evil’ and, on the other, the function of the person who is effectively entrusted in a town with the application of this rule in the supervision of moral behaviour and more particularly of the markets; this person entrusted with the ḥisbaẗ was called the muḥtasib [Hava1899: ʻinspector of weigths and measures’]. There seems to exist no text which states explicitly either the reason for the choice of this term or how the meanings mentioned above have arisen from the idea of ‘calculation’ or ‘sufficiency’ which is expressed by the root« – Cl. Cahen, M. Talbi [et al.], art. “Ḥisba”, in EI².
▪ [v2] : See above, section CONC.
[v3] (=DRS #ḤŠB-2): For the ClassAr ḥusbān or ḥusbānaẗ, several values are attested, mainly ‘small pillow’, but also ‘small ant’, ‘small arrow’, ‘thunderbolt’, ‘cloud’, and ‘hailstone’. None of these seem to be related to [v1] or any other of the values represented in √ḤSB. – Verbal derivations are prob. denom. from ‘small pillow’: ḥassaba, vb. II, ‘to place a pillow for s.o.’, taḥassaba, vb. V, ‘to recline upon a pillow’ (Hava1899).
[v4] (=DRS #ḤŠB-3): See above, section CONC. – Cf. also the ClassAr ḥassaba, vb. II, ʻto bury s.o.’, and ĭḥtasaba, vb. VIII, ʻto lose (DO and bi‑ an elder son)’. – For the semantics, note the coincidence of meanings in ClassAr ḥasb (ʻsufficiency’ and ʻburial’) and ḥisbaẗ (ʻaccount; reward’ and ʻburying of the dead’) as well as the term muḥtasab (PP VIII), still in WehrCowan1976 and explained there as ʻs.th. for which one can expect reward in the hereafter (e.g., suffering, loss, etc.)’.
[v5] (=DRS #ḤŠB-4): See above, section CONC. – In ClassAr, the adj. ʔaḥsabᵘ is not only registered with the meaning ʻtawny (camel)’, but also ʻred-haired (man)’ and ‘white from disease (skin)’. Attested is also the denom. vb. IV, ʔaḥsaba ʻto be tawny (camel)’.
▪ … 
– 
– 
ḥasab‑ حَسَبَ , u (ḥasb, ḥisāb, ḥisbāb, ḥusbān
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤSB 
vb., I 
1 to compute, reckon, calculate; 2 to count; 3 to charge, debit (ʕalà s.th. to s.o., to s.o.’s account); 4 to credit (ʕalà s.th. to s.o., to s.o.’s account) – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ Together with its “sisters”, ↗ḥasiba and ↗ḥasuba, the vb. ḥasaba belongs to a larger complex derived from a protSem *ḤŠB ‘to count, take into account’. The primary value is well best preserved in Ar ḥasaba. The most widespread among the many secondary meanings that have sprung from the basic idea is prob. ‘to consider, estimate, reckon with, think, believe’ (WSem: Hbr, Aram, EthSem, Ar ↗ḥasiba). Ar itself displays the highest degree of variation within derivation, spanning from ‘charging, debiting, crediting’ and ‘sufficiency, satiety’ (< *‘to content o.s. with, or resign in, what God has decreed to be one’s lot, in this way adding a pious deed to one’s account with God’, ↗ḥasb) over ‘paying respect, holding in high esteem, merits earned by way of a honorable life, nobility’ (↗ḥasuba) to modern developments such as ‘book-keeping, accounting’ (↗muḥāsabaẗ) and ‘computer’ (↗ḥāsūb); ultimately, also ↗maḥsūb ‘pet, favorite’ prob. belongs here (< *‘held in high esteem’). – For the relationship betw. ‘counting, taking into account’ and ‘sufficiency’ (and also ‘burial’!), see ḥasb.
▪ …
 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤŠB-1 Akk ḥašābu, ḫašābu ‘compter’, Phoen Pun ḥšb, Hbr ḥāšab ‘compter, tenir compte de, faire attention, penser’, Aram ḥᵃšeb, Nab ḥšb ‘compter, imputer, penser’, Syr ḥᵊšab, Mnd hšb ‘penser’; Ar ḥasaba ‘compter’, ḥasiba ‘estimer, supposer’, ḥasb ‘suffisance’, ḥasab ‘mérite’, ḥisāb ‘compte, calcul’, ḥisbān ‘conjecture’; Sab ḥtšb ‘prendre en compte’, Mhr ḥəsūb, Ḥrs ḥəsōb, Jib ḥsɔ́b, Soq ḥoseb, ‘compter; compter sur’, Mhr Ḥrs ḥəsōb, Jib ḥsɔ́b ‘compte’; Gz hasaba ‘estimer, croire’, ḥassaba ‘compter’, Tña hasäbä, Te ḥasba, Har ḥēsäba, Amh assäbä, Gur asäbä ‘penser, réfléchir’. – Ug ḥṯbn [Tropper2008: /ḥi/uṯbānu/], Hbr ḥešbôn, EmpAram Palm hšbn, JP ḥešbānā, Syr Mnd ḥūšbānā, Ar ḥusbān ‘compte’; ḥusbān ‘peine, calamité’, Jib oḥōsub ‘tourmenter; rembarrer en permanence’. -2 […]. -3 ḥasb ‘inhumation d’un mort’. -4 […].
▪ … 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ For the institution of the ḥisbaẗ and the muḥtasib (Hava1899: ʻinspector of weigths and measures’) that played an important role in urban life in the medieval Islamicate world, cf. section DISC (on [v1]) in root entry ↗√ḤSB.
▪ … 
– 
ḥasaba ḥisāba-hū, vb. I, to take s.th. or s.o. into account or into consideration, reckon with s.th. or s.o., count on s.th. or s.o.;
ḥasaba ḥisāban li‑, vb. I, 1 do.; 2 to attach importance to s.o. or s.th.;
ḥasaba ʔalfa ḥisābin li‑, expr., to have a thousand apprehensions about…

BP#2190ḥasiba, a, i (ḥisbān, maḥsabaẗ, maḥsibaẗ), vb. I, 1 to regard (s.o. as), consider, deem (s.o. to be…); 2 to think, believe, suppose, assume; 3 to consider, regard (s.o. min as belonging to), count (s.o. min among); 4 to see (s.th. in s.o.)
ḥasuba, u (ḥasab, ḥasābaẗ), vb. I, 1 to be of noble origin, be highborn; 2 to be highly esteemed, be valued: perh. denom. from ḥasab ʻnoble descent’.
ḥāsaba, vb. III, 1 to settle an account, get even (with s.o.); 2 to call (s.o.) to account, ask (s.o.) for an accounting; 3 to hold (s. o.) responsible, make (s.o.) answerable: L-stem, assoc. | ~ ʕalà nafsi-hī, vb., to be careful, be on one’s guard
taḥassaba, vb. V, 1 to be careful, be on one’s guard; 2 to take precautions; 3 to seek to know, try to find out (s.th.): Dt-stem, refl./self-ref.
taḥāsaba, vb. VI, to settle a mutual account: Lt-stem, recipr.
ĭḥtasaba, vb. VIII, 1a to debit or credit; b to take into account, take into consideration (bi‑ or s.th.); c to reckon (bi‑ or s.th. with); d (to anticipate a reward in the hereafter by adding a pious deed to one’s account with God — such as resigning in God’s will at the death of a relative; hence:) ~ waladan, to give a son, be bereaved of a son; ~ ʕinda ’llāhi ’l-šayʔ, to sacrifice s.th. in anticipation of God’s reward in the hereafter; e to charge (ʕalà s.th. for); 2a to think, believe, suppose; b to take (s.o. for or to be…); 3a to be content, content o.s. (bi‑ with); b to disapprove (ʕalà of s.th. in s.o.), take exception (ʕalà to s.th. in s.o.), reject (ʕalà s.th. in s.o.); c to call (ʕalà s.o.) to account, ask (ʕalà s.o.) for an accounting: Gt-stem, self-ref.

ḥasb, n., 1 reckoning, computing, calculation; 2 thinking, opinion, view; 3 sufficiency | ḥasbu-ka (bi-ḥasbi-ka) dirhamun, expr., one dirham is enough for you; ḥasbu-ka ʔanna, expr., 1 it suffices to say that …; 2 you know enough when you hear that …; 3 you need only …; bi-ḥasbi-ka muqniʕan ʔanna, expr., it will be enough to convince you if …; wa-ḥasbu-ka bi-hāḏā kulli-hī šarran, expr., but enough of all these negative aspects!; BP#1538fa-ḥasb, expr., and that’s all, and no more, only (interchangeable with faqaṭ)
ḥasbī: maǧlis ḥasbī, pl. maǧālis ḥasbiyyaẗ, n., guardianship court, probate court (Eg.): nisba formation, from ḥasb (in the sense of ʻsufficiency’)
ḥasab, pl. ʔaḥsāb, n., 1 measure, extent, degree, quantity, amount; 2a value; b esteem, high regard enjoyed by s.o.; 3 noble descent | BP#423ḥasabᵃ, bi-ḥasabi and ʕalà ḥasabi, prep., according to, in accordance with, commensurate with, depending on; BP#3374ḥasaba-mā, conj., according to what…, as, depending on how… | ḥasaba-mā ’ttafaqa, expr., as chance will have it
ḥisbaẗ, n.f., arithmetical problem, sum
ḥasīb, pl. ḥusabāʔᵘ, adj., 1a respected, esteemed; b noble, of noble birth, highborn: quasi-PP I, from ḥasiba ʻto respect’, or devb. from ḥasuba ʻto be of noble origin’, or ints. formation based on ḥasab ʻnoble descent’.
BP#4743ḥusbān, n., 1a calculation, reckoning, accounting; b computation | kāna fī ’l-ḥusbān, vb., 1a to be taken into account, be taken into consideration; b to be expected, be anticipated; kāna fī ’l-ḥusbān ʔanna, expr., it was expected that…; ḥusbān-ī ʔanna, expr., I expect that…
BP#746ḥisāb, n., 1a arithmetic reckoning, calculus; b computation; 2 calculation, estimation, appraisal; 3a accounting, settlement; b consideration, considerateness; c caution; 4a (pl. ‑āt) bill, invoice; b statement of costs; 5 (bank) account; 6 (pl. ‑āt), bookkeeping | ~ al-ǧummal (al-ǧumal), n., use of the alphabetic letters according to their numerical value; ʕilm al‑~, n., arithmetic; ~ al-tafāḍul, n., differential calculus; ~ al-takāmul, n., integral calculus; kāna fī ḥisābih, expr., he reckoned with it, he expected it, he was prepared for it; ʕamala ḥisāban lahū, expr., 1a to take s.o. or s.th. into consideration; b to reckon with s.o. or s.th.; al‑~ al-ḫitāmī and ~ nihāʔī, n., final statement of account, final accounting; daʕā-hu ʔilà ’l‑~, expr., he called him to account; yawm al‑~, n., the Day of Reckoning; ʔaqāma ḥisāban li‑, to render account to s.o.; bi-lā ~, adv., without limit or bounds, to excess, to an unlimited extent; min ġayr ~, adv., blindly, without forethought, at random; li‑~ fulān, expr., to s.o.’s credit, to s.o.’s advantage; ʕalà ~ fulān, expr., to s.o.’s debit, at s.o.’s expense, to s.o.’s disadvantage; laqiya sūʔ al‑~, expr., he got a raw deal, he was in for it; ~ ǧārin, n., current account; ḥisābāt ṣundūq al-tawfīr, nonhum.pl., savings-bank accounts; ~ mawqūf, n., blocked account; ḥisābāt dobya, nonhum.pl., double-entry bookkeeping; al‑~ al-šarqī, n., the Julian calendar; al‑~ al-ġarbī, n., the Gregorian calendar
BP#4179ḥāsūb, n., computer: neologism, prob. calque based on Engl computer.
ḥisābī, adj., arithmetical, mathematical, computational: nisba formation from ḥisāb.
BP#2691muḥāsabaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., 1 accounting; 2 clearing (cɔŋ.); 3 bookkeeping; 4 request for accounting; 5 examination of conscience (theol.): vn. III. | qism al‑~, n., 1 accounting department, comptroller’s office; 2 clearing house
BP#4932taḥassub, n., expectation, anticipation: vn. V.
ĭḥtisāb, n., 1 computation; 2 calculation, consideration, reflection; 3a debiting; b crediting; c valuation; 4 contentedness, satisfaction: vn. VIII.
BP#4219ḥāsib, n., counter, reckoner, arithmetician, calculator, computer: PA I.
maḥsūb, pl. ‑ūn, maḥāsībᵘ, n., 1 pet, favorite; 2 obedient, subservient (ʕalà to s.o.): PP I, prob. rather from ↗ḥasiba ʻto respect’ than from ḥasuba, as the latter is intr. and cannot have a PP.
maḥsūbiyyaẗ, n.f., 1 esteem enjoyed by s.o., position of distinction; 2 patronage, favored position, favouritism: abstract formation in ‑iyyaẗ.
muḥāsib, var. muḥāsibǧī (Eg.), n., 1 accountant, bookkeeper; 2 comptroller, auditor: vn. III.
muḥtasab, n., that for which one can expect reward in the hereafter (e.g., suffering, loss, etc.): vn. VIII.

For other (obsolete) values of the root, cf. root entry ↗ḤSB. 
ḥasib‑ حَسِبَ , a, i (ḥisbān, maḥsabaẗ, maḥsibaẗ
ID … • Sw – • BP 2190 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤSB 
vb., I 
1 to regard (s.o. as), consider, deem (s.o. to be…); 2 to think, believe, suppose, assume; 3 to consider, regard (s.o. min as belonging to), count (s.o. min among); 4 to see (s.th. in s.o.) – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ Together with its “sisters”, ↗ḥasaba and ↗ḥasuba, the vb. ḥasiba belongs to a larger complex derived from a protSem *ḤŠB ‘to count, take into account’. The primary value is well best preserved in Ar ḥasaba, while ḥasiba represents the most widespread among the (prob.) secondary meanings, namely ‘to consider, estimate, reckon with, think, believe’ (attested throughout WSem: Hbr, Aram, EthSem, Ar).
▪ For further details, cf. ↗ḥasaba and root entry ↗√ḤSB.
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥasaba.
▪ … 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
– 
For other values of the root, cf. ↗ḥasaba, ↗ḥasuba, ↗ḥasb, ↗ḥasab, ↗ḥisāb, ↗ḥāsūb, ↗muḥāsabaẗ, ↗maḥsūb, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ḤSB. 
ḥasub‑ حَسُبَ , u (ḥasab, ḥasābaẗ
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤSB 
vb., I 
1 to be of noble origin, be highborn; 2 to be highly esteemed, be valued – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ Together with its “sisters”, ↗ḥasaba and ↗ḥasiba, the vb. ḥasuba belongs to a larger complex derived from a protSem *ḤŠB ‘to count, take into account’. The primary value is well best preserved in Ar ḥasaba, while ḥasiba represents the most widespread among the (prob.) secondary meanings, namely ‘to consider, estimate, reckon with, think, believe’ (attested throughout WSem: Hbr, Aram, EthSem, Ar). ḥasuba itself may be denom. from ↗ḥasab ʻhigh regard enjoyed by s.o.; noble descent’, usually regarded as a vn. pertaining to ḥasuba. The notion of ʻpaying respect to s.o., holding in high esteem’, hence also ʻnobility, noble descent’, which builds on the basic *ʻto take into account (sc. s.o.’s merits)’, seems to be peculiar to Ar.
▪ For further details, cf. ↗ḥasaba and root entry ↗√ḤSB.
▪ …
 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥasaba.
▪ … 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
– 
ḥasab, pl. ʔaḥsāb, n., 1 measure, extent, degree, quantity, amount; 2a value; b esteem, high regard enjoyed by s.o.; 3 noble descent: usually regarded as vn. of ḥasuba, but the vb. is perh. denom. from ḥasab.
ḥasīb, pl. ḥusabāʔᵘ, adj., 1a respected, esteemed; b noble, of noble birth, highborn: devb. from ḥasuba, or ints. formation based on ḥasab ʻnoble descent’, or quasi-PP I from ↗ḥasiba ʻto respect’.
maḥsūb, pl. ‑ūn, maḥāsībᵘ, n., 1 pet, favorite; 2 obedient, subservient (ʕalà to s.o.): PP I, prob. rather from ↗ḥasiba ʻto respect’ than from ḥasuba, as the latter is intr. and cannot have a PP.
maḥsūbiyyaẗ, n.f., 1 esteem enjoyed by s.o., position of distinction; 2 patronage, favored position, favouritism: abstract formation in ‑iyyaẗ.

For other values of the root, cf. ↗ḥasaba, ↗ḥasiba, ↗ḥasb, ↗ḥasab, ↗ḥisāb, ↗ḥāsūb, ↗muḥāsabaẗ, ↗maḥsūb, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ḤSB. 
ḥasb حَسْب 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤSB 
n. 
1 reckoning, computing, calculation; 2 thinking, opinion, view; 3 sufficiency – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ One of the vn.s of ↗ḥasaba ‘to compute, reckon, calculate; to count; to charge, debit, or credit (ʕalà s.th. to s.o., to s.o.’s account)’. The value ‘sufficiency, satiety’ seems to have developed from ‘taking into account’, particularly *‘to content o.s. with, or resign in, what God has decreed to be one’s lot, in this way adding a pious deed to one’s account with God’. This religious connotation is prominent, e.g., in vb. VIII, ĭḥtasaba, which, among other things, can mean ‘to anticipate a reward in the hereafter by resigning in God’s will at the death of a relative’, hence ĭḥtasaba waladan ‘to give a son, be bereaved of a son’. It seems that also a now obsol. value of ḥasb, namely ‘burial, to bury’ (listed as a separate value in DRS: #ḤŠB-3), is nothing else but a synecdochical use of ‘to content o.s. with one’s lot, regard it as sufficient’ (name the lot of being bereaved of a beloved person). – The neutral, not necessarily religiously connotated expr. ḥasbu-ka \ bi-ḥasbi-ka …x is enough for you’ is still common in literary MSA. Another “frozen” expr., the adverbial fa-ḥasb ‘only, and no more’ even forms part of the MSA core vocabulary (no. #1538 in BuckwalterParkinson’s frequency list).
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤŠB-1 Akk ḥašābu, ḫašābu ‘compter’, Phoen Pun ḥšb, Hbr ḥāšab ‘compter, tenir compte de, faire attention, penser’, Aram ḥᵃšeb, Nab ḥšb ‘compter, imputer, penser’, Syr ḥᵊšab, Mnd hšb ‘penser’; Ar ḥasaba ‘compter’, ḥasiba ‘estimer, supposer’, ḥasb ‘suffisance’, ḥasab ‘mérite’, ḥisāb ‘compte, calcul’, ḥisbān ‘conjecture’; Sab ḥtšb ‘prendre en compte’, Mhr ḥəsūb, Ḥrs ḥəsōb, Jib ḥsɔ́b, Soq ḥoseb, ‘compter; compter sur’, Mhr Ḥrs ḥəsōb, Jib ḥsɔ́b ‘compte’; Gz hasaba ‘estimer, croire’, ḥassaba ‘compter’, Tña hasäbä, Te ḥasba, Har ḥēsäba, Amh assäbä, Gur asäbä ‘penser, réfléchir’. – Ug ḥṯbn [Tropper2008: /ḥi/uṯbānu/], Hbr ḥešbôn, EmpAram Palm hšbn, JP ḥešbānā, Syr Mnd ḥūšbānā, Ar ḥusbān ‘compte’; ḥusbān ‘peine, calamité’, Jib oḥōsub ‘tourmenter; rembarrer en permanence’. -2 […]. -3 ḥasb ‘inhumation d’un mort’. -4 […].
▪ … 
▪ For the semantics of [v3] ʻsufficiency, satiety’, cf. also ClassAr ḥassaba, vb. II, ʻto give s.o. food and drink to satiety’, and ʔaḥsaba, vb. IV, ʻto satisfy s.o.; to satiate s.o.’, as well as the expr. ʔaʕṭà fa-ʔaḥsaba ʻhe gave bountifully’.
▪ …
 
– 
ḥasbu-ka \ bi-ḥasbi-ka dirhamun, expr., one dirham is enough for you
ḥasbu-ka ʔanna, expr., 1 it suffices to say that …; 2 you know enough when you hear that …; 3 you need only …
bi-ḥasbi-ka muqniʕan ʔanna, expr., it will be enough to convince you if …
wa-ḥasbu-ka bi-hāḏā kullih šarran, expr., but enough of all these negative aspects!
BP#1538fa-ḥasb, adv., and that’s all, and no more, only (interchangeable with faqaṭ)

ĭḥtasaba, vb. VIII, 1a to debit or credit; b to take into account, take into consideration (bi‑ or s.th.); c to reckon (bi‑ or s.th. with); d (to anticipate a reward in the hereafter by adding a pious deed to one’s account with God — such as resigning in God’s will at the death of a relative; hence:) ~ waladan, to give a son, be bereaved of a son; ~ ʕinda ’llāhi ’l-šayʔ, to sacrifice s.th. in anticipation of God’s reward in the hereafter; e to charge (ʕalà s.th. for); 2ḥasiba; 3a to be content, content o.s. (bi‑ with); b to disapprove (ʕalà of s.th. in s.o.), take exception (ʕalà to s.th. in s.o.), reject (ʕalà s.th. in s.o.); c to call (ʕalà s.o.) to account, ask (ʕalà s.o.) for an accounting: Gt-stem, self-ref.

ḥasbī: maǧlis ḥasbī, pl. maǧālis ḥasbiyyaẗ, n., guardianship court, probate court (Eg.)
muḥtasab, n., that for which one can expect reward in the hereafter (e.g., suffering, loss, etc.): vn. VIII.

For other values of the root, cf. ↗ḥasaba, ↗ḥasiba, ↗ḥasuba, ↗ḥasab, ↗ḥisāb, ↗ḥāsūb, ↗muḥāsabaẗ, ↗maḥsūb, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ḤSB. 
ḥasab حَسَب , pl. ʔaḥsāb 
ID … • Sw – • BP 423, 3374 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤSB 
n. 
1 measure, extent, degree, quantity, amount; 2a value; b esteem, high regard enjoyed by s.o.; 3 noble descent – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ While [v1] is closer to ↗ḥasaba (and thus to protSem *ḤŠB with the primary meaning of ‘to count, take into account’), [v2] and [v3] can be seen as vn.s of ↗ḥasuba ʻto be highly esteemed, be valued; to be of noble origin, be highborn’; but the latter vb. may well be denom. from ḥasab rather than the other way round. In any case, both the vb. and the n. are close relatives of ↗ḥasaba and ↗ḥasiba. The notion of ʻpaying respect to s.o., holding in high esteem’, hence also ʻnobility, noble descent’, which builds on the basic *ʻto take into account (sc. s.o.’s merits)’, seems to be a development peculiar to Ar.
▪ …
 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥasaba.
▪ … 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
– 
BP#423ḥasabᵃ, bi-ḥasabi and ʕalà ḥasabi, prep., according to, in accordance with, commensurate with, depending on
BP#3374ḥasabamā, conj., according to what…, as, depending on how… | ~ ’ttafaqa, expr., as chance will have it

ḥasuba, u (ḥasab, ḥasābaẗ), vb. I, 1 to be of noble origin, be highborn; 2 to be highly esteemed, be valued

ḥasīb, pl. ḥusabāʔᵘ, adj., 1a respected, esteemed; b noble, of noble birth, highborn: quasi-PP I, from ḥasiba ʻto respect’, or devb. from ḥasuba ʻto be of noble origin’, or ints. formation based on ḥasab ʻnoble descent’.
maḥsūb, pl. ‑ūn, maḥāsībᵘ, n., 1 pet, favorite; 2 obedient, subservient (ʕalà to s.o.): PP I, prob. rather from ↗ḥasiba ʻto respect’ than from ḥasuba, as the latter is intr. and cannot have a PP.
maḥsūbiyyaẗ, n.f., 1 esteem enjoyed by s.o., position of distinction; 2 patronage, favored position, favouritism: abstract formation in ‑iyyaẗ.

For other values of the root, cf. ↗ḥasaba, ↗ḥasiba, ↗ḥasuba, ↗ḥasb, ↗ḥisāb, ↗ḥāsūb, ↗muḥāsabaẗ, ↗maḥsūb, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ḤSB. 
ḥisāb حِساب , pl. ‑āt 
ID … • Sw – • BP 746 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤSB 
n. 
1a arithmetic reckoning, calculus; b computation; 2 calculation, estimation, appraisal; 3a accounting, settlement; b consideration, considerateness; c caution; 4a (pl. ‑āt) bill, invoice; b statement of costs; 5 (bank) account; 6 (pl. ‑āt), bookkeeping – WehrCowan1976. 
ḥisāb is one of the vn.s of ↗ḥasaba ʻto count, reckon, calculate; to charge, debit, credit (ʕalà s.th. to s.o., to s.o.’s account)’, the vb. that has best preserved the primary value of protSem *ḤŠB ‘to count, take into account’. ḥisāb has been a very common term since early times, where it, for instance, figures in the Qur’ānic yawm al-ḥisāb ʻDay of Judgment (lit., *reckoning)’, and until today, where it is used for ʻbill, invoice’, ʻ(bank) account’, or (in the pl.) ʻbookkeeping’.
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥasaba.
▪ … 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
– 
ḥisāb al-ǧummal (al-ǧumal), n., use of the alphabetic letters according to their numerical value
ʕilm al-ḥisāb, n., arithmetic
ḥisāb al-tafāḍul, n., differential calculus
ḥisāb al-takāmul, n., integral calculus
kāna fī ḥisābih, expr., he reckoned with it, he expected it, he was prepared for it
ʕamala ḥisāban lahū, expr., 1a to take s.o. or s.th. into consideration; b to reckon with s.o. or s.th.
al-ḥisāb al-ḫitāmī and ḥisāb nihāʔī, n., final statement of account, final accounting
daʕā-hu ʔilà ’l-ḥisāb, expr., he called him to account
yawm al-ḥisāb, n., the Day of Reckoning
ʔaqāma ḥisāban li‑, to render account to s.o.
bi-lā ḥisāb, adv., without limit or bounds, to excess, to an unlimited extent
min ġayr ḥisāb, adv., blindly, without forethought, at random
li-ḥisāb fulān, expr., to s.o.’s credit, to s.o.’s advantage
ʕalà ḥisāb fulān, expr., to s.o.’s debit, at s.o.’s expense, to s.o.’s disadvantage
laqiya sūʔ al-ḥisāb, expr., he got a raw deal, he was in for it
ḥisāb ǧārin, n., current account
ḥisābāt ṣundūq al-tawfīr, nonhum.pl., savings-bank accounts
ḥisāb mawqūf, n., blocked account
ḥisābāt dobya, nonhum.pl., double-entry bookkeeping
al-ḥisāb al-šarqī, n., the Julian calendar
al-ḥisāb al-ġarbī, n., the Gregorian calendar

ḥasaba, u (ḥasb, ḥisāb, ḥisbāb, ḥusbān), vb. I, 1 to compute, reckon, calculate; 2 to count; 3 to charge, debit (ʕalà s.th. to s.o., to s.o.’s account); 4 to credit (ʕalà s.th. to s.o., to s.o.’s account) | ~ ḥisāba-hū, vb., to take s.th. or s.o. into account or into consideration, reckon with s.th. or s.o., count on s.th. or s.o.; ~ ḥisāban li‑, vb., 1 do.; 2 to attach importance to s.o. or s.th.; ~ ʔalfa ḥisābin li‑, expr., to have a thousand apprehensions about…
ḥāsaba, vb. III, 1 to settle an account, get even (with s.o.); 2 to call (s.o.) to account, ask (s.o.) for an accounting; 3 to hold (s. o.) responsible, make (s.o.) answerable: L-stem, assoc. | ~ ʕalà nafsi-hī, vb., to be careful, be on one’s guard
taḥāsaba, vb. VI, to settle a mutual account: Lt-stem, recipr.

BP#4179ḥāsūb, n., computer: neologism, prob. calque based on Engl computer.
ḥisābī, adj., arithmetical, mathematical, computational: nisba formation from ḥisāb.
BP#2691muḥāsabaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., 1 accounting; 2 clearing (cɔŋ.); 3 bookkeeping; 4 request for accounting; 5 examination of conscience (theol.): vn. III. | qism al‑~, n., 1 accounting department, comptroller’s office; 2 clearing house
muḥāsib, var. muḥāsibǧī (Eg.), n., 1 accountant, bookkeeper; 2 comptroller, auditor: vn. III.

For other values of the root, cf. ↗ḥasaba, ↗ḥasiba, ↗ḥasuba, ↗ḥasb, ↗ḥasab, ↗ḥāsūb, ↗muḥāsabaẗ, ↗maḥsūb, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ḤSB. 
ḥāsūb حاسوب 
ID 213 • Sw – • BP 4179 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤSB 
n. 
computer – BuckwalterParkinson2011. 
▪ a neologism that replaced the longer coining ḥāsibaẗ ʔiliktrūniyyaẗ\ʔāliyyaẗ ʻelectronic calculator, calculating machine’ that seems to have been in use (or at least suggested) for some time (attested as such in Baalbaki1995) but was not accepted by the language community in the long run. But ḥāsūb, too, struggles to establish itself against the more popular kumbyūtar.
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥasaba.
▪ … 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
– 
For other values of the root, cf. ↗ḥasaba, ↗ḥasiba, ↗ḥasuba, ↗ḥasb, ↗ḥasab, ↗ḥisāb, ↗muḥāsabaẗ, ↗maḥsūb, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ḤSB. 
muḥāsabaẗ مُحاسَبة 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤSB 
n.f. 
1 accounting; 2 clearing (com.); 3 bookkeeping; 4 request for accounting; 5 examination of conscience (theol.) – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ vn. III, ↗ḥasaba, ↗ḥisāb.
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥasaba.
▪ … 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
– 
qism al-muḥāsabaẗ, n., 1 accounting department, comptroller’s office; 2 clearing house


ḥāsaba, vb. III, 1 to settle an account, get even (with s.o.); 2 to call (s.o.) to account, ask (s.o.) for an accounting; 3 to hold (s. o.) responsible, make (s.o.) answerable: L-stem, assoc. | ~ ʕalà nafsi-hī, vb., to be careful, be on one’s guard
taḥāsaba, vb. VI, to settle a mutual account: Lt-stem, recipr.

muḥāsib, var. muḥāsibǧī (Eg.), n., 1 accountant, bookkeeper; 2 comptroller, auditor: vn. III.

For other values of the root, cf. ↗ḥasaba, ↗ḥasiba, ↗ḥasuba, ↗ḥasb, ↗ḥasab, ↗ḥisāb, ↗ḥāsūb, ↗maḥsūb, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ḤSB. 
maḥsūb مَحْسوب , pl. ‑ūn, maḥāsībᵘ 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤSB 
adj. 
1 pet, favorite; 2 obedient, subservient (ʕalà to s.o.) – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ The value ʻpet, favorite’ is prob. orig. *‘held in high esteem’, maḥsūb being a PP I formed from ↗ḥasiba ʻto respect’ (rather than from ↗ḥasuba, as the latter is intr. and cannot have a PP). The meaning ʻobedient, subservient’ is secondary, expressing the perspective of the object that is held in high esteem with regard to the subject who does so.
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥasaba.
▪ … 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
– 
maḥsūbiyyaẗ, n.f., 1 esteem enjoyed by s.o., position of distinction; 2 patronage, favored position, favouritism: abstr. formation in ‑iyyaẗ.

For other values of the root, cf. ↗ḥasaba, ↗ḥasiba, ↗ḥasuba, ↗ḥasb, ↗ḥasab, ↗ḥisāb, ↗ḥāsūb, ↗muḥāsabaẗ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ḤSB. 
ḤSD حسد 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9Mar2023
√ḤSD 
“root” 
▪ ḤSD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤSD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤSD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to peel off, scrape off; to envy, grudge’ 
▪ From CSem *√ḤSD ‘to be kind, ashamed’ – Huehnergard2011.
▪ …
 
– 
– 
– 
ḤSR حسر 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9Mar2023
√ḤSR 
“root” 
▪ ḤSR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤSR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤSR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be without headgear, without clothes; to peel off; to recede, abate, regress, withdraw; to become tired; to be penniless; to have great sorrow, regret, long for’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ḤSM حسم 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9Mar2023
√ḤSM 
“root” 
▪ ḤSM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤSM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤSM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘cauterisation, burning, to cauterise; to cut, finish, terminate; to be decisive; unlucky, misfortune, evil omen; successive’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ḤSN حسن 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9Mar2023
√ḤSN 
“root” 
▪ ḤSN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤSN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤSN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘beauty, to be(come) beautiful; to improve, adorn; goodness, charity; to favour, act properly; to deem good, approve, appreciate’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ḤŠR حشر 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9Mar2023
√ḤŠR 
“root” 
▪ ḤŠR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤŠR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤŠR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘insects; yield of the land; to gather together, assemble, rally, round up (of animals); to hone, sharpen up; to ruin’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ḤṢB حصب 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9Mar2023
√ḤṢB 
“root” 
▪ ḤṢB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤṢB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤṢB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘pebbles, to pelt with pebbles; gravel-carrying wind, hail-showering clouds; measles; fuel, to fuel, torment’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ḤṢḤṢ حصحص 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9Mar2023
√ḤṢḤṢ 
“root” 
▪ ḤṢḤṢ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤṢḤṢ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤṢḤṢ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘stones, brisk walking; to (come to) settle, fit in properly; to become manifest, (of the truth) become clear (as in ‘the truth will out’)’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ḤṢD حصد 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9Mar2023
√ḤṢD 
“root” 
▪ ḤṢD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤṢD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤṢD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to reap, harvest, yield; to twist a rope tightly, do s.th. with exactitude; to become angry’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ḤṢR حصر 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9Mar2023
√ḤṢR 
“root” 
▪ ḤṢR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤṢR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤṢR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to encircle, blockade, forbid, constrict, confine; timid person, abstentious person (particularly concerning women), celibate person; miserly person; reed mat’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ḤṢL حصل 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9Mar2023
√ḤṢL 
“root” 
▪ ḤṢL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤṢL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤṢL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘residue, yield, crop; result, to come out, reject, waste; to collect’ 
▪ Ar root *√ḤṢL ‘to occur, obtain, attain, receive’ – Huehnergard2011.
▪ …
 
– 
– 
– 
taḥṣīl تَحْصيل 
Sw – • NahḍConBP 4528 • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√ḤṢL 
n. 
▪ vn., II 
ĭstaḥṣala اِسْتَحْصَل 
Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√ḤṢL 
vb., X 
▪ *Št-stem (X) 
ĭstiḥṣāl اِسْتِحْصالَ 
Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√ḤṢL 
n. 
▪ vn., X 
ḤṢN حصن 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤṢN 
“root” 
▪ ḤṢN_1 ‘to be strong, inaccessible; fortress’ ↗¹ḥaṣuna, ↗ḥiṣn
▪ ḤṢN_2 ‘to be chaste (woman)’ ↗²ḥaṣuna, ʻunblemished reputation, integrity (woman; Isl. Law) ↗ʔiḥṣān
▪ ḤṢN_3 ‘horse, stallion’ ↗ḥiṣān
▪ ḤṢN_4 ‘fox’: ʔabū ’l‑ ↗ḥuṣayn

Other values, now obsolete, include (Hava1899):

ḤṢN_5 ʻ¹lock; ²piece of iron; ³basket’: miḥṣan (pl. maḥāṣinᵘ)
ḤṢN_6 ʻ¹freedom; ²marriage; ³mind’: ʔiḥṣān
ḤṢN_ ‘…’: ḥṣn

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘fortress, palace, to be inaccessible, to be immune; to fortify, armament, lock; to be chaste, a married person; stallion, horse’ 
▪ ClassAr lexicographers regard [v1] ʻinaccessibility’ as the primary value from which all others that can be found in the root are derived. For them, [v2] the chastity of a woman is her *ʻinaccessibility’; [v3] a horse is called ḥiṣān»because he preserves his rider [TA] or because his back is like the ḥiṣn to its rider [Mgh, Mṣb]«; and also [v4] the fox’s name, ʔabū ’l-ḥuṣayn, is connected to ḥiṣn ‘fortress’ »because of his protecting himself from causes of harm by his acuteness [Ṣ, Ḳ]« (LANE ii 1865).
▪ [v1] and [v2]: Etymologically, however, one may have to keep at least two strings apart, as the idea of ‘fortification’ seems to be dependent on ḥiṣn ‘fortress’ which, accord. to Kogan2015, »almost certainly« is an Aramaism (from Syr ḥisn ‘fortress’, with sound shift Syr /s/ > Ar /ṣ/). In contrast, Leslau2006 and Belova2009 refute the Aram provenience and instead assume a SAr or modSAr origin of Ar ḥiṣn ‘fortress’. DRS, too, keeps two Sem roots apart: one (*√ḤS/ṢN) that gave Ar ¹ḥaṣuna ʻto be strong, fortified’, and another one (*√ḤṢN) that gave Ar ²ḥaṣuna ʻto be chaste’. In *√ḤS/ṢN, the authors consider the forms with /ṣ/ to be SSem variants of what in NWSem appears as /s/.37 Obviously due to this vacillation betw. /s/ and /ṣ/, Kogan remarks that also »[t]he well-known Ar root ↗√ḤSN ‘to be good, beautiful’ deserves attention as a potential cognate since the semantic shift ʻgood’ > ʻstrong’ (or vice versa) is not unconceivable« – Kogan2015: 383.
▪ As already mentioned sub [v1], the Ar lexicographical tradition tends to make also [v3] ‘horse, stallion’ and [v4] ‘fox’ dependent on ḥiṣn ‘fortress’. This may be true in the case of ‘fox’, though prob. not in the version quoted above; rather, ʔabū ’l- ḥuṣayn may originally have been *ʻthe one with the little fortress (i.e., the fox den)’ (ḥuṣayn interpreted as a dimin. of ḥiṣn, formed on the familiar FuʕayL pattern). As for ‘horse, stallion’, it may rather be *ʻthe strong one’ than *ʻ(a rider’s) fortress’.
[v5] : The value is kept apart from the others in DRS (as #ḤṢN-4), probably for systematic reasons. But is seems connected to [v1], as all sub-values can be seen as a specific kind of *ʻprotection’. The sub-values are further explained in Lane ii (1865): ʻlock (syn. qifl); the piece of iron that extends upwards upon the nose of the horse, having its base in the kiʕāmaẗ which is the iron thing that embraces, or clasps, the muzzle of the horse (Jac. Schultens, as cited in Freytag’s Lex., explains it as ʻferramentum quoddam in fræno equi et frænum ipsum’); a basket of the kind called zabīl’.
▪ The values assembled under [v6] all have developed from [v2] ʻchastity, integrity, unblemished reputation’. As explained in more detail in entry ↗ʔiḥṣān, a way of securing a woman’s good reputation used to be to marry her off, hence the equation of the caus. vb. IV, ʔaḥṣana, lit. ʻto let (a woman) keep an unblemished reputation’, with ʻ²marriage’. Given that respectable women often are identified with free women (↗ḥurr), the meaning ʻchastity, integrity, unblemished reputation’ not only came to mean ʻ²marriage’ but also ʻ¹freedom’. In a similar way (but unclear how exactly), the meaning ʻ¹freedom’ seems to have given rise to the notion of ʻ³mind’.
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DRS 9 (2010) #ḤṢN-1 Ar *ḥaṣuna ‘être chaste, vertueuse (femme)’, ḥāṣinaẗ ‘femme vertueuse’, ḥaṣān ‘femme vertueuse, épouse légitime’, ḥiṣn, ḥuṣn ‘vertu (d’une femme)’; Sab ḥṣn ‘prendre sous sa protection’, ʔḥṣn (pl.) ‘épouses’. -2 Ar ḥiṣān ‘étalon, cheval de race’, Ḥrs ḥəṣān, Jib hásún ‘cheval’. -3 YemAr ĭḥtiṣān ‘biens, possessions’. -4 Tña ḥad̮in ‘fer’, Ar ʔaḥṣinaẗ ‘fers, pointes de lances’; Soq ḥaṣəhan ‘fer, lame’.

DRS 9 (2010) #ḤS/ṢN-1 Hbr ḥosen ‘force’, EmpAram ḥsn ‘violence’, JP ḥᵃsen ‘être fort, véhément’, Ar ḥaṣuna ‘être fort, fortifié’; oAram ḥsn, JP ḥisnā ‘forteresse, force’, Syr ḥesnā, Ar ḥiṣn ‘forteresse’, SAr mḥṣn ‘ouvrage défensif, fortification’, Mhr Ḥrs ḥāṣən ‘grande maison’, Jib ḥeṣn, Soq ḥóṣon ‘château’; Gz ḥəṣn ‘forteresse, château’; Hbr ḥāsīn, Aram ḥassīnā, Ar ḥaṣīn ‘fort’. -2 ʔabū ’l-ḥiṣn, LevAr ʔabū ḥsēn, DaṯAr ḥuṣaynī, Soq ḥṣáyni ‘renard’.

▪ [v1] Belova, “South Semitic Languaes”, in EALL iv (2009), 300 ff: Ar ḥisn ~ huṣn < YemAr ḥisn ~ huṣn ‘protected place, fortress’, cf. Sab ḥṣn ‘to take under protection’, Jib oḥóṣun ‘to build, to fortify’, ḥeṣn ‘castle’, Soq ḥoṣon, Gz ḥǝṣn ‘fortress, castle’.
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▪ [v1] : The origin of protAram *ḥsn ‘to be strong’, the hypothetical ancestor of oAram ḥsn ‘fortification, stronghold’ (> Syr ḥesnā ‘fortress’ > Ar ḥiṣn), is uncertain – Kogan2015: 383 #8.
▪ [v5] : It is not clear why DRS did not group Ar ʔaḥṣinaẗ ‘fers, pointes de lances’ together with ḥiṣn sub *√ḤS/ṢN, but separately under #ḤṢN-4.
▪ For the other values, see above, section CONC.
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ḥaṣun‑ حَصُنَ , u (ḥaṣānaẗ
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤṢN 
vb., I 
1 to be inaccessible, be well fortified; 2 to be chaste (woman) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Arabic lexicographical tradition regards both values as essentially one, interpreting [v2] ʻ(a woman’s) chastity, integrity’ as a special meaning developed from [v1] ʻinaccessibility, fortification’. Etymologically, however, one may have to keep the two apart as ¹ḥaṣuna ʻto be strong, fortified’ and ²ḥaṣuna ʻto be chaste’. See DISC below.
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DRS 9 (2010) #ḤS/ṢN-1 Hbr ḥosen ‘force’, EmpAram ḥsn ‘violence’, JP ḥᵃsen ‘être fort, véhément’, Ar ḥaṣuna ‘être fort, fortifié’; oAram ḥsn, JP ḥisnā ‘forteresse, force’, Syr ḥesnā, Ar ḥiṣn ‘forteresse’, SAr mḥṣn ‘ouvrage défensif, fortification’, Mhr Ḥrs ḥāṣən ‘grande maison’, Jib ḥeṣn, Soq ḥóṣon ‘château’; Gz ḥəṣn ‘forteresse, château’; Hbr ḥāsīn, Aram ḥassīnā, Ar ḥaṣīn ‘fort’. -2 ʔabū ’l-ḥiṣn, LevAr ʔabū ḥsēn, DaṯAr ḥuṣaynī, Soq ḥṣáyni ‘renard’.
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤṢN-1 Ar *ḥaṣuna ‘être chaste, vertueuse (femme)’, ḥāṣinaẗ ‘femme vertueuse’, ḥaṣān ‘femme vertueuse, épouse légitime’, ḥiṣn, ḥuṣn ‘vertu (d’une femme)’; Sab ḥṣn ‘prendre sous sa protection’, ʔḥṣn (pl.) ‘épouses’. -2 Ar ḥiṣān ‘étalon, cheval de race’, Ḥrs ḥəṣān, Jib hásún ‘cheval’. -3 YemAr ĭḥtiṣān ‘biens, possessions’. -4 Tña ḥad̮in ‘fer’, Ar ʔaḥṣinaẗ ‘fers, pointes de lances’; Soq ḥaṣəhan ‘fer, lame’.
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▪ Arabic lexicographical tradition regards both values as essentially one, interpreting [v2] ʻ(a woman’s) chastity, integrity’ as a special meaning developed from [v1] ʻinaccessibility, fortification’. In contrast, Jeffery1938 (following Guidi and Fraenkel) viewed all verbs signifying ʻfortification’ etc. as denominative from ḥiṣn ʻfortress’, which he thought was a borrowing from Syr ḥesnā ʻfortress’ (with Syr s > Ar ). Supporting this view, also Kogan holds that Ar ḥiṣn ‘fortress’ »almost certainly« is an Aramaism. Moreover, Kogan remarks that »[t]he well-known Ar root √ḤSN ‘to be good, beautiful’ deserves attention as a potential cognate since the semantic shift ʻgood’ > ʻstrong’ (or vice versa) is not unconceivable« – Kogan2015: 383.
DRS, too, keeps two Sem roots apart: one (*√ḤS/ṢN) that gave Ar ¹ḥaṣuna ʻto be strong, fortified’, and another one (*√ḤṢN) that gave Ar ²ḥaṣuna ʻto be chaste’. In *√ḤS/ṢN, the authors consider the forms with /ṣ/ as SSem variants of what in NWSem appears as /s/.156
▪ For Syr ḥesnā ʻfortress’, Jeffery1938 suggested a relation to Ar ḫašuna ʻto be hard, rough’ (↗ḫašin), a relation, however, that Kogan refutes because »Ar š does not regularly correspond to s in oAram« – Kogan2015: 383 fn. 1099.
▪ Leslau2006 (CDG) considers a Syr origin of Ar ḥiṣn as »doubtful since ḥṣn also occurs in SAr.« Along the same line, Belova2009 derives the fuṣḥà term ḥiṣn~huṣn ‘fortress’ from the dialectal YemAr ḥiṣn~huṣn ‘protected place, fortress’, which she seems to regard as a borrowing from SAr or modSAr (see above, section COGN).
▪ ClassAr lexicographers derive also ↗ḥaṣuna ʻto be chaste’, ↗ḥiṣān ʻhorse’ and (ʔabū ’l‑) ↗ḥuṣayn ʻfox’ from the idea of ʻfortification, protection’; for details see individual entries and root entry ↗√ḤṢN.
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NB: Given that the etymology of several items belonging to √ḤṢN remains unclear so far and that the meaning of ḥaṣuna comprises both ‘fortification’ and ‘chastity’, the list below includes values that may be derived from, or akin to, any of the two.

ḥaṣṣana, vb. II, 1 to make inaccessible (s.th.); 2 to strengthen (s.th.); 3 to fortify, entrench (s.th.); 4 to immunize, make proof (ḍidda against): D-stem, caus., perh. denom. from ↗ḥiṣn.
ʔaḥṣana, vb. IV, 1 to make inaccessible (s.th.); 2 to fortify, entrench (s.th.); 3a to be chaste, pure (woman); b to remain chaste, be of unblemished reputation (woman): *Š-stem, caus., [v1] and [v2] perh. denom. from ↗ḥiṣn.
taḥaṣṣana, vb. V, 1 to strengthen one’s position, protect o.s.; 2 to be fortified; 3 to be secure, be protected: Dt-stem, perh. denom. from ↗ḥiṣn.

ḥaṣīn, adj., 1 inaccessible, strong, fortified, firm, secure(d), protected; 2 immune, proof, invulnerable (ḍidda against): quasi-PP I. | al-ḥiṣn al‑~, n., stronghold (fig.; e.g., of radicalism)
ḥaṣānaẗ, n.f., 1 strength, ruggedness, forbiddingness, impregnability, inaccessibility; 2 shelteredness, chastity (of a woman); 3 invulnerability, inviolability; 4 immunity (of deputies, diplomats; against illness): vn. I.
taḥṣīn, n., pl. ‑āt, n., 1 fortification, entrenchment; 2 strengthening, cementing, solidification; 3 immunization: vn. II.
ʔiḥṣān, n., blamelessness, unblemished reputation, integrity (Isl. Law): vn. IV; see also ↗s.v.
taḥaṣṣun, n., securing, safeguarding, protection, protectedness: vn. V.
muḥaṣṣan, adj., 1 fortified; 2 entrenched; 3 immune, proof (ḍidda against): PP II.
muḥṣanaẗ / muḥṣinaẗ, adj.f., 1 sheltered, well-protected, chaste; 2 of unblemished reputation (woman; Isl. Law): PP / PA IV; see also ↗ʔiḥṣān.

For other values of the root, cf. ↗ḥiṣān and ʔabū ’l- ↗ḥuṣayn, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry √ḤṢN. 
ḥiṣn حِصْن , pl. ḥuṣūn 
ID 215 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤṢN 
n. 
1a fortress, fort, castle, citadel, stronghold; b fortification, entrenchment; 2 protection – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ While ClassAr lexicographers tend to include ḥiṣn in the large group of “derivatives” from the root ↗ḤṢN with a basic meaning of *ʻto be inaccessible’, Jeffery1938 (following Guidi and Fraenkel) regarded it as a borrowing from Syr ḥesnā ʻfortress’ (with Syr s > Ar , due to partial assimilation after preceding emphatic , a folk etymology that made the borrowing “match” the Ar ḥaṣuna ‘to be inaccessible’). Supporting this view, Kogan2015, too, holds that Ar ḥiṣn ‘fortress’ »almost certainly« is an Aramaism.38 . Moreover, Kogan remarks that »[t]he well-known Ar root √ḤSN ‘to be good, beautiful’ deserves attention as a potential cognate since the semantic shift ʻgood’ > ʻstrong’ (or vice versa) is not unconceivable« – Kogan2015: 383.
▪ In DRS, the juxtaposition of the Ar and Aram words suggests that they are cognates, sharing a common etymon. The authors posit a Sem root *√ḤS/ṢN and explain: »En SSem, la racine comporte comme 2ème consonne radicale«.39
▪ In contrast, Leslau2006 (CDG) thinks that an »Aram.-Syr. origin of Ar ḥiṣn is doubtful since ḥṣn also occurs in SAr.« Along the same line, Belova2009 derives the fuṣḥà term ḥiṣn~huṣn ‘fortress’ from the dialectal YemAr ḥiṣn~huṣn ‘protected place, fortress’, which she seems to regard as a borrowing from SAr or modSAr (see below, section COGN).
▪ ClassAr lexicographers derive also ↗ḥaṣuna ʻto be chaste’, ↗ḥiṣān ʻhorse’ and (ʔabū ’l‑) ↗ḥuṣayn ʻfox’ from ḥiṣn (for details see individual entries).
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eC7 Q 59:2 wa-ẓannū ʔanna-hum māniʕatu-hum ḥuṣūnu-hum mina ’llāhi ‘and they thought their fortifications would protect them against God’.
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DRS 9 (2010) #ḤS/ṢN-1 Hbr ḥosen ‘force’, EmpAram ḥsn ‘violence’, JP ḥᵃsen ‘être fort, véhément’, Ar ḥaṣuna ‘être fort, fortifié’; oAram ḥsn, JP ḥisnā ‘forteresse, force’, Syr ḥesnā, Ar ḥiṣn ‘forteresse’, SAr mḥṣn ‘ouvrage défensif, fortification’, Mhr Ḥrs ḥāṣən ‘grande maison’, Jib ḥeṣn, Soq ḥóṣon ‘château’; Gz ḥəṣn ‘forteresse, château’; Hbr ḥāsīn, Aram ḥassīnā, Ar ḥaṣīn ‘fort’. -2 ʔabū ’l-ḥiṣn, LevAr ʔabū ḥsēn, DaṯAr ḥuṣaynī, Soq ḥṣáyni ‘renard’.
▪ Belova2009: Ar ḥisn~huṣn ‘fortress’, YemAr ḥisn~huṣn ‘protected place, fortress’, (Leslau2006 CDG: SAr m-ḥṣn ‘defense work’) Sab ḥṣn ‘to take under protection’, Jib oḥóṣun ‘to build, fortify’, ḥeṣn ‘castle’, Soq ḥoṣon, Gz ḥǝṣn ‘fortress, castle’ (“South Semitic Languaes”, in EALL iv: 300 ff).
▪ … 
▪ Jeffery1938, 109-110: »It is only the pl. ḥuṣūn that is found in the Qurʔān, though the denom. vb. ḥaṣṣana occurs participially in v. 14 of the same Sūra. The passages are late and refer to the Jews of Naḍīr near Madina. – The vb. is clearly denom. though the philologers try to derive it from a more primitive ḥṣn ‘to be inaccessible’ (LA, xvi: 275), and Guidi, Della Sede, 579, had seen that ḥiṣn was borrowed from the Syr ḥesnā. Fraenkel, Fremdw, 235, 236, agrees with this on two grounds, firstly on the general ground that such things as fortresses are not likely to have been indigenous developments among the Arabs, and as a matter of fact all the place names compounded with ḥiṣn which Yāqūt collects in his Muʕǧam are in Syria; secondly on philological grounds, for ḥiṣn ‘fortress’ is not from a root ‘to be inaccessible’ but from one ‘to be strong’, which we find in Hbr ḥāsan, Aram ḥᵃsan, Syr ḥsn,157 of which the Ar equivalent is ḫašana158 ‘to be hard, rough’. In the Targums חיסנא is a ‘store’ or ‘warehouse’, but in the Syr ḥesnā is properly a ‘fortress’. The word is frequently used in the old poetry and must have been an early borrowing.«
▪ Leslau2006 (CDG) s.v. Gz ḥəṣn ‘fortress’: »Praetorius, ZDMG 61 (1907) 616 connects Gz ḥəṣn ‘fortress’ with Gz ḥanaṣa ‘build’. Brockelmann 1928:247 compares Syr ḥəsen ‘be strong’, ḥesnā ‘fortress’ with Ar ḥaṣuna ‘be strong’, ḥiṣn ‘fortress’. As for Ar ḥiṣn, Fraenkel 235 (following Guidi) considers it a loanword coming from Syr ḥesnā. He explains Ar ḥiṣn (with ) against Syr ḥesnā (with s) as a folk etymology due to Ar ḥaṣuna ‘be inaccessible’. The Aram.-Syr. origin of Ar ḥiṣn is doubtful since ḥṣn also occurs in SAr. See also Landberg1920: 424 ff.«
▪ Belova2009 : Ar ḥisn~huṣn < YemAr ḥisn~huṣn ‘protected place, fortress’ (“South Semitic Languaes”, in EALL iv: 300 ff).
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NB: Given that the etymology of several items belonging to √ḤṢN remains unclear so far, the list below contains only those values that seem to be directly related to ḥiṣn. For other values of the root, cf. ↗ḥaṣuna, ↗ḥiṣān, ʔabū ’l- ↗ḥuṣayn, and ↗ʔiḥṣān, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry √ḤṢN.

ḥiṣn ṭāʔir, n., Flying Fortress

ḥaṣuna, u (ḥaṣānaẗ), vb. I, 1 to be inaccessible, be well fortified: perh. denom.; 2 ↗²ḥaṣuna.
ḥaṣṣana, vb. II, 1 to make inaccessible (s.th.); 2 to strengthen (s.th.); 3 to fortify, entrench (s.th.); 4 to immunize, make proof (ḍidda against): D-stem, caus., prob. denom.
ʔaḥṣana, vb. IV, 1 to make inaccessible (s.th.); 2 to fortify, entrench (s.th.): prob. denom.; 3 ↗²ḥaṣuna.
taḥaṣṣana, vb. V, 1 to strengthen one’s position, protect o.s.; 2 to be fortified; 3 to be secure, be protected: Dt-stem, intr./pass./self-ref., prob. denom.

ḥaṣīn, adj., 1 inaccessible, strong, fortified, firm, secure(d), protected; 2 immune, proof, invulnerable (ḍidda against): quasi-PP I. | al-ḥiṣn al‑~, n., stronghold (fig.; e.g., of radicalism).
ḥaṣānaẗ, n.f., 1 strength, ruggedness, forbiddingness, impregnability, inaccessibility; 2 ↗²ḥaṣuna; 3 invulnerability, inviolability; 4 immunity (of deputies, diplomats; against illness): vn. I of ḥaṣuna, see above and ↗s.v.
taḥṣīn, n., pl. ‑āt, n., 1 fortification, entrenchment; 2 strengthening, cementing, solidification; 3 immunization: vn. II.
taḥaṣṣun, n., securing, safeguarding, protection, protectedness: vn. V.
muḥaṣṣan, adj., 1 fortified; 2 entrenched; 3 immune, proof (ḍidda against): PP II.
 
ḥiṣān حِصان , pl. ḥuṣun, ʔaḥṣinaẗ 
ID 214 • Sw – • BP 3307 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤṢN 
n. 
1a horse; 1b stallion – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Any connection to other items of √ḤṢN (‘fortress, to be inaccessible’; ‘chastity, unblemished reputation’; ‘fox’)? – Lane ii 1865 reports the Ar lexicographers’ explanation which links ḥiṣān to ↗ḥiṣn ‘fortress’: »the ḥiṣān is so called because he preserves his rider [TA] or because his back is like the ḥiṣn to its rider [Mgh, Mṣb]«. – Most probably, however, ḥiṣān is not from ḥiṣn, but both are from the same basic notion of ʻstrength’ (↗ḥaṣuna), so that the word for ‘horse’ originally meant *ʻthe strong one’. – In any case, ḥiṣān seems to be a secondary development, peculiar to Ar (and modSAr?), while the more widespread (though still not deeply rooted) word for ‘horse’ in Sem is (WSem) *paraš‑, see Ar ↗faras; for a word of possibly foreign (IE) origin, cf. (EgAr) ↗sīsī.
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DRS 9 (2010) #ḤṢN-2 Ar ḥiṣān ‘étalon, cheval de race’, Ḥrs ḥəṣān, Jib hásún ‘cheval’.
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▪ See above, section CONC.
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– 
ḥiṣān al-baḥr, n., hippopotamus
ḥiṣān buḫārī, n., iron horse
quwwaẗ ḥiṣān, n.f., horse power

For other values of the root, cf. ↗ḥaṣuna, ↗ḥiṣn, ʔabū ’l- ↗ḥuṣayn, and ↗ʔiḥṣān, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry √ḤṢN. 
ʔabū ’l‑ḥuṣayn أبو الحُصَيْن 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤṢN 
n. 
fox – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Any connection to other items of √ḤṢN (‘fortress, to be inaccessible’; ‘chastity’; ‘horse’)? – Lane ii 1865 reports the Ar lexicographers’ explanation which links ʔabū ’l-ḥuṣayn to ↗ḥiṣn ‘fortress’ »because of his [i.e., the fox’s] protecting himself from causes of harm by his acuteness [Ṣ, Ḳ]«. However, given the name’s composition of the possessivizer ʔabū… ‘father of…’ and the diminuitive FuʕayL form ḥuṣayn, it seems to be more natural to explain the term as *ʻthe one with the little fortress (sc., the fox den)’.
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DRS 9 (2010) #ḤS/ṢN-1 Hbr ḥosen ‘force’, EmpAram ḥsn ‘violence’, JP ḥᵃsen ‘être fort, véhément’, Ar ḥaṣuna ‘être fort, fortifié’; oAram ḥsn, JP ḥisnā ‘forteresse, force’, Syr ḥesnā, Ar ḥiṣn ‘forteresse’, SAr mḥṣn ‘ouvrage défensif, fortification’, Mhr Ḥrs ḥāṣən ‘grande maison’, Jib ḥeṣn, Soq ḥóṣon ‘château’; Gz ḥəṣn ‘forteresse, château’; Hbr ḥāsīn, Aram ḥassīnā, Ar ḥaṣīn ‘fort’. -2 ʔabū ’l-ḥiṣn, LevAr ʔabū ḥsēn, DaṯAr ḥuṣaynī, Soq ḥṣáyni ‘renard’.
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▪ See above, section CONC.
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For other values of the root, cf. ↗ḥaṣuna, ↗ḥiṣn, ↗ḥiṣān, and ↗ʔiḥṣān, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤṢN. 
ʔiḥṣān إِحْصان 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤṢN 
n. 
blamelessness, unblemished reputation, integrity (Isl. Law) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Morphologically, ʔiḥṣān is the vn. of ʔaḥṣana, a caus. vb. IV that in MSA either refers to the chastity of a woman and hence her unblemished reputation (↗²ḥaṣuna) or the inaccessibility of a fortress (↗¹ḥaṣuna, ↗ḥiṣn), or to inaccessibility in general. ClassAr lexicography tends to derive all values in √ḤṢN from ḥiṣn ʻfortress’. In contrast, DRS 9 (2010) suggests to keep ²ḥaṣuna ʻto be chaste’ (#ḤṢN) apart from ¹ḥaṣuna ʻto be strong, fortified’ (#ḤS/ṢN, *ʻpower, violence, strength, force, fortification’). – For more details, cf. root entry ↗√ḤṢN as well as ↗ḥaṣuna and ↗ḥiṣn.
▪ For muḥṣan as a term in Islamic Law, see below, section DISC.
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ʔaḥṣana, vb. IV, caus., ʻto protect, defend’ (< *ʻto fortify, make inaccessible’), but also ʻto keep o.s. chaste (woman)’ (< *ʻto make o.s. inaccessible’), hence also ʻto be chaste, virtuous (woman)’, as well as ʻto give (a woman) in marriage; to marry (man or woman)’ (to protect o.’s own or s.o.’s chastity); cf. Q 21:91 and 66:12 (on Maryam bt. ʕImrān): allatī ʔaḥṣanat farǧahā ʻwho preserved her pudendum from that which is unlawful or indecorous / who abstained from what is unlawful or indecorous \ was continent, chaste’; cf. also Q 4:25 fa-ʔiḏā ʔuḥṣinna fa-ʔin ʔatayna bi-fāḥišatin fa-ʕalay-hinna niṣfu mā ʕalà ’l-muḥṣanāti mina ’l-ʕaḏābi ʻbut when they [sc., slave girls] enter wedlock, if they commit indecency, they shall be liable to half the punishment prescribed for free women’.
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤṢN-1 Ar *ḥaṣuna ‘être chaste, vertueuse (femme)’, ḥāṣinaẗ ‘femme vertueuse’, ḥaṣān ‘femme vertueuse, épouse légitime’, ḥiṣn, ḥuṣn ‘vertu (d’une femme)’; Sab ḥṣn ‘prendre sous sa protection’, ʔḥṣn (pl.) ‘épouses’. -2 Ar ḥiṣān ‘étalon, cheval de race’, Ḥrs ḥəṣān, Jib hásún ‘cheval’. -3 YemAr ĭḥtiṣān ‘biens, possessions’. -4 Tña ḥad̮in ‘fer’, Ar ʔaḥṣinaẗ ‘fers, pointes de lances’; Soq ḥaṣəhan ‘fer, lame’.

DRS 9 (2010) #ḤS/ṢN-1 Hbr ḥosen ‘force’, EmpAram ḥsn ‘violence’, JP ḥᵃsen ‘être fort, véhément’, Ar ḥaṣuna ‘être fort, fortifié’; oAram ḥsn, JP ḥisnā ‘forteresse, force’, Syr ḥesnā, Ar ḥiṣn ‘forteresse’, SAr mḥṣn ‘ouvrage défensif, fortification’, Mhr Ḥrs ḥāṣən ‘grande maison’, Jib ḥeṣn, Soq ḥóṣon ‘château’; Gz ḥəṣn ‘forteresse, château’; Hbr ḥāsīn, Aram ḥassīnā, Ar ḥaṣīn ‘fort’. -2 ʔabū ’l-ḥiṣn, LevAr ʔabū ḥsēn, DaṯAr ḥuṣaynī, Soq ḥṣáyni ‘renard’.
▪ … 
muḥṣan: »a term of Islamic law denoting a certain personal status. – The Ḳurʔān’s impersonal uses of the root ḥ-ṣ-n refer to warehousing, shelter, fortification and protection (xii: 48; xxi: 80; lix: 2, 14). Used personally of the Virgin Mary (xxi: 91; lxvi: 12), the verb refers to chastity. A cluster of participial derivatives (iv: 24-5; v: 5) relate to the intent underlying the Islamic marriage contract where muḥṣin / muḥṣanaẗ are perhaps best understood in terms of the provision of accommodation. The muḥṣanaẗ need not be Muslim (v: 5); if Muslim, she need not be free (iv: 24-5). Muḥṣanāt are thus marriageable women: free muslimāt or kitābiyyāt, or Muslim slave women. Muḥṣanāt / muḥṣinūn are contrasted with musāfiḥāt / musāfiḥūn, i.e. with such as engage in illicit sexual relations. The category muḥṣanāt may include slave women (iv: 24) yet be contrasted with slave women (iv: 25)« – J. Burton, art. “Muḥṣan”, in: EI² (online, as of 12Dec2020).
▪ … 
– 
ʔaḥṣana, vb. IV, 1 to make inaccessible (s.th.); 2ḥiṣn; 3a to be chaste, pure (woman); b to remain chaste, be of unblemished reputation (woman): [v1] caus., either from ↗²ḥaṣuna ‘to be chaste’ or from ↗ḥiṣn ‘fortress’; [v2] clearly from ḥiṣn; [v3] only personal use, cf. section HIST.

muḥṣanaẗ, var. muḥṣinaẗ, pl. ‑āt, adj.f., 1 sheltered, well-protected, chaste; 2 of unblemished reputation (woman; Isl. Law): PP (var. PA) IV; the variation betw. PP and PA owes itself to the perspective: the woman can be protected or actively protecing herself.

For other values of the root, cf. ↗ḥaṣuna, ↗ḥiṣn, ↗ḥiṣān, and ʔabū ’l- ↗ḥuṣayn, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry √ḤṢN. 
ḤṢY حصي 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9Mar2023
√ḤṢY 
“root” 
▪ ḤṢY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤṢY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤṢY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘pebbles, to count; to comprehend; to keep, stick with; mind, discerning faculty; ability to express o.s. clearly’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ḤḌː (ḤḌḌ) حضّ/حضض 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 10Mar2023
√ ḤḌː (ḤḌḌ) 
“root” 
▪ ḤḌː (ḤḌḌ)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤḌː (ḤḌḌ)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤḌː (ḤḌḌ)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘foot of a mountain, depth, bottom of a valley; to incite, encourage, urge’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ḤḌR حضر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤḌR 
“root” 
▪ ḤḌR_1 ‘to be present, attend; to come, arrive, visit, go to, appear, show up; to be readily called’ ↗ḥaḍara, ↗ḥuḍūr, ↗ḥāḍir; ‘to prepare’ ↗ḥaḍḍara; ‘to die’ ↗ĭḥtaḍara; ‘civilized region; settled population, town dwellers’ ↗ḥaḍar; ‘presence; His Highness, Monsieur’ ↗ḥaḍraẗ; ‘sedentary life; civilisation, culture’ ↗ḥaḍāraẗ; ‘minutes, official report’ ↗maḥḍar; ‘lecture’ ↗muḥāḍaraẗ
▪ ḤḌR_2 ‘a small group of 6 to 12 people, patrol, squad’ ↗ḥaḍīraẗ

Other values, now obsolete, include (Lane ii 1865, Hava1899):

ḤḌR_3 ‘fleet (horse)’: miḥḍīr (pl. maḥāḍīrᵘ)
ḤḌR_4 ‘thick purulent matter in a wound, afterbirth’: ḥaḍīr(aẗ)
ḤḌR_5 ‘…’ : ḥḍr

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘urban areas, a community settled around a water source; to be present, to be at home, adjacency to water; to bring, to fetch; to lie down dying, hardship, strife’ 
▪ [v1] : DRS 9 (2010) #ḤḌR-1 suggests to compare also ↗√ḤṢR and ↗√ḤẒR, without however elaborating on the exact nature of such a conceivable relation. On the Ar, SAr, and modSAr evidence the authors comment: »Ici les valeurs de présence et de sédentarité sont liées, comme le montrent bien l’Ar et le Ḥrṣ; en Sab, il s’agit du fait d’être présent au pélerinage ou à la fête.«40 – In contrast, Orel&Stolbova1994 #1214 seem to interpret Ar ḥaḍar outright as ʻ[enclosed, fenced?] area’ and derive it from protSem *ḥaṣ́ar‑ < AfrAs *ḥać̣ar‑ ‘fence, enclosure’. – In √ḤṢR we find items such as ḥaṣara ‘to surround, encircle’ and ḥiṣār ‘blockade, siege’; similarly, in √ḤẒR we find, e.g., ḥaẓara ‘to fence in’ or ḥaẓīraẗ ‘enclosure’.
[v2] : Accord. to Lane ii (1865), the meaning of ḥaḍīraẗ in ClassAr is ‘collective body of a people’. Perh. somehow related to [v1], but the exact semantics remain unclear. An obsol. meaning of ḥaḍīr(aẗ), sharing with ‘collective body’ the notion of *‘gathering, coming together’, is also [v4] ‘what collects in a wound, of thick purulent matter; what collects in the membrane that encloses the fœtus, of the [fluid called] suḫd and the like; […] what a woman emits after childbirth and [after] the stopping of her blood; […] what a she-camel emits after bringing forth’.
[v3] : The light-footedness of a horse seems to be a development from [v1]: *‘present > ready > quick’. Value not mentioned in DRS.
[v4] : Is the *‘gathering, coming together’ that this value shares with [v2] based on [v1] *‘to settle’ (= *‘to gather in a place’)?
▪ [other] : None of the values [v2]–[v4] are mentioned in DRS. In contrast, DRS lists the values #ḤḌR-2 ‘pubis’ (ḥaḍr) and #ḤḌR-3 ‘anse de vase’ (ḥāḍiraẗ), which we were unable to identify elsewhere.
▪ … 
– 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤḌR-1 Ar ḥaḍara ‘être présent, prêt; assister à’, ḥaḍar, ḥāḍiraẗ ‘présence, demeure fixe (par opp. au nomadisme)’, Qat tḥḍr ‘être présent (dans un lieu)’, Jib ḥɔ́źɔ́r, Mhr ḥəźáwr ‘être présent; persuader’, Ḥrs ḥəźáwr ‘migrer du désert vers la ville en été; être présent’. – Sab ḥḍr ‘célébrer une fête (pour une divinité), accomplir un pélerinage; offrir’. -2 Ar ḥaḍr ‘pubis’. -3 ḥāḍiraẗ ‘anse de vase’.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994 #1214: Akk ḫaṣāru ‘enclosure’, Phn ḥṣr ‘yard’, Hbr ḥāṣer ‘camp; yard’, Syr ḥəṣārā ‘yard’, Ar ḥaḍar, SAr ḥṣwr ‘area’, Gz ḥaṣur ‘enclosure’. – For extra-Sem cognates cf. below, section DISC.
▪ … 
▪ [v1] : Orel&Stolbova’s (1994 #1214) reconstruction of the AfrAs dimension (see above, section CONC) is based, in addition to their assumption of a Sem *ḥaṣ́ar‑, on the reconstruction of extra-Sem proto-forms, stipulated from sparse evidence in a few, mainly WCh and CCh langs. The authors posit protWCh *ć̣˅r‑ (from 1 siri ‘fence’), protCCh *ḥaẑar‑ (based on actual forms like ẑaẑar, gəẑar) ‘fence’, Bed eseer ‘enclosure’. Any connection with LEC *ʔaraʒ‑ (Or areddaa ‘dwelling’)?
▪ … 
– 
– 
ḥaḍar‑ حَضَرَ , u (¹²ḥuḍūr, ³ḥaḍāraẗ
ID – • Sw – • BP 809 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤḌR 
vb., I 
1a to be present (at), be in the presence (of s.o.); b to attend (s.th.); c to be present (in s.o.’s mind), be readily recalled (s.o.); d to take part, participate (maǧlisan in a meeting); 2a to come, get (ʔilà or to s.o., to a place), arrive (ʔilà or at a place); b to visit (a place), attend (a public event), go (to a performance, etc.); c to appear (ʔamāma before a judge, etc., ʔilà in, at), show up (ʔilà in, at); d to betake o.s., go (min… ʔilà from… to); – 3 (ḥaḍāraẗ) to be settled, sedentary (in a civilized region, as opposed to nomadic existence) – WehrCowan1976. 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤḌR-1 rightly observes that in the group of Ar, SAr, and modSAr lexical items that seem to be cognate, the values of [v1] ‘presence’ and [v3] ‘sedentariness’ obviously are related. ([v2] signifies s.th. in-between: the process leading, like settling down, to a being present.) In the light of the Sem evidence, it is hard to decide which is the primary value. DRS suggests to compare ↗√ḤṢR and ↗√ḤẒR, without however elaborating on the exact nature of such a conceivable relation. Orel&Stolbova1994 #1214 take such a connection for granted and juxtapose Ar ḥaḍar, interpreted as ʻ[enclosed, fenced?] area’, and Sem items meaning ‘enclosure, yard, camp’ (Akk ḫaṣāru, Phn ḥṣr, Hbr ḥāṣer, Syr ḥəṣārā, SAr ḥṣwr, Gz ḥaṣur), positing protSem *ḥaṣ́ar‑ ‘fence, enclosure’ (< AfrAs *ḥać̣ar‑ ‘id.’). Though phonologically slightly problematic (unexpected /ṣ/ in Syr and Gz), this assumption seems quite plausible from a semantic perspective. Thus, if ḤḌR should indeed be seen together with ḤṢR and ḤẒR, one could think of a development like *‘fence, enclosure > to settle in a fenced\enclosed place\area > to become sedentary > to be present’ (and from the latter also the many derivatives signifying ‘readiness’ and ‘quickness’ in Ar, see DERIV). The hypothesis may be supported by inner-Ar evidence, where ↗ḥaḍīraẗ signifies ‘a small group of 6 to 12 people’ (ClassAr: ‘collective body of a people’, i.e., a *‘gathering’ rather than a *‘presence’) and the obsol. ḥaḍīr(aẗ) ‘thick purulent matter in a wound; afterbirth’, unless completely different origin, can best be explained as a *‘coming together, gathering, confluence, agglomeration’, similar to the *‘settling in an enclosure’ assumed as the basic meaning of ḤḌR.
▪ Neither ‘collective body of a people’ nor ‘thick purulent matter in a wound; afterbirth’ nor ‘swiftness’ are mentioned in DRS among the most basic values of ḤḌR. In contrast, DRS lists the values #ḤḌR-2 ‘pubis’ (ḥaḍr) and #ḤḌR-3 ‘anse de vase’ (ḥāḍiraẗ), which we were unable to identify elsewhere.
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤḌR-1 Ar ḥaḍara ‘être présent, prêt; assister à’, ḥaḍar, ḥāḍiraẗ ‘présence, demeure fixe (par opp. au nomadisme)’, Qat tḥḍr ‘être présent (dans un lieu)’, Jib ḥɔ́źɔ́r, Mhr ḥəźáwr ‘être présent; persuader’, Ḥrs ḥəźáwr ‘migrer du désert vers la ville en été; être présent’. – Sab ḥḍr ‘célébrer une fête (pour une divinité), accomplir un pélerinage; offrir’. -2 Ar ḥaḍr ‘pubis’. -3 ḥāḍiraẗ ‘anse de vase’.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994 #1214: Akk ḫaṣāru ‘enclosure’, Phn ḥṣr ‘yard’, Hbr ḥāṣer ‘camp; yard’, Syr ḥəṣārā ‘yard’, Ar ḥaḍar, SAr ḥṣwr ‘area’, Gz ḥaṣur ‘enclosure’. – For extra-Sem cognates cf. below, section DISC.
▪ …
 
▪ Orel&Stolbova’s (1994 #1214) reconstruction of the AfrAs dimension (see above, section CONC) is based, in addition to their assumption of a Sem *ḥaṣ́ar‑ ‘fence, enclosure’ on the reconstruction of extra-Sem proto-forms, stipulated from sparse evidence in a few, mainly WCh and CCh langs. The authors posit protWCh *ć̣˅r‑ (from 1 siri ‘fence’), protCCh *ḥaźar‑ (based on actual forms like źaźar, gəźar) ‘fence’, Bed eseer ‘enclosure’. Any connection with LEC *ʔaraʒ‑ (Or areddaa ‘dwelling’)?
▪ … 
– 
ḥaḍḍara, vb. II, 1 to ready, make ready, prepare (s.th., also, e.g., a medicine = to compound), make, produce, manufacture (s.th.); 2 to study, prepare (a lesson); 3 to fetch, get, bring (s.o., s.th.), procure, supply (s.th.); 4 to settle (s.o.), make s.o. sedentary; 5 to civilize (s.o., s.th.): D-stem, caus.
ḥāḍara, vb. III, 1 to give a lecture, present s.th. in a lecture (to s.o.); 2 to lecture, give a course of lectures: L-stem, assoc., based on *‘present > ready (to answer an interlocutor’s question, etc.) > quick (in replying, reacting to a question etc.)’
BP#4950ʔaḥḍara, vb. IV, 1 to fetch, get, bring (s.o., s.th.), procure, supply (s.th.); 2 to take (s.o., a s.th., ʔilà to a place): *Š-stem, caus. | ~ maʕa-hū, vb., to have s.th. with one, bring s.th. along
taḥaḍḍara, vb. V, 1a to prepare o.s., ready o.s., get ready (li‑ for); b to be ready, prepared; 2a to become settled, be sedentary in a civilized region; b to be civilized, be in a state of civilization; c to become urbanized, become a town dweller: Dt-stem, [v1] refl./self-ref., [v2] based on ↗ḥaḍar and/or ↗ḥaḍāraẗ.
ĭḥtaḍara, vb. VIII, 1 to come (to s.o.), be in the presence (of s.o.); 2 to live in a civilized region: Gt-stem, self-ref.; – 3 pass. ŭḥtuḍira, to die: Gt-stem, self-ref., [v1] based on *‘presence’, [v2] based on *‘cultivation of land, civilisation’ (↗ḥaḍar), [v3] is related to 2bḥaḍara ‘to come to, visit’, lit. meaning * ‘to be visited (sc. by the angels of God)’.
ĭstaḥḍara, vb. X, 1a to have s.th. brought, to call, send (for s.o., for s.th.), have s.o. come; b to summon (s.o.); c to fetch, procure, supply, get, bring (s.th.); d to conjure, call up, evoke (a spirit); e to visualize, envision, call to mind (s.th.); f to carry with o.s., bring along (s.th.); 2 to prepare (e.g., a medicinal preparation): *Št-stem, desid.

ḥaḍar, n., 1 a civilized region with towns and villages and a settled population (as opposed to desert, steppe); 2 settled population, town dwellers (as opposed to nomads): perh. the etymon proper.
ḥaḍarī, adj., 1a settled, sedentary, resident, not nomadic, non-Bedouin, like urbanites; b civilized; c urban; d town dweller: nisba formation from ḥaḍar.
BP#1091ḥaḍraẗ, n.f., presence: for more details see s.v. | fī ~, expr., in the presence of …; al‑~ al-ʕaliyyaẗ, n., His Highness (formerly, title of the Bey of Tunis); ḥaḍratu-kum, n., a respectful form of address, esp. in letters; ~ al-duktūr, cf. Fr. Monsieur le docteur.
BP#700ḥuḍūr, n., 1 presence; 2 visit, participation, attendance: vn. I; for more details see s.v.; – 3 n.pl., those present: pl. of ↗ḥāḍir. | bi-ḥuḍūr-hī, expr., in his presence; ~ al-ḥaflaẗ, n., attendance of the celebration; ~ al-ḏihn, n., presence of mind; waraqaẗ ~, n., Summons (jur.).
ḥuḍūrī: ʔaḥkām ḥuḍūriyyaẗ, n.pl., judgments delivered in the presence of the litigant parties after oral proceedings (jur.): nisba formation from ¹ḥuḍūr | ḥuḍūriyyan, contradictorily (jur.)
BP#1412ḥaḍāraẗ, n.f., 1 civilization; 2 culture; – 3 settledness, sedentariness.
BP#1969ḥaḍārī, adj., 1 civilizational; 2 cultural: nisba formation, from ḥaḍāraẗ.
ḥaḍīraẗ, pl. ḥaḍāʔirᵘ, n.f., 1 a small group of 6 to 12 people (specif., the smallest unit of boy scouts = patrol); 2 section, squad (mil.; Syr.): related to ḥaḍara? See entry ↗ḥaḍīraẗ proper.
BP#4872maḥḍar, n., 1 presence; 2 attendance, coming, appearance (of s.o.); 3 assembly, meeting, gathering, convention; 4 (pl. maḥāḍirᵘ) minutes, official report, procès-verbal, record of the factual findings | bi-maḥḍarin min-hu, expr. in s.o.’s presence: formally a n.loc., *‘place where people come together, are present’ (i.e., [v3]), hence also ‘presence; attendance’ ([v1], [v2]), and so also *‘report written in the presence of…’ ([v4]).
BP#2797taḥḍīr, n., 1 preparing, readying, making ready; 2 (pi. ‑āt) preparation (li‑ for; also e.g., for an examination); 3 making, preparation, cooking (of food, etc.), production, manufacture: vn. II
taḥḍīrī, adj., preparatory, preparative: nisba formation, from taḥḍīr | al-madāris al-taḥḍīriyyaẗ lil-muʕallimīn, n.pl., preparatory institutes for teachers, teachers’ colleges (Eg.)
BP#1961muḥāḍaraẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., lecture: vn. III.
ʔiḥḍār, n., procurement, supply, fetching, bringing: vn. IV.
taḥaḍḍur, n., civilized way of life: vn. V.
ĭḥtiḍār, n., demise, death: vn. VIII.
ĭstiḥḍār, n., 1 making, production, manufacture; 2 preparation; 3 summoning: vn. X. | ~ al-ʔarwāḥ, n., evocation of spirits, Spiritism
BP#1094ḥāḍir, pl. ḥuḍḍar, ḥuḍūr, adj., 1 present; 2 attending; 3a prepared (li‑for); b ready; 4 (pl. ḥuḍḍār, ḥaḍaraẗ) settled, sedentary, resident, village or town dweller, not nomadic; 5 n., al-ḥāḍir, the present (time): values [v1]–[v3] and [v5] based on *‘presence’, [v4] on *‘sedentariness’ (↗ḥaḍar). | fī ’l-waqt al‑~ or fī ’l‑~, adv., at present, now; ~ al-fikr, adj., quick-witted, quick at repartee; naqd ~, n., cash, ready money
ḥāḍiraẗ, pl. ḥawāḍirᵘ, n.f., 1 capital city, metropolis; 2 city (as a center of civilization): PA I f., based on ḥaḍara ‘to be settled, sedentary’.
maḥḍūr, adj., 1a possessed, haunted or inhabited by a jinni; b demoniac: PP I.
muḥaḍḍir, n., 1 maker, producer, manufacturer; 2 dissector (med.): PA II.
muḥāḍir, n., lecturer, speaker: PA III.
muḥḍir, n., court usher: PA IV.
mutaḥaḍḍir, adj., civilized: PA V.
muḥtaḍar, adj., n., 1a dying, in the throes of death, on the brink of death; b a dying person; 2a haunted or inhabited by a jinni; b demoniac: PP VIII.
mustaḥḍar, pl. ‑āt, n., preparation (chem., pharm.): PP X. | ~ dawāʔi, n., medicinal preparation. 
ḥaḍḍar‑ حَضَّرَ (taḥḍīr
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤḌR 
vb., II 
1 to ready, make ready, prepare (s.th., also, e.g., a medicine = to compound), make, produce, manufacture (s.th.); 2 to study, prepare (a lesson); 3 to fetch, get, bring (s.o., s.th.), procure, supply (s.th.); 4 to settle (s.o.), make s.o. sedentary; 5 to civilize (s.o., s.th.) – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ The D-stem seems to be built on, or at least refer to, different items from the root √ḤḌR, in each case forming caus. meanings:
▪ [v1] ʻto make ready, prepare’ is prob. best analysed as denom. from ↗ḥāḍir ʻready’, and [v2] ʻto prepare (a lesson)’ as a specialisation of this value.
▪ [v3] ʻto fetch, bring, procure, supply’ is *ʻto cause to be present, make appear’, from the vb. I ↗ḥaḍara ʻ¹to be present; ²to come, arrive, appear, show up’.
▪ [v4] ʻto make sedentary’, and hence also [v5] ʻto civilize’, are from ↗ḥaḍara ʻ³to be settled, sedentary’, or denom. from ↗ḥaḍar ‘civilized region; settled population, town dwellers’ and ↗ḥaḍāraẗ ‘sedentary life; civilisation, culture’, respectively.
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥaḍara.
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
– 
taḥaḍḍara, vb. V, 1a to prepare o.s., ready o.s., get ready (li‑ for); b to be ready, prepared; 2a to become settled, be sedentary in a civilized region; b to be civilized, be in a state of civilization; c to become urbanized, become a town dweller: Dt-stem, refl./self-ref.

BP#2797taḥḍīr, n., 1 preparing, readying, making ready; 2 (pi. ‑āt) preparation (li‑ for; also e.g., for an examination); 3 making, preparation, cooking (of food, etc.), production, manufacture: vn. II
taḥḍīrī, adj., preparatory, preparative: nisba formation, from taḥḍīr | al-madāris al-taḥḍīriyyaẗ lil-muʕallimīn, n.pl., preparatory institutes for teachers, teachers’ colleges (Eg.)
taḥaḍḍur, n., civilized way of life: vn. V.
muḥaḍḍir, n., 1 maker, producer, manufacturer; 2 dissector (med.): PA II.
mutaḥaḍḍir, adj., civilized: PA V.

For other values attached to the root, see ↗ḥaḍara, ↗ḥuḍūr, ↗ḥāḍir, ↗ĭḥtaḍara, ↗ḥaḍar, ↗ḥaḍraẗ, ↗ḥaḍāraẗ, ↗ḥaḍīraẗ, ↗maḥḍar, ↗muḥāḍaraẗ
ĭḥtaḍar‑ اِحْتَضَرَ (ĭḥtiḍār
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤḌR 
vb., VIII 
1 to come (to s.o.), be in the presence (of s.o.); 2 to live in a civilized region: Gt-stem, self-ref.; – 3 pass. ŭḥtuḍira, to die – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ Gt-stem of [v1, v3] ↗ḥaḍara ʻ¹to be present; ²to come, arrive, appear, show up’ and [v2] ↗ḥaḍara ʻ³to be settled, sedentary’ or ↗ḥaḍar ‘civilized region; settled population, town dwellers’.
▪ [v3] : The meaning ʻto die’ of the pass. ŭḥtuḍira developed from *ʻto be visited (sc. by death, or the angels of death).
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥaḍara.
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
– 
ĭḥtiḍār, n., demise, death: vn. VIII.
muḥtaḍar, adj., n., 1a dying, in the throes of death, on the brink of death; b a dying person; 2a haunted or inhabited by a jinni; b demoniac: PP VIII.

For other values attached to the root, see ↗ḥaḍara, ↗ḥuḍūr, ↗ḥāḍir, ḥaḍḍara, ↗ḥaḍar, ↗ḥaḍraẗ, ↗ḥaḍāraẗ, ↗ḥaḍīraẗ, ↗maḥḍar, ↗muḥāḍaraẗ
ḥaḍar حَضَر 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤḌR 
n. 
1 a civilized region with towns and villages and a settled population (as opposed to desert, steppe); 2 settled population, town dwellers (as opposed to nomads) – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ The n. is either deverb. from ↗ḥaḍara ʻ³to be settled, sedentary’, or the latter is denom. from ḥaḍar, in which case ḥaḍar would be the etymon proper of almost all derivatives of √ḤḌR (see below, section DERIV).
▪ The idea of ʻsettling down, becoming sedentary’ may have developed from a primary *‘gathering, coming together, agglomerating’, as the obsol. item ḥaḍīr(aẗ) ‘thick purulent matter in a wound, afterbirth’ could suggest.
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥaḍara.
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
▪ Tu hazar ‘civilized region; sedentary life’ (<1400) – NişanyanSözlük_28Jul2015
.▪ …
 
NB: The following list of “derivatives” presupposes that ḥaḍar is the etymon proper. Should ḥaḍar be deverb. from ↗ḥaḍara, the list would have to be reduced to the more immediate derivatives such as the nisba adj. ḥaḍarī.

BP#809ḥaḍara, u (ḥuḍūr), 1 and 2s.v.; – 3 (ḥaḍāraẗ) to be settled, sedentary (in a civilized region, as opposed to nomadic existence): perh. the real etymon from which ḥaḍar is deverb.?
ḥaḍḍara, vb. II, 13s.v.; 4 to settle (s.o.), make s.o. sedentary; 5 to civilize (s.o., s.th.): D-stem, caus.
taḥaḍḍara, vb. V, 1ḥaḍḍara; 2a to become settled, be sedentary in a civilized region; b to be civilized, be in a state of civilization; c to become urbanized, become a town dweller: Dt-stem, refl./self-ref.

ḥaḍarī, adj., 1a settled, sedentary, resident, not nomadic, non-Bedouin, like urbanites; b civilized; c urban; d town dweller: nisba formation from ḥaḍar.
BP#1412ḥaḍāraẗ, n.f., 1 civilization; 2 culture; – 3 settledness, sedentariness
BP#1969ḥaḍārī, adj., 1 civilizational; 2 cultural: nisba formation, from ḥaḍāraẗ
taḥaḍḍur, n., civilized way of life: vn. V.
BP#1094ḥāḍir, adj., 13s.v.; 4 (pl. ḥuḍḍār, ḥaḍaraẗ) settled, sedentary, resident, village or town dweller, not nomadic; 5 n., ↗s.v. | fī ’l-waqt al‑~ or fī ’l‑~, adv., at present, now; ~ al-fikr, adj., quick-witted, quick at repartee; naqd ~, n., cash, ready money
ḥāḍiraẗ, pl. ḥawāḍirᵘ, n.f., 1 capital city, metropolis; 2 city (as a center of civilization)
mutaḥaḍḍir, adj., civilized: PA V.

For other values attached to the root, see ↗ḥaḍara, ↗ḥuḍūr, ↗ḥāḍir, ḥaḍḍara, ↗ĭḥtaḍara, ↗ḥaḍraẗ, ↗ḥaḍāraẗ, ↗ḥaḍīraẗ, ↗maḥḍar, ↗muḥāḍaraẗ
ḥaḍraẗ حَضْرة , pl. ḥaḍarāt 
ID – • Sw – • BP 1091 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤḌR 
n.f. 
1 presence – WehrCowan1976 • 2 (EgAr) (pl. ‑āt, ḥuḍar) a Sufi ceremony, dhikr; b tomb of any venerated Muslim religious figure – BadawiHinds1986. 
▪ The word that originally meant, and, taken alone, still means, simply ʻpresence’, usually appears only as the first element in ʔiḍāfa constructions and as such signifies politeness in addressing somebody in a conversation or talking about a third person. Most common is prob. the respectful form of address (esp. in letters), ḥaḍratu-kum, dial. (EgAr) ḥaḍrit-ak ≈ ʻsir’, f. ḥaḍrit-ik ≈ ʻmadame’; cf. also the wish (EgAr) iṣ-ṣalā ʕalà ḥaḍriẗ in-nabī ʻblessings be upon the Prophet!’ This modern use is a good example of the popularization of formerly more exclusive, elitist concepts, where ʻpresence’ from a certain time onwards had come to mean either ʻpresence of a notable, sultan, etc. (court culture)’, or had signaled the ʻpresence of the divine’, i.e. God, esp. in Sufi ḏikr ceremonies.
ḥaḍraẗ: »If šawkaẗ represents brute force, another term, ḥaḍraẗ, represents the sacral in a sense the mystical, aspect of royalty. With the literal meaning of ʻpresence,’ from the verb ʻto be present,’ it was in common use by the high Middle Ages. Initially, it seems to refer to the physical presence or nearness of the sovereign, who by this time is secluded from the mass of the people by an army of chamberlains, courtiers, and guards. In time the word itself was, so to speak, sacralized. It no doubt derived additional force from its contemporary use in the language of the mystics, who spoke in similar terms of the presence or nearness of God [↗ḥuḍūr]. Ḥaḍraẗ is also used of holy places, notably of the tomb of the Prophet in Medina, which is also secluded and protected from general access by the guardians of the sanctuary.«41 – Lewis1988: 38.
▪ …
 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥaḍara.
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
▪ Tu hazret ‘old man, old fellow (when addressing a comrade); presence; dignity; hazret-i X title of an exalted personage; (title x) hazret-leri His excellency the x’: <1330 (ʕĀşıḳ Paşa, Ġarīb-nāme) lāyıḳ oldı ḥażretine mevlānuŋ [mevlanın huzuruna çıkmaya] – NişanyanSözlük_20Feb2020.
▪ …
 
fī ḥaḍraẗ…, expr., in the presence of …
al-ḥaḍraẗ al-ʕaliyyaẗ, n., His Highness (formerly, title of the Bey of Tunis)
ḥaḍratu-kum, n., a respectful form of address, esp. in letters
ḥaḍraẗ al-duktūr, cf. Fr Monsieur le docteur

For other values attached to the root, see ↗ḥaḍara, ↗ḥuḍūr, ↗ḥāḍir, ḥaḍḍara, ↗ĭḥtaḍara, ↗ḥaḍar, ↗ḥaḍāraẗ, ↗ḥaḍīraẗ, ↗maḥḍar, ↗muḥāḍaraẗ
ḥuḍūr حُضور 
ID – • Sw – • BP 700 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤḌR 
n. 
1 presence; 2 visit, participation, attendance; 3 (as one pl. of ḥāḍir) those present – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ Formally a vn. of ↗ḥaḍara ʻ¹to be present; ²to come, appear, visit’, ḥuḍūr had also developed a specific meaning, now obsolete, in medieval Islamic mysticism, namely the state of ʻbeing in the presence [of God]’ (with the correlative ↗ġaybaẗ ʻabsence from all except God’). »The term was later extended by Ibn ʕArabī, in working out his monistic L scheme, to the “Five Divine ḥaḍarāt”, stages or orders of Being in the Neoplatonic chain […]« – D.B. Macdonald, art. “Ḥaḍra”, in EI². The meaning is preserved in Tu until today, where ḥużūr / huzur mainly means a blissful state of ataraxy; cf., for instance, A. H. Tanpınar’s famous novel, Huzur, of 1948/49 (transl. into Engl as A Mind at Peace).
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥaḍara.
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
▪ Tü huzur ‘presence; peace of mind, freedom from anxiety, ataraxy; audience (of a sovereign)’: <1377 (Erzurumlu Darir, Ḳıṣṣa-i Yūsuf terc.): didi iy cān ne buyurursın buyur / cānum üzre ḥükm ḳıl iy χōş-ḥużūr. – Compos.: huzurevi ‘’ (Milliyet, 1961): Darülaceze Müessesesinde yaşlılar için bir ‘Huzurevi’ ile yeni bir çocuk pavyonu kurulacaktır; huzurlarınızda ‘in your (polite) presence’; cf. also adj.s huzurlu ‘peaceful, restful, calm’ and huzursuz ‘uneasy, troubled’ – NişanyanSözlük_11Jan2016.
▪ …
 
bi-ḥuḍūri-hī, expr., in his presence
ḥuḍūr al-ḥaflaẗ, n., attendance of the celebration
ḥuḍūr al-ḏihn, n., presence of mind
waraqaẗ ḥuḍūr, n., Summons (jur.)

ḥuḍūrī: ʔaḥkām ḥuḍūriyyaẗ, n.pl., judgments delivered in the presence of the litigant parties after oral proceedings (jur.) | ḥuḍūriyyan, contradictorily (jur.).

For other values attached to the root, see ↗ḥaḍara, ↗ḥāḍir, ḥaḍḍara, ↗ĭḥtaḍara, ↗ḥaḍar, ↗ḥaḍraẗ, ↗ḥaḍāraẗ, ↗ḥaḍīraẗ, ↗maḥḍar, ↗muḥāḍaraẗ
ḥaḍāraẗ حَضارة , pl. ‑āt 
ID 216 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 1412 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤḌR 
n.f. 
1 civilization; 2 culture; – 3 settledness, sedentariness – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ Originally, ḥaḍāraẗ is a vn. of ḥaḍara and meant as such the process of ʻsettling, becoming sedentary’ or the resulting state of ʻsettledness, sedentariness’, i.e., [v3]. From this developed the nations of [v1] ʻcivilisation’ and [v2] ʻculture’ in general, contrasting at first nomadic existence in the desert with life in civilized regions.
▪ »La notion de ʻcivilisation’ au sens où on l’entend en Europe, oscille, chez le grand sociologue du xivᵉ siècle, Ibn Ḫaldūn, entre trois termes: ḥaḍāraẗ est la ʻculture sédentaire’ (éd. 1958, I, LXXX), ↗tamaddun ʻl’urbanisation’ (calqué sur le grec polis ʻville’) – le terme (éd. 1958, I, p. 297) est déjà dans aš-Šahrazûrî, au xᵐᵉ siècle; mais le mot-clef, c’est ↗ʕumrān: ʻpopulation, sédentarisation, organisation sociale, civilisation’ (éd. 1958, p. ex et LXXVI). De nos jours, ʕumrān ne semble plus guère employé; il ne figure, ni dans les Besonderheiten de Wehr (1934-A), ni dans le glossaire de l’ALA [Académie de la Langue Arabe] (1957), qui citent tous deux les deux autres termes, ainsi que leurs équivalents madaniyyaẗ et tamadyun. En 1902-1906, Ǧurǧī Zaydān publie son “Histoire de la Civilisation islamique” (Tārīḫ al-tamaddun al-islāmī) et en 1956 (à Beyrouth), Georges Wahbaẗ sa “Crise de la civilisation arabe” (Azmaẗ al-tamaddun al-ʕarabī). En 1928, paraissent “Les problèmes de la civilisation moderne” (Muʕḍilāt al-madaniyyaẗ al-ǧadīdaẗ), par Ismāʕīl Maẓhar. Quant à ḥaḍāraẗ, le plus fréquent aujourd’hui, il figure dans de nombreux titres: Ḥaḍārat al-ʔIslām “La civilisation de l’Islam”, par Gamīl Mudawwar, Beyrouth, 1888; Al-Ḥaḍāraẗ al-islāmiyyaẗ “La civilisation islamique”, par Aḥmad Zakī, Le Caire, 1910; Al-Islām wa’l-ḥaḍāraẗ al-ʕarabiyyaẗ “L’Islam et la Civilisation arabe”, par Md. Kurd ʕAlī, Le Caire, 1934-1936; Ḥaḍāraẗ fī ṭarīq al-zawāl “Une civilisation sur la voie du déclin”, par Anīs Furayḥa, Beyrouth, 1957. Pour dire ʻcivilisé’, on a le choix entre madanī, tamaddunī, mutamaddin ou mutamadyin et ḥaḍarī ou mutaḥaḍḍir« – Monteil1960: 215-16.
▪ …
 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥaḍara.
▪ … 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
– 
ḥaḍḍara, vb. II, 13s.v.; 4 to settle (s.o.), make s.o. sedentary; 5 to civilize (s.o., s.th.): D-stem, caus.
taḥaḍḍara, vb. V, 1ḥaḍḍara; 2a to become settled, be sedentary in a civilized region; b to be civilized, be in a state of civilization; c to become urbanized, become a town dweller: Dt-stem, refl./self-ref.

BP#1969ḥaḍārī, adj., 1 civilizational; 2 cultural: nisba formation, from ḥaḍāraẗ
taḥaḍḍur, n., civilized way of life: vn. V.
BP#1094ḥāḍir, adj., 13s.v.; 4 (pl. ḥuḍḍār, ḥaḍaraẗ) settled, sedentary, resident, village or town dweller, not nomadic; 5 n., ↗s.v.: PA I.
ḥāḍiraẗ, pl. ḥawāḍirᵘ, n.f., 1 capital city, metropolis; 2 city (as a center of civilization)
mutaḥaḍḍir, adj., civilized: PA V.

For other values attached to the root, see ↗ḥaḍara, ↗ḥuḍūr, ↗ḥāḍir, ḥaḍḍara, ↗ĭḥtaḍara, ↗ḥaḍar, ↗ḥaḍraẗ, ↗ḥaḍīraẗ, ↗maḥḍar, ↗muḥāḍaraẗ
ḥaḍīraẗ حَضيرة , pl. ḥaḍāʔirᵘ 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤḌR 
n.f. 
1 a small group of 6 to 12 people (specif., the smallest unit of boy scouts = patrol); 2 section, squad (mil.; Syr.) – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ Accord. to Lane ii (1865), the meaning of ḥaḍīraẗ in ClassAr is ‘collective body of a people’. Perhaps the item is related to the homonymous ḥaḍīr(aẗ) ‘what collects in a wound, of thick purulent matter; what collects in the membrane that encloses the fœtus, of the [fluid called] suḫd and the like; […] what a woman emits after childbirth and [after] the stopping of her blood; […] what a she-camel emits after bringing forth’; but the exact semantics of a possible relation remain unclear so far. A common denominator could be the notion of *‘gathering, coming together’. Such a meaning would possibly also link both, ‘collective body’ and ʻpurulent matter collecting in a wound; after-birth’ with the main value of ḤḌR, namely ʻsettling, becoming sedentary’ (< *ʻcoming together’?). This would also explain the partial overlapping of √ḤḌR with ↗√ḤṢR and ↗√ḤẒR, both often conveying the basic idea of fencing, marking a territory of settlement, pasture, etc.
▪ …
 
▪ … 
▪ ? ↗ḥaḍara ?
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
– 
For other values attached to the root, see ↗ḥaḍara, ↗ḥuḍūr, ↗ḥāḍir, ḥaḍḍara, ↗ĭḥtaḍara, ↗ḥaḍar, ↗ḥaḍraẗ, ↗ḥaḍāraẗ, ↗maḥḍar, ↗muḥāḍaraẗ
maḥḍar مَحْضَر 
ID – • Sw – • BP 4872 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤḌR 
n. 
1 presence; 2 attendance, coming, appearance (of s.o.); 3 assembly, meeting, gathering, convention; 4 (pl. maḥāḍirᵘ) minutes, official report, procès-verbal, record of the factual findings – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ Originally a n.loc. of ↗ḥaḍara, the basic meaning of maḥḍar is *ʻplace in which s.o. is present, place where people come together’. The word for the place then also came to mean [v3] the ʻ assembly, meeting, gathering, convention’ itself as well as [v1] and [v2], the act of gathering and being present in such a place. [v4] seems to be a special development, originally signifying *‘report written in the presence of…’.
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥaḍara.
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
– 
bi-maḥḍarin min-hu, expr. in s.o.’s presence

For other values attached to the root, see ↗ḥaḍara, ↗ḥuḍūr, ↗ḥāḍir, ḥaḍḍara, ↗ĭḥtaḍara, ↗ḥaḍar, ↗ḥaḍraẗ, ↗ḥaḍāraẗ, ↗ḥaḍīraẗ, ↗muḥāḍaraẗ
muḥāḍaraẗ مُحاضَرة , pl. ‑āt 
ID – • Sw – • BP 1961 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤḌR 
n.f. 
lecture – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ The modern meaning of muḥāḍaraẗ – ʻlecture’ – seems to have developed from the idea of being able to give ready answers in a conversation. The vb. III, ḥāḍara, of which muḥāḍaraẗ is a vn., is attested in Hava1899 still as ‘to give a ready (answer)’. This vb. can be interpreted as an associative L-stem, coined from ḥaḍur ‘always ready to reply; quick’ (ibid.), which is based on ↗ḥaḍara ʻto be present’, hence also ʻto be ready, prepared’.
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥaḍara.
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
– 
ḥāḍara, vb. III, 1 to give a lecture, present s.th. in a lecture (to s.o.); 2 to lecture, give a course of lectures: L-stem, assoc.

muḥāḍir, n., lecturer, speaker: PA III.

For other values attached to the root, see ↗ḥaḍara, ↗ḥuḍūr, ↗ḥāḍir, ḥaḍḍara, ↗ĭḥtaḍara, ↗ḥaḍar, ↗ḥaḍraẗ, ↗ḥaḍāraẗ, ↗ḥaḍīraẗ, ↗maḥḍar
ḥāḍir حاضِر , pl. ḥuḍḍar, ḥuḍūr 
ID – • Sw – • BP 1094 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤḌR 
adj.; n. 
1 present; 2 attending; 3a prepared (li‑for); b ready; 4 (pl. ḥuḍḍār, ḥaḍaraẗ) settled, sedentary, resident, village or town dweller, not nomadic; 5 n., al-ḥāḍir, the present (time) – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ [v4] ʻsettled, sedentary’ may have been the original meaning, derived from the corresponding vb. I, ↗ḥaḍara ʻto settle’. ʻThe settled one’ then seems to have developed into [v1] ʻthe present one’, and ʻthe present one’ into [v3] ʻthe prepared, ready one’. The nominal use as [v5] ʻthe present (time)’ is of course from [v1].
▪ The word has been borrowed into many languages. In Tu, ḥazır is very widespread and has generated a large semantic field in its own right (see below, section WEST).
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥaḍara.
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
▪ Tu hazır ¹‘ready’: 1300 (anon., Muḳaddimetü’l-ʾEdeb terc.] bayramḳa ḥāżır boldılar [törene katıldılar]; ²‘present (tense)’: 1330 (ʿĀşıḳ Paşa, Ġarīb-nāme) māżisi vü ḥāżırı ve müstaḳbili [geçmişi ve şimdiki zamanı ve geleceği] – NişanyanSözlük_20Feb2020. – Cf. also halihazır ‘present time’ (Ar ↗ḥāl ‘state, condition, situation’), hazirun ‘persons present’ (Ar pl., ḥāḍirūn), hazırlamak ‘to prepare, make ready’. – The expression hazır giyim ‘ready-made clothing’ came up in the 1930s, hazır yemek ‘ready-made meal, TV dinner’ spread since 1958 when the food and beverage company TAMEK started to promote canned food.
▪ …
 
fī ’l-waqt al-ḥāḍir or fī ’l- ḥāḍir, adv., at present, now
ḥāḍir al-fikr, adj., quick-witted, quick at repartee
naqd ḥāḍir, n., cash, ready money

ḥaḍḍara, vb. II, 1 to ready, make ready, prepare (s.th., also, e.g., a medicine = to compound), make, produce, manufacture (s.th.); 2 to study, prepare (a lesson); 35s.v.: D-stem, caus.
taḥaḍḍara, vb. V, 1a to prepare o.s., ready o.s., get ready (li‑ for); b to be ready, prepared: Dt-stem, refl./self-ref.; 2s.v..

BP#2797taḥḍīr, n., 1 preparing, readying, making ready; 2 (pi. ‑āt) preparation (li‑ for; also e.g., for an examination); 3 making, preparation, cooking (of food, etc.), production, manufacture: vn. II
taḥḍīrī, adj., preparatory, preparative: nisba formation, from taḥḍīr | al-madāris al-taḥḍīriyyaẗ lil-muʕallimīn, n.pl., preparatory institutes for teachers, teachers’ colleges (Eg.)
ĭstiḥḍār, n., 1 making, production, manufacture; 2 preparation; 3ḥaḍara: vn. X.
muḥaḍḍir, n., 1 maker, producer, manufacturer; 2 dissector (med.): PA II.

For other values attached to the root, see ↗ḥaḍara, ↗ḥuḍūr, ḥaḍḍara, ↗ĭḥtaḍara, ↗ḥaḍar, ↗ḥaḍraẗ, ↗ḥaḍāraẗ, ↗ḥaḍīraẗ, ↗maḥḍar, ↗muḥāḍaraẗ
ḤḌN حضن 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤḌN 
“root” 
▪ ḤḌN_1 ‘breast, bosom, lap’ ↗ḥiḍn, ‘to embrace, hug; to hatch, nurse, bring up’ ↗ḥaḍana, ‘kindergarden’ ↗ḥiḍānaẗ▪ ḤḌN_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
▪ … 
– 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤḌN –1 Hbr ḥoṣȩn, JP ḥennā ‘sein’, Syr ḥannā ‘sein, vagin’, ḥanunā ‘utérus, enveloppe’, Ar ḥiḍn, Gz māḥəḍan ‘sein, giron (de la mère), utérus’, Te ḥəṣn, Tña ḥəṣni ‘giron’. – Akk ḫaṣānu ‘prendre dans ses bras’, Ar ḥaḍana ‘prendre, porter dans ses bras, élever un enfant, couver’, Gz ḥaḍana ‘réchauffer dans son sein, porter dans ses bras, nourrir, élever’, Tña ḥaḍänä ‘accueillir, recevoir chez soi; commencer la cohabitation après le mariage’; Gz ḥəḍān, Te Tña ḥəṣan, Amh həṣan, ʔəṭan ‘petit enfant’. -2 Ar ḥaḍan ‘ivoire’. -3 ḥaḍana ‘retenir, empêcher’.
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
ḥaḍan‑ حَضَنَ , u (ḥadn, ḥaḍānaẗ
ID … • Sw – • BP 3262 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤḌN 
vb., I 
1 to clasp in one’s arms, embrace, hug (s.o.); 2a to nurse, bring up, raise (a child); 2b (ḥaḍn, ḥiḍān, ḥiḍānaẗ) to hatch, brood, incubate (an egg; of a bird) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Kogan2011: from protWSem *ḥ˅ṣ́n‑ ‘lap, bosom’.
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DRS 9 (2010) #ḤḌN –1 Hbr ḥoṣȩn, JP ḥennā ‘sein’, Syr ḥannā ‘sein, vagin’, ḥanunā ‘utérus, enveloppe’, Ar ḥiḍn, Gz māḥəḍan ‘sein, giron (de la mère), utérus’, Te ḥəṣn, Tña ḥəṣni ‘giron’. – Akk ḫaṣānu ‘prendre dans ses bras’, Ar ḥaḍana ‘prendre, porter dans ses bras, élever un enfant, couver’, Gz ḥaḍana ‘réchauffer dans son sein, porter dans ses bras, nourrir, élever’, Tña ḥaḍänä ‘accueillir, recevoir chez soi; commencer la cohabitation après le mariage’; Gz ḥəḍān, Te Tña ḥəṣan, Amh həṣan, ʔəṭan ‘petit enfant’.
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▪ … 
▪ See above, section CONC.
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taḥāḍana, vb. VI, to embrace one another, cling to one another, nestle against each other: Lt-stem, recipr.
BP#4368ĭḥtaḍana, vb. VIII, 1 to clasp in one’s arms, embrace, hug (s.o., s.th.); 2 to harbor in one’s bosom (feeling); 3 to hatch, concoct, contrive (s.th.); 4 to bring up, raise (a child): Gt-stem, self-ref.
BP#3262ḥiḍn, pl. ʔaḥḍān, n., 1 breast, bosom (between the outstretched arms); 2 armful, that which can be carried in one’s arms: perh. the etymon proper. | bi’l‑~ qabila-hū, expr., he received him with open arms; fī ʔaḥḍānin and bayna ʔaḥḍānin, prep., 1 amid, among; 2 with, in the presence of (s.o.); fī ʔaḥḍāni ’ṣ-ṣaḥrāʔ, expr., in the heart (or folds) of the desert; ʔaḫaḏatnī bayna ʔaḥḍānihā, expr., she took me in her arms.
ḥiḍānaẗ, var. ḥaḍānaẗ, n.f., 1 raising, bringing up, nursing (of a child); 2 hatching (of an egg), incubation: vn. I | dār al‑~, n., children’s home, day nursery, crèche.
ḥaḍīn, adj., embraced, hugged, resting in s.o.’s arms: quasi-PP.
maḥḍan, pl. maḥāḍinᵘ, n., children’s home, day nursery, crèche: n.loc.
ĭḥtiḍān, n., embrace, hug(ging), accolade: vn. VIII.
ḥāḍinaẗ, pl. ḥawāḍinᵘ, n.f., nurse-maid, dry nurse: PA I, f.
muḥtaḍin, n., 1 embracing, hugging; 2 tender, affectionate: PA VIII.
 
ḥiḍn حِضْن , pl. ʔaḥḍān 
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√ḤḌN 
n. 
1 breast, bosom (between the outstretched arms); 2 armful, that which can be carried in one’s arms – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Kogan2011: from protWSem *ḥ˅ṣ́n‑ ‘lap, bosom’.
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▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤḌN –1 Hbr ḥoṣȩn, JP ḥennā ‘sein’, Syr ḥannā ‘sein, vagin’, ḥanunā ‘utérus, enveloppe’, Ar ḥiḍn, Gz māḥəḍan ‘sein, giron (de la mère), utérus’, Te ḥəṣn, Tña ḥəṣni ‘giron’. – Akk ḫaṣānu ‘prendre dans ses bras’, Ar ḥaḍana ‘prendre, porter dans ses bras, élever un enfant, couver’, Gz ḥaḍana ‘réchauffer dans son sein, porter dans ses bras, nourrir, élever’, Tña ḥaḍänä ‘accueillir, recevoir chez soi; commencer la cohabitation après le mariage’; Gz ḥəḍān, Te Tña ḥəṣan, Amh həṣan, ʔəṭan ‘petit enfant’.
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▪ … 
▪ See above, section CONC.
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– 
ḥaḍana, u (ḥadn, ḥaḍānaẗ), vb. I, 1 to clasp in one’s arms, embrace, hug (s.o.); 2a to nurse, bring up, raise (a child); 2b (ḥaḍn, ḥiḍān, ḥiḍānaẗ) to hatch, brood, incubate (an egg; of a bird): G-stem, perh. denom.
taḥāḍana, vb. VI, to embrace one another, cling to one another, nestle against each other: Lt-stem, recipr.
BP#4368ĭḥtaḍana, vb. VIII, 1 to clasp in one’s arms, embrace, hug (s.o., s.th.); 2 to harbor in one’s bosom (feeling); 3 to hatch, concoct, contrive (s.th.); 4 to bring up, raise (a child): Gt-stem, self-ref.

ḥiḍānaẗ, var. ḥaḍānaẗ, n.f., 1 raising, bringing up, nursing (of a child); 2 hatching (of an egg), incubation: vn. I | dār al‑~, n., children’s home, day nursery, crèche.
ḥaḍīn, adj., embraced, hugged, resting in s.o.’s arms: quasi-PP.
maḥḍan, pl. maḥāḍinᵘ, n., children’s home, day nursery, crèche: n.loc.
ĭḥtiḍān, n., embrace, hug(ging), accolade: vn. VIII.
ḥāḍinaẗ, pl. ḥawāḍinᵘ, n.f., nurse-maid, dry nurse: PA I, f.
muḥtaḍin, n., 1 embracing, hugging; 2 tender, affectionate: PA VIII.
ḥiḍānaẗ حِضانة , var. ḥaḍānaẗ 
ID 217 • Sw – • BP 6665 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤḌN 
n.f. 
1 raising, bringing up, nursing (of a child); 2 hatching (of an egg), incubation – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ vn. of ↗ḥaḍana, from protWSem *ḥ˅ṣ́n‑ ‘lap, bosom’ (Kogan2011).
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▪ See ↗ḥaḍana.
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▪ ↗ḥaḍana.
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dār al-ḥaḍānaẗ, n.f., children’s home, day nursery, crèche.  
ḤṬː (ḤṬṬ) حطّ/حطط 
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√ḤṬː (ḤṬṬ) 
“root” 
▪ ḤṬː (ḤṬṬ)_1 ʻto put\take\set\lay (down); to lower, reduce’ ↗ḥaṭṭa; ʻstopping place, stop; post, (railroad, broadcasting, radio) station’ ↗maḥaṭṭaẗ; ʻdecline, decay; inferiority’ ↗ĭnḥiṭāṭ
▪ ḤṬː (ḤṬṬ)_2 ʻforgiveness, repentance’ ↗ḥiṭṭaẗ
▪ ḤṬː (ḤṬṬ)_3 ʻpapule; pimple, pustule, vesicle’ ↗ḥaṭāṭaẗ

Other values, now obsolete or dialectal only, include (Wahrmund1886, Hava1899, BadawiHinds1986):

ḤṬː (ḤṬṬ)_4 ʻto polish, figure (leather)’ : ḥaṭṭa, u (ḥaṭṭ)
ḤṬː (ḤṬṬ)_5 ʻshort; dwarf’ : ḥaṭīṭ, ḥuṭāʔiṭ; cf. also ḥuṭayyiṭaẗ ʻshipworm, teredo navalis
ḤṬː (ḤṬṬ)_6 ʻstink’ : ḥuṭāṭ
ḤṬː (ḤṬṬ)_7 ʻto become exhausted, become weak, collapse’ : EgAr ḥaṭṭ, u (vb. I, intr.)
ḤṬː (ḤṬṬ)_ ʻ…’ :

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to take down, to reduce, alleviation, reduction, relief’. – ḥiṭṭaẗ, classified by philologists under this root, is variously described as being of Hbr, Nabatean, Syr or of unknown origin. 
▪ [v1] The basic value ʻto put\set\lay\take down’ and its intr. counterpart, ʻto sink, descend, go down, alight (bird), land (airplane), drop (price)’, seem to be attested only in Ar and modSAr. – In Ar, a caus. meaning ʻto lower, decrease, diminish, reduce’ has developed, whence also the figurative ʻto depreciate’ (cf. ḥiṭṭaẗ ʻdegradation, debasement, disgrace, humiliation’42 ) and, perhaps, the Qur’ānic [v2] ʻforgiveness, repentance’ (< *ʻunloading, putting off [sins], relief’?); but cf. notes on [v2].
▪ [v2] For some scholars, the value ʻforgiveness, repentance’ of the Qur’ānic (Q 2:58) ḥiṭṭaẗ is a borrowing from Hbr ḥēṭəʔ ʻsin’ or Syr ḥṭītā (see details s.v. ↗ḥiṭṭaẗ); cf. also BabAram ḥiṭʔā ʻsin; offering in reparation for a sin’ (Pennacchio2014). Should such an etymology be correct, the Qur’ānic ḥiṭṭaẗ would be akin to Ar ↗√ḪṬʔ ʻto make a mistake, commit a sin’. However, it is not unconceivable that ʻforgiveness, repentance’ is just a special use of ʻalleviation, relief, mitigation’, a *ʻputting off, unloading [of sins]’. Obviously sharing this latter view, DRS groups ʻexoneration’ together with [v1] (their #ḤṬṬ-1). Note, however, the strange variant of ḥiṭṭaẗ, ḥiṭṭīṭà, given e.g. by Wahrmund1887 and Hava1899 (ʻNachlassung der Sünden, Steuern etc. / unloading, relief’) – almost certainly an Aramaism.
▪ [v3] ʻpapule; pimple, pustule, blister, vesicle, bleb’ does not figure in WehrCowan1979, but is registered in Baalbaki1995 (al-Mawrid). In ClassAr, also ḥaṭāṭ ʻcarbuncled face; hence also: froth of milk’ and the denom. vbs. I and IV, ḥaṭṭa (u, ḥaṭāṭ) and ʔaḥaṭṭa ʻto be pimpled (face)’ are attested. – No obvious relation to [v1] or [v2]. Accordingly, DRS keeps this value (#ḤṬṬ-2) apart from the preceding ones. However, the authors point to a partial overlapping of √ḤṬṬ and √ḤTT (cf., e.g., ʕOmAr ḥiṭṭaẗ ʻpiece, bit’ ≈ EgAr ↗ḥittaẗ ʻid.’) as well as to the similarity in use and meaning between ʕOmAr ḥiṭṭaẗ and Ar ↗ḥabbaẗ ʻgrain; seed; (coffee) bean; pill; berry; pustule, pimple’. DRS includes in #ḤṬṬ-2 also ḥaṭīṭ ʻshort’, to which one may probably add [v5] ḥaṭīṭ ʻdwarf’ and ḥuṭayyiṭaẗ ʻshipworm, teredo navalis’ (Wahrmund1886) as specific interpretations of an underlying *ʻthe small\short, pustule-like one’.
[v4] : The vb. I that in ClassAr signifies ʻto polish, figure (leather)’, ḥaṭṭa (u, ḥaṭṭ), looks conspicuously identical to the ḥaṭṭa of [v1] ʻto put\set down’, but semantics are too different as to assume kinship. In Lane ii (1865), the activity of ḥaṭṭa ʻto polish, figure (leather)’ is explained as to treat leather with a miḥaṭṭ(aẗ), i.e., an ʻinstrument of iron, or of wood, prepared for the polishing\smoothing of skins, to make them soft and beautiful, and for figuring\decorating them’. Perhaps, the miḥaṭṭ(aẗ) was so called because it has to be *ʻput down’ on the leather?
[v5] : As mentioned above, the values ʻshort; dwarf’ (ḥaṭīṭ, ḥuṭāʔiṭ) and ʻshipworm’ (ḥuṭayyiṭaẗ) may belong to [v3] ʻpimple, pustule, etc.’, as *ʻthe small\short ones’.
[v6] (≙ DRS # ḤṬṬ-5) : No obvious relation between ḥuṭāṭ ʻstink’ and the other values.
[v7] : For no obvious reason, DRS (#ḤṬṬ-3) is eager to keep the value (EgAr) ʻto become exhausted, become weak, collapse’ apart from [v1] (intr.) ʻto go down, descend’. Personally, I would tend to group [v7] with [v1].
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DRS 9 (2010) #ḤṬṬ-1 Ar ḥaṭṭa ‘poser, déposer, descendre (qc d’un point à un autre plus bas), abaisser, mettre par terre; soulager d’une charge, exonérer’, ḥaṭāṭ ‘dépression, abaissement’, Tham ḥṭ ‘descendre’, Ar maḥaṭṭ ‘endroit où on fait descendre qc, station, relais’; Mhr ḥəṭ ‘déposer’, Ḥrs ḥeṭ ‘tomber’; Jib ḥeṭṭ ‘descendre; décharger’. -2 Ar ḥaṭāṭaẗ ‘petite fille, petit objet, babiole’, ḥaṭīṭ ‘fin, mince, petit’; ḥaṭāṭ: boutons sur la peau. – ʕOmAr ḥiṭṭah, Mhr Ḥrs ḥəṭṭāt, Jib hítéṭ: (petit) morceau, grain, unité d’énumération pour graines, etc. -3 EgAr ḥaṭṭ ‘être à bout, affaibli’. -4 Tña ḥaṭäṭä ‘recueillir, ramasser (de la main ou avec une cuillère)’, ḥaṭaṭ: locution exprimant le grincement de la plume. -5 Ar ḥuṭāṭ ‘odeur fétide’, ḥiṭṭān ‘bouc’.
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▪ See above, section CONC.
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ḥaṭṭ‑ / ḥaṭaṭ‑ حَطَّ / حَطَطْـ , u (I ḥaṭṭ; II ḥaṭṭ, ḥuṭūṭ
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√ḤṬː (ḤṬṬ) 
vb., I 
I (I ḥaṭṭ) vb.tr., 1 to put, place, put down, set down (s.th.); 2a to take down (a load, burden); b to lower, decrease, diminish, reduce (s.th. or min s.th.); 3 to depreciate (min qadri-h or min qīmati-h the value of s.th.)

II (ḥaṭṭ, ḥuṭūṭ) vb.intr., 1 to sink, descend, go down; 2a to alight (bird); b to land (airplane); 3 to drop (price) – WehrCowan1976.
 
▪ The vb. ḥaṭṭa appears with [vI] tr. as well as [vII] intr. meaning. It does not seem to be attested outside Ar and modSAr.
▪ In Ar, it has also developed the meaning [vI-2b] ʻto lower, decrease, diminish, reduce’, whence the figurative value [vI-3] ʻto depreciate’ (cf. also the n.f. ḥiṭṭaẗ ʻdegradation, debasement, disgrace, humiliation’, and the EgAr expressions dī ḥiṭṭa f-šarafak ʻthat’s an insult to your honour’, and huwwa ḥiṭṭa f-ʕelt-u ʻhe is a disgrace to his family’ – BadawiHinds1986), and, perhaps, the Qur’ānic ↗ḥiṭṭaẗ ʻforgiveness, repentance’ (< [v2a] *ʻunloading, putting off [sins], relief’?); but some scholars would regard this ḥiṭṭaẗ as a borrowing from Hbr or Syr; see s.v..
DRS keeps EgAr ḥaṭṭ, u, ʻto become exhausted, become weak, collapse’ apart (as #ḤṬṬ-3) from ḥaṭṭa ʻto go down, descend’, but does not explain this distinction. Why should ʻbecoming weak, collapsing’ not simply be a figurative resultative use of ʻsinking, descending, going down’?
▪ ClassAr knows ḥaṭṭa (u, ḥaṭṭ) also with the meaning ʻto polish, figure (leather)’. However, although this vb. and the one signifying [v1] ʻto put\set down / to descend’ look conspicuously identical, their semantics are too different as to assume kinship. In Lane ii (1865), the activity of ḥaṭṭa ʻto polish, etc.’ is explained as to treat leather with a miḥaṭṭ(aẗ), an ʻinstrument of iron, or of wood, prepared for the polishing\smoothing of skins, to make them soft and beautiful, and for figuring\decorating them’. Perhaps, the miḥaṭṭ(aẗ) was so called because it had to be *ʻput down’ on the leather?
▪ No obvious relation between ḥaṭṭa and other values to be found in the root √ḤṬː (ḤṬṬ), such as ʻpapule, pustule, vesicle’ (↗ḥaṭāṭaẗ), ʻshort; dwarf’ (ḥaṭīṭ), ʻshipworm, teredo navalis’ (ḥuṭayyiṭaẗ), and ʻstink’ (ḥuṭāṭ).
▪ Many verbs and nouns derived from ḥaṭṭa figure among the most frequently used vocabulary items of MSA, cf. the ranking numbers in Buckwalter and Parkinson’s Frequency Dictionary (see below, section DERIV). For the Arab modernist movement of the Nahḍaẗ and its successors in the 20th century, the vn. VII, ↗ĭnḥiṭāṭ, became the (in)famous denominator of the whole period spanning between the ʻGolden Age’ and the new ʻUpswing’ (↗nahḍaẗ) as the ʻEra of Decline’, ʕaṣr al-ĭnḥiṭāṭ.
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DRS 9 (2010) #ḤṬṬ-1 Ar ḥaṭṭa ‘poser, déposer, descendre (qc d’un point à un autre plus bas), abaisser, mettre par terre; soulager d’une charge, exonérer’, ḥaṭāṭ ‘dépression, abaissement’, Tham ḥṭ ‘descendre’, Ar maḥaṭṭ ‘endroit où on fait descendre qc, station, relais’; Mhr ḥəṭ ‘déposer’, Ḥrs ḥeṭ ‘tomber’; Jib ḥeṭṭ ‘descendre; décharger’. -2 […]. -3 EgAr ḥaṭṭ ‘être à bout, affaibli’. -4-5 […].
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▪ See above, section CONC.
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ḥaṭṭa ’l-riḥāl, vb., to halt, make a stop, dismount, encamp (while traveling on horseback, camelback, etc.)

BP#1574ḥaṭṭa, u (ḥaṭṭ), vb. I, 1 to put, place, put down, set down (s.th.); 2a to take down (a load, burden); b to lower, decrease, diminish, reduce (s.th. or min s.th.); 3 to depreciate (min qadri-h or min qīmati-h the value of s.th.) | ḥaṭṭa ’l-riḥāl, vb., to halt, make a stop, dismount, encamp (while traveling on horseback, camelback, etc.)
BP#4145ḥaṭṭa u (ḥaṭṭ, ḥuṭūṭ), 1 to sink, descend, go down; 2a to alight (bird); b to land (airplane); 3 to drop (price)
ḥaṭṭaṭa, vb. II, to put down, set down, take off, unload (a load): Dt-stem, tr.
ĭnḥaṭṭa, vb.VII, 1 to sink, descend, go down; 2 to decrease, diminish; 3 to decline, decay, wane: N-stem, intr.
ĭḥtaṭṭa, vb. VIII, to put down, set down, take down (s.th.): Gt-stem, self-ref.
ḥaṭṭ, n., 1 (act of) putting or setting down; 2 depreciation, belittling, derogation, disparagement (min of s.th.); 3 reduction, diminution, decrease (min of s.th.)
ḥiṭṭaẗ, n.f., 1 alleviation, relief, mitigation; 2a abasement, debasement, demotion, degradation (in rank, dignity, prestige); b humiliation, insult, indignity.
ʔaḥaṭṭᵘ, adj., lower: elat. formation, serving as comp./superlat. of munḥaṭṭ.
ḥaṭīṭaẗ, n.f., price reduction
maḥaṭṭ, n., 1 place at which s.th. is put down or deposited; 2 stopping place, stop; 3 pause, fermata, hold, concluding strain, cadence (mus.): n.loc. | ~ al-ʔāmāl, n., object of hope, that on which one’s hopes are pinned; kāna ~ al-ʔanẓār, vb., to attract the glances, draw attention to o.s.; ~ al-kalām, n., sense, or meaning, of one’s words.
BP#941maḥaṭṭaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., 1 stopping place, stop (also of public conveyances); 2 station, post; 3 railroad station; 4 broadcasting station, radio station: n.loc.f. | ~ taḥwīl al-tayyār, n.f., transformer station; ~ al-ʔiḏāʕaẗ (al-lā-silkiyyaẗ), n.f., 1 broadcasting station, radio station; 2 transmitter (station); ~ raʔīsiyyaẗ, n.f., (railroad) main station; ~ al-ʔišārāt, n.f., signal post; ~al-ʔirsāl, n.f., transmitter (station; radio); ~ lil-ʔarṣād al-ǧawwiyyaẗ, n.f., meteorological station, weather station; (Eg.) ~ al-ṣarf, n.f., 1 pump station (for drainage); 2 power plant; ~ al-ĭstiqbāl, n.f., receiving station (radio); ~ lā-silkiyyaẗ qaṣīraẗ al-ʔamwāǧ, n.f., short-wave transmitter station; ~ tawlīd al-kahrabāʔ and ~ kahrabāʔiyyaẗ, n.f., power plant.
ĭnḥiṭāṭ, n., 1decline, fall, decay, decadence; 2 inferiority: vn. VII | ʔiḥsās al‑~, n., sense of inferiority
ĭnḥiṭāṭī, n., postclassical writer: nisba formation, from ĭnḥiṭāṭ
munḥaṭṭ, adj., 1 low, base, low-level, lowgrade; 2 fallen, degraded (woman); 3 mean, vile, vulgar; 4 inferior: PA VII.

For other values attached to the root, and for the overall picture, cf. ↗√ ḤṬː (ḤṬṬ).

 
ḥiṭṭaẗ حِطّة 
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√ḤṬː (ḤṬṬ) 
n.f. 
1 alleviation, relief, mitigation; 2a abasement, debasement, demotion, degradation (in rank, dignity, prestige); b humiliation, insult, indignity – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ All values can be imagined to be derived from the vb. I, ↗ḥaṭṭa.
▪ For some scholars, the obsolete value ʻforgiveness, repentance’ of the Qur’ānic (Q 2:58) ḥiṭṭaẗ is a borrowing from Hbr ḥēṭəʔ ʻsin’ or Syr ḥṭītā; cf. also BabAram ḥiṭʔā ʻsin; offering in reparation for a sin’ (Pennacchio2014). Should such an etymology be correct, the Qur’ānic ḥiṭṭaẗ would be akin to Ar ↗√ḪṬʔ ʻto make a mistake, commit a sin’ rather than to √ḪṬ:(ḤṬṬ). However, it is not unconceivable that ʻforgiveness, repentance’ is just a special use of [v1] ʻalleviation, relief, mitigation’, a *ʻputting off, unloading [of sins]’, thus still directly dependent on ↗ḥaṭṭa ʻto put\take\set\lay down’. Obviously sharing this latter view, DRS groups ʻexoneration’ together with ḥaṭṭa (their #ḤṬṬ-1), rather than singling it out as a separate value. Note, however, the strange variant of ḥiṭṭaẗ, ḥiṭṭīṭà, given e.g. by Wahrmund1887 and Hava1899 (ʻunloading, relief; exoneration’) – almost certainly an Aramaism. ḥaṭīṭaẗ ʻprice reduction’ is perh. an Arabized (and secularized) form of the Aram term.
▪ [v2] seems to be from ↗ḥaṭṭa ʻto lower, decrease, diminish, reduce’, used in the figurative sense of ʻto depreciate’, cf. also the EgAr expressions dī ḥiṭṭa f-šarafak ʻthat’s an insult to your honour’, and huwwa ḥiṭṭa f-ʕelt-u ʻhe is a disgrace to his family’ (BadawiHinds1986).
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▪ eC7 (ʻforgiveness, putting off [of sins], unloading’) Q 2:58 wa-ʔiḏ qulnā ’dḫulū hāḏihī ’l-qaryaẗa fa-kulū min-hā ḥayṯu šiʔtum raġadan wa-’dḫulū ’l-bāba suǧǧadan wa-qūlū “ḥiṭṭaẗun” naġfiru la-kum ḫaṭāyā-kum wa-sa-nazīdu ’l-muḥsinīna ʻremember when we said, “Enter this town and eat freely there as you will, but enter its gate humbly and say, ʻ[We beg for] relief [repentance!, unload us of our sins!]’”, then We shall forgive you your sins and will increase (reward) for the right-doers’.
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤṬṬ-1 Ar ḥaṭṭa ‘poser, déposer, descendre (qc d’un point à un autre plus bas), abaisser, mettre par terre; soulager d’une charge, exonérer’, ḥaṭāṭ ‘dépression, abaissement’, Tham ḥṭ ‘descendre’, Ar maḥaṭṭ ‘endroit où on fait descendre qc, station, relais’; Mhr ḥəṭ ‘déposer’, Ḥrs ḥeṭ ‘tomber’; Jib ḥeṭṭ ‘descendre; décharger’. -2-5 […].
▪ … 
▪ Jeffery1938, 110: »Both passages [Q 2:58 and 7:161] are late and were a puzzle to the exegetes as we see from Bayḍawī’s comment on them. The exegetes are in general agreed that the meaning is ʻforgiveness’, and many of the early authorities admitted that it was a foreign word. TA, v, 119, quotes al-Farrāʔ as taking it to be Nab, and al-Suyūṭī’s authorities take it to be Hbr (Itq, 320, compared with Mutaw, 58). / As early as 1829 de Sacy in JA, iv, 179, pointed out that it was the Hbr חטא [ḥeṭʔ ʻsin’?], with which Geiger, 18, and Hirschfeld, Beiträge, 54 ff.; New Researches, 107, agree, though Dvořák, Fremdw, 55, suggests the Syr ḥṭītā [ʻsin’] as a possibility, and Leszynsky, Juden in Arabien, 32, a derivation from חטה. Horovitz, JPN, 198, points out that though it is clearly a foreign word, none of those suggested derivations is quite satisfactory, and the source of the word is still a puzzle.«
▪ Pennacchio2014, 159-60: »les commentateurs […] admettent qu’il pourrait s’agir d’un emprunt. Il a été consideré par al-Suyūṭī comme un emprunt à l’Hbr. D’apres Kazimirski, ḥiṭṭaẗ signifie ʻrémission des péchés, absolution’. Les orientalistes proposent une source Hbr ḥēṭəʔ ʻpéché’ [Blachère, Le Coran, 195, n.55] ou Syr ḥṭytʔ. Dans la Bible, ḥēṭəʔ ʻpéché’ derive ḤṬʔ ʻmanquer, se tromper, pécher’, que le BDB rapproche de la racine Ar ḪṬY avec un /ḫ/ à l’initiale ḫaṭà ʻse tromper’. En Akk ḫaṭū, SAr ḫṭʔ, Gz ḫaṭʔa, en BabJudAram ḥiṭʔā ʻpéché, offrande en reparation d’un péché’, PalJudAram ḥᵃṭēʔ ʻpéché’. Pour A. Geiger p. 18 et H. Hirschfeld p. 107, il s’agirait de l’Hbr ḥᵃṭēʔ. Pour A. Jeffery, aucune des solutions n’est satisfaisante. Pour J. Horovitz, il s’agirait d’une expression que les Juifs de Médine devaient prononcer afin d’obtenir le pardon divin’[Horovitz, “Jewish Proper Names”, 198.]. En effet, selon la liturgie de Yōm Kippūr, l’expression ʕal ḥeṭʔ ʻpour le péché’ correspond aux premiers mots de la ʻgrande confession des péchés’ recitée à neuf reprises dans le but d’obtenir le pardon divin. On ne connaît pas l’origine de cette formule liturgique mais on sait qu’elle apparaît pour la premiere fois au IIᵉ siècle de notre ère [DEJ, 34]. Il y a donc tout lieu de croire qu’elle était connue des Juifs de Médine. D’après le contexte coranique, l’emploi de ḥiṭṭaẗ entre bien dans le processus du pardon des péchés prescrit dans le judaïsme le jour de Yōm Kippūr, puisqu’il faut d’abord demander pardon avant d’obtenir la remission divine.«
▪ For a possible inner-Ar etymology of the Qur’ānic term, cf. above, section CONC.
▪ … 
– 
BP#1574ḥaṭṭa, u (ḥaṭṭ), vb. I, 1s.v.; 2a to take down (a load, burden); b to lower, decrease, diminish, reduce (s.th. or min s.th.); 3 to depreciate (min qadri-h or min qīmati-h the value of s.th.)
ḥaṭṭaṭa, vb. II, to put down, set down, take off, unload (a load): Dt-stem, tr.

ḥaṭṭ, n., 1s.v.; 2 depreciation, belittling, derogation, disparagement (min of s.th.); 3 reduction, diminution, decrease (min of s.th.)
ḥaṭīṭaẗ, n.f., price reduction

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ḥaṭṭa, ↗ḥaṭāṭaẗ, ↗maḥaṭṭaẗ, ↗ĭnḥiṭāṭ, and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ ḤṬː (ḤṬṬ).

 
ḥaṭāṭaẗ حَطاطة 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤṬː (ḤṬṬ) 
n.f. 
papule; pimple, pustule, blister, vesicle, bleb – Baalbaki1995. 
ḥaṭāṭaẗ does not figure in WehrCowan1979, but is registered in Baalbaki1995 (al-Mawrid). In ClassAr, also ḥaṭāṭ ʻcarbuncled face; hence also: froth of milk’ and the denom. vbs. I and IV, ḥaṭṭa (u, ḥaṭāṭ) and ʔaḥaṭṭa ʻto be pimpled (face)’, are attested. – No obvious relation to ↗ḥaṭṭa ʻto put\take\set down; to come down; to depreciate’ or ↗ḥiṭṭaẗ ʻalleviation; exoneration’. Accordingly, DRS keeps ḥaṭāṭ ʻboutons sur le peau’ apart from ʻto put\take\set down; to come down; to depreciate’ and ʻalleviation; exoneration’.
DRS includes in #ḤṬṬ-2 also ḥaṭīṭ ʻshort’, to which one may probably add ḥaṭīṭ ʻdwarf’ and ḥuṭayyiṭaẗ ʻshipworm, teredo navalis’ (Wahrmund1886) as specific interpretations of an underlying *ʻthe small\short, pustule-like one’.
▪ No obvious relation betw. ḥaṭāṭaẗ and other values to be found in the root, such as ʻto polish, figure (leather)’ (ḥaṭṭa,u, ḥaṭṭ) or the obsol. ḥuṭāṭ ʻstink’.
▪ …
 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤṬṬ-1 […]. -2 Ar ḥaṭāṭaẗ ‘petite fille, petit objet, babiole’, ḥaṭīṭ ‘fin, mince, petit’; ḥaṭāṭ: boutons sur la peau. – ʕOmAr ḥiṭṭaẗ, Mhr Ḥrs ḥəṭṭāt, Jib hítéṭ: (petit) morceau, grain, unité d’énumération pour graines, etc. -3-5 […].
▪ …
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
– 
For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ḥaṭṭa, ↗ḥiṭṭaẗ, ↗maḥaṭṭaẗ, ↗ĭnḥiṭāṭ, and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ ḤṬː (ḤṬṬ).

 
maḥaṭṭaẗ مَحَطّة , pl. ‑āt 
ID 218 • Sw – • BP 941 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤṬː (ḤṬṬ) 
n.f. 
1 stopping place, stop (also of public conveyances); 2 station, post; 3 railroad station; 4 broadcasting station, radio station – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ Traditionally, maḥaṭṭaẗ is a n.loc.f., coined on the maFʕaLaẗ pattern from the vb. ↗ḥaṭṭa ʻto put\set\take down’. The values [v1]–[v3] still have preserved more or less the literal meaning as *ʻplace where s.th. stops\is stopped, or is dropped’. In contrast, [v4] imitates the etymology and use of Engl\Fr station (< Lat statio ʻstanding, position, post’, akin to to stare stare ʻto stand’, from protIE *steti‑, suffixed form of root *sta‑ ʻto stand, make or be firm’) in the modern sense of ʻbroadcasting\radio station’ etc., see below, section DERIV.
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥaṭṭa.
▪ … 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
– 
maḥaṭṭaẗ taḥwīl al-tayyār, n.f., transformer station;
maḥaṭṭaẗ al-ʔiḏāʕaẗ (al-lā-silkiyyaẗ), n.f., 1 broadcasting station, radio station; 2 transmitter (station);
maḥaṭṭaẗ raʔīsiyyaẗ, n.f., (railroad) main station;
maḥaṭṭaẗ al-ʔišārāt, n.f., signal post;
maḥaṭṭaẗal-ʔirsāl, n.f., transmitter (station; radio);
maḥaṭṭaẗ lil-ʔarṣād al-ǧawwiyyaẗ, n.f., meteorological station, weather station;
EgAr maḥaṭṭiẗ il-ṣarf, n.f., 1 pump station (for drainage); 2 power plant;
maḥaṭṭaẗ al-ĭstiqbāl, n.f., receiving station (radio);
maḥaṭṭaẗ lā-silkiyyaẗ qaṣīraẗ al-ʔamwāǧ, n.f., short-wave transmitter station;
maḥaṭṭaẗ tawlīd al-kahrabāʔ and maḥaṭṭaẗ kahrabāʔiyyaẗ, n.f., power plant.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ḥaṭṭa, ↗ḥiṭṭaẗ, ↗ḥaṭāṭaẗ, ↗ĭnḥiṭāṭ, and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ ḤṬː (ḤṬṬ).

 
ĭnḥiṭāṭ اِنْحِطاط 
ID – • Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤṬː (ḤṬṬ) 
n. 
1decline, fall, decay, decadence; 2 inferiority – WehrCowan1976. 
ĭnḥiṭāṭ is the vn. of ĭnḥaṭṭa, vb. VII, ʻ1 to sink, descend, go down; 2 to decrease, diminish; 3 to decline, decay, wane’, the N-stem of ↗ḥaṭṭa, vb. I, ʻto put\set\take down’.
▪ For the Arab modernist movement of the Nahḍaẗ and its successors in the 20th century, ↗ĭnḥiṭāṭ became the (in)famous denominator of the whole period spanning between the Islamicate ʻGolden Age’ and the new ʻUpswing’ (↗nahḍaẗ) as the ʻEra of Decline’, ʕaṣr al-ĭnḥiṭāṭ.
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥaṭṭa.
▪ … 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
– 
ʔiḥsās al- ĭnḥiṭāṭ, n., sense of inferiority

ĭnḥaṭṭa, vb.VII, 1 to sink, descend, go down; 2 to decrease, diminish; 3 to decline, decay, wane: N-stem, intr.
ʔaḥaṭṭᵘ, adj., lower: elat. formation, serving as comp./superlat. of munḥaṭṭ.
ĭnḥiṭāṭī, n., postclassical writer: nisba formation, from ĭnḥiṭāṭ
munḥaṭṭ, adj., 1 low, base, low-level, lowgrade; 2 fallen, degraded (woman); 3 mean, vile, vulgar; 4 inferior: PA VII.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ḥaṭṭa, ↗ḥiṭṭaẗ, ↗ḥaṭāṭaẗ, ↗maḥaṭṭaẗ, and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ ḤṬː (ḤṬṬ).

 
ḤṬB حطب 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 10Mar2023
√ḤṬB 
“root” 
▪ ḤṬB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤṬB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤṬB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘firewood, to gather wood for burning, fuel; to gossip’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ḤṬM حطم 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 10Mar2023
√ḤṬM 
“root” 
▪ ḤṬM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤṬM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤṬM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to break, shatter, crush; fragment, piece; wreckage, debris; a cruel person; a glutton; severe’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ḤẒː (ḤẒẒ) حظّ/حظظ 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤẒː(ḤẒẒ) 
“root” 
▪ ḤẒː (ḤẒẒ)_1 ‘portion, share, allotment; lot, fate, destiny; good luck’ ↗ḥaẓẓ
▪ ḤẒː (ḤẒẒ)_2 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ḤẒː (ḤẒẒ)_3 ‘…’ ↗

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘luck, good fortune, a fortunate person; a share, an allocation’ 
▪ … 
▪ … 

▪ …
▪ … 
… 
… 
… 
ḥaẓẓ حَظّ , pl. ḥuẓūẓ 
ID … • Sw – • BP 1453 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤẒː(ḤẒẒ) 
n. 
1 part, portion, share, allotment; 2a lot, fate, destiny; 2b good luck, good fortune; 3a affluence, wealth, fortune; 3b prosperity; 3c pleasure – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ The fact that all cognates in Sem mean ‘arrow’ allows the conclusion that the Ar meaning is derived from the custom of casting arrows in order to find out about one’s future lot.
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘arrow’) Akk uṣṣu, Hbr ḥēṣ, PapyriAram ḥṭ, Gz ḥaṣṣ.
▪ …
▪ … 
… 
… 
ḥaẓẓa, ḥaẓaẓ‑, a (ḥaẓẓ), vb. I, to be lucky, fortunate: denom.(?).
ʔaḥaẓẓa, vb. IV, = I : denom.

ḥaẓīẓ, adj., lucky, fortunate: quasi‑PP, ints.adj.
maḥẓūẓ, adj., lucky, fortunate; content(ed), happy, glad: PP I.
 
ḤẒR حظر 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 10Mar2023
√ḤẒR 
“root” 
▪ ḤẒR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤẒR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤẒR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘enclosure, animal pen, barn, to fence in; to prohibit; ban’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ḤFː (ḤFF) حفّ/حفف 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 10Mar2023
√ ḤFː (ḤFF) 
“root” 
▪ ḤFː (ḤFF)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤFː (ḤFF)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤFː (ḤFF)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘sides of a mountain; entourage; to surround, encompass; to clip, trim, edges; paucity of food’ 
▪ From CSem *√ḤPP ‘to surround, enclose, cover’ – Huehnergard2011.
▪ …
 
– 
– 
– 
ḤFD حفد 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 10Mar2023
√ḤFD 
“root” 
▪ ḤFD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤFD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤFD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘briskness; to care for, aid; entourage, household; daughters, extended family, grandchildren, in-laws, family lineage’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ḤFR حفر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤFR 
“root” 
▪ ḤFR_1 ‘to dig’ ↗ḥafara
▪ ḤFR_2 ‘hoof; ungular, ungulate’ ↗ḥāfir
▪ ḤFR_3 ‘original condition, beginning’ ↗ḥāfiraẗ
▪ ḤFR_4 ‘tartar of the teeth; (SyrAr) scurvy’ ↗ḥafr, ‘barren land, desolate area’ ↗EgAr ḥafraẗ gafraẗ.

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘1 hoof; 2 to dig, carve, engrave; hole in the ground, pit; 3 to expose; 4 to return to the original state, a former state; 5 to emaciate’ 
▪ ḤFR_1 : from protSem *ḥpr ‘to dig’.
▪ ḤFR_2 : ‘Hoof’ is, prob. correctly, grouped in DRS together with ‘to dig’ (ḤFR_1). The item’s form (FāʕiL, PA I) makes it very likely that ‘hoof’ is originally the *‘digger, the digging one’, »as though it [the animal] dug the ground by reason of the vehemence of its tread upon it«, as already the ClassAr dictionaries assume (Lane ii 1865).
▪ ḤFR_3 : If Ar lexicographers are right, ḥāfiraẗ derives its meaning ‘original condition, beginning’ from ḤFR_2 ‘hoof’ and is thus ultimately dependent on ‘to dig’. The connection between ‘hoof’ and ‘original condition’ goes back to ancient merchant language: apparently, it refers to the situation immediately after a deal when the buyer of an animal is not allowed to take it with him as long as he has not paid its price; given that »horses were the most excellent and precious of the things that they [sc., the Arabs] possessed […] they used not to sell them on credit: a man used to say […] that its [the horse’s] hoof should not remove until he received its price« – Lane ii 1865.
▪ ḤFR_4 : The meanings ‘tartar of the teeth’ and (SyrAr) ‘scurvy’ have as their common denominator ‘rottenness, erosion’ and, hence, ‘emaciation’, a value still attested in ClassAr ḥafara ‘to emaciate, render lean’, said of a young animal »rendering the mother flabby in flesh by much sucking« (Lane ii 1865) or in the EgAr expr. ḥafraẗ gafraẗ ‘barren and uninhabited land, desolate area’. All these values build on ḤFR_1 ‘to dig, make a hole’: teeth leave a hole when they fall out > rottenness; the young animal ‘digs’ into its mother when sucking intensely, rendering her weak > emaciation > barrenness. 
See individual entries. 
▪ DRS #ḤPR-1 Akk ḫapāru, ḫepēru, Hbr *ḥāpar, Aram ḥᵊpar, Palm ḥpr, Ar ḥafara, Liḥ ḥafar, Sab Min ḥfr ‘creuser’, Qat ‘enterrer’, Mhr ḥəfūr, Ḥrs ḥəfōr, Jib ḥfɔr, Soq ḥfr ‘creuser’, Jib ḥfərɛ́t, Mhr məḥfərūt, Ḥrs məḥfərōt ‘trou, fosse’; Ar ḥāfir ‘sabot d’une bête’. -?99 2 Hbr ḥāpar ‘épier, espionner; rechercher, explorer’. ‑3 Akk ēpēru ‘nourrir, pourvoir’, ipr ‘subsistance, nourriture’, Ug ḥpr ‘ration’. ‑4 Mhr Ḥrs məḥfīr, Jib maḥfér ‘panier, plat en sparterie’. -5 Ar ḥāfiraẗ ‘début, état initial, caractère inné’.
 
▪ Cf. above, section CONC, as well as individual entries.
▪ Badawi&AbdelHaleem2008 seem to regard ‘hoof’ as the primary value, but this is not supported by the overall Sem evidence.
▪ The presentation in DRS is not convincing. #ḤPR-2 ‘to research, explore’ is very likely to be fig. use of #ḤPR-1 (<*‘digging’ into a matter, a problem). For #ḤPR-5 cf. ḤFR_3 in section CONC above. (#ḤPR-3 and #ḤPR-4 seem to be irrelevant for Ar.)
▪ Ehret1995#744 posits an Ar ḥafr (vn.) with the meaning ‘to lie with’ and regards this as an extension in »diffusive« *‑r, derived from a bi-consonantal preprotSem √*ḤP ‘to put down’ < AfrAs *‑ḥaf‑ ‘to lay’.159 However, ‘to lie with’ is hardly an independent value; rather, it is fig. use of ‘to dig’ (< *a man ‘digging’ into a woman), cf. above, section HIST.
▪ … 
– 
– 
ḥafar‑ حَفَرَ , i (ḥafr
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤFR 
vb., I 
1a to dig; 1b to drill (for oil); 1c to excavate (archeol.); 2a to carve; 2b to engrave, etch (metal) | ḥafara ḫanādiqᵃ, vb. I, to dig trenches; ḥafara ḥufraẗ, expr., to prepare a pitfall, prepare an ambush – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ From protSem *ḤPR ‘to dig’, widely attested throughout Sem.
▪ The primary meaning of the Sem root is well preserved in Ar ḥafara ‘to dig’, ḥufraẗ ‘pit, cavity, hole’, ʔuḥfūr ‘s.th. excavated; fossil’ etc. In the course of time, however, the vb. has taken on several additional, mostly fig. meanings, such as ‘to have sexual intercourse, lie with (a woman)’ (< *to ‘dig’ into her), ‘to emaciate’ (said of a young animal vehemently sucking its mother’s breast, ‘digging’ into her and rendering her weak), ‘to lose one’s teeth, esp. milk-teeth’ (the teeth leaving a hole when falling out), or ‘to paw the ground (said of horses, etc.)’. From the latter is ↗ḥāfir ‘hoof’ (lit., *‘the digging one, digger’) (and from there also idiomatic use of ḥāfir and ↗ḥāfiraẗ, see s.vv.). Further developments along the line *‘to dig > to leave holes, emaciate, render rotten > …’ are ↗ḥafr ‘tartar of the teeth’ and (SyrAr) ‘scurvy’, as well as the EgAr expression ↗ḥafraẗ gafraẗ ‘barren land, desolate area’. 
▪ Among the fig. meanings of ‘digging’, cf. also ClassAr †ḥafara ‘to penetrate, have sex (with a woman)’, »the action being likened to that of a man digging a river« (Lane ii 1865).
▪ Cf. also ḥaf(a)r, ḥafīr(ẗ) ‘well that is widened beyond measure’; ḥafīr ‘newly-dug well; grave’; ḥāfara, vb. III, ‘to go deep into a hole/burrow, so deep that one cannot be dug out (said of a jerboa)’ (Lane ii 1865, Hava1899).
▪ eC7 (pit) Q 3:103 wa-kuntum ʕalà šafā ḥufraẗin min-a ’l-nāri fa-ʔanqaḏakum minhā ‘and you were on the brink of a pit of the Fire, and He saved you from it’.
▪ … 
▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘to dig’) Akk (ḫpr (i)), Hbr ḥpr a (o), Syr ḥpr a (u), SAr ḥfr.
▪ DRS #ḤPR-1 Akk ḫapāru, ḫepēru, Hbr *ḥāpar, Aram ḥᵊpar, Palm ḥpr, Ar ḥafara, Liḥ ḥafar, Sab Min ḥfr ‘creuser’, Qat ‘enterrer’, Mhr ḥəfūr, Ḥrs ḥəfōr, Jib ḥfɔr, Soq ḥfr ‘creuser’, Jib ḥfərɛ́t, Mhr məḥfərūt, Ḥrs məḥfərōt ‘trou, fosse’; Ar ḥāfir ‘sabot d’une bête’. - ?100 2 Hbr ḥāpar ‘épier, espionner; rechercher, explorer’. ‑34 […]. -5 Ar ḥāfiraẗ ‘début, état initial, caractère inné’.
▪ … 
▪ The value ‘épier, espionner; rechercher, explorer’ (DRS #ḤPR-2), now obsolete in Ar, is almost certainly fig. use of [v1]/#ḤPR-1 ‘to dig’ (< *‘to dig into a matter’).
▪ For dependence of DRS #ḤPR-5 on [v1]/#ḤPR-1 ‘to dig’, cf. ↗ḥāfiraẗ.
▪ Ehret1995#744 posits an Ar ḥafr (vn.) with the meaning ‘to lie with’ and regards this as an extension in »diffusive« *‑r, derived from a bi-consonantal preprotSem √*ḤP ‘to put down’ < AfrAs *‑ḥaf‑ ‘to lay’.160 However, ‘to lie with’ is hardly an independent value; rather, it is fig. use of ‘to dig’ (< *a man ‘digging’ into a woman), cf. above, section HIST.
▪ … 
… 
ĭnḥafara, vb. VII, pass. of I: N-stem.
ĭḥtafara, vb. VII, to dig: Gt-stem, focus on the agent/speaker.

BP#3312ḥafr, n., 1a digging, earthwork, excavation (also archeol.); 1b unearthing; 1c drilling (for oil); 2a carving, inscribing (e.g., of letters); 2b engraving, etching; graphic arts (etching, wood engraving); 3 tartar, dental calculus (Mawrid1995); 4 scurvy (SyrAr): vn. I and extended usages, cf. individual entry ↗ḥafr. | ǧahāz al-ḥafr, n., oil rig; oil derrick
BP#3883ḥufraẗ, pl. ḥufar, n.f., 1 pit; 2 hollow, cavity, excavation; 3 hole.
ḥafriyyaẗ, n.f., 1 digging, excavation; 2 gravure; 3 pl. ḥafriyyāt, excavations (archeol.): f. (pl.) of nisba formation.
ḥaffār, n., 1 digger; 2 engraver; 3 driller; 4 stone mason: ints. FaʕʕāL for professions | ḥaffār al-qubūr, n., gravedigger.
ḥafīr, n., dug, dug out, excavated, unearthed: quasi-PP I.
ḥafīraẗ, pl. ḥafāʔirᵘ, n.f., 1 s.th. excavated or unearthed; 2 pl. excavations (archeol.).
ʔuḥfūr, pl. ʔaḥāfīrᵘ, 1 s.th. excavated; 2 fossil; 3 pl. excavations (archeol.).
miḥfar, pl. maḥāfirᵘ, spade: n.instr.
ḥāfir, pl. ḥawāfirᵘ, n., hoof: lit., *‘digger, the digging one’; for details see individual entry, ↗ḥāfir. | waqaʕa ’l-ḥāfir ʕalà ’l-ḥāfir, expr., to coincide, happen to correspond exactly; ʕalà ’l-ḥāfir, adv., on the spot, right away, at once (of payments): see ↗ḥāfir.
ḥāfirī, adj., ungular, ungulate: nisba formation from ḥāfir ‘hoof’.
ḥāfiraẗ, n.f., original condition, beginning: cf. individual entry ↗ḥāfiraẗ. | ʕinda ’l-ḥāfiraẗ, adv., on the spot, right away, at once; raǧaʕa ʔilà ḥāfiratih, expr., to revert to its original state or origin.
maḥfūr, adj., 1 dug; 2 inscribed, engraved; 3 carved: PP I.
 
ḥafr حَفْر 
ID … • Sw – • BP 3312 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤFR 
n. 
1a digging, earthwork, excavation (also archeol.); 1b unearthing; 1c drilling (for oil); 2a carving, inscribing (e.g., of letters); 2b engraving, etching; graphic arts (etching, wood engraving); 3 tartar of the teeth, dental calculus (Mawrid1995); 4 (SyrAr) scurvy – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ While values [v1a-c] and [v2a-b] represent the primary meaning of the vn. of ↗ḥafara ‘to dig’, [v3] and [v4] are less obviously connected to the idea of digging. That there is such a relation and these values too are dependent on ‘to dig’ becomes clearer from a look into other historically attested items, such as:
▪ ad [v3]: ḥafara and ʔaḥfara ‘to shed one’s milk-teeth’; ḥafara~ḥafira (intr.) ‘to become cankered, wobbling, loose (teeth)’ (Hava1899), »previously to their [the teeth’s] falling out, because, when they have fallen out, their sockets become hollow« (Lane ii 1865), (fig.) ‘to be(come) in a corrupt, or unsound, state’ (ibid.); ḥaf(a)r ‘rottenness, unsound state of the roots of the teeth, erosion’, ḥāfūr ‘tartar of the teeth’ (Hava1899), and
▪ ad [v4]: ḥafara ‘to emaciate, render lean’, said of a young animal »rendering the mother flabby in flesh by much sucking« (Lane ii 1865); ḥaf(a)r ‘emaciation, leanness’; cf. also EgAr ḥafraẗ gafraẗ ‘barren and uninhabited land, desolate area’.
▪ For the overall picture and lines of semantic development, cf. ↗ḥafara and ↗√ḤFR.
 
▪ See above, section CONC. 
See ↗ḥafara, ↗√ḤFR. 
▪ See above, section CONC. 
… 
ǧahāz al-ḥafr, n., oil rig; oil derrick

ḥafriyyaẗ, n.f., 1 digging, excavation; 2 gravure; 3 pl. ḥafriyyāt, excavations (archeol.): f. (pl.) of nisba formation.

For other values of the root, cf. ↗ḥafara, ↗ḥāfir, ↗ḥāfiraẗ, as well as, for the general picture, ↗√ḤFR. 
EgAr ḥafraẗ gafraẗ حَفْرة جَفْرة 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤFR 
n.f. 
barren land, desolate area – BadawiHinds1986. 
▪ From *‘to emaciate, render barren, rotten’, fig. use of ↗ḥafara ‘to dig’ (i.e., make holes in the ground), perh. via use of the vb. for young animals ‘digging’ into their mothers’ breasts, sucking vehemently and thus rendering them weak and emaciated; ultimately from protSem *ḤPR ‘to dig.’ 
▪ … 
See ↗ḥafara, ↗√ḤFR. 
▪ See above, section CONC. 
… 
For other values of the root, cf. ↗ḥafara, ↗ḥafr,↗ḥāfir, ↗ḥāfiraẗ, as well as, for the general picture, ↗√ḤFR. 
ḥāfir حافِر , pl. ḥawāfirᵘ 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤFR 
n. 
hoof – WehrCowan1976. 
ḥāfir is a PA I (FāʕiL) of ↗ḥafara ‘to dig’ and thus means, lit., *‘the digger / digging one’. It is so called »as though it [a horse, mule, ass, etc.] dug the ground by reason of the vehemence of its tread upon it« (Lane ii 1865). 
▪ … 
See ↗ḥafara, ↗√ḤFR. 
▪ See above, section CONC. 
… 
waqaʕa ’l-ḥāfir ʕalà ’l-ḥāfir, expr., to coincide, happen to correspond exactly.
ʕalà ’l-ḥāfir, adv., on the spot, right away, at once (of payments): proverbial, meaning »the payment in ready money is on the occasion of the first sentence spoken by the seller, when he says ‘I have sold to thee (such a thing)’. The origin of the saying was this: horses were the most excellent and precious of the things that they [sc., the Arabs] possessed; and they used not to sell them on credit: a man used to say the words above to another, meaning that its [the horse’s] hoof should not remove until he received its price« – Lane ii 1865.

ḥāfirī, adj., ungular, ungulate: nisba formation from ḥāfir ‘hoof’.
ḥāfiraẗ, n.f., original condition, beginning: lit. referring to the situation immediately after a deal, when the sold/bought animal is not to be removed until its price has been paid, i.e., when it is still ‘digging’ | ʕinda ’l-ḥāfiraẗ, adv., on the spot, right away, at once: see ʕalà ’l-ḥāfir, above; raǧaʕa ʔilà ḥāfiratih, expr., to revert to its original state or origin.

For other values of the root, cf. ↗ḥafara, ↗ḥafr, ↗ḥafraẗ gafraẗ, as well as, for the general picture, ↗√ḤFR.
 
ḥāfiraẗ حافِرة 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤFR 
n.f. 
original condition, beginning – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ Accord. to ClassAr lexicographers, ḥāfiraẗ refers to the situation immediately after a deal, when the sold/bought animal is not to be removed until its price has been paid, i.e., when it is still ‘digging’, pawing the ground. From the expression ʕinda ’l-ḥāfir(aẗ)lit., with [him/her] still digging/pawing’, is the meaning ‘on the spot, right away, at once’, still common today, and hence also ‘original state, initial condition’, attested as such already in the Qurʔān. 
▪ eC7 (original state, former condition) Q 79:10-11 yaqūlūna ʔa-ʔinnā la-mardūdūna fī ’l-ḥāfiraẗi? ʔa-ʔiḏā kunnā ʕiẓāman naḫiraẗan? ‘(Now) they are saying: What?, shall we brought back to the original state [life] / after we have turned into decayed bones?’ 
See ↗ḥafara, ↗√ḤFR. 
▪ See above, section CONC. 
… 
ʕinda ’l-ḥāfiraẗ, adv., on the spot, right away, at once: see ʕalà ’l-ḥāfir.
raǧaʕa ʔilà ḥāfiratih, expr., to revert to its original state or origin.

For other values of the root, cf. ↗ḥafara, ↗ḥafr, ↗ḥafraẗ gafraẗ, ↗ḥāfir, as well as, for the general picture, ↗√ḤFR. 
ḤFŠ حفش 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤFŠ 
“root” 
▪ ḤFŠ_1 *‘to gather, grasp; assemble’ ↗
▪ ḤFŠ_2 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ḤFŠ_3 ‘…’ ↗ 
▪ ḤFŠ_1 : Ehret1995#754 thinks this ḤFŠ an extension in »venitive« *‑ɬ, from a bi‑consonantal pre‑protSem root *ḤP ‘to take hold of’ < AfrAs *‑ḥap‑ ‘to take hold of’. – Other extensions from the same pre‑protSem root: ↗ḤFṬ, ↗ḤFL, ↗ḤFN.
 
▪ … 
▪ See above, section CONC. 
… 
… 
▪ ḤFŠ_1 : (Ehret1995#754) For other extensions from the same pre‑protSem root, cf. ↗ḤFṬ, ↗ḤFL, ↗ḤFN.
 
ḤFṬ حفط 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤFṬ 
“root” 
▪ ḤFṬ_1 *‘to collect, gather’ ↗
▪ ḤFṬ_2 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ḤFṬ_3 ‘…’ ↗ 
▪ ḤFṬ_1 : Ehret1995#754 thinks this ḤFṬ is an extension in »focative« *‑tl, from a bi‑consonantal pre‑protSem root *ḤP ‘to take hold of’ < AfrAs *‑ḥap‑ ‘to take hold of’. – Other extensions from the same pre‑protSem root: ↗ḤFŠ, ↗ḤFL, ↗ḤFN.
 
▪ … 
▪ Cf. above, section CONC. 
… 
… 
▪ ḤFṬ_1 : (Ehret1995#754:) For other extensions from the same pre‑protSem root, see ↗ḤFŠ, ↗ḤFL, ↗ḤFN.
 
ḤFẒ حفظ 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤFẒ 
“root” 
▪ ḤFẒ_1 ʻto preserve, take care of, save, store; to protect, guard, defend; to remember\memorize, know\learn by heart’ ↗ḥafiẓa; ʻdressing, ligature, bandage’ ↗ḥifāẓ; ʻfolder, bag, portfolio; wallet, pocketbook’ ↗maḥfaẓaẗ; ʻconservativism; governorate (Eg.), larger administrative district (Syr.)’ ↗muḥāfaẓaẗ; ʻcaution, reserve, aloofness; reservation’ ↗taḥaffuẓ; ʻone who knows the Koran by heart’ ↗ḥāfiẓ
▪ ḤFẒ_2 ʻanger, indignation, resentment, rancor; to vex, annoy, irritate, offend’ ↗ḥifẓaẗ
▪ ḤFẒ_ ʻ’ ↗ḥfẓ

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to keep, to preserve, to maintain; to remember, to learn, to internalise; to guard, to protect; to entrust, custodian; to be attentive, to be constant; to anger, grudge, rancour’. 
▪ [v1] (Huehnergard2011, Kogan2015:) From protCSem *ḥpṯ̣ ‘to be mindful of, be attentive, care, preserve’, *ḥipṯ̣‑ ‘attention’, of unknown deeper origin.
▪ [v2] is kept apart from [v1] in DRS, obviously due to seeming semantic mismatch. But a look into ClassAr dictionaries can leave little doubt that [v2] is dependent on [v1]: the meaning ʻanger, indignation’ is (as circumscribed by Hava1899) a ʻzeal to defend s.o.\s.th.’, more precisely (as reported by Lane ii 1865, s.v. ḥafīẓaẗ, of which ḥifẓaẗ is classified as a var.), ʻindignation\anger by reason of violence\injury done to s.th. which one is bound to honour or respect, and to defend, or of wrong done to a relation, or kinsman, in one’s neighbourhood, or of the breach of a covenant; it is said in a prov., al-maqdiraẗ tuḏhibu ’l-ḥafīẓaẗ ʻpower [to revenge] dispels anger\indignation, etc.’, meaning that it is incumbent to forgive when one has power to revenge’; cf. also the var. meaning of ḥafīẓaẗ, ʻamulet\charm bearing an inscription which is hung upon a child, to charm against the evil eye, etc.’. Thus, the ʻanger, indignation’ meant by ḥifẓaẗ stems from the memory one has retained of harm that has been done to s.o.\s.th. one feels in charge of, honours, respects’; cf. also al-malak al-ḥafīẓ ʻthe recording angel of men’ (Hava1899), i.e., the remembering one who can become an angel of revenge if the records show a man’s misdeeds.
▪ … 
– 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤPẒ-1 Hbr ḥāpeṣ ‘être bienveillant, être propice’, Syr ḥᵉpaṭ ‘s’appliquer à’, Ar ḥafiẓa ‘garder, conserver, préserver; observer’, ĭḥtafaẓa ‘garder’, ḥifẓ ‘attention, vigilance, mémoire’, Min ḥtfẓ ‘garder aux archives’, Mhr ḥəfūẓ, Jib ḥfɔẓ ‘préserver, surveiller; donner un alibi’, Jib ḥafẓ ‘lieu sûr, (bonne) garde’. -2 Ar ḥifẓaẗ ‘colère’.
▪ Kogan2015: 210 #10 Hbr ḥpṣ ‘to take pleasure in, desire; to be willing, feel inclined’, ḥēpäṣ ‘joy, delight; wish; matter, business’, Syr ḥpṭ ‘alicui rei operam navavit, studuit’, ḥupṭā ‘adhortatio, admonitio, sollicitudo’, Ar ḥfẓ ‘to keep, preserve, take care of,’ ḥifẓ ‘care, attention’, Min ḥtfṯ̣ ‘garder’; (? < Ar: Mhr ḥəfūḏ̣, Jib ḥfɔḏ̣ ‘to keep safe, preserve, look after’).
▪ … 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
▪ Engl hafizḥāfiẓ
– 
ḥafiẓ‑ حَفِظَ , a (ḥifẓ
ID 219 • Sw – • BP 1228 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤFẒ 
vb., I 
1a to preserve; b to hold, have in safekeeping, take care (of s.th.); c to keep, put away, save, store; d to conserve, preserve;2 to protect, guard, defend (s.o.); 3a to observe, bear in mind (s.th.), comply (with s.th.), be mindful, be heedful (of s.th.); b to keep up, maintain, sustain, retain, uphold (s.th.); c to retain in one’s memory, remember, know by heart; d to memorize, learn by heart, commit to memory (esp. the Koran); 4 to reserve (li‑nafsi-hī o.s. s.th.); 5 to stay, discontinue, suspend (al-taḥqīq a judicial investigation; jur.) – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ From protCSem *ḥpṯ̣ ‘to be mindful of, be attentive, care, preserve’ (of unknown deeper origin) – Huehnergard2011, Kogan2015.
▪ Dependent on ḥafiẓa (though kept apart from it in DRS) is probably also ↗ḥifẓaẗ ‘anger, indignation, resentment, rancor’. ClassAr dictionaries (as reported by Lane ii 1865, s.v. ḥafīẓaẗ) circumscribe the meaning as ʻindignation\anger by reason of violence\injury done to s.th. which one is bound to honour or respect, and to defend, or of wrong done to a relation, or kinsman, in one’s neighbourhood, or of the breach of a covenant’. Thus, the ʻanger, indignation’ meant by ḥifẓaẗ seems to stem from the memory one has retained of harm that has been done to s.o.\s.th. one feels in charge of, honours, respects’.
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤPẒ-1 Hbr ḥāpeṣ ‘être bienveillant, être propice’, Syr ḥᵉpaṭ ‘s’appliquer à’, Ar ḥafiẓa ‘garder, conserver, préserver; observer’, ĭḥtafaẓa ‘garder’, ḥifẓ ‘attention, vigilance, mémoire’, Min ḥtfẓ ‘garder aux archives’, Mhr ḥəfūẓ, Jib ḥfɔẓ ‘préserver, surveiller; donner un alibi’, Jib ḥafẓ ‘lieu sûr, (bonne) garde’. -2 Ar ḥifẓaẗ ‘colère’.
▪ Kogan2015: 210 #10 Hbr ḥpṣ ‘to take pleasure in, desire; to be willing, feel inclined’, ḥēpäṣ ‘joy, delight; wish; matter, business’, Syr ḥpṭ ‘alicui rei operam navavit, studuit’, ḥupṭā ‘adhortatio, admonitio, sollicitudo’, Ar ḥfẓ ‘to keep, preserve, take care of,’ ḥifẓ ‘care, attention’, Min ḥtfṯ̣ ‘garder’; (? < Ar: Mhr ḥəfūḏ̣, Jib ḥfɔḏ̣ ‘to keep safe, preserve, look after’).
▪ … 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
▪ Engl hafizḥāfiẓ
ḥafiẓa-hū ’ḷḷāh, expr., may God protect him!
ḥafiẓa bi’l-barīd, vb., to hold in care of general delivery (s.th.)
yuḥfaẓu fī ’l-būsṭaẗ, expr., in care of general delivery, poste restante
ḥafiẓa wafāʔan li‑, expr., to be loyal to s.o., keep faith with s.o.

ḥaffaẓa, vb. II, to have s.o. memorize (s.th.): D-stem, caus.
BP#2528ḥāfaẓa, vb. III, 1 to preserve, keep up, maintain, uphold, sustain (ʕalà s.th.); 2 to supervise, control (ʕalà s.th.), watch (ʕalà over s.th.); 3a to watch out (ʕalà for), take care, be heedful, be mindful (ʕalà of), look (ʕalà after), attend, pay attention (ʕalà to); b to keep, follow, observe, bear in mind (ʕalà s.th.), comply (ʕalà with), conform (ʕalà to); 4 to protect, guard, defend (s.th. and ʕalà, also ʕan s.th.): L-stem, applicative.
taḥaffaẓa, vb. V, 1 to keep up, maintain, preserve (bi‑ s.th.); 2 to observe, keep in mind (bi‑ s.th.), be mindful, be heedful, take care (bi‑ of s.th.), be concerned (bi‑ with); 3 to be cautious, be wary, be on one’s guard; 4 to be reserved, aloof; 5 to have reservations: Dt-stem, self-ref.
BP#2896ĭḥtafaẓa, vb. VIII, 1 to maintain, uphold (bi‑ or s.th., e.g., bi‑ḥuqūq-hī, one’s rights); 2 to keep up, maintain, retain (bi‑ or s.th., e.g., a posture, a characteristic); 3 to take care, take over custody (bi‑ of s.o.), protect, guard (bi‑ s.o.); 4 to defend (against encroachment), hold, maintain (bi‑ a possession); 5 to preserve, sustain, continue, keep up (bi‑ s.th.); 6 to hold, possess (bi‑ s.th.); 7 to put away, hold, have in safekeeping (bi‑ s.th.), take care (bi‑ of s.th.); 8 to keep, retain (bi‑ s.th.); 9 ĭḥtafaẓa li-nafsi-hī, vb., to keep for o.s., appropriate, reserve for o.s. (bi‑ or s.th.), take complete possession (of): Gt-stem, self-ref.
ĭstaḥfaẓa, vb. X, 1a to ask s.o. to guard or protect (s.th. or ʕalà s.th.); b to entrust (ʕalà or s.th. to s.o. s.th.), commit s.th. (ʕalà or s.th.) to the charge of s.o.: *Št-stem, desiderative.

BP#1597ḥifẓ, n., 1 preservation; 2 maintenance, sustentation, conservation, upholding; 3 protection, defense, guarding; 4 custody, safekeeping, keeping, storage; 5 retention; 6 observance, compliance (with); 7a memorizing, memorization; b memory; 8 (jur.) discontinuance, stay, suspension (of legal action, of a judicial investigation): vn. I., from protCSem *ḥipṯ̣‑ ‘attention’ – Huehnergard2011, Kogan2015. | ~ al-ʔāṯār, n., preservation of ancient monuments (Eg.); ~ al-ṣiḥḥaẗ, n., hygiene, sanitation; riǧāl al‑~, n.pl., police.
ḥifāẓ, pl. ‑āt, n., dressing, ligature, bandage | ~ al-ḥayḍ, n., sanitary napkin.
ḥafīẓ, adj., 1 attentive, heedful, mindful; 2 preserving, keeping, guarding (ʕalà s.th.): adj./ints. formation.
maḥfaẓaẗ, var. miḥfaẓaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., 1 folder, bag, satchel, briefcase dispatch case, portfolio; 2 wallet, pocketbook: n.loc.f., var. n.instr.f.
miḥfaẓaẗ, n.f., capsule: n.instr.f.
taḥfīẓ, n., memorization drill, inculcation (esp. of the Koran): vn. II
BP#1446ḥifāẓ, n., 1 defense, protection, guarding (esp. of cherished, sacred things); 2 preservation, maintenance (ʕalà of interests); 3 keeping, upholding (of loyalty), adherence (to a commitment): vn. III.
BP#1885muḥāfaẓaẗ, n.f., 1a guarding; b safeguarding; 2 preservation; 3 protection, defense; 4 conservation, sustaining, upholding; 5 retention, maintenance (ʕalà of s.th.); 6 conservativism (pol.), conservative attitude; 7 following, observance (ʕalà of s.th.), compliance (ʕalà with s.th.), adherence (ʕalà to); 8 guarding (min against misfortune), saving (min from misadventure); 9 garrison (mil.); 10a BP#660(pl. ‑āt) governorate (one of five administrative divisions of Egypt, in addition to 14 mudīriyyāt); b province, any one of the larger administrative districts (Syr.); 11 office of the muḥāfiẓ (head of a governorate): vn. III. | ~ ʕalà al-nafs, n., self-preservation; maḏhab al‑~, n., conservative movement, conservativism, Toryism.
taḥaffuẓ, n., 1 caution, wariness, restraint, reticence, reserve, aloofness; – (pl. ‑āt) 2 precaution, precautionary measure; 3 reservation, limiting condition, conditional stipulation, proviso: vn. V. | maʕa al‑~, expr., with full reservation.
taḥaffuẓī, adj., precautionary, preventive: nisba formation from preceding. | ʔiǧrāʔāt taḥaffuẓiyyaẗ, n. pl., precautionary measures; ṣulḥ ~, n., settlement before action, preventive settlement (jur.)
BP#3717ĭḥtifāẓ, n., 1 guarding, safeguarding; 2 preservation; 3 retention, maintenance, continuation, conservation, defense, protection, vindication, sustaining, upholding; 4 keeping, holding, safekeeping, custody bi‑ of s.th.): vn. VIII.
ḥāfiẓ, n., 1 keeper, guarder, guardian, custodian, caretaker; 2 (pl. ḥuffāẓ, ḥafaẓaẗ) one who knows the Koran by heart (formerly an honorific epithet): PA I.
ḥāfiẓaẗ, n.f., 1 memory; – 2 (pl. ‑āt, ḥawāfiẓᵘ) wallet, pocketbook, money order (Eg.): PA I.f.
maḥfūẓ, adj., 1 kept, held in safekeeping, deposited, guarded, preserved; 2 memorized, committed to memory, etc.; 3 conserved, preserved (food); 4 reserved; 5 ensured, secured, safeguarded; 6 – pl. ‑āt, canned goods, conserves; 7 archives; 8 memorized material, what s.o. knows by heart: PP I. | dār al-maḥfūẓāt al-miṣriyyaẗ, n., the Egyptian Public Record Office; maʔkūlāt maḥfūẓaẗ, n. pl., conserves, canned goods; ǧamīʕ al-ḥuqūq maḥfūẓaẗ, expr., all rights reserved.
BP#1615muḥāfiẓ, adj. n., 1 supervisory, controlling; 2 observing (ʕalà s.th.), complying (ʕalà with), etc.; 3 conservative (pol.), al-muḥāfiẓūn, n.pl., the Conservatives, the Tories; 4 keeper, guarder, guardian, custodian, caretaker, supervisor, superintendent; 5a mayor; b governor (Eg.: title of the chief officer of a governorate; SyrAr: chief officer of a province); c director general, president (= Brit. governor): PA III.
mutaḥaffiẓ, adj., 1 vigilant, alert, wary, cautious; 2 reticent, reserved, aloof; 3 staid, sedate: PA V.
mustaḥfaẓ, pl. ‑āt, n., reserve (mil.): PP X.

For other values attached to the root, cf., ↗ḥafiẓa, ↗ḥifẓaẗ, ↗ḥifāẓ, ↗maḥfaẓaẗ, ↗muḥāfaẓaẗ, ↗taḥaffuẓ, ↗ḥāfiẓ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤFẒ. 
ḥifẓaẗ حِفْظة 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤFẒ 
n.f. 
anger, indignation, resentment, rancor – WehrCowan1976. 
DRS keeps ḥifẓaẗ apart (as #ḤPṮ̣-2) from the complex formed by ↗ḥafiẓa and its more obvious cognates (#ḤPṮ̣-1); obviously, the two semantic fields seem too distant for the authors to assume kinship. But a look into ClassAr dictionaries can leave little doubt that ḥifẓaẗ is dependent on ḥafiẓa: the meaning ʻanger, indignation’ is (as circumscribed by Hava1899) a ʻzeal to defend s.o.\s.th.’, more precisely (as reported by Lane ii 1865, s.v. ḥafīẓaẗ, of which ḥifẓaẗ is classified as a var.), ʻindignation\anger by reason of violence\injury done to s.th. which one is bound to honour or respect, and to defend, or of wrong done to a relation, or kinsman, in one’s neighbourhood, or of the breach of a covenant; it is said in a prov., al-maqdiraẗ tuḏhibu ’l-ḥafīẓaẗ ʻpower [to revenge] dispels anger\indignation, etc.’, meaning that it is incumbent to forgive when one has power to revenge’; cf. also the var. meaning of ḥafīẓaẗ, ʻamulet\charm bearing an inscription which is hung upon a child, to charm against the evil eye, etc.’. Thus, the ʻanger, indignation’ meant by ḥifẓaẗ stems from the memory one has retained of harm done to s.o.\s.th. one feels in charge of, honours, respects’; cf. also al-malak al-ḥafīẓ ʻthe recording angel of men’ (Hava1899), i.e., the remembering one who can become an angel of revenge if his records show a man’s misdeeds.
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤPẒ-1 Hbr ḥāpeṣ ‘être bienveillant, être propice’, Syr ḥᵉpaṭ ‘s’appliquer à’, Ar ḥafiẓa ‘garder, conserver, préserver; observer’, ĭḥtafaẓa ‘garder’, ḥifẓ ‘attention, vigilance, mémoire’, Min ḥtfẓ ‘garder aux archives’, Mhr ḥəfūẓ, Jib ḥfɔẓ ‘préserver, surveiller; donner un alibi’, Jib ḥafẓ ‘lieu sûr, (bonne) garde’. –[?]2 Ar ḥifẓaẗ ‘colère’.
▪… 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
– 
ʔaḥfaẓa, vb. IV, to vex, annoy, gall, irritate, hurt, offend (s.o.): vb. IV, caus. denom.
ḥafīẓaẗ, pl. ḥafāʔiẓᵘ, n.f., grudge, resentment, rancor: var. of ḥifẓaẗ.

For other values attached to the root, cf., ↗ḥafiẓa, ↗ḥifāẓ, ↗maḥfaẓaẗ, ↗muḥāfaẓaẗ, ↗taḥaffuẓ, ↗ḥāfiẓ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤFẒ. 
ḥifāẓ حِفاظ , pl. ‑āt 
ID … • Sw – • BP 1446 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤFẒ 
n. 
I 1 defense, protection, guarding (esp. of cherished, sacred things); 2 preservation, maintenance (ʕalà of interests); 3 keeping, upholding (of loyalty), adherence (to a commitment). – II dressing, ligature, bandage – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ [vI] is the regular vn. of ḥāfaẓa (ʕalà), vb. III, 1 to preserve, keep up, maintain, uphold, sustain; 2 to supervise, control, watch over s.th.; 3a to watch out for, take care, be heedful, be mindful of, look after, attend, pay attention to; b to keep, follow, observe, bear in mind, comply with, conform to; 4 to protect, guard, defend. – ḥāfaẓa is the (applicative) L-stem of ↗ḥafiẓa ‘to preserve, keep, maintain, defend, etc.’, itself from protCSem *ḥpṯ̣ ‘to be mindful of, be attentive, care, preserve’.
▪ [vII] is a synecdochic concretisation of [vI.4], where *‘protecting, guarding, defending’ has taken on the sense of the means with which protection etc. is achieved, namely a ‘dressing, ligature, bandage’.
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥafiẓa
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
– 
ḥifāẓ al-ḥayḍ, n., sanitary napkin.

For other values attached to the root, cf., ↗ḥafiẓa, ↗ḥifẓaẗ, ↗maḥfaẓaẗ, ↗muḥāfaẓaẗ, ↗taḥaffuẓ, ↗ḥāfiẓ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤFẒ. 
maḥfaẓaẗ مَـِحْفَظة , var. miḥfaẓaẗ, pl. ‑āt 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤFẒ 
n.f. 
1 folder, bag, satchel, briefcase dispatch case, portfolio; 2 wallet, pocketbook – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ Morphologically, maḥfaẓaẗ and its variant miḥfaẓaẗ are n.loc.f. or n.instr.f. derived from ↗ḥafiẓa ‘to preserve, keep, etc.’ (from protCSem *ḥpṯ̣ ‘to be mindful of, be attentive, care, preserve’). Folders, briefcases, portfolios and wallets are thus, originally, *‘places where, or tools with the help of which s.th. is preserved, kept, protected, etc.’
▪ Accordingly, the var. miḥfaẓaẗ can also mean ‘capsule’
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥafiẓa
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
– 
For other values attached to the root, cf., ↗ḥafiẓa, ↗ḥifẓaẗ, ↗ḥifāẓ, ↗muḥāfaẓaẗ, ↗taḥaffuẓ, ↗ḥāfiẓ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤFẒ. 
muḥāfaẓaẗ مُحافَظة , pl. ‑āt 
ID … • Sw – • BP 660, 1885 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤFẒ 
n.f. 
I 1a guarding; b safeguarding; 2 preservation; 3 protection, defense; 4 conservation, sustaining, upholding; 5 retention, maintenance (ʕalà of s.th.); 6 conservativism (pol.), conservative attitude; 7 following, observance (ʕalà of s.th.), compliance (ʕalà with s.th.), adherence (ʕalà to); 8 guarding (min against misfortune), saving (min from misadventure). – II (pl. ‑āt) 1 garrison (mil.); 2a BP#660 governorate (one of five administrative divisions of Egypt, in addition to 14 mudīriyyāt); b province, any one of the larger administrative districts (Syr.); 3 office of the muḥāfiẓ (head of a governorate) – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ [vI] : Like ↗ḥifāẓ, muḥāfaẓaẗ is a regular vn. of ḥāfaẓa (ʕalà), vb. III, 1 to preserve, keep up, maintain, uphold, sustain; 2 to supervise, control, watch over s.th.; 3a to watch out for, take care, be heedful, be mindful of, look after, attend, pay attention to; b to keep, follow, observe, bear in mind, comply with, conform to; 4 to protect, guard, defend. – ḥāfaẓa itself is the (applicative) L-stem of ↗ḥafiẓa ‘to preserve, keep, maintain, defend, etc.’, itself from protCSem *ḥpṯ̣ ‘to be mindful of, be attentive, care, preserve’.
▪ [vI.6] ‘(political) conservativism’ is a special development from ‘to (seek to) keep, preserve, s.th.
▪ [vII] : From [vI.2], [vI.3] and/or [vI.4] the value of a military ‘garrison’ as controlling, attending, and/or protecting force seems to have developed, hence also the idea of a ‘governorate’ as the seat of a garrison or ‘centre of administrative control’.
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥafiẓa
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
– 
muḥāfaẓaẗ ʕalà al-nafs, n., self-preservation
maḏhab al-muḥāfaẓaẗ, n., conservative movement, conservativism, Toryism.

BP#1615muḥāfiẓ, adj. n., 1 supervisory, controlling; 2 observing (ʕalà s.th.), complying (ʕalà with), etc.; 3 conservative (pol.), al-muḥāfiẓūn, n.pl., the Conservatives, the Tories; 4 keeper, guarder, guardian, custodian, caretaker, supervisor, superintendent; 5a mayor; b governor (Eg.: title of the chief officer of a governorate; SyrAr: chief officer of a province); c director general, president (= Brit. governor): PA III.

For other values attached to the root, cf., ↗ḥafiẓa, ↗ḥifẓaẗ, ↗ḥifāẓ, ↗maḥfaẓaẗ, ↗taḥaffuẓ, ↗ḥāfiẓ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤFẒ. 
taḥaffuẓ تَحَفُّظ 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤFẒ 
n. 
1 caution, wariness, restraint, reticence, reserve, aloofness; – (pl. ‑āt) 2 precaution, precautionary measure; 3 reservation, limiting condition, conditional stipulation, proviso – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ vn. of taḥaffaẓa, vb. V, 1 to keep up, maintain, preserve (bi‑ s.th.); 2 to observe, keep in mind (bi‑ s.th.), be mindful, be heedful, take care (bi‑ of s.th.), be concerned (bi‑ with); 3 to be cautious, be wary, be on one’s guard; 4 to be reserved, aloof; 5 to have reservations. – taḥaffaẓa is a (self-ref.) Dt-stem of ↗ḥafiẓa ‘to preserve, keep, maintain, defend, etc.’, itself from protCSem *ḥpṯ̣ ‘to be mindful of, be attentive, care, preserve’.
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥafiẓa
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
– 
maʕa al-taḥaffuẓ, expr., with full reservation.

taḥaffuẓī, adj., precautionary, preventive: nisba formation from preceding. | ʔiǧrāʔāt taḥaffuẓiyyaẗ, n. pl., precautionary measures; ṣulḥ ~, n., settlement before action, preventive settlement (jur.)
mutaḥaffiẓ, adj., 1 vigilant, alert, wary, cautious; 2 reticent, reserved, aloof; 3 staid, sedate: PA V.

For other values attached to the root, cf., ↗ḥafiẓa, ↗ḥifẓaẗ, ↗ḥifāẓ, ↗maḥfaẓaẗ, ↗muḥāfaẓaẗ, ↗ḥāfiẓ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤFẒ. 
ḥāfiẓ حافِظ , pl. [v2] ḥuffāẓ, ḥafaẓaẗ 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤFẒ 
adj.; n. 
1 keeper, guarder, guardian, custodian, caretaker; 2 (pl. ḥuffāẓ, ḥafaẓaẗ) one who knows the Koran by heart (formerly an honorific epithet) – WehrCowan1976. 
ḥāfiẓ is a PA of ↗ḥafiẓa, vb. I (from protCSem *ḥpṯ̣ ‘to be mindful of, be attentive, care, preserve’). The two main lexicalised meanings are, in the case of [v1], from the verb’s meaning ‘to hold\have in safekeeping, take care of; to protect, guard, defend; to maintain, sustain, uphold (s.th.)’, and, in the case of [v2], from ḥafiẓa in the sense of ‘to retain in one’s memory, remember, know by heart; to memorize, learn by heart, commit to memory (esp. the Koran)’.
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥafiẓa
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl hafiz, from Ar ḥāfiẓ ‘guardian, one who has memorized the Koran’, PA of ḥafiẓa ‘to preserve, be mindful of, learn, memorize’. 
ḥaffaẓa, vb. II, to have s.o. memorize (s.th.): D-stem, caus.

taḥfīẓ, n., memorization drill, inculcation (esp. of the Koran): vn. II
ḥāfiẓaẗ, n.f., 1 memory; – 2 (pl. ‑āt, ḥawāfiẓᵘ) wallet, pocketbook, money order (Eg.): PA I.f.

For other values attached to the root, cf., ↗ḥafiẓa, ↗ḥifẓaẗ, ↗ḥifāẓ, ↗maḥfaẓaẗ, ↗muḥāfaẓaẗ, ↗taḥaffuẓ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤFẒ. 
muḥāfiẓ مُحافِظ 
Sw – • NahḍConBP 1615 • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√ḤFẒ 
adj., n. 
▪ …PA, III 
ḤFL حفل 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤFL 
“root” 
▪ ḤFL_1 ʻto flow copiously, be affluent; to assemble, congregate; gathering, crowd’ ↗¹ḥafala; ‘party; show, performance (theater, cinema), concert, festive event, celebration’ ↗ḥaflaẗ.
▪ ḤFL_2 ʻto pay attention, give one’s mind to, apply o.s. to, concern o.s. with’ ↗³ḥafala; ‘eager, assiduous, diligent’ ↗ḥafīl; ‘to adorn, decorate’ ↗ḥaffala
▪ ḤFL_3 ʻomnibus’ ↗ḥāfilaẗ

Other values, now obsolete, include:

ḤFL_4 ʻto leave (cattle) unmilked’ ↗taḥaffala
: also ‘to collect in the udder (milk)’ 
▪ [v1] : No obvious cognates in Sem. – Given the lack of cognates, it is difficult to decide whether ʻassembly, crowd’ is based on ʻto flow copiously, be affluent’ or whether the latter is dependent on the former. The arrangement of the material in root entry √ḤFL in Lane ii (1865) suggests that the collection of water (in a valley, in clouds in the sky, tears in the eye) or milk (in the udder, see [v4]) is the original idea. – Ehret1995#754 thinks the vb. ¹ḥafala ʻto assemble’ is denom. from ḥafl ʻcrowd, large assembly’ which he assumes to be an extension in »noun suffix« *‑l, from a bi-consonantal pre-protSem root *ḤP ‘to take hold of’, from AfrAs *‑ḥap‑ ‘to take hold of’. – Other extensions from the same pre-protSem root: ↗ḤFŠ, ↗ḤFṬ, ↗ḤFN.
▪ [v2] : For DRS, the semantics of [v2] obviously seem too far from [v1] as to assume an etymological relation. Cf., however, Lane ii (1865) where [v2] is explained as the result of semantic expansion from [v1]: ḥafala ’l-qawm ʻthe people collected themselves, aiding one another[!]’, ḥafalū lahū ʻthey combined for him, treating him with honour[!]’. Moreover, there are items in √ḤFL for which it would be difficult to decide to which of the two values they should be assigned – [v1] or [v2]? – e.g., ḥaffala ‘to adorn, decorate’: is this an original *ʻto make affluent’ (from ↗¹ḥafala) or *ʻto apply extra zeal to’ (from ↗³ḥafala ʻto pay attention, attend, give one’s mind to s.th.’, or ↗ḥafīl ‘eager, assiduous, diligent’)? (DRS favours the latter view).
▪ [v3] : a neologism, coined on a PA f. pattern from [v1] ↗¹ḥafala, thus originally meaning *ʻthe busy one (sc. means of transport), or the frequently going one, or (car) for the crowd, or (car) taking a larger crowd’.
[v4] : As mentioned sub [v1], above, the collection of water or milk may be the most original meaning; in this case, [v1] ʻto assemble, gather, agglomerate’ would be a generalization/abstraction from the concrete context (water, milk, tears, …).
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤPL-1 Ar ḥafala ʻaffluer, couler à flots, (se) réunir’, ḥafl ʻnombreux; foule’, ḥaflaẗ ʻtroupe’ -2 ḥafala ʻs’appliquer avec zèle’, ḥaffala ʻorner, embellir’, ḥafl ʻsoin’, Mhr ḥəfūl ʻpréserver’, Ḥrs ḥəfōl ʻprendre garde à soi’, Jib ḥfɔl ʻprêter attention’, Jib ḥɔ́fəl ʻattention’. ?-3 Mhr ḥəfəlīt, Jib ḥfíźə́t ʻfigue (sauvage) mûre’, ḥéfəl ʻmûrir (figue sauvage)’. 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ [v1] : Cohen1969 #111 suggests to compare Eg ḥfn ʻvery large number, (ErmanGrapow1921:) 100 000’.
▪ … 
– 
▪ [v1] : Ehret1995#754 thinks ḤFL_1 is an extension in *‑l, from pre-protSem *ḤP ‘to take hold of’. Other extensions from the same pre-protSem root: ↗ḤFŠ, ↗ḤFṬ, ↗ḤFN.
▪ … 
ḥafal‑ حَفَلَ , i (ḥafl
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤFL 
vb., I 
1 to gather, assemble, congregate; 2a to flow copiously; b to be replete, teem, superabound (bi‑ with). –
3 to pay attention, attend, give one’s mind (bi‑ or li‑ to s.th.), concern o.s. (bi‑ with), make much (bi‑ of), set great store (bi‑ by) – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ According to DRS, values [v1] and [v2] belong together (DRS #ḤPL-1), while [v3] has to be distinguished from these as a separate value (DRS #ḤPL-2).
▪ Given the lack of cognates of [v1] and [v2], it is impossible to decide which of the two values should be assumed to be the primary one. The arrangement of the lexical material in root entry √ḤFL in Lane ii (1865) suggests that the collection of water (in a valley, in clouds in the sky, in the eye) or milk (in the udder) is the original meaning from which ʻgathering, assembling, etc.’ is a generalisation/abstraction.
▪ If DRS is right, ¹ˈ²ḥafala is without obvious cognates in Sem, while ³ḥafala has a few cognates in some modSAr idioms.
▪ [v1]-[v2] : Ehret1995#754 thinks the vb. ¹ḥafala ʻto assemble’ is denom. from ḥafl ʻcrowd, large assembly’ which he assumes to be an extension in »noun suffix« *‑l, from a bi-consonantal pre-protSem root *ḤP ‘to take hold of’, from AfrAs *‑ḥap‑ ‘to take hold of’. – Other extensions from the same pre-protSem root: ↗ḤFŠ, ↗ḤFṬ, ↗ḤFN.
▪ [v3] : For DRS the semantics of [v3] (their #ḤPL-2) seem too far from [v1]≡[v2] (their #ḤPL-1) as to assume an etymological relation. Cf., however, Lane ii (1865) where [v3] is explained as the result of semantic expansion from [v1]: ḥafala ’l-qawm ʻthe people collected themselves, aiding one another[!]’, ḥafalū lahū ʻthey combined for him, treating him with honour[!]’. ʻPaying attention, committing o.s. to s.th.’ would thus be an original ʻcoming together, gathering with the purpose of doing s.th. good to s.o. Moreover, there are items in √ḤFL for which it would be difficult to decide to which of the two fields one should assign them – [v1]≡[v2] or [v3]? Cf., e.g., ↗ḥaffala ‘to adorn, decorate’: is this an original *ʻto make affluent’ (from ²ḥafala) or from *ʻto apply extra zeal to’ (from ³ḥafala ʻto pay attention, attend, give one’s mind to s.th.’, or ↗ḥafīl ‘eager, assiduous, diligent’)?
▪ … 
… 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤPL-1 Ar ḥafala ʻaffluer, couler à flots, (se) réunir’, ḥafl ʻnombreux; foule’, ḥaflaẗ ʻtroupe’ -2 ḥafala ʻs’appliquer avec zèle’, ḥaffala ʻorner, embellir’, ḥafl ʻsoin’, Mhr ḥəfūl ʻpréserver’, Ḥrs ḥəfōl ʻprendre garde à soi’, Jib ḥfɔl ʻprêter attention’, Jib ḥɔ́fəl ʻattention’. -3 […].
▪ … 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
– 
lā ḥaflᵃ bih, quasi-adj., indifferent, of no consequence.

ḥaffala, vb. II, to adorn, decorate, ornament (s.th. bi‑ with): D-stem, caus., prob. based on ²ḥafala, thus originally *ʻto make replete with s.th.’ But cf. also ↗s.v.
BP#3861ĭḥtafala, vb. VIII, 1 to gather, rally, throng together; 2 to celebrate (bi‑ s.th.\s.o.); 3a to concern o.s. (bi‑ or li‑ with), attend, pay attention, give one’s mind (bi‑ or li‑ to s.th.); b to honour, welcome, receive kindly (bi‑ s.o.): Gt-stem, self-ref.; 1 from ¹ˈ²ḥafala; 2 a specialisation from the latter, or denom. from ḥaflaẗ ; 3 from ³ḥafala.
BP#1303ḥafl, n., 1a gathering, meeting, assembling; b assembly, congregation, throng, crowd; 2 performance, show, public event; 3a celebration; b feast, festival: vn. I, from ¹ˈ²ḥafala.
BP#1732ḥaflaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., 1 assembly, gathering, meeting, congregation; 2 (social or public) event; a party; b show, performance (theater, cinema); c concert; d festivity, ceremony, festival, festive event, celebration: singulative of ḥafl | ḥaflaẗ al-taʔbīn, n.f., commemoration, commemorative ceremony for a deceased person; al-ḥaflaẗ al-ʔūlà, n.f., premiere; ḥaflaẗ ḥāfilaẗ, n.f., numerous assembly; ḥaflaẗ ḫayriyyaẗ, n.f., charity performance, charity event; ḥaflaẗ al-dafn, n.f., funeral ceremony, obsequies; ḥaflaẗ dīniyyaẗ, n.f., religious ceremony, Divine Service; ḥaflaẗ sāhiraẗ and ḥaflaẗ samar, n.f., evening party, soirée; ḥaflaẗ sīnamāʔiyyaẗ, n.f., motion-picture show; ḥaflaẗ al-šāy, n.f., tea party; ḥaflaẗ al-ʕurs, n.f., wedding; ḥaflaẗ al-ĭstiqbāl, n.f., (public) reception; ḥaflaẗ mūsīqiyyaẗ, n.f., concert.
BP#4267maḥfil, pl. maḥāfilᵘ, n., 1 assembly, congregation, meeting, gathering; 2 party; 3 body, collective whole; 4 circle, quarter: n.loc., based on ¹ḥafala. | maḥfil māsūnī, n., Masonic lodge; al-maḥāfil al-rasmiyyaẗ\al-siyāsiyyaẗ, nonhum.pl., the official (political) circles or quarters.
BP#1556ĭḥtifāl, pl. -āt, n., celebration, ceremony, festival, festivities: vn. VIII.
ḥāfil, pl. ḥuffal, ḥawāfilᵘ, adj., 1 full (bi‑ of), filled, replete (bi‑ with); 2 abundant, copious, lavish; 3 much frequented, well attended (by visitors, participants, etc.), numerous (of attendance); 4 solemn, ceremonial, festive: PA I.
BP#3417ḥāfilaẗ, pl. ‑āt, ḥawāfilᵘ, n.f., autobus: neolog., PA I.f., cf. s.v.
muḥtafil: al-muḥtafilūn, pl., the participants in a festive event, the celebrators: PA VIII.
muḥtafal, n., assembly place, gathering place; party; muḥtafal bih, adj., celebrated: PP VIII.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ḥafīl and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤFL. 
ḥaffal‑ حَفَّلَ (taḥfīl
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤFL 
vb., II 
to adorn, decorate, ornament (s.th. bi‑ with) – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ vb. II, D-stem, caus., based either on ↗²ḥafala ʻto flow copiously; to be replete, teem, superabound with’ (ʻadorning, decorating’ thus originally meaning *ʻto make replete, richly embellish with s.th.’), or on ↗³ḥafala ʻto pay attention, attend, give one’s mind to s.th.’ (cf. also ↗ḥafīl ‘eager, assiduous, diligent’) (ʻdecoration, ornament’ thus being the result of *ʻapplying extra zeal to, attending to s.th. with great diligence’). The attestation given in Lane ii (1865) offers yet another explanation: ḥaffala ʻhe collected, or caused to collect, namely water and milk in the udder of a ewe or she-goat\camel\cow, in order to deceive the purchaser, that he might increase the price; he abstained from milking the ewe or she-goat\camel\cow for some days in order that the milk might collect in her udder, for sale’. Thus, ʻdecoration, ornament’ would be, originally, an attempt to cheat: the owner of a she-animal trying to let its udder look fuller than usual.
▪ … 
… 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤPL-2: Ar ḥafala ʻs’appliquer avec zèle’, ḥaffala ʻorner, embellir’, ḥafl ʻsoin’, Mhr ḥəfūl ʻpréserver’, Ḥrs ḥəfōl ʻprendre garde à soi’, Jib ḥfɔl ʻprêter attention’, Jib ḥɔ́fəl ʻattention’.
▪ Cf. perh. also DRS 9 (2010) #ḤPL-1: Ar ḥafala ʻaffluer, couler à flots, (se) réunir’, ḥafl ʻnombreux; foule’, ḥaflaẗ ʻtroupe’.
▪ …
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
– 
For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ḥafala, ↗ḥaflaẗ, ↗ ḥafīl, ↗ḥāfilaẗ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤFL. 
ḥaflaẗ حَفْلَة , pl. ‑āt 
ID … • Sw – • BP 1732 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤFL 
n.f. 
1 assembly, gathering, meeting, congregation; 2 (social or public) event; a party; b show, performance (theater, cinema); c concert; d festivity, ceremony, festival, festive event, celebration – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ Singulativ of ḥafl, which can take almost identical meanings but is used more for the activity of ʻgathering, meeting, assembling’ and ʻassembly, congregation, throng, crowd’, while ḥaflaẗ is used most often in the sense of [v2]. ḥafl is the vn. of ↗¹ḥafala, vb. I, ʻto gather, assemble, congregate’.
▪ … 
… 
▪ ↗ḥafala
▪ … 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
– 
ḥaflaẗ al-taʔbīn, n.f., commemoration, commemorative ceremony for a deceased person;
al-ḥaflaẗ al-ʔūlà, n.f., premiere;
ḥaflaẗ ḥāfilaẗ, n.f., numerous assembly;
ḥaflaẗ ḫayriyyaẗ, n.f., charity performance, charity event;
ḥaflaẗ al-dafn, n.f., funeral ceremony, obsequies;
ḥaflaẗ dīniyyaẗ, n.f., religious ceremony, Divine Service;
ḥaflaẗ sāhiraẗ and ḥaflaẗ samar, n.f., evening party, soirée;
ḥaflaẗ sīnamāʔiyyaẗ, n.f., motion-picture show;
ḥaflaẗ al-šāy, n.f., tea party;
ḥaflaẗ al-ʕurs, n.f., wedding;
ḥaflaẗ al-ĭstiqbāl, n.f., (public) reception;
ḥaflaẗ mūsīqiyyaẗ, n.f., concert.

BP#3861ĭḥtafala, vb. VIII, 1 to gather, rally, throng together; 2 to celebrate (bi‑ s.th.\s.o.); 3a to concern o.s. (bi‑ or li‑ with), attend, pay attention, give one’s mind (bi‑ or li‑ to s.th.); b to honour, welcome, receive kindly (bi‑ s.o.): Gt-stem, self-ref.
BP#1556ĭḥtifāl, pl. -āt, n., celebration, ceremony, festival, festivities: vn. VIII.
muḥtafil: al-muḥtafilūn, pl., the participants in a festive event, the celebrators: PA VIII.
muḥtafal, n., assembly place, gathering place; party; muḥtafal bih, adj., celebrated: PP VIII.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ḥafala, ↗ḥaffala, ↗ḥafīl, ↗ḥāfilaẗ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤFL. 
ḥafīl حَفيل 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤFL 
adj. 
eager, assiduous, diligent – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ An ints./adj. formation based on ³ḥafala ʻto pay attention, attend, give one’s mind to s.th., concern o.s. with, make much of, set great store by’. Due to scarce attestation in Sem, the latter’s relation, if any, to ¹ˈ²ḥafala ʻto gather, assemble, congregate; to flow copiously, be replete, teem, superabound with’ has remained obscure so far.
▪ ↗ḥaffala ʻto adorn, decorate, ornament’ may be an original *ʻto attend to s.th. with great diligence, enthusiasm, zeal’, thus be akin to ḥafīl or even a denom.-applicative D-stem coined from it (unless from the vb. I, ³ḥafala, see above). For another possible etymology, cf. ↗s.v.
▪ …
 
… 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤPL-2: Ar ḥafala ʻs’appliquer avec zèle’, ḥaffala ʻorner, embellir’, ḥafl ʻsoin’, Mhr ḥəfūl ʻpréserver’, Ḥrs ḥəfōl ʻprendre garde à soi’, Jib ḥfɔl ʻprêter attention’, Jib ḥɔ́fəl ʻattention’.
▪ … 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
– 
ḥaffala, vb. II, to adorn, decorate, ornament (s.th. bi‑ with): D-stem, perh. denom. applic. from ḥafīl, thus originally meaning *ʻto attend to s.th. with great diligence, enthusiasm, zeal’; cf., however, also ↗s.v..
BP#3861ĭḥtafala, vb. VIII, 1-2 ↗¹ḥafala, ↗¹ˈ²ḥaflaẗ; 3a to concern o.s. (bi‑ or li‑ with), attend, pay attention, give one’s mind (bi‑ or li‑ to s.th.); b to honour, welcome, receive kindly (bi‑ s.o.): Gt-stem, self-ref.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ḥafala, ↗ḥaffala, ↗ḥaflaẗ, ↗ḥāfilaẗ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤFL. 
ḥāfilaẗ حافِلَة , pl. ‑āt, ḥawāfilᵘ 
ID … • Sw 3417 • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤFL 
n.f. 
autobus; street car – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ A neologism, coined on the FāʕiLaẗ (PA I.f.) pattern, understood either as the f. form of adj. ḥāfil (↗ḥafala) as *ʻthe full/filled one’ (sc., car, means of transport) or *ʻthe much frequented, well attended one, the one that can take a large crowd’, or directly from ḥafala, as *ʻthe frequently going one’.
▪ …
 
… 
▪ ↗ḥafala.
▪ … 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
– 
For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ḥafala, ↗ḥaffala, ↗ḥaflaẗ, ↗ḥafīl, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤFL. 
ḤFN حفن 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤFN 
“root” 
▪ ḤFN_1 ‘handful’ ↗ḥafnaẗ
▪ ḤFN_2 ‘…’ ↗ 
▪ (DRS 9 #ḤPN-1:) from protSem *ḥupn‑ ʻcreux de la main, poignée, poing’.
▪ ḤFN_1 : Ehret1995#754 thinks this ḤFN is an extension in »noun suffix« *‑n, from a bi‑consonantal »pre‑protSem« root *ḤP ‘to take hold of’ < AfrAs *‑ḥap‑ ‘to take hold of’. See also below, section DISC.
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤPN-1 Akk upnu ʻpoignée’, Hbr *ḥopen: ḥopnayim (du.), JudPal ḥupnīn ʻles deux creux des mains jointes = jointée’, EmpAram ḥpn, mesure de capacité, Syr ḥupnā, Mnd hupna, Ar ḥufnaẗ, ḥafnaẗ ʻpoignée’, ḥafana ʻprendre, donner par poignées’; Mhr ḥəfūn, Jib ḥfun ʻprendre (par ex. du riz) par jointées’, Jib ḥáfən ʻjointée’; Gz ḥafana ʻprendre de la terre ou des grains avec les deux mains jointes en coupe’, ḥəfn ʻpoignée, poing’, Te ḥəfən, Tña ḥəfni, Amh Arg əffəññ, Gur əmfuñña ʻcontenu des deux mains paumes jointes’. -2 Ar ĭḥtafana: porter une personne, les mains du porteur placées sous les genoux du porté. -3 Soq ḥáfən ʻgiron’.
▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘open hand, handfull’) Akk upnu, Hbr ḥop̄náyim, Syr ḥup̄nā, Gz ḥefn ‘fist’.
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) asks: Voir aussi ḤPL ? (cf. Cohen1969 #111).
▪ ḤFN_1 : Ehret1995#754 thinks this ḤFN is an extension in »noun suffix« *‑n, from a bi‑consonantal »pre‑protSem« root *ḤP ‘to take hold of’ < AfrAs *‑ḥap‑ ‘to take hold of’. See also below, section DERIV. – Other extensions from the same pre‑protSem root: ↗ḤFŠ, ↗ḤFṬ, ↗ḤFL.
▪ It is not clear why DRS sets Ar ĭḥtafana ‘porter une personne, les mains du porteur placées sous les genoux du porté’ (#ḤPN-2) apart from #ḤPN-1, although morpho-semantics (Gt-stem, self-ref.) do not contradict its derivation from ḥafnaẗ ʻhandful’. The basic idea seems to be *‘to use one’s hands to scoop up s.th.’ – in this case *‘to join one’s hands to make a seat to carry a person away’.
▪ … 
– 
▪ See above, sections CONC/DISC. 
ḥafnaẗ حَفْنة , pl. ḥafanāt 
ID … • Sw – • BP 4887 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤFN 
n.f. 
handful – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ (DRS 9 #ḤPN-1:) from protSem *ḥupn‑ ʻcreux de la main, poignée, poing’.
▪ Ehret1995#754 thinks this is an extension in »noun suffix« *‑n, from a bi‑consonantal »pre‑protSem« root *ḤP ‘to take hold of’ < AfrAs *‑ḥap‑ ‘to take hold of’. See also below, section DISC.
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤPN-1 Akk upnu ʻpoignée’, Hbr *ḥopen: ḥopnayim (du.), JudPal ḥupnīn ʻles deux creux des mains jointes = jointée’, EmpAram ḥpn, mesure de capacité, Syr ḥupnā, Mnd hupna, Ar ḥufnaẗ, ḥafnaẗ ʻpoignée’, ḥafana ʻprendre, donner par poignées’; Mhr ḥəfūn, Jib ḥfun ʻprendre (par ex. du riz) par jointées’, Jib ḥáfən ʻjointée’; Gz ḥafana ʻprendre de la terre ou des grains avec les deux mains jointes en coupe’, ḥəfn ʻpoignée, poing’, Te ḥəfən, Tña ḥəfni, Amh Arg əffəññ, Gur əmfuñña ʻcontenu des deux mains paumes jointes’. -2 Ar ĭḥtafana: porter une personne, les mains du porteur placées sous les genoux du porté. -3 […].
▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘open hand, handfull’) Akk upnu, Hbr ḥop̄náyim, Syr ḥup̄nā, Gz ḥefn ‘fist’.
▪ … 
▪ ḤFN_1 : Ehret1995#754 thinks this ḤFN is an extension in »noun suffix« *‑n, from a bi‑consonantal »pre‑protSem« root *ḤP ‘to take hold of’ < AfrAs *‑ḥap‑ ‘to take hold of’. See also below, section DERIV. – Other extensions from the same pre‑protSem root: ↗ḤFŠ, ↗ḤFṬ, ↗ḤFL.
▪ It is not clear why DRS sets Ar ĭḥtafana ‘porter une personne, les mains du porteur placées sous les genoux du porté’ (#ḤPN-2) apart from #ḤPN-1, although morpho-semantics (Gt-stem, self-ref.) do not contradict its derivation from ḥafnaẗ ʻhandful’. The basic idea seems to be *‘to use one’s hands to scoop up s.th.’ – in this case *‘to join one’s hands to make a seat to carry a person away’.
▪ … 
– 
ḥafana, u, vb. I, 1 to scoop up with both hands; 2 to give a little (li‑ to s.o.): denom.?
 
ḤFW/Y حفو 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 10Mar2023
√ḤFW/Y 
“root” 
▪ ḤFW/Y_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤFW/Y_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤFW/Y_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘condition of chafing, abrading or wearing out of feet, particularly of camel hooves, caused by long travel barefoot in the hot desert, barefootedness; to strip bare, scrape off, trim; to welcome, be gracious; to dispute; to exact, harass; to be knowledgeable’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ḤQː (ḤQQ) حقّ/حقق 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤQː (ḤQQ) 
“root” 
▪ ḤQ: (ḤQQ)_1 ʻtruth, true, authentic; correctness, rightness, correct, sound, valid, real; right, fair and reasonable; rightful possession, property, right, title, (legal) claim, one’s due; duty, proper manner; law, jurisprudence, legal science’ ↗ḥaqq; ʻtruth, reality; fact; the facts, true nature, essence; real meaning, true sense’ ↗ḥaqīqaẗ; ʻto achieve s.th.; to investigate’ ↗ḥaqqaqa; ʻto deserve, merit’ ↗ĭstaḥaqqa
▪ ḤQ: (ḤQQ)_2 ʻhollow, cavity; socket of a joint (anat.)’ ↗ḥuqq
▪ ḤQ: (ḤQQ)_3 ʻsmall box, case, pot or jar; receptacle, container’ ↗¹ḥuqqaẗ
▪ ḤQ: (ḤQQ)_4 ʻhuqqa/okka, a weight (Syr., Pal.)’ ↗LevAr ²ḥuqqaẗ

Other values, now obsolete, include:

ḤQ: (ḤQQ)_5 ʻspider’s web’ : ḥuqq
ḤQ: (ḤQQ)_6 ʻto strike s.o. on the back of the neck’ : ḥaqqa
ḤQ: (ḤQQ)_7 ʻupper part of the arm’ : ḥuqq
ḤQ: (ḤQQ)_8 ʻmature, three years-old camel’ : ḥiqq; cf. also ĭḥtaqqa ʻto become fat (cattle)’
ḤQ: (ḤQQ)_9 ʻcalamity, resurrection’ : ḥāqqaẗ
ḤQ: (ḤQQ)_10 ʻto be tightened (knot)’ : ĭnḥaqqa; cf. also ĭḥtaqqa ʻto be slender (horse)’

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘the socket into which the head of the thigh bone fits; (of camels) to reach maturity; centre; truth, to be sure; to verify, to give s.o. their dues, to deserve; calamity, affliction; to dispute, to prove a point, an argument’ 
▪ While [v4] seems to be, ultimately, of Grk origin (see s.v. in section DISC, below), all others are prob. based on protWSem *ḤQQ ‘to cut into, level, make correct, decree’ (Huehnergard2011). The two basic elements in this complex are ʻto dig, carve, engrave, cut into’ (DRS as #ḤQQ-1) and ʻright, rule, obligation, duty’ (#ḤQQ-2), the latter perh. having developed from the former: *ʻcut in stone, engraved on a tablet > binding statement, decree, law > due, right, obligation’, or, as the evidence of the Ar √ḤQː (ḤQQ) could suggest, *ʻhollow, cavity > to fit into the hole\cavity like a bone fits into the socket of a joint > to fit, be suitable > to be suitable, correct, right, true’. It is not clear whether Ar [v2] ʻhollow, cavity; socket of a joint’ is secondary, a reflex of an earlier *ʻto dig, carve, engrave, cut into’, or whether it is the other way round, i.e., ʻdigging, carving, engraving, cutting into’ being denom. from a primary *ʻcavity’.
▪ [v1] (DRS #ḤQQ-2) ʻright, rule, obligation, duty’ is either an original *ʻcut in stone, engraved on a tablet’ (cf. DRS#ḤQQ-1) or based on [v2] as *ʻfitting neatly\exactly\precisely, being suitable’, like a bone fits into (the hole\cavity of) a socket. The notion of *ʻsuitableness, correctness, accuracy, perfection, exactitude’ may be the basis on which also several other values are built, see [v5]–[v6] and [v8]–[v10].
▪ [v2] : Ar ḥuqq ʻhollow, cavity; socket of a joint (anat.)’ is perh. a reflex of protWSem *ʻto dig, carve, engrave, cut into’ (DRS #ḤQQ-1). Or does ʻ(cavity of a) socket’ represent the etymon proper from which *ʻcavity (in general)’ (> denom. vb. *ʻto dig, carve, engrave, cut into’) is a semantic expansion?
▪ [v3] (DRS #ḤQQ-4) ʻsmall box, case, pot or jar; receptacle, container’: prob. from [v2] ʻhollow, cavity’.
▪ [v4] : LevAr ²ḥuqqaẗ ʻhuqqa/okka, a weight (Syr., Pal.)’ seems to be a variant of ↗ʔuqqaẗ, which, accord. to Rolland2014, is from Grk ὄγκος ógkos ʻmass, weight’.
[v5] (DRS #ḤQQ-6) ʻspider’s web’: perh. orig. *ʻaccurately\perfectly woven’, thus dependent on [v1] *ʻcorrectness, accuracy, perfection, exactitude’.
[v6] (DRS #ḤQQ-7) ʻto strike s.o. on the back of the neck’: perh. orig. *‘to hit s.o. properly (i.e., exactly where intended)’, or ʻ… in the middle of…’, both dependent on [v1] *ʻcorrectness, accuracy, perfection, exactitude’.
[v7] (DRS #ḤQQ-8) ʻupper part of the arm’: perh. from [v2] ʻsocket of a joint (anat.)’.
[v8] ʻmature, three years-old camel’: prob. a specialisation, developed from the basic idea of [v1] *ʻsuitableness, perfection, etc.’, maturity understood here as *ʻsuitableness, perfection, exactly as it should be’.
[v9] ʻcalamity, resurrection’: Qur’ānic value, orig. *ʻdecisive moment, inevitable hour’, from [v1] ʻto be suitable, correct, right’.
[v10] ʻto be tightened (knot); to be slender (horse)’: prob. *ʻcorrect, right, as it should be’, thus essentially = [v1].
▪ … 
– 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤQQ-1 Hbr ḥāqaq ‘creuser, tailler (une tombe dans un rocher), graver sur une tablette’, Phoen ḥq ‘graver’, mḥq ‘graveur’; JP ḥᵃqaq ‘tailler, creuser’. – ? 2 Hbr ḥāqaq, YaAram *ḥq ‘établir, régler, déterminer’, Hbr ḥōq ‘chose fixée, borne, but; coutume, droit’, Syr ḥuqqā ‘ligne, règle’, Ar ḥiqq, ḥaqq ‘droit, vérité, devoir’, ḥaqqa ‘être sûr’, YemAr ḥagg ‘appartenant à, de’; Sab ḥqq ‘valide, qui a force de loi’, Soq ḥaq ‘jugement’, Mhr ḥəḳ ‘ajuster, égaliser, limer’, Mhr Jib ḥaḳ ‘droit (n.)’, Ḥrs ḥəḳ ‘droit, vérité’, Mhr ḥəḳáyḳ, Jib ḥáḳíḳ ‘qui rétribue justement’; – Jib aḥḳéḳ ‘interroger’, Mhr šəḥḳáwḳ ‘être certain’, Jib s̃ḥɛḳéḳ ‘mériter’; Gz ḥaqqaqa ‘égaliser, lier, fixer’, Tña ḥaqqi ‘vérité, certitude’, Amh ḥəgg ‘loi religieuse, mariage, virginité’. -3 Tña ḥaqäqä ‘fondre, se liquéfier’. -4 Ar ḥuqqaẗ ‘petite boîte’, Mhr ḥəḳḳāt, Ḥrs ḥəḳét, Jib ḥéḳɛ́t ‘boîte (en fer blanc, bois); récipient’. -5 Ar ḥaqqa, ʔaḥaqqa ‘venir chez qn’. -6 ḥuqq ‘toile d’araignée’, ḥaqqaqa ‘tisser solidement’. -7 ḥaqq: point précis à l’arrière de la tête, ḥaqqa: frapper à la tête en ce point. -8 ḥuqq ‘haut du bras, haut de la hanche’.
▪ … 
DRS distinguishes 8 values of the root ḤQQ in Sem, 6 of them with representatives in Ar. According to the authors, #ḤQQ-1 ʻto dig, carve, engrave, cut into’ and #ḤQQ-2 ʻright, rule, duty’ may be related, but the authors remain reluctant to accept this. In contrast, Huehnergard2011 posits a protWSem *ḤQQ ‘to cut into, level, make correct, decree’ where ‘to cut into’ and ‘to make correct, decree’ figure as one value. Semantic dependence of #ḤQQ-2 on #ḤQQ-1 could be explained as *ʻcut in stone, engraved on a tablet > law, decree > right, obligation’. – Strangely enough, DRS does not mention [v2] ʻhollow, cavity; socket of a joint (anat.)’ (Ar ḥuqq) in their list, although this seems to be a reflex of, or akin to, their #ḤQQ-1 ʻto dig, carve, engrave, cut into’, nor do they mention a possible dependence of [v3] (their #ḤQQ-4) ʻsmall box, receptable’ on ʻto dig, carve, engrave, cut into’. The circumscription of ḥaqq in ClassAr lexica as ʻsuitableness to the requirements of wisdom, [etc.] or to the exigencies of the case, as the suitableness of the foot of a door in respect of its socket, for turning round rightly’ (Lane ii 1865) may be an ex-post explanation; but if there is some etymological truth about it, then [v1] ḥaqq ʻrightness, correctness, [etc.]’ could be imagined to be derived from [v2] ḥuqq ʻcavity; socket of a joint’, as *ʻfitting neatly/exactly into the socket’.
▪ [v1] : As mentioned in the preceding paragraph, the semantic field ʻright, rule, duty’ may depend on ʻto dig, carve, engrave, cut into’ (DRS#ḤQQ-1), as s.th. carved in stone can be understood as binding, obligatory, a rule, decree, duty, or as s.th. fitting neatly into a socket, etc. – DRS does not mention any other dependencies, but it does not seem unlikely that the obsol. values [v5]–[v6] and [v8]–[v10] all are derived from the idea of *ʻcorrectness, accuracy, perfection, exactitude, suitableness’ – see suggestions below, s.v.
▪ [v2] : Ar ḥuqq ʻhollow, cavity; socket of a joint (anat.)’ is not mentioned in DRS, but it may well be a reflex of DRS #ḤQQ-1 ʻto dig, carve, engrave, cut into’, as cavities are the result of digging, carving, etc., and the socket of a joint can be regarded as such a cavity. It could, however, also be the other way round, with ʻsocket’ representing the etymon proper and ʻcavity’ being a generalization; in this case, however, Ar would be the only Sem language to have preserved the primary value.
▪ [v3] (DRS #ḤQQ-4) : Given that, morphologically, ḥuqqaẗ is nothing but a f. form of ḥuqq, it seems likely that [v3] ʻsmall box, case, pot or jar; receptacle, container’ depends on [v2] ʻhollow, cavity’, with the latter having become functional as receptable and/or container of s.th.; cf. also obsol. values of ḥuqqaẗ (pl. ḥuqq, ḥuqūq, ḥuqaq, ʔaḥqāq, ḥiqāq), such as ʻink-bottle; cup of a juggler; compass; vessel of water through which the tobacco-smoke passes’, all of which share the notion of ʻcontainer, receptable’.
▪ [v4] : see above, section CONC.
[v5] (DRS #ḤQQ-6) : The obsol. word for a ʻspider’s web’, ḥuqq, looks identical to the one for [v2] ʻhollow, cavity’ and [v7] ʻupper part of the arm’, but semantics can hardly be connected (unless a spider’s web were considered to be, essentially, a *ʻcavity, hollow thing’). Should we instead assume dependence on [v1] *ʻcorrectness, accuracy, perfection, exactitude’, as a spider’s web is an *ʻaccurately\perfectly woven’ thing? Cf. also [v6] and [v8]–[v10], below.
[v6] (DRS #ḤQQ-7): In ClassAr lexica, the meaning ʻto strike s.o. on the back of the neck’ of the vb. I, ḥaqqa, is described in more detail as ʻto beat\strike s.o. in\upon the ḥāqq of one’s head, i.e., the middle of it; or in\upon the ḥuqq of his katif, i.e., the small hollow upon the head of his shoulder-blade, or, as some say, the head of the upper arm […]’ (Lane ii 1865). Thus, the lexicographers derive the value either from [v1] – hitting the middle of s.th. understood as ‘hitting precisely, accurately’ (from *ʻcorrectness, accuracy, perfection, exactitude’, as also prob. in [v5] and [v8]–[v10]), or from [v2] ʻhollow, cavity; socket of a joint’, or from [v7] ʻupper part of the arm’. The basic notion seems to be *‘to hit s.o. properly (i.e., exactly where intended)’ or *‘to hit s.o. right in the middle of x’.
[v7] (DRS #ḤQQ-8) : ḥuqq for ʻupper part of the arm’ looks conspicuously similar to [v2] ḥuqq ʻhollow, cavity; socket of a joint (anat.)’; DRS lists it as a value in its own right, but in the light of the explanations given for the vb. ḥaqqa (see preceding paragraph), it is well not unconceivable that the meaning ʻupper part of the arm’ developed from ʻsocket of a joint’, in this case the cavity where the arm bone fits into the cavity of the shoulderblade’. If this is correct, this value, too, is ultimately dependent on [v2] ʻcavity’.
[v8] : The items ḥiqq (n.m./f., f. also ḥiqqaẗ; pl. ḥiqaq, ḥiqāq, ḥuquq, ḥaqāʔiqᵘ) ʻmature, three years-old camel’ and the corresponding (denom.?) vb. VIII (Gt-stem), ĭḥtaqqa ʻto become fat (cattle)’, do not appear on the list of cognates given in DRS, but are attested quite widely. Unless we are dealing with a lexeme belonging to totally different, though homonymous root, it is likely that ʻmaturity, fatness’ is a special meaning of [v1] *ʻsuitableness, perfection, etc.’, likely reflected also in [v5]–[v6] and [v9]–[v10]
[v9] : The meaning ʻcalamity, resurrection’ of the PA I.f., (al-) ḥāqqaẗ, is, lit., *ʻthat which sorts out truth from falsehood; the decisive one; that which is inevitable (reality)’, thus built on [v1]. Use in this sense goes back to Qur’ān 69:3 wa-mā ʔadrā-ka mā ’l-ḥāqqaẗᵘ ʻwhat will explain to you what the reality/decisive moment/inevitable Hour is?’, hence also epithet of the Day of Judgement. al-ḥāqqaẗ is also the name of the whole (Meccan) Sura 69.
[v10] : ĭnḥaqqa, vb. VII, ʻto be tightened (knot)’, and ĭḥtaqqa, vb. VIII, ʻto be slender (horse)’, are prob. another example of specific use of ʻcorrect, right, as it should be’, thus essentially = [v1]; cf. also [v5]–[v6] and [v8]–[v9].
▪ … 
▪ Engl hookah ↗¹ḥuqqaẗ
– 
ḥaqq حَقّ 
ID 220 • Sw – • BP 84 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤQː (ḤQQ) 
n. 
I n., 1a truth; b (al-ḥaqq) attribute of God; 2 correctness, rightness; 3a rightful possession, property; b one’s due; 4 duty; 5 proper manner; 6 (pl. ḥuqūq) right, title, claim, legal claim ( to); 7 al-ḥuqūq, n. pl., law, jurisprudence, legal science; II adj., 1a true, authentic, real; b right, fair and reasonable; c correct, sound, valid – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ Accord. to Huehnergard2011, ḥaqq and related items go back to what can be reconstructed as protWSem *ḤQQ ‘to cut into, level, make correct, decree’, in which ʻright, rule, obligation, duty’ (DRS #ḤQQ-2) may be secondary, derived from a primary ʻto dig, carve, engrave, cut into’ (DRS #ḤQQ-1), as s.th. cut in stone or engraved on a tablet was taken to be binding, a decree, or law, hence also s.th. due to s.o., a right, or incumbent on s.o., an obligation, duty. The notion of ʻdigging, encarving, cutting into’ is not attested in Ar, however. Inner-Ar evidence alone would suggest a dependence of ʻright, obligation, duty’ on a basic ʻhollow, cavity’, along the line *ʻhollow, cavity > to fit into the hole\cavity like a bone fits into the socket of a joint (↗ḥuqq) > to fit, be suitable > to be correct, right, true’, so that ʻright, rule, obligation, duty’ would not be an original *ʻcut in stone, engraved on a tablet’ but rather *ʻfitting neatly\exactly\precisely, being suitable’.
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▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤQQ-1 Hbr ḥāqaq ‘creuser, tailler (une tombe dans un rocher), graver sur une tablette’, Phoen ḥq ‘graver’, mḥq ‘graveur’; JP ḥᵃqaq ‘tailler, creuser’. – ? 2 Hbr ḥāqaq, YaAram *ḥq ‘établir, régler, déterminer’, Hbr ḥōq ‘chose fixée, borne, but; coutume, droit’, Syr ḥuqqā ‘ligne, règle’, Ar ḥiqq, ḥaqq ‘droit, vérité, devoir’, ḥaqqa ‘être sûr’, YemAr ḥagg ‘appartenant à, de’; Sab ḥqq ‘valide, qui a force de loi’, Soq ḥaq ‘jugement’, Mhr ḥəḳ ‘ajuster, égaliser, limer’, Mhr Jib ḥaḳ ‘droit (n.)’, Ḥrs ḥəḳ ‘droit, vérité’, Mhr ḥəḳáyḳ, Jib ḥáḳíḳ ‘qui rétribue justement’; – Jib aḥḳéḳ ‘interroger’, Mhr šəḥḳáwḳ ‘être certain’, Jib s̃ḥɛḳéḳ ‘mériter’; Gz ḥaqqaqa ‘égaliser, lier, fixer’, Tña ḥaqqi ‘vérité, certitude’, Amh ḥəgg ‘loi religieuse, mariage, virginité’. -3-5 […]. -6 ḥuqq ‘toile d’araignée’, ḥaqqaqa ‘tisser solidement’. -7 ḥaqq: point précis à l’arrière de la tête, ḥaqqa: frapper à la tête en ce point. -8 […].
▪ … 
▪ The notion of *ʻsuitableness, correctness, accuracy, perfection, exactitude’ may be the etymological background of several values that have become obsolete in MSA, such as ʻspider’s web’ (DRS #ḤQQ-6, perh. orig. *ʻaccurately\perfectly woven’), ʻto strike s.o. on the back of the neck’ (DRS #ḤQQ-7, perh. orig. *‘to hit s.o. properly, exactly where intended’, or ʻ… right in the middle of…’); ʻmature, three years-old camel’ (< *ʻsuitable, having reached the right stage’), ʻcalamity, resurrection’ (Qur’ānic value, < *ʻdecisive moment, inevitable hour’), or ʻto be tightened (knot); to be slender (horse)’: prob. *ʻcorrect, right, as it should be’, thus essentially = [v1]. – For more details, see root entry ↗√ḤQː (ḤQQ).
▪ … 
– 
ḥaqqan, adv., 1 really, in reality, in effect, actually, in fact, indeed, truly, in truth; 2 justly, rightly, by rights; ʔa-ḥaqqan ḏalika?, expr., is that (really) so? really?;
bi ḥaqqin, adv., justly, rightly, by rights;
bi’l ḥaqqⁱ, adv., 1 truly, in reality, actually; 2 properly, appropriately, in a suitable manner;
bi ḥaqqⁱ … and fī ḥaqqⁱ …, prep., as to …, as for …, with respect to, concerning, regarding;
huwa ʕalà ḥaqqin, expr., he is in the right;
al ḥaqqᵘ maʕa-ki, expr., you are right;
al ḥaqqᵘ ʕalay-ki, expr., you are wrong;
huwa ḥaqqun ʕalay-ki, expr., it is your duty;
hāḏā ḥaqq-ī ʕalay-kum, expr., you owe this to me;
ʕirfānan li ḥaqqi-hā ʕalay-h, expr., in recognition of what he owed her;
min ḥaqqi-h, expr., he is entitled to it, it is his due;
ḥaqqu-hū ʔan he should have…, he ought to have…;
la-hū ’l ḥaqqᵘ fī, expr., he is entitled to …;
wa’l ḥaqqᵘ yuqālᵘ, expr., one may say, it must be admitted, it’s only fair to say, say what you will…, …though (as a parenthetical phrase);
ʕarafa ḥaqqᵃ ’l-maʕrifaẗ, vb. I, to know exactly, know for certain, know very well, also ʕalima ḥaqqᵃ ’l-ʕilm; fahima ḥaqqᵃ ’l-fahm, vb., to understand precisely, comprehend thoroughly, be fully aware;
al-saʕādaẗ al-ḥaqqaẗ, n.f., true happiness;
kulliyyaẗ al-ḥuqūq, n.f., law school, faculty of law.

BP#2728ḥaqqa, i, u, 1 to be true, turn out to be true, be confirmed; 2 to be right, correct; 3 (also pass. ḥuqqa) to be necessary, obligatory, requisite, imperative (ʕalà for s.o.), be incumbent (ʕalà upon s.o.); 4 to be adequate, suitable, fitting, appropriate (ʕalà for s.o.); 5 to be due (li‑ s.o.); 6 ~ la-hū, expr., he is entitled to it, he has a right to it; 7 ~ ʕalay-hi, expr., he deserved it (punishment); – 8 ḥaqqa, u, to ascertain (s.th.), make sure, be sure (of s.th.); 9 to recognize, identify (s.o.): denom.?
BP#707ḥaqqaqa, vb. II, 1a to make s.th. come true; b to realize (s.th., e.g., a hope), carry out (e.g., a wish), carry into effect, fulfill, put into action, consummate, effect, actualize (s.th.); c to implement (e.g., an agreement); d to produce, bring on, yield (results); 2a to determine, ascertain, find out, pinpoint, identify (s.th.); b to prove s.th. to be true, verify, establish, substantiate (s.th.); c to confirm, assert, aver, avouch, affirm (s.th.); 3a to be exact, painstaking, meticulous, careful (in doing s.th.), e.g., ~ al-naẓara, vb., to look closely; b to study, examine, investigate, explore (s.th.), look, inquire (into s.th.); c to verify, check (s.th. or fī‑s.th.); d to investigate ( s.th.; police); e to make an official inquiry (into s.th.), institute an investigation (of or into; court; jur.); f to interrogate (s.o.), conduct a hearing (maʕ of s.o.; jur.): D-stem, see s.v..
ḥāqqaqa, var. ḥāqqa, vb. III, to contend for a right (with s.o.), contest or litigate a right (against s.o.): L-stem, assoc.
ʔaḥaqqa, vb. IV, 1 to tell the truth; 2 to be right ( in s.th.); 3 to enforce (s.th., e.g., a legal claim): *Š-stem, denom., 1-2 appell., 3 caus. (*ʻto make come true’).
BP#1313taḥaqqaqa, vb. V, 1 to prove true, turn out to be true, be confirmed, prove to be correct; 2a to materialize, become a fact; b to be realized, be effected, come into effect; 3 to be examined, be explored; 4a to ascertain (s.th., also min), make sure, reassure o.s., gain proof, convince o.s., be convinced, be sure, be certain (of s.th.); b to check, verify (or m in s.th.); 5 to be serious (bi‑ about s.th.): Dt-stem, self-ref.
BP#1459ĭstaḥaqqa, vb. X, 1a to be entitled, have a claim (to s.th.); b to deserve, merit (s.th.), be worthy (of); 2a to claim (s.th.), lay claim (to); b to require, demand, necessitate, make requisite (s.th.); 3a to fall due, become payable (sum of money), mature, become due (note); b to be due (li‑ s.o.): *Št-stem, desid. | yastaḥiqqu ’l-ḏikrᵃ, expr., worth mentioning, noteworthy; lā yastaḥiqqu ʕalay-hi ’l-rasmᵘ, expr., not subject to a fee, free of charge.
ʔaḥaqqᵘ, adj., 1 worthier, more deserving (bi‑ of s.th.); 2 more entitled (bi‑ to s.th.): elat.
ḥaqīq, pl. ʔaḥiqqāʔᵘ, adj., 1 worthy, deserving (bi‑ of s.th.), fit, competent, qualified; 2 entitled (bi‑ to): ints. formation.
BP#322ḥaqīqaẗ, pl. ḥaqāʔiqᵘ, n.f., 1 truth, reality (also philos..); 2 fact; 3a the true state of affairs, the facts; b true nature, essence; c real meaning, true sense: f. of ḥaqīq, used as abstr. | ḥaqīqatan, adv., really, in reality, in effect, actually, in fact, indeed, truly, in truth; raʔaytu-hū ʕalà ~-hī, expr., I saw its true nature, as it really is; fī ~ al-ʔamr, adv., in reality, really, actually; laysa la-hū ~, expr., it does not really exist, it is not real.
BP#537ḥaqīqī, adj., 1 real, true; 2 actual; 3a proper, intrinsic, essential; b genuine; c authentic; 4 positive: nisba formation, from ḥaqīqaẗ.
ḥuqūqī, 1 adj., juristic(al); 2 n., (pl. ‑ūn) jurist, jurisprudent, lawyer: nisba formation, from ḥuqūq, pl. of ḥaqq (I.2c,d)
ʔaḥaqqiyyaẗ, n.f., legal claim, title, right: abstr. formation in ‑iyyaẗ, from ʔaḥaqqᵘ *ʻmore entitled, more deserving’, elat. of ḥaqqᵘ.
ḥaqqānī, adj., correct, right, proper, sound, valid, legitimate, legal: adj. formation in ‑ānī, from ḥaqq in the sense of ʻentitlement, legal right’ (I.2c,d).
ḥaqqāniyyaẗ, n.f., justice, law: abstr. formation in ‑iyyaẗ, f. of ḥaqqānī. | wizāraẗ al‑~, n.f., Ministry of Justice (formerly Eg.).
BP#302taḥqīq, n., 1a realization, actualization, effectuation, implementation; b fulfillment (of a claim, of a wish, etc.); c achievement, accomplishment, execution; 2a ascertainment, determination, identification, verification; b substantiation; c assertion, affirmation, confirmation; 3a pinpointing, precise determination; b exactness, accurateness, precision; c (= ~ al-nuṭq) precise pronunciation; – d (pl. ‑āt) verification, check, checkup, investigation; e official or judicial inquiry, inquest: vn. II. | al‑~ ʔanna, expr., it is a matter of fact that …, it is certain that …; ʕalà al‑~, expr., 1 properly speaking, strictly speaking, actually; 2 exactly, precisely; 3 positively, definitely; ʕinda al‑~, adv., properly speaking, strictly speaking, actually; ~ al-šaḫṣiyyaẗ, n., identification (of a person), proof of identity; šahādaẗ ~ al-šaḫṣiyyaẗ, n.f., identity card; qalam ~ al-šaḫṣiyyaẗ, n., bureau of identification; ~ al-ḏātiyyaẗ, n., identification; qāḍī al‑~, n., examining magistrate; ~ al-ʔarbāḥ, n., realization of profits (stock market).
ʔiḥqāq: ʔiḥqāqan lil-ḥaqq, expr., (so) that truth may prevail.
BP#4704taḥaqquq, n., 1a ascertainment, making sure; b verification, check, checkup; 2 conviction, certainty, certitude: vn. V.
BP#2937ĭstiḥqāq, n., 1 worthiness, deservingness, merit; 2 one’s due or desert; 3 maturity, payability, falling due (of a sum of money); 4 re-claiming or calling in of s.th. due, demand of a right; 5 vindication (Isl. Law), replevin, detinue: vn. X. | ʕan ~, adv., deservedly, justly, by rights; bi-dūn ~, adv., undeservedly; tārīḫ al‑~, n., date of maturity (e.g., of a bond); al‑~ al-lubnānī, n., name of a Lebanese order.
maḥqūq, adj., 1 worthy, deserving (bi‑, li‑ of), fit, competent, qualifying (bi‑, li‑ for); 2 wrong, at fault, on the wrong track: PP I.
BP#3073muḥaqqiq, pl. ‑ūn, n., 1a investigator; b inquirer; c examining magistrate: PA II.
muḥaqqaq, adj., 1a sure, certain, beyond doubt, unquestionable, indubitable; b assured, established, accepted, recognized: PP II. | min al‑~ ʔanna, expr., it is certain that…, it is a fact that….
muḥiqq, adj., telling the truth, in the right, being right: PA IV.
mutaḥaqqiq, adj., convinced, sure, certain, positive: PA V.
mustaḥiqq, adj., 1 entitled; 2 claiming; 3 beneficiary (of a wakf); 4 deserving, worthy: PA X. | ~ al-dafʕ, n., due, payable (sum).

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ḥuqq, ↗¹ḥuqqaẗ, ↗²ḥuqqaẗ, and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤQ: (ḤQQ). 
ḥuqūq حُقُوق (pl.) 
Sw – • NahḍConBP ... • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√ḤQː (ḤQQ) 
n.pl. 
▪ … 
ḥaqīqaẗ حَقيقة , pl. ḥaqāʔiqᵘ 
ID 221 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 322 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤQː QQ) 
n.f. 
1 truth, reality (also philos..); 2 fact; 3a the true state of affairs, the facts; b true nature, essence; c real meaning, true sense – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ f. of ḥaqīq, adj., ʻworthy, deserving, fit, competent, qualified; entitled to’, an ints. formation on the FaʕīL pattern; the f. is used as abstr. n. – As a quasi-PP I, ḥaqīq may, originally, either be *‘cut in stone, engraved on a tablet’ or *‘fitting neatly\exactly into s.th. (as a bone fits into the socket of a joint)’ – see ↗ḥaqq.
▪ …
 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥaqq.
▪ … 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
– 
ḥaqīqaẗan, adv., really, in reality, in effect, actually, in fact, indeed, truly, in truth;
raʔaytu-hū ʕalà ḥaqīqati-h, expr., I saw its true nature, as it really is;
fī ḥaqīqaẗ al-ʔamr, adv., in reality, really, actually;
laysa la-hū ḥaqīqaẗ, expr., it does not really exist, it is not real.

BP#537ḥaqīqī, adj., 1 real, true; 2 actual; 3a proper, intrinsic, essential; b genuine; c authentic; 4 positive: nisba formation, from ḥaqīqaẗ.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ḥaqq, ↗ḥaqqaqa, ↗ĭstaḥaqqa, ↗ḥuqq, ↗¹ḥuqqaẗ, ↗²ḥuqqaẗ, and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤQ: (ḤQQ). 
ḥaqqaq‑ حَقَّقَ , (taḥqīq
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√ḤQː (ḤQQ) 
vb., II 
1a to make s.th. come true; b to realize (s.th., e.g., a hope), carry out (e.g., a wish), carry into effect, fulfill, put into action, consummate, effect, actualize (s.th.); c to implement (e.g., an agreement); d to produce, bring on, yield (results); 2a to determine, ascertain, find out, pinpoint, identify (s.th.); b to prove s.th. to be true, verify, establish, substantiate (s.th.); c to confirm, assert, aver, avouch, affirm (s.th.); 3a to be exact, painstaking, meticulous, careful (in doing s.th.), e.g., ~ al-naẓara, vb., to look closely; b to study, examine, investigate, explore (s.th.), look, inquire (into s.th.); c to verify, check (s.th. or fī‑s.th.); d to investigate ( s.th.; police); e to make an official inquiry (into s.th.), institute an investigation (of or into; court; jur.); f to interrogate (s.o.), conduct a hearing (maʕ of s.o.; jur.) – WehrCowan1976. 
ḥaqqaqa is a D-stem, formed either from the basic G-stem, ḥaqqa (↗ḥaqq), or from the related n.s ↗ḥaqq and\or ↗ḥaqīqaẗ (which, in essence, is a nominalized adj.). The meaning is either caus. ([v1] *‘to make come true’) or declar. ([v2] *‘to declare to be true’) or denom./desid. ([v3] *‘to check the truth of s.th., look for its essence, etc.’).
▪ For further etymology, see ↗ḥaqq and ↗ḥaqīqaẗ.
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥaqq.
▪ … 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
– 
BP#1313taḥaqqaqa, vb. V, 1 to prove true, turn out to be true, be confirmed, prove to be correct; 2a to materialize, become a fact; b to be realized, be effected, come into effect; 3 to be examined, be explored; 4a to ascertain (s.th., also min), make sure, reassure o.s., gain proof, convince o.s., be convinced, be sure, be certain (of s.th.); b to check, verify (or m in s.th.); 5 to be serious (bi‑ about s.th.): Dt-stem, self-ref.

BP#302taḥqīq, n., 1a realization, actualization, effectuation, implementation; b fulfillment (of a claim, of a wish, etc.); c achievement, accomplishment, execution; 2a ascertainment, determination, identification, verification; b substantiation; c assertion, affirmation, confirmation; 3a pinpointing, precise determination; b exactness, accurateness, precision; c (= ~ al-nuṭq) precise pronunciation; – d (pl. ‑āt) verification, check, checkup, investigation; e official or judicial inquiry, inquest: vn. II. | al‑~ ʔanna, expr., it is a matter of fact that …, it is certain that …; ʕalà al‑~, expr., 1 properly speaking, strictly speaking, actually; 2 exactly, precisely; 3 positively, definitely; ʕinda al‑~, adv., properly speaking, strictly speaking, actually; ~ al-šaḫṣiyyaẗ, n., identification (of a person), proof of identity; šahādaẗ ~ al-šaḫṣiyyaẗ, n.f., identity card; qalam ~ al-šaḫṣiyyaẗ, n., bureau of identification; ~ al-ḏātiyyaẗ, n., identification; qāḍī al‑~, n., examining magistrate; ~ al-ʔarbāḥ, n., realization of profits (stock market).
BP#4704taḥaqquq, n., 1a ascertainment, making sure; b verification, check, checkup; 2 conviction, certainty, certitude: vn. V.
BP#3073muḥaqqiq, pl. ‑ūn, n., 1a investigator; b inquirer; c examining magistrate: PA II.
muḥaqqaq, adj., 1a sure, certain, beyond doubt, unquestionable, indubitable; b assured, established, accepted, recognized: PP II. | min al‑~ ʔanna, expr., it is certain that…, it is a fact that….
mutaḥaqqiq, adj., convinced, sure, certain, positive: PA V.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ḥaqq, ↗ḥaqīqaẗ, ↗ĭstaḥaqqa, ↗ḥuqq, ↗¹ḥuqqaẗ, ↗²ḥuqqaẗ, and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤQ: (ḤQQ). 
ĭstaḥaqq‑ / ĭstaḥqaq‑ اِسْتَحَقَّ / اِسْتَحْقَقْـ , (ĭstiḥqāq
ID – • Sw – • BP 1459 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤQː (ḤQQ) 
vb., X 
1a to be entitled, have a claim (to s.th.); b to deserve, merit (s.th.), be worthy (of); 2a to claim (s.th.), lay claim (to); b to require, demand, necessitate, make requisite (s.th.); 3a to fall due, become payable (sum of money), mature, become due (note); b to be due (li‑ s.o.) – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ *Št-stem, desid., built on ↗ḥaqq in the sense of ‘right, s.th. one is entitled to, one’s due, claim’.
▪ For further etymology, see ↗ḥaqq.
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥaqq.
▪ … 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
– 
yastaḥiqqu ’l-ḏikrᵃ, expr., worth mentioning, noteworthy
lā yastaḥiqqu ʕalay-hi ’l-rasmᵘ, expr., not subject to a fee, free of charge.

BP#2937ĭstiḥqāq, n., 1 worthiness, deservingness, merit; 2 one’s due or desert; 3 maturity, payability, falling due (of a sum of money); 4 re-claiming or calling in of s.th. due, demand of a right; 5 vindication (Isl. Law), replevin, detinue: vn. X. | ʕan ~, adv., deservedly, justly, by rights; bi-dūn ~, adv., undeservedly; tārīḫ al‑~, n., date of maturity (e.g., of a bond); al‑~ al-lubnānī, n., name of a Lebanese order.
mustaḥiqq, adj., 1 entitled; 2 claiming; 3 beneficiary (of a wakf); 4 deserving, worthy: PA X. | ~ al-dafʕ, n., due, payable (sum).

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ḥaqq, ↗ḥaqīqaẗ, ↗ḥaqqaqa, ↗ḥuqq, ↗¹ḥuqqaẗ, ↗²ḥuqqaẗ, and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤQ: (ḤQQ). 
ḥuqq حُقّ 
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√ḤQː (ḤQQ) 
n. 
1 hollow, cavity; 2 socket of a joint (anat.); 3 ↗²ḥuqqaẗ – WehrCowan1976.
 
▪ While [v3] is a var. of ʔuqqaẗ (prob. borrowed from Grk), [v1] and [v2] seem to belong to the complex of *‘digging, cutting into, engraving’ treated in DRS as #ḤQQ-1 (though not mentioned there).
▪ It is not clear which of the two values was first, [v1] or [v2], as ‘hollow, cavity’ could be a generalizing expansion of ‘socket of a joint’ or the latter a specialised use of the former.
▪ In any case, the notion of *‘hollow, cavity’ lies at the basis of some derived values, such as ‘small box, container, receptable’ (↗¹ḥuqqaẗ) or the obsol. ʻupper part of the arm’ (ḥuqq), cf. [v7] in root entry ↗√ḤQ: (ḤQQ). Furthermore, this basic notion may be the etymon of the larger complex of *ʻsuitableness, correctness, accuracy, perfection, exactitude’, developed from it along the line *ʻhollow, cavity > to fit neatly\exactly into a hole\cavity, like a bone fits into the socket of a joint > to fit neatly, be suitable’. On this, many other values within the root ḤQː (ḤQQ) are dependent, or prob. dependent, such as the whole complex of ‘right, correct; fact(s), reality’ (↗ḥaqq) and ‘truth’ (↗ḥaqīqaẗ), but also obsol. items such as ʻspider’s web’ (< *ʻaccurately\perfectly woven’), ʻto strike s.o. on the back of the neck’ (perh. < *‘to hit s.o. properly, exactly where intended’, or ʻ… right in the middle of…’), ʻmature, three years-old camel’ (< *ʻsuitable, having reached the right stage’), ʻcalamity, resurrection’ (Qur’ānic value, < *ʻdecisive moment, inevitable hour’), or ʻto be tightened (knot); to be slender (horse)’ (prob. < *ʻcorrect, right, as it should be’) – see root entry ↗√ ḤQː (ḤQQ).
▪ …
 
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DRS 9 (2010) #ḤQQ-1 Hbr ḥāqaq ‘creuser, tailler (une tombe dans un rocher), graver sur une tablette’, Phoen ḥq ‘graver’, mḥq ‘graveur’; JP ḥᵃqaq ‘tailler, creuser’. – 2-3 […]. -4 Ar ḥuqqaẗ ‘petite boîte’, Mhr ḥəḳḳāt, Ḥrs ḥəḳét, Jib ḥéḳɛ́t ‘boîte (en fer blanc, bois); récipient’. -5-7 […]. -8 ḥuqq ‘haut du bras, haut de la hanche’.
▪ … 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
▪ Engl hookah ↗¹ḥuqqaẗ
ḥuqqaẗ, pl. ḥuqaq, ḥiqāq, ʔaḥqāq, n.f., 1 small box, case, pot or jar; 2 receptacle, container; 3ḥuqqaẗ (= ↗ʔuqqaẗ).

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ḥaqq, ↗ḥaqīqaẗ, ↗ḥaqqaqa, ↗ĭstaḥaqqa, ↗¹ḥuqqaẗ, ↗²ḥuqqaẗ, and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤQ: (ḤQQ). 
¹ḥuqqaẗ حُقّة , pl. ḥuqaq, ḥiqāq, ʔaḥqāq 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤQː (ḤQQ) 
n.f. 
1 small box, case, pot or jar; 2 receptacle, container. – 3 ↗²ḥuqqaẗ – WehrCowan1976.
 
▪ From ↗ḥuqq ‘hollow, cavity; socket of a joint (anat.)’, the basic idea being [v2] ‘receptable, container’ (*‘hollow\cavity that can take s.th., or into which s.th. can be put, fitting neatly’).
ḥuqqaẗ is the Ar etymon of Engl hooka(h), see below, section WEST.
▪ …
 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤQQ-1 Hbr ḥāqaq ‘creuser, tailler (une tombe dans un rocher), graver sur une tablette’, Phoen ḥq ‘graver’, mḥq ‘graveur’; JP ḥᵃqaq ‘tailler, creuser’. 2-3 […]. -4 Ar ḥuqqaẗ ‘petite boîte’, Mhr ḥəḳḳāt, Ḥrs ḥəḳét, Jib ḥéḳɛ́t ‘boîte (en fer blanc, bois); récipient’. -5-7 […]. -8 ḥuqq ‘haut du bras, haut de la hanche’.
▪ …
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
▪ Engl hookah, also hooka, 1763, via Hindi or Persian or directly from Ar ḥuqqaẗ ‘small box, pot, jar, vessel’ (through which the smoke is drawn), related to ḥuqq ‘a hollow place’. Extended in Urdu to the whole apparatus – EtymOnline, as of 6Jan2021. – For Huehnergard2011, ḥuqqaẗ is from ḥaqqa ‘to be true, suitable, fitting’. 
For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ḥaqq, ↗ḥaqīqaẗ, ↗ḥaqqaqa, ↗ĭstaḥaqqa, ↗ḥuqq, ↗²ḥuqqaẗ, and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤQ: (ḤQQ). 
²ḥuqqaẗ حُقّة (LevAr), pl. ‑āt, ḥuqaq 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤQː (ḤQQ) 
n.f. 
a weight (Syr., Pal.) = ʔuqqaẗ – WehrCowan1976.
 
▪ Seems to be a variant of ↗ʔuqqaẗ, which, accord. to Rolland2014, is from Grk ὄγκος ógkos ʻmass, weight’.
▪ …
 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ʔuqqaẗ.
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
– 
ḥuqqaẗ ĭstanbūliyyaẗ , n.f., = 1.280 kg (Ir.).

▪ For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ḥaqq, ↗ḥaqīqaẗ, ↗ḥaqqaqa, ↗ĭstaḥaqqa, ↗ḥuqq, ↗¹ḥuqqaẗ, and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤQ: (ḤQQ). 
taḥqīq تَحْقيق 
Sw – • NahḍConBP 302 • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√ḤQː (ḤQQ) 
n. 
▪ vn., II 
ḤQB حقب 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤQB 
“root” 
▪ ḤQB_1 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ḤQB_ ‘briefcase; suitcase; bag’ ↗ḥaqībaẗ
▪ḤQB_ ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘retention of urine; to store, to collect; saddlebag; long space of time, year, span of eighty years’ 
▪ … 
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– 
… 
ḥaqībaẗ حَقِيبَة 
ID … • Sw – • BP 2931 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤQB 
n.f. 
1 valise, suitcase, traveling bag; b leather bag; c handbag; 2 briefcase, portfolio – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ Cf. Fück1950: 113 ult.
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▪ … 
▪ …
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– 
… 
ḤQF حقف 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 10Mar2023
√ḤQF 
“root” 
▪ ḤQF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤQF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤQF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a curved elongated sand dune, to curve, to turn, base of a mountain’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ḤQL حقل 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤQL 
“root” 
▪ ḤQL_1 ‘field’ ↗ḥaql
▪ ḤQL_2 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ḤQL_3 ‘…’ ↗ … 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
… 
– 
… 
ḥaql حَقْل , pl. ḥuqūl 
ID … • Sw – • BP 1806 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤQL 
n. 
field (also fig. = domain); arable land, acreage; oil field; rubric – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1222: < protSem *ḥaḳl‑ ‘field’ < AfrAs *ḥaḳ˅l‑ ‘earth, field’.
 
▪ … 
▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘field’) Akk eqlu, Hbr (ḥéleq), Syr ḥaqlā, Gz hāql.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1222: Akk eqlu, Syr ḥaqlā, Gz ḥaql. – Outside Sem: perhl. kələ ‘earth’ in an ECh language (with "loss of anlaut laryngeal" *ḥa‑).
 
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1222: protSem *ḥaḳl‑ ‘field’, ECh *k˅l‑ ‘earth’, both from AfrAs *ḥaḳ˅l‑ ‘earth, field’ (loss of anlaut laryngeal in ECh).
 
– 
muḥāqalaẗ,n.f., sale of grain while still in growth, dealing in grain futures (Isl. law): vn. III
 
ḤKR حكر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤKR 
“root” 
▪ ḤKR_1 ‘to wrong s.o., be obstinate, set apart and retain for o.s., hold back, hoard, monopolize’ ↗ḥakar (var. ḥukar)
▪ ḤKR_2 ‘ground rent, quitrent’ ↗ḥikr (var. ḥukr)
▪ ḤKR_3 ‘kitchen-garden, vegetable garden’ ↗ḥākūraẗ

Other values, now obsolete, include:
  • ḤKR_4 ‘drinking cup’: ḥukr
 
From among the three main values that the root ḤKR, according to DRS, displays in Sem, at least one (DRS #3 = ḤKR_4 ‘drinking cup’) is absent from MSA (though attested in ClassAr and still figuring in Hava1899). For the rest of the semantic spectrum, DRS distinguishes two main notions: (#1) ‘to wrong s.o.; to hold back; to insist, be obstinate, hold obstinately back for o.s., hoard, monopolize’, and (#2) ‘rent, to let’. If DRS is right, the latter is without representative in Ar. It is true that ḥākūraẗ ‘vegetable garden’ (ḤKR_3) cannot count as such an Ar representative since it is a borrowing from Syr. But what about ḥikr (~ ḥukr) ‘ground rent, quitrent’ (ḤKR_2)? The LevAr and EgAr evidence shows that it is probably indeed closer to ‘to set apart and monopolize’ than to ‘rent, to let out’. Given this closeness, should one distinguish #1 and #2 at all? The only reason to do so seems to be the idea, found, e.g., in Klein1987, that Hbr ḥāḵar ‘to hire, let’ may be akin to Sem ŚKR ‘dto.’ and thus have an origin that is different from the homonymous ḥāḵar ‘to wrong s.o. (etc.)’. 
– 
DRS 9 (2010)#ḤKR-1 Hbr *ḥākar (?), Ar ḥakara ‘agir injustement envers qn; retenir’, ḥakira ‘s’obstiner’, ḥukraẗ ‘accaparement’; Mhr ḥəkūr, Jib ḥkɔr ‘tenir à l’écart’, Mhr šəḥkūr, Jib s̃əḥékər ‘être excédé’ – Mhr ḥəkūr ‘être hésitant’, – Jib aḥtékér ‘tout vouloir pour soi’. -2 Hbr JP ḥākar, TargAram ḥəkar ‘louer’, EmpAram ḥkr ‘loyer’. -3 Ar ḥakr, ḥukr ‘coupe en bois’. 
▪ Fraenkel1886:189 thinks that the values ‘mieten (to hire)’ as well as ‘aufkaufen (to buy out)’ are borrowed, while »die echt arabische Bedeutung des Wortes (scheint) ‘ein wenig’ zu sein. Die ursprüngliche Bedeutung von حكر aber ist wohl ‘anhäufen’« (the genuinely Arabic meaning of the word seems to be ‘a little’. The original meaning of حكر, however, is probably ‘to pile up, hoard’).
▪ ḤKR_1: According to DRS, the inclusion of Hbr ḥākar among the cognates is doubtful. In Job 19:3, it is a hapax traditionally read tahkᵊrū (with h, not ), which is often likened to Ar hakara (HKR). A Ug ḥkr »est aussi un hapax, traduit par ‘abattre’ dans M. Dietrich & O. Loretz BI OR 23 (1966) 129 d’après l’Akk ḫakāru, voir sous ḪKR, mais serait plutôt lié à cette racine avec la valeur ‘détresse’ par De Moor & Margalit, voir TO II 39, n. 87, DUL 359.« – If we take away the Can items, we are left with Ar and the modSAr cognates.
▪ ḤKR_2: ḥikr ‘ground rent, quitrent’ may look as if it belonged to Hbr ḥākar ‘to hire, let’, etc. But DRS does not list any Ar item as cognate to the Hbr word. The authors rather consider a relation between the Hbr word and the Sem root KRY ‘louer; acheter’ (cf. Ar ↗kirāʔ ‘rent’). In contrast, Klein1987 thinks that Hbr ḥākar ‘to hire, let’ is probably related to the base ŚKR (Hbr śā̈ḵar ‘to hire, rent’, Phoen škr ‘to hire’, Ug škr ‘to let out on hire, let’161 , Ar ↗šakara ‘to reward, thank’, Gz šekār ‘to hire’). – Therefore ḥikr ‘ground rent, quitrent’ is probably to be seen, as by ClassAr lexicographers, as dependent on ḤKR_1 in the specialized sense of ‘to set apart, hold back, monopolize’, cf. the meaning given for ClassAr in Lane as ‘what is enclosed of lands, or of lands and houses, or of lands and palm-trees etc., and debarred from others, so that they may not build upon it nor otherwise make use of it’ (cf. also EgAr ḥikr ‘land or property owned by the government and leased to a private tenant’ – BadawiHinds1986; cf. also EgAr LevAr ḥakkara ‘to prevent s.o. from building on a ground’– Hava1899).
▪ ḤKR_3 ḥākūraẗ ‘vegetable garden, kitchen-garden’: a borrowing from Syr with the original meaning of ‘piece of land retained and enclosed by its proprietor for sowing and planting trees’, belonging, ultimately, to the same (W?)Sem root *ḤKR ‘to set apart and retain (obstinately) for o.s.’ from which also the ḤKR_1 (and perhaps also the ḤKR_2) items are derived (without Syr mediation). The Syr cognate and the fact that ClassAr dictionaries identify the word as typical of the dialect of Syria support the assumption of a borrowing from Syr. – In contrast, Dolgopolsky2012#2571 does not assume a shift of meaning from an original *‘to set apart and hoard’ but reconstructs a CSem *ḤKR ‘field in cultivation’. The author puts this together not only with Sum agar (< Sem) ‘territoire irrigué’, but also with an IE *ag̑ro-s ‘field, field in cultivation’ (from which are oInd aǧra-ḥ ‘field, plain’, Grk agrós ‘field, farm’, Lat ager, Ge Acker, Engl acre ‘field’). According to Dolgopolsky, the Sem, IE (and Alt) forms go back to Nostr *XakER˅ ‘plain’ (in descendant langs: ‘field’).
▪ ḤKR_4: ḥukr ‘drinking cup; little of water’: still attested as such in Hava1899; without obvious relation to the other ḤKR items. Etymology obscure. 
– 
– 
ḥakar حَكَر , var. ḥukar 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤKR 
adj. 
hoarded – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ From a (W?)Sem *ḤKR ‘to be obstinate; to hold back (for o.s.), hoard, monopolize; to wrong s.o., ill-treat o.’s people’. 
▪ Hava1899 gives the meaning of ḥakar as ‘monopolised corn, goods’. – Cf. also other related items, now obsolete, given in the same dictionary: ḥakara i (ḥakr), vb. I, ‘to wrong s.o., ill-treat o.’s people’; ḥakira a (ḥakar) ‘to be obstinate, contentious; to monopolise (bi- goods)’; ḥakr ‘wrongful behaviour’; ḥakir ‘withholder of corn’; ḥākara, vb. III, ‘to contend with s.o.’; taḥakkara, vb. V, ‘to monopolise s.th. till it becomes scarce’. 
DRS 9 (2010)#ḤKR-1 Hbr *ḥākar (?), Ar ḥakara ‘agir injustement envers qn; retenir’, ḥakira ‘s’obstiner’, ḥukraẗ ‘accaparement’; Mhr ḥəkūr, Jib ḥkɔr ‘tenir à l’écart’, Mhr šəḥkūr, Jib s̃əḥékər ‘être excédé’ – Mhr ḥəkūr ‘être hésitant’, – Jib aḥtékér ‘tout vouloir pour soi’. 
▪ Accord. to DRS, the Hbr form given as a cognate here is doubtful.
▪ It seems difficult to decide which of the basic notions appearing in this items is the primary meaning: ‘to be obstinate’, ‘to wrong s.o., ill-treat’, or ‘to hold back (for o.s.), hoard’? One option could be: ‘to be obstinate’ > ‘to hold (obstinately) back (for o.s.), hoard’ > ‘to wrong s.o., ill-treat (by hoarding s.th. for o.s.)’. Another option could be to imagine a development of two senses (‘to be obstinate’ and ‘to wrong s.o.’) from one primary ‘to hold back’.
▪ Akin to DRS ḤKR#2 ‘rent, to let out’ (Hbr JP ḥākar, TargAram ḥəkar ‘to let’, EmpAram ḥkr ‘rent’)? The authors of DRS hold this item apart from ḤKR#1 because it may be related to Sem KRY ‘to let; to buy’ (cf. Ar ↗kirāʔ ‘rent’).162 At first sight, Ar ↗ḥikr ‘ground rent, quitrent’, seems to be cognate of the DRS ḤKR#2 items on account of semantic proximity to ‘rent, to let’. However, as already seen by ClassAr lexicographers, ḥikr is more likely to depend on ḤKR_1 (in the sense of ‘to hold back for o.s., monopolize’), cf. the meaning given for ClassAr in Lane as ‘what is enclosed of lands, or of lands and houses, or of lands and palm-trees etc., and debarred from others, so that they may not build upon it nor otherwise make use of it’.163 Nevertheless, the overlapping between ‘to hold back’ and ‘to let’ may suggest to reconsider DRS decision to hold the two values/items apart.
 
– 
ĭḥtakara, vb. VIII, 1 to buy up, hoard and withhold, corner (a commodity); 2 to monopolize (a commercial article); to bare exclusive possession (of s.th.), hold a monopoly (over s.th.): t-stem (autobenef.) of obsol. ḥakira (see above, section HIST).

ḥukraẗ, n.f., 1 hoarding (of goods), (Hava1899: withholding of corn); 2 monopoly: n.un. (?).
BP#4997ĭḥtikār, pl. -āt, n., 1 cornering, buying up, hoarding; 2 monopoly; 3 preferential position; supremacy, hegemony: vn. VIII | ~ tiǧāraẗ al-bunn, n., coffee-trade monopoly; ~ al-sukkar, n., sugar monopoly.
ĭḥtikārī, adj., rapacious, grasping, greedy: nsb-adj., from vn. VIII (preceding item).

For other items of the root, cf. ↗ḤKR, ↗ḥikr, ↗ḥākūraẗ
ḥikr حِكْر, var. ḥukr 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤKR 
n. 
ground rent, quitrent – WehrCowan1979. 
Probably belonging to the complex treated s.v. ↗ḥakar (ḤKR_1 ‘to wrong s.o., be obstinate, hold s.th. back, hoard, monopolize’ rather than to that of Can ḤKR ‘rent, to let’ (cf. DRS ḤKR#2 in section COGN of disambig. entry ↗ḤKR). 
▪ … 
▪ See DISC. 
▪ The meaning ‘ground rent, quitrent’ lets look ḥikr as if it could be akin to Can items signifying ‘rent, to let’ (cf. DRS ḤKR#2: Hbr JP ḥākar, TargAram ḥəkar ‘to let’, EmpAram ḥkr ‘rent’). The evidence of EgAr ḥikr ‘land or property owned by the government and leased to a private tenant’ (BadawiHinds1986) and EgAr, LevAr ḥakkara ‘to prevent s.o. from building on a ground’ (Hava1899), however, may serve as an indication for that the word, etymologically, perhaps is closer to ‘to hold back, hoard’, i.e., one of the values of ḤKR_1 (‘to wrong s.o., be obstinate, hold s.th. back, hoard, monopolize’, value treated under ↗ḤKR and, particularly, ↗ḥakar).
 
– 
ʔuǧrat al-ḥikr, n., ground rent, quitrent. For other items of the root, cf. ↗ḤKR, ↗ḥakar, ↗ḥākūraẗ
ḥākūraẗ حاكُورة 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤKR 
n.f. 
small vegetable garden – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ In itself a borrowing from Syr with the original meaning of ‘piece of land retained and enclosed by its proprietor for sowing and planting trees’, the word probably belongs, ultimately, to the same (W?)Sem root *ḤKR ‘to set apart and retain (obstinately) for o.s.’ from which also other Ar items are derived (these however without Syr mediation). Most prominent among the latter in MSA is probably ĭḥtakara ‘to monopolize, hold a monopoly’, from ḥakira ‘to be obstinate, keep s.th. for o.s., not allowing anyone a share in it’ (cf. also ḥakara ‘to act wrongfully’), see ↗ḥakar, ↗ḥikr, and ↗ḤKR.
▪ In contrast, Dolgopolsky2012 thinks that the source of Ar ḥākūraẗ, Syr *ḥakūrā ‘field’, goes back to a CSem *ḤKR ‘field in cultivation’. The author puts this together with Sum agar (< Sem) ‘territoire irrigué’ and forms in IE langs (< IE *ag̑ro-s ‘field, field in cultivation’) like oInd aǧra-ḥ ‘field, plain’, Grk agrós ‘field, farm’, Lat ager, Ge Acker, Engl acre ‘field’. According to Dolgopolsky, the Sem, IE (and Alt) forms go back to Nostr *XakER˅ ‘plain’ (in descendant langs: ‘field’) 
▪ … 
▪ Dolgopolsky2012#2571: Syr ḥkwrʔ /*ḥakūrā ?/ ‘field’, mHbr, JPA √ḤKR G ‘to lease, rent (a field, a plot of land)’, JEA √ḤKR G ‘to contract agricultural land as a tenant’. 
▪ Both the Syr cognate and the fact that the ClassAr dictionaries identify the word as “of the dial. of Syria” (Lane) corroborate the assumption that ḥākūraẗ is borrowed from Syr.
▪ In contrast, Dolgopolsky2012#2571 thinks that Ar ḥākūraẗ ‘piece of land retained and enclosed by its proprietor for sowing and planting trees’ is from Syr ḥkwrʔ /*ḥakūrā ?/ ‘field’ < CSem *ḤKR ‘field in cultivation’. The author puts this together with Sum agar (< Sem) ‘territoire irrigué’ and forms in IE langs (< IE *ag̑ro-s ‘field, field in cultivation’) like oInd aǧra-ḥ ‘field, plain’, Grk agrós ‘field, farm’, Lat ager, Ge Acker, Engl acre ‘field’. According to Dolgopolsky, the Sem, IE (and Alt) forms go back to Nostr *XakER˅ ‘plain’ (in descendant langs: ‘field’). 
– 
For other items of the root, cf. ↗ḤKR, ↗ḥakar, ↗ḥikr
ḤKM حكم 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤKM 
“root” 
▪ ḤKM_1 ʻto be knowledgeable, be wise; wisdom’ ↗ḥikmaẗ, ʻwise, wise person, philosopher, doctor’ ↗ḥakīm; ʻarbiter’ ↗ḥakam, ʻto decide, pronounce a sentence, judge, govern, rule’ ↗ḥakama, ʻgovernment’ ↗ḥukūmaẗ, ‘arbitrariness; despotism’ ↗taḥakkum, ‘court, tribunal’ ↗maḥkamaẗ; ‘bit (of a horse’s bridle)’ ↗ḥakamaẗ, ‘to make s.th. firm, strong, solid, fortify; to do s.th. properly, be proficient; exactitude’ ↗ʔaḥkama
▪ ḤKM_2 ʻ…’ ↗ḥkm

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘bit of a bridle; to curb, restrain; to govern, control; to judge between, sentence, express an opinion, arbitrate; wisdom, knowledge; to tighten, fortify; to recognize’ 
▪ Etymologically, all the values listed sub ḤKM_1 seem to belong together (as is also assumed by the entry #ḤKM-1 in DRS, see below, section COGN).
▪ It is not clear, however, until which stage in the history of the Sem langs it can be traced back (Huehnergard2011: »CSem«; Kogan2015: »WSem«) and to which of the sub-values within the spectrum of ḤKM_1 one could/should ascribe etymological primacy (ʻto be wise’, ʻto govern’, ʻto contain, hold back, fence’, ʻto be strict, strong, solid, exact’?). Huehnergard2011 and Kogan2015 both seem to posit a primacy of *ʻto be wise, judge’. But it was already Jeffery1938 who pointed to the fact that, in Ar, this latter value obviously is secondary, formed under Aram influence, while the most prominent notion in Ar is that of *ʻto govern’.
▪ Kogan2015 suspects the Akk ḫakāmu ‘to know, understand’ to be a borrowing from WSem. Moreover, he remarks that Gz taḥakama ‘to hold back, contain’ is attested only once (in Pr 17:28) and all other representatives of *ḤKM in EthSem are borrowed from Ar, as are also most of the modSAr “cognates”. But there could be a link betw the Gz meaning [attested also in Ar] and ‘to be wise’: ʻrestraining one’s lips in order to look wise’…
▪ Our own hypothesis would be a development along the line *‘containment, restriction, solid fencing > to keep under control, govern > to be wise’. For more details see below, section DISC.
▪ …
 
– 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤKM-1 Akk ḫakāmu ‘comprendre’, Ug ḥkm, Hbr ḥakam ‘être sage’, EmpAram ḥkm ‘instruire’, BiblAram ḥᵊkam, Ar ḥakuma ‘être sage, savant (surtout en médecine)’, ḥakama ‘exercer le pouvoir, prononcer une sentence juridique; retenir, contenir, empêcher de, museler; faire solidement’, Ug ḥkmt, Phoen EmpAram YaAram ḥkmh, Ar ḥikmaẗ ‘sagesse’, ḥakam ‘arbitre, vieillard’, Sab mḥkm ‘règlement d’un litige, traité de paix’, Mhr ḥəkūm, Jib ḥkum, Soq ḥkom ‘devenir/être vieux’, ḥkəm ‘juger’, Mhr ḥəkūm, Jib ḥkum ‘pointer (un fusil); condamner; gouverner’, Ḥrs ḥəkōm ‘gouverner; conquérir’, Gz taḥakama ‘retenir’, Te ḥakma ‘décider, diriger’. – Ar ʔaḥkama ‘raffermir, consolider’. [Same attestations also in Kogan2015: 82-83 #18.] -2 Tña ḥakäm exprime le bruit de la manducation des herbes, ḥakäm bälä ‘happer une gueulée d’herbes, brouter’.
▪ Unlike DRS, Orel&Stolbova1994 #1497 align Ar ḥkm (u) ʻto take’ (sic!) with Akk ekēmu ʻto take away (by force)’ (CAD). – Outside Sem the authors see cognates in 2 CCh languages (kum-anuʔ, kum-ʔʋwi ‘to obtain’), 4 Rift idioms (3x kom‑ ‘to have’, 1x *kom-os‑ ‘to grip’), and Dhl kam‑ ‘to hold’.
▪ … 
▪ Jeffery1938, 111 (s.v. ḥikmaẗ): »The root √ḤKM is of wide use in Sem, but the sense of ‘wisdom’ appears to be a NSem development,164 while the SSem use of the word is more in connection with the sense of ‘govern’. […] Thus [Ar] ḥikmaẗ and ḥakīm seem undoubtedly to have been formed under Aram influence.165 […] It is possible that the word came into use from SArabia, for we find ḥkm in a Qat inscription […] which Nielsen166 )] takes to be an epithet of the moon-god.«
▪ Kogan2015, 82-83 (#ḤKM ḥakam-): »The status of this isogloss as a protWSem feature is undermined by several circumstances which, in view of the cultural significance of the root, deserve to be mentioned in full: (1) The autochthonous vs. borrowed status of Akk ḫakāmu ‘to know, to understand’ has been hotly debated by several generations of Assyriologists and Semitists (v. Kogan 2011:111 for a select bibliography). Personally, we tend to favor the borrowing hypothesis (especially if several waves of WSem influence are assumed), but no complete certainty in this respect is possible. – (2) The Gz verb is attested only once in Pr 17:28. The semantic link between ‘se cohibere, continere’ (LLA 112) and ʻto be wise’ is far from trivial, but fits well the sapiential context of ʻrestraining one’s lips in order to look wise’. All other representatives of *ḤKM in EthSem are borrowed from Ar (Leslau 1990:341). – (3) Most of the meanings associated with this root in modSAr are almost certainly due to Ar influence. This is, however, much less evident as far as the meaning ʻto be old’ is concerned: while also attested in Ar (ḥakam ‘a man advanced in age to the utmost degree,’ Lane 617), it seems to be too marginal there to be considered a reliable source of borrowing. – (4) As reasonably argued by A. Jeffery (1938:111), the genuinely Ar meanings of ḥkm are “more in connection with the sense of govern” whereas the meaning ʻto be wise’ is likely due to Hbr and Aram influence.«
▪ For our own hypothesis (*ʻto contain, restrict, etc.’ as original value – see above, section CONC), cf. Lane ii 1865 where the entry on ḥakama (vn. ḥukm) starts with the value ‘to prevent\restrain\withhold s.o. from acting in an evil\corrupt manner; to pull (a horse) by the bridle and bit to stop it; to curb, restrain it’, suggesting that this is the primary meaning; cf. also BAH2008 where the overview over the semantic spectrum in ClassAr starts with ‘bit of a bridle; to curb, restrain; …’. Cf. also some older values given, among others, by Hava1899: ḥakama ‘to practice fencing; to overtake s.o. (rain, mishap)’, ʔaḥkama ‘to check (a horse) with a curb-bit; to put a ring to a horse’s bridle’, ḥakam ‘fencing’, ḥakamaẗ ‘martingale; bridle’, ĭstiḥkamāt, mustaḥkamāt (pl.), ‘fortifications’. – With this hypothesis in mind, the suggestion made by Orel&Stolbova1994 (Ar ḥakam‑ ‘to take’ < Sem *ḥ˅kum‑ ‘to take’, with prefix *ḥ˅‑ from AfrAs *kum‑ ‘to take, get’) is not completely unconceivable.167 Kogan2015: 84 (fn. 240), too, finds that »[t]he meaning ʻto restrain, withhold’ [found in Gz, but] also rather prominently attested in Ar, opens an interesting possibility of comparsion between protWSem *ḥkm and Akk ekēmu ʻto take away’, otherwise with no WSem etymology.«168
▪ Nevertheless, Orel&Stolbova’s analysis of protSem *ḥkm as being the result of the addition of a prefix *ḥ˅‑ to the hypothetical AfrAs *kum‑ ‘to take, get’ sounds highly speculative.
▪ …
 
▪ Engl hakimḥakama, ↗ḥakīm
– 
ḥakam‑ حَكَمَ , u (ḥukm
ID 222 • Sw – • BP 1694 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤKM 
vb., I 
1 to pass judgment, express an opinion (ʕalà, on s.th.), judge (ʕalà s.th., bi‑by, from); 2 to decide, give a decision, pass a verdict, pass sentence (ʕalà on); 3 to sentence (ʕalà s.o., bi‑ to a penalty; said of the judge), impose, inflict (bi‑ a penalty) on s.o. (ʕalà); 4 to pronounce a verdict or judgment, deliver judgment, rule (li‑ in s.o.’s favor); 5 to order, command ( bi‑s.th.); 6 to adjudicate, adjudge, award (bi‑, li‑ to s.o. s.th.); 7 to take (bi‑ s.th.) as a standard or norm; 8 to have judicial power, have jurisdiction, have authority (ʕalà over), govern, rule, dominate, control (ʕalà or s.o.); 9 to bridle, check, curb (s.th., s.o.) – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ The semantic spectrum of MSA ḥakama covers two main ideas: ʻto pass judgment, sentence, order, command’ (values [v1]-[v7]) and ʻto govern, control, check’ (values [v8]-[v9]). The notions of ʻaccuracy, perfection, suitability’ and ʻwisdom, knowledge’ that appear in other items of √ḤKM (↗ʔaḥkama; ↗ḥikmaẗ, ↗ḥakīm) are absent.43 Huehnergard2011 posits a »CSem« *ʻto be wise, judge’, Kogan2015 a »WSem« *ʻto be wise’ as earlier layers of Sem. However, as already pointed out by Jeffery1938, ʻto be wise, judge’ seems to be a secondary value (at least in Ar), developed under Aram influence (↗ḥikmaẗ), while the more original notion in Ar seems to be that of *ʻto govern’.
▪ Our own hypothesis is a development from an original *‘containment, restriction, solid fencing’ (preserved in Gz taḥakama ʻto restrain, withhold’ and Ar items such as ↗ḥakamaẗ ʻbridle, martingale’) via ʻto keep under control, govern’ to ʻto be wise’ (wisdom as s.th. a person capable of keeping control over s.th. gives proof of). The latter may be a borrowing from Aram, while ʻto govern, control’ represents a more genuine development from ʻto bridle, check, curb, contain, restrict, fence’.
▪ …
 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤKM-1 Akk ḫakāmu ‘comprendre’, Ug ḥkm, Hbr ḥakam ‘être sage’, EmpAram ḥkm ‘instruire’, BiblAram ḥᵊkam, Ar ḥakuma ‘être sage, savant (surtout en médecine)’, ḥakama ‘exercer le pouvoir, prononcer une sentence juridique; retenir, contenir, empêcher de, museler; faire solidement’, Ug ḥkmt, Phoen EmpAram YaAram ḥkmh, Ar ḥikmaẗ ‘sagesse’, ḥakam ‘arbitre, vieillard’, Sab mḥkm ‘règlement d’un litige, traité de paix’, Mhr ḥəkūm, Jib ḥkum, Soq ḥkom ‘devenir/être vieux’, ḥkəm ‘juger’, Mhr ḥəkūm, Jib ḥkum ‘pointer (un fusil); condamner; gouverner’, Ḥrs ḥəkōm ‘gouverner; conquérir’, Gz taḥakama ‘retenir’, Te ḥakma ‘décider, diriger’. – Ar ʔaḥkama ‘raffermir, consolider’. [Same attestations also in Kogan2015: 82-83 #18.] -2 Tña ḥakäm exprime le bruit de la manducation des herbes, ḥakäm bälä ‘happer une gueulée d’herbes, brouter’.
▪ Unlike DRS, Orel&Stolbova1994 #1497 align Ar ḥkm (u) ʻto take’ (sic!) with Akk ekēmu ʻto take away (by force)’ (CAD). – Outside Sem the authors see cognates in 2 CCh languages (kum-anuʔ, kum-ʔʋwi ‘to obtain’), 4 Rift idioms (3x kom‑ ‘to have’, 1x *kom-os‑ ‘to grip’), and Dhl kam‑ ‘to hold’.
▪ …
 
▪ Our own hypothesis follows Kogan’s opinion that the Akk ḫakāmu ‘to know, understand’ is a borrowing from WSem. We further suggest that the WSem *ḥkm ‘to be wise’ is a secondary development, based on an earlier ʻto keep control, govern’ (as in MSA ḥakama), from ʻto contain, restrict, fence, (from?) to bridle, curb’. But this assumption remains rather speculative, as the value posited as primary here is not preserved elsewhere than in Ar (and a single occurrence of ʻto contain, withhold’ in Gz). Akk ekēmu ʻto take away (by force)’ may be pertinent (as suggested by Orel&Stolbova1994 and considered an interesting possibility by Kogan2015); semantically, however, ʻto contain, restrict, withhold, bridle, curb’ and ʻto take away (by force)’ are still too distant as to take the Akk evidence as clear proof of an older common Sem layer.
▪ …
 
▪ Huehnergard 2011: Engl ¹hakim, from Ar ↗ḥakīm ‘wise (man), sage, doctor’, from ḥakama ‘to judge, decide, govern’; ²hakim, from Ar ḥākim ‘ruling; ruler, governor’, PA of ḥakama (this entry).
▪ …
 
ḥukima ʕalay-hi bi’l-ʔiʕdām, expr., he was sentenced to death
ḥukima bi-ʔidānati-h, to convict s.o., find s.o. guilty (jur.)
ḥukima bi-barāʔati-hī, to acquit s.o. (jur.).

ḥakkama, vb. II, 1 to appoint (s.o.) as ruler; 2 to choose (s.o.) as arbitrator, make (s.o.) the judge ( over or in s.th., bayna between): D-stem; ¹v: denom. from ↓ḥākim; ²v: denom. from ↓ḥakam.
ḥākama, vb. III, 1 to prosecute (s.o.); 2 to arraign, bring to trial, hale into court (s.o.); 3 to interrogate, hear (s.o.): L-stem, assoc.
ʔaḥkama, vb. IV, 1 to make (s.th.) firm, strong, sturdy, solid; 2 to fortify (s.th.); 3 to strengthen, consolidate (s.th.); 4 to do well, do expertly, master (a field, work), be proficient (in): *Š-stem, caus. | ~ ʔamra-hū, to do s.th. thoroughly, carefully, properly; ~ qafl al-bāb, to lock the door firmly; ~ luġaẗan, to master a language.
BP#3360taḥakkama, vb. V, 1 to have one’s own way ( in), proceed (fī with) at random, at will, handle ( s.th.) arbitrarily; 2 to pass arbitrary judgment ( on); 3a to make o.s. the judge (ʕalà of), pass judgment (ʕalà on); b to decide (bi‑ on); 4a to rule, reign, hold sway ( over); b to dominate, control ( s.th.), be in control, be in command ( of): Dt-stem, self-ref.
taḥākama, vb. VI, 1 to bring one another before the judge (ʔilà al-ḥākim); 2 to appeal (ʔilà to) for a legal decision; 3 to be interrogated, be heard (in court): Lt-stem; ¹v: reciprocal, denom. from ↓ḥākim or ↓maḥkamaẗ; ²v: self-ref., denom. (*‘to turn to a judge\court to obtain s.th. for o.s.’); ³v: quasi-pass.
ĭḥtakama, vb. VIII, 1 to have one’s own way ( in), proceed ( with, in s.th.) at will, at random, handle ( s.th.) arbitrarily, judge arbitrarily; 2 to rule, reign, hold sway (ʕalà, over); 3 to be in control, be in possession (ʕalà of); 4 to appeal (ʔilà to) for a legal decision, seek a decision (ʔilà from), have s.o. (ʔilà) decide.
ĭstaḥkama, vb. X, 1 to be strong, sturdy, solid, firm; 2 to become stronger, be strengthened, be consolidated; 3 to take root, be or become deep-rooted, deep-seated, ingrained, inveterate, marked, pronounced (feeling, trait): *Št-stem, self-ref., intr. of vb. IV.

BP#311BP#311ḥukm, pl. ʔaḥkām, n., 1 judgment, valuation, opinion; 2 decision; 3 (legal) judgment, verdict, sentence; 4 condemnation, conviction; 5 administration of justice; 6 jurisdiction; 7 legal consequence of the facts of a case (Isl.. Law); 8 regulation, rule, provision, order, ordinance, decree; 9 judiciousness, wisdom; 10 judgeship; 11 command, authority, control, dominion, power; 12 government, regime; 13 pl. ʔaḥkām, statutes, by-laws, regulations, rules, provisions, stipulations, principles, precepts: vn. I | ḥukman, adv., 1 virtually; 2 legally; bi-ḥukmi, adv., 1 by virtue of, on the strength of, pursuant to; 2 by force of; fī ḥukmi, prep., as good as, all but, e.g., huwa fī ḥukm al-ʕadam, expr., it is as good as nothing, it is practically nonexistent; ʔaṣbaḥa fī ḥukm al-muqarrar, expr., it is all but decided; kāna fī ḥukm al-šayʔ, vb., also: to be subject to s.th.; nazala ʕalà ḥukmi-h, vb., to give in, yield to s.o.; ḥukm al-barāʔaẗ, n., acquittal; ḥukm huḍūrī, n., judgment delivered in the presence of the litigant parties, after oral proceedings (jur.); ḥukm bi’l-ʔiʕdām, n., death sentence; ḥukm ġiyabī, n., judgment by default (jur.); al-ḥukm al-ḏātī, n., selfdetermination, autonomy (pol.); ḥukm ǧumhūrī, n., the republican form of government, the republican regime; ḥukm muṭlaq, n., the absolute, i.e., authoritarian, regime; ḥukm niyābī, n., the parliamentary regime, parliamentarianism; laǧnaẗ al-ḥukm, n.f., board of examiners, review board; ʔaḥkām al-ʕurfiyyaẗ, nonhum.pl., martial law; ʔaḥkām ĭntiqāliyyaẗ, nonhum.pl., provisional regulations (jur.); ʔaḥkām ḫitāmiyyaẗ, nonhum.pl., final regulations (jur.); ʔaḥkām ḫāṣṣaẗ, nonhum.pl., special regulations; li-kull sinn ḥukmu-h, expr., every age has its own set of rules, must be judged by its own standards; lil-ḍarūraẗ ʔaḥkām, expr.,necessity has its (own) rules, (approx.: necessity knows no law).
ḥukmī, adj., legal: nisba formation from the preceding.
ḥikimdār (Eg.), n., 1 commandant; 2 chief of police: from ḥik(i)m, dial. var. of ḥukm, + Pe suffix ‑dār ‘owner of…’, from Pers dādan, prs-stem dār‑ ‘to have’.
ḥikimdāriyyaẗ (Eg.), n.f., commandant’s office: abstract formation in ‑iyyaẗ from the preceding.
BP#4081ḥakam, pl. ḥukkām, n., 1 arbitrator, arbiter; 2 umpire, referee.
BP#1559ḥikmaẗ, pl. ḥikam, n.f., 1 wisdom; 2 sagacity; 3 wise saying, aphorism; 4 maxim; 5 underlying reason | li-ḥikmaẗ … (with foll. genit.), prep., on account of, because of: cf. separate entry ↗ḥikmaẗ.
ḥikmī, adj., gnomic, aphoristic, expressing maxims: nisba formation from the preceding. | šiʕr ~, n., gnomic poetry.
ḥakamaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., bit (of a horse’s bridle): perh. one of the earliest values.
BP#1948ḥakīm, pl. ḥukamāʔᵘ, adj., 1a wise, judicious; b wise man, sage; 2a philosopher; b physician, doctor: ↗s.v.
ḥakīmbāšī, n., senior physician, chief surgeon: nisba formation from the preceding.
BP#103ḥukūmaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., government: ↗s.v.
BP#884ḥukūmī, adj., 1 of government, governmental; 2 official; 3 state-owned, statecontrolled, of the state, state- (in compounds): nisba formation from the preceding.
ʔaḥkamᵘ, adj., wiser: elative of ḥakīm.
BP#540maḥkamaẗ, pl. maḥākimᵘ, n.f., court, tribunal: n.loc. | maḥkamaẗ al-ĭstiʔnāf and maḥkamaẗ ĭstiʔnāfiyyaẗ, n.f., court of appeal, appellate court; maḥkamaẗ ʔahliyyaẗ, n.f., indigenous court (Eg.; jurisdiction limited to Egyptian nationals); maḥkamaẗ ĭbtidāʔiyyaẗ, n.f., court of first instance; maḥkamaẗ ĭbtidāʔiyyaẗ kulliyaẗ, n.f., civil court with jurisdiction in cases of major importance, at the same time appellate instance of maḥākim ǧuzʔiyyaẗ (Eg.); maḥkamaẗ ǧuzʔiyyaẗ, n.f., 1 in Eg., lowest court of both maḥkamaẗ ʔahliyyaẗ (approx.: district courts) and of maḥkamaẗ šarʕiyyaẗ, canonical courts (with jurisdiction in marital and family matters); 2 summary court; maḥkamaẗ al-ǧināyāt, n.f.,criminal court; maḥkamaẗ al-ʔaḥwāl al-šaḫṣiyyaẗ, n.f., courts dealing with vital statistics; maḥkamaẗ muḫtaliṭaẗ, n.f., mixed court (with jurisdiction over residents of foreign nationality); maḥkamaẗ šarʕiyyaẗ, n.f., canonical court (administering justice on the basis of the Sharia), court dealing with family matters of Muslims; maḥkamaẗ markaziyyaẗ, n.f., county court, dealing with minor offenses, esp. misdemeanors (Eg.); maḥkamaẗ al-qaḍāʔ al-ʔidārī, n.f., administrative court; maḥkamaẗ al-naqḍ wa’l-ʔibrām, n.f., Court of Cassation, the highest court of appeal in Egypt; maḥkamaẗ al-tamyīz, n.f., Court of Cassation (Syr., Leb. = maḥkamaẗ al-naqḍ wa’l-ʔibrām in Eg.); sāḥāt al-maḥākim, n. pl., tribunals.
BP#3186taḥkīm, n., 1 appointment of an arbitrator; 2 arbitration; 3 arbitral decision, award; pl. ‑āt, fortifications: vn. II. | taḥkīm al-ḥāl, expr., starting from the present state of a court’s findings (Isl. Law); hayʔaẗ al¬-taḥkīm, n.f., 1 board of arbitration; 2 jury, committee of judges, committee of umpires (in sports), committee of referees (in mil. maneuvers); laǧnaẗ taḥkīmiyyaẗ, n.f., dto.
BP#2302muḥākamaẗ, n.f., 1 judicial proceeding; 2 trial, hearing (in court); 3 legal prosecution: vn. III.
ʔiḥkām, n., 1a perfection; b accuracy, exactness, exactitude, precision; c exact performance, precise execution: vn. IV. | bi’l-ʔiḥkām, adv., accurately, exactly, precisely; bāliġ fī ’l¬ʔiḥkām , adj., of highest perfection.
BP#2191taḥakkum, n., 1 arbitrariness, arbitrary powers or action; 2 despotism; domination, dominion, rule, sway, power; 3 control ( of, over): vn. V.
taḥakkumī, adj., 1 arbitrary; 2 despotic: nisba formation from the preceding.
ĭstiḥkām, n., 1 intensification, increase, strengthening; 2 consolidation, stabilization; 3 fortification; pl. ‑āt, fortifications: vn. X.
BP#828ḥākim, I adj. 1 ruling, governing; 2 decisive; – II n. (pl. ‑ūn, ḥukkām) 3a ruler, sovereign; b governor; 4 judge: PA I. | ḥākim bi-ʔamri-h, adj., n., 1 autocratic; 2 autocrat, dictator; ḥākim ʕāmm, n., governor general; ḥākim mubārāẗ, n., umpire, referee (athlet.); ḥākim al-ṣulḥ, n. (SyrAr) justice of the peace; ḥākim al-nāḥiyaẗ, n. (Tun.), district magistrate.
ḥākimiyyaẗ, n.f., 1 domination, dominion, rule, sovereignty; 2 judgeship, judicature, jurisdiction (iur.): abstract formation in ‑iyyaẗ from the preceding.
maḥkūm ʕalayh, adj., sentenced (bi‑ to): PP I. | al-maḥkūm ʕalay-him bi’l-ʔiʕdām, n.pl., those sentenced to death; maḥkūm ʕalayh bi’l-fašal, adj., doomed to fail.
muḥakkam, pl. ‑ūn, 1 arbitrator, arbiter; 2 umpire, referee ( in, over): PP II.
muḥkam, adj., 1a strengthened, reinforced; b firm, solid, sturdy; c tight, taut; 2a perfect, masterly, masterful; b well-aimed (blow, hit); c accurate, precise, exact: PP IV. | muḥkam al-tadbīr, adj., well-planned, well-contrived.
mustaḥkam, adj., 1a reinforced, fortified; b strengthened, consolidated, strong; 2 inveterate, deep-seated, deep-rooted, ingrained (custom, trait, etc.); 3 mustaḥkamāt, nonhum.pl., defenses, fortifications: PP X.

See also individual entries ↗ʔaḥkama, ↗ḥakam, ↗ḥikmaẗ, ↗ḥakamaẗ, ↗ḥakīm, ↗ḥukūmaẗ, ↗maḥkamaẗ, ↗taḥakkum, and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤKM.
 
ʔaḥkam‑ أَحْكَمَ (ʔiḥkām
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤKM 
vb., IV 
1 to make (s.th.) firm, strong, sturdy, solid; 2 to fortify (s.th.); 3 to strengthen, consolidate (s.th.); 4 to do well, do expertly, master (a field, work), be proficient (in) – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ Morphologically, ʔaḥkama is a *Š-stem, which usually has either a caus. meaning or is denominative. Values [v1]-[v2] look as if they could be causatives; but there is no corresponding G-stem signifying *ʻto be firm, strong, solid’. The values, attested in Ar and Gz, that come closest to ʻfirmness, strength, solidity’ are those of Ar ↗ḥakamaẗ ʻbit (of a horse’s bridle)’, ↗ḥakama in the old sense of ‘to prevent\restrain\withhold s.o. from acting in an evil\corrupt manner; to pull (a horse) by the bridle and bit to stop it; to curb, restrain’ (cf. Lane ii 1865), and the obsolete ḥakama ‘to practice fencing; to overtake s.o. (rain, mishap)’, ḥakam ‘fencing’ (e.g., Hava1899), as well as Gz taḥakama ʻto restrain, withhold’. An element of force is also present in the Akk ekēmu ʻto take away (by force)’, otherwise with no WSem etymology (Kogan2015). – It may well be that the basic idea in ↗√ḤKM as a whole is the *ʻfirm grip’ with which one keeps hold of s.th. or takes s.th., hence also ʻmastery, control over s.th.’. – Cf. also Orel&Stolbova1994 who suggest the etymology Ar ḥakam‑ ‘to take’ [sic!] < Sem *ḥ˅kum‑ ‘to take’ [sic!], with prefix *ḥ˅‑ from AfrAs *kum‑ ‘to take, get’. – Whether [v3] ʻto do well\expertly, master (a field, work), be proficient’ should be regarded as a development from *ʻto make firm, strong, solid’ or a denom. formation from ↗ḥakīm ʻwise, knowledgeable’ is impossible to decide.
▪ …
 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥakama.
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
– 
ʔaḥkama ʔamra-hū, to do s.th. thoroughly, carefully, properly
ʔaḥkama qafl al-bāb, to lock the door firmly
ʔaḥkama luġaẗan, to master a language.

ĭstaḥkama, vb. X, 1 to be strong, sturdy, solid, firm; 2 to become stronger, be strengthened, be consolidated; 3 to take root, be or become deep-rooted, deep-seated, ingrained, inveterate, marked, pronounced (feeling, trait): *Št-stem, self-ref., intr. of vb. IV.

ḥakamaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., bit (of a horse’s bridle): perh. one of the earliest values.
ʔiḥkām, n., 1a perfection; b accuracy, exactness, exactitude, precision; c exact performance, precise execution: vn. IV. | bi’l-ʔiḥkām, adv., accurately, exactly, precisely; bāliġ fī ’l¬ʔiḥkām , adj., of highest perfection.
ĭstiḥkām, n., 1 intensification, increase, strengthening; 2 consolidation, stabilization; 3 fortification; pl. ‑āt, fortifications: vn. X.
muḥkam, adj., 1a strengthened, reinforced; b firm, solid, sturdy; c tight, taut; 2a perfect, masterly, masterful; b well-aimed (blow, hit); c accurate, precise, exact: PP IV. | muḥkam al-tadbīr, adj., well-planned, well-contrived.
mustaḥkam, adj., 1a reinforced, fortified; b strengthened, consolidated, strong; 2 inveterate, deep-seated, deep-rooted, ingrained (custom, trait, etc.); 3 mustaḥkamāt, nonhum.pl., defenses, fortifications: PP X.

See also ↗ḥakama, ↗ḥakam, ↗ḥikmaẗ, ↗ḥakamaẗ, ↗ḥakīm, ↗ḥukūmaẗ, ↗maḥkamaẗ, ↗taḥakkum, and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤKM.
 
ḥakam حَكَم , pl. ḥukkām 
ID – • Sw – • BP 4081 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤKM 
n. 
1 arbitrator, arbiter; 2 umpire, referee – WehrCowan1976.
 
▪ Within the semantic spectrum covered by the root ↗√ḤKM, the closest relatives of ḥakam ʻarbitrator, arbiter’ seem to be ↗ḥikmaẗ ʻwisdom’ and ↗ḥakīm ʻwise; doctor; philosopher’, both prob. borrowed from, or influenced by, secondary developments in WSem (for which Kogan2015 reconstructs *ḤKM ʻto be wise’; cf. also Huehnergard2011 CSem *ḤKM ʻto be wise, judge’). The primary meaning of the root may be preserved in Ar ↗ḥakamaẗ ʻbridle, martingale’, ḥakam ʻfencing’, or ↗ḥakama in the sense of ʻ to bridle, check, curb’ (cf. also the single Gz taḥakama ʻto contain, withhold’), which may perh. be akin to Akk ekēmu ʻto take away (by force)’. If this etymology is correct, the idea of ʻwisdom’ (and hence the capacity to serve as an arbitrator, to make decisions and pass judgement) is based on a person’s strong grip on s.th. and his\her ability to ʻbridle, keep control, check, curb’ (cf. also ↗ʔaḥkama ʻto make firm, strong, solid’).
▪ …
 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥakama.
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
– 
ḥakkama, vb. II, 1 to appoint (s.o.) as ruler; 2 to choose (s.o.) as arbitrator, make (s.o.) the judge ( over or in s.th., bayna between): D-stem; ¹v: denom. from ḥākim; ²v: denom. from ḥakam.
BP#3360taḥakkama, vb. V, 1 to have one’s own way ( in), proceed (fī with) at random, at will, handle ( s.th.) arbitrarily; 2 to pass arbitrary judgment ( on); 3a to make o.s. the judge (ʕalà of), pass judgment (ʕalà on); b to decide (bi‑ on); 4a to rule, reign, hold sway ( over); b to dominate, control ( s.th.), be in control, be in command ( of): Dt-stem, self-ref.
ĭḥtakama, vb. VIII, 1 to have one’s own way ( in), proceed ( with, in s.th.) at will, at random, handle ( s.th.) arbitrarily, judge arbitrarily; 2 to rule, reign, hold sway (ʕalà, over); 3 to be in control, be in possession (ʕalà of); 4 to appeal (ʔilà to) for a legal decision, seek a decision (ʔilà from), have s.o. (ʔilà) decide.
BP#3186taḥkīm, n., 1 appointment of an arbitrator; 2 arbitration; 3 arbitral decision, award; pl. ‑āt, fortifications: vn. II. | taḥkīm al-ḥāl, expr., starting from the present state of a court’s findings (Isl. Law); hayʔaẗ al¬-taḥkīm, n.f., 1 board of arbitration; 2 jury, committee of judges, committee of umpires (in sports), committee of referees (in mil. maneuvers); laǧnaẗ taḥkīmiyyaẗ, n.f., dto.
BP#2191taḥakkum, n., 1 arbitrariness, arbitrary powers or action; 2 despotism; domination, dominion, rule, sway, power; 3 control ( of, over): vn. V.
taḥakkumī, adj., 1 arbitrary; 2 despotic: nisba formation from the preceding.
muḥakkam, pl. ‑ūn, 1 arbitrator, arbiter; 2 umpire, referee ( in, over): PP II.

See also ↗ḥakama, ↗ʔaḥkama, ↗ḥikmaẗ, ↗ḥakamaẗ, ↗ḥakīm, ↗ḥukūmaẗ, ↗maḥkamaẗ, ↗taḥakkum, and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤKM.
 
ḥikmaẗ حِكْمة , pl. ḥikam 
ID 223 • Sw – • BP 1559 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤKM 
n.f. 
1a wisdom; b sagacity; 2a wise saying, aphorism; b maxim; 3 underlying reason – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ Accord. to Jeffery1938, ḥikmaẗ ‘wisdom’ and ↗ḥakīm ‘wise, sage; doctor; philosopher’ »seem undoubtedly to have been formed under Aram influence«. Our own hypothesis is that the NSem *‘wisdom’ is a development from an earlier *‘to govern’ (wisdom as proof of the capacity to make decisions, pass judgement, rule’), which in itself may be based on the idea of ‘retaining, keeping control, fencing, curbing’, still present in ↗ḥakamaẗ ‘bit of a horse’s bridle; martingale’ or the vb. I ↗ḥakama in the sense of ‘to bridle, check, curb’, and reflected also in vb. IV ʔaḥkama ‘to make firm, sturdy, solid; to strengthen, consolidate; to fortify; to do well, do expertly, master, be proficient’.
▪ …
 
▪ Occurs some nineteen times in the Q, cf. ii, 123, 146; v, 110 ‘wisdom’.
▪ …
 
▪ ↗ḥakama.
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ Jeffery1938, 111: »It [sc. ḥikmaẗ] is clearly a technical word in the Qurʔān, being used in its original sense only in ii, 272, but applied to Luqmān (xxxi, 11), to David (ii, 252; xxxviii, 19), to the Prophet’s teaching (xvi, 126; liv, 5), to the Qurʔān (ii, 231; iv, 113; xxxiii, 34; lxii, 2), and used synonymously with ‘revealed book’ (iii, 43, 75, 158; iv, 57; v, 110; xvii, 41; xliii, 63). In connection with it should be noted also ↗ḥakīm with its comparative ʔaḥkamᵘ. – The root ḤKM is of wide use in Sem, but the sense of ‘wisdom’ appears to be a NSem development,169 while the SSem use of the word is more in connection with the sense of ‘govern’. Thus in NSem we find Akk ḫakmu ‘to know’; Hbr ḥāḵam; Aram ḥăḵam; Syr ḥăḵam ‘to be wise’,170 and ḥkmh ‘wisdom’ in the Zenjirli inscription. Thus [Ar] ḥikmaẗ and ḥakīm171 seem undoubtedly to have been formed under Aram influence.172 With ḥikmaẗ compare Hbr ḥāḵᵊmāh; Aram ḥāḵᵊmṯā; Syr ḥāḵᵊmṯā, and the Zenjirli ḥkmh; and with ḥakīm compare Aram ḥăḵīm; Syr ḥăḵīmā which as Horowitz, KU, 72, notes, is common in the earliest Aram period. It is possible that the word came into use from SArabia, for we find ḥkm in a Qat inscription published by Derenbourg,173 and which Nielsen takes to be an epithet of the moon-god.«
▪ …
 
– 
li-ḥikmaẗ … (with foll. genit.), prep., on account of, because of.

ḥikmī, adj., gnomic, aphoristic, expressing maxims: nisba formation from the preceding. | šiʕr ~, n., gnomic poetry.
BP#1948ḥakīm, pl. ḥukamāʔᵘ, adj., 1a wise, judicious; b wise man, sage; 2a philosopher; b physician, doctor: ↗s.v.
ḥakīmbāšī, n., senior physician, chief surgeon: nisba formation from the preceding.
ʔaḥkamᵘ, adj., wiser: elative of ḥakīm.

See also ↗ḥakama, ↗ʔaḥkama, ↗ḥakam, ↗ḥakamaẗ, ↗ḥakīm, ↗ḥukūmaẗ, ↗maḥkamaẗ, ↗taḥakkum, and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤKM.
 
ḥakamaẗ حَكَمة , pl. ‑āt 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤKM 
n.f. 
bit (of a horse’s bridle) – WehrCowan1976. 
ḥakamaẗ ‘bit (of a horse’s bridle), (in ClassAr also:) martingale’ reflects perh. one of the earliest values within the root ↗√ḤKM in which today the two notions of ‘to govern’ and ‘to be wise, judge’ are the most prominent values. Our own hypothesis is a develepment along the line *‘to have a firm grip on s.th. [cf. ↗ʔaḥkama] > (to be able to) retain, withhold, curb, fence [ḥakamaẗ] > to govern, control [↗ḥakama] > to rule, pass judgment, decide, serve as arbiter [↗ḥakam, ↗ḥakama] > to be wise [↗ḥikmaẗ, ↗ḥakīm]’.
▪ For more details, cf. the references given in the preceding paragraph as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√ḤKM.
▪ …
 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥakama.
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
– 
BP#1694ḥakama , u (ḥukm), 1-8ḥakama; 9 to bridle, check, curb (s.th., s.o.): perh. one of the earliest meanings of the vb.
ʔaḥkama, vb. IV, 1 to make (s.th.) firm, strong, sturdy, solid; 2 to fortify (s.th.); 3 to strengthen, consolidate (s.th.); 4 to do well, do expertly, master (a field, work), be proficient (in): *Š-stem, caus. | ~ ʔamra-hū, to do s.th. thoroughly, carefully, properly; ~ qafl al-bāb, to lock the door firmly; ~ luġaẗan, to master a language.
ĭstaḥkama, vb. X, 1 to be strong, sturdy, solid, firm; 2 to become stronger, be strengthened, be consolidated; 3 to take root, be or become deep-rooted, deep-seated, ingrained, inveterate, marked, pronounced (feeling, trait): *Št-stem, self-ref., intr. of vb. IV.

BP#3186taḥkīm, n., 1-2ḥakam; 3 pl. taḥkīmāt, fortifications: vn. II.
ʔiḥkām, n., 1a perfection; b accuracy, exactness, exactitude, precision; c exact performance, precise execution: vn. IV. | bi’l-ʔiḥkām, adv., accurately, exactly, precisely; bāliġ fī ’l¬ʔiḥkām , adj., of highest perfection.
ĭstiḥkām, n., 1 intensification, increase, strengthening; 2 consolidation, stabilization; 3 fortification; pl. ‑āt, fortifications: vn. X.
muḥkam, adj., 1a strengthened, reinforced; b firm, solid, sturdy; c tight, taut; 2a perfect, masterly, masterful; b well-aimed (blow, hit); c accurate, precise, exact: PP IV. | muḥkam al-tadbīr, adj., well-planned, well-contrived.
mustaḥkam, adj., 1a reinforced, fortified; b strengthened, consolidated, strong; 2 inveterate, deep-seated, deep-rooted, ingrained (custom, trait, etc.); 3 mustaḥkamāt, nonhum.pl., defenses, fortifications: PP X.

See also ↗ḥakama, ↗ʔaḥkama, ↗ḥakam, ↗ḥikmaẗ, ↗ḥakīm, ↗ḥukūmaẗ, ↗maḥkamaẗ, ↗taḥakkum, and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤKM.
 
ḥakīm حَكيم , pl. ḥukamāʔᵘ 
ID – • Sw – • BP 1948 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤKM 
adj.; n. 
1a wise, judicious; b wise man, sage; 2 philosopher; 3 physician, doctor – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ Accord. to Jeffery1938, both ḥakīm ‘wise, sage; doctor; philosopher’ and ↗ḥikmaẗ ‘wisdom’ »seem undoubtedly to have been formed under Aram influence«. Our own hypothesis is that the NSem *‘wisdom’ is a development from an earlier *‘to govern’ (wisdom as proof of the capacity to make decisions, pass judgement, rule’), which in itself may be based on the idea of ‘retaining, keeping tight control, fencing, curbing’, still present in ↗ḥakamaẗ ‘bit of a horse’s bridle; martingale’ or the vb. I, ↗ḥakama, in the sense of ‘to bridle, check, curb’; it is reflected also in vb. IV, ʔaḥkama ‘to make firm, sturdy, solid; to strengthen, consolidate; to fortify; to do well, do expertly, master, be proficient’.
▪ In the early Abbasid period, when many words were loaned or calqued from Grk, the native Ar term ḥakīm came to replace the initial direct loan ↗faylasūf. The foreign word was however not completely discarded. In the meaning ‘philosopher’, ḥakīm is among the plentitude of concepts that testify to the extensive reception of the Hellenistic heritage between 750 and c1000 CE when learned »translators and scientists […] made the legacy of Grk philosophy, medicine, mathematics, and other sciences accessible to the Muslim world« and thus enriched the language »considerably by innumerable technical terms.«44
▪ …
 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥakama.
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ See also ↗ḥikmaẗ for the full quote of Jeffery’s argument.
▪ …
 
▪ Huehnergard 2011: Engl ¹hakim, from Ar ḥakīm ‘wise (man), sage, doctor’, from ↗ḥakama ‘to judge, decide, govern’. Cf. also ²hakim, from Ar ḥākim ‘ruling; ruler, governor’, PA of ↗ḥakama.
▪ …
 
ḥakīmbāšī, n., senior physician, chief surgeon: nisba formation from the preceding.
ʔaḥkamᵘ, adj., wiser: elative of ḥakīm.

See also ↗ḥakama, ↗ʔaḥkama, ↗ḥakam, ↗ḥikmaẗ, ↗ḥakamaẗ, ↗ḥukūmaẗ, ↗maḥkamaẗ, ↗taḥakkum, and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤKM.
 
ḥukūmaẗ حُكومة , pl. ‑āt 
ID 224 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 103 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤKM 
n.f. 
government – WehrCowan1979. 
ḥukūmaẗ is formed from ↗ḥakama ʻto govern’, which in itself seems to be based on the notion of ‘retaining, keeping tight control of s.th., fencing, curbing’, still present in ↗ḥakamaẗ ‘bit of a horse’s bridle; martingale’ or the meaning ‘to bridle, check, curb’, nowadays rather marginal, of ḥakama; the prob. earlier value is reflected also in ʔaḥkama, vb. IV, ‘to make firm, sturdy, solid; to strengthen, consolidate; to fortify; to do well, do expertly, master, be proficient’. – For further details cf. the entries just mentioned as well as root entry ↗√ḤKM.
▪ …
 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥakama.
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
– 
BP#884ḥukūmī, adj., 1 of government, governmental; 2 official; 3 state-owned, statecontrolled, of the state, state- (in compounds): nisba formation.

See also ↗ḥakama, ↗ʔaḥkama, ↗ḥakam, ↗ḥikmaẗ, ↗ḥakamaẗ, ↗ḥakīm, ↗maḥkamaẗ, ↗taḥakkum, and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤKM.
 
ḥukūmī حُكوميّ 
Sw – • NahḍConBP 884 • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√ḤKM  
adj. 
▪ nsb-formation 
maḥkamaẗ مَحْكَمة , pl. maḥākimᵘ 
ID 225 • Sw – • BP 540 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤKM 
n.f. 
court, tribunal – WehrCowan1979. 
maḥkamaẗ is a n.loc. coined from ↗ḥakama, vb. I, in the sense of ʻto pass judgment, judge s.th., pass a verdict\sentence, impose a penalty on s.o.’, with which the vb. is akin to ↗ḥakam ʻarbiter’, ↗ḥikmaẗ ʻwisdom’, and ↗ḥakīm ʻwise; doctor; philosopher’. – For further background, cf. the entries just mentioned as well as root entry ↗ḤKM.
▪ …
 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥakama.
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
– 
maḥkamaẗ al-ĭstiʔnāf and maḥkamaẗ ĭstiʔnāfiyyaẗ, n.f., court of appeal, appellate court;
maḥkamaẗ ʔahliyyaẗ, n.f., indigenous court (Eg.; jurisdiction limited to Egyptian nationals);
maḥkamaẗ ĭbtidāʔiyyaẗ, n.f., court of first instance;
maḥkamaẗ ĭbtidāʔiyyaẗ kulliyaẗ, n.f., civil court with jurisdiction in cases of major importance, at the same time appellate instance of maḥākim ǧuzʔiyyaẗ (Eg.);
maḥkamaẗ ǧuzʔiyyaẗ, n.f., 1 in Eg., lowest court of both maḥkamaẗ ʔahliyyaẗ (approx.: district courts) and of maḥkamaẗ šarʕiyyaẗ, canonical courts (with jurisdiction in marital and family matters); 2 summary court;
maḥkamaẗ al-ǧināyāt, n.f.,criminal court;
maḥkamaẗ al-ʔaḥwāl al-šaḫṣiyyaẗ, n.f., courts dealing with vital statistics;
maḥkamaẗ muḫtaliṭaẗ, n.f., mixed court (with jurisdiction over residents of foreign nationality);
maḥkamaẗ šarʕiyyaẗ, n.f., canonical court (administering justice on the basis of the Sharia), court dealing with family matters of Muslims;
maḥkamaẗ markaziyyaẗ, n.f., county court, dealing with minor offenses, esp. misdemeanors (Eg.);
maḥkamaẗ al-qaḍāʔ al-ʔidārī, n.f., administrative court;
maḥkamaẗ al-naqḍ wa’l-ʔibrām, n.f., Court of Cassation, the highest court of appeal in Egypt;
maḥkamaẗ al-tamyīz, n.f., Court of Cassation (Syr., Leb. = maḥkamaẗ al-naqḍ wa’l-ʔibrām in Eg.);
sāḥāt al-maḥākim, n. pl., tribunals.

BP#2302muḥākamaẗ, n.f., 1 judicial proceeding; 2 trial, hearing (in court); 3 legal prosecution: vn. III.
BP#828ḥākim, I adj. 1 ruling, governing; 2 decisive; – II n. (pl. ‑ūn, ḥukkām) 3a ruler, sovereign; b governor; 4 judge: PA I. | ḥākim bi-ʔamri-h, adj., n., 1 autocratic; 2 autocrat, dictator; ḥākim ʕāmm, n., governor general; ḥākim mubārāẗ, n., umpire, referee (athlet.); ḥākim al-ṣulḥ, n. (SyrAr) justice of the peace; ḥākim al-nāḥiyaẗ, n. (Tun.), district magistrate.

See also ↗ḥakama, ↗ʔaḥkama, ↗ḥakam, ↗ḥikmaẗ, ↗ḥakamaẗ, ↗ḥakīm, ↗ḥukūmaẗ, ↗taḥakkum, and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤKM.
 
taḥakkum تَحَكُّم 
ID – • Sw – • BP 2191 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤKM 
n. 
1 arbitrariness, arbitrary powers or action; 2 despotism; domination, dominion, rule, sway, power; 3 control ( of, over) – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ vn. V, formed from BP#3360taḥakkama, vb. V, ʻto have one’s own way, proceed at random, handle, pass arbitrary judgment on); to rule, reign, hold sway over, dominate, control’, a Dt-stem with the typical, self-referential meaning, lit. *ʻto make o.s. the arbiter (ḥakam), judge or ruler (ḥākim, see ↗ḥakama)’. Vb. VIII, ĭḥtakama (Gt-stem), shows a very similar meaning (see ↗ḥakama, section DERIV). Both taḥakkama and taḥakkum are mostly used in the negative sense of abusing one’s power.
▪ …
 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥakama.
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
– 
taḥakkumī, adj., 1 arbitrary; 2 despotic: nisba formation.

See also ↗ḥakama, ↗ʔaḥkama, ↗ḥakam, ↗ḥikmaẗ, ↗ḥakamaẗ, ↗ḥakīm, ↗ḥukūmaẗ, ↗maḥkamaẗ, and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤKM.
 
ḤKY حكي 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤKY 
“root” 
▪ ḤKY_1 ‘to imitate, copy, resemble; to report, relate, tell; story; (syr., leb.) to speak, talk’ ↗ḥakà
▪ ḤKY_2 ‘’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): Ø (no Qur’anic root!) 
▪ Out of the four values listed in DRS for the root ḤKY in Sem, only one is represented in Ar. The latter does not seem to have real cognates within Sem and therefore seems to be an exclusively Ar phenomenon.
▪ In Ar, the basic value of ḤKY seems to have been ‘to imitate, resemble’. From this, the other values (‘to report, relate, tell’ and, in LevAr, also the general ‘to speak, talk’) have developed, see ↗ḥakà. – See also ↗ḥikāyaẗ ‘story’. 
– 
DRS 9 (2010)#ḤKW/Y-1 Ar ḥakā(y) ‘ rapporter, relater, raconter; ressembler, imiter’. -2 Hbr ḥākā ‘attendre avec impatience’. -3 Mhr ḥəkū ‘refuser de donner’, Jib ḥké ‘envier’; s̃ḥεké ‘vouloir que qn fasse qc de difficile à sa place’, s̃əḥéki ‘essayer de se dégager d’une obligation’; -4 Jib ḥɔ́kε ‘sang et délivre’.
▪ Militarev&Stolbova2007: Outside Sem: (ECh) é:kē, wáàké ‘to call’ (in 2 langs). 
▪ For ḤKY_1, see ↗ḥakà.
DRS 9 (2010)#ḤKW/Y-2: A été emprunté en Akk sous la forme ḫakûm ‘attendre’, selon AHW 309. 
▪ ↗ḥakà
– 
ḥakà / ḥakay‑ حَكَى / حَكَيْـ , i (ḥikāyaẗ
ID 227 • Sw – • BP 224 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤKY 
vb., I 
1 to tell, relate, report, give an account (DO of); 2 to speak, talk (syr., leb.); 3 to imitate, copy; to resemble (s.o., s.th.) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ The word does not seem to have any cognates in Sem. The primary meaning was probably [v3] ‘to resemble, imitate’, whence developed [v1] ‘to report’ (i.e., *‘to reproduce/imitate what s.o. has said or done’?), hence [v2] ‘to speak’. 
ḥakà originally meant ‘to imitate’, but »came to acquire the meaning of ‘to tell, to narrate’; similarly the noun ↗ḥikāyaẗ, starting from the meaning of ‘imitation’, has come to mean more specifically ‘mimicry’, and finally ‘tale, narrative, story, legend’. In ClassAr the intensive form ḥākiyaẗ meant a ‘mimic’ and modAr has adopted the PA ḥākin to translate ‘gramophone’« – Ch. Pellat, in art. »Ḥikāya«, EI²
DRS 9 (2010)#ḤKW/Y-1 Ar ḥakā(y) ‘rapporter, relater, raconter; ressembler, imiter’
▪ Militarev&Stolbova2007 thinks that the forms é:kē and wáàké ‘to call’ in 2 ECh langs may be cognates outside Sem. 
▪ As DRS shows, the value ‘to resemble, imitate; to tell a story’ of the root ḤKY is apparently without cognates in Sem.
▪ Landberg1920 thinks that the basic meaning of ḥakà is »‘être ressemblant, imiter’«.
▪ Militarev&Stolbova2007: Based on Ar ḥakà, the authors reconstruct Sem *ḥ˅k˅y- ‘to tell, inform’, and from the evidence in 2 ECh langs they stipulate ECh *H(y)akay- ‘to call’. If these reconstructions are correct, the regular ancestor of both should be AfrAs *ḥ˅kay- (?) ‘to tell, call’. But the authors are reluctant themselves and underline that all this is based on scarce data only.
▪ Are ↗ḤKː (ḤKK) ‘to rub’ or ↗ḤW/YK ‘to weave’ related in any way?
▪ Hava1899 mentions a vb. IV, ʔaḥkà ʕalà , with the meaning ‘to overcome s.o.’. Is that related to ḥakà, and if so, how? 
▪ Tu tahkiye ‘narration, narrative’ : C20 (lOttTu) neolog., renders Fr narratif, does not seem to be based on a corresponding Ar vn. II, *taḥkiyaẗ – Nişanyan_11Jun2015.
▪ For Tu hikâye, see ↗ ḥikāyaẗ
ḥākà, vb. III, 1 to imitate, copy, assimilate o.s. (DO to); 2 to be similar (DO to), be like s.th. (DO), resemble, be attuned, adjusted, adopted (DO to), be in harmony (DO with): L-stem, associative.

ḥaky, n., (Syr., leb.) 1 speaking, talking; 2 speech: vn. I.
BP#1296ḥikāyaẗ, pl. -āt, n.f., 1 story, tale, narrative, account; 2 (gram.) literal quotation (of the words of others): vn. I | ~ šaʕbiyyaẗ, n.f., folk tale, fairy story
ḥakawātī, n., (Syr.) popular storyteller: n.prof. in coll. -ātī, where ¬ ī is an adjr. (nsb-formation) and -āt‑ quasi a pl.f. suffix, giving the idea of multitude, *‘always telling many stories’.
ḥakkāʔ, n., narrator: n.prof., in the form of ints. FaʕʕāL.
muḥākāẗ, n.f., 1 imitation; 2 similarity, resemblance; 3 harmony: vn. III | ~ al-ʔaṣwāt, n.f., echolalia (psych.).
ḥākin, det. ḥākī, 1 narrator, storyteller; 2 phonograph; 3 [old Wehr] loudspeaker, radio: PA I; [v2] and [v3] are neologisms.
maḥkīy, adj., 1 imitated, imitation (adj.); 2 (syr., leb.) spoken: PP I. 
ḥikāyaẗ حِكايَة , pl. ‑āt 
ID 226 • Sw – • BP 1296 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤKY 
n.f. 
1 story, tale, narrative, account; 2 (gram.) literal quotation (of the words of others) – WehrCowan1979. 
Morphologically, ḥikāyaẗ is a vn. I, from ↗ḥakà, in the pass./resultative meaning of ‘what is imitated’ [v2] or ‘what is reported, told’ [v1]. 
▪ Following D. B. MacDonald in EI¹ II:321 ff., Fück (1950: 114) characterizes the value, found in Ibn al-Nadīm’s Fihrist (comp. 377 AH), of ḥikāyaẗ as ‘Darstellung, Bericht’, developed from the more general ‘Wiedergabe’, as »nachklassisch« (post-classical). MacDonald »considers that the cause of the evolution [▪ …] must be sought in the influence of the Aristotelian doctrine of mímēsis in art (Poetics, i-iv); indeed Mattā b. Yūnus, in his translation of the Poetics [▪ …] uses the word ḥikāyaẗ to translate mímēsis « – Ch. Pellat, in art. »Ḥikāya«, EI²
▪ ↗ḥakà
ḥakà
▪ Tu hikâye ‘story’: 1330 ʕĀşıḳ Paşa, Ġarīb-nāme : diŋle imdi kim ḥıkāyet nitedür; 1680 Meninski, Thesaurus : ḥıkāyet, ḥıkāye – Nişanyan_16Apr2015. 
ḥikāyaẗ šaʕbiyyaẗ, n.f., folk tale, fairy story

ḥakawātī, n., (Syr.) popular storyteller: n.prof. in coll. -ātī, where ¬ ī is an adjr. (nsb-formation) and -āt‑ quasi a pl.f. suffix, evoking the idea of multitude, *‘always telling many stories’.
 
ḤLː (ḤLL) حلّ / حلل 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤLː (ḤLL) 
“root” 
▪ ḤLː (ḤLL)_1 ‘to untie, solve, loosen, release, analyze, exculpate’ ↗ḥalla u (ḥall) / i (ḥill)
▪ ḤLː (ḤLL)_2 ‘to be allowed, permissible, lawful; (legal) husband, wife; to be due’ ↗ḥalla i (ḥill)
▪ ḤLː (ḤLL)_3 ‘to dismount, alight, stop, halt, settle down, stay; place, residence; to befall, occur, happen; to occupy; to become incarnate (in s.o.; God); to set in, begin (time, season)’ ↗ḥalla i, u (ḥulūl).
▪ ḤLː (ḤLL)_4 ‘clothing, dress, suit’ ↗ḥullaẗ
▪ ḤLː (ḤLL)_5 ‘outer opening of the urethra’ ↗ʔiḥlīl
▪ ḤLː (ḤLL)_6 ‘cooking pot (EgAr)’ ↗ḥallaẗ

ḤLː (ḤLL)_7 ‘sesame’ : ClassAr ḥall
ḤLː (ḤLL)_8 ‘pain between the legs’ : ClassAr ḥalal

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘locale, residing area, township; stopping place, way station; to unpack, to come down, to take up residence, to terminate one’s travelling; to become permissible, to become free, spouse; to untie, to solve; to dissolve; to deserve’ 
▪ From protSem *√ḤLL ‘to be(come) clean, pure, holy’ – Huehnergard2011.
… 
– 
DRS 9 (2010)#ḤLL–1 Akk ell ‘pur’,101 elēlu ‘être pur, libre’,102 mullil officiant du culte, ‘purificateur’, Ug ḥll ‘être désacralisé’, mḥll ‘officiant (?)’, Can ḥol, ḥālāl ‘profane, non sacré’, ḥillel ‘rendre profane, profaner; détacher, ouvrir, donner accès à; jeter bas, détruire’, Aram ḥallel ‘tenir pour permis, purifier’, Ar ḥalla ‘être permis, licite; être obligatoire’, ḥill, ḥalāl ‘chose permise, licite’; – ḥalla ‘dénouer, déplier, résoudre’, dial. ḥall ‘ouvrir’; Sab ḥll ‘être à la merci de, être sans protection contre’, Qat ḥll ‘annuler, mettre fin, perdre’, ḥtll ‘trouver du secours, être secouru’, mḥllt (pl.) ‘vannes d’écluse’; ? Sab mḥlt : paiement d’une taxe; Mhr ḥlūl ‘déclarer licite’, Jib aḥlél ‘rendre licite, pardonner’, Mhr ḥáttəl ‘être résolu; être purgé’, Jib ḥɔ́ttəl ‘disparaître’, Mhr ḥəláwl, Jib ḥálúl ‘purge’; – ? Mhr šəḥlūl, Jib s̃ḥɛlél ‘prendre le repas du soir en mois de ramadan’; Tña ḥalal ‘brave homme; profitable, avantageux; légitime (épouse, enfant)’, Amh halal ‘licite (pour les Musulmans)’. –2 BedAr ḥlāl ‘biens’, Sab ḥllt, Min ḥl ‘propriété (foncière)’, Sab ʔḥll (pl.) ‘dépouilles (du combat)’. – ? –3 Ar ḥalla ‘prendre place’, ḥillaẗ ‘séjour, quartier’, maḥall(aẗ) ‘halte, campement; lieu, place’, Tham ḥll ‘camper’, Sab ḥll ‘camper’, Mhr Ḥars ḥəl, Jib ḥell ‘s’établir, demeurer’, Ḥars məḥél ‘endroit’, Jib ḥallɛ́t ‘ville’, Śḥr añḥall ‘lieu, place’, añḥallet ‘demeure, chambre’, Soq tḥalol ‘séjourner’, ? Jib oḥól ‘virevolter, aller de place en place’; Gz ḥalala ‘être rassemblé, entrer’. –4 Syr ḥellā ‘voile’, Ar ḥullaẗ ‘robe, manteau’. –5 Ar ʔiḥlīl ‘canal du pis ou de la verge’, YemAr ḥillūl ‘trachée artère, gorge’, ḥallāl, ḥallālah ‘jonc, bambou; tube de houka’, EgAr ḥillaẗ ‘conduite d’eau’, ʔiḥlīl, ḥalal ‘pénis’. –6 […]. –7 Ar ḥall ‘sésame’, Mhr ḥāl, Ḥrs həl, Jib hal, Śḥr ḥall ‘huile’, Soq ḥal : huile parfumée. –8 […]. –9 […]. –10 […]. –11 […]. –12 Ar ḥalal ‘douleur dans les cuisses’. –13 EgAr ḥallaẗ ‘cocotte, marmite’.
▪ ḤLː (ḤLL)_1-3: Zammit2002: Akk elēlu ‘rein sein, werden; frei sein’, Ug ḥl(l) ‘lösen (vom Bann)’, Hbr ḥālal (Hif.) ‘to begin’ (lit. ‘untie, loosen, open’), Aram ḥᵃlal ‘to wash, rinse; to degrade, profane’, Syr ḥalel ‘to purify’, Ar ḥalla ‘to untie (a knot); to be lawful; alight, settle in a place’, SAr ḥll ‘to encamp; to be unprotected (against)’, Gz ḥalala ‘to be gathered, come in’.
▪ ḤLː (ḤLL)_1-3: Orel&Stolbova1994#1284: Outside Sem: (WCh) Bolewa ʔall‑ [?] ‘to loosen’, ʔúlee‑, olai, ʔúléi ‘to untie’ in three CCh idioms, and [not mentioned in StarLing any longer] the form wule ‘to loosen’ in an ECh language.
▪ ḤLː (ḤLL)_6: ? Youssef2003: Eg ḥnw, Copt ḥna(a)u ‘cooking pot’.
▪ For ḤLː (ḤLL)_7 ‘sesame’ (ClassAr ḥall), cf. also Akk ellu ‘sesame oil (of a specific quality)’ (CAD). CAD refers the reader of this entry to that of elēlu ‘to become pure’ (without further explanation).
 
▪ From the 13 values that DRS lists for the root ḤLL in Sem, only eight are attested in Ar. Two of these are dialect usages not to be found in MSA (DRS #ḤLL-2 ‘goods’ and #ḤLL-13 ‘cooking pot, vessel’), and two are attested in ClassAr but no longer in MSA (#ḤLL-7 ‘sesame’, #ḤLL-12 ‘pain in the legs, between the thighs’). DRS thinks (with Palache) that items #1 through #5 are related, being derived from a primary meaning of *‘to loose, untie, open, set free’. From this, the values ‘to unsaddle, put down the luggage, unload’, and hence ‘to stop, rest, settle down’ can easily be derived, and neither is a development of *‘to untie, open, release, set free’ into ‘to allow, desacralize’ semantically problematic, nor is it difficult to explain the meanings (DRS #ḤLL-5) ‘windpipe’, ‘canal of the udder or of the urethrea’, ‘hooka pipe’ etc. as the channels through which air, milk, urine, etc. is ‘released’. DRS remains silent, however, about what ‘clothing, garb, dress, suit’ (#ḤLL-4) should be derived from *‘to loose, untie, release’, etc.
▪ Cf. also Fronzaroli#4.05 who treats Ar ḥalla ‘to untie’, ḥalīl ‘(legitimate) husband’ and ḥalāl ‘legitimate’ as basically one item.
▪ Cf. however Huehnergard2011 who, probably on account of the Akk evidence, assumes *‘to be(come) clean, pure, holy’ as the primary value of Sem ḤLL – at least in the context of ḤLː (ḤLL)_2, Ar ḥalla ‘to undo, free, be permissible’, hence ḥalāl ‘legally permissible’.
▪ Given the unproblematic transition *‘to loose, untie,…’ > ‘to unsaddle, unload’ > ‘to rest, settle down’, DRS considers a connection (that obviously has been proposed) between ‘place, to settle’ and the root √ḪLL as little likely.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994 #1284 reconstructs Sem *ḥul‑ ‘to untie’, WCh *ḥal‑ (<*ḥula‑) [StarLing: *Hal ], CCh *ʔul‑ [StarLing: *ʔo/ul ] ‘to untie’, ECh *wul‑ (< *ʔul‑) [not mentioned in StarLing], all from AfrAs *ḥul‑ [StarLing: dto.] ‘to untie’. StarLing adds: »Scarce data. Unreliable.«
▪ ḤLː (ḤLL)_4: Fraenkel1886 thinks that Ar ḥullaẗ ‘clothing, dress, robe’ probably is from Syr ḥellā ‘garment of fine linen’.174
▪ ḤLː (ḤLL)_5 belongs obviously to the complex of ḤLː (ḤLL)_1 ‘to untie, release’ and means a canal through which liquids, air, etc. are ‘released’ and or run freely.
▪ For ḤLː (ḤLL)_6 EgAr ḥallaẗ ‘cooking pot’ (DRS #ḤLL-13), a Copt < Eg etymology has been suggested (not mentioned in DRS).
▪ ḤLː (ḤLL)_1: As cognate in a wider sense can also count Ar ↗ʔaylūl ‘(now mostly synonymous with) September’, since the name of this month is from Akk ulūlu, elūlu, elūnu, the name of a festival and of a month corresponding to parts of August and September. The Akk name belongs to the vb. Akk elēlu (< *ḥalālum) ‘to be(come) clean, pure, holy’ – Huehnergard2011. The later history of the word is sketched by Zimmern1914 as: Akk elēlu > lHbr ʔälûl, Aram ʔelūlā > SyrAr ʔaylūl > Ar fuṣḥà ʔaylūl (hence also other languages, e.g. Tu eylül). 
▪ Tu 1876 [Aḥmed Vefīḳ, Luġat-ı ʕOs̠mānī ]: from ↗Ar ʔaylūl, from Aram ʔelūl, from Akk elūlu (name of a month; Nişanyan2011: ‘harvest season’).
▪ Engl halal : from Ar ḥalāl, from ↗ḥalla (ḥill) ‘to be allowed, permissable’.
 
– 
ḥall‑ / ḥalal‑ حلَّ / حَلَلْـ , u (ḥall), i (?
ID … • Sw – • BP 1651 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤLː (ḤLL) 
vb., I 
ḥalla u (ḥall), to untie (a knot), unbind, unfasten, unravel, undo; to solve (a problem, a puzzle); to decipher, decode; to dissolve in water (chem.); to resolve (into components), analyze; to melt; to decompose, disintegrate (s.th.); to disband, break up, dissolve (an organization or party, parliament); to open, unpack (a package, and the like); to loosen, relax; to release, set free, let go; to clear, exonerate, exculpate (s.o., min from), absolve (min from sins); ḥulla, vb. pass., to be free; to be relaxed. –
ḥalla i (?), to pass into solution, dissolve; to fade (colour) 
▪ … 
▪ eC7 ḥalla u (to untie, release, free, undo, loosen) Q 20:27 wa-'ḥlul ʕuqdatan min lisānī ‘and loosen a knot from my tongue’ 
▪ Fronzaroli#4.05: a Ar ḥalla, SAr ḥll ‘to untie’, b Akk ellu ‘pure’, Hbr ḥalīlā ‘lungi!’, ḥōl, Syr ḥullā ‘profane’, Ar ḥalīl ‘(legitimate) husband’, ḥalāl ‘legitimate’.
DRS 9 (2010)#ḤLL-1. Akk ell ‘pur’,103 elēlu ‘être pur, libre’,104 mullil officiant du culte, ‘purificateur’, Ug ḥll ‘être désacralisé’, mḥll ‘officiant (?)’, Can ḥol, ḥālāl ‘profane, non sacré’, ḥillel ‘rendre profane, profaner; détacher, ouvrir, donner accès à; jeter bas, détruire’, Aram ḥallel ‘tenir pour permis, purifier’, Ar ḥalla ‘être permis, licite; être obligatoire’, ḥill, ḥalāl ‘chose permise, licite’; – ḥalla ‘dénouer, déplier, résoudre’, dial. ḥall ‘ouvrir’; Sab ḥll ‘être à la merci de, être sans protection contre’, Qat ḥll ‘annuler, mettre fin, perdre’, ḥtll ‘trouver du secours, être secouru’, mḥllt (pl.) ‘vannes d’écluse’; ? Sab mḥlt : paiement d’une taxe; Mhr ḥlūl ‘déclarer licite’, Jib aḥlél ‘rendre licite, pardonner’, Mhr ḥáttəl ‘être résolu; être purgé’, Jib ḥɔ́ttəl ‘disparaître’, Mhr ḥəláwl, Jib ḥálúl ‘purge’; – ? Mhr šəḥlūl, Jib s̃ḥɛlél ‘prendre le repas du soir en mois de ramadan’; Tña ḥalal ‘brave homme; profitable, avantageux; légitime (épouse, enfant)’, Amh halal ‘licite (pour les Musulmans)’.
▪ The value is also related to others treated in the ‘mother’ entry, cf. ↗ḤLː (ḤLL), among which also ↗ḥalla (ḥill) ‘to be allowed, be legally persmissible’, etc., as well as ↗ḥalla (ḥulūl) ‘to stop, rest, settle down; place’. Cf., in this spirit, also Zammit2002 who puts together Akk elēlu ‘to be(come) clean, pure; to be free’, Ug ḥl(l) ‘to free (from a ban)’, Hbr ḥālal (Hif.) ‘to begin’ (lit. ‘untie, loosen, open’), Aram ḥᵃlal ‘to wash, rinse; to degrade, profane’, Syr ḥalel ‘to purify’, Ar ḥalla ‘to untie (a knot); to be lawful; alight, settle in a place’, SAr ḥll ‘to encamp; to be unprotected (against)’, Gz ḥalala ‘to be gathered, come in’.
▪ As cognate in a wider sense can also count Ar ↗ʔaylūl, now mostly synonymous with ‘September’, since the name of this month is from Akk ulūlu, elūlu, elūnu, the name of a festival and of a month corresponding to parts of August and September, akin to Akk elēlu (< *ḥalālum) ‘to be(come) clean, pure, holy’, which belongs to Sem *ḤLL – Huehnergard2011.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1284: Outside Sem: (WCh) Bolewa ʔall‑ [?] ‘to loosen’; ʔúlee‑, olai, ʔúléi ‘to untie’ in three CCh idioms, and [not mentioned in StarLing any longer] the form wule ‘to loosen’ in an ECh language.
 
▪ Palache (as sketched in DRS) thinks that *‘to loose, untie, open, set free’ is the primary value of Sem *ḤLL. Huehnergard2011, however, seems to rely more on the Akk evidence, assuming *‘to be(come) clean, pure, holy’ to be the basis from which other ḤLː (ḤLL) values derive.
▪ However that may be, it is from the value of ‘to untie, release’ that ↗ḥalla (ḥulūl) ‘to unsaddle, put down the bagage, unload’, and hence ‘to stop, rest, settle down’ can easily be derived. In a similar way, also ↗ʔiḥlīl ‘windpipe’, ‘canal of the udder or of the urethrea’, ‘hooka pipe’ etc. can be explained as the channels through which air, milk, urine, etc. is ‘released’.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994 #1284 reconstructs Sem *ḥul‑ ‘to untie’, WCh *ḥal‑ (<*ḥula‑) [StarLing: *Hal ], CCh *ʔul‑ [StarLing: *ʔo/ul ] ‘to untie’, ECh *wul‑ (< *ʔul‑) [not mentioned in StarLing], all from AfrAs *ḥul‑ [StarLing: dto.] ‘to untie’. StarLing adds: »Scarce data. Unreliable.«
 
▪ Tu eylül (1876, Aḥmed Vefīḳ, Luġat-ı ʕOs̠mānī ]: from ↗Ar ʔaylūl, from SyrAr ʔaylūl, from Aram ʔelūlā, lHbr ʔälûl, from Akk elūlu, name of a month (Nişanyan2011: ‘harvest season’) – Zimmern1914. Akk elūlu is probably connected to the vb. Akk elēlu (< *ḥalālum) ‘to be(come) clean, pure, holy’ which belongs to the Sem root *ḤLL – Huehnergard2011.
▪ Cf. also Engl Elul, from Hbr ʔělûl, a month name, from Akk elūlu, elūnu, name of a festival and of a month corresponding to parts of August and September, perh. from elēlu (< *ḥalālum) ‘to be(come) clean, pure, holy’ – Huehnergard2011. 
ḥallala, vb. II, to dissolve, resolve (into its component parts), break up, decompose, analyze; to make a chemical analysis (of s.th.): ints.; to be dissolvent, act as a solvent (on; med.); to discharge, absolve, clear, exonerate, exculpate (s.o.); (taḥillaẗ) to expiate an oath: caus. – For other values see ↗ḥalla (ḥill).
ʔaḥalla, vb. IV, to discharge, release, absolve, disengage (s.o., min from): caus. – For other values see ↗ḥalla (ḥill) and ↗ḥalla (ḥulūl).
taḥallala, vb. V, to dissolve, melt, disintegrate; to disengage o.s., disassociate o.s., extricate o.s., free o.s. (min from): intr. of II.
ĭnḥalla, vb. VII, to be untied (knot); to be solved, be unraveled (problem); to be dissolved, be broken up, be disbanded (also, of an organization, a party, etc.); to dissolve, melt; to become slack, limp, weak, loose, relaxed; to disintegrate; to melt away: pass./intr.

BP#269ḥall, pl. ḥulūl, n., untying, unfastening, undoing (of a knot); solution (of a problem, of a puzzle, etc.); unriddling, unraveling, explanation; solution (chem.); dissolution, disbandment, breaking up (of an organization, etc.), abolition, cancellation, annulment; release, freeing, liberation; decontrol, release, unblocking (e.g., of a blocked sum); discharge, clearing, exoneration, exculpation; absolution (Chr.): vn. I (and specific lexicalizations) | qābil lil ~, adj., soluble, solvable; al-~ al-ṭayfī, n., spectral analysis; ʔahl al-~ wa'l-ʕaqd or ʔahl al-~ wa'l-rabṭ, n.pl., influential people, those in power; fī ~i hī wa-tarḥāli-hī, in all his doings, in everything he did.
BP#1610taḥlīl, n., dissolution, resolution, breaking up, decomposition, specification, detailing, analyzation; (pl. taḥālīlᵘ) analysis (chem.); absolution (Chr.): vn. II | bi'l-~, adv., in detail; maʕmal ~, n., laboratory for chemical analyses; ~ kahrabāʔī, n., electrolysis; ~ nafsī, n., psychoanalysis.
taḥlīlī, adj., analytic(al): nsb-adj from vn. II, taḥlīl.
taḥallul, n., dissolution, breakup; separation, disengagement, disassociation: vn. V.
ĭnḥilāl, n., dissolution, breakup, decomposition; disintegration; decay, putrefaction; slackening, exhaustion, prostration, weakness, impotence: vn. VII.
maḥlūl, adj., solved; dissolved, resolved, broken up; loose; untied, unfastened, unfettered, free, at large; weakened, prostrate, exhausted, languid: PP I; (pl. maḥālīlᵘ), n., solution (liquid; chem.): nominalized PP I | ~ al-šaʕr, adj., with loose, disheveled hair.
BP#3951muḥallil, analyzer, analyst: nominalized PA II | ~ nafsī, n., psychoanalyst.
munḥall, solved; dissolved, resolved, broken up; disbanded; languid, prostrate, weak: PA VII. – For another value see ↗ḥalla (ḥill). 
ḥall‑ / ḥalil‑ حلَّ / حَلِلْـ , i (ḥill
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤLː (ḤLL) 
vb., I 
to be allowed, permitted, permissible, lawful; to be due, payable (debt) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ eC7 ḥalla i (to be(come) religiously lawful, permissible, allowable) Q 4:19 yā ʔayyuhā ’llaḏīna ʔāmanū lā yaḥillu lakum ʔan tariṯū ’l-nisāʔa karhan ‘you who believe, it is not lawful for you to inherit women against their will’. – ḥalāl: Q 16:116 wa-lā taqūlū li-mā taṣifu ʔalsinatu-kumu ’l-kaḏiba hāḏā ḥalālun wa-hāḏā ḥarāmun li-taftarū ʕalà ’ḷḷāhi ’l-kaḏiba ‘do not describe the falsehood your tongues utter, [saying], “This is lawful and that is forbidden”, inventing a lie about God’. – ḥalīl(aẗ) (lawful wife or husband) Q 4:23 wa-ḥalāʔilu ʔabnāʔi-kumu ’llaḏīna min ʔaṣlābi-kum ‘and the wives of your begotten sons who are of your loins’. – maḥill (place and/or time where s.th. becomes lawful, permissible, the correct place/time) Q 22:33 ṯumma maḥillu-hā ʔilà ’l-bayti ’l-ʕatīqi ‘then their correct place of sacrifice is near the ancient House’. – ḥalla u (to become free of religious obligations of the pilgrimage) Q 5:2 wa-ʔiḏā ḥalaltum fa-'ṣṭādū ‘but when you have quitted [the state of] the pilgrimage sanctity, you may hunt’. 
DRS 9 (2010)#ḤLL-1: Akk ell ‘pur’, elēlu ‘être pur, libre’, mullil officiant du culte, ‘purificateur’, Ug ḥll ‘être désacralisé’, mḥll ‘officiant (?)’, Can ḥol, ḥālāl ‘profane, non sacré’, ḥillel ‘rendre profane, profaner; détacher, ouvrir, donner accès à; jeter bas, détruire’, Aram ḥallel ‘tenir pour permis, purifier’, Ar ḥalla ‘être permis, licite; être obligatoire’, ḥill, ḥalāl ‘chose permise, licite’; – ḥalla ‘dénouer, déplier, résoudre’, dial. ḥall ‘ouvrir’; Sab ḥll ‘être à la merci de, être sans protection contre’, Qat ḥll ‘annuler, mettre fin, perdre’, ḥtll ‘trouver du secours, être secouru’, mḥllt (pl.) ‘vannes d’écluse’; ? Sab mḥlt : paiement d’une taxe; Mhr ḥlūl ‘déclarer licite’, Jib aḥlél ‘rendre licite, pardonner’, Mhr ḥáttəl ‘être résolu; être purgé’, Jib ḥɔ́ttəl ‘disparaître’, Mhr ḥəláwl, Jib ḥálúl ‘purge’; – ? Mhr šəḥlūl, Jib s̃ḥɛlél ‘prendre le repas du soir en mois de ramadan’; Tña ḥalal ‘brave homme; profitable, avantageux; légitime (épouse, enfant)’, Amh halal ‘licite (pour les Musulmans)’.
▪ As is clear from the cognates given in DRS, the value ‘to be allowed, permissible’, etc., is assumed to be akin to that of ‘to untie, release, open, set free; to be pure, free (from a debt)’, treated under ↗ḥalla (ḥall); for the whole picture, cf. ↗ḤLː (ḤLL). To the same complex belongs, with all probability, also the idea of ‘to stop, rest, settle down; place’ (from *‘to untie the saddle, unload, alight’), cf. ↗ḥalla (ḥulūl). In this spirit, Zammit2002 puts together Akk elēlu ‘to be(come) pure; to be free [from a debt]’, Ug ḥl(l) ‘to free, releave (from a ban)’, Hbr ḥālal (Hif.) ‘to begin’ (lit. ‘untie, loosen, open’), Aram ḥᵃlal ‘to wash, rinse [i.e., to “dissolve” in water?]; to degrade, profane [i.e., make permissible against religious norms]’, Syr ḥalel ‘to purify’, Ar ḥalla ‘to untie (a knot); to be lawful; to alight, settle in a place’, SAr ḥll ‘to encamp; to be unprotected (against)’, Gz ḥalala ‘to be gathered, come in’.
 
▪ Accord. to DRS (quoting Palache), Ar ḥalla ‘to be allowed, permitted, permissible, lawful’ belongs together with Ar ↗ḥalla (ḥall) ‘to untie, release, set free; to exonerate, exculpate, absolve (from sins) [i.e., releave from a debt, a duty, a load]’ and the notions of ‘purity, purification’ (as in Akk) and ‘profanity, desacralisation’ (as in Ug and Hbr). It is difficult to say what was first—‘to be pure, free (from debt)’ or ‘to untie, release’. Huehnergard2011 gives ‘to be(come) clean, pure, holy’ as the basic value of Sem *ḤLL, while Palache (accord. to DRS) regards ‘to untie, release’. Whatever may be the case, the notion of ‘to be allowed, permissible’ seems to depend on either of the two; a derivation from ‘to untie, release’, though, is looks more natural than from ‘to be pure, free (from debts)’.
▪ For the wider context, to which also belongs the notion of ‘to stop, rest, settle down; place’ as well as ‘windpipe, milking canal, opening of the urethrea, etc.’, cf. ↗ḤLː (ḤLL), ↗ḥalla (ḥulūl), ↗ʔiḥlīl.
▪ It may seem a bit paradoxical that the meaning ‘to be due, payable’ (i.e., an obligation) goes together with the idea of ‘to be allowed’ (i.e., a permission, or a freedom). According to Lane (ii 1865), ClassAr lexicographers explain it as ‘the debt’s appointed term, or period, ended, so that the payment of it became due’. 
▪ Engl halal : from Ar ḥalāl, from ḥalla (ḥill) ‘to be allowed, permissable’.
 
ḥallala, vb. II, to make permissible or lawful, legitimate, sanction, justify, warrant; to declare permissible or lawful, allow, permit: caus. of I. (or denom. from ḥalāl ?). – For other values, see ↗ḥalla (ḥall, ḥill).
ʔaḥalla, vb. IV, to declare (s.th.) lawful, legally permissible, permit, allow: caus. of I. – For other values see ↗ḥalla (ḥall, ḥill) and ↗ḥalla (ḥulūl).
ĭstaḥalla, vb. X, to regard as permissible or lawful, think that one may do s.th.; to regard as fair game, as easy prey, seize unlawfully, misappropriate, usurp: autobenef.

ḥill: kāna fī kulli ~in min (ʕan), vb., he was free to…, he was at liberty to…; he had free disposal of…; ʔanta fī kulli ~in min, you’re free to…, you may readily…: vn. I.
BP#2397ḥalāl, n., that which is allowed, permitted or permissible; allowed, permitted, permissible, allowable, admissible, lawful, legal, licit, legitimate; lawful possession:… | ibn ~, n., legitimate son; respectable man, decent fellow.
ḥalīl, pl. ʔaḥillāʔᵘ, n., husband: quasi-PP I (lit., ‘legitimate’ one, lawful partner).
ḥalīlaẗ, pl. ḥalāʔilᵘ, n., wife: f. of the preceding.
maḥill, n., due date; date of delivery: n.loc.
munḥall, permitted, allowed: PA VII. – For other values see ↗ḥalla (ḥall, ḥill). 
ḥall‑ / ḥalal‑ حلَّ / حَلَلْـ , i , u (ḥulūl
ID … • Sw – • BP 3384 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤLː (ḤLL) 
vb., I 
to dismount, alight, stop, halt; to settle down, stay (bi‑ at a place, also and ; ʕalà with s.o., at s.o.’s house), come (for a visit to); to take up residence ( hu in a place or country); to descend, come down; to descend (ʕalà upon s.o.; wrath); to overcome, overwhelm (ʕalà s.o.; sleep); to befall (bi‑ and ʕalà s.o.; punishment, suffering), occur, happen (bi‑ to s.o.); to become incarnate ( in s.o.; God); to set in, arrive, begin (time, season) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ eC7 ḥalla i (to become deserved, inevitable; to fall upon) Q 20:86 ʔa-fa-ṭāla ʕalaykum-u ’l-ʕahdu ʔam ʔaradtum ʔan yaḥilla ʕalaykum ġaḍabun min rabbikum fa-ʔaḫlaftum mawʕidī ‘did my presence amongst you become a distant memory to you? (or: was my being away too long for you?) or did you desire that anger from God befall you, so you broke your promise to me?’ – ḥalla u (to alight, ascend) Q 13:31 wa-lā yazālu ’llaḏīna kafarū tuṣībuhum bi-mā ṣanaʕū qāriʕatun ʔaw taḥullu qarīban min dārihim ‘as for those who disbelieve, desaster will not cease to strike them, or fall close to their homes, because of what they do’. 
DRS 9 (2010)#ḤLL-3: Ar ḥalla ‘prendre place’, ḥillaẗ ‘séjour, quartier’, maḥall(aẗ) ‘halte, campement; lieu, place’, Tham ḥll ‘camper’, Sab ḥll ‘camper’, Mhr Ḥars ḥəl, Jib ḥell ‘s’établir, demeurer’, Ḥars məḥél ‘endroit’, Jib ḥallɛ́t ‘ville’, Śḥr añḥall ‘lieu, place’, añḥallet ‘demeure, chambre’, Soq tḥalol ‘séjourner’, ? Jib oḥól ‘virevolter, aller de place en place’; Gz ḥalala ‘être rassemblé, entrer’.
▪ Since this value probably depends on that of ‘to untie, loosen’, cf. also the cognates given for ↗ḤLː (ḤLL)_1-3. In the same vain, Zammit2002 puts together Akk elēlu ‘rein sein, werden; frei sein’, Ug ḥl(l) ‘lösen (vom Bann)’, Hbr ḥālal (Hif.) ‘to begin’ (lit. ‘untie, loosen, open’), Aram ḥᵃlal ‘to wash, rinse; to degrade, profane’, Syr ḥalel ‘to purify’, Ar ḥalla ‘to untie (a knot); to be lawful; alight, settle in a place’, SAr ḥll ‘to encamp; to be unprotected (against)’, Gz ḥalala ‘to be gathered, come in’. 
DRS puts a question mark before listing the value ‘to stop, rest, settle down’ as belonging to ḤLL. But the authors seem to agree with Palache who derives the item from a primary meaning of *‘to untie, open, release, purify’, which is still present in ↗ḥalla (ḥall, ḥill); for the whole picture, cf. ↗ḤLː (ḤLL). Thus, ‘to stop, rest, settle down’ (and hence ‘place where one stops, etc.’, n.loc.) is probably, literally, ‘to unsaddle, put down (o.’s luggage), unload, alight’. 
– 
ḥalla fī manṣib, vb. I, to take over or hold an office.
ḥalla ṯāliṯan, vb. I, he came in third place (sport).
ḥalla maḥallahū, vb. I, to be in the right place.
ḥalla maḥall al-šayʔ / fulān, vb. I, to take the place of s.th./s.o., replace, supersede s.th./s.o., substitute for s.th./s.o.
ḥallat fī qalbi hī maḥallan, she held a place in his heart.
ḥalla maḥall al-taqdīr laday hi, vb. I, to enjoy s.o.’s high esteem.
ḥalla min nufūsi 'l-qurrāʔi maḥalla 'l-istiḥsān, vb. I, to appeal to the readers, meet with the readers’ approval.

ʔaḥalla, vb. IV, to cause to take or occupy the place of, shift, move, translocate (s.th., e.g., a tribe, to a place); to settle (bayn among). | ~ maḥalla hū, to cause s.o. or s.th. to take the place of s.o. or s.th. else, replace s.o. or s.th. by, substitute s.o. or s.th. for, take s.o. or s.th. as substitute for; ~ al-šayʔ maḥall al-ʕināyaẗ, vb., to pay attention to s.th., make s.th. one’s concern. – For other values see ↗ḥalla (ḥall).
BP#2261ĭḥtalla, vb. VIII, to settle down ( at a place); to occupy (mil., a territory); to assume, take over, occupy, hold, have (a place, a rank, an office) | ~ al-makān al-ʔawwal, to occupy the foremost place; ~ ʔaʕmāla hū, to take over s.o.’s functions.

ḥillaẗ, n.f., way station, stopping place, stop, stopover; encampment; absolution (Chr.); dispensation (Chr.).
BP#2636ḥulūl, n., stopping, putting up, staying; descending, coming on, befalling, overtaking; incarnation; setting in, advent, arrival (of a time, of a deadline), beginning, dawn; substitution (for s.o.).
BP#701maḥall, pl. ‑āt, maḥāllᵘ, n., 1 place, location, spot, site, locale, locality, center; (place of) residence: n.loc. – 2 business; business house, firm, commercial house; store, shop. – 3 object, cause (e.g., of dispute, admiration, etc.). – 4 gear (automobile): 2-4 extended / metaphorical usages of n.loc. | ~a hū, adv., in his (its) place; fī ~i-hī, adv., in his (its) place, in his (its) stead, instead of him; kāna fī ~i hī, vb., to be in the right place; to be appropriate, expedient, advisable; to be justified, warranted; fī ġayr ~i hī, adj./adv., improper, misplaced, unsuitable, ill-suited; out of place; inappropriate, inexpedient, inopportune; ṣādafa ~a-hū, vb. III, to be convenient, be most opportune; lā ~ a li…, there is no room for…; it is out of place, quite déplacé; ~ al-ʕamal, n.,place of employment; ~ al-ʔiqāmaẗ, n., (place of) residence, address; ~ tiǧārī, n., business house, commercial house; al-~āt al-ʕumūmiyyaẗ wa'l-tiǧāriyyaẗ, n.pl., public utilities and commercial houses; ism al-~, n., firm; ~ ruhūnāt, n., pawnshop; ~āt al-siyāḥaẗ, n., travel agencies; ~ muraṭṭibāt, n., refreshment parlor; ~ al-lahw and ~ al-malāhī, n., amusement center; ~ nizāʕ, n., object of controversy, controversial matter; lā ʔarà ~an li-ʕaǧabin, I don’t see any reason for amazement, there is nothing to be astonished about; ~ naẓar, n., s.th. deserving attention, a striking, remarkable thing; ~ ak sir (eg.), interj., in place, march! (command; mil.); ~ handasī, n., geometric locus (math.).
BP#569maḥallī, adj., local; native, indigenous; parochial: nsb-adj from maḥall; pl. ‑āt, n., local news, local page (of a newspaper): nominalized nisba.
maḥallaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., way station, stopping place, stop, stopover, encampment; camp; section, part, quarter (of a city): n.loc. f.
ʔiḥlāl, n., substitution (e.g., phon.): vn. IV.
BP#563ĭḥtilāl, n., occupation (mil.): vn. VIII. | ǧuyūš al-~, n.pl., occupation forces.
ĭḥtilālī, adj., occupying, occupation (used attributively): nsb-adj from vn. VIII; n., advocate of foreign occupation: nominalized nsb-adj.
BP#1965, 3107muḥtall, adj., 1 occupying (mil.): PA VIII | ǧuyūš ~aẗ, n., occupation forces. 2 occupied (zone; mil.): PP VIII. 
ĭḥtall‑ / ĭḥtalal‑ اِحْتَلَّ / اِحْتَلَلْـ 
ID 228 • Sw – • BP 2261 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤLː (ḤLL) 
vb., VIII 
to settle down (-hū at a place); to occupy (mil., a territory); to assume, take over, occupy, hold, have (a place, a rank, an office) – WehrCowan1979. 
A T-stem, with autobenefactive meaning, from vb. I ↗ḥalla (ḥulūl) ‘to dismount, alight, stop, halt, settle down, stay’
 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥalla (ḥulūl). 
ḥalla (ḥulūl). 
– 
ĭḥtalla 'l-makān al-ʔawwal, to occupy the foremost place.
ĭḥtalla ʔaʕmāla-hū, to take over s.o.’s functions.

ĭḥtilālī, adj., occupying, occupation (used attributively): nsb-adj from vn. VIII; n., advocate of foreign occupation: nominalized nsb-adj.
BP#1965, 3107muḥtall, adj., 1 occupying (mil.): PA VIII | ǧuyūš ~aẗ, n., occupation forces. 2 occupied (zone; mil.): PP VIII. 
ḥallaẗ حَلّة , pl. ḥilal 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤLː (ḤLL) 
n.f. 
low copper vessel; cooking pot (EgAr) – WehrCowan1979. 
According to Youssef2003 the EgAr word goes back to Eg ḥnw, Copt ḥnau ‘metal cooking pot shaped a little like a wok’. 
▪ … 
▪ The item is listed in DRS 9 (2010) as #ḤLL-13, but without cognates or further commentary.
▪ Youssef2003: Eg ḥnw, Copt ḥnau ‘metal cooking pot shaped a little like a wok’. 
▪ Youssef2003 thinks the word is from Copt ḥnau < Eg ḥnw ‘metal cooking pot shaped a little like a wok’. – Cf. Crum1939: Copt ḥn(a)au ‘vessel, pot, receptacle’; ErmanGrapow1921: Eg ḥnw ‘vessel, receptable’ > Copt ḥnaau, Eg ḥnw.t ‘bowl, cup’). – Phonetically perhaps not impossible, though not really probable. But the fact that the item seems to be peculiar to EgAr makes a Copt origin quite likely. 
– 
– 
ḥullaẗ حُلّة , pl. ḥulal 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤLː (ḤLL) 
n.f. 
clothing, dress, garb; vestments (ecclesiastic; Chr.); (complete) suit of clothes; (Western) suit – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010)#ḤLL-4: Syr ḥellā ‘voile’, Ar ḥullaẗ ‘robe, manteau’ 
▪ Accord to DRS, the item is related to the complex of *‘to untie, release, purify’, treated under under ↗ḤLː (ḤLL) and ↗ḥalla (ḥall). DRS remains silent, however, about how ‘clothing, garb, dress, suit’ should be derived from *‘to untie, release, purify’, etc.
▪ Fraenkel1886 thinks Ar ḥullaẗ is probably from Syr ḥellā ‘garment of fine linen’175 .
 
– 
ḥullaẗ rasmiyyaẗ, n.f., uniform.
ḥullaẗ al-sahraẗ, n.f., formal dress
 
ḥalāl حَلال 
ID 229 • Sw – • BP 2397 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤLː (ḤLL) 
n. 
that which is allowed, permitted or permissible; allowed, permitted, permissible, allowable, admissible, lawful, legal, licit, legitimate; lawful possession – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ eC7 Q 16:116 wa-lā taqūlū li-mā taṣifu ʔalsinatu-kumu ’l-kaḏiba hāḏā ḥalālun wa-hāḏā ḥarāmun li-taftarū ʕalà ’ḷḷāhi ’l-kaḏiba ‘do not describe the falsehood your tongues utter, [saying], “This is lawful and that is forbidden”, inventing a lie about God’. 
ḥalla (ḥill) ‘to be allowed, permissable’ 
ḥalla (ḥill) ‘to be allowed, permissable’ 
▪ Engl halal : from Ar ḥalāl, from ↗ḥalla (ḥill) ‘to be allowed, permissable’.
 
ibn ḥalāl, n., legitimate son; respectable man, decent fellow.  
ʔiḥlīl إحْليل 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤLː (ḤLL) 
n. 
outer opening of the urethra; urethra (anat.) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010)#ḤLL-5: Ar ʔiḥlīl ‘canal du pis ou de la verge’, YemAr ḥillūl ‘trachée artère, gorge’, ḥallāl, ḥallālah ‘jonc, bambou; tube de houka’, EgAr ḥillaẗ ‘conduite d’eau’, ʔiḥlīl, ḥalal ‘pénis’.
▪ For the wider context, see DISC. 
▪ The word obviously belongs to the complex, treated under ↗ḤLː (ḤLL) and ↗ḥalla (ḥall), of ‘to loosen, release’ and means a canal or an opening through which liquids, air, etc. are ‘released’ or run freely. Since no cognates are known from other Sem languages, the value seems to be a peculiarity of Ar. The fact, however, that it is found in EgAr and Yem dialects, with quite different specialisations, suggests an older origin.
▪ For the wider context of ‘to untie, release, purify’, etc., cf. ↗ḤLː (ḤLL) and ↗ḥalla (ḥall), with further references. 
– 
– 
taḥlīl تَحْليل 
Sw – • NahḍConBP 1610 • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√ḤLː (ḤLL) 
n. 
▪ vn., II 
ḤLB حلب 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 19Feb2021
√ḤLB 
“root” 
▪ ḤLB_1 ʻmilk’ ↗¹ḥalab
▪ ḤLB_2 ʻrace track, arena’ ↗ḥalbaẗ
▪ ḤLB_3 ʻfenugreek’ ↗ḥulbaẗ
▪ ḤLB_4 ʻmahaleb (Prunus mahaleb; bot.)’ ↗maḥlab
▪ ḤLB_5 ʻAleppo’ ↗²Ḥalabᵘ

Other values, now obsolete, include (BK1860, Lane ii 1865, Dozy1881, Steingass1881, Hava1899):

ḤLB_6 ʻmorning and evening (Lane, BK: lit., the two milking times)’: al-ḥalbatāni (du.)
ḤLB_7 ‘venir de toutes parts, affluer / to assemble\collect o.s., come together from every quarter’: ḥalaba (u, ḥalb, ḥulūb)
ḤLB_8 ʻto assist, come to the rescue (party)’: ʔaḥlaba; also ĭstaḥlaba
ḤLB_9 ‘the covering, exterior part, peel, or the like, (syn. qišr) of s.th.’: ḥalab (Lane)
ḤLB_10 ‘vein on the two sides of the navel’, (BK) ‘veine du femur’: ḥālib; du. al-ḥālibāni ‘les deux veines autour du nombril’
ḤLB_11 ʻgelée mince de lait, de riz, d’amidon et d’un peu de parfum’: muḥallabaẗ; cf. also muḥallabiyyaẗ ‘espèce de gelée’ (Dozy)
ḤLB_12 ‘a milky, evergreen plant much sought by sheep, gazelles’: ḥullab, BK: ḥallabaẗ
ḤLB_13 ʻstorax’: ḥalbānaẗ
ḤLB_14 ʻmercury (mercurialis annua; bot.)’: ḥilbāb, ḥulbūb
ḤLB_15 ʻivy’: ḥiliblāb; vulg. ḥalablūb (Dozy)
ḤLB_16 ʻ to be(come) black (hair)’ ḥaliba; cf. also ḥulub (pl. of which the sg. is not mentioned) ‘black (animals)’ (Lane, BK), ḥulbūb ‘intensely black’.
ḤLB_17 ʻintelligent (humans)’: ḥulub (pl. of which the sg. is not mentioned) (Lane, BK)
 
DRS distinguishes eight main values of √ḤLB in Sem, five of which are represented in Ar: #ḤLB-1 (≙ EtymArab ḤLB_1) ʻmilk, to milk’, #ḤLB-5 (≙ our ḤLB_3) ʻfenugreek’, #ḤLB-6 (≙ our ḤLB_16) ʻto be black’, #ḤLB-7 (≙ our ḤLB_7) ʻherd (group of camels etc.) in line; to come from all sides’, and #ḤLB-8 (≙ our ḤLB_2) ʻrace track, arena’. It is not clear whether the authors were unaware of further values, esp. in Ar, or whether they considered these other values to be dependent on the five listed ones. Among the latter, only #ḤLB-1 ʻmilk, to milk’ is sufficiently documented outside Ar to allow for the assumption of a deeper (W?)Sem dimension and the reconstruction of a proto-form. Several of the other values may be derived from ʻmilk, to milk’, others perh. of foreign origin. But all this is highly speculative, and certainty or near-certainty can hardly be claimed for any assumption except for the origin of ʻmilk, to milk’, which for Huehnergard2011 is from protSem *x̣alab‑ ‘milk’, while Kogan2015 (82 #20) restricts his reconstruction to the WSem domain (protWSem *ḥalab‑ ‘milk’).
▪ For the other values, see below, section DISC.
▪ …
 
– 
DRS ḤLB-1 Akk ḫalābu ʻtraire’, Ug ḥlb ʻlait; beurre ou fromage’, Pun ḥlb, Hbr ḥālāb, Syr ḥalbā, Ar ḥalaba ʻtraire’, ḥalīb ʻlait’, Mhr ḥəlūb, Ḥrs ḥəlōb, Jib ḥɔ́lɔ́b, Soq ḥélɔb ʻtraire’; Jib ḥɔ́lɔ́b ʻbabeurre’, Soq ḥə́lub ʻyoghourt’; Mhr məḥlīb ʻjeune chamelon’, Jib maḥléb ʻchamelle; jeune génisse’, Gz Te Tña ḥalib ʻlait’, Amh ayb, Har ḥay, Arg hayu, ʻlait caillé, fromage crémeux’, Tña ḥaläbä ʻtraire; laitage’, Hbr ḥeleb ʻgraisse animale’. – MġrAr ḥallāb : pot à deux anses pour boire, ḥalbiyyaẗ ʻgargoulette’, Tña ḥilab ʻplat, écuelle, gamelle’, Amh malbiya : vase pour traire’. -2 Gz ḥalibā ʻpéché, faute’. -3 Gz ḥəlbat ʻnaseau’, Te ḥəlbät : corde de naseaux pour les chameaux. -4 Gz ḥalaba, Amh alläbä ʻfaire une marque, mettre un signet (dans un livre)’. -5 YemAr MġrAr ḥulbaẗ ʻfenugrec, ragoût végétal préparé avec du fenugrec’, Tña ḥəlbät, Amh: plat de carême fait d’orge, de poivron et de haricots. -6 Ar ḥaliba ʻêtre noir’, ḥulbūb ʻtrès noir’. -7 ḥalaba ʻvenir de toutes parts’, ḥalbaẗ ʻtroupeau en file’. -8 EgAr ḥalbaẗ ʻarène, ring’.
▪ Kogan2015, 82 #20: Ug ḥlb, Hbr ḥālāb, Syr ḥalbā, Ar ḥalab, ḥalīb, Gz ḥalib, Jib ḥɔ́lɔ́b, Soq ḥéḷob ‘milk’. 
▪ ḤLB_1 (≙DRS #ḤLB-1) ʻmilk, to milk’: While Huehnergard2011 posits protSem *x̣alab‑ ‘milk’, Kogan2015 (82 #20) thinks that »[t]here is no trace of *ḥalab‑ ‘milk’ in Akk as nAss ḫalāpu ‘to milk’ and ḫilpu ‘milk’ are obvious Aram loanwords. The Akk semantic equivalent is šizbu ‘milk’, with no reliable etymology.« Kogan therefore restricts his reconstruction to protWSem.
DRS #ḤLB-1 asks whether the first radical in √ḤLB shouldn’t perh. be analysed as a prefix *Ḥ‑ so that we actually might be dealing with *√Ḥ‑LB. No further discussion about the possible nature of such a prefix *Ḥ‑ ; for the remaining element *LB, the authors suggest to compare LBʔ [libaʔ ‘biestings, first milk, colostrum’] and LBN [↗laban ‘milk’].
▪ With the exception of ḤLB_5 ʻAleppo’, ḤLB_15 ʻivy’, ḤLB_16 ʻto be black (hair)’ and ḤLB_17 ʻintelligent (humans)’ (as well as, perh., ḤLB_4 ʻmahaleb; bot.’ and ḤLB_9 ‘the covering, exterior part, peel, or the like, of s.th.’), all other values may be ultimately derived from ḤLB_1 ʻmilk, to milk’.
▪ ḤLB_2 (≙DRS #ḤLB-8) ḥalbaẗ ʻrace track, race ground, arena, hippodrome; (hence also:) horse race’: The original meaning seems to have been ‘troupeau dont les pièces viennent à la file, l’une après l’autre (BK), horses assembled from every quarter, for a race (Lane)’. With this, the semantics of ḥalbaẗ come close to that of a basic *ʻconfluence from several directions, with a common goal, contributing to achieving a common aim’, as expressed in [v7] ‘to assemble, come together from every quarter’, [v8] ʻto assist, come to the rescue of s.o.’, and [v10] ‘vein on the two sides of the navel’, all of which may be developments from the primary value of [v1] ʻmilking’ (see below), the idea being that several quarters are “milked” to produce a substantial result. – In ClassAr, ḥalbaẗ may occasionally also replace ḥalībaẗ (then also with the pl. ḥalāʔibᵘ) ʻcompanies, assemblies, troops; sons of the paternal uncle; a man’s assistants, auxiliaries, consisting of the sons of the paternal uncle in particular’. – If this etymology is correct, we are facing a rather curious\strange line of development: *ʻmilk > to milk > to “milk” parts of a clan\several quarters\regions > to come together, assemble from several parts etc. to assist in achieving a common goal (i.e., filling the “milk bowl”) > to line up for that goal > to race ground’.
▪ ḤLB_3 (≙DRS #ḤLB-5): Unless an isolated item and/or a loan from an unknown source, ḥulbaẗ ʻfenugreek’ may perh. be related to ḤLB_1 ʻmilk, to milk’, given the fact that »le fenugrec est recommandé aux accouchées et pour soutenir la lactation«, as observed by DRS (discussion of #ḤLB-5).
▪ ḤLB_4 : According to Huehnergard2011, maḥlab ʻmahaleb (Prunus mahaleb; bot.)’ is from ḥalaba ʻto milk’; but details remain unexplained. Do we have any data to support this hypothesis? According to BK1860, the mahaleb (St Lucie) cherries came from the Persian province of Azerbaijan and, thus, were of foreign origin—so perh. also the word itself? If Huehnergard is right, in which way then is the St Lucie cherry related to ʻmilk’ or the act of ʻmilking’? If not a loanword, did the plant get its name from the seeds, the cherry stones, which are white like milk? Or from the fragrant oil that was “milked”, i.e., extracted, from the seeds? Morphologically, the latter cannot be excluded, while the former would be rather unlikely. – See also [v11] and perh. also [v13], below.
▪ ḤLB_5 ʻAleppo’: Folk etymology often explains the name of the Syrian city ²Ḥalabᵘ as the place where Abraham would have milked his flocks, to associate the place with the holy man. Another folk etymology that likewise links ²Ḥalabᵘ ʻAleppo’ to ¹ḥalab ʻmilk’ holds that the name derives from the marble, white like milk, found at Aleppo. In reality, however, the name (which is attested in Akk, Eg, and Hittite as early as the 2nd millennium BCE) probably reflects much older linguistic strata. Among the etymologies that have been suggested is also an Amorite word for ʻiron’ or ʻcopper’, since the area served as a major source of these metals in antiquity.
ḤLB_6 ʻmorning and evening’: ClassAr lexicographers explain the dual expression al-ḥalbatāni as ʻthe two milking times’ (BK1860, Lane1865), thus linking [v6] to [v1].
ḤLB_7 (≙DRS #ḤLB-7) ḥalaba (u, ḥalb, ḥulūb) ‘venir de toutes parts, affluer / to assemble\collect o.s., come together from every quarter’: see [v2], above, and next item.
ḤLB_8 ʔaḥlaba (also ĭstaḥlaba) ʻto assist, come to the rescue (party)’: This value seems to be a generalization/semantic extension of an earlier ʻto milk for s.o., support s.o. by providing milk for him/her’, attested, e.g., in the expression ʔaḥlaba ʔahlahū ʻhe milked for his family, conveyed to his tribe what had been milked’ (Lane1865). ʔaḥlaba may also mean ʻto assist s.o. to milk, in milking’, hence the general sense of ʻto assist’ in ClassAr. From this, also the value ʻto assemble, come together from every quarter, to render aid\for war’ and hence also the general [v7] ‘to come together from every quarter’ seem to be derived. See also [v2], above.
ḤLB_9 ḥalab ‘the covering, exterior part, peel, or the like, (syn. qišr) of s.th.’ (Lane): relation (if any) to the other items unclear.
ḤLB_10 ḥālib ‘vein on the two sides of the navel’, (BK) ‘veine du femur’, du. al-ḥālibāni ‘les deux veines autour du nombril’: the value seems to be related to the idea of *ʻflowing together, collecting, assembling’ (see values [v2], [v7], [v8], above) which in itself is prob. based on [v1] ʻmilk, to milk’.
ḤLB_11 muḥallabaẗ ʻgelée mince de lait, de riz, d’amidon et d’un peu de parfum’; cf. also muḥallabiyyaẗ ‘espèce de gelée’ (Dozy1881): The word was borrowed into Tu (muḥallebī, with pronounced [h]), then reimported into Ar (with /h/ instead of the original /ḥ/) as muhallabiyyaẗ, var. ↗mahallabiyyaẗ ‘dessert resembling blancmange, made of rice flour, milk and sugar’. The whiteness of the dish would prompt a spontaneous derivation of its name from [v1] ʻmilk’, but morphology – it is a PP II and would thus mean *ʻmade milky’ – seems to forbid such an etymology. Could it be a popular re-interpretation of maḥlabiyyaẗ ʻperfume containing [v4] maḥlab’, used to flavour the sweet milky dish? Or *ʻdish flavoured with [v13] ḥalbānaẗ ʻstorax/galbanum’ (only unreliably attested)?
ḤLB_12 ḥullab ‘a milky, evergreen plant much sought by sheep or gazelles’: also ḥallabaẗ (BK1860). Descriptions of the plant in ClassAr dictionaries suggest a connection of the plant’s name with [v1] ʻmilk’. Thus, ḥullab may have its name either from the fact that »it increases the milk, and fattens; and gazelles are snared [while pasturing] upon it«, or from the fact that »when a piece of it is cut off, a milky fluid flows from it« (Lane ii 1865). – Perh. related to [v14]; see also [v15].
ḤLB_13 ḥalbānaẗ ʻstorax’: To all of EtymArab’s knowledge, the word is not reliably attested (but appears in Hava1899 and Zaborski2013). In contrast, in Sem outside Ar, there is plenty of evidence of an aromatic gum resin called kʰalbánē in Grk, i.e., ‘galbanum’ (> Lat galbanum), identified by Zaborski2013 with Ar ḥalbānaẗ: BiblHbr ḥälbᵊnāʰ, Aram ḥälbᵊnīṯā, TargAram ḥälbᵊnêtâ, ḥälbānᵊtâ, JudPalAram ḥlbnh, Syr ḥelbānīṯā, all ʻgalbanum’ (cf. prob. also Eg ḫa=ra=pa=ta */hilbatta/, n.f. ʻwater perfumed with galbanum’ – Hoch1994 #348). »Galbanum is an aromatic gum from a plant indigenous to Iran used in incense.176 The use in perfuming water is supported by an Akk text that lists ḫilbanītu177 among herbs for a ritual ablution« (Hoch1994 ibid.). The descriptions of galbanum and its use resemble quite closely those of storax which, like galbanum, is a natural resin that was used in antiquity as a perfume, incense, fragrant hair dye, or for flavouring wine. – Like others, Huehnergard2011 holds that Grk kʰalbanē is of NWSem origin, and ultimately from *ḥalab ‘milk’. In contrast, Hoch1994 thinks that »[t]he standard etymology of this word from ʻmilk’ is impossible, since, as the Grk transcription shows, the first consonant is // and not //« (ibid.). – Given the scarce attestation in Ar, Hoch assumes that Ar ḥalbānaẗ »is prob. a loan from Aram/Syr« (ibid., fn. 53).
ḤLB_14 ḥilbāb or ḥulbūb ʻmercury (mercurialis annua; bot.)’, a plant of the euphorbiaceae species: The identification of ḥilbāb/ḥulbūb with ʻmercurialis annua’ seems doubtful, as ʻmercurialis annua’ does not have the milky juice that else is typical of the euphorbiaceae species. If the Ar word means another kind of euphorbia, it is prob. akin to [v1] ḥalab ʻmilk’, meaning a *ʻmilky plant’.
ḤLB_15 ḥiliblāb, vulg. ḥalablūb ʻivy’ (Bustānī1860, Dozy1881): var. of ↗liblāb ʻivy’, prob. unrelated to [v1] ḥalab ʻmilk’, but identified by some with [v12] ḥullab.
ḤLB_16 (≙DRS #ḤLB-6) ḥaliba (a, ḥalab) ‘to be(come) black (hair)’; cf. also ḥulub (pl. of which the sg. is not mentioned) ‘black (animals)’ (Lane, BK), ḥulbūb ‘intensely black’: of obscure etymology.
ḤLB_17 ḥulub (pl. of which the sg. is not mentioned) ʻintelligent (humans)’ (Lane, BK): prob. metaphoric use, but unclear of what – [v16] ʻblack (hair)’? Relation (if any) to the other items of √ḤLB remains unclear so far.
 
▪ According to Huehnergard2011, both Engl mahaleb and galbanum belong to the complex of [v1] ʻmilk’. However, there are other opinions, see [v4] and [v13] in section DISC above, as well as ↗ḥalab and ↗maḥlab, respectively.
 
– 
¹ḥalab حَلَب 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 19Feb2021
√ḤLB 
n. 
milk – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ From protSem *x̣alab‑ ‘milk’ (Huehnergard2011) or protWSem *ḥalab‑ ‘milk’ (Kogan2015: 82 #20; the author thinks that »[t]here is no trace of *ḥalab‑ ‘milk’ in Akk as nAss ḫalāpu ‘to milk’ and ḫilpu ‘milk’ are obvious Aram loanwords« and therefore restricts his reconstruction to the WSem sphere only).
DRS #ḤLB-1 asks whether the first radical in √ḤLB shouldn’t perh. be analysed as a prefix *Ḥ‑ so that we actually might be dealing with *√Ḥ‑LB. No further discussion about the possible nature of such a prefix *Ḥ‑ ; for the remaining element *LB, the authors suggest to compare LBʔ [libaʔ ‘biestings, first milk, colostrum’] and LBN [↗laban ‘milk’].
▪ With the exception of ↗²Ḥalabᵘ ʻAleppo’ (and a few ClassAr items, see root entry ↗√ḤLB) as well as, perh., ↗maḥlab ʻmahaleb, St Lucie cherry (bot.)’, most values attached to √ḤLB may be ultimately derived from a primary ʻmilk, to milk’ – even ↗ḥalbaẗ ʻrace track, race ground, arena, hippodrome; horse race’. A semantic bridge to many of those other meanings may be the basic idea of a *ʻconfluence (of streams of milk) from several directions (of the udder), with a common goal, contributing to achieving a common aim (filling the milking bowl)’. If this assumption is correct, we are facing a rather curious\strange line of development: *ʻmilk > to milk > to “milk” parts of a clan\several quarters\regions > to come together, assemble from several parts etc. to assist in achieving a common goal (i.e., filling the “milk bowl”) > to line up for that goal > to race ground’ – see root entry ↗√ḤLB for more details.
▪ For ↗mahallabiyyaẗ ‘dessert resembling blancmange’ and ḥalbānaẗ ʻgalbanum; storax’, see below, section DISC.
▪ ….
 
▪ In ClassAr, also fig. use of ḥalab ʻmilk’ is attested, cf., e.g., the values ‘date-wine’ (“milked” from dates; see also ḥalab al-karm, ḥalab al-ʕaṣīr ‘wine’ from grapes) and ‘(certain type of) tax’ (“milked” out of the population) – BK1860, Lane ii 1865, Steingass1881, Hava1899.
▪ ClassAr lexicographers explain the dual expression al-ḥalbatāni as ʻthe two milking times’ (BK1860, Lane1865), thus linking ḥalbaẗ to ʻmilk’.
▪ ClassAr ʔaḥlaba, vb. IV, (also ĭstaḥlaba, vb. X) ʻto assist, come to the rescue (party)’ seems to be a generalization/semantic extension of an earlier ʻto milk for s.o., support s.o. by providing milk for him/her’, attested, e.g., in the expression ʔaḥlaba ʔahlahū ʻhe milked for his family, conveyed to his tribe what had been milked’ (Lane1865). ʔaḥlaba may also mean ʻto assist s.o. to milk, in milking’, hence the general sense of ʻto assist’ in ClassAr. From this, also the value ʻto assemble, come together from every quarter, to render aid\for war’ and hence also the general ḥalaba (u, ḥalb, ḥulūb) ‘to come together from every quarter’ seem to be derived. – See also ↗ḥalbaẗ ʻrace track\ground, arena, hippodrome; horse race’.
▪ ClassAr ḥālib ‘vein on the two sides of the navel’, (BK) ‘veine du femur’, du. al-ḥālibāni ‘les deux veines autour du nombril’, seem to be related to the idea of *ʻconfluence, collecting, assembling’, derived from ʻto milk’, see above.
▪ …
 
DRS ḤLB-1 Akk ḫalābu ʻtraire’, Ug ḥlb ʻlait; beurre ou fromage’, Pun ḥlb, Hbr ḥālāb, Syr ḥalbā, Ar ḥalaba ʻtraire’, ḥalīb ʻlait’, Mhr ḥəlūb, Ḥrs ḥəlōb, Jib ḥɔ́lɔ́b, Soq ḥélɔb ʻtraire’; Jib ḥɔ́lɔ́b ʻbabeurre’, Soq ḥə́lub ʻyoghourt’; Mhr məḥlīb ʻjeune chamelon’, Jib maḥléb ʻchamelle; jeune génisse’, Gz Te Tña ḥalib ʻlait’, Amh ayb, Har ḥay, Arg hayu, ʻlait caillé, fromage crémeux’, Tña ḥaläbä ʻtraire; laitage’, Hbr ḥeleb ʻgraisse animale’. – MġrAr ḥallāb : pot à deux anses pour boire, ḥalbiyyaẗ ʻgargoulette’, Tña ḥilab ʻplat, écuelle, gamelle’, Amh malbiya : vase pour traire’. –2-8 […].
▪ Kogan2015, 82 #20: Ug ḥlb, Hbr ḥālāb, Syr ḥalbā, Ar ḥalab, ḥalīb, Gz ḥalib, Jib ḥɔ́lɔ́b, Soq ḥéḷob ‘milk’.
▪ …
 
▪ Unless an isolated item and/or a loan from an unknown source, also ↗ḥulbaẗ ʻfenugreek’ may be related to ʻmilk, milking’, given the fact that »le fenugrec est recommandé aux accouchées et pour soutenir la lactation«, as observed by DRS (discussion of #ḤLB-5).
▪ Etymologies that connect the name of the Syrian city ²Ḥalabᵘ ʻAleppo’ with ʻmilk, milking’, as the place where Abraham allegedly would have milked his flocks, are folk etymologies. The same holds for the popular explanation of the name as deriving from the marble, white like milk, found at Aleppo. In reality, the name is much older, perh. of Amorite origin; see ↗²Ḥalabᵘ.
▪ According to Huehnergard2011, maḥlab ʻmahaleb (Prunus mahaleb, St Lucie cherry; bot.)’ is from ḥalaba ʻto milk’; but details remain unexplained, see ↗maḥlab.
▪ Traditionally, also (the scarcely attested) ḥalbānaẗ ʻstorax; galbanum’ belongs to the complex of ʻmilk, milking’, as the aromatic substance is a resin “milked” from some plant. In contrast, however, Hoch1994 does not believe that this »standard etymology« is true »since, as the Grk transcription [kʰalbánē] shows, the first consonant is // and not //« (#348). – Given the scarce attestation in Ar, Hoch assumes that Ar ḥalbānaẗ »is prob. a loan from Aram/Syr« (ibid., fn. 53).
▪ Traditionally, also the popular blancmange-like dessert called ↗mahallabiyyaẗ (with h, not ), var. muhallabiyyaẗ, is explained as a derivation from ḥalab ʻmilk’. However, while the h instead of may be due to a re-import from Tu (where the originally Ar word lost emphatic ), the morphological structure of the word – a f. nisba based on a PP II – runs contrary to such an interpretation, as form II is not attested and a nisba of PP II ʻmilk’ would mean *ʻbelonging to s.th. made milky, or milk-like’. Therefore, are we perh. dealing with a popular re-interpretation of maḥlabiyyaẗ ʻperfume containing ↗maḥlab’, used to flavour the sweet milky dish, or *ʻdish flavoured with ḥalbānaẗ ʻstorax/galbanum’ (see above)?
▪ …
 
▪ Engl galbanum, from Grk kʰalbanē, of NWSem origin (compare Hbr ḥelbᵊnâ, Aram ḥelbānitā ‘galbanum’, from *ḥalab ‘milk’, cf. Ar ḥalab, ḥalīb) – Huehnergard2011. Cf., however, above, section DISC.
▪ Engl mahaleb, from Ar maḥlab ʻmahaleb’, from ḥalaba ʻto milk’ – Huehnergard2011. Cf., however, discussion s.v. ↗maḥlab.
 
ḥalaba, i, u (ḥalb), vb. I, to milk (an animal): perh. denom. | ḥalaba ’l-dahra ʔašṭurahū, expr., he has seen good and bad days.
taḥallaba, vb. V, 1a to run, drip, trickle, ooze, seep, leak; b to water, drool (mouth, with appetite): Dt-stem, denom. | tataḥallabu lahū ’l-ʔafwāh, expr., adj., making the mouth water, appetizing; taḥallaba ’l-luʕābu fī famī, expr., my mouth was watering.
ĭḥtalaba, vb. VIII, to milk (an animal): Gt-stem, self-ref.
ĭstaḥlaba, vb. X, 1a to milk (an animal); b to squeeze juice (from): *Št-stem, desiderative.

ḥalb, n., milking: vn. I.
BP#2272ḥalīb, n., milk: quasi-PP I. | laban ḥalīb, n., cow’s milk (EgAr)
ḥalūb, adj., lactiferous: adj. formation | baqaraẗ ḥalūb, n.f., milk cow; al-māšiyaẗ al-ḥalūb, n.f., dairy cattle
ḥallāb, n., milker: n.prof.
ḥallābaẗ, n.f., 1a milkmaid, dairymaid; b dairywoman: n.prof.f.; 2 milk cow: ints. formation.
ḥālib, n., ureter: PA I, prob. more originally ʻspermatic duct’ (< *ʻgiving milk’).
mustaḥlab, n., emulsion: PP X. | mustaḥlab al-lawz, n., almond milk.

For other values attached to the root (some of which perh. dependent on ḥalab), cf. ↗ḥalbaẗ, ↗ḥulbaẗ, ↗maḥlab, ↗ḥālib, ↗²Ḥalabᵘ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤLB. 
ḥalbaẗ حَلْبة , pl. ḥalabāt 
ID … • Sw – • BP 4626 • APD … • © SG | 19Feb2021
√ḤLB 
n.f. 
1a race track; barena; c dance floor; 2 race horses – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ Counted as distinct item in DRS (#ḤLB-8), but perh. related to ↗ḥalab ʻmilk’ (and ʻmilking’) via a shared concept of *ʻconfluence (of streams of milk) from several directions (of the udder), with a common goal, contributing to achieving a common aim (filling the milking bowl)’. If this assumption is correct, we are facing a rather curious\strange line of development: *ʻmilk > to milk > to “milk” parts of a clan\several quarters\regions > to come together, assemble from several parts etc. to assist in achieving a common goal (i.e., filling the “milk bowl”) > to line up for that goal > race ground’ – see root entry ↗√ḤLB for more details.
▪ …
 
▪ … 
DRS ḤLB-1-7 […]. -8 EgAr ḥalbaẗ ʻarène, ring’.
▪ …
 
▪ In ClassAr, the vb. I ḥalaba (u, ḥalb, ḥulūb) is attested with the meaning ‘to come together from every quarter’, which seems to be fig. use of ʻmilking’ (coming together seen as a kind of confluence). Morphologically, ḥalbaẗ could thus be interpreted as a singulative of the vn. ḥalb, i.e., as an *ʻinstance of confluence (of several streams, from various directions)’, hence also the place where this confluence happens, and also the .
DRS ḤLB-8 qualifies ḥalbaẗ as a specifically EgAr term. But this seems to be a mistake.
▪ …
 
– 
ḥalbaẗ al-raqṣ, n.f., dance floor
ʔinnahū laysa min tilka ’l-ḥalbaẗ, expr., he is not made for that, he doesn’t belong there, it is not in his line
farīs ḥalbaẗ bi-, n./adj., a master of, excelling or outstanding in.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹ḥalab, ↗ḥulbaẗ, ↗maḥlab, ↗ḥālib, ↗²Ḥalabᵘ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤLB. 
ḥulbaẗ حُلْبة , EgAr ḥilbaẗ 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 19Feb2021
√ḤLB 
n.f. 
1 fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum; bot.); 2 tonic, prepared of yellowish grains, for women in childbed (EgAr, SyrAr) – WehrCowan1976.

 
▪ Counted as distinct item in DRS (#ḤLB-5), but perh. related to ↗ḥalab ʻmilk’. Unless an isolated item and/or a loan from an unknown source, ḥulbaẗ ʻfenugreek’ may have its name from the fact that »le fenugrec est recommandé aux accouchées et pour soutenir la lactation«, as observed by DRS. But this is not the only function/application, as the more detailed entry in Lane ii 1865 makes clear: »used medicinally; and made to germinate (in a vessel of water), and eaten; useful as a remedy for diseases of the chest, for cough, asthma, phlegm, and hæmorrhoids, for giving strength to the back, for the liver and the bladder, and as a stimulant to the venereal faculty, alone or compounded; kind of food called farīqaẗ which is given to women when childbearing«. In this description, the connection to ʻmilk’ is not especially obvious, so the word may still have a different etymology.
DRS #ḤLB-5 marks ḥulbaẗ as an item specific to YemAr and MġrAr, but this labelling is prob. doubtful.
▪ …
 
▪ … 
DRS ḤLB-5 YemAr MġrAr ḥulbaẗ ʻfenugrec, ragoût végétal préparé avec du fenugrec’, Tña ḥəlbät, Amh: plat de carême fait d’orge, de poivron et de haricots.
▪ …
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
 
– 
For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹ḥalab, ↗ḥalbaẗ, ↗maḥlab, ↗ḥālib, ↗²Ḥalabᵘ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤLB. 
maḥlab مَحْلَب 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 19Feb2021
√ḤLB 
n. 
mahaleb (Prunus mahaleb; bot.) – WehrCowan1976.

 
▪ According to Huehnergard2011, Ar maḥlab ʻmahaleb’ is from ḥalaba ʻto milk’, cf. ↗ḥalab ʻmilk’ (n.). But do we have data to support this hypothesis, and what would the St Lucie cherry have in common with milk? Morphology does not support such an etymology either, as the maFʕaL pattern usually is a n.loc. signifying a place. Accord. to BK1860, the word means ‘noyaux semblables à ceux de cerises, venant d’Aderbaïdjan, province de la Perse’. The foreign provenance could be an indicator of the name being a borrowing. Another option may be that the cherry was called after the »spice obtained from the seeds inside the cherry stones […]. The seeds have a fragrant smell and have a taste comparable to bitter almonds with cherry notes. […] The chemical constituents are still uncertain, but the spice is prepared from the seeds, either by grinding and powdering the seed kernels, or in oil extracted from the seeds« (en.wiki). The maFʕaL form would allow an interpretation of maḥlab as ʻproduct squeezed (= “milked”) from the mahaleb seeds’.
▪ …
 
▪ … 
▪ Cf. ↗ḥalab ʻmilk’?
 
▪ Traditionally, also the popular blancmange-like dessert called ↗mahallabiyyaẗ (with h, not ), var. muhallabiyyaẗ, is explained as a derivation from ↗ḥalab ʻmilk’. However, while the h instead of may be due to a re-import from Tu (where the originally Ar word lost emphatic ), the morphological structure of the word – *muḥallabiyyaẗ would be a f. nisba based on a PP II – runs contrary to such an interpretation, as form II is not attested and a nisba of PP II ʻmilk’ would mean *ʻbelonging to s.th. made milky, or milk-like’. Therefore, are we perh. dealing with a popular re-interpretation of maḥlabiyyaẗ ʻperfume containing maḥlab’, used to flavour the sweet milky dish? (Or else *ʻdish flavoured with ḥalbānaẗ ʻstorax/galbanum’, see ↗ḥalab and root entry ↗√ḤLB?)
▪ …
 
▪ Accord. to Huehnergard2011, Engl mahaleb is from Ar maḥlab ʻmahaleb’, from ḥalaba ʻto milk’ (↗ḥalab ʻmilk’). But see above, section CONC.
 
For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹ḥalab, ↗ḥalbaẗ, ↗ḥulbaẗ, ↗ḥālib, ↗²Ḥalabᵘ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤLB. 
ḥālib حالِب 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 19Feb2021
√ḤLB 
n. 
ureter – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ Lit. *ʻthe milk-giving one (like the udder gives milk)’, prob. more originally ʻspermatic duct’, PA I of ḥalaba ʻto milk (an animal)’, from protWSem *ḥalab‑ ʻmilk’, see ↗ḥalab.
 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥalab.
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
 
– 
For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹ḥalab, ↗ḥalbaẗ, ↗ḥulbaẗ, ↗maḥlab, ↗²Ḥalabᵘ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤLB. 
²Ḥalabᵘ حَلَبُ 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 19Feb2021
√ḤLB 
n.geogr. 
Aleppo – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ »According to a popular legend in the Middle Ages, the name Aleppo (Ḥalab) came from the Ar vb. ḥalaba ʻto milk’ because Abraham would have milked his flocks here. This origin myth thus linked Aleppo to one of the most prestigious figures in the Muslim tradition. In reality, however, Ḥalab derives from the name the city had as early as the second millennium B.C.E. (Khalab in Hittite, Khrb in Eg, and Khallaba in Akk)« – A.-M. Eddé, “Aleppo (pre-Ottoman)”, in EI³.
▪ When the name first appears in the sources the city »already had a very long past behind it. It seems that a rural settlement was formed there in prehistoric times and that this village gradually gained ascendance over the others in the area, owing to the relatively wide resources of its site and in particular to the presence there of a rocky eminence on which the citadel still stands today: it was this acropolis, one of the strongest and the most easily manned defensive positions in the whole of northern Syria, which enabled the masters of the place to extend control over their neighbours so as to found the “great kingdom” which was, in the 20th century B.C., to enter into relations with the Hittites of Anatolia« – J. Sauvaget, “Ḥalab”, in EI².
▪ »[The name Ḥalab] is of obscure origin. Some have proposed that Ḥalab means ʻiron’ or ʻcopper’ in Amorite languages, since the area served as a major source of these metals in antiquity. Another possibility is that Ḥalab means ʻwhite’, as this is the word for ʻwhite’ in Aramaic, the local language which preceded regional Arabization« – en.wiki, “Aleppo#Etymology”. 
▪ … 
– 
▪ See above, section CONC.
 
▪ The form Aleppo represents the Italianised version of the Arabic name.
 
For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹ḥalab, ↗ḥalbaẗ, ↗ḥulbaẗ, ↗maḥlab, ↗ḥālib, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤLB. 
ḤLF حلف 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 10Mar2023
√ḤLF 
“root” 
▪ ḤLF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤLF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤLF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be solid; an oath, to swear, to take an oath; to become an ally, enter into an alliance, an alliance’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ḤLQ حلق 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 10Mar2023
√ḤLQ 
“root” 
▪ ḤLQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤLQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤLQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘throat; circle, to encircle; to fly, to hover, circle in the air; to peel off, shave off hair; famine’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ḤLQM حلقم 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 10Mar2023
√ḤLQM 
“root” 
▪ ḤLQM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤLQM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤLQM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘throat, gullet, windpipe; extreme ends, dates ripe at one end’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ḤLM حلم 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22Feb2021
√ḤLM 
“root” 
▪ ḤLM_1 ‘dream, to dream’ ↗ḥulm
▪ ḤLM_2 ‘to have wet dreams, nightly pollutions’ ↗ĭḥtalama
▪ ḤLM_3 ‘sexual maturity, puberty, to attain puberty’ ↗ḥulum
▪ ḤLM_4 ‘gentleness, clemency, patience’ ↗ḥilm
▪ ḤLM_5 ‘tick; mite; nipple, mammilla’ ↗ḥalam
▪ ḤLM_6 ‘haloomi (a kind of cheese)’ ↗ḥalūm

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘dream, to dream, to have wet dreams, to attain puberty; to gain wisdom, to be patient, clemency; a sensible person; nipple, a young goat’ 
▪ With the exception of [v6] ‘haloomi cheese’, all other values may be related – though [v5] ‘tick; mite; nipple, mammilla’ remains slightly difficult to connect. For the remaining items, however, one could imagine a development along the line *[v1] ‘dream, to dream’ > [v2] ‘to have wet dreams, nightly pollutions’ > [v3] ‘sexual maturity, puberty, to attain puberty’ > [v4] 4 ‘gentleness, clemency, patience’.
▪ [v1] Kogan2015, 82 #21 reconstructs protWSem *ḥlm ‘to dream’ (SED I #25ᵥ).
▪ [v3] Kogan2015, 190 #25 reconstructs protCSem *ḥlm ‘to be mature, fat, vigorous.’
▪ …
 
– 
DRS 9 (2010)#ḤLM–1 Hbr ḥālam, Aram ḥᵃlam, Syr ḥᵊlmā, Ar ḥalama, Soq ḥlm, Mhr Ḥrs ḥáyləm, Jib ḥélm, Gz Te ḥalma, Tña ḥalama, Amh allämä ‘rêver’; Ug ḥlm, Phn ḥlm, Hbr ḥalōm, oEmpAram ḥlm, JP Syr ḥelmā, Sab ḥlm, Mhr ḥāləm, ḥām, Ḥrs ḥāləm, Jib ḥum ‘rêve’; Gz ḥəlm, Amh ʔəlm ‘songe’; Sab ḥlmt ‘prophétesse, voyante’; Ar ĭḥtalama, Te täḥallämä, Mhr əḥtəlūm, Jib aḥtélím ‘avoir une pollution nocture’, Sab mḥtlm ‘qui a eu une pollution nocture’. –2 Ug ḥlm, Hbr *ḥālam ‘être fort (jeune animal)’, hęḥᵊlīm ‘rendre bien portant’, Syr ḥᵉlīmā ‘sain, en bonne santé’, Ar ĭḥtalama ‘arriver à l’âge de puberté’, ḥalīm ‘gras (animal)’; ? Mhr ḥəlūm ‘enfler (blessure)’; – Ar ḥaluma ‘être doux, indulgent, intelligent’, ḥilm ‘indulgence, tranquillité. –3 Ar ḥalima ‘avoir la peau infestée de parasites’, ḥalamaẗ ‘tique’. –4 Syr ḥᵃlametā, Ar ḥalamaẗ, Soq ḥálmeh ‘bout du sein’. – [5.-7. not relevant for Ar]. –8 Ar ḥālūm : sorte de fromage blanc. –9 Ar ḥullām ‘agneau, chevreau’.
▪ Badawi/AbdelHaleem2008 groups: 1 dream, to dream, to have wet dreams, to attain puberty; 2 to gain wisdom, be patient, clemency; 3 a sensible person; 4 nipple, a young goat.
▪ [v1] Kogan2015: 82 #21: Ug ḥlm, Hbr ḥlm, Syr ḥlam, Ar ḥlm, Sab ḥlm, Gz ḥalama, Mhr ḥáyləm, Jib ḥélm, Soq ḥᵃḷem ‘to dream’.
▪ [v3] Kogan2015, 190 #25: (Ug ḥlm ‘mature animal’105 ), Hbr ḥlm ‘to be healthy, strong’106 , Syr ḥallimā ‘sanus, integer, validus’, Ar ḥlm ‘to become fat’, ḥalīm ‘fat’.
▪ ...
 
▪ [v1] Kogan2015, 82 #21: There is no trace of *ḥlm ‘to dream’ in Akk, where the nominal concept *‘dream’ is expressed by šuttu, a secondary formation from protSem *šin‑at‑ ‘sleep’. (Conversely, such a usage is totally alien to WSem, where *šin‑at‑ and *wšn are strictly reserved for the concept *‘(to) sleep’.)
▪ [v2]: DRS 9 (2010) regards ḤLM_2 ‘to have wet dreams, nightly pollutions’ (↗ĭḥtalama) as a specialisation of ‘dream, to dream’. So also Badawi/AbdelHaleem2008, who, following Lane and some ClassAr lexicographers, also interprets ‘sexual maturity, puberty’ (ḤLM_3 ↗ḥulum) as the age that starts with having nightly pollutions. Semantically, one could even think of the idea of ‘insight, wisdom’ etc. (↗ḥilm) as being dependent on having reached ‘maturity’. Etymologically, however, this is not necessarily true.
▪ [v3]: ḤLM_3 ‘sexual maturity, puberty’ may be based on ḤLM_2 ‘to have nightly pollutions’ and thus, ultimately, perhaps on ḤLM_1 ‘dream, to dream’. Another etymology connects it to the idea of ‘strength, healthiness’ as attached to the root in Hbr and Aram.
▪ [v4]: ḤLM_4 ‘gentleness, clemency, patience’ is seen by DRS as a function of having reached ‘sexual maturity’ and, thus, akin to the ‘strength, healthiness’ of Hbr and Aram. In contrast, Zammit2002 regards Hbr ḥāmal ‘to spare, have compassion’ as a cognate (Ar showing metathesis). Should this be right, then ḤLM_4 would ultimately be akin to ↗ḥamala ‘to bear’.
▪ [v5]: DRS lists ‘tick, mite’ and ‘nipple, mammilla’ as distinct items but adds that the latter may be derived from the former. Badawi/AbdelHaleem2008 connect also the value ‘young goat’ (obsolete) to ‘nipple’, while DRS makes it an item in its own right.
▪ [v6]: ‘haloomi cheese’ is likely not to be connected to any of the above values. Youssef2003 suggested a Copt < Eg etymology, see s.v.
▪ ...
 
– 
– 
ĭḥtalam‑ اِحْتَلَمَ , ‑ḥtalim‑ (ĭḥtilām
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22Feb2021
√ḤLM 
vb., VIII 
to attain puberty – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Prob. developed from a basic *‘to dream’ along the line *‘dream, to dream’ (↗ḥulm) > ‘to have wet dreams, nightly pollutions’ > ‘sexual maturity, puberty, to attain puberty’ (↗ḥulum).
▪ Kogan2015 reconstructs protWSem *ḥlm ‘to dream’ (SED I #25ᵥ) (82 #21) and protCSem *ḥlm ‘to be mature, fat, vigorous’ (190 #25).
▪ …
 
▪ … 
▪ Usually seen as a from VIII vb. derived from ↗ḥulum ‘puberty’ and/or ↗ḥulm ‘dream’. For the common view is that ‘puberty’ is the age where men start to have ‘wet dreams, nightly pollutions’. Cf. however a different view in DRS:
DRS 9 (2010)#ḤLM–1 Hbr ḥālam, Aram ḥᵃlam, Syr ḥᵊlmā, Ar ḥalama, Soq ḥlm, Mhr Ḥrs ḥáyləm, Jib ḥélm, Gz Te ḥalma, Tña ḥalama, Amh allämä ‘rêver’; Ug ḥlm, Phn ḥlm, Hbr ḥalōm, oEmpAram ḥlm, JP Syr ḥelmā, Sab ḥlm, Mhr ḥāləm, ḥām, Ḥrs ḥāləm, Jib ḥum ‘rêve’; Gz ḥəlm, Amh ʔəlm ‘songe’; Sab ḥlmt ‘prophétesse, voyante’; Ar ĭḥtalama, Te täḥallämä, Mhr əḥtəlūm, Jib aḥtélím ‘avoir une pollution nocture’, Sab mḥtlm ‘qui a eu une pollution nocture’. – ▪ DRS 9 (2010)#ḤLM–2 Ug ḥlm, Hbr *ḥālam ‘être fort (jeune animal)’, hęḥᵊlīm ‘rendre bien portant’, Syr ḥᵉlīmā ‘sain, en bonne santé’, Ar ĭḥtalama ‘arriver à l’âge de puberté’, ḥalīm ‘gras (animal)’; ? Mhr ḥəlūm ‘enfler (blessure)’; – Ar ḥaluma ‘être doux, indulgent, intelligent’, ḥilm ‘indulgence, tranquillité’. 
▪ The reason why ĭḥtalama has an entry in its own right in EtymArab is the fact that DRS attaches to the vb. two values that not necessarily are connected: ‘to have nightly pollutions’ (now obsolete) and ‘to attain sexual maturity, reach the age of puberty’. While ‘nightly pollutions’, accord. to DRS, is ‘to have wet dreams’ and, thus, a specialisation of ‘to dream’ (↗ḥulm), ‘sexual maturity, puberty’ is seen to be cognate to Hbr and Aram words designating physical ‘strength, healthiness’ and the ability to bear loads. On reaching maturity and the ability to ‘bear’ is based, accord. to DRS, also the notion of ‘mildness, indulgence, patience; understanding, intelligence, reason’ (↗ḥilm). 
– 
ḥulum, n., sexual maturity, puberty: not a derivative but rather the basis on which the vb. VIII is dependent; but cf. DISC above.

muḥtalim, adj., sexually mature, pubescent, marriageable: PA VIII. 
ḥulm حُلْم , pl. ʔaḥlām 
ID … • Sw – • BP 637 • APD … • © SG | 22Feb2021
√ḤLM 
n. 
daydream, dream; pl. irreality, utopia – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Kogan2011: from protWSem *ḥlm ‘to dream’.
▪ … 
▪ eC7 Q 12:44 mā naḥnu bi-taʔwīli ’l-ʔaḥlāmi bi-ʕālimīn ‘we are not knowledgeable in the interpretation of dreams’ 
DRS 9 (2010)#ḤLM–1 Hbr ḥālam, Aram ḥᵃlam, Syr ḥᵊlmā, Ar ḥalama, Soq ḥlm, Mhr Ḥrs ḥáyləm, Jib ḥélm, Gz Te ḥalma, Tña ḥalama, Amh allämä ‘rêver’; Ug ḥlm, Phn ḥlm, Hbr ḥalōm, oEmpAram ḥlm, JP Syr ḥelmā, Sab ḥlm, Mhr ḥāləm, ḥām, Ḥrs ḥāləm, Jib ḥum ‘rêve’; Gz ḥəlm, Amh ʔəlm ‘songe’; Sab ḥlmt ‘prophétesse, voyante’; Ar ĭḥtalama, Te täḥallämä, Mhr əḥtəlūm, Jib aḥtélím ‘avoir une pollution nocture’, Sab mḥtlm ‘qui a eu une pollution nocture’.
 
▪ [v2]: DRS 9 (2010) regards ‘to have wet dreams, nightly pollutions’ (↗ĭḥtalama) as a specialisation of ‘dream, to dream’. So also Badawi/AbdelHaleem2008, who, following Lane and some ClassAr lexicographers, also interpret ‘sexual maturity, puberty’ (↗ḥulum) as the age that starts with having nightly pollutions. Semantically, one could even think of the idea of ‘insight, wisdom’ etc. (↗ḥilm) as being dependent on having reached ‘maturity’. Etymologically, however, this is not necessarily true.
 
– 
ḥulm al-yaqẓaẗ, n., daydream.

BP#1895ḥalama, u, vb. I, 1a to dream (bi‑ or ʕan of; fī ʔan of being, becoming, doing, etc., in the future); b to muse, reflect, meditate (bi‑ on s.th.): denom.?; 2 to attain puberty: perhaps from, or belonging to, ↗ḥulum rather than to ḥulm.
ḥulmī, adj., dream (in compounds), of or pertaining to dreams: nsb-adj.
ḥālim, adj., dreamy, dreamlike; (pl. ‑ūn) dreamer.

For ‘sexual maturity, puberty’ see ↗ḥulum
ḥulum حُلُم 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22Feb2021
√ḤLM 
n. 
sexual maturity, puberty – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Prob. developed from a basic *‘to dream’ along the line *‘dream, to dream’ (↗ḥulm) > ‘to have wet dreams, nightly pollutions’ > ‘sexual maturity, puberty, to attain puberty’ (ḥulum, ↗ĭḥtalama).
▪ Kogan2015 reconstructs protWSem *ḥlm ‘to dream’ (SED I #25ᵥ) (82 #21) and protCSem *ḥlm ‘to be mature, fat, vigorous’ (190 #25).
▪ …
 
▪ eC7 Q 24:58 allaḏīna lam yabluġū ’l-ḥuluma ‘those who have not reached or attained puberty’ 
DRS 9 (2010)#ḤLM–2 Ug ḥlm, Hbr *ḥālam ‘être fort (jeune animal)’, hęḥᵊlīm ‘rendre bien portant’, Syr ḥᵉlīmā ‘sain, en bonne santé’, Ar ĭḥtalama ‘arriver à l’âge de puberté’, ḥalīm ‘gras (animal)’; ? Mhr ḥəlūm ‘enfler (blessure)’; – Ar ḥaluma ‘être doux, indulgent, intelligent’, ḥilm ‘indulgence, tranquillité.
 
DRS 9 (2010)#ḤLM connects the notion of ‘gentleness, clemency; insight, discernment, reason, wisdom’ etc. (↗ḥilm) as being dependent on having reached ‘puberty, sexual maturity’. This sounds not impossible; etymologically, however, it is not necessarily correct.
DRS separates ‘puberty’ from ‘to have wet dreams, nightly pollutions’ (↗ĭḥtalama, which is seen as a specialisation of ‘dream, to dream’, see ↗ḥulm) and rather connects it to the idea of ‘strength, healthiness’ as attached to √ḤLM in Hbr and Aram.
▪ In contrast, Badawi/AbdelHaleem2008follow Lane and some ClassAr lexicographers in interpreting ‘sexual maturity, puberty’ as a function of ‘to have wet dreams, nightly pollutions’ (↗ĭḥtalama), from ‘dream, to dream’ (↗ḥulm).
▪ Semantically, one could even think of the idea of ‘insight, wisdom’ etc. (↗ḥilm) as being dependent on having reached ‘maturity’. Etymologically, however, this is not necessarily true.
 
– 
ĭḥtalama, vb. VIII, to attain puberty: denom. from ḥulum (?). See also s.v..

muḥtalim, adj., sexually mature, pubescent, marriageable: PA VIII.

For ‘dream, wet dream, nightly pollution’ etc., cf. ↗ḥulm and ↗ĭḥtalama. – For ‘gentleness, clemency; insight, discernment, reason’ ↗ḥilm
ḥilm حِلْم , pl. ḥulūm , ʔaḥlām 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22Feb2021
√ḤLM 
n. 
gentleness, clemency, mildness; forbearance, indulgence; patience; insight, discernment, understanding, intelligence, reason – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Prob. developed from a basic *‘to dream’ along the line *‘dream, to dream’ (↗ḥulm) > ‘to have wet dreams, nightly pollutions’ > ‘sexual maturity, puberty, to attain puberty’ (↗ḥulum, ↗ĭḥtalama) > ‘gentleness, clemency, patience’.
▪ Kogan2015 reconstructs protWSem *ḥlm ‘to dream’ (SED I #25ᵥ) (82 #21) and protCSem *ḥlm ‘to be mature, fat, vigorous’ (190 #25).
ḥilm is a key concept of Arab-Islamic ethics, »a complex and delicate notion which includes a certain number of qualities of character or moral attitudes, ranging from serene justice and moderation to forbearance and leniency, with self-mastery and dignity of bearing standing between these extremes.«45 It is contrasted in particular with ↗ǧahl, »the fundamental characteristic of the ↗ǧāhiliyyaẗ, and ↗safah or safāhaẗ«.46 For related concepts, cf., among others, cf. ↗karam, ↗muruwwaẗ, ↗ṣabr; see also ↗ʔadab, ↗ʔaḫlāq, ↗ḍiyāfaẗ, ↗faḫr, ↗ḥamāsaẗ, ↗ʕirḍ.
▪ …
 
▪ eC7 ḥilm Q 52:30-2 ʔam taʔmuru-hum ʔaḥlāmu-hum bi-hāḏā ʔam hum qawmun ṭāġūna ‘does their reason really tell them to do this, or are they simply insolent people?’ – ḥalīm 1 (forbearing, patient, sensible, prudent) Q 11:75 ʔinna ʔibrāhīma la-ḥalīmun ʔawwāhun munīb ‘for Abraham was forbearing, tender-hearted and devout’; 2 (an attribute of God) Q 4:12 wa-’ḷḷāhu ʕalīmun ḥalīm ‘God is All-Knowledgeable, All-Forbearing’. 
DRS 9 (2010)#ḤLM–2 Ug ḥlm, Hbr *ḥālam ‘être fort (jeune animal)’, hęḥᵊlīm ‘rendre bien portant’, Syr ḥᵉlīmā ‘sain, en bonne santé’, Ar ĭḥtalama ‘arriver à l’âge de puberté’, ḥalīm ‘gras (animal)’; ? Mhr ḥəlūm ‘enfler (blessure)’; – Ar ḥaluma ‘être doux, indulgent, intelligent’, ḥilm ‘indulgence, tranquillité.
▪ Zammit2002: Ar ḥalīm ‘kind, gracious; intelligent’, Hbr ḥāmal ‘to spare; to have compassion’.
 
▪ While DRS 9 (2010)#ḤLM assumes that ḥilm ‘gentleness, clemency, patience; reason, intelligence’ etc. is a consequence of reaching maturity in puberty (↗ḥulum), Zammit2002 connects ḥilm with the notion of ‘sparing, having compassion’ as present in Hbr ḥāmal. Should this be right, then ḥilm would ultimately be akin to ↗ḥamala ‘to bear’ (with a ḤLM↔ ḤML metathesis and overlapping).
 
– 
ṣiġār al-ʔaḥlām, n.pl., simpleminded people, simple souls.

ḥaluma, u, vb. I, to be gentle, mild-tempered: probably denominative.

ḥalīm, pl. ḥulamāʔᵘ, adj., mild, mild-tempered, gentle; patient: quasi-PP I.
 
ḥalam حَلَم (n.un. ‑aẗ
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22Feb2021
√ḤLM 
n.coll. (n.un. ‑aẗ
tick; mite; nipple, teat, mammilla (of the female breast) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Perh. akin to the complex derived from *‘dream, to dream’ (↗ḥulm), though the precise nature of such a relationship would still have to be established.
▪ …
 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010)#ḤLM–3 Ar ḥalima ‘avoir la peau infestée de parasites’, ḥalamaẗ ‘tique’.
DRS 9 (2010)#ḤLM–4 Syr ḥᵃlametā, Ar ḥalamaẗ, Soq ḥálmeh ‘bout du sein’. 
DRS 9 (2010) lists ‘tick, mite’ and ‘nipple, mammilla’ as distinct items but adds that the latter may be derived from the former. Badawi/AbdelHaleem2008 connects also the value ‘young goat’[(DRS 9 (2010)#ḤLM-9: Ar ḥullām ‘agneau, chevreau’.)], now obsolete, to ‘nipple’.
 
– 
ḥalamī, adj., 1 parasitic; 2 mammillary, nipple-shaped: nsb-adj. 
ḥalūm حَلوم , var. ḥālūm 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤLM 
n. 
a kind of Egyptian cheese – WehrCowan1979. 
According to Youssef2003, the word is from Copt ḥalōm ‘cheese’.
▪ …
 
▪ … 
▪ Nişanyan_11Sep2014: Ar ḥilm ‘softness, gentleness’.
▪ Youssef2003: Copt ḥalōm ‘cheese’. 
▪ While Nişanyan thinks the haloomi cheese is so called because of its softness, the fact that there exist different spellings (esp. the common variant with long ā in the first syllable) points to a foreign origin.
▪ Accord. to Lane, TA regards the word (which is already listed by Ibn Sīda and Fīrūzābādī) as taken from the EgAr dialect.
▪ Youssef2003: from Copt ḥalōm ‘cheese’. 
▪ Engl halloumi, from Grk χαλλούμι χalloúmi, either directly from Copt ḥalōm, from Eg…, or via Ar ḥalūm (< Copt < Eg).
▪ Tu hellim [ Evliyā Çelebī, Seyāḥatnāme, 1680] eṣnāf-ı cibn-i ḥālūmiyān yaʕnī peynirciyān 
– 
ḤLW/Y حلو/حلي 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 23Feb2021
√ḤLW 
“root” 
▪ ḤLW/Y_1 ‘sweet, pleasant to the tongue; pleasant, charming, pretty’ ↗ḥulw, ‘candy, confection, sweetmeats’ ↗ḥalwà
▪ ḤLW/Y_2 ‘adornment, decoration, jewelry’ ↗ḥaly
▪ ḤLW/Y_3 ‘…’ ↗ḥlw/y
▪ …

▪ BAH2008: ‘ornament, jewellery, to adorn, to grace; dowry, gratuity; sweet, to sweeten, to enjoy’ 
▪ In Sem, the two values ‘to be sweet, pleasant to the tongue’ and ‘to adorn’ exist alongside each other. It is difficult to decide which was the primary, which the secondary one.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994 (#1225) reconstruct: Sem *ḥ˅law‑/*ḥalaw‑ ‘to be sweet’, based on biconsonantal *ḥal‑, from AfrAs *ḥal‑ ‘to be sweet’.
▪ …
 
– 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤLW/Y: EmpAram ḥly, BiblAram ḥᵃlā, ḥalī, Syr ḥᵊlī, Mnd ḫlā, Ar ḥalà, ḥaliya ‘être doux, agréable au goût’, SAr ḥalwi: chose sucrée, Mhr ḥōli ‘agréable’, šəḥlū, Jib s̃ḥɛlé ‘trouver agréable’. – Hbr ḥᵃlī ‘collier, parure’, Ar ḥaly ‘ornement, parure, bijou’, ḥalà(y) ‘orner de pierreries, de bijoux’. – Hbr māḥᵃlat: terme technique de musique, Ar muḥallī ‘musicien’, Gz ḥalaya, Te ḥala, Amh ḥalläyä ‘chanter’; Tña ḥaläyä ‘chant’, Amh maḥlet ‘hymne’. – Ar ḥalà ‘donner qc à qn’, ḥilwān ‘cadeau, don’, Sab Min ḥly ‘don’, Soq ḥole ‘donner’; Gz ʔaḥlaya, ʔaḥallaya ‘donner un pot-de-vin’, ḥəlyān ‘pot-de-vin, don, récompense’.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994 (#1225): No cognates given for Sem, but in WCh (Hs gállā́ ‘sweet juice sucked from the abdomen of a hornet’), allí ‘sweet’ in 1 CCh lang, and hal-am‑ ‘sweet’ in 1 Rift idiom.
▪ …
 
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994 (#1225) reconstruct protSem *ḥalaw‑/*ḥ˅law‑ ‘to be sweet’, protWCh *ḥal‑ (StarLing *ḥall‑) (deverb. n.) ‘sweet juice sucked from the abdomen of a hornet’ (based on Hs), protCCh *χal‑ (StarLing *Hal‑) ‘sweet’ (based on 1 CCh item), and protRift *hal‑ ‘sweet’ (based on 1 Rift item; Starling: Ø).
▪ …
 
▪ Engl halvahḥalwà
– 
ḥulw حُلْو 
ID … • Sw – • BP 255 • APD … • © SG | 23Feb2021
√ḤLW/Y 
adj. 
1 sweet; 2 pleasant, nice, charming, delightful, pretty – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ (Orel&Stolbova1994 #1225:) from Sem *ḥ˅law‑/*ḥalaw‑ ‘to be sweet’, based on biconsonantal *ḥal‑, from AfrAs *ḥal‑ ‘to be sweet’.
▪ …
 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤLW/Y: EmpAram ḥly, BiblAram ḥᵃlā, ḥalī, Syr ḥᵊlī, Mnd ḫlā, Ar ḥalà, ḥaliya ‘être doux, agréable au goût’, SAr ḥalwi: chose sucrée, Mhr ḥōli ‘agréable’, šəḥlū, Jib s̃ḥɛlé ‘trouver agréable’. – Hbr ḥᵃlī ‘collier, parure’, Ar ḥaly ‘ornement, parure, bijou’, ḥalà(y) ‘orner de pierreries, de bijoux’. – Hbr māḥᵃlat: terme technique de musique, Ar muḥallī ‘musicien’, Gz ḥalaya, Te ḥala, Amh ḥalläyä ‘chanter’; Tña ḥaläyä ‘chant’, Amh maḥlet ‘hymne’. – Ar ḥalà ‘donner qc à qn’, ḥilwān ‘cadeau, don’, Sab Min ḥly ‘don’, Soq ḥole ‘donner’; Gz ʔaḥlaya, ʔaḥallaya ‘donner un pot-de-vin’, ḥəlyān ‘pot-de-vin, don, récompense’.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994 (#1225): No cognates given for Sem, but in WCh (Hs gállā́ ‘sweet juice sucked from the abdomen of a hornet’), allí ‘sweet’ in 1 CCh lang, and hal-am‑ ‘sweet’ in 1 Rift idiom.
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
▪ Engl halvahḥalwà
NB: Below, only the derivatives of the value *‘sweetness’ are given. For others, esp. those of the (most prob. related) *‘adornment, jewelry’, cf. ↗ḥaly and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤLW/Y.

ḥulw al-ḥadīt, n., adj., gifted raconteur, amusing, entertaining;
al-ġuddaẗ al-ḥulwaẗ, n.f., pancreas (anat.).

BP#3940ḥaluwa, u, var. ḥaliya, a, and ḥalā, u (ḥalāwaẗ, ḥulwān), vb. I, 1 to be sweet; 2 to be pleasant, agreeable (li‑ to s.o.) | ḥalā la-hū al-šayʔ, expr., he enjoyed the thing; ḥalā la-hū ʔanna, expr., it pleased him that…, he was delighted that …; ḥasabamā ḥalā la-hū, expr., at his discretion, as he pleases
ḥallà, vb. II, 1 to sweeten (s.th., e.g., a beverage with sugar); 2ḥaly: D-stem, caus.
ĭstaḥlà, vb. X, to find sweet or pleasant, like (s.th.), be delighted (by): *Št-stem, declar.

ḥalan, def. ḥalà, n., sweetness, pleasantness.
BP#4114ḥalwà, pl. ḥalāwà, n., candy, confection, confectionery, sweetmeats.
ḥalwāʔᵘ, n., candy, confection, confectionery, sweetmeats: f. of elat. BP#1309ʔaḥlà.
BP#4909ḥalwayāt (and Eg. ḥalwiyyāt), n.pl., 1a sweets (in general); b sweet pastry; c candies, confectionery, sweetmeats.
BP#4201ḥalāwaẗ, n.f., 1 sweetness; 2 candies, confectionery, sweetmeats; 3 grace, gracefulness, charm, refinement, wittiness, wit; 4 present of money; 5 ransom: vn. I and fig. use. | ḥalāwaẗ ḥummuṣiyyaẗ, n.f., a sweet made of roasted chick-peas; ḥalāwaẗ ṭaḥīniyyaẗ, n.f., a sweet made of sesame-seed meal; ḥalāwaẗ lawziyyaẗ, n.f., a sweet made of almonds.
ḥulwān, n., present of money, gratuity, tip: fig. use of *ʻsweetness, sweets’.
ḥulwānī, var. ḥalwāʔī, n., 1 confectioner, candy dealer; 2 pastry cook, fancy baker: nisba formation.
mā ʔuḥaylà…, expr., oh, how sweet is …: exclam. | mā ʔuḥaylā-hu, oh, how sweet he is!
muḥallan, det. muḥallà, adj., 1 sweetened; 2ḥaly: PP II. 
ḥaly حَلْي , pl. ḥulīy 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 23Feb2021
√ḤLW/Y 
n. 
piece of jewelry, trinket – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ …
 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤLW/Y: EmpAram ḥly, BiblAram ḥᵃlā, ḥalī, Syr ḥᵊlī, Mnd ḫlā, Ar ḥalà, ḥaliya ‘être doux, agréable au goût’, SAr ḥalwi: chose sucrée, Mhr ḥōli ‘agréable’, šəḥlū, Jib s̃ḥɛlé ‘trouver agréable’. – Hbr ḥᵃlī ‘collier, parure’, Ar ḥaly ‘ornement, parure, bijou’, ḥalà(y) ‘orner de pierreries, de bijoux’. – Hbr māḥᵃlat: terme technique de musique, Ar muḥallī ‘musicien’, Gz ḥalaya, Te ḥala, Amh ḥalläyä ‘chanter’; Tña ḥaläyä ‘chant’, Amh maḥlet ‘hymne’. – Ar ḥalà ‘donner qc à qn’, ḥilwān ‘cadeau, don’, Sab Min ḥly ‘don’, Soq ḥole ‘donner’; Gz ʔaḥlaya, ʔaḥallaya ‘donner un pot-de-vin’, ḥəlyān ‘pot-de-vin, don, récompense’.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994 (#1225): No cognates given for Sem, but in WCh (Hs gállā́ ‘sweet juice sucked from the abdomen of a hornet’), allí ‘sweet’ in 1 CCh lang, and hal-am‑ ‘sweet’ in 1 Rift idiom.
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
– 
NB: Below, only the derivatives of the value *‘adornment, jewelry’ are given. For others, esp. those of the (most prob. related) *‘sweetness’, cf. ↗ḥulw, ↗ḥalwà, and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤLW/Y.

ḥalà, i, vb. I, to adorn, grace.
ḥaliya, a, vb. I, to be adorned (bi‑ with).
ḥallà, vb. II, 1ḥulw; 2 to adorn, bedeck, embellish, attire, furnish, provide (s.o., s.th., bi‑ with): D-stem, caus.
taḥallà, vb. V, to adorn o.s., be adorned, decked out, embellished, graced, endowed, furnished, provided (bi‑ with): Dt-stem, refl./pass.

ḥilyaẗ, pl. ḥilan, var. ḥulan, n., 1a decoration, embellishment, finery; b ornament.
taḥliyaẗ, n.f., decoration , embellishment, ornamentation: vn. II.
muḥallan, det. muḥallà, adj., 1ḥulw; 2 decorated, embellished, adorned, ornamented (bi‑ with): PP II. 
ḥalwà حَلْوَى , pl. ḥalāwà 
ID 230 • Sw – • BP 4114 • APD … • © SG | 23Feb2021
√ḤLW 
n.f. 
candy, confection, confectionery, sweetmeats – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ ↗ḥulw
▪ …
 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥulw
▪ …
 
▪ ↗ḥulw
▪ …
 
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl halvah, from Ar ḥalwà ‘confection’, from ḥaluwa ‘to be(come) sweet, pleasant’. 
NB: The list below contains only those items that can be regarded as directly derived from ḥalwà. For other items from the root, cf. ↗ḥulw, ↗ḥaly, and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤLW/Y.

ḥalwāʔᵘ, n., candy, confection, confectionery, sweetmeats: f. of elat. BP#1309ʔaḥlà.
BP#4909ḥalwayāt (and Eg. ḥalwiyyāt), n.pl., 1a sweets (in general); b sweet pastry; c candies, confectionery, sweetmeats.
BP#4201ḥalāwaẗ, n.f., 1 sweetness; 2 candies, confectionery, sweetmeats; 3 grace, gracefulness, charm, refinement, wittiness, wit; 4 present of money; 5 ransom: vn. I and concr. use. | ḥalāwaẗ ḥummuṣiyyaẗ, n.f., a sweet made of roasted chick-peas; ḥalāwaẗ ṭaḥīniyyaẗ, n.f., a sweet made of sesame-seed meal; ḥalāwaẗ lawziyyaẗ, n.f., a sweet made of almonds.
ḥulwānī, var. ḥalwāʔī, n., 1 confectioner, candy dealer; 2 pastry cook, fancy baker: nisba formation.
mā ʔuḥaylà…, expr., oh, how sweet is …: exclam. | mā ʔuḥaylā-hu, oh, how sweet he is!
muḥallan, det. muḥallà, adj., 1 sweetened; 2ḥaly: PP II.

 
ḤMː (ḤMM) حمّ / حمم 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤMː (ḤMM) 
“root” 
▪ ḤMː (ḤMM)_1 ‘dove, pigeon’ ↗ḥamām
▪ ḤMː (ḤMM)_2 ‘bath’ ↗ḥammām
▪ ḤMː (ḤMM)_3 ‘heat, fever’ ↗ḥummà

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘death; to become due; hot boiling water, to heat up, a bath, to bathe; fever, to develop a fever; coal, black choking smoke, intense fire; an intimate friend, family, entourage; pigeon’ 
▪ [v3] Kogan2011: well attested, from protSem *ḥmm ‘to be hot’, but the main term for ‘warm, hot’ in Ar is ↗suḫn (< protSem *šḫn).
▪ …… 
– 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤM-M-a Akk ememu ‘être chaud’, emm-, Ug ḥm ‘chaleur’, Hbr ḥam, ḥam ‘être brûlant, chaud’; Ar ḥamma (u) ‘chauffer’, ḥamma (a) ‘être chaud’, ḥumma (passif) ‘avoir de la fièvre’, ḥummaẗ ‘chaleur intense’, ḥammām ‘bains’, Jib ḥõt (f.) ‘faire chaud à midi’, aḥmím ‘avoir de la fièvre’; Gz ḥamma ‘être malade’, Amh ammama ‘faire mal’, həmäm ‘maladie’. -b WḤM, Hbr *yaḥam ‘être en chaleur’, Aram yaḥēm ‘mettre en chaleur’, Ar wiḥām ‘chaleur’, waḥīm ‘chaud (jour)’, waḥama ‘avoir des envies (femme enceinte)’, tawaḥḥama ‘être en chaleur, en rut’. –c ḤMW/Y: Syr ḥᵊmā ‘griller (les plantes), dessécher’, Ar ḥamiya ‘brûler, être échauffé, chauffé; être en colère’, ḥammà (y) ‘chauffer’, ḥumaẗ ‘ardeur du feu; source d’eau chaude’, ḥamy ‘ardeur du soleil’.
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤMM-1 Ar ḥamma ‘devenir noir’, ḥumam ‘charbon, suie, cendres’, DaṯAr ḥumum ‘suie’, MġrAr ḥmūm ‘saleté’, Mhr ḥəm ‘recueillir du charbon de bois’, Mhr Ḥrs ḥəmīm, Mhr ḥəmūm, Jib ḥũm, Soq ḥémhom ‘charbon’, Gz ḥəmmat ‘charbon, suie’, Tña ḥəmmät ‘charbon’, Amh əmmät ‘suie, cendre d’encens’. – ? Hbr ḥammān, Nab Palm ḥmn, autel pour l’encens; ? ḥūm: noir et blanc; – Ar ḥammama ‘commencer à noircir, commencer à pousser (barbe, poil)’, Soq ḥamúmoh ‘moustache naissante’. – ? 2 Gz taḥamma ‘être marécageux, boueux’. -3 Ar ḥammaẗ, ḥamāmaẗ, Mhr ḥəmōmət, Ḥrs ḥəmōmeh, Jib ḥõt, Śḥr ḥamit, Soq ḥəmám(eh) ‘pigeon, colombe, tourterelle’. -4 Ar ḥamma ‘destiner à qn, réserver à qn par ses arrêts (Dieu)’, ḥummaẗ ‘arrêt’, ḥimām ‘mort’. -5 Gz ḥamama, ḥamma ‘être envieux, avare’. -6 Ar ḥamm, ḥumm ‘refugeʼ. -7 ḥamm ‘meilleure partie d’une chose’, ḥumām ‘chef’. -8 ḥāmma ‘s’approcher de qn’, ḥamīm, ḥammaẗ ‘parent, proche’.
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
ḥamām حَمام 
ID 231 • Sw – • BP 4207 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤMː (ḤMM) 
n. 
dove, pigeon – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤMM-3 Ar ḥammaẗ, ḥamāmaẗ, Mhr ḥəmōmət, Ḥrs ḥəmōmeh, Jib ḥõt, Śḥr ḥamit, Soq ḥəmám(eh) ‘pigeon, colombe, tourterelle’.
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
… 
 
ḥammām حَمّام 
ID 232 • Sw – • BP 2309 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤMː (ḤMM) 
n. 
1 bath; 2 swimming pool; 3 spa, watering place – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤM-M: -a Akk ememu ‘être chaud’, emm-, Ug ḥm ‘chaleur’, Hbr ḥam, ḥam ‘être brûlant, chaud’; Ar ḥamma (u) ‘chauffer’, ḥamma (a) ‘être chaud’, ḥumma (passif) ‘avoir de la fièvre’, ḥummaẗ ‘chaleur intense’, ḥammām ‘bains’, Jib ḥõt (f.) ‘faire chaud à midi’, aḥmím ‘avoir de la fièvre’; Gz ḥamma ‘être malade’, Amh ammama ‘faire mal’, həmäm ‘maladie’. -b WḤM, Hbr *yaḥam ‘être en chaleur’, Aram yaḥēm ‘mettre en chaleur’, Ar wiḥām ‘chaleur’, waḥīm ‘chaud (jour)’, waḥama ‘avoir des envies (femme enceinte)’, tawaḥḥama ‘être en chaleur, en rut’. –c ḤMW/Y: Syr ḥᵊmā ‘griller (les plantes), dessécher’, Ar ḥamiya ‘brûler, être échauffé, chauffé; être en colère’, ḥammà (y) ‘chauffer’, ḥumaẗ ‘ardeur du feu; source d’eau chaude’, ḥamy ‘ardeur du soleil’.
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▪ …
▪ … 
… 
 
ḥummà حُمَّى 
ID 233 • Sw – • BP 3706 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤMː (ḤMM) 
n. 
fever, fever heat – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤM-M: -a Akk ememu ‘être chaud’, emm-, Ug ḥm ‘chaleur’, Hbr ḥam, ḥam ‘être brûlant, chaud’; Ar ḥamma (u) ‘chauffer’, ḥamma (a) ‘être chaud’, ḥumma (passif) ‘avoir de la fièvre’, ḥummaẗ ‘chaleur intense’, ḥammām ‘bains’, Jib ḥõt (f.) ‘faire chaud à midi’, aḥmím ‘avoir de la fièvre’; Gz ḥamma ‘être malade’, Amh ammama ‘faire mal’, həmäm ‘maladie’. -b WḤM, Hbr *yaḥam ‘être en chaleur’, Aram yaḥēm ‘mettre en chaleur’, Ar wiḥām ‘chaleur’, waḥīm ‘chaud (jour)’, waḥama ‘avoir des envies (femme enceinte)’, tawaḥḥama ‘être en chaleur, en rut’. –c ḤMW/Y: Syr ḥᵊmā ‘griller (les plantes), dessécher’, Ar ḥamiya ‘brûler, être échauffé, chauffé; être en colère’, ḥammà (y) ‘chauffer’, ḥumaẗ ‘ardeur du feu; source d’eau chaude’, ḥamy ‘ardeur du soleil’.
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▪ … 
– 
 
ḤMʔ حمأ 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 10Mar2023
√ḤMʔ 
“root” 
▪ ḤMʔ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤMʔ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤMʔ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘stinking black mud, (of a well) to accumulate such mud, to dredge; to be angry, in-laws’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ḤMD حمد 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 25Feb2021
√ḤMD 
“root” 
▪ ḤMD_1 ‘to praise’ ↗ḥamida

Other values, now obsolete, include (Lane ii 1865):

ḤMD_2 ‘to be angry’: ḥamida, a (ḥamad) (ʕalà with s.o.)
ḤMD_3 ‘to burn, burn fiercely (heat); to be(come) vehement’: ĭḥtamada; cf. also ḥamadaẗ ‘sound of the flaming\blazing of fire’

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘praise, praiseworthy, to commend, to find to be praiseworthy’ 
▪ [v1] From protCSem *√ḤMD ‘to be pleasant, desirable’ (Kogan2015, 210 #9; Huehnergard2011: ‘to desire, delight in, praise’).
▪ [v2] If the value were found only in Ar, one could assume ironical usage of [v1]. But there is a cognate in Soq (see DRS #ḤMD-3) – an Arabism?
▪ [v3] Listed as distinct value also in DRS (#ḤMD-6), though without cognates outside Ar. Lane ii 1865 assumes that it is »formed by transposition from ĭḥtadama« and ḥadamaẗ. Cf., however, lenghty discussion in Kogan2015, see below, section DISC.
 
– 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤMD-1 Ug ḥmd ‘convoiter, désirer’, Phoen ḥmd, Hbr ḥāmad ‘désirer, tendre à; prendre du plaisir à’, JP ḥᵃmad ‘désirer’; Soq ḥéməd ‘aimer’. – ? 2 Ar ḥamida, Sab ḥmd, Mhr ḥəmūd, ḥáyməd ‘remercier, louer’, Jib ḥõd, Ḥrs šḥəmōd ‘remercier’, Ar Mhr Ḥrs Jib ḥamd ‘louange’. -3 Ar ḥamida ‘être fâché’, Soq ḥámed ‘blâmer’. -4 Gz ḥamadā, Tña ḥemmäday, Te ḥamda, Har hamadāy, Amh amäday, Gaf amadaǧ, Gur amädar ‘givre, neige’. -5 Tña ḥamäd ‘terre, sable, cendre, poussière’, ḥamoday ‘gris’. -6 Ar ĭḥtamada ‘être intense (chaleur)’, ḥamadaẗ ‘bruit du feu’.
▪ [v1] Kogan2015 210 #9: Ug ḥmd ‘to desire’, mḥmd ‘desirable, precious object’, Hbr ḥmd ‘to desire, to take pleasure in’, ḥämäd ‘loveliness, beauty’, ḥämdā ‘desirable, precious things’, JudPalAram ḥmd ‘to desire, covet’, Ar ḥmd ‘to praise’, Sab ḥmd ‘to praise, to thank’.
▪ [v3] Kogan2015 334 #9: Akk ḫamadīru ‘shrivelled or withered’, Ug ḥmdrt ‘parched field’, ? Gz ḥamad ‘ashes’ (with cognates in other EthSem), Ar ḥamadaẗ ‘sound of the flaming\blazing of fire’, postBiblHbr ḥmd ‘to produce shrivelling by heat’, ? Soq ḥámdεhεr ‘boiled buttermilk’.
▪ [v3] Kogan2015 447 #2: For Gz ḥamad ‘ashes’, cf. Ar ḫmd ‘to subside (fire, its embers remaining unextinguished)’, ḫammūd ‘a place in which fire is buried in order that its flaming may cease’, Mhr ḫəmūd ‘to be extinguished, burnt out’?
▪ …
 
▪ [v1] Kogan2015 210 #9: »The origin of protCSem *ḥmd ‘to be pleasant, desirable’ is unknown. Note that the semantic diversity within CSem is considerable (the meaning ‘to praise’, characteristic of Ar and Sab, is presumably declarative with respect to the more original ‘to be desirable’ = ‘to be praiseworthy’). Almost certainly borrowed from Ar are Te ḥammädä ‘to praise, thank’, Mhr ḥəmūd ‘to thank, praise’, Jib ḥod ‘to thank’, Soq ḥéməd ‘aimer’.
▪ [v2] See above, section CONC.
▪ [v3] Kogan2015 334 #9: »The origin of Akk-Ug *ḥmdr ‘to be parched, shrivelled’ is uncertain, although an eventual connection with Gz ḥamad ‘ashes’ [with cognates in other EthSem < protEthSem *ḥamad‑ ‘ashes’, cf. Kogan2015 447 #2], Ar yawmun muḥtamidun = šadīdu ’l-ḥarri, ḥamadaẗ ‘the sound of the flaming or blazing of fire’, postBiblHbr ḥmd ‘to produce shrivelling by heat’ is not to be ruled out. Of interest is Soq ḥámdεhεr ‘boiled buttermilk’, displaying the final ‑r and plausibly derivable from an original meaning ‘something hot’. Akk vs. Ug is noteworthy (cf. Huehnergard 2003:105: “The Ugaritic may be a loan from Akk”).«
▪ …
 
▪ n.prop. Muhammadḥamida
– 
ḥamid‑ حَمِدَ , a (ḥamd
ID 234 • Sw – • BP 4631 • APD … • © SG | 25Feb2021
√ḤMD 
vb., I 
to praise, commend, laud, extol (ʕalà s.o. for, s.th.) – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ From protCSem *√ḤMD ‘to be pleasant, desirable’ (Kogan2015, 210 #9; Huehnergard2011: ‘to desire, delight in, praise’).
▪ …
 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤMD-1 Ug ḥmd ‘convoiter, désirer’, Phoen ḥmd, Hbr ḥāmad ‘désirer, tendre à; prendre du plaisir à’, JP ḥᵃmad ‘désirer’; Soq ḥéməd ‘aimer’. – ? 2 Ar ḥamida, Sab ḥmd, Mhr ḥəmūd, ḥáyməd ‘remercier, louer’, Jib ḥõd, Ḥrs šḥəmōd ‘remercier’, Ar Mhr Ḥrs Jib ḥamd ‘louange’.
▪ Kogan2015 210 #9: Ug ḥmd ‘to desire’, mḥmd ‘desirable, precious object’, Hbr ḥmd ‘to desire, take pleasure in’, ḥämäd ‘loveliness, beauty’, ḥämdā ‘desirable, precious things’, JudPalAram ḥmd ‘to desire, covet’, Ar ḥmd ‘to praise’, Sab ḥmd ‘to praise, thank’.
▪ …
 
▪ Kogan2015 210 #9: »The origin of protCSem *ḥmd ‘to be pleasant, desirable’ is unknown. Note that the semantic diversity within CSem is considerable (the meaning ‘to praise’, characteristic of Ar and Sab, is presumably declarative with respect to the more original ‘to be desirable’ = ‘to be praiseworthy’). Almost certainly borrowed from Ar are Te ḥammädä ‘to praise, thank’, Mhr ḥəmūd ‘to thank, praise’, Jib ḥod ‘to thank’, Soq ḥéməd ‘aimer’ .
▪ …
 
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Muhammad, from Ar muḥammad ‘praised, commendable’, PP of ḥammada, vb. II, ‘to praise highly’, D-stem (denom./ints.) of ḥamida, vb. I, ‘to praise, extol’. 
ḥammada, vb. II, to praise highly (s.o.): D-stem, ints.

BP#296ḥamd, n., commendation, praise, laudation: vn. I | al-ḥamdu lillāh, expr., thank God! praise be to God! Praised be the Lord!
BP#4456ḥamīd, adj., praiseworthy, laudable, commendable; 2 benign, harmless (disease): ints., quasi-PP I.
ḥamūd, adj., praiseworthy, laudable, commendable, praised: ints., quasi-PP I.
ʔaḥmadᵘ, adj., more laudable , more commendable: elat. formation.
al-šarīʕaẗ al-aḥmadiyyaẗ, n.f., Mohammedan Law: nsb-formation of the preceding.
maḥmadaẗ, pl. maḥāmidᵘ, n.f., 1 commendable act; 2 pl., praises, encomiums:
maḥmūd, adj., 1 praised; 2 commendable, laudable, praiseworthy: PP I.
muḥammad, adj., 1 praised; 2 commendable, laudable: PP II.
muḥammadī, adj., pertaining or attributable to Mohammed: nsb-adj of preceding item.
 
ḥamd حَمْد 
ID 235 • Sw – • BP 296 • APD … • © SG | 25Feb2021
√ḤMD 
n. 
commendation, praise, laudation – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ vn. I, from ↗ḥamida
▪ …
 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥamida.
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥamida
▪ …
 
– 
al-ḥamdu lillāh, expr., thank God! praise be to God! Praised be the Lord!

For other deriv.s from ḥamida, ↗s.v. 
ḤMR حمر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, update 05Mar2021
√ḤMR 
“root” 
▪ ḤMR_1 ‘red’ ↗ʔaḥmarᵘ
▪ ḤMR_2 ‘asphalt’ ↗ḥumar
▪ ḤMR_3 ‘donkey’ ↗ḥimār
▪ ḤMR_4 ‘deer, roebuck’ ↗yaḥmūr
Other values, now obsolete, include (BK1860, Lane ii 1865, Hava1899):

ḤMR_5 (cf. DRS #ḤMR-1) ‘to burn with anger’: ḥamira (a, ḥamar)
ḤMR_6 (cf. DRS #ḤMR-1) ‘intense heat’: ḥamārraẗ; cf. also ḥimir ʻviolent, severe; most copious’
ḤMR_7 (cf. DRS #ḤMR-1) ‘inflammation caused by eating too much barley or by prolonged thirst, indigestion (horse)’: ḥamar
ḤMR_8: (diseases causing red skin etc.) ʻerysipelas3 ; skin lesion caused by anthrax’: ḥumraẗ; cf. also ḥumayraẗ ‘measles’.
ḤMR_9 ‘a kind of bird like a sparrow, red-headed sparrow, redstart’: ḥum(m)ar
ḤMR_10 (≙ DRS #ḤMR-4) ‘ramasser, réunir de tous côtés’: ʔaḥmara
ḤMR_11 (≙ DRS #ḤMR-7) ‘tamarind’: ḥumar
ḤMR_12 (≙ DRS #ḤMR-10) ‘to scrape off, flay (sheep); to shave (the head); to excoriate; (fig.) to criticise sharply’: ḥamara (u, ḥamr)
ḤMR_13 (cf. DRS #ḤMR-10) ‘to cut in pieces’: ḥammara
ḤMR_14 (≙ DRS #ḤMR-11) ‘marcher vite’: ʔaḥmara
ḤMR_15 ‘large rock; tombstone’: ḥimāraẗ
ḤMR_16 ‘to ride a jade’: ḥammara
ḤMR_17 ‘choice part of a flock; (fig.) anything precious’:ḥumr al-naʕam
ḤMR_18 ‘polisher for iron’: ḥimār
ḤMR_19 ‘Anchusa, pigeon-foot (plant)’: ḥumayrāʔᵘ
ḤMR_20 (ḤMYR) ‘Hymiarites (ancient tribe of Yemen)’: ḥimyar (n.coll.); cf. also ḥammara ʻto speak Hymiaritic’

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘redness, to dye or colour red; (of a person) to be fair in colour; to be difficult; donkey; big boulders; to scrape off, flay’. 
▪ Huehnergard2011, Kogan2011, DRS: from protSem *ḥimār‑ ‘donkey’. 
– 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤMR (for a comment on the grouping, see below, section DISC): -1 Akk emēru ‘être rouge’, emr‑, Ug ḥmr, Ar ʔaḥmar, yaḥmūr ‘rouge’, Sab ḥmrt (?) ‘rouge (?)’, Gz ḥamar ‘baie rouge’, Tña ḥamär, ḥamray ‘rouge; roux, brun clair (cheval)’, Amh ḥamär ‘roux (cheval)’. Hbr ḥᵃmarmar ‘être rougeâtre’. – nHbr ḥämar ‘brûler’; EmpAram hmr ‘colère’, Ar ḥamira ‘être rouge de colère’, ḥamrāʔ, ḥamārraẗ ‘chaleur brûlante (de midi, de l’été)’, ḥimirr ‘très violent’, ḥamira ‘avoir mauvaise haleine’ Jib aḥmír ‘mauvaise haleine et indigestion’. -2 Akk amār ‘tas de briques’, Hbr ḥomęr ‘boue, argile de potier’, JP ḥemārā, Ar ḥumar ‘asphalte’, Soq ḥamóra ‘bitume’, ḥámreh ‘saleté, lie’. -3 protSem *ḤiMāR ‘âne’: Akk imēr‑, Ug ḥmr, Hbr ḥᵃmōr, EmpAram Palm hmr, ḥᵃmārā, Ar ḥimār, Sab Min ḥmr. – ? Mhr ḥəmūr, Ḥrs ḥəmōr, Jib ḥõr ‘domestiquer, dompter, dresser une monture’, Mhr ḥəmɛ̄r ‘maîtrisé’. -4 Ug ḥmr: unité de mesure, Hbr ḥomȩr ‘monceau’, mesure pour les dattes sèches; JP ḥᵃmar ‘entasser, accumuler’, Ar ʔaḥmara ‘ramasser, réunir de tous côtés’. -5 EmpAram ḥmr, Talm ḥōmer ‘joyau, perle’, Syr ḥumrā ‘petite sphère’; Mhr ḥēmər, Jib ḥəyɛ̃r ‘ceinture, cordon porté à la taille par les jeunes garçons’; – Mhr məḥáwmər, Jib moḥũr (pl.) ‘gouttes de pluie tombant des arbres’. – ?6 Syr ḥᵃmūrtā ‘roue; tronçon de colonne, maillon de chaîne, etc.’. -7 Ar ḥumar ‘tamarin, fruit du tamarin’, Gz ḥamor, ḥomar, Tña ḥamär, ḥomär, ḥəmor, Amh ḥomär ‘tamarin’. -8 Gz ḥāmar: sorte de petit bateau, Tña ḥamär, Amh hamär ‘bateau’. -9 Te ḥamra ‘maigrir (vache)’. -10 Ar ḥamara ‘gratter, raser, écorcer, écorcher’, miḥmar ‘écharnoir’, ḥammara ‘hacher’. -11 ʔaḥmara ‘marcher vite’.
▪ [v7] Kogan2011: Akk emeru ‘to have intestinal trouble’, Hbr ḥmr ‘to glow, burn (of intestines)’, Ar ḥmr ‘to suffer from indidestion and bad breath’, Jib aḥmír ‘bad breath and indigestion’ (SED I No. 28v).
▪ [v15] Kogan2015: 594 #15: Jib ḥɛr̃ ‘mountain’, Soq ḥámər ‘petite montagne’, likely identical with Ar ḥimāraẗ ‘mass of stone or rock, any wide stone’, perh. also Hbr ḥōmär ‘heap’ (but not the Hbr measure name ḥōmär, which is »almost certainly derived from ḥămōr ‘donkey’«).
▪ …
 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤMR: On their grouping, the authors remark that »[l]e classement a ici principalement pour but d’ordonner commodément les diverses valeurs. Il n’implique pas toujours des séparations fondamentales. Les valeurs peuvent, pour certaines, être liées à d’autres dont elles constitueraient des emplois métaphoriques.«
▪ [v1] An indication of the colour term’s development from *ʻto glow, burn’ could be fact that it is not the original Sem term for ʻred’, which can be reconstructed as protSem *ʔdm ‘red’ (cf. Kogan2011).
▪ [v3] (DRS, on their #ḤMR-3): »Le nom de l’âne a été expliqué par certains comme *ʻanimal rouge’ [v1], par d’autres comme *ʻanimal porteur, bête de somme’, le rattachant à la notion de ʻcharge’ qui serait attestée en SAr et en Aram. […] Pour Hodge, Fol.Or. 17 (1976): 11, qui compare à l’Eg mr ʻattacher’, ḥ‑ serait une préformative, d’où ʻattaché [avec une charge]’; contre Leslau CDG 234: “ni ḥml ni ḥmr n’existent en Gz …. Le Gz ḥamala ʻtransporter’ est un emprunt à l’Ar.” – Le rapprochement avec les formes signifiant ʻdompter, domestiquer, apprivoiser’ est hautement hypothétique.« – Kogan2015 (594 #15) thinks that the measure name Hbr ḥōmär is »almost certainly derived from ḥămōr ‘donkey’« (= Ar ḥămōr).
▪ [v4] (DRS, on their #ḤMR-1): »L’Hbr et l’Ar connaissent une forme yaḥmūr en relation avec cette racine. En Hbr, elle est citée dans deux passages nommant des animaux licites à la consommation: Deut. 14:5 et 1 Rois 5:3; il semble s’agir d’une sorte de ʻdaim’ ou de ʻgazelle’. En Ar, outre sa valeur de ʻrouge’, elle désigne, entre autres, 1’ʻonagre’, ce qui a conduit divers lexicographes à en faire un dérivé du nom de 1’ʻâne’; mais il se trouve qu’elle nomme aussi une espèce d’antilope et une espèce d’oiseau. Il paraît donc vraisemblable que cette désignation a plutôt un rapport avec le nom de la couleur«.
▪ [v7] Partial semantic overlapping with ↗√ḪMR ʻto ferment, be in a state of fermentation’.
▪ [v11] If a loan from Gz, one should not only consider Gz ḥamor, ḥomar ʻtamarind’, but perh. also ḥomar ʻacorn’, prob. akin to ḥamar ʻred berry’, thus ultimately from [v1] ʻred’.
▪ [v12] ClassAr lexicographers tend to make ʻto scrape off, skin’ dependent on [v1] ʻred’. Cf. root entry ḤMR in Lane ii 1865 which gives as first meaning of vb. I »ʻto pare a thong, strip it of its (inner) superficial part, then oil it, previously to sewing with it, so that it becomes easy to sew with’ (app. because this operation makes it to appear of a red, or reddish, colour], hence ʻto pare, peel, strip s.th. of its bark, coat, covering, crust, etc.’«; cf. also the expressions ḥamara-hū bi’l-sawṭ ʻto excoriate s.o. with the whip’, and the fig. use in ḥamara-hū bi’l-lisān ʻto gall s.o.’
▪ [v17] ḥumr al-naʕam ‘choice part of a flock; (fig.) anything precious’: ClassAr lexicographers explain that the colour adj. ʔaḥmar (f. ḥamrāʔᵘ, pl. ḥumr), when applied to camels, means »ʻof a colour like that of saffron when a garment is dyed with it so that it stands up by reason of [the thickness of] the dye: or of an unmixed red colour’ […]. It is said that, of she-camels, the ḥamrāʔᵘ is the most able to endure the summer midday-heat; […] and that the ṣahbāʔᵘ is the most beautiful to look at […]; and the Arabs say that the best of camels are the ḥumr and the ṣuhb. [Hence,] ḥumr al-naʕam signifies the ʻhigh-bred\excellent of camels’, and is proverbially applied to ʻanything highly prized, precious, valuable, excellent’« – Lane ii 1865.
▪ …
 
▪ Cf. perh. Engl homer (unit of volume used by ancient Hebrews for liquids and dry goods) ↗ḥimār
– 
ḥumar حُمَر 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, update 05Mar2021
√ḤMR 
n. 
asphalt – WehrCowan1976. 
DRS (#ḤMR-2) groups Ar ḥumar ‘asphalt’ together with Akk amār ‘heap of bricks’ (cf. Ar ḥumraẗ ʻpounded bricks’?) and Hbr ḥomęr ‘mud, potter’s clay’ (see root entry ↗√ḤMR [v10]), but adds that their grouping should not necessarily be considered reflecting etymological dependence. In fact, ‘asphalt’ may perh. rather be related to the notion of ʻred’ (↗ʔaḥmarᵘ) which, in its turn, could be dependent on the idea of *‘to glow, be hot, burn, be burning’ [cf. vb. II, ḥammara ‘to fry, roast’, ClassAr ḥamārraẗ ‘intense heat’, as well as the 2-consonantal ↗√ḤMː (ḤMM)].
▪ If DRS is right, one may also have to consider ʔaḥmara ‘ramasser, réunir de tous côtés’ as well as ḥimāraẗ ‘large rock; tombstone’ – cf. root entry ↗√ḤMR.
▪ Fraenkel1886 thought the word was a loan from Syr. But no such word seems to exist in Syr… .
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤMR (for a comment on the grouping, see above, section CONC, and below, section DISC): -1 Akk emēru ‘être rouge’, emr‑, Ug ḥmr, Ar ʔaḥmar, yaḥmūr ‘rouge’, Sab ḥmrt (?) ‘rouge (?)’, Gz ḥamar ‘baie rouge’, Tña ḥamär, ḥamray ‘rouge; roux, brun clair (cheval)’, Amh ḥamär ‘roux (cheval)’. Hbr ḥᵃmarmar ‘être rougeâtre’. – nHbr ḥämar ‘brûler’; EmpAram hmr ‘colère’, Ar ḥamira ‘être rouge de colère’, ḥamrāʔ, ḥamārraẗ ‘chaleur brûlante (de midi, de l’été)’, ḥimirr ‘très violent’, ḥamira ‘avoir mauvaise haleine’ Jib aḥmír ‘mauvaise haleine et indigestion’. -2 Akk amār ‘tas de briques’, Hbr ḥomęr ‘boue, argile de potier’, JP ḥemārā, Ar ḥumar ‘asphalte’, Soq ḥamóra ‘bitume’, ḥámreh ‘saleté, lie’. – -3-11… [irrelevant].
▪ …
 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤMR: On their grouping, the authors remark that »[l]e classement a ici principalement pour but d’ordonner commodément les diverses valeurs. Il n’implique pas toujours des séparations fondamentales. Les valeurs peuvent, pour certaines, être liées à d’autres dont elles constitueraient des emplois métaphoriques.«
▪ …
 
– 
ḥumarī, adj., asphaltic, asphalt, tar, tarry: nisba formation.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ḥimār, ↗ʔaḥmarᵘ, ↗yaḥmūr, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤMR. 
ḥimār حِمار , pl. ḥamīr, ḥumur, ʔaḥmiraẗ 
ID 237 • Sw – • BP 2730 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, update 05Mar2021
√ḤMR 
n. 
donkey, ass – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ Huehnergard2011, Kogan2011, DRS (#ḤMR-3): from protSem *ḥimār‑ ‘donkey’. – Cf. also Ar ↗ʕayr (from a protWSem *ʕayr‑, synonymous to protSem *ḥimār‑), and ↗ʔitān ‘donkey mare’.
▪ For attempts to explain the donkey as *ʻred animal’, thus linking it to ↗ʔaḥmarᵘ, or as *ʻpack animal, beast of burden’ (from ↗ḤML), or still other suggestions, see below, section DISC. – For fig. and other usage (*‘stupidity’, *‘slowness’, *‘bridge’, …), see section HIST.
▪ …
 
▪ ClassAr ḥammara, vb. II, ʻto call s.o. an ass’: clearly denom.
▪ The same ClassAr vb. II, ḥammara, can also mean ‘to ride a jade’. This usage is prob. from miḥmar ʻhorse of mean race that resembles the ass in his slowness of running’, thus prob. dependent on ḥimār ʻdonkey’.
▪ ClassAr knows ḥimār also in the sense of ‘polisher for iron (wooden implement of the polisher, upon which he polishes iron)’ as well as ‘piece of wood in the fore part of the saddle called raḥl upon which a woman when riding lays hold, fore part of the saddle called ʔikāf, stick upon which saddles called ʔaqtāb are carried’, and ḥimār al-ṭunbūr ‘(bridge of the mandolin) a thing well-known’. All of them may be fig. use, though it remains unclear in how far a donkey should resemble a bridge, etc. In the case of ‘polisher of iron’ and ‘piece of wood…’, the actual etymon was prob. not ḥimār, but ḥamara ‘to scrape off, flay (sheep); to shave (the head); to excoriate’; cf. also ḥamīraẗ ʻthong, strap (so called because it is pared)’; see [v12] in root entry ↗ḤMR, as the saddle grip may originally be *‘the skinned one’.
▪ …
 
▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘donkey’) Akk imēru, Hbr ḥmōr, Syr ḥmārā, SAr ḥmr.
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤMR-3 Akk imēr‑, Ug ḥmr, Hbr ḥᵃmōr, EmpAram Palm hmr, ḥᵃmārā, Ar ḥimār, Sab Min ḥmr. – ? Mhr ḥəmūr, Ḥrs ḥəmōr, Jib ḥõr ‘domestiquer, dompter, dresser une monture’, Mhr ḥəmɛ̄r ‘maîtrisé’. -4 Ug ḥmr: unité de mesure, Hbr ḥomȩr ‘monceau’, mesure pour les dattes sèches; JP ḥᵃmar ‘entasser, accumuler’, Ar ʔaḥmara ‘ramasser, réunir de tous côtés’.
▪ …
 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤMR: On their grouping, the authors remark that »[l]e classement a ici principalement pour but d’ordonner commodément les diverses valeurs. Il n’implique pas toujours des séparations fondamentales. Les valeurs peuvent, pour certaines, être liées à d’autres dont elles constitueraient des emplois métaphoriques.«
DRS (on their #ḤMR-3): »Le nom de l’âne a été expliqué par certains comme *ʻanimal rouge’ [↗ʔaḥmarᵘ], par d’autres comme *ʻanimal porteur, bête de somme’, le rattachant à la notion de ʻcharge’ [↗ḥamala] qui serait attestée en SAr et en Aram. […] Pour Hodge, Fol.Or. 17 (1976): 11, qui compare à l’Eg mr ʻattacher’, ḥ‑ serait une préformative, d’où ʻattaché [avec une charge]’; contre Leslau CDG 234: “ni ḥml ni ḥmr n’existent en Gz …. Le Gz ḥamala ʻtransporter’ est un emprunt à l’Ar.” – Le rapprochement avec les formes signifiant ʻdompter, domestiquer, apprivoiser’ est hautement hypothétique.«
▪ If akin to ↗ʔaḥmarᵘ ʻred’, the word may also be connected, ultimately, to notions of *ʻscraping off, flaying, skinning, excoriating’ (↗√ḤMR [v12]) or *ʻglowing, burning’ (↗√ḤMR [v5] ‘to burn with anger’, [v6] ʻviolent, severe; intense heat’). But this would be highly speculative.
▪ Ar ḥimār (or already protSem *ḥimār‑) ‘donkey’ itself may have influenced the semantics of ↗yaḥmūr (protSem *yaḥmūr‑), which usually signifies a ‘deer, kind of antelope, roebuck’, but occasionally also can mean ʻwild ass, onager’. On this topic, DRS writes (in their comments on #ḤMR-1 ‘red’): »L’Hbr et l’Ar connaissent une forme yaḥmūr en relation avec cette racine. En Hbr, […] il semble s’agir d’une sorte de ʻdaim’ ou de ʻgazelle’. En Ar, outre sa valeur de ʻrouge’, elle désigne, entre autres, 1’ʻonagre’, ce qui a conduit divers lexicographes à en faire un dérivé du nom de 1’ʻâne’; mais il se trouve qu’elle nomme aussi une espèce d’antilope et une espèce d’oiseau. Il paraît donc vraisemblable que cette désignation a plutôt un rapport avec le nom de la couleur«.
▪ …
 
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl homer, from Hbr ḥōmer ‘heap’, a unit of capacity, »unit of volume used by ancient Hebrews for liquids and dry goods. […] 1 homer equals 220 litre or 220dm³. – The homer should not be confused with the omer [Hbr ʕōmär, cf. Ar ↗ʕam˅ra], which is a much smaller unit of dry measure«.11 – Kogan2015: 594 #15 agrees with Huehnergard2011 on that the word »almost certainly« is derived from Hbr ḥămōr (= Ar ḥimār) ‘donkey’, signifying originally the burden carried by a donkey. However, Kogan thinks that the Hbr measure name ¹ḥōmär ‘homer’ should be kept apart from the homonymous ²ḥōmär ‘heap’, which is perh. akin to Ar ḥimāraẗ ‘mass of stone or rock, any wide stone’, likely identical with Jib ḥɛr̃ ‘mountain’, Soq ḥámər ‘petite montagne’ (↗√ḤMR [v10] ‘ramasser, réunir de tous côtés’, [v15] ‘large rock; tombstone’).
▪ …
 
ḥimār al-waḥš and ḥimār waḥšī, n., wild ass, onager;
samm al-ḥimār, n., oleander (Nerium oleander; bot.)

ḥimāraẗ, n.f., she-ass, female donkey: f. of ḥimār
ḥammār, pl.ḥammāraẗ, n., donkey driver: n.prof., from ḥimār.
yaḥmūr, n., 1ʔaḥmarᵘ; 2yaḥmūr; 3 wild ass; 4ʔaḥmarᵘ.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ḥumar, ↗ʔaḥmarᵘ, ↗yaḥmūr, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤMR. 
ʔaḥmarᵘ أَحْمَر , f. ḥamrāʔᵘ, pl. ḥumr 
ID 236 • Sw 87/116 • BP 927 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, update 05Mar2021
√ḤMR 
adj. 
1 red, red-colored, ruddy; 2 rosy, pink – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ Accord. to Kogan2011, Ar ʔaḥmarᵘ replaced protSem *ʔdm ‘red’, a term for one of the four basic colours in the protSem colour spectrum47 (see also Ar ↗LBN and ↗BYḌ for ‘white’, ↗ẒLM and ↗SWD for ‘black’, ↗WRQ and ↗ḪḌR for ‘green’). The fact that ʔaḥmarᵘ is not the original Sem term for ʻred’, may be an indication for the colour term’s development from other notions, such as *ʻto glow, burn’ or *ʻto scrape off, flay, excoriate’.
▪ Accord. to Landberg1920, »[l]e thème ḤMR doit être un développement de √ḤM ʻêtre chaud, être brûlant’ vhv. [↗√ḤMː (ḤMM)], ce qui a motivé le sens de ʻrouge’« (DRS 9 #ḤMR-1); similarly Kogan2011: »perhaps related to Hbr ḥmr ‘to glow, burn’«, thus akin to, or perh. even dependent on, ‘to burn with anger’ (↗√ḤMR [v5]) and ʻviolence, severity, intensity’ (↗√ḤMR [v6]).
▪ If not dependent on *‘to glow, burn’, should one perh. consider ‘to scrape off, flay (sheep); to shave (the head); to excoriate’ (↗√ḤMR [v12]) as an alternative origin? It may well be that the colour is called ʔaḥmarᵘ after the redness of the flesh that appears when scraping, skinning, excoriating. On the other hand, semantically, it may also be the other way round, i.e., the latter actions being called ḥamara because they cause blood to flow and thus *ʻmake red’. The entry on √ḤMR in Lane ii 1865 – which starts with this value – gives the impression that ClassAr lexicographers tend to make ʻto scrape off, skin, etc.’ dependent on ʻred’.
▪ Values, now obsolete, that obviously depend on ‘red’ are: diseases causing red skin, etc., like ʻerysipelas; anthrax; ‘measles’ (↗√ḤMR [v8], perh. in itself akin to ↗√ḤMR [v12] ‘to scrape off, flay, shave, excoriate, pare, peel, divest’); ‘red-headed sparrow, redstart’ (↗√ḤMR [v9]); ḥammara ‘to cut in pieces’ (<*‘to make red by causing to bleed’) (↗√ḤMR [v13]); ‘choice part of a flock, anything precious’ (↗√ḤMR [v17], < *ʻthe red ones’, “red” skin signaling maturity and excellency; see below, section HIST, for more details); ‘Anchusa, pigeon-foot (plant)’ (↗√ḤMR [v19]).
▪ Perhaps akin are also: ↗ḥumar ‘asphalt’, ↗ḥimār ‘donkey’, ↗yaḥmūr ‘deer, roebuck’ and obsolete values such as ‘to burn with anger’ (↗√ḤMR [v5], prob. < *ʻto become red’ out of anger), ʻviolence, vehemence, intensity’ (↗√ḤMR [v6]); ‘tamarind’ (↗√ḤMR [v11]); perh. even the n.gent. ‘Hymiarites (ancient tribe of Yemen)’ (↗√ḤMR [v20]) = ḤMYR)?
▪ …
 
▪ Rare vb. XI: ĭḥmārra ʻto become accidentally red’.
▪ »Applied to a camel, ʻof a colour like that of saffron when a garment is dyed with it so that it stands up by reason of [the thickness of] the dye: or of an unmixed red colour’ […]. It is said that, of she-camels, the ḥamrāʔᵘ is the most able to endure the summer midday-heat; […] and that the ṣahbāʔᵘ is the most beautiful to look at […]; and the Arabs say that the best of camels are the ḥumr and the ṣuhb. [Hence,] ḥumr al-naʕam signifies the ʻhigh-bred\excellent of camels’, and is proverbially applied to ʻanything highly prized, precious, valuable, excellent’. – Applied to a man, ʻwhite in complexion’, because abyaḍᵘ might be considered as of evil omen [implying the meaning of leprosy]: or […] because the latter epithet, applied to a man, was only used by the Arabs as signifying ʻpure’ or ʻfree from faults’; but they sometimes used this latter epithet in the sense of ʻwhite in complexion’, applied to a man &c. So, accord. to some, in the trad., buʕiṯtu ʔilà l-ʔaḥmar wa’l-ʔabyaḍ, i.e. ʻI have been sent to the white and the black’, because these two epithets comprise all mankind; [therefore, by the former we should understand the white and the red races; and by the latter, the negroes; but some hold that by the former are meant the foreigners, and] by the latter are meant the Arabs. One says also, [when speaking of Arabs and more northern races] ʔatā-nī kullᵘ ʔaswadᵃ min-hum wa-ʔaḥmarᵃ, meaning ʻevery Arab of them, and foreigner, came to me’; and one should not say, in this sense, ʔabyaḍ. – al-ḥamrāʔᵘ, also, is applied to ʻthe foreigners (al-ʕaǧam, collectively)’ because a reddish white is the prevailing hue of their complexion, or […] ʻthose foreigners mostly characterized by whiteness of complexion, as the Greeks and Persians’. You say, laysa fī l-ḥamrāʔi miṯluhū ʻthere is not among the foreigners (al-ʕaǧam) the like of him’. And, accord. to some, al-ʔaḥmarᵘ wa’l-ʔabyaḍᵘ means ʻthe Arabs and the foreigners’. […] al-ḥamrāʔᵘ (= ʔabnāʔ al-ḥamrāʔi) is an appellation applied to ʻemancipated slaves’, and ĭbn ḥamrāʔ al-ʕiǧān, meaning ʻson of the female slave’, is an appellation used in reviling and blaming« – Lane ii 1865.
▪ …
 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤMR-1 Akk emēru ‘être rouge’, emr‑, Ug ḥmr, Ar ʔaḥmar, yaḥmūr ‘rouge’, Sab ḥmrt (?) ‘rouge (?)’, Gz ḥamar ‘baie rouge’, Tña ḥamär, ḥamray ‘rouge; roux, brun clair (cheval)’, Amh ḥamär ‘roux (cheval)’. Hbr ḥᵃmarmar ‘être rougeâtre’. – nHbr ḥämar ‘brûler’; EmpAram hmr ‘colère’, Ar ḥamira ‘être rouge de colère’, ḥamrāʔ, ḥamārraẗ ‘chaleur brûlante (de midi, de l’été)’, ḥimirr ‘très violent’, ḥamira ‘avoir mauvaise haleine’ Jib aḥmír ‘mauvaise haleine et indigestion’.
▪ …
 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤMR: On their grouping, the authors remark that »[l]e classement a ici principalement pour but d’ordonner commodément les diverses valeurs. Il n’implique pas toujours des séparations fondamentales. Les valeurs peuvent, pour certaines, être liées à d’autres dont elles constitueraient des emplois métaphoriques.«
▪ …
 
– 
dūn al-ʔaḥmar, taḥt al-ʔaḥmar, adj., infrared;
al-baḥr al-ʔaḥmar, n., the Red Sea;
al-ṣalīb al-ʔaḥmar, n., the Red Cross;
al-mawt al-ʔaḥmar, n., violent death;
al-hawà al-ʔaḥmar, n., sexual intercourse;
al-ʔaḥmarān, expr., (ʻthe two red ones’, i.e.) wine and meat;
al-ʔaswad wa’l-ʔaḥmar, expr., (ʻthe black and the red’, i.e.) all mankind;
ʔaḥmar al-šafāyif, n., lipstick.

ḥammara, vb. II, 1 to redden, color or dye red (s.th.); 2a to roast (s.th.); b to fry (s.th.); c to brown (flour in preparing a roux): D-stem, denom.caus.
ĭḥmarra, vb. IX, to turn red, take on a reddish color, redden, blush: denom.

ḥumraẗ, n.f., 1a redness, red color(ation), red; b rouge (cosm.); 2 brick dust, brick rubble; 3 erysipelas, St. Anthony’s fire (med.)
ḥumūr, n., red, red color(ation), redness.
ḥumayraẗ, n., redstart (zool.)
ḥamrāʔᵘ, n.f., smut, rust (disease affecting cereals); al-ḥamrāʔ, n.f., Alhambra, the Citadel of Granada: f. of ʔaḥmar
yaḥmūr, n., 1 red; 2 deer, roe, roebuck; 3 wild ass; 4 hemoglobin (physiol.)
ĭḥmirār, n., 1 reddening, blush(ing), redness, red coloration; 2 erythema (med.): vn. IX.
muḥammar, adj., roasted: PP II. | baṭāṭis muḥammar(aẗ), n.(f.), fried potatoes.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ḥumar, ↗ḥimār, ↗yaḥmūr, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤMR. 
yaḥmūr يَحْمُور 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, update 05Mar2021
√ḤMR, YḤMR 
adj.; n. 
1 red; 2 deer, roe, roebuck; 3 wild ass; 4 hemoglobin (physiol.) – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ [v1] ↗ʔaḥmarᵘ.
▪ [v2] MilitarevKogan2005 #249: from protSem *yaḥmūr‑ ‘oryx, kind of antelope, roebuck’. While rather wide attestation of cognates in Sem allow the reconstruction of a protSem form, the authors of DRS 10 (2012) still think (s.v. #YḤMR) that the word is formed from ↗ḤMR, thus < *‘the red one’. Until today, yaḥmūr may also mean ʻred’, see also DISC below. (For ideas on the etymology of the latter, see i>ʔaḥmarᵘ.)
▪ [v3] ↗ḥimār.
▪ [v4] ↗ʔaḥmarᵘ.
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
NB: only data relevant for [v2] are given here:

▪ MilitarevKogan2005 #249: Ug yḥmr, Hbr yaḥmūr ‘roebuck’, JudAram yaḥmūrā, f. yaḥmūrtā ‘fallow-deer’, Sam yḥmwr ‘an animal’, Syr yaḥmūrā ‘antilope, cervus dama’, Mnd iamuria (pl.) ‘kids, lambs, claves, young of animals’, nSyr yakhmûrâ ‘antelope, roebuck’, Ar yaḥmūr ‘espèce d’antelope appelée baḳar al-waḥš; onagre’ (BK).
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤMR (for a comment on the grouping, see below, section DISC): -1 Akk emēru ‘être rouge’, emr‑, Ug ḥmr, Ar ʔaḥmar, yaḥmūr ‘rouge’, Sab ḥmrt (?) ‘rouge (?)’, Gz ḥamar ‘baie rouge’, Tña ḥamär, ḥamray ‘rouge; roux, brun clair (cheval)’, Amh ḥamär ‘roux (cheval)’. Hbr ḥᵃmarmar ‘être rougeâtre’. – nHbr ḥämar ‘brûler’; EmpAram hmr ‘colère’, Ar ḥamira ‘être rouge de colère’, ḥamrāʔ, ḥamārraẗ ‘chaleur brûlante (de midi, de l’été)’, ḥimirr ‘très violent’, ḥamira ‘avoir mauvaise haleine’ Jib aḥmír ‘mauvaise haleine et indigestion’. -2 […]. -3 Akk imēr‑, Ug ḥmr, Hbr ḥᵃmōr, EmpAram Palm hmr, ḥᵃmārā, Ar ḥimār, Sab Min ḥmr ‘âne’. – […]. – 4-11 […].
▪ …
 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤMR: On their grouping, the authors remark that »[l]e classement a ici principalement pour but d’ordonner commodément les diverses valeurs. Il n’implique pas toujours des séparations fondamentales. Les valeurs peuvent, pour certaines, être liées à d’autres dont elles constitueraient des emplois métaphoriques.«
DRS (on their #ḤMR-1): »L’Hbr et l’Ar connaissent une forme yaḥmūr en relation avec cette racine. En Hbr, elle est citée dans deux passages nommant des animaux licites à la consommation: Deut. 14:5 et 1 Rois 5:3; il semble s’agir d’une sorte de ʻdaim’ ou de ʻgazelle’. En Ar, outre sa valeur de ʻrouge’, elle désigne, entre autres, 1’ʻonagre’, ce qui a conduit divers lexicographes à en faire un dérivé du nom de 1’ʻâne’ [↗ḥimār]; mais il se trouve qu’elle nomme aussi une espèce d’antilope et une espèce d’oiseau. Il paraît donc vraisemblable que cette désignation a plutôt un rapport avec le nom de la couleur«.
▪ …
 
– 
For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ḥumar, ↗ḥimār, ↗ʔaḥmarᵘ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤMR. 
ḤMS حمس 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 14Mar2021
√ḤMS 
“root” 
▪ ḤMS_1 ‘(to be) zealous, ardent, enthusiastic; courage’ ↗ḥamisa, ‘enthusiasm, rapture; zeal; elan, fighting spirit’ ↗ḥamās

Other values, now obsolete, include (BK1860, Lane ii 1865, Hava1899):

ḤMS_2 ‘to fry (meat)’: ḥamasa (u, ḥams); cf. also ḥammasa, ʔaḥmasa ʻto heat (a medicine upon the fire)’, ḥamīs ʻoven’
ḤMS_3 ‘to irritate s.o.’: ḥamasa (u, ḥams), ḥammasa, ʔaḥmasa
ḤMS_4 ‘tortoise’: ḥamasaẗ (pl. ḥamas)
ḤMS_5 ‘unfruitful, severe’: only in the expr. sanaẗ ḥamsāʔᵘ ʻunfruitful\severe year’
 
▪ While [v4] ‘tortoise’ prob. represents a value in its own right (of obscure origin, perh. < modSAr, Gz?), the other values in √ḤMS may go back to a common etymon. But there are also indications that would suggest a distinct treatment at least of the two (hypothetically basic) notions of *ʻto roast, fry’ and *ʻto irritate, excite’. See below, section DISC.
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤMS-1 Hbr *ḥāmas ‘traiter violemment, faire violence à’, EmpAram ḥms ‘violence’, JP ḥᵊmas ‘user de violence’, Ar ḥamisa ‘être ferme, solide, courageux’, SAr ʔḥmš ‘dur, fort au combat’. -?2 Ar ḥamasa ‘faire frire (de la viande)’, ḥammasa ‘torréfier’, ʕOmAr məḥmās, Mhr məḥmēs, Ḥrs məḥmās, Jib múḥmus, məḥmus ‘poêle à griller le café’; Tña ḥamäsä ‘griller, rissoler (grain, farine)’. – Ar ḥamasa ‘irriter’, ʕOmAr mətḥámməs ‘irrité et désireux de vaincre’, Jib aḥmís ‘exciter, encourager’, Mhr ḥəmūs, ḥōməs ‘piquer au vif’. ? – Jib ḥõs, oḥõs ‘moudre’. -3 ʕOmAr ḥmísah, YemAr ḥumsa, Mhr ḥōməs, f. ḥəmsīt, Ḥrs əḥméseh, Jib ḥoms, f. ḥãst, Soq ḥə́mseh ‘tortue’. -4 Gz ḥammasa, ḫammasa, Te ḥammäsa, Tña ḥamäsä ‘nager’. -5 Gz ḥammasa ‘lécher du sel, manger des plantes amères et salsugineuses’.107 -6 Ar ḥams ‘murmure’.108
▪ …
 
▪ Except for [v4] ‘tortoise’, all values represented in the Ar root may have a common etymon, though it is far from clear which of the values that may be. The authors of DRS set [v1] and [v2] apart (as #ḤMS-1 and ḤMS-2, grouping our [v3] and [v5] under the latter), but indicate (by a question mark) that they are not sure whether or not it is justified to make that distinction; they also remark, explicitly: »Il n’est pas impossible qu’il y ait lieu de rapprocher les notions de violence, d’irritation et de cuisson.« If the values are related, is then ʻviolent treatment, firmness; courage’ primary to ʻto fry, roast; to irritate, excite, encourage’, or is it the other way round? Theoretically, a dependence on a primary ʻto fry, roast’ along the line *ʻto fry, roast > (fig.) to stir, irritate (violently > to treat violently) > to incite, excite > (fig.) enthusiasm, zeal, courage’ is not unconceivable. On the other hand, if ʻviolence, severity’ was the original value (see, e.g., the Hbr and Aram cognates as given by DRS sub #ḤMS-1), then the clearest reflection of this notion in MSA would prob. be [v5] ‘unfruitful\severe (year)’; in this case, [v1] would be metaphorical use, referring to the “firmness” of the mind, a “strong” will, etc., and [v2] ʻto roast’ would be a specific kind of *ʻviolent treatment’.
▪ Meanwhile, semantic vicinity of [v2] ʻto fry, roast’ to ↗ḤMṢ ʻto roast’178 and of [v3] ʻto irritate’ to ↗ḤMŠ ʻto irritate, excite; to be angry’ may suggest the influence of other roots, or even distinct etymologies that would need separate treatment. For [v1] ʻviolence, severity’, the authors of DRS suggest to compare their entries #ḤMSN, #ʕMṢ, and #ḤMṢ.
▪ In any case, all three Ar roots – ḤMS, ḤMŠ, and ḤMṢ – may be extensions from an earlier 2-radical nucleus *ḤM‑ ʻheat, fever’, cf. ↗ḤMː (ḤMM). Thus, these roots may, ultimately, be akin not only to items such as ↗ḥamām ʻbath’ and ↗ḥummà ʻfever’, but also to ↗ʔaḥmarᵘ ʻred, brown’ and, perh., even ↗faḥm ʻcoal’.
[v4] : ḥamasaẗ ‘tortoise’: Outside Ar, the value is attested only in modSAr. Leslau2006 (CDG) would not exclude a relation with Gz ḥammasa ʻto swim’.
[v5] : In the expr. sanaẗ ḥamsāʔᵘ ʻunfruitful\severe year’, the semantics of Ar ḤMS are prob. closest to the *‘violence, firmness, severity’ that is prominent in the Hbr, Aram and SAr cognates listed sub #ḤMS-1 in DRS.
▪ …
 
– 
– 
ḥamis‑ حَمِسَ , a (ḥamāsaẗ
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 14Mar2021
√ḤMS 
vb., I 
1 to be zealous, ardent, enthusiastic; 2 to be valiant, courageous – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ A look at the semantic spectrum covered by Sem ḤMS suggests that there are three values that may form the basis from which the modern values developed: (1) *ʻviolence, severity; anger’, (2) *ʻto fry’, and (3) *ʻto irritate, excite’. All three are attested in ClassAr (see below, section HIST) and often represented by identical lexemes, so that one is tempted to assume a shared etymology. But although a common origin has been suggested by earlier research, there are also indications that would let it seem to be prudent – for the moment, at least – to keep the three strings apart. – See below, section DISC.
▪ …
 
▪ In ClassAr, all 3 values that may have contributed to the semantics of ḥamasa and derivatives can be found: for (1) *ʻviolence, severity; anger’, cf., e.g., the expression sanaẗ ḥamsāʔᵘ ʻunfruitful, severe year’ and the vb.s V taḥammasa ʻto feign rebellion, rigour’, VIII ĭḥtamasa ʻto fight together (cocks)’ and the rare XII ĭḥmawmasa ʻto be angry’; for (2) *ʻto fry’, cf., ḥamīs ʻoven’, vb. I (tr.) ḥamasa (u, ḥams) ʻto fry (meat)’, II ḥammasa and IV ʔaḥmasa ʻto heat (a medicine upon the fire)’; for (3) *ʻto irritate, excite’, cf. vb.s I ḥamasa (u, ḥams) ʻto irritate s.o.’, II ḥammasa, and IV ʔaḥmasa ʻto irritate; to excite’ – all attestations from Hava1899.
▪ …
 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤMS-1 Hbr *ḥāmas ‘traiter violemment, faire violence à’, EmpAram ḥms ‘violence’, JP ḥᵊmas ‘user de violence’, Ar ḥamisa ‘être ferme, solide, courageux’, SAr ʔḥmš ‘dur, fort au combat’. -?2 Ar ḥamasa ‘faire frire (de la viande)’, ḥammasa ‘torréfier’, ʕOmAr məḥmās, Mhr məḥmēs, Ḥrs məḥmās, Jib múḥmus, məḥmus ‘poêle à griller le café’; Tña ḥamäsä ‘griller, rissoler (grain, farine)’. – Ar ḥamasa ‘irriter’, ʕOmAr mətḥámməs ‘irrité et désireux de vaincre’, Jib aḥmís ‘exciter, encourager’, Mhr ḥəmūs, ḥōməs ‘piquer au vif’. ? – Jib ḥõs, oḥõs ‘moudre’. -3-6 […]
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▪ The authors of DRS set (their #ḤMS-1) *ʻviolence, severity; anger’ apart from *ʻto fry’ and *ʻto irritate, excite’ (treated together as #ḤMS-2), but indicate (by a question mark) that they are not sure whether or not it is justified to make that distinction; they also remark, explicitly: »Il n’est pas impossible qu’il y ait lieu de rapprocher les notions de violence, d’irritation et de cuisson.« If the values are related, is then ʻviolent treatment, firmness; courage’ primary to ʻto fry, roast; to irritate, excite, encourage’, or is it the other way round? Theoretically, a dependence on a primary ʻto fry, roast’ along the line *ʻto fry, roast > (fig.) to stir, irritate (violently > to treat violently) > to incite, excite > (fig.) enthusiasm, zeal, courage’ is not unconceivable. On the other hand, if ʻviolence, severity’ was the original value (see, e.g., the Hbr and Aram cognates as given by DRS sub #ḤMS-1), then the most direct reflections of this notion would prob. be the values given in section HIST for option (1); in this case, ʻzeal; courage’ would be metaphorical use, referring to the “firmness” of the mind, a “strong” will, etc., while *ʻto roast’ would be a specific kind of *ʻviolent treatment’.
▪ Meanwhile, semantic vicinity of the obsol. Ar values ʻto fry, roast’ to ↗ḤMṢ ʻto roast’179 and of ʻto irritate’ to ↗ḤMŠ ʻto irritate, excite; to be angry’ may suggest the influence of other roots, or even distinct etymologies that would need separate treatment. For *ʻviolence, severity’, the authors of DRS suggest to compare their entries #ḤMSN, #ʕMṢ, and #ḤMṢ.
▪ In any case, all three Ar roots – ḤMS, ḤMŠ, and ḤMṢ – may be extensions from an earlier 2-radical nucleus *ḤM‑ ʻheat, fever’, cf. ↗ḤMː (ḤMM). Thus, these roots may, ultimately, be akin not only to items such as ↗ḥamām ʻbath’ and ↗ḥummà ʻfever’, but also to ↗ʔaḥmarᵘ ʻred, brown’ (< *ḤM-R?) and, perh., even ↗faḥm ʻcoal’ (< *P-ḤM?).
▪ …
 
– 
ḥammasa, vb. II, to fill with enthusiasm (s.o.): D-stem, caus.
taḥammasa, vb. V, 1 to get heated, worked up; 2ato be excited; b to be enthusiastic (li‑ about), have a passion (li‑ for); c to advocate fervently (li‑ s.th.); d to be overzealous ( in s.th.): Dt-stem, intrans., self-ref.

BP#3536ḥamās, n., enthusiasm, rapture; zeal; elan, fighting spirit: vn. I. – See also s.v.
ḥamāsaẗ, n.f., enthusiasm, fire, ardor, fervor, zeal; valor, bravery, heroism: vn. I | al-Ḥamāsaẗ, n.f., the Hamasa (a famous collection of Arabic poems)
ḥamāsī, adj., 1 enthusiastic, ardent, fiery, zealous, enraptured; 2 enrapturing, stirring, rousing: nisba formation, from ḥamās and/or ḥamāsaẗ.
ʔaḥmasᵘ, f. ḥamsāʔᵘ, pl. ḥums, adj., 1a unflinching, tenacious, valiant; b strenuous, zealous; c enthusiastic: ʔaFʕaLᵘ formation for colours and physical/mental disorders etc.
taḥammus, n., unflinching zeal, enthusiasm (li‑ for), fanaticism: vn. V.
mutaḥammis, 1 adj., enthusiastic, ardent, fiery, zealous; – 2 (pl. ‑ūn), n., ardent follower, fanatic adherent, fanatic; fan (li‑ e.g., of a sport, of a trend in art): PA V.
 
ḥamās حَماس 
ID 238 • Sw – • BP 3536 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last update 14Mar2021
√ḤMS 
n. 
enthusiasm, fire, ardor, fervor, zeal, fanaticism – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ A nominal formation from ↗ḥamisa.
▪ Since the late 1980s, Ar ḥamās also functions as an acronym of Ḥarakaẗ al-muqāwamaẗ al-ʔislāmiyyaẗ, the Islamic Resistance Movement.
▪ …
 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥamisa.
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ … 
– 
See ↗ḥamisa
ḤMŠ حمش 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 30Mar2021
√ḤMŠ 
“root” 
▪ ḤMŠ_1 ʻto excite, irritate, infuriate, enrage’ ↗ḥamaša
▪ ḤMŠ_2 ʻcatgut (med.)’ ↗ḥamšaẗ

Other values, now obsolete, include (Hava1899):

ḤMŠ_3 ʻto collect s.th.’: ḥamaša (u, ḥamš)
ḤMŠ_4 ʻgraisse, obésité’: ḥamīš
 
▪ The root √ḤMŠ exhibits 3-4 distinct values between which no obvious relation is discernible.
▪ [v1] (= DRS #ḤMŚ-1): exact etymology unclear, but prob. related to ↗√ḤMS and ↗√ḤMṢ.
▪ [v2] (cf. DRS #ḤMŚ-3?): The value ʻcatgut (med.)’ seems to be based on the obsolete notion of ʻthin (shank), thin-legged’ (see below, section HIST), with no obvious relation to [v1] ʻto excite, irritate, infuriate’ or [v3] ʻto collect’.
▪ [v3] (= DRS #ḤMŚ-2): no obvious relation to [v1] ʻto excite, irritate, infuriate’ or [v2] ʻthin, meagre’.
▪ [v4] : accord. to DRS »sans doute une forme constituée sur l’Ar *↗ŠḤM avec métathèse.
▪ … 
▪ [v1] : cf. also ḥamaša u (ḥamš, ḥamšaẗ), ʻto become angry (man); to become hot (war)’; ḥammaša, vb. II, ʻto stir, anger s.o.; to put fuel (in the fire); to rouse (people)’; taḥammaša, vb. V, and ĭstaḥmaša, vb. X, ʻto be angered’.
▪ [v2] : cf. also ḥamaša (u, ḥamš) and ḥamuša (u, ḥumūšaẗ) ʻto be thin (shank)’, ḥamiša (a, ḥamš, ḥamaš) ʻto be thin-legged (man)’, ʔaḥmašᵘ (pl. ḥimāš), adj., ʻthin-legged (man)’.
▪ [v3] : cf. also ḥammaša, vb. II, ʻto collect (s.th.)’
▪ …
 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤMŚ-1 Ar ḥamiša ʻêtre en colère’, ḥamaša ʻirriter, exciter’, ʔaḥmaša ʻattiser (le feu), faire bouillir’, EgAr ḥamaš ʻroussir, brûler (trans.)’. -2 ḥamaša ʻrassembler, réunir’. -3 ʔaḥmašᵘ ʻqui a les tibias minces, décharné’.
▪ …
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ …
 
– 
– 
ḥamaš‑ حَمَشَ , u (ḥamš, ḥamšaẗ
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 30Mar2021
√ḤMŠ 
vb., I 
to excite, irritate, infuriate, enrage – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ The root ↗√ḤMŠ exhibits 3-4 distinct values between which no obvious relation is discernible (apart from ʻto excite, irritate, infuriate, enrage; to roast, fry’ there is also ʻthin, thin-legged’ (see ↗ḥamšaẗ ʻcatgut’), ʻto collect’, and – prob. via metathesis from ↗ŠḤM – also ʻfat’. With the first three, the root does not seem to have any cognates in Sem.
▪ The etymology of ḥamaša therefore has to remain unclear. Perh., however , the word is related to ↗√ḤMS and/or ↗√ḤMṢ in the sense of ʻto roast, fry’.
▪ … 
▪ [v1] : cf. also ḥamaša u (ḥamš, ḥamšaẗ), ʻto become angry (man); to become hot (war)’; ḥammaša, vb. II, ʻto stir, anger s.o.; to put fuel (in the fire); to rouse (people)’; taḥammaša, vb. V, and ĭstaḥmaša, vb. X, ʻto be angered’.
▪ …
 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤMŚ-1 Ar ḥamiša ʻêtre en colère’, ḥamaša ʻirriter, exciter’, ʔaḥmaša ʻattiser (le feu), faire bouillir’, EgAr ḥamaš ʻroussir, brûler (trans.)’. -2-3 […].
▪ …
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ …
 
– 
For other items of the root, see ↗ḥamšaẗ and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤMŠ.
 
ḥamšaẗ حَمْشة 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 30Mar2021
√ḤMŠ 
n.f. 
catgut (med.) – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ The root ↗√ḤMŠ exhibits 3-4 distinct values between which no obvious relation is discernible: ʻto excite, irritate, infuriate, enrage; to roast, fry’ (see ↗ḥamaša), ʻ(to be) thin, thin-legged’, ʻto collect’, and – prob. via metathesis from ↗ŠḤM – also ʻfat’. For the first three, the root does not seem to have any Sem cognates.
▪ The value ʻcatgut (med.)’ is prob. based on the obsolete notion of *ʻthin (shank), thin-legged’ (see below, section HIST).
▪ …
 
▪ Cf. also ḥamaša (u, ḥamš) and ḥamuša (u, ḥumūšaẗ) ʻto be thin (shank)’, ḥamiša (a, ḥamš, ḥamaš) ʻto be thin-legged (man)’, ʔaḥmašᵘ (pl. ḥimāš), adj., ʻthin-legged (man)’.
▪ …
 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤMŚ-1-2 […]. -3 ʔaḥmašᵘ ʻqui a les tibias minces, décharné’.
▪ …
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ …
 
– 
For other items of the root, see ↗ḥamaša and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤMŠ.
 
ḤMṢ حمص 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, updated 02Apr2021
√ḤMṢ 
“root” 
▪ ḤMṢ_1 ʻto roast; to fry, broil’ ↗ḥammaṣa
▪ ḤMṢ_2 ʻchick-pea’ ↗ḥimmiṣ, colloq. ḥummuṣ
▪ ḤMṢ_3 ʻHoms (the ancient Emesa, city in central Syria)’ ↗Ḥimṣᵘ

Other values, now obsolete, include (BK1860, Hava1899):

ḤMṢ_4 ʻto cease to be swollen (a wound)’: ḥamaṣa (u, ḥamṣ, ḥumūṣ); cf. also taḥammaṣa ‘to contract, shrink; to be shrivelled (dry meat)’, and ĭnḥamaṣa ‘to be reduced (swelling); to become emaciated (she-camel)’
ḤMṢ_5 ‘espèce de plante acidulée qui croît dans les sables’ (BK): ḥam(m)aṣīṣ
ḤMṢ_6 ‘to extract gently (a straw) from the eye, take a mote out of the eye’: ḥamaṣa (u, ḥamṣ, ḥumūṣ)
ḤMṢ_7 ʻsheep stolen by night’: ḥamīṣaẗ, maḥmūṣaẗ (pl. ḥamāʔiṣᵘ)
ḤMṢ_8 ‘to perspire violently’: ḥamaṣa (u, ḥamṣ, ḥumūṣ)
ḤMṢ_9 ‘to rock gently to and fro, swing (a boy)’: ḥamaṣa (u, ḥamṣ); cf. also ‘ḥamaṣa (u, ḥamṣ, ḥumūṣ) ‘to stop swinging, subside, cease, abate’.
▪ … 
▪ [general] Semantic variety in the root and lack of clear cognates as well as semantic vicinity to / overlapping with phonologically close roots forbids clear etymological statements about any of the items. It it not unconceivable, though, that some of them belong to a complex with the basic meaning of *ʻto roast’ (akin to ↗√ḤMS and ↗√ḤMŠ and, more distantly, to ↗√ḤMR, ↗√ḤMW and other roots signifying *ʻheat’, cf. ↗√ḤMː/ḤMM) while others could be based on a shared notion of *ʻsour, to shrink, contract (due to sour taste?)’ (akin to ↗√ḤMḌ). Yet other values, however, like [v7] ʻsheep stolen by night’ or [v8] ‘to perspire violently’, remain without obvious connection to any of the others. The use of the same Ar vb. ḥamaṣa for such different meanings as [v4] ʻto cease to be swollen (a wound)’, [v6] ‘to extract gently (a straw) from the eye, take a mote out of the eye’, [v8] ‘to perspire violently’ and [v9] ‘to rock gently to and fro, swing (a boy); to stop swinging, subside, cease, abate’ suggests some kind of connection between all of them – but how could this relation be explained?

▪ [v1] (= DRS #ḤMṢ(Ṣ)-6) ʻto roast; to fry, broil’: cf. also ḥammaṣa ‘to roast (coffee); to toast s.th.’, ḥummaṣaẗ ‘cautery’. – DRS: cf. ↗√ḤMS and ↗√ḤMŠ. – DRS asks: akin to [v2] ʻchick-pea’? But the authors remain silent about the exact nature of this thinkable relation: ʻchick-pea’ as *‘the roasted one’? – Or should we assume that both share the notion of [v4] *‘shrinking, shrivelling’ (chick-peas’ surface and likewise meat when roasted)?
▪ [v2] (= DRS #ḤMṢ(Ṣ)-3) ʻchick-pea’: etymology obscure; any relation to [v4] *‘shrinking, shrivelling’ (chick-peas’ surface) or (as taken into consideration by DRS) to [v1] ‘to roast’?
▪ [v3] ʻHoms’: perh. a (re-?) Arabized form of the city’s Lat name, Emesus, from Grk Ἔμεσα Émesa (also Émesos or Hémesa), itself perh. from the name of the nomadic Arab tribe known in Grk as Emesenoi, who inhabited the region prior to Roman influence in the area. The etymology of the tribe’s name remains obscure.
[v4] (= DRS #ḤMṢ(Ṣ)-1) ʻto be reduced (swelling of a wound); to contract o.s.; to be shrivelled (dry meat); to become emaciated (she-camel)’: Any relation to [v1] ‘to roast’ (shrivelling/contracting as a result of being roasted)? In a similar vein, one could imagine a relation to ↗√ḤMḌ (shrivelling/contracting as a result of tasting sour; see also [v5]). Cf., however, the fact that the vb. ḥamaṣa that expresses this value, also can mean such different things as [v6] ‘to extract gently (a straw) from the eye, take a mote out of the eye’, [v8] ‘to perspire violently’ and [v9] ‘to rock gently to and fro, swing (a boy); to stop swinging, subside, cease, abate’. – Soq ḥamṣīṣoh ‘testicule’ (DRS #ḤMṢ(Ṣ)-8) could, like [v2] ‘chick-pea’, be interpreted as *‘with shrivelled surface/skin’ (though according to DRS, speakers tend to link the word to Soq máḥṣaṣ ‘pebbles’, cf. Ar ḥaṣan, ḥaṣāẗ, ḥaṣwat, ↗√ḤṢW).
[v5] (= DRS #ḤMṢ(Ṣ)-5) ‘espèce de plante acidulée qui croît dans les sables’: cf. perh. ↗√ḤMḌ.
[v6] ‘to extract gently (a straw) from the eye, take a mote out of the eye’: the vb. that expresses this value, ḥamaṣa, can also mean [v4] ʻto cease to be swollen (a wound)’, [v8] ‘to perspire violently’ and [v9] ‘to rock gently to and fro, swing (a boy); to stop swinging, subside, cease, abate’ – a conspicuous, but obscure use of one term for four very different meanings. If related, what could be the common denominator?
[v7] (= DRS #ḤMṢ(Ṣ)-7) ‘sheep stolen by night’: ?
[v8] ‘to perspire violently’: ? – cf. [v4], [v6], [v9]?
[v9] ‘(tr.) to rock gently to and fro, swing (a boy); (intr.) to stop swinging, subside, cease, abate’: ? – cf. [v4], [v6], [v8]?
▪ …
 
– 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤMṢ(Ṣ)-1 Akk emēṣu ‘avoir faim’, Ar ḥamaṣa ‘désenfler (plaie)’, taḥammaṣa ‘se ratatiner (viande se desséchant)’, ĭnḥamasa ‘se contracter, maigrir’. -2 Hbr ḥāmūṣ ‘écarlate’. -3 Syr ḥemṣe, SyrAr ḥimmiṣ ‘pois chiches’. -4 Mhr ḥəmūṣ ‘dépouiller à la main un chevreau’, məḥmīṣ ‘peau de chevreau’, Ḥrs mḥəmīṣ, Jib maḥmíṣ ‘peau de petit animal’. -5 Ar ḥamaṣīṣ, ḥammaṣīs: plante des sables aigre. -6 ḥammaṣa ‘griller, torréfier’. -7 ʔaḥmaṣᵘ ‘voleur de petit bétail’. -8 Soq ḥamṣīṣoh ‘testicule’.
▪ …
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
 
– 
– 
ḥammaṣ‑ حَمَّصَ (taḥmīṣ
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 02Apr2021
√ḤMṢ 
vb., II 
to roast; to fry, broil – WehrCowan1976. 
DRS: cf. ↗√ḤMS and ↗√ḤMŠ (and, more distantly, ↗√ḤMR, ↗√ḤMW and other roots based on *ʻheat’, cf. ↗√ḤMː/ḤMM). – DRS also asks: akin to ↗ḥimmiṣ ʻchick-pea’? But the authors remain silent about the exact nature of the relation they find conceivable: ʻchick-pea’ as *‘the roasted one’? – Or should we assume that both, ʻchick-pea’ and ‘roasting’, share the notion of *‘shrinking, shrivelling’ (see [v4] in root entry ↗√ḤMṢ), a chick-pea’s surface being as shrivelled as meat when roasted? The fact that ḥammaṣa is a form II and therefore might be a causative formation would allow for an interpretation of ‘roasting’ as *‘to make shrink/shrivel’.
▪ … 
▪ Cf. also ḥammaṣa ‘to roast (coffee); to toast s.th.’, ḥummaṣaẗ ‘cautery’.
▪ … 
▪ Given the lack of clarity as to which notions of the root may be related to others, we reproduce the full DRS entry here, rendering the values that do not show an obvious connection with characters of reduced size:
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤMṢ(Ṣ)-1 Akk emēṣu ‘avoir faim’, Ar ḥamaṣa ‘désenfler (plaie)’, taḥammaṣa ‘se ratatiner (viande se desséchant)’, ĭnḥamasa ‘se contracter, maigrir’. -2 Hbr ḥāmūṣ ‘écarlate’. -3 Syr ḥemṣe, SyrAr ḥimmiṣ ‘pois chiches’. -4 Mhr ḥəmūṣ ‘dépouiller à la main un chevreau’, məḥmīṣ ‘peau de chevreau’, Ḥrs mḥəmīṣ, Jib maḥmíṣ ‘peau de petit animal’. -5 Ar ḥamaṣīṣ, ḥammaṣīs: plante des sables aigre. -6 ḥammaṣa ‘griller, torréfier’. -7 ʔaḥmaṣᵘ ‘voleur de petit bétail’. -8 Soq ḥamṣīṣoh ‘testicule’.
▪ …
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
 
– 
For other items of the root, cf. ↗ḥimmiṣ and ↗Ḥimṣ as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤMṢ. 
ḥimmiṣ حِمِّص , var. ḥimmaṣ, (colloq.) ḥummuṣ 
ID 239 • Sw – • BP 6198 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, latest update 02Apr2021
√ḤMṢ 
n.coll. (n.un. ة) 
chick-pea – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Etymology obscure. – Any relation to the (obsolete) notion of *‘shrinking, shrivelling’ (due to chick-pies’ shrivelled skin)? Cf. ↗ḤMṢ_4 (= DRS #ḤMṢ(Ṣ)-1) and perh. Soq ḥamṣīṣoh ‘testicule’ (= DRS #ḤMṢ(Ṣ)-8) which, like ‘chick-pea’, could be interpreted as *‘with shrivelled surface/skin’ (though according to DRS, speakers tend to link the word to Soq máḥṣaṣ ‘pebbles’, cf. Ar ḥaṣan, ḥaṣāẗ, ḥaṣwat, ↗√ḤṢW). – In contrast, DRS asks whether there might be a connection with ‘to roast’ (↗ḥammaṣa), without explaining the details of such a link (chick-peas as *ʻroasted ones’?)
▪ …
 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤMṢ(Ṣ)-1 Akk emēṣu ‘avoir faim’, Ar ḥamaṣa ‘désenfler (plaie)’, taḥammaṣa ‘se ratatiner (viande se desséchant)’, ĭnḥamasa ‘se contracter, maigrir’. -2 Hbr ḥāmūṣ ‘écarlate’. -3 Syr ḥemṣe, SyrAr ḥimmiṣ ‘pois chiches’. -4 Mhr ḥəmūṣ ‘dépouiller à la main un chevreau’, məḥmīṣ ‘peau de chevreau’, Ḥrs mḥəmīṣ, Jib maḥmíṣ ‘peau de petit animal’. -5 Ar ḥamaṣīṣ, ḥammaṣīs: plante des sables aigre. -6 ḥammaṣa ‘griller, torréfier’. -7 ʔaḥmaṣᵘ ‘voleur de petit bétail’. -8 Soq ḥamṣīṣoh ‘testicule’.
▪ …
 
▪ See above, section CONC.
 
▪ Engl hummus : Middle Eastern dish, 1955, from Tu humus ʻmashed chick peas’ – EtymOnline.
▪ … 
For other items of the root, cf. ↗ḥammaṣa and ↗Ḥimṣ as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤMṢ. 
Ḥimṣᵘ حِمْصُ 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 02Apr2021
√ḤMṢ 
n.geogr. 
Homs (the ancient Emesa, city in central Syria) – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ Perh. a (re-?) Arabized form of the city’s Lat name, Emesus, from Grk Ἔμεσα Émesa (also Émesos or Hémesa), itself perh. from the name of the nomadic Ar tribe known in Grk as Emesenoi, who inhabited the region prior to Roman influence in the area. The etymology of the tribe’s name remains obscure.
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ ?
▪ … 
▪ See above, section CONC.
 
… 
For other items of the root, cf. ↗ḥammaṣa and ↗ḥimmiṣ as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ḤMṢ. 
ḤMḌ حمض 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤMḌ 
“root” 
▪ ḤMḌ_1 ‘to be(come) sour; acid’ ↗ḥamuḍa
▪ ḤMḌ_2 ‘…’ ↗ḥmd
▪ ḤMḌ_3 ‘…’ ↗ḥmḍ
 
▪ … 
– 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤMḌ-1 Akk emēṣ‑ ‘être aigre, acide’, emṣ‑, enṣ‑ ‘aigre’, Ug ḥmṣ, Hbr ḥōmeṣ ‘vinaigre’, ḥāmēṣ ‘être sure, levée (pâte de pain)’, JP ḥᵃmaʕ ‘être sur, aigre’, Ar ḥamiḍa, ḥamuḍa ‘être aigre’, ḥamaḍa ‘manger des plantes amères et salsugineuses’, ḥamḍ: plante de ce type, Mhr ḥəmūź, Ḥrs ḥəmōź, Jib oḥõź, aḥmíź, EJib ḥõź ‘battre le beurre’, Mhr ḥayməź, Jib ḥĩź ‘tourner en beurre’, Mhr Jib ḥamź ‘yoghourt’, Soq ḥémaḍ ‘lait caillé’, Mhr ḥāməź, Ḥrs ḥāməḏ̣ ‘aigre’, Soq móḥmiḍ ‘outre à beurre’; Gz Amh ḥomṭāṭṭā ‘aigre, vinaigre’. – Hbr ḥāmēṣ ‘agir avec violence, opprimer’, hitḥammēṣ ‘être courroucé, plein d’amertume’, EmpAram ḥmṣ ‘ôter abusivement à’, Ar ḥammaḍa ‘traiter mesquinement’. – ?2 Ar ḥamaḍa ʕan ‘avoir de l’aversion pour’, ḥamaḍa bi‑ ‘désirer ardemment’.
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▪ …
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– 
– 
ḥamuḍ‑ حَمُضَ , u (ḥumūḍaẗ
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤMḌ 
vb., I 
to be or become sour – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Youssef2003 thought the word is a loan from Copt (from Eg), but the current opinion is that it is the other way round. Rather, the Ar root √ḤMḌ is probably related to Eg ḥm3 ‘salt’. For details ↗ḥamḍ.
▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *ḥmṣ́ ‘to be sour’.
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤMḌ-1 Akk emēṣ‑ ‘être aigre, acide’, emṣ‑, enṣ‑ ‘aigre’, Ug ḥmṣ, Hbr ḥōmeṣ ‘vinaigre’, ḥāmēṣ ‘être sure, levée (pâte de pain)’, JP ḥᵃmaʕ ‘être sur, aigre’, Ar ḥamiḍa, ḥamuḍa ‘être aigre’, ḥamaḍa ‘manger des plantes amères et salsugineuses’, ḥamḍ: plante de ce type, Mhr ḥəmūź, Ḥrs ḥəmōź, Jib oḥõź, aḥmíź, EJib ḥõź ‘battre le beurre’, Mhr ḥayməź, Jib ḥĩź ‘tourner en beurre’, Mhr Jib ḥamź ‘yoghourt’, Soq ḥémaḍ ‘lait caillé’, Mhr ḥāməź, Ḥrs ḥāməḏ̣ ‘aigre’, Soq móḥmiḍ ‘outre à beurre’; Gz Amh ḥomṭāṭṭā ‘aigre, vinaigre’.
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ Youssef2003 thinks that Ar ḥāmiḍ is from Eg ḥmḏ, Copt ḥmǧ ‘vinegar’. But both
▪ Calice and Erman1892 think the word is a borrowing.180 In addition, also
▪ TLÆ, which does have an Eg ḥmǧ ‘vinegar’ (lemma no. 105840), says that it is a loan word from Sem.
▪ For a relation of Ar √ḤMḌ with Eg ḥm3 ‘salt’ cf. ↗ḥamḍ.
 
– 
ḥammaḍa, vb. II, 1 to make sour, sour, acidify, acidulate (s.th.); 2 to develop (a photographic plate, a film; phot.); 3 to cause (s.th.) to oxidize

ḥamḍ, pl. ʔaḥmāḍ, n., acid (chem.) | ~ bawlī, n., uric acid
šaǧar ḥamḍī, n. pl., citrus trees
ḥamḍiyyaẗ, pl ‑āt, n.f., citrus fruit
ḥumūḍaẗ, n.f., sourness, acidity | muwallid al‑~, n., oxygen (chem.)
ḥummāḍ, var. ḥummayḍ, n., sorrel (bot.)
taḥmīḍ, n., 1 souring, acidification; 2 development (phot.)
ʔiḥmāḍ, n., jocular language, joking remark
ḥāmiḍ, adj., n., 1 sour, acid; 2 acidulous; 3 (pl. ḥawāmiḍᵘ), acid (chem.) | ~ al-faḥm, n., carbonic acid; ~ kibrītī, n., sulphuric acid 
ḤML حمل 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤML 
“root” 
▪ ḤML_1 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ḤML_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘load, burden, to bear, to carry; to bear up, to sustain; animals of burden; to take up, to carry off; to become angry, to charge; to depart, a camel’s litter; to forebear; to conceive a child, pregnancy, to fruit; a lamb’ 
▪ … 
– 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤML-1 Hbr ḥāmal ‘avoir de la compassion pour; épargner, ménager’. -2 Ar ḥamala ‘porter; être enceinte; attaquer (ʕalà)’, ḥiml ‘charge’, ḥammāl ‘portefaix’, Sab ḥml ‘amener, faire entrer (dans un lieu), refouler dans un endroit, prendre d’assaut; offrir’, Mhr ḥəmūl, Ḥrs ḥəmōl, Soq ḥə́mɔl ‘porter, supporter’, Jib ḥõl ‘porter, emporter; transhumer, aller çà et là’, Ḥrs ḥəmōl ‘attaquer’, Mhr ḥāməl, ḥəmáwlət, Ḥrs ḥəmélət, Jib ḥĩlət ‘charge’, Gz ḥamala ‘porter, transporter (une charge)’, ḥəml ‘charge, fardeau’, Amh ḥammälä ‘portefaix’. -3 Gz Te ḥaml ‘verdure’, Tña ḥamli ‘légume (spécialement chou, moutarde, sénevé vert)’, Har ḥūl, Gaf amlä, Gur amel ambel, ambi ‘chou’; – Te ḥamle, Tña ḥamälä ‘recueillir des légumes’. -4 Te hamlä ‘être ou devenir tendre, mou’, täḥammälä ‘devenir insouciant, se croire sûr’. -5 Ar ḥamal ‘agneau’.
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▪ …
▪ … 
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl hamal, from Ar ḥammāl ‘porter’, from ḥamala ‘to carry’. 
– 
maḥmūl مَحْمُول 
ID 240 • Sw – • BP 3469 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤML 
¹adj.; ²n. 
I adj., 1a carried, borne; b portable; c bearable, tolerable; II n., 1a load weight, service weight, cargo; b tonnage (of a vessel); 2 predicate, attribute (logic), ~ ʕalay-hi, subject (logic); 3 mobile phone – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ ↗ḥamala.
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
 
ḤNː (ḤNN) حنّ/حنن 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 10Mar2023
√ ḤNː (ḤNN) 
“root” 
▪ ḤNː (ḤNN)_1 ‘...’ ↗..., ‘grace’ ↗ḥanān
▪ ḤNː (ḤNN)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤNː (ḤNN)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘moaning sound of a she-camel longing for her young, yearning, mercy, kindness, compassion, wife’ 
▪ From protSem *√ḤNN ‘to be(come) gracious’ – Huehnergard2011.
▪ …
 
– 
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Ann, Hannah, from Hbr ḥannâ ‘grace’, from ḥānan ‘to be(come) gracious’; John, ultimately from Hbr yôḥānān ‘Yahweh has been gracious’, from ḥānān, lengthened form of ḥānan ‘he has been gracious’ (cf. Ar ḥanān; for Hbr ‘Yahweh’, cf. Ar ↗√HWY).
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Hannibal, from Phoen (Pun) *ḥannī-baʕl ‘my grace (is) Baal’, from *ḥannī ‘my grace’, from *ḥann ‘grace’ (akin to Ar ↗ḥanān; for Phoen *baʕl ‘lord, Baal’, cf. Ar ↗baʕl). 
– 
ḥanān حَنان 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 2Jun2023
√ḤNː (ḤNN)
 
n. 
grace – Jeffery1938
 
▪ … 
▪ eC7 Q xix, 14 – Jeffery1938.
 
▪ Jeffery1938: »This sole occurrence of the word is in a passage descriptive of John the Baptist. Sprenger, Leben, i, 125,181 noted that the word was probably of foreign origin, and Mingana, Syr Influence, 88, claims that it is the Syr ḥnānā. / The primitive verb [Ar] ḥanna does not occur in the Qurʔān. It may be compared with Sab ḥn used in proper names,182 Hbr ḥānan ‘to be gracious’, and Syr ḥnan, Aram ḥᵃnan with the same meaning. It is to be noted, however, that the sense of ‘grace’ is the one that has been most highly developed in NSem, e.g. Akk annu ‘grace, favour’, Hbr and Phoen ḥēn, Aram ḥnā and ḥynā, Syr ḥnānā, and this ḥnānā is used in the Peshitta text of Lk. i, 58, in the account of the birth of John the Baptist. / Halévy, JA, viiᵉ ser., x, 356, finds ḥn-ʔl ‘grace de Dieu’ in a Safaite inscription, which if correct would be evidence of the early use of the word in NArabia.«
 
ḤNʔ حنأ 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤNʔ 
“root” 
▪ ḤNʔ_1 ‘henna (cosmetic)’ ↗ḥinnāʔ
▪ ḤNʔ_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
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DRS 9 (2010) #ḤNʔ-1 Ar ḥanaʔa ‘être verdoyant’. -2 ḥinnāʔ, ḥinnāʔaẗ, Syr ḥenā, Soq ḥénne, Mhr ḥaynēʔ, Jib ḥinɛ́ʔ ‘henné’, Ar ḥannaʔa, Mhr ḥōni, Jib oḥúni, Soq ḥóni ‘teindre au henné’. -3 Ar ḥanaʔa ‘copuler avec’.
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▪ Engl hennaḥinnāʔ
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ḥinnāʔ حِنّاء 
ID 241 • Sw – • BP??? • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤNʔ 
n. 
henna (a reddish-orange cosmetic gained from leaves and stalks of the henna plant) – WehrCowan1979. 
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DRS 9 (2010) #ḤNʔ-2 Ar ḥinnāʔ, ḥinnāʔaẗ, Syr ḥenā, Soq ḥénne, Mhr ḥaynēʔ, Jib ḥinɛ́ʔ ‘henné’, Ar ḥannaʔa, Mhr ḥōni, Jib oḥúni, Soq ḥóni ‘teindre au henné’.
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▪ Engl henna, c. 1600, dye or cosmetic from the henna plant, from Ar ḥinnāʔ, name for the small thorny tree (Egyptian Privet), the leaves of which are used to make the reddish dye for the body or hair; said to be of Pers origin, from Ar – EtymOnline
ʔabū ’l- ḥinnāʔ, n., robin (redbreast)
tamr al-ḥinnāʔ, n., (colloq.) henna plant (Lawsonia inermis; bot.)

ḥannaʔa, vb. II, to dye red (s.th., with henna) 
ḤNT حنت
 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 5Sep2022
√ḤNT 
“root” 
▪ ḤNT_1 ‘store, shop; tavern’ ↗ḥānūt (s.r. √ḤNW/Y)
▪ ḤNT_2 ‘corpse washer; undertaker, gravedigger’ ↗ḥānūtī (s.r. √ḤNW/Y)
▪ ḤNT_3 (EgAr) ‘opportunist, sharp operator’: ĭbn ḥintḥanaṯa
▪ ḤNT_ ‘…’ ↗ ḥnt
 
▪ No root *√ḤNT exists as such: ḤNT_1-2 are from ↗√ḤNW/Y, while ḤNT_3 is EgAr for ↗ḤNṮ.
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… 
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ḤNṮ حنث 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 5Sep2022
√ḤNṮ 
“root” 
▪ ḤNṮ_1 ‘to break one’s oath; perjury, sin’ ↗ḥaniṯa
▪ ḤNṮ_2 (EgAr) ‘opportunist, sharp operator’: ĭbn ḥintḥaniṯa
▪ ḤNṮ_ ‘…’ ↗ ḥnṯ

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘manhood, maturity; sin, blasphemy, denial of God, wickedness; breaking an oath, perjury; to purify oneself, to worship, responsibility’
 
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ḥaniṯ‑ حنِث , a (ḥinṯ
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 5Sep2022
√ḤNṮ 
vb., I 
with fī yamīnih or bi-yamīnih: to break one’s oath – WehrCowan1976. 
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eC7 ḥaniṯa (to break one’s oath, fail to honour one’s oath) Q 38:44 wa-ḫuḏ bi-yadika ḍiġṯan fa-ḍrib bihī wa-lā taḥnaṯ ‘and take in your hand a small bunch of grass, and strike with it, so as not to break your oath’.
eC7 ḥinṯ (abomination, sinning, breaking one’s oath, denial of God) Q 56:46 wa-kānū yuṣirrūna ʕalà ’l-ḥinṯi ’l-ʕaẓīmi ‘and they always persisted in great sin’
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▪ Zammit2008: no cognates but “cf. ↗ḥanīf”.
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taḥannaṯa, vb. V, 1a to practice piety, perform works of devotion; b to seek religious purification; c to scorn sin, not yield to sin

ḥinṯ, pl. ʔaḥnāṯ, n., 1 perjury; 2 sin: vn. I | EgAr ĭbn ḥint, expr., opportunist, sharp operator
 
ḤNǦR حنجر 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 10Mar2023
√ḤNǦR 
“root” 
▪ ḤNǦR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤNǦR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤNǦR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘larynx, throat, windpipe; to slay’ 
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ḤNḎ حنذ 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 10Mar2023
√ḤNḎ 
“root” 
▪ ḤNḎ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤNḎ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤNḎ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to cause slimming of a horse by inducing sweating; to mix wine with water, roast meat by sealing it up inside a fire, roasted meat, hot water’ 
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ḤNṬ حنط 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤNṬ 
“root” 
▪ ḤNT_1 ‘wheat’ ↗ḥinṭaẗ
▪ ḤNT_2 ‘to embalm’ ↗ḥannaṭa

Other values, now obsolete, include
  • ḤNT_3 ‘to become (red/white and) mature’: ḥanaṭa
  • ḤNT_4 ‘to sigh’: ḥanaṭa
  • ḤNT_5 ‘shot-off arrow’: ḥanṭ
  • ḤNT_6 ‘bearded’: ʔaḥnaṭᵘ
 
▪ Out of the six values the root can take in Sem (accord. to DRS), all are represented in (or only by) Ar. But only two of these have survived into MSA.
▪ The etymological relation between the values, if any, is rather unclear.
 
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DRS 9 (2010)#ḤNṬ-1 Akk uṭṭat-, uṭṭet ‘orge’, Ug ḥṭt, Hbr ḥuṭṭa, Aram ḥinṭᵊtā, Palm ḥṭyn (pl.), Syr ḥeṭṭᵊtā, Ar ḥinṭaẗ, Soq ḥínṭeh, Śḥr ḥeyṭ (?), Gz ḥeṭṭat ‘froment’. -2 Hbr ḥānaṭ, Aram ḥᵊnaṭ, Ar ḥanaṭa, ḥannaṭa, Gz ḥanaṭa ‘embaumer’, Amh annäṭä ‘encenser, parfumer, faire des fumigations’; – EgAr ḥiniṭ ‘délicieux’. -3 Hbr *ḥānaṭ ‘mûrir’, Ar ḥanaṭa ‘être mûr’, ḥāniṭ ‘rouge; arrivé à maturité’. -4 ḥanaṭa ‘soupirer’. -5 ḥanṭ ‘flèche décochée’. -6 ʔaḥnaṭ ‘barbu’. 
▪ ḤNṬ_1: Kogan2011 reconstructs Sem *ḥinṭ-at ‘wheat (throughout CSem), any cereal grain (in modSAr)’. – ḤNṬ_3 ‘to become mature’ is perhaps based on ‘wheat’ (unless it is the other way round, as for instance Klein1987 thinks when he says that Hbr ḥiṭṭāh and its cognates »possibly derive from base ḤNṬ ‘to ripen, become ripe’). – Erman1892 compares Eg ḫnd, an old and rare word for ‘(sort of cereal)’. So also Cohen1969, adding Som ḥaḍuḍ ‘céréales’, ḥayḍ ‘orge’ as Cush cognates. This is taken up by Dolgopolsky2012 who even sees a Nostr dimension (and reconstructs *Xäǹ˅ṭ˅ ‘grain, kernel’).
▪ ḤNṬ_2: Probably denominative from ḥināṭ, ḥanūṭ ‘aromatics used for embalming, (Wahrmund:) wohlriechende Kräuter (auf Leichen gestreut)’. – Cf. also ĭstaḥnaṭa, vb. X, ‘to face death, (Wahrmund:) den Tod suchen, sich ins Kampfgewühl stürzen’, literally a requestative ‘to desire to be embalmed’ (?). – LANE ii 1865: ḤNṬ_2 ‘(kind of perfume)’ is derived from ḥanaṭa (ḤNṬ_3), »said of [a tree called] rimṯ, signifying that its colour became white inclining to yellowness, and its odour sweet«.
▪ ḤNṬ_3: To this complex belong also ḥanaṭa u (ḥunūṭ), and ʔaḥnaṭa, vb. IV, ‘to become mature (wheat, fruit-tree), (Lane:) to become white and mature (shrub called rimṯ)’; ḥanaṭa i (ḥanṭ), ‘to be(come) red (skin)’, ḥāniṭ ‘intense (red); fruit of the spurge; fruit-bearing (tree)’; taḥannaṭa, vb. V, ‘to be angry with s.o.’; ĭstaḥnaṭa, vb. X, ‘to be angry’; (Lane:) ʔaḥnaṭa, vb. IV, ‘to make bleed, make to be bloody; to smear, befoul, defile with blood’. – ḤNṬ_1 ‘wheat’ is perhaps based on ‘to ripen, become mature’ (unless it is the other way round and the vb. ‘to ripen’ is based on the wheat that is ripe to be harvested).
▪ ḤNṬ_4: ḥanaṭa i (ḥanṭ) ‘to sigh’: value attested in all dictionaries consulted, but no longer in WehrCowan1979. – Any relation to any of the other values?
▪ ḤNṬ_5: ḥanṭ, listed by Freytag (sagitta quae mittitur), Kazimirski, Lane, but not mentioned any longer in Wahrmund1887 and Hava1899. – Any relation to any of the other values?
▪ ḤNṬ_6: ʔaḥnaṭ listed Freytag (barbam magnam densam habens; also ḥinṭiyyaẗ), Kazimirski, Lane, not mentioned in Wahrmund1887 and Hava1899 any longer. – Any relation to any of the other values?
 
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ḥannaṭ‑ حَنَّطَ 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤNṬ 
vb., II 
to embalm (a corpse); to stuff (a carcass) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ The D-stem (form II) vb. is probably denominative, applicative, from the obsol. n. ḥināṭ or ḥanūṭ, »a perfume or odoriferous substances of any kind that are mixed for a corpse, in particular, or for grave-clothes and for the bodies of the dead, consisting of ḏarīraẗ, or musk, or ambergris, or camphor, or other substance, namely, Indian cane, or sandal-wood, bruised« – Lane ii 1865.
▪ The latter is perhaps connected to another value of the root ḤNṬ, namely ‘to ripen, become mature, ready to get harvested’, after the sweet odour that the leaves of a certain tree, or shrub, emit when they have reach a stage of maturity.
 
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DRS 9 (2010)#ḤNṬ-2 Hbr ḥānaṭ, Aram ḥᵊnaṭ, Ar ḥanaṭa, ḥannaṭa, Gz ḥanaṭa ‘embaumer’, Amh annäṭä ‘encenser, parfumer, faire des fumigations’; – EgAr ḥiniṭ ‘délicieux’. – (?) -3 Hbr *ḥānaṭ ‘mûrir’, Ar ḥanaṭa ‘être mûr’, ḥāniṭ ‘rouge; arrivé à maturité’.
 
▪ According to Lane ii 1865, the form II vb. ḥannaṭa means ‘to prepare a dead person with ḥanūṭ for burial’. So, it looks as if the vb. is denom., dependent on the noun. ḥanūṭ, however, (still following Lane ii 1865) is derived from the vb. I, sup>†ḥanaṭa u (ḥunūṭ), said of [a tree called] rimṯ, signifying that its colour became white inclining to yellowness, and its odour sweet.
▪ For discussion of possible relations with other values of the root cf. ↗ḤNṬ.
 
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taḥannaṭa, vb. V, to be, or become, prepared (for burial) with ḥanūṭ; to make use of ḥanūṭ for oneself (Lane ii 1865): tD-stem, quasi-pass. / autobenefact.
ĭstaḥnaṭa, vb. X, to desire to be prepared for burial with ḥanūṭ; (hence the meaning) to embolden o.s., become emboldened, encounter death, holding his life in light esteem (Lane ii 1865): tŠ-stem, requestative.

ḥināṭaẗ, n.f., embalming: vn. I.
taḥannuṭ, n., mummification: vn. V.
muḥannaṭ, adj., mummified: PP II.
 
ḥinṭaẗ حِنْطة , pl. ḥinaṭ 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤNṬ 
n.f. 
wheat – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *ḥinṭ‑at‑ ‘wheat’.
▪ Whether the meaning was ‘wheat’ or rather ‘(any kind of) cereal’ in Sem in general, is not clear. Orel&Stolbova reconstruct Sem *ḥinṭ‑ ‘barley, grain’, from an AfrAs *ḥinṭ‑ ‘cereal’.
▪ Erman1892 relates the word to an Eg ḫnd ‘sort of cereal (?)’. So also Cohen1969, adding Som ḥaḍuḍ ‘céréales’, ḥayḍ ‘orge’ to the picture. The latter is taken up by Dolgopolsky2012, who concludes that we can go back in time even farther and reconstruct a Nostr *Xäǹ˅ṭ˅ ‘grain, kernel’.
▪ For Klein1987, the Sem word »possibly derive[s] from base ḤNṬ ‘to ripen, become ripe’«, see ḤNṬ_3 in entry ↗ḤNṬ.
 
▪ Cf. also the obsol. n.prof. ḥannāṭ ‘dealer in wheat’, ḥāniṭ ‘wheat-seller’. 
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1272: Akk uṭṭuṭu, Ug ḥṭṭ, Hbr ḥiṭṭā, Aram ḥinṭ-ət-, Ar ḥinṭ-at-, Soq ḥinṭeh. Outside Sem: (HEC) hiṭe (in 2 langs), hanṭe (1 lang.)
DRS 9 (2010)#ḤNṬ-1 Akk uṭṭat-, uṭṭet ‘orge’, Ug ḥṭt, Hbr ḥuṭṭa, Aram ḥinṭᵊtā, Palm ḥṭyn (pl.), Syr ḥeṭṭᵊtā, Ar ḥinṭaẗ, Soq ḥínṭeh, Śḥr ḥeyṭ (?), Gz ḥeṭṭat ‘froment’. – [?] -3 Hbr *ḥānaṭ ‘mûrir’, Ar ḥanaṭa ‘être mûr’, ḥāniṭ ‘rouge; arrivé à maturité’.
▪ Kogan 2011: Akk uṭṭetu ‘(some kind of cereal)’, Ug ḥṭt, Hbr ḥiṭṭā, Syr ḥeṭtā, Ar ḥinṭaẗ, Soq ḥinṭeh ‘wheat’, Mhr ḥəṭāt ‘grain’, Jib ḥíṭ ‘food, beans, staple food, any cereal’, ḥíṭét ‘an ear of rice’, Gz ḥəṭṭat, ḫəṭṭat ‘grain, seed’.
▪ Erman1892 compares Eg ḫnd, allegedly an old and rare word for ‘(sort of cereal)’. (This word is not attested in TLAe, which has, with unsecured meaning, ḫt.wj ‘corn, cereal (?)’ and ḫn.t.t ‘people who do s.th. with corn (?)’.) – Cohen1969, too, has this obscure ḫnd (#122, remarking that the in the Eg word would be unusual); he also adds Som ḥaḍuḍ ‘céréales’, ḥayḍ ‘orge’ as Cush cognates.
 
▪ Kogan 2011: from Sem *ḥinṭ-at-, which denotes ‘wheat’ throughout CSem and in Soq (ḥinṭeh). Its reflexes in other modSAr langs and in Gz are more general in meaning. Still uncertain is the exact significance of Akk uṭṭetu : ‘wheat’?, ‘barley’?, ‘cereal in general’?
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1272 reconstruct Sem *ḥinṭ- ‘barley, grain’, HEC *ḥinṭ- / *ḥanṭ- ‘grass’, both from AfrAs *ḥinṭ- ‘cereal’. (Cf. also AfrAs *ḫund- ‘cereal’, with no Ar descendant). Dolgopolsky2012 even sees a Nostr dimension and reconstructs *Xäǹ˅ṭ˅ ‘grain, kernel’.
▪ Klein1987 thinks that the value ‘wheat / corn, cereal’ could be secondary since the Sem words »possibly derive from base ḤNṬ ‘to ripen, become ripe’) (cf. ḤNṬ_3 in disambiguation entry ↗ḤNṬ). But also the reverse may be true.
▪ For discussion of possible relations to yet other values of the root cf. ↗ḤNṬ.
 
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ḥinṭī, adj., 1 wheat-coloured, golden brown; tanned; 2 eater of much ḥinṭaẗ, in order that he may grow fat; (hence) inflated, swollen (Lane ii 1865): nsb-adj. (nominalized in v2) 
ḤNF حنف 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤNF 
“root” 
▪ ḤNF_1 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ḤNF_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘1a inclination of the toes to one side, 1b to incline, deviate, abandon common practices and beliefs, 1c incline towards the right religion, the true religion’ 
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DRS 9 (2010) #ḤNP-1 Hbr *ḥānep ‘être impie, sans dieu’, JP ḥᵃnap ‘flatter, dissimuler’; ḥanᵊpā ‘flatteur, fourbe, impie’, Syr ḥanpā ‘païen’. -2 Ar ḥanafa ‘pencher, incliner d’un côté’, ʔanḥaf, Ḥrs əḥnéf ‘qui a les orteils tournés en dedans’. -3 MSA ḥanafiyyaẗ ‘robinet’.
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ḥanīf حَنِيف , pl. ḥunafāʔᵘ 
ID 242 • Sw – • BP 3934 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤNF 
¹adj.; ²n. 
1a true believer, orthodox; b one who scorns the false creeds surrounding him and professes the true religion; 2 adj., true (religion) – WehrCowan1979. 
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▪ eC7 Q 2:135, 3:67,95, 4:125, 6:79, 161, 10:105, 16:120, 123, 22:31, 30:30, 98:5.
▪ eC7 (inclined towards [God], inclined away [from false deities] and so considered upright) Q 6:161 dīnan qiyaman millaẗa ʔIbrāhīma ḥanīfan wa‑mā kāna min‑a ’l‑mušrikīna ‘an upright religion, the faith of Abraham, an upright man, he was not one of the polytheists’. »Ḥanīf is also used to describe the ascetic monotheists of Mecca who refused idolatry and its practices. One of their practices, followed by Muḥammad, was taḥannuf: to retreat during Ramadan, and it was one such retreat that he received the first revelation of the Qur’an.« 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤNP-1 Hbr *ḥānep ‘être impie, sans dieu’, JP ḥᵃnap ‘flatter, dissimuler’; ḥanᵊpā ‘flatteur, fourbe, impie’, Syr ḥanpā ‘païen’.
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▪ Jeffery1938: »The passages in which the word occurs are all late Meccan or Madinan, so the word was apparently a technical term which Muḥammad learned at a relatively late period in his public career. Its exact meaning, however, is somewhat difficult to determine.183 Of the twelve cases, where the word is used, eight have reference to the faith of Abraham, and in nine of them there is an added phrase explaining that to be a Ḥanīf means not being a polytheist, this explanatory phrase apparently showing that Muḥammad felt he was using a word which needed explanation in order to be rightly understood by his hearers. – The close connection of the word with the millaẗ ʔIbrāhīm is important, for we know that when Muḥammad changed his attitude to the Jews he began to preach a new doctrine about Abraham,184 and to claim that while Moses was the Prophet of the Jews and Jesus the Prophet of the Christians, he himself went back to an earlier revelation which was recognized by both Jews and Christians, the millaẗ ʔIbrāhīm, which he was republishing to the Arabs. Now all our ḥanīf passages belong to this second period. Muḥammad is bidden set his face towards religion as a Ḥanīf (10:105, 30:30). He says to his contemporaries, “As for me, my Lord has guided me to a straight path, a right religion, the faith of Abraham, a Ḥanīf” (6:161). “They say—Become a Jew or a Christian. Say—nay rather be of the religion of Abraham, a Ḥanīf” (2:135); “Who hath a better religion than he who resigns himself to God, does what is good, and follows the faith of Abraham as a Ḥanīf” (4:125). He calls on the Arabs to “be Ḥanīfs to God” (22:31), and explains his own position by representing Allah as saying to him—“Then we told thee by revelation to follow the millaẗ ʔIbrāhīm a Ḥanīf” (16:123). The distinction between Ḥanīfism and Judaism and Christianity which is noted in 2:135, is very clearly drawn in 3:67, “Abraham was neither a Jew nor a Christian but a resigned Ḥanīf —ḥanīfan musliman,” and this latter phrase taken along with the man ʔaslama waǧhahū li-llāhi of 4:125, was probably connected in Muḥammad’s mind with what he meant by ʔislām, and has given the cue to the use and interpretation of the word in the later days of Islam. – The Lexicons are quite at a loss what to make of the word. They naturally endeavour to derive it from √ḤNF ‘to incline or decline’. ḥanaf is said to be a natural contortedness of the feet,185 and so ḥnf is used of anything that inclines away from the proper standard. As one can also think of inclining from a crooked standard to the straight, so ḥanīf was supposed to be one who turned from the false religions to the true.186 It is obvious that these suggestions are of little help in our problem.187 – The word occurs not infrequently in the poetry of the early years of Islam.188 All these passages are set forth and examined by Horovitz, KU, 56 ff., and many of them by Margoliouth, JRAS, 1903: 480 ff., the result being that it seems generally to mean ‘Muslim’ and in the odd occurrences which may be pre-Islamic to mean ‘heathen’.189 In any case in none of these passages is it associated with Abraham, and there is so much uncertainty as to whether any of them can be considered pre-Islamic that they are of very little help towards settling the meaning of the word for us. It is unfortunate also that we are equally unable to glean any information as to the primitive meaning of the word from the well-known stories of the Ḥanīfs who were earlier contemporaries of Muḥammad, for while we may agree with Lyall, JRAS, 1903: 744, that these were all actual historical personages, yet the tradition about them that has come down to us has been so obviously worked over in Islamic times, that so far from their stories helping to explain the Qurʔān, the Qurʔān is necessary to explain them.190 – We are driven back then to an examination of the word itself. Bell, Origin, 58, would take it as a genuine Ar word from √ḤNF ‘to decline, turn from’ and thus agrees with the general orthodox theory.191 We have already noted the difficulty of this, however, and as a matter of fact some of the Muslim authorities knew that as used in the Qurʔān it was a foreign word, as we learn from Masʿūdī’s Tanbīh where it is given as Syr.192 –Winckler, Arabisch-Semitisch-Orientalisch, p. 79 (i.e. MVAG, vi, 229), suggested that it was an Eth [Gz] borrowing, and Grimme, Mohammed, 1904, p. 48, wants to link the Ḥanīfs on to some SAr cult. The Eth [Gz] ḥonāfi, however, is quite a late word meaning heathen,193 and can hardly have been the source of the Ar.194 Nor is there any serious ground for taking the word as a borrowing from Hbr ḥānēp̱̄ ‘profane’, as Deutsch suggested (Literary Remains, 93), and as has been more recently defended by Hirschfeld.195 – The probabilities are that it is the Syr ḥanpā, as was pointed out by Nöldeke.196 This word was commonly used with the meaning of ‘heathen’ and might well have been known to the pre-Islamic Arabs as a term used by the Christians for those who were neither Jews nor of their own faith, and this meaning would suit the possible pre-Islamic passages where we find the word used. Moreover, as Margoliouth has noticed, in using the word of Abraham, Muḥammad would be following a favourite topic of Christian apologists, who argued from Rom. iv, 10-12, that Abraham’s faith was counted for righteousness in his heathen days before there was any Judaism.197 (See Ahrens, Christliches, 28, and Nielsen in HAA, i, 250.)«
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183. See Lyall, JRAS, 1903: 781.  184. Hurgronje, Het Mekkaansche Feest, Leiden 1880: 29 ff.; Rudolph, Abhängigkeit, 48. Torrey’s arguments against this in his Foundation, 88 ff., do not seem to me convincing.  185. Jawharī and Qāmūs, sub voc.; LA, x, 402.  186. LA, x, 403; Rāghib, Mufradāt, 133.  187. Margoliouth, JRAS, 1903, p. 477: “These suggestions are clearly too fanciful to deserve serious consideration.”  188. The name ḤNF in Sab and in the Safaite inscriptions (Ryckmans, Noms propres, i, 96) as well as the tribal name Ḥanīfaẗ ought perhaps to be taken into account.  189. Nöldeke, ZDMG, xli, 721; de Goeje, Bibl. Geogr. Arab, viii, Glossary, p. xviii. Wellhausen, Reste, 239, thought that it meant a Christian ascetic, and in this he is followed by Nöldeke-Schwally, i, 8, but see Rudolph, Abhängigkeit, 70.  190. Kuenen, Hibbert Lectures, 1882, p. 20. On these Ḥanīfs see especially Caetani, Annali, i, 183 ff., and Sprenger, Leben, i, 43-7, 67-92, 110-137.  191. So apparently Macdonald, MW, vi, 308, who takes it to mean ‘heretic’, and see Schulthess in Nöldeke Festschrift, p. 86.  192. Ed. de Goeje in BGA, viii, p. 91: wa-hāḏihī kalimaẗ suryāniyyaẗ ʕurribat.  193. Dillmann, Lex, 605.  194. Nöldeke, Neue Beiträge, 35.  195. Beiträge, 43 ff. New Researches, 26; cf. also Pautz, Offenbarung, 14.  196. Neue Beiträge, 30. It has been accepted as such by Andrae, Ursprung, 40; Ahrens, Muhammed, 15, and Mingana, Syriac Influence, 97.  197. JRAS, 1903, p. 478. Margoliouth also notes that there may have been further influence from the prophecy that Abraham should be the father of many nations, as this word is sometimes rendered by ḥanpā. From ḥanpā was formed ḥunafāʔ, and then the sing. ḥanīf formed from this. 
– 
BP#3934al‑dīn al‑ḥanīf, n., the True (i.e., Islamic) Religion, also al‑ḥanīfaẗ al‑samḥāʔ 
ḤNK حنك 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 10Mar2023
√ḤNK 
“root” 
▪ ḤNK_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤNK_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤNK_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘roof of the mouth, to massage the roof of the mouth with soft dates; to train in ways of the world, wisdom, experience; a mouth halter, to control, overpower’ 
▪ From WSem *√ḤNK ‘to (make) understand, train’ – Huehnergard2011.
▪ …
 
– 
– 
– 
ḤNW/Y حنو/ي 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 5Sep2022
√ḤNW/Y 
“root” 
▪ ḤNW/Y_1 ‘to bend, curve, twist; to lean, incline; to feel for, sympathize (with s.o.), feel compassion, pity’ ↗ ḥanā/à
▪ ḤNW/Y_2 ‘shop; tavern’ ↗ḥānūt
▪ ḤNW/Y_3 (EgAr) ‘corpse washer; undertaker, gravedigger’ ↗ḥānūtī
▪ ḤNW/Y_ …
 
▪ ḤNW/Y_1: DRS 10 (2012) ḤNW/Y-1: «La valeur fondamentale semble être celle de ‘courbure’ qui est représentée partout. [Huehnergard2011 reconstructs protSem *√X̣NY ‘to bend, incline’.] Elle recouvre souvent celle d’inclination, au sens physique et psychologique, affectif.’ – Comparer sous ḤWN.»
▪ ḤNW/Y_2: prob. orig. *‘room with arched ceiling, vault’, from ḤNW/Y_1 ‘to bend, twist, bow, incline’; so DRS 10 (2012): «Le terme ḥānūt avec ses variantes est fondé sur la notion de ‘courbure’ dans les diverses langues. Il s’agit d’une suite d’emprunts» (Syr > Ar > Gz).
▪ ḤNW/Y_3: prob. based on ḤNW/Y_2 ḥānūt in the more general orig. sense of ‘vaulted room’, hence not only ‘tavern’ but also ‘burial chamber’.
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
▪ DRS 10 (2012) #ḤNW/Y-1 Hbr ḥānāʰ ‘se courber, s’incliner, incliner vers; s’asseoir, se coucher’, Phoen Pun mḥnt, Hbr maḥᵃnäʰ ‘campement’; JudPalAram ḥᵃnā ‘coucher, habiter; établir le campement’, Palm ḥnʔ (qal) ‘se reposer’, (paʕel) ‘placer, faire reposer’; Ar ḥanā ‘pencher, incliner la tête, courber, plier; avoir une grande tendresse’, ḥunuww ‘tendresse’; ḥaniyy ‘courbe’, ḥaniyyaẗ ‘arc, voûte, arcade’; Mhr ḥənū, Ḥrs ḥənō ‘courber’, Jib ḥání ‘s’incliner; tordre’. Ar ḥaniyyaẗ ‘vin, marchand de vin’. - Hbr ḥānût ‘boutique, cellule, voûte’, Palm ḥnwtʔ, JudPalAram ‘boutique, boucherie, taverne’, Syr ḥānūtā ‘boutique de marchand’, Ar ḥānūt ‘boutique, (particulièrement boutique de marchand de vin)’; Gz ḥanot ‘cellule, voûte, abattoir, taverne, auberge’, Amh hanot ‘boucherie’. -2 Ḥrs ḥān ‘travailler, faire’, Mhr ḥān, ḥənīt, Jib ḥanít ‘machin, truc (à la place du nom d’un objet)’. -3 Ar ḥanā ‘avoir soif’, ? ḥaniⁿ ‘lubrique’. -4 ʔaḥnà ‘mûrir’.
▪ …
 
▪ (ad DRS ḤNW/Y-1 and -3) Cf., however, Haupt, JAOS 28 (1907): 114, who maintains that ‑n‑ in [ḤNW/Y-3] ḥnw is an infix, added to a basic ḤW. In contrast, according to the author, »[ḤNW/Y-1] ḥnw ‘to bend, twist, incline’ has no connection with [Hbr] ḥnʰ ‘to encamp’: ḥnw ‘to bend’ is derived from the root ḤN, while ḥnw ‘to drink’ (with infixed n) [is] from ḤW« – a prob. untenable and unnecessarily complicating hypothesis.
▪ …
 
– 
– 
ḥanā حنا , ū (ḥanw, ḥunuww), and ḥanà حنى , ī (ḥany, ḥināyaẗ
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 5Sep2022
√ḤNW/Y 
vb., I 
1a to bend, curve, twist, turn; b to lean, incline (ʕalà or ʔilà toward s.o.); c to bend, bow, flex, curve, crook (s.th.); 2 to feel for s.o. (ʕalà), sympathize (ʕalà with s.o.), commiserate, pity (ʕalà s.o.), feel compassion, feel pity (ʕalà for s.o.) – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ From a root *ḤNW/Y ‘to bend, be inclined’, attested in Ar, Can (Hbr Phoen Aram), and modSAr.
▪ Huehnergard2011: From protSem *√X̣NY ‘to bend, incline’.
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
▪ DRS 10 (2012) #ḤNW/Y-1 Hbr ḥānāʰ ‘se courber, s’incliner, incliner vers; s’asseoir, se coucher’, Phoen Pun mḥnt, Hbr maḥᵃnäʰ ‘campement’; JudPalAram ḥᵃnā ‘coucher, habiter; établir le campement’, Palm ḥnʔ (qal) ‘se reposer’, (paʕel) ‘placer, faire reposer’; Ar ḥanā ‘pencher, incliner la tête, courber, plier; avoir une grande tendresse’, ḥunuww ‘tendresse’; ḥaniyy ‘courbe’, ḥaniyyaẗ ‘arc, voûte, arcade’; Mhr ḥənū, Ḥars ḥənō ‘courber’, Jib ḥání ‘s’incliner; tordre’. Ar ḥaniyyaẗ ‘vin, marchand de vin’. - Hbr ḥānût ‘boutique, cellule, voûte’, Palm ḥnwtʔ, JudPalAram ‘boutique, boucherie, taverne’, Syr ḥānūtā ‘boutique de marchand’, Ar ḥānūt ‘boutique, (particulièrement boutique de marchand de vin)’; Gz ḥanot ‘cellule, voûte, abattoir, taverne, auberge’, Amh hanot ‘boucherie’. -2-4 […].
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
– 
ʔaḥnà, vb. IV, 1 to bend, bow, tilt, incline (s.th.; e.g., raʔsahū one’s head); 2 to sympathize (ʕalà with s.o.), feel compassion, feel pity (ʕalà for s.o.), commiserate, pity (ʕalà s.o.): *Š-stem, caus.
ĭnḥanà, vb. VII, 1a to bend, curve, twist, turn; b to be winding, be tortuous, wind, meander (e.g., a road); c to turn, deviate, digress (ʕan from); d to bow (li‑ to s.o.); 2a to lean, incline (ʕalà or fawqᵃ over s.th., ʔilà toward s.o./s.th.); b to devote o.s. eagerly (ʕalà to s.th.); 3 to contain, harbor (ʕalà s.th.): N-stem, intr.| ʔinna ḍulūʕī lā tanḥanī ʕalà ḍiġn, expr., I harbor no grudge, I feel no resentment.

ḥanw, n., bending, deflection, flexing, flexure, curving, curvature, twisting, turning: vn. I; hist. also attested (with pl. ʔaḥnāʔ, ḥiniyy, ḥuniyy) as *‘any curved member, as rib, jaw; crooked’ (Hava1899), cf. ḥinw, ḥaniyyaẗ, al-ḥawānī, below.
ḥinw, pl. ʔaḥnāʔ, n., 1 bend, bow, turn, twist, curved line, curve, contour; 2 pl. ribs: *‘curving, any curved member’ | baynᵃ ʔaḥnāʔihā, in her bosom.
ḥunūw, n., sympathy, compassion, tenderness, affection: vn. I, fig. use.
ḥany, n., bending, deflection, flexing, flexure, curving, curvature, twisting, turning: vn. I.
ḥanyaẗ, n.f., bend, turn, curve: n.vic.
ḥaniyyaẗ, pl. ḥanāyā, n.f., 1a arc; b camber, curvature: quasi-PP | fī ḥanāyā ṣiḍrih, in his bosom; fī ḥanāyā nafsih, in his heart, deep inside him.
ḥināyaẗ, n.f., curving, curvature, twisting, turning, bending: vn. I.
ḥānūt, pl. hawānītᵘ, n., 1a store, shop; b wineshop, tavern: Aram lw., < *‘room with vaulted ceiling’, see s.v.
maḥnaⁿ, pl. maḥāniⁿ, n., curvature, bend, flexure, bow, turn, curve: n.loc. I.
ĭnḥināʔ, n., 1a bend, deflection, curvature; b curve; c inclination, tilt; 2 bow, curtsy; 3 arc: vn. VII.
ĭnḥināʔaẗ, n.f., bow, curtsy: n.vic. VII.
al-ḥawānī, n.pl., 1a the longest ribs; b (fig.) breast, bosom: pl. of *ḥāniyaẗ: same as ḥaniyyaẗ, above | bi-milʔi ḥawānī-him, (they shouted) at the top of their lungs, with all their might.
maḥnīy, adj., 1a bowed, inclined (head); b bent, curved, crooked: PP I.
munḥaniⁿ, adj., 1a bent, curved, crooked, twisted; b inclined, bowed: PA VII.
munḥanaⁿ, pl. munḥanayāt, n., 1a bend, flexure, deflection, curvature; b turn, twist, break, angle; c curve (of a road, and math.); 2 slope: n.loc. VII.
 
ḥānūt حانوت , pl. ḥawānītᵘ 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 5Sep2022
√ḤNW/Y 
n. (m./f.) 
1a store, shop; b wineshop, tavern – WehrCowan1976. 
▪ From Aram ḥānūṯā ‘wineshop, tavern’, often derived from Pers ḫān, but accord. to Nöldeke rather cognate with Hbr miḥᵃnäʰ ‘encampment’, from a Sem root *ḤNW/Y ‘to bend, bow, be curved, arched ceiling’ – Fraenkel1886: 172.
▪ Also attested as ‘burial chamber’,48 hence prob. the (EgAr) ↗ḥānūtī ‘corpse washer; undertaker, gravedigger’.
▪ …
 
563 CE in a poem by Ṭarafaẗ b. al-ʕAbid – DHDA.
▪ Historically also attested (Hava1899): ḥaniyyat, pl. ḥanāyā, ḥaniyy, ‘vault; bow’; ḥānāẗ, ḥāniyaẗ ‘shop; tavern; vintner’; ḥānawī, ḥānī ‘shop-keeper; vintner’; ḥāniyyaẗ ‘wine; wine-merchant’
▪ …
 
▪ ↗ḤNW/Y.
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
– 
ḥānūtī, pl. -iyyaẗ (EgAr), n., 1a corpse washer; b undertaker, mortician, gravedigger: prob. nsb-formation from ḥānūt in the sense of ‘burial chamber, vault’, see s.v.
 
EgAr ḥānūtī حانوتي , pl. -iyyaẗ 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 5Sep2022
√ḤNW/Y 
n. (nominalised nsb-adj.) 
1a corpse washer; b undertaker, mortician, gravedigger – BadawiHinds1986. 
▪ Prob. nsb-formation from ↗ḥānūt in the latter’s sense of ‘burial chamber, vault’ (cf. ḥaniyyat, pl. ḥanāyā, ḥaniyy, ‘vault; bow’ – Hava1899), related to ↗ḥanā/ḥanà ‘to bend, bow, flex, curve, crook’.
▪ Meaning possibly influenced by the obsol. n. ḥanūṭ, var. ḥināṭ (emph. ‑ṭ!), ‘perfume or odoriferous substances of any kind that are mixed for a corpse, in particular, or for grave-clothes and for the bodies of the dead’ (Lane ii 1865) ↗ḥannaṭa ‘to embalm, mummify’.
▪ …
 
▪ …
 
▪ ↗ḥānūt (√ḤNW/Y)
▪ …
 
DISC ▪ Cf. G. Yver [M. Yalaoui] in EI² article on “Ṭabarḳa”:198 »The modern population of the region [Ṭabarqa, NW Tunisia] certainly seems to have very ancient antecedents. Libyan inscriptions and Punic inscriptions have been discovered in the burial chambers (ḥwānet, pl. of ḥanūt) which are found in underground caves hollowed out of the cliff and covered with bichrome drawings.«
▪ …
 
– 
– 
ḤWB حوب 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 10Mar2023
√ḤWB 
“root” 
▪ ḤWB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤWB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤWB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘relatives on the mother’s side, parents and brothers and sisters; mercy, worship; hardship, sorrow; sinning, wrongdoings’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ḤWT حوت 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 10Mar2023
√ḤWT 
“root” 
▪ ḤWT_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤWT_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤWT_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘fish, great fish, whale; to hover, circulate in the air, dodge’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ḤWǦ حوج 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 10Mar2023
√ḤWǦ 
“root” 
▪ ḤWǦ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤWǦ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤWǦ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘need, wish, errand; poverty; resentment, objection; to need, require, the needy’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ḤWḎ حوذ 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 10Mar2023
√ḤWḎ 
“root” 
▪ ḤWḎ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤWḎ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤWḎ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘the back of an animal’s thighs where the tail begins; to contain, take possession, property; to seize; to urge, agility’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ḤWR حور 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤWR 
“root” 
▪ ḤWR_1 ‘marked contrast between the white of the cornea and the black of the iris; virgins of paradise’ ↗ḥawar
▪ ḤWR_2 ‘(white) poplar’ ↗ḥaw(a)r
▪ ḤWR_3 ‘to return; to recede, decrease, diminish, be reduced; (caus.) to answer’ ↗ḥāra
▪ ḤWR_4 ‘quarter; lane, side street’ ↗ḥāraẗ
▪ ḤWR_5 ‘apostle’ ↗ḥawāriyy
▪ ḤWR_6 ‘axis, crucial point’ ↗miḥwar
▪ ḤWR_7 ‘to change, modify’ ↗ḥawwara
▪ ḤWR_8 ‘to roll out (dough)’ ↗ḥawwara
▪ ḤWR_9 ‘to talk, converse, have a dialogue’ ↗ḥāwara
▪ ḤWR_10 ‘cretaceous rock, chalk’ ↗ḥawwāraẗ
▪ ḤWR_11 ‘Hauran’ (mountainous plateau in SW Syria and N Jordan) ↗ḥawrān
▪ ḤWR_12 ‘oysters’ ↗maḥār
▪ ḤWR_13 ‘bark-tanned sheepskin, basil’ ↗ḥūr
Other values, now obsolete:
▪ ḤWR_14 ‘bottom (of a well, etc.)’: ḥawr
▪ ḤWR_15 ‘intelligence, depth in penetration, discerning power’: ḥawr
▪ ḤWR_16 ‘third star (the one next the body) of the three in the tail of Ursa Major [i.e. Alioth?]’: ḥawar
▪ ḤWR_17 ‘young camel’ : ḥuwār
▪ ḤWR_18 ‘fine flour’ : ḥuwwārà
▪ ḤWR_19 ‘Jupiter’ : al-ʔaḥwar

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘circle, to encircle, return to, go away from; to have a dialogue, entourage, disciples; discerning power; to decrease; marked contrast between black and white in a woman’s eye, fair skin; oyster shell’ 
▪ The root displays a strikingly varied spectrum of values. Some of these are obviously related to, or derived from, others, while the relation between many remains rather obscure. As often, a number of Arab lexicographers tend to derive the whole variety from only one basic meaning. The latest theory of this kind is that of Gabal2012 who assumes *‘hollowness together with roundness’ (taǧawwuf maʕa 'stidāraẗ, I:403) as the basic value (cf. scheme). 
– 
▪ Zammmit2002: Ar ḥāra ‘[ḤWR_3] to return; [ḤWR_9] to reply to in an argument’, [ḤWR_3, ḤWR_4] SAr ḥwr ‘to settle (tr. and intr.) in (a town).
▪ BAH2008 give the range of meanings for ClassAr as (corresponding item numbers as used in EtymArab added before the values): ‘[–] circle, to encircle, [ḤWR_3] to return to, go away from; [ḤWR_9] to have a dialogue, [ḤWR_5] entourage, disciples; [ḤWR_15] discerning power; [ḤWR_3] to decrease; [ḤWR_1] marked contrast between black and white in a woman’s eye, [ḤWR_13?] fair skin; [ḤWR_12] oyster shell’.
DRS 9 (2010)#ḤWR: 1 Hbr *ḥāwar ‘être blanc’, TargSyr ḥᵊwar ‘blanchir’, EmpAram ḥwry, Ar ʔaḥwarᵘ, ḥawarwar ‘blanc’, iḥwarra ‘être très blanc’, ḥawira ‘être d’un noir et d’un blanc bien prononcés de manière à se faire ressortir réciproquement (se dit des couleurs de l’œil)’; ḥuwwārà ‘farine très blance, pain très blanc’, Hbr ḥorī ‘pain’. 2 Ar ḥayrà ‘nuit très noire’, DaṯAr ḥawīr ‘indigotier’, Mhr ḥōwər, Ḥrs ḥéwər, Jib ḥɔr, Soq ḥáhər, ḥawr, f. ḥáwroh ‘noir’, Mhr ḥəwīrūr, Ḥrs ḥewērōr, Jib ənḥírér ‘noircir, devenir noir’, ? Soq ḥaro, ḥeyroh ‘brouillard’. 3 Ar ḥāra ‘revenir, retourner’, ʔaḥāra ‘répondre’, Tham ḥr ‘retourner, revenir’, Ar ḥawāriyy ‘apôtre’; Gz ḥora, Tña ḥorä, Gaf (a)horä, Har ḥāra, Gur wärä ‘aller’; Gz ḥawāryā ‘voyageur, messager, apôtre’; Ar ḥāraẗ ‘quartier (d’une ville)’, ? SudAr ḥōr ‘mur circulaire non couvert’; Sab Qat ḥwr ‘établir, s’établier (dans une ville)’, ḥwr ‘résident, habitant, immigrant (dans une ville)’; Qat ‘ordonner, décréter’, Sab Min ḥwr ‘être mis en vigeur, être publié’, hḥr ‘décréter, ordonner’. 4 […]. 5 Ar ḥu/i/awār, Mhr Ḥrs ḥəwōr, Te ḥəwar : petit de chameau avant l’âge du sevrage, Sab ḥwry (pl.), Ḥaḍr ḥwrw (pl.), Min ḥr : sens incertain [Sab Ḥaḍr: animaux que l’on chasse; Min: totalement énigmatique]. 6 Ar ḥawar ‘taureau’; ? Amh awra ‘mâle (des animaux)’. 7 […]. 8 Ar ḥawwara ‘étendre la pâte avec le miḥwar (rouleau)’, EgAr ḥawwar ‘modifier’, miḥwar ‘axe’. 9 Ar ḥāwara ‘discuter’. 10 Ar ḥawr ‘profondeur’, ḥāʔir ‘dépression dans le sol, fond de citerne’, ? ‘maigre’. 11 Ar ḥūr ‘dommage, malheur’. 12 Ar maḥāraẗ ‘coquillage’. 13 EgAr ḥūr ‘peau de chevreau’.
▪ ḤWR_1 ‘white’: see DRS#ḤWR-1, above. – For ‘virgins of Paradise’, cf. also s.v. ↗ḥūriyyaẗ. – As specialisations and/or metaphorical derivations from this value, also ḤWR_2 ‘white poplar’, ḤWR_15 ‘discerning power’ (distinguishing white from black), ḤWR_16 (a star in Ursa Major’, because of its whiteness?), ḤWR_18 ‘fine (white) flour’, and ḤWR_19 ‘Jupiter’ (the white one) quite certainly belong here. – Ǧabal thinks the value depends on ḤWR_3 ‘to (re)turn’, see DISC below.
▪ ḤWR_2 ‘(white) poplar’ (ḥaw(a)r): ↗ḤWR_1.
▪ ḤWR_3 ‘to return; to recede, decrease, diminish, be reduced; (caus.) to answer’: see DRS#ḤWR-3, above. – Does also raǧul ḥāʔir bāʔir ‘man in a defective and bad state, perishing, dying’ (Lane) belong here, or rather to ḤWR_14 (DRS#ḤWR-10) ‘depth, bottom (of a cistern)’? – »Comparaisons avec l’Eg: a) ḥn ‘marcher rapidement’ [also: ‘to retreat’, ThLAeg]« (Faulkner, Müller); b) »ḥry [ThLAeg: ḥrj ] ‘distant, lointain, être loin’« (Faulkner, Albright) – DRS (#ḤWR-3).
▪ ḤWR_4 ‘quarter; lane, side street’: Ar ḥāraẗ is often seen as belonging to ḤWR_3 ‘to return’, but there may also be connections with ḤYR or, via the latter, to ḤḌR. See DISC below and in entry ↗ḥāraẗ.
▪ ḤWR_5 ‘apostle’: cf. DRS#ḤWR-3 and entry ↗ḥawāriyy.
▪ ḤWR_6 ‘axis, crucial point’: seen as a value in its own right, but together with ‘to change, modify’ (ḤWR_7) and ‘to roll out (dough)’ (ḤWR_8) by DRS, see DRS#ḤWR-8, above. ClassAr dictionaries would search for cognates akin either to ‘to (re)turn’ (ḤWR_3) or to ‘white’ (ḤWR_1). See DISC below and in entry ↗miḥwar.
▪ ḤWR_7 ‘to change, modify’: according to DRS related to miḥwar ‘axis’ (ḤWR_6) and ‘to roll out (dough)’ (ḤWR_8); ultimately, perhaps, also to ‘to (re)turn’ (ḤWR_3).
▪ ḤWR_8 ‘to roll out (dough)’: according to DRS related to miḥwar ‘axis’ (ḤWR_6) and ‘to change, modify’ (ḤWR_7); ultimately, perhaps, also to ‘to (re)turn’ (ḤWR_3).
▪ ḤWR_9 ‘to talk, converse, have a dialogue’: cf. also ClassAr ḥawīr, ḥawīraẗ (and several variants) ‘answer, reply’. Seen as an item in its own right in DRS, but perhaps dependent on ‘to (re)turn’ (ḤWR_3).
▪ ḤWR_10 ‘cretaceous rock, chalk’: cf. ḤWR_14? Cf. also ḥawr ‘bottom (of a well etc.)’ (Lane), or the complex ‘(contrast between black and) white’ (ḤWR_1)?
▪ ḤWR_11 ‘Hauran’ (mountainous plateau in SW Syria and N Jordan): see DISC below and entry and ↗ḥawrān.
▪ ḤWR_12 ‘oysters’: see DISC below and entry ↗maḥār.
▪ ḤWR_13 ‘bark-tanned sheepskin, basil’: ḥūr (DRS), var. ḥawar (fuṣḥà): Lane reports that what »in the present day [is] pronounced ḥawr « and applied to ‘sheep-skin leather’, originally meant ‘red skins, with which [baskets of the kind called] silāl are covered; (pl. ḥūrān, ḥawarān) a hide dyed red; red skins […]; skins tanned without qaraẓ, thin white skins of which [receptacles of the kind called] ʔasfāṭ are made; prepared sheep-skins’. The item is identified as »EgAr« and listed as a value in its own right in DRS. See DISC below.
▪ ḤWR_14: ḥawr ‘bottom (of a well etc.)’ (Lane): see DRS#ḤWR-10 above. – Does also raǧul ḥāʔir bāʔir ‘man in a defective and bad state, perishing, dying’ (Lane) belong here, or rather to ḤWR_3 (DRS#ḤWR-3) ‘to return; to recede, decrease, diminish, be reduced’? Cf. also DRS#ḤWR-11 ḥūr ‘damage, mishap, malheur’?
▪ ḤWR_15: ḥawr ‘intelligence, depth in penetration, discerning power’ (Lane); cf. also ʔaḥwar ‘(pure, clear) intellect’. For possible cognates see DISC below.
▪ ḤWR_16: ḥawar ‘third star (the one next the body) of the three in the tail of Ursa Major [i.e. Alioth?]’ (Lane). For possible cognates see DISC below.
▪ ḤWR_17: ḥuwār ‘young camel when just born, or until weaned; i.e. from the time of its birth until big and weaned’ (Lane): see DRS#ḤWR-5, above.
▪ ḤWR_18: ḥuwwārà ‘fine flour’: grouped with ḤWR_1 ‘white’ in all sources.
▪ ḤWR_19: al-ʔaḥwar ‘Jupiter’: ↗ḤWR_1.
 
▪ ḤWR_1: After the original meaning ‘white’ had been taken in Ar by ʔabyaḍ (probably denom. from ↗bayḍ ‘egg’), ʔaḥwar became restricted in use to poetry where it came to signify the black pupils or the black of the eyes in contrast to their white surroundings, hence also the eyes of a gazelle or a girl with black eyes – DRS (#ḤWR-1). – Ǧabal2012 (I: 404) thinks that the value ‘white’ is dependent on ‘to decrease’ [< ‘to turn (into s.th. worse)’], as whiteness is what appears on the uncovering of s.th. after it had disappeared from the surface (yataʔattà min al-inkišāf baʕd al-intiqāṣ min al-ẓāhir), an explanation that seems rather forced. – For the value ‘virgins of Paradise’ cf. also ClassAr ʔaḥwarī ‘white, fair’ (of the people of the towns or villages)’ and ḥawāriyyaẗ (var. ḥawarwaraẗ, ḥawrāʔᵘ) ‘white, fair woman; pl. ‑āt, women of the cities or towns’ (»so called by the Arabs of the desert because of their whiteness, or fairness, and cleanness«), or ‘women clear (white, fair) in complexion and skin’, or ‘women inhabitants of regions, districts, or tracts, of cities, towns, or villages, and of cultivated land’, or simply ‘women’ (»because of their whiteness, or fairness« – Lane). This interpretation would be an interesting overlapping of ḤWR_1 ‘(contrast between black and) white’ and the notion (ḤWR_4, in DRS seen together with ḤWR_3) of ‘settling down’ as appearing in SAr ḥwr ‘to settle (tr. and intr.) in (a town); resident, inhabitant (of a town)’ and Ar ḥāraẗ ‘quarter, lane (of a town, village)’. – For other etymologies of the value ‘virgins of Paradise’, cf. entry ↗ḥūriyyaẗ. – Huehnergard2011 reconstructs CentralSem *ḥwr ‘to be(come) white’. Kogan2008: Ar ʔaḥwariyy ‘white’, ḥawwara ‘to whiten’ are to be connected to ComAram *ḥwr ‘to be white’, unless they are Aramaisms.
▪ ḤWR_2: The value ‘(white) poplar’, not mentioned in DRS at all, is represented by Ar ḥawar, also (later?) pronounced ḥawr. In ClassAr, it means a ‘plane-tree’ in Syria, and ‘white poplar’ in Egypt (the value now lexicalized in WehrCowan1979), or a ‘certain kind of wood’, all called by this name because of the whiteness of the object designated.
▪ ḤWR_3: Albright1927:224 thinks that the »original sense [of ḥāra, yaḥūru ] was probably ‘to turn’, whence ‘turn away, depart’ and ‘return’.« Jabal2012 (I:403) suggests ‘hollowness together with roundness’ as the primary meaning of the root as a whole. Should there be some truth to this, then there might be a relation of this notion to Hbr ḥōr, ḥôr [√ḥr(r)] ‘hole’ (cf. ḤWR_11 ‘Ḥawrān’, below). – For the connection between ‘to return’ and ‘to recede’, cf. the ClassAr dictionaries, quoted in Lane, saying »(vn. ḥawr, ḥūr) he returned from a good state to a bad; you say, ḥāra baʕda mā kāna […], he returned from a good state after he had been in that state, or: ḥāra baʕda mā kāra […], he became in a state of defectiveness after he had been in a state of redundance; or it is from [the vb. I] ḥāra (vn. ḥawr), he untwisted (his turban); and means: he became in a bad state of affairs after he had been in a good state; ḥāra wa-bāra, he became in a defective and bad state. (vn. ḥawr, ḥūr, maḥāraẗ, maḥār) It decreased, became defective, deficient; he perished, or died; he/it became changed from one state, or condition, into another; it became converted into another thing.« – DRS (#ḤWR-11) distinguishes the notion ‘damage, mishap, malheur’ (ḥūr), which reminds of ‘to perish, die’, just mentioned in the quotation from Lane’s dictionary, as a value in its own right, without cognates. – The fact that Ar ḫāra (√ḪWR) means ‘to decline in force or vigour, grow weak, dwindle’, makes one suspect an overlapping with, influence on, or even contamination of, ḥāra in the sense of ‘to recede’, although this seems phonologically unlikely.
▪ ḤWR_4 ‘quarter, lane’: often, as also (partly) in DRS, seen as belonging to ḤWR_3 ‘to return’, but details of semantics remain unexplained here. Cf., e.g., also Albright who thinks (1927:224) that ḥāraẗ belongs to »‘to return’ (ḥāra, yaḥūru), a meaning developed in various ways. The original sense was probably ‘to turn’, whence ‘turn away, depart’ and ‘return’.« In contrast, BAH2008 list ‘circle, to encircle’ among the values the root ḤWR can take in ClassAr, which would allow for a rather plausible explanation of a quarter as *‘encircled (district), enclosure’. But except for SudAr ḥōr ‘uncovered circular wall’, this notion is not attested elsewhere. – Albright (ibid.) sees also Eg ḥry ‘to depart, be distant’ and ḥr.t ‘road’ as extra-Sem cognates pertaining to Ar ḥāraẗ and the vb. ḥāra as well as Gz ḥōra ‘to go, travel’. – Another etymology is suggested in DRS#ḤY R-1, where it is reported that earlier research connected (what possibly is) an Aram cognate, ultimately to √ḤḌR ‘to settle’. See ↗ḥāraẗ.
▪ ḤWR_5 ‘apostle’: in ClassAr dictionaries sometimes seen as akin to ḤWR_1 ‘white’ (apostles being the those working as ‘bleechers, white-washers’, or regarded as those with a ‘white’, i.e. pure, character, the virtuous ones, free from vices), sometimes as derived from ḤWR_9 ‘to discuss’ (‘those who discuss, debate’), and hence, or directly, from ḤWR_3 ‘to return’ (apostles as ‘those who return to you with a reply, answer your questions, comment on them’); BAH2008 posit also ‘(to en)circle’ as one of the values of ḤWR and therefore also can give ‘entourage’ (apostles = Jesus’s, later also others’, entourage). But cf. DRS: »En guèze [Gz], ḥawāryā est le mot ordinaire désignant le ‘messager’, l’‘envoyé’. Il apparaît déjà dans les inscriptions d’Axoum 2/11 et a désigné plus tard les ‘apôtres’ du Christ. Il est en relation avec le verbe [Gz] ḥora ‘aller’. Le verbe correspondant en arabe, [Ar] ḥāra, ne signifie pas ‘aller’ mais ‘revenir’. Nöldeke […] souligne cette différence, qui conduit à rattacher l’arabe ḥawāriyyūna ‘apôtres’ comme le faisait Ludolf […] à l’éthiopien. Une forme Sab hwry (avec h !) ‘? annoncer, proclamer’ […] semble devoir être rattachée à WRY« (DRS#ḤWR-3). – For further discussion and details, see ↗ḥawāriyy.
▪ ḤWR_6 ‘axis, crucial point’: In ClassAr, miḥwar means 1. a ‘pin of wood (or iron) on which the sheave of a pulley turns, iron [pin] that unites the bent piece of iron which is on each side of the sheave of a pulley, and in which it [the miḥwar ] is inserted, and the sheave itself’; as such, lexicographers derive it either from ‘to turn’ (ḤWR_3) or think »it is so called because, by its revolving, it is polished so that it becomes white« (Lane), in this way relating it to ‘white’ (ḤWR_1); 2. ‘wooden implement of the baker or maker of bread with which he expands the dough […] and makes it round, to put it into the hot ashes in which it is baked’; ClassAr lexicographers again argue that this tool is »so called because of its turning round upon the dough, as being likened to the miḥwar of the sheave of a pulley, and because of its roundness«, seeing it as an extended use of ‘axis’. However, DRS#ḤWR-8 puts together miḥwar ‘axis’ (ḤWR_6), EgAr ḥawwar ‘to change, modify’ (ḤWR_7), and ḥawwara ‘to roll out (dough)’ ḤWR_8, as interrelated. (Note that DRS regards ḤWR_7 as an item particular to EgAr, which is not the case in ClassAr dictionaries.) – Semantic relations are not really clear, but it seems rather unlikely a) that ‘axis’ and ‘baker’s instrument for rolling out the dough’ should have different origins, and b) that miḥwar should not be connected to ‘to (re)turn’.
▪ ḤWR_7 ‘to change, modify’: In DRS (#ḤWR-8) this notion is seen as specific of EgAr and forming one item together with ‘to roll out (dough)’ (ḤWR_8) and ‘axis, crucial point’ (ḤWR_6). For discussion, see preceding paragraph.
▪ ḤWR_8 ‘to roll out (dough)’: In DRS (#ḤWR-8) this notion is seen as forming one item together with ‘to change, modify’ (ḤWR_7) and ‘axis, crucial point’ (ḤWR_6). For discussion, see ḤWR_6.
▪ ḤWR_9 ‘to discuss’: seen as an item in its own right in DRS, but many ClassAr lexicographers consider it to be connected to ḤWR_3 ‘to return’, cf. Lane: ḥāwara ‑hū ‘he returned him answer for answer; held a dialogue, colloquy, conference, disputation, or debate, with him; or bandied words with him’.
▪ ḤWR_10 ‘cretaceous rock, chalk’: cf. ḤWR_14? ḥawr ‘bottom (of a well etc.)’, hence, baʕīd al‑ḥawr ‘intelligent; deep in penetration’ (Lane). Or so called after its whiteness and therefore rather akin to ḤWR_1 (like also ḥaw(a)r, the ‘white poplar’, ḤWR_2)?
▪ ḤWR_11 ‘Hauran’ (mountainous plateau in SW Syria and N Jordan): The item is not mentioned in DRS. According to BDB1906, the meaning of the name is unknown; conjectures are: »*‘black land’ (as basaltic region), supported by YemAr ḥawr ‘black’,199 , and tokens of immigration from Yemen into Ḥaurān200 ; ‘land of caves’ […] and ‘hollow’ […], but this is prob. from Hbr ḥōr, ḥôr [√ḥr(r)] ‘hole’, cf. Ar ḫawr ‘hollow’.«
▪ ḤWR_12 ‘oysters’: The word maḥāraẗ does not only mean ‘oyster’ (originally probably ‘mother-of-pearl shell; oyster-shell’) but until today is also a vn. of ḥāra ‘to (re)turn’. In ClassAr it is also a n.loc. and as such means ‘place that returns [like a circle], in which a return is made [to the point of commencement]’ (Lane), and is therefore also used to signify the ‘concha of the ear’. While these values thus seem to be akin to ḤWR_3 ‘to (re)turn’, the explanation, given by some other lexicographers, of maḥāraẗ as ‘the external, deep, and wide, cavity, around the ear-hole’ lets also think of a possible relation to ḤWR_14 ‘bottom (of a well etc.)’ (which in turn has perhaps to be seen together with the value ‘black’ as appearing in modSAr, cf. DRS#ḤWR-2), or with the ‘contrast between black and white’ as expressed by ḤWR_1. So, if ḤWR_12 in the meaning ‘oysters’ is not (as DRS seems to assume by listing it as a separate item) independent of other values of ḤWR, it may be either the *‘thing with the marked black-white contrast’ or the *‘thing that looks like a spiral’. – The value ‘side, region, quarter, tract, etc.’ has probably to be seen together with ḥāraẗ ‘quarter, lane’, see ḤWR_4, above. – Lane mentions also the meaning »‘thing resembling [the kind of vehicle called] hawdaǧ ’ (pronounced vulgarly maḥārraẗ), pl. āt, maḥāʔirᵘ, often applied in the present day to the ‘dorsers, panniers, oblong chests which are borne, one on either side, by a camel, and, with a small tent over them, compose a hawdaǧ ’, ‘[ornamented hawdaǧ called the] maḥmil [vulgarly pronounced maḥmal ] of the pilgrims [which is borne by a camel, but without a rider, and is regarded as the royal banner of the caravan; such as is described and figured in Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians ]’«. This value is difficult to relate to any of the other ḤWR values and remains obscure.
▪ ḤWR_13 ‘bark-tanned sheepskin, basil’: ḥūr (EgAr, accord. to DRS), var. ḥawar (fuṣḥà): Lane reports that what »in the present day [is] pronounced ḥawr « and applied to ‘sheep-skin leather’, originally meant ‘red skins, with which [baskets of the kind called] silāl are covered; (pl. ḥūrān, ḥawarān) a hide dyed red; red skins […]; skins tanned without qaraẓ, thin white skins of which [receptacles of the kind called] ʔasfāṭ are made; prepared sheep-skins’.
▪ ḤWR_14: Should ḥawr ‘bottom (of a well etc.)’ be seen together with the value ‘black’ as appearing in modSAr (cf. DRS#ḤWR-2)? DRS is convinced that the latter cannot be connected to ḤWR_1 ‘white’ (or ‘sharp contrast between white and black’?) and that it is »not impossible« that it depends on a root base ḤR that has become homonymous with ḤWR. Also: »rapport avec ḤRR, ḤMR, ḤBR?« – From ḥawr ‘bottom (of a well etc.)’ ClassAr dictionaries derive ḤWR_15 ‘intelligent; deep in penetration’ (Lane).
▪ ḤWR_15: In ClassAr dictionaries derived either from ḤWR_14, cf. entry ḥawr in Lane: ‘bottom (of a well etc.)’, »hence« (!) baʕīd al‑ḥawr ‘intelligent; deep in penetration’, or from ḤWR_1 ‘contrast between white and black’, cf. ʔaḥwar ‘(pure, clear) intellect’ »like an eye so termed, of pure white and black«.
▪ ḤWR_16: ḥawar ‘third star (the one next the body) of the three in the tail of Ursa Major [i.e. Alioth?]’ (Lane).
▪ ḤWR_17: ḥuwār ‘young camel when just born, or until weaned; i.e. from the time of its birth until big and weaned’ (Lane). Cognates in Sem, but unclear semantics and etymology.
▪ ḤWR_18: ḥuwwārà ‘fine flour’: grouped with ḤWR_1 ‘white’ in all sources.
▪ ḤWR_19: al-ʔaḥwar ‘Jupiter’: probably so called after its ‘whiteness’ or the sharp contrast between its whiteness and the surrounding black sky (ḤWR_1).
 
▪ Engl houriḥūr, ↗ḥawar
– 
ḥār‑, ḥur‑ حار / حُرْـ , u (ḥawr , ḥuʔūr , ḥūr , maḥār , maḥāraẗ
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤWR 
vb., I 
1 to return (ʔilà to). – 2 to recede, decrease, diminish, be reduced (ʔilà to) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ ‘to (re)turn’ is probably one of the earliest values attached to √ḤWR in Ar.
▪ A number of secondary values seem to be derived from this primary ‘to (re)turn’, among these perhaps also ‘circle, to enclose’. Details of derivation and attribution, however, are far from being clear in many cases.
▪ Evidence from Sem does not help much to remove etymological obscurity. What seem to be closer cognates are to be found in SSem only, not however without displaying a confusing variety of meanings here, too. While the primary value in Ar seems to be ‘to (re)turn’, in EthSem it is simply ‘to go’, and the SAr languages, together with SudAr dialect, add the notions of ‘to establish, to settle’ and ‘to order, decree’.
▪ The situation would be less complicated if ‘circle, to enclose’ (and hence ‘quarter, lane’) and the SAr values could be confirmed to be belong elsewhere (together with Aram words for ‘camp, encampment; citadel’). But this relation, too, is not secured. See ↗ḥāraẗ.
▪ An additional challenge lies in value [v2] ‘to recede, decrease, diminish, be reduced’. It is grouped here together with [v1] ‘to (re)turn’ under the assumption, shared with Arab lexicographers, that verbs of movement (rāḥa, ʕāda, etc.) in Ar often take on the meaning of ‘to become’ and indicate a change of condition. 
▪ eC7 ḥāra u (to return, go back) Q 84:14 ʔinna-hū ẓanna ʔan lan yaḥūra ‘and he thinks that he would not return [to his Lord]’ 
DRS 9 (2010)#ḤWR-3: Ar ḥāra ‘revenir, retourner’, ʔaḥāra ‘répondre’, Tham ḥr ‘retourner, revenir’, Ar ḥawāriyy ‘apôtre’; Gz ḥora, Tña ḥorä, Gaf (a)horä, Har ḥāra, Gur wärä ‘aller’; Gz ḥawāryā ‘voyageur, messager, apôtre’; Ar ḥāraẗ ‘quartier (d’une ville)’, ? SudAr ḥōr ‘mur circulaire non couvert’; Sab Qat ḥwr ‘établir, s’établier (dans une ville)’, ḥwr ‘résident, habitant, immigrant (dans une ville)’; Qat ‘ordonner, décréter’, Sab Min ḥwr ‘être mis en vigeur, être publié’, hḥr ‘décréter, ordonner’. – Outside Sem: »Comparaisons avec l’Eg: a) ḥn ‘marcher rapidement’ [also: ‘to retreat’, ThLAeg]« (Faulkner, Müller); b) »ḥry [ThLAeg: ḥrj ] ‘distant, lointain, être loin’« (Faulkner, Albright).
▪ Cohen1969 treats ḥāra almost as a variant of ↗rāḥa (√RWḤ) ‘to go, leave, depart’, which allows him to see the verb in relation not only (as in DRS) with Gz ḥora ‘to go, depart’, but also Akk âru, var. wâru (< (w)aʔāru) ‘to go, advance (against a person), to turn against a person, confront, oppose, attack’ (CAD),109 arāḫu ‘to hasten, hurry, come quickly, promptly’ (CAD), and Hbr ʔāraḥ ‘to wander, journey, go’, ʔoraḥ ‘way, path’ (BDB). – Outside Sem: Eg ḥry ‘être loin, s’éloigner’, ḥr.t ‘chemin, levée’. (Berb) Tua tārait ‘gradin rocheux en pourtour’ à côté de īr ‘col, cou’; douteux. (Cush) Bed hirer ‘marcher (troupe), voyager, aller’, Ag Bil ḥarar ‘courir’.
▪ Ar ḥāraẗ ‘quarter; lane, side street’ is often (as also in DRS) seen as belonging to ‘to return’. But there may also be connections with ↗ḤYR or, via the latter, to ↗ḤḌR. See DISC below and in entry ↗ḥāraẗ.
▪ For ḥawāriyy ‘apostle’, grouped together with ḥāra ‘to (re)turn’ in DRS and many other places, cf. DISC below and entry ↗ḥawāriyy.
▪ Together with ḥawwara, vb. II, ‘to roll out (dough); to change, modify’, Ar miḥwar ‘axis, crucial point’ is seen as a value in its own right in DRS. But ClassAr dictionaries often treat these items as akin to ‘to (re)turn’ (sometimes also to ‘white’, ↗ḥawar). See DISC below and in entry ↗miḥwar.
▪ Ar ḥāwara, vb. III, ‘to talk, converse, have a dialogue’: cf. also ClassAr ḥawīr, ḥawīraẗ (and several variants) ‘answer, reply’. Seen as an item in its own right in DRS, but perhaps dependent on ‘to (re)turn’. Cf. DISC below and entry ↗ḥāwara.
▪ The same holds for maḥār ‘oysters’. Seen as an item in its own right in DRS, but perhaps related to ḥāra. Cf. DISC below and entry ↗maḥār.
▪ Does also raǧul ḥāʔir bāʔir ‘man in a defective and bad state, perishing, dying’ (Lane) belong here, or rather to ḤWR_14 (DRS#ḤWR-10) ‘depth, bottom (of a cistern)’? Cf. also DRS#ḤWR-11 ḥūr ‘damage, mishap, malheur’? And: Are these items related to ḥāra [v2] ‘to recede, decrease, deminish, be reduced’?
 
▪ Albright1927:224 thinks that the »original sense [of ḥāra, yaḥūru ] was probably ‘to turn’, whence ‘turn away, depart’ and ‘return’.« In contrast, Jabal2012 (I:403) suggests ‘hollowness together with roundness’ as the primary meaning of the root as a whole, regarding ‘to (re)turn’ as a secondary development (hollow, round > to make a circle, a turn > to return). Should there be some truth to this, then there might be a relation between this notion and Hbr ḥōr, ḥôr [√ḥr(r)] ‘hole’ (cf. ↗Ḥawrān, perhaps also ↗maḥār). Cohen1969, in his turn, relates ḥāra not only to other ḤWR items, but also to ↗rāḥa (√RWḤ), which fits very well, in terms of semantics, with the EthSem cognates of ḥāra, e.g. Gz ḥora ‘to go, depart’. From a merely semantic perspective, also his juxtaposition of ḥāra (and rāḥa) with Akk (w)âru ‘to go, advance (against s.o.), oppose, attack’and arāḫu ‘to hasten, hurry’as well as Hbr ʔāraḥ ‘to wander, journey, go’, ʔoraḥ ‘way, path’ seems not unplausible. But would that be possible phonologically?
▪ Evidence outside Sem does not bring much light into the question of the origin of ḥāra ‘to (re)turn’. Cohen1969 suggests parallels in Eg ḥry [ThLAeg: ḥrj ] ‘to be far, leave, distance o.s.’ (mentioned also in DRS as suggested by Faulkner and Albright) and ḥr.t ‘way, path, slope’, as well as in Bed and Ag Bil vb.s meaning ‘to walk, travel, go’ or ‘to run’. (Possible cognates in Berb Tua are mentioned but disqualified as »doubtful«.) According to DRS (#ḤWR-3), Faulkner and Müller see a possible connection also with Eg ḥn ‘to advance rapidly, march quickly’ [also: ‘to retreat’, ThLAeg]. But these are all highly speculative.
▪ For the relation between [v1] ‘to (re)turn’ and [v2] ‘to recede, decrease’, cf. the ClassAr dictionaries, quoted in Lane, saying »(vn. ḥawr, ḥūr) he returned from a good state to a bad; you say, ḥāra baʕda mā kāna […], he returned from a good state after he had been in that state, or: ḥāra baʕda mā kāra […], he became in a state of defectiveness after he had been in a state of redundance; or it is from [the vb. I] ḥāra (vn. ḥawr), he untwisted (his turban); and means: he became in a bad state of affairs after he had been in a good state; ḥāra wa-bāra, he became in a defective and bad state. (vn. ḥawr, ḥūr, maḥāraẗ, maḥār) It decreased, became defective, deficient; he perished, or died; he/it became changed from one state, or condition, into another; it became converted into another thing.« Convincing? – DRS (#ḤWR-11) distinguishes the notion of ‘damage, mishap, malheur’ (ḥūr), which reminds of ‘to perish, die’, just mentioned in the quotation from Lane’s dictionary, as a value in its own right, without cognates.201 – The fact that Ar ↗ḫāra (√ḪWR) means ‘to decline in force or vigour, grow weak, dwindle’, makes one suspect an overlapping of this item with, influence on, or even contamination of, ḥāra in the sense of ‘to recede’, although this seems phonologically unlikely.
▪ ClassAr dictionaries often treat ḥawwara, vb. II, ‘to roll out (dough); to change, modify’ as causative formations from ‘to (re)turn’,202 explaining the value ‘to roll out (dough)’ as *‘to make the instrument called miḥwar turn and return over a piece of dough’ (and in this way flatten it and roll it out) and ‘to change, modify’ as *‘to make s.th. return (in a condition or shape that is different from the one it was in, or had, when it was sent out, or left)’. The n.instr. miḥwar is interpreted as *‘the point around which s.th. turns’ (> ‘axis, crucial point’) and, in the context of bakery, as the tool that is *‘turned over’ the dough in order to roll it out. DRS seems to doubt in these explanations and therefore groups miḥwar and ḥawwara as a value in its own right. See ↗miḥwar.
▪ ClassAr dictionaries connect also the vb. III ḥāwara ‘to talk, converse, have a dialogue’ [like vb. IV ʔaḥāra (ǧawāban) ‘to return (an answer), reply’] with vb. I ḥāra ‘to (re)turn’. Cf. also ClassAr ḥawīr, ḥawīraẗ (and several variants) ‘answer, reply’. Again, DRS is sceptical about this interpretation and groups the corresponding items as a value distinct from ‘to return’. See ↗ḥāwara.
▪ Ar ḥāraẗ ‘quarter; lane, side street’ is often (as also in DRS) seen as belonging to ‘to (re)turn’. The exact semantic relation however remains unexplained ¬– a ḥāraẗ being a kind of enclosure with a dead end at which one has to turn, or from which one returns? – If ‘to (re)turn’ is (also) related to ‘depth, bottom’ (see above) one could also think of the dead end of a ḥāraẗ being likened to the bottom of a cistern. All doubtful and speculative. – ḥāraẗ may even have nothing to do with the root ḤWR at all but, rather, with ↗ḤYR or, via the latter (and Aram), with ↗ḤḌR. See DISC in entry ↗ḥāraẗ.
DRS makes maḥār ‘oysters’ an entry in its own right. Some ClassAr lexicographers, however, say that the oyster is called maḥār after the spiral shape of it its shell whose windings *‘turn’ around a centre, or *‘return’ to where they started; maḥār, after all, is also the n.loc. of ḥāra meaning ‘place in which a return is made (to the point of commencement)’ (Lane). (For others, oysters are *‘the hollow ones’, those having a ‘cavity’, ↗Ḥawrān.) For discussion, see ↗maḥār.
ḥawāriyy ‘apostle’ is grouped together with ḥāra ‘to (re)turn’ in DRS and many other places [in ClassAr dictionaries often interpreted as *‘s.o. who returns (after having been sent out with a message), sometimes also as *‘s.o. who discusses, or is in dialogue, with the people’], although it is, with all probability, not directly derived from ‘to (re)turn’ but borrowed from the Gz word for ‘apostle’, which is from Gz ḥ ‘to go’. For details cf. entry ↗ḥawāriyy.
ḥūr, the ‘virgins of Paradise’, are usually regarded to be a pl. of ḥawrāʔᵘ, f. of ʔaḥwarᵘ ‘having eyes with a marked contrast between black and white’ (↗ḥawar). In ClassAr, there are however also words like ḥawāriyyaẗ (var. ḥawarwaraẗ, and ḥawrāʔᵘ !), pl. āt, meaning ‘women inhabitants of regions, districts, or tracts, of cities, towns, or villages, and of cultivated land’ (who use to have a fair, ‘white’ complexion), so that it does not seem impossible to imagine the name for the virgins to derive from the notion of ‘settling down’ as it appears in SAr ḥwr ‘to settle (tr. and intr.) in (a town); resident, inhabitant (of a town)’, which probably is akin to Ar ↗ḥāraẗ ‘quarter, lane (of a town, village)’. – For a Pers etymology, cf. entry ↗ḥūriyyaẗ.
▪ While ‘having a white skin’ would thus be a function of ‘to settle down’ (↗ḥāraẗ), Ǧabal2012 (I: 404) thinks that the value ‘white’ (↗ḥawar) depends on ‘to decrease’ [< ‘to turn (into s.th. worse)’], as whiteness is what »appears on the uncovering of s.th. after it had disappeared from the surface« (yataʔattà min al-inkišāf baʕd al-intiqāṣ min al-ẓāhir), an explanation that seems rather forced but, on a closer look, may have a point. 
– 
ʔaḥāra, vb. IV, (with ǧawāban) to answer, reply (with negations only): fig. use of caus.

Cf. perhaps also

ḥawwara, vb. II, to change, alter, amend, transform, reorganise, remodel, modify (DO or min s.th.); to roll out (dough). – For other meanings cf. ↗ḥawar.
ḥāwara, vb. III, to talk, converse, have a conversation (DO with s.o.); to discuss, debate, argue.
taḥawwara, vb. V, to be altered, changed, amended, transformed, reorganized, remodeled, modified.
taḥāwara, vb. VI, to carry on a discussion.
BP#2379ḥāraẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., quarter, part, section (of a city); (Tun.) ghetto; lane, alley, side street (with occasional pl. ḥawārī).
ʔaḥwarᵘ, f. ḥawrāʔᵘ, pl. ḥūr, adj., having eyes with a marked contrast of white and black, (also, said of the eye:) intensely white and deep-black.
ḥawāriyy, pl. ‑ūn, n., disciple, apostle (of Jesus Christ); disciple, follower.
ḥawrānᵘ, n.prop.loc., the Hauran, a mountainous plateau in SW Syria and N Jordan.
BP#1645miḥwar, pl. maḥāwirᵘ, n., axis (math.); axle, axletree; pivot, crucial point, that upon which s.th. hinges or depends; rolling pin.
maḥār, n.coll. (n.un. aẗ), oysters; shellfish, mussels; mother-of-pearl, nacre.
taḥwir, n., alteration, change, transformation, reorganization, reshuffle, remodeling, modification.
BP#439ḥiwār, n., talk, conversation, dialogue; argument, dispute; text (of a play); script, scenario (of a motion picture); libretto (of an opera).
muḥāwaraẗ, n.f., talk, conversation, dialogue; argument, dispute.
taḥāwur, n., discussion.
muḥāwir, pl. ‑ūn, n., interlocutor, participant in a dialogue or conversation.
 
ḥawwar‑ حَوَّرَ , II (taḥwīr
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤWR 
vb., II 
1 to change, alter, amend, transform, reorganise, remodel, modify (DO or min s.th.). – 2 to roll out (dough) – WehrCowan1979. – 3 For other values cf. ↗ḥawar 
▪ The two values ‘to change, modify’ and ‘to roll out (dough)’ of ḥawwara are treated in DRS together with the n.instr. miḥwar ‘rolling pin; axis’ as one etymological unit, distinct from ḥāra ‘to (re)turn’. ClassAr lexicographers, however, connect vb. II usually with vb. I as the latter’s causative. But perhaps [v2] is denominative, from the ‘rolling pin’, while [v1] derives more directly, as a caus. formation, from ‘to turn’. 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010)#ḤWR-8: Ar ḥawwara ‘étendre la pâte avec le miḥwar (rouleau)’, EgAr ḥawwar ‘modifier’, miḥwar ‘axe’. 
▪ [v1] ‘to modify’ is classified as »EgAr« in DRS, but appears as a regular MSA item in WehrCowan1979. Has a dialectal usage become standard Ar here?
DRS (s.v. #ḤWR-8) puts ḥawwara ‘to roll out (dough)’ and »EgAr« ḥawwar ‘to change, modify’ together with ↗miḥwar ‘rolling pin; axis’ as one etymological unit that is distinct from the vb. I ↗ḥāra ‘to (re)turn’ to which ClassAr dictionaries usually link these words.
▪ There can be no doubt that in the sense of ‘to roll out (dough)’, ḥawwara belongs to the ‘rolling pin’, miḥwar. The notion of ‘to change, modify’, however, may be either figurative use of ‘to roll out (dough)’ (and with every rolling ‘changing, modifying’ it), or a direct caus. formation from vb. I ↗ḥāra in the sense of ‘to come back (and be s.th. else), to turn (into s.th.)’, obviously a fig./extended use of the basic meaning, ‘to (re)turn’. 
– 
taḥawwara, vb. V, to be altered, changed, amended, transformed, reorganized, remodeled, modified: t-stem of ḥawwara, intr./quasi-pass.
taḥwīr, n., alteration, change, transformation, reorganization, reshuffle, remodeling, modification: vn. II.

Cf. also:
BP#1645miḥwar, pl. maḥāwirᵘ, n., 1 axis (math.); axle, axletree; pivot, crucial point, that upon which s.th. hinges or depends; 2 rolling pin | duwal al-~, n.pl., (formerly) the Axis Powers (pol.): n.instr. from ↗ḥāra.
miḥwarī, adj., axial (math., techn.): nsb-adj. from miḥwar.

 
ḥāwar‑ حاوَرَ , III (ḥiwār , muḥāwaraẗ
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤWR 
vb., III 
to talk, converse, have a conversation (DO with s.o.); to discuss, debate, argue – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ While DRS treats ‘to talk, converse, discuss, debate’ as a value in its own right, Arab lexicographers usually regard it as derived from ↗ḥāra ‘to (re)turn’, a conversation or discussion being an action where participants come back to each other with a reply. 
▪ eC7 ḥāwara (to debate with, have a dialogue) 18:34 fa-qāla li-ṣāḥibi-hī wa-huwa yuḥāwiru-hū ʔanā ʔakṯaru min-ka mālan wa-ʔaʕazzu nafaran ‘so, he said to his friend, while disputing with him, “I am more than you in wealth, and mightier in respect of supporters.”’ 
▪ Cf. also ClassAr ḥawīr, ḥawīraẗ (and several variants) ‘answer, reply’.
DRS 9 (2010)#ḤWR 9: Ar ḥāwara ‘discuter’ forms a value in its own right, treated distinctly from vb. IV ʔaḥāra ‘to answer, reply’ or vb. I ḥāra ‘to (re)turn’.
 
▪ ClassAr lexicographers consider the vb. III as dependent on vb. I ḥāra ‘to (re)turn’, cf. Lane: ḥāwara ‑hū ‘he returned him answer for answer; held a dialogue, colloquy, conference, disputation, or debate, with him; or bandied words with him’. In contrast, DRS distinguishes it as a value in its own right, without cognates in other Sem languages.
▪ The idea of ‘dialogue’ is probably peculiar to Ar, indeed. An analogous derivation seems to have taken place, however, in Gz where a word for ‘traveler’, ḥawāryā, is coined from Gz ḥora ‘to go’ and also comes to mean ‘messenger’ and, in a Christian context, ‘apostle’. ḥawāryā is believed to be the origin of the Ar word for ‘disciple, apostle’, ↗ḥawāriyy, often interpreted in ClassAr dictionaries as dependent on ḥāwara, the apostles being *‘those who enter into a dialogue with the people’. 
– 
taḥāwara, vb. VI, to carry on a discussion: t-stem of III, recipr.

BP#439ḥiwār, n., talk, conversation, dialogue; argument, dispute; text (of a play); script, scenario (of a motion picture); libretto (of an opera): lexicalized vn. III.
muḥāwaraẗ, n.f., talk, conversation, dialogue; argument, dispute: vn. III.
taḥāwur, n., discussion: vn. VI.
muḥāwir, pl. ‑ūn, n., interlocutor, participant in a dialogue or conversation: PA III. 
EgAr ḥūr , var. MSA ḥawar 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤWR 
n. 
bark-tanned sheepskin, basil. – For other meanings cf. ↗ḥawar and ↗ḥaw(a)r . – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Within the whole ↗ḤWR complex, ḥawar, EgAr ḥūr in the sense of ‘bark-tanned sheepskin, basil’ stands rather isolated in terms of semantics. In MSA, the word can also mean ‘white poplar’ (↗ḥaw(a)r) and ‘marked contrast between the white of the cornea and the black of the iris’ (↗ḥawar), both going back to a word for ‘white’ (treated under ↗ḤWR_1 and ↗ḥawar). The pl.s of the variants mentioned in Lane’s lexicon (ḥūrān, ḥawarān) could, however, point in another direction, but it is not clear which that might be, the main values of ḤWR, besides ‘white’, being ‘black’, ‘to (re)turn’, and perhaps also ‘deep, hollow’. 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010)#ḤWR 13: EgAr ḥūr ‘peau de chevreau’ is listed as distinct item, without direct cognates.
▪ If the word nevertheless should be akin to ‘(marked contrast between black and) white’, one will have to confrom ↗ḥawar. – For the whole picture, see ↗ḤWR.
▪ Lane reports (s.v. ḥawar) that what »in the present day [is] pronounced ḥawr « and applied to ‘sheep-skin leather’, originally meant ‘red skins, with which [baskets of the kind called] silāl are covered; (pl. ḥūrān, ḥawarān) a hide dyed red; red skins […]; skins tanned without qaraẓ, thin white skins of which [receptacles of the kind called] ʔasfāṭ are made; prepared sheep-skins’.
 
▪ Although DRS lists the‘bark-tanned sheepskin, basil’ as a distinct item and gives the variant ḥūr as a dialectal word belonging to EgAr, the word is also found in fuṣḥà and still forms part of the MSA lexicon (as ḥawar or ḥawr). Lane reports that what »in the present day [is] pronounced ḥawr « and applied to ‘sheep-skin leather’, originally meant ‘red skins, with which [baskets of the kind called] silāl are covered; (pl. ḥūrān, ḥawarān) a hide dyed red; red skins […]; skins tanned without qaraẓ, thin white skins of which [receptacles of the kind called] ʔasfāṭ are made; prepared sheep-skins’. So, we have an oscillation in meaning between ‘(dark) red’ and ‘white’ here. The latter makes a relation of the word to the complex treated under ↗ḥawar ‘(marked contrast between black and) white’ rather likely. The pl. forms and the notion of ‘(dark) red’ however are apt to call such a connection into doubt. DRS may be right, therefore, to treat the word with caution.
 
– 
– 
ḥawar حَوَر 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤWR 
n. 
marked contrast between the white of the cornea and the black of the iris. – For other meanings cf. ↗ḥaw(a)r and ↗ḥūr – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ The fact that in mSAr some words belonging to ↗ḤWR actually denote ‘blackness’ and that in Ar, ḥawar means a marked contrast between black and white, can lead one to the assumption that it was this contrast that was the original value, ‘white’ and ‘black’ both being later specialisations. Most scholars, however, assume ‘white’ to be the more original value (and ‘black’ from a distinct origin?). On account of the Ar, Hbr and Aram evidence, Huehnergard2011 reconstructs CSem *ḥwr ‘to be(come) white’. Kogan2008 seems to be more reluctant: he does not exclude the possibility that the Ar forms meaning ‘white’ etc. may be Aramaisms (from ComAram *ḥwr ‘to be white’); if they are independent developments, however, Huehnergard’s hypothesis becomes operative. – In any case, we are dealing with a regional, not a general Sem phenomenon. The protSem designation for ‘white’ seems to have been *lbn (↗laban ‘milk’). In Ar, this has been replaced almost entirely by forms of the root ↗BYḌ (which is probably from ↗bayḍ ‘egg’). For ḤWR, the dominance of BYḌ meant (accord. to DRS) a restriction in use to poetry where it came to signify the black pupils or the black of the eyes in contrast to their white surroundings.
▪ Kogan2011: cf. common modSAr *ḥwr ‘black’.
▪ … 
▪▪ …
▪ eC7 ḥūr ʕīn: For the Qur’anic ‘virgins of Paradise’ ), cf. entry ↗ḥūriyyaẗ
DRS 9 (2010)#ḤWR 1 Hbr *ḥāwar ‘être blanc’, TargSyr ḥᵊwar ‘blanchir’, EmpAram ḥwry, Ar ʔaḥwarᵘ, ḥawarwar ‘blanc’, iḥwarra ‘être très blanc’, ḥawira ‘être d’un noir et d’un blanc bien prononcés de manière à se faire ressortir réciproquement (se dit des couleurs de l’œil)’; ḥuwwārà ‘farine très blance, pain très blanc’, Hbr ḥorī ‘pain’.
▪ As specialisations and/or metaphorical extensions from this value, also ↗ḥaw(a)r ‘(white) poplar’, ḥawar ‘third star (the one next the body) of the three in the tail of Ursa Major [i.e. Alioth?]’, ḥuwwārà ‘fine flour’, perhaps also ḥuwār ‘young camel when just born, or until weaned; i.e. from the time of its birth until big and weaned’, according to some even ḥawr ‘discerning power’ (distinguishing white from black) belong here. – For other etymologies of the ‘virgins of Paradise’, cf. entry ↗ḥūriyyaẗ. – Ǧabal thinks the value ‘white’ depends on ‘to (re)turn’; should there be some truth to this, one would have to look for cognates also in entry ↗ḥāra.
▪ Some ClassAr lexicographers regard also ḥawāriyy ‘apostle’ as belonging to ‘white’ (see DISC below), but this seems to be extremely unlikely. See also entry ↗ḥawāriyy.
▪ Other values that sometimes are derived from ‘white’ (but probably aren’t) are ‘cretaceous rock, chalk’ (↗ḥawwāraẗ, ḥuwwārà), ‘oysters’ (↗maḥār), and ‘bark-tanned kid, sheepskin, basil’ (↗ḥūr, var. ḥawar).
 
▪ Huehnergard2011 reconstructs CentralSem *ḥwr ‘to be(come) white’. Kogan2008 thinks that Ar ʔaḥwariyy ‘white’, ḥawwara ‘to whiten’ are to be connected to ComAram *ḥwr ‘to be white’, unless they are Aramaisms. – Ǧabal2012, I: 404, thinks that the value ‘white’ is dependent on ‘to decrease’ [< ‘to turn (into s.th. worse)’], as whiteness is what appears on the uncovering of s.th. after it had disappeared from the surface (yataʔattà min al-inkišāf baʕd al-intiqāṣ min al-ẓāhir), an explanation that seems rather forced.
▪ After the original meaning ‘white’ had been taken in Ar by ʔabyaḍ (probably denom. from ↗bayḍ ‘egg’), ʔaḥwar became restricted in use to poetry where it came to signify the black pupils or the black of the eyes in contrast to their white surroundings, hence also the eyes of a gazelle or a girl with black eyes – DRS#ḤWR-1.
▪ Both ClassAr ḥawar ‘third star (the one next the body) of the three in the tail of Ursa Major [i.e. Alioth?]’ (Lane) and al-ʔaḥwar ‘Jupiter’ probably got their names after their ‘whiteness’ or the sharp contrast between their whiteness and the surrounding black sky.
▪ For the value ‘virgins of Paradise’ cf. also ClassAr ʔaḥwarī ‘white, fair’ (of the people of the towns or villages)’ and ḥawāriyyaẗ (var. ḥawarwaraẗ, ḥawrāʔᵘ) ‘white, fair woman; pl. āt, women of the cities or towns’ (»so called by the Arabs of the desert because of their whiteness, or fairness, and cleanness«), or ‘women clear (white, fair) in complexion and skin’, or ‘women inhabitants of regions, districts, or tracts, of cities, towns, or villages, and of cultivated land’, or simply ‘women’ (»because of their whiteness, or fairness« – Lane). This interpretation would be an interesting overlapping of ‘(contrast between black and) white’ and the notion, expressed in ḤWR_4 (and in DRS seen together with ḤWR_3), of ‘settling down’, as appearing in SAr ḥwr ‘to settle (tr. and intr.) in (a town); resident, inhabitant (of a town)’ and Ar ↗ḥāraẗ ‘quarter, lane (of a town, village)’. – For other etymologies of the ‘virgins of Paradise’, cf. entry ↗ḥūriyyaẗ.
▪ Fraenkel1886: ClassAr lexicographers derive ḥuwwāriyy ‘fine flour’ from many things, but it goes “of course” back to Syr ḥewārā, Jud ḤYWWR ‘white’. The author thinks that »in the meaning ‘to be white’, the root is probably genuinely Ar«; however, some items may not be derived directly from the Ar ‘white’ but from Sem cognates.
▪ If ↗maḥāraẗ ‘oysters’ is not (as DRS seems to assume by listing it as a separate item) independent from other values of ↗ḤWR, it may be either the *‘thing with the marked black-white contrast’ or the *‘thing that looks like a spiral’ (↗ḥāra ‘to (re)turn’).
▪ According to some ClassAr lexicographers, also ḥawāriyy ‘apostle’ is derived from ‘white’, the apostles either being ‘(white)washers’ by profession or having a ‘white’ character, i.e., a pure, innocent soul, free from evil. But this seems to be a pious popular interpretation, see entry ↗ḥawāriyy.
DRS is convinced that the value ‘white’ cannot be related to that of ‘black’ as appearing in modSAr (cf. DRS#ḤWR-2) and perhaps Ar ḥawr ‘bottom (of a well etc.)’. See ↗ḤWR.
▪ ClassAr dictionaries are undecided over the question whether the expression baʕīd al‑ḥawr ‘intelligent; deep in penetration’ should be derived from ‘contrast between white and black’ (cf. also ʔaḥwar ‘(pure, clear) intellect’ »like an eye so termed, of pure white and black« – Lane) or from ḥawr ‘bottom (of a well etc.)’, »hence« ‘deep in penetration’. – We are perhaps dealing with an overlapping here: while ʔaḥwar, etymologically, belongs to ‘white’, ḥawr may be of different origin.
▪ Whether ḥūr, var. ḥawar ‘bark-tanned kid, sheepskin, basil’ and ḥuwār ‘young camel when just born, or until weaned; i.e. from the time of its birth until big and weaned’ (Lane), are or are not related to ‘white’, will remain obscure until further evidence can be provided.
 
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl houri, from Ar ḥūriyyaẗ ‘nymph, houri’, from ḥūr, pl. (also used as sg.) of ʔaḥwarᵘ, f. ḥawrāʔᵘ ‘characterized by the quality ḥawar, i.e., intense whiteness of the sclera of the eye in contrast to deep blackness of the iris’ (cf. ḥawira, vb. I, ‘to have this quality’). – (EtymOnline:) houri ‘nymph of Muslim paradise’, 1737, from Fr houri (1650s), from Pers ḥūrī ‘nymph in Paradise’, from Ar ḥawra [sic!] ‘to be beautifully dark-eyed’, like a gazelle + ‑i, Pers formative element denoting the sg. – EtymOnline
ḥawira a (ḥawar), vb. I, to be shining white, be of intense white and black (eye), have such eyes, have delicate brows, together with a white complexion – Steingass1884: denom. (?).
ḥawwara, vb. II, to make white, whiten; to bleach (a fabric): denom., caus.; for other values cf. ↗ḥawwara (‘to change, modify; to roll out dough’): caus., denom.
ʔaḥwarᵘ, f. ḥawrāʔᵘ, pl. ḥūr, adj., having eyes with a marked contrast of white and black, (also, said of the eye:) intensely white and deep-black: elative formation.
ḥūriyyaẗ, pl. ‑āt, ḥūr, n., houri, virgin of paradise: probably a nominalized (secondary, popular?) nsb-adj from ḥūr as the assumed pl.f. of ʔaḥwar, but cf. also ↗ḥūriyyaẗ; nymph: meaning extended on an idea from foreign mythology (?); (pl. ‑āt,) young locust:… | ḥūriyyaẗ al-māʔ, n., water nymph, nixie. 
ḥawar حَوَر , also pronounced ḥawr (Steingass1884: also ḥawwar
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤWR 
n. 
white poplar. – For other meanings cf. ↗ḥawar and ↗ḥūr . – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ No direct cognates. For the (most probable) wider context, see ↗ḥawar ‘(marked contrast between black and) white’ and, for the whole picture, ↗ḤWR_1.
 
▪ The value ‘(white) poplar’ is not mentioned in DRS at all. Lane mentions it in the lemma ḥawar (s.v. ḤWR), saying: »‘a certain kind of tree’ : the people of Syria apply the name of ḥawr to the ‘plane-tree’ (dulb); but it is ḥawar [… In one source] it is said to be »‘a certain kind of tree of which the gum is called kahrabāʔ ’; by the modern Egyptians (pronounced ḥawr) applied to the ‘white poplar’ [= the value now lexicalized in WehrCowan1979]; ‘a certain kind of wood called al-bayḍāʔ [the white one] because of its whiteness’.«
▪ Since there are no direct cognates, and given the oscillation in pronunction between ḥawar and ḥawr, a definitive statement about the etymology of the term can not be made. If it depends on ‘(marked contrast between black and) white’, one will have to conform ↗ḥawar. For the whole picture, see ↗ḤWR.
 
– 
– 
ḥāraẗ حارة , pl. ‑āt 
ID 243 • Sw – • BP 2379 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤWR 
n.f. 
quarter, part, section (of a city); (Tun.) ghetto; lane, alley, side street (with occasional pl. ḥawārī) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Several etymologies have been put forward, but the case is far from being convincingly solved.
▪ The spectrum ranges from a relation to the vb. I ḥāra ‘to (re)turn’ (the quarter as a place with a dead end that forces one to return) over the notion of ‘circle’ (the quarter as an ‘encircled, enclosed’ place) and a correspondance with SAr words for ‘to settle, reside’ and/or ‘(en)camp(ment)’ to a derivation from a Copt (< Eg) word for ‘road, lane’ and/or ‘to depart, be distant’. 
▪ … 
▪ In DRS 9 (2010), Ar ḥāraẗ appears twice, in two different entries: on the one hand (s.v. #ḤWR-3), it is seen to be cognate with Ar ḥāra ‘to come back, return’, ʔaḥāra ‘to reply’, Tham ḥr ‘to return, come back’, Ar ḥawāriyy ‘apostle’; Gz ḥora, Tña ḥorä, Gaf (a)horä, Har ḥāra, Gur wärä ‘to go’; Gz ḥawāryā ‘traveler, messenger, apostle’; Ar ḥāraẗ ‘quarter (of a town)’, ? SudAr ḥōr ‘circulare, non-covered wall’; Sab Qat ḥwr ‘to build, to settle (in a town)’, ḥwr 110 ‘resident, inhabitant, immigrant (in a city)’; Qat ‘to order, decree’, Sab Min ḥwr ‘to be put in operation, be published’, hḥr ‘to decree, order’. On the other hand (s.v. #ḤYR-1), the cognates are said to be Palm ḥyrh ‘citadel’, Syr ḥirtā ‘encampment’,111 Ar ḥayr ‘enclosure’, Sab ḥyr ‘to put up a camp’, ḥyrt, ḥrt ‘encampment’.112 )] Via an Aram connection, the word may even be akin to ↗ḤḌR, see DISC below.
▪ Youssef2003: Eg ḫ3rw , Copt ḥir ‘lane’ (ThLAeg: Eg ḫr, ḫ3rw ‘street, lane’).
▪ Albright1927: Eg ḥry ‘to depart, be distant’, ḥr.t ‘road’, Gz ḥōra ‘to go, travel’
 
▪ Among the many etymologies that have been proposed so far, two seem to be quite convincing in terms of semantics:
a) The first is the one that links ḥāraẗ to Aram words like Palm ḥyrh ‘citadel’, Syr ḥirtā ‘encampment’ (PayneSmith1903: also ḥyārtā, ‘a shepherd’s camp; a mandra, convent’), from which probably also Sab ḥyr ‘to put up a camp’ and ḥyrt, ḥrt ‘encampment’ derive. In this case, Ar ḥāraẗ would also be akin to Ar ↗ḥayr ‘fenced-in garden, enclosure’, which has to be seen together with the Aram and Sab words. According to DRS 9 (2010)#ḤYR-1, Syr ḥirtā »est traditionnellement rapporté à la racine ḤḌR (Ar ḥaḍr, Hbr ḥāṣer > Syr […]), supposant le passage (normal en Aram) de à ʕ, puis à Ø au contact de .203 « Should this be right, then Ar ḥāraẗ would go back, ultimately and via a “detour” taken through Syr or Sab, to ↗ḥaḍara ‘to be present; to stay in a place, settle’ (which shows some overlapping with ↗ḥaẓara ‘to fence in’, cf. also ḥaẓīraẗ ‘enclosure, hedge; compound, yard’, and perhaps also with ↗ḥaṣara ‘to surround, encircle, encompass; to enclose’). The original meaning here would be ‘place where one stays, of settling down, encampment’.
b) The second suggestion that has semantic plausibility to it, is to relate Ar ḥāraẗ to Sab Qat ḥwr ‘to build, to settle (in a town)’, ḥwr (pl.) ‘residents, inhabitants, immigrants (in a city)’. DRS groups these (and Ar ḥāraẗ) together with SudAr ḥōr ‘uncovered circular wall’, a meaning that is not attested elsewhere but matches well with one of the values given by BAH2008 for the root ḤWR in ClassAr, namely ‘circle, to encircle’. Should these items be the nearest cognates of Ar ḥāraẗ, then a ‘quarter’ would originally be the *‘encircled district, enclosure (surrounded by a wall)’. Since most ClassAr dictionaries as well as DRS link the idea of a circle or encircling to the vb. Ar ḥāra ‘to come back, return’, one could go a step farther and assume that the idea of a quarter was built on that of a circle.
▪ But – are the connections, put up on purely semantic considerations, possible also phonologically? Details of derivation remain quite obscure in both cases. In option (a) above, the Ar word would have suffered the loss of a y, ī, or ay/ē and compensated this by a long ā, which would be rather exceptional. In option (b), a w, ū, or aw /ō would have changed into ā – not very likely either.
▪ Most ClassAr dictionaries and, partly, also DRS, relate ḥāraẗ ‘quarter, lane’ to the vb. I ḥāra ‘to return’. This is less problematic in phonological terms, but here details of semantics remain doubtful. The standard explanation is to interpret the quarter as a location with a dead end where one has to ‘turn’ and ‘return’ in order to get out.
▪ In contrast to the above hypotheses, Youssef2003 derives ḥāraẗ directly from Copt ḥir ‘lane’, from Eg ḫ3rw (ThLAeg: Eg ḫr, ḫ3rw) ‘street, lane’. Hoch1994#343 thinks that the Eg word »is almost certainly related« to Akk ḫarrānu ‘street, road’, for which one has to conform the BiblHbr n.pr.loc. ḥārān ‘The Road’ (a city in Northern Mesopotamia, located along the main trading route through the Aramean heartland) and Ug ḫrn ‘caravan’. To derive Ar ḥāraẗ from Copt ḥir is phonologically problematic, but should there be any direct relation between the Ar word and Eg ḫr, ḫ3rw, then ḥāraẗ would originally the ‘street, lane’ and, secondarily, ‘quarter’.
Albright1927 brings ‘road, lane’ and ‘to (re)turn’ together in juxtaposing Eg ḥr.t ‘road’, ḥry ‘to depart, be distant’ and Gz ḥōra ‘to go, travel’ as well as Ar ḥāraẗ ‘quarter, lane’ and ḥāra ‘to (re)turn’.
 
– 
ḥāraẗ al-sadd, n., blind alley, dead-end street 
ḥūriyyaẗ حُوريّة , pl. ‑āt , ḥūr 
ID 244 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤWR 
n.f. (nominalized adj.) 
houri, virgin of paradise; nymph; (pl. ‑āt) young locust – WehrCowan1979. 
While Jeffery thinks that the name for the virgins of the Islamic Paradise is related to the mPers hurūst ‘beautiful’; that the idea itself reminds of the Zoroastrian teaching about the Daena (influenced by earlier Sem sources?); and that the loanword then came under the influence of Aram words for ‘white’, the current opinion among Arab lexicographers, but also e.g. in EI², is that the Qur’anic ḥūr is the pl. of ḥawrāʔᵘ, f. of the colour adj. ʔaḥwarᵘ ‘(contrast between black and) white.’ How ever that may be, what seems to be certain is that the sg. ḥūriyyaẗ is a secondary formation from the pl. ḥūr
eC6 ʕAbīd b. al-ʔAbraṣ (ed. Lyall, vii, 24): wa-ʔawānisu miṯla ’l-dumà | ḥūru ’l-ʕuyūni qad-i ’stabaynā ‘And maidens like ivory statues, white of eyes, did we capture’.
▪ eC7 ḥūr (pl.; ‘pure, fair-skinned’; also said to mean ‘having eyes marked by contrast between the deep black and the pure white in them; pleasant’) Q 44:54 ka-ḏālika wa-zawwaǧnā-hum bi-ḥūrin ʕīnin ‘so it will be, and We will wed them to wide-eyed houris’. – Cf. also Q 52:20, 55:72, 56:22.
ḥūru ’l-ʕīn (applied to women) ‘having eyes like those of gazelles and of cows’, according to some only used when the whiteness of the eyes is combined with a whiteness, or fairness, of complexion – Lane.
 
▪ Usually seen as cognate with the complex treated s.v. ↗ḥawar ‘(marked contrast between black and surrounding) white’
. ▪ For a possible non-Sem origin (accord. to Jeffery), cf. DISC below. 
▪ Jeffery1938, 117-20: »Except in [Q] 55:72, it is used always in the phrase ḥūr ʕīn. The occurrences are all in early Sūras describing the delights of Paradise, where the ḥūr ʕīn are beauteous maidens whom the faithful will have as spouses in the next life. – The Grammarians are agreed that ḥūr is a pl. of ḥawrāʔ and derived from ḥawira, a form of ḥāra, and would thus mean ‘the white ones’. ʕīn is a pl. of ʔaʕyanᵘ meaning ‘wide eyed’ (LA, xvii, 177). It thus becomes possible to take ḥūr ʕīn as two adjectives used as nouns meaning ‘white skinned, large eyed damsels’. The Lexicons insist that the peculiar sense of ḥawira is that it means the contrast of the black and white in the eye, particularly in the eye of a gazelle or a cow (cf. LA, v, 298; and TA, iii, 160). Some, however, insist equally on the whiteness of the body being the reference of the word, e.g. al-Azharī in TA, “a woman is not called ḥawrāʔ unless along with the whiteness of the eye there is whiteness of body.” One gathers from the discussion of the Lexicographers that they were somewhat uncertain as to the actual meaning of the word, and in fact both LA and TA quote the statement of so great an authority as al-Aṣmaʕī that he did not know what was the meaning of ḥūr as connected with the eye. – The Commentators give us no help with the word as they merely set forth the same material as we find in the Lexicons. They prefer the meaning which refers it to the eye as more suited to the Qurʔānic passages, and their general opinion is well summarized in as-Sijistānī, 117. – Fortunately, the use of the word can be illustrated from the old poetry, for it was apparently in quite common use in pre-Islamic Arabia. Thus in ʕAbīd b. al-ʔAbraṣ, vii, 24 (ed. Lyall) we find the verse wa-ʔawānisu miṯla 'l-dumà | ḥūru ’l-ʕuyūni qad-i ’stabaynā ‘And maidens like ivory statues,204 white of eyes, did we capture’, and again in ʕAdiyy b. Zayd: hayyaḥa ’l-dāʔa fī fuʔādika ḥūrun | nāʕimātun bi-ǧānibi ’l-malṭāṭi ‘They have touched your heart, these tender white maidens, beside the river bank’, and so in a verse of Qaʕnab in the Muḫtārāt, viii, 7, we read: wa-fī ’l-ḫudūri lawānu ’l-dāri ǧāmiʕatun | ḥūrun ʔawānisu fī ʔaṣwātihā ġinanū ‘And in the women’s chamber when the house is full, are white maidens with charming voices’. – In all these cases we are dealing with human women, and except in the verse of ʕAbīd the word ḥūr could quite well mean white-skinned, and even in the verse of ʕAbīd, the comparison with ivory statues would seem to lend point to al-Azharī’s statement that it is only used of the eyes when connected with whiteness of the skin. – Western scholars are in general agreed that the conception of the Houries of Paradise is one borrowed from outside sources, and the prevalent opinion is that the borrowing was from Persia. Sale suggested this in his Preliminary Discourse, but his reference to the Sadder Bundahišn was rather unfortunate, as Dozy pointed out,205 owing to the lateness of this work. Berthels, however, in his article “Die paradiesischen Jungfrauen im Islam”, in Islamica, 1: 263 ff., has argued convincingly that though Sale’s Ḥūrān-i Bihišt may not be called in as evidence, yet the characteristic features of the ḥūr of the Qurʔānic Paradise closely correspond with Zoroastrian teaching about the Daena. The question, however, is whether the name ḥūr is of Iranian origin. Berthels thinks not.206 Haug, however, suggested its equivalence with the Zoroastrian hūmat ‘good thought’ (cf. Av ?????; Skr suman); Av hūχt ‘good speech’ (cf. Av ?????, Skr sūkta), and Av hūvaršt ‘good deed’ (cf. Av ?????),207 but the equivalences are difficult, and as Horovitz, Paradies, 13, points out, they in no way fit in with the pre-Islamic use of ḥūr. Tisdall, Sources, 237 ff., claims that ḥūr is connected with the modern Pers ḫor ‘sun’, from Phlv χvar 208 and Av havarə,209 but this comes no nearer to explaining the Qurʔānic word. – It is much more likely that the word comes from the Phlv hurūst, meaning ‘beautiful’, and used in the Pahlavi books of the beauteous damsels of Paradise, e.g. in Arda Virāf, iv, 18, and in Hādōχt Nask, ii, 23,210 where we have the picture of a graceful damsel, white-armed, strong, with dazzling face and prominent breasts. Now, Phlv hurūst is a good Iranian word, the equivalent of Av hū raoδa,211 and though these Pahlavi works are late the conceptions in them are early and there can be no question of borrowing from the Sem. – To this Iranian conception we may now add the influence of the Aram ḤWR. Sprenger was doubtless right in his conjecture212 that the root Ar √ḤWR ‘to be white’ came to the Arabs from Aram. The Hbr ḥāwar occurs in Is. 29:22 in the sense of ‘becoming pale through shame’, and Syr ḥᵊwarā is commonly used to translate Grk leukós and is thus used for the white garments of the Saints in Rev. iii, 4. Carra de Vaux,213 indeed, has suggested that Muḥammad’s picture of the youths and maidens of Paradise was due to a misunderstanding of the angels in Christian miniatures or mosaics representing Paradise. This may or may not be so, but it does seem certain that the word ḥūr in its sense of ‘whiteness’, and used of ‘fair-skinned damsels’, came into use among the Northern Arabs as a borrowing from the Christian communities, and then Muḥammad, under the influence of the Iranian hurūst, used it of the maidens of Paradise.«
▪ Luxenberg2000: 221ff. interprets Qur’anic ḥūr as an Aramaism with the original meaning of ‘white (grapes)’. 
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl houri, from Ar ḥūriyyaẗ ‘nymph, houri’, from ḥūr, pl. (also used as sg.) of ʔaḥwarᵘ, f. ḥawrāʔᵘ ‘characterized by the quality ḥawar, i.e., intense whiteness of the sclera of the eye in contrast to deep blackness of the iris’ (cf. ḥawira, vb. I, ‘to have this quality’). – (EtymOnline:) houri ‘nymph of Muslim paradise’, 1737, from Fr houri (1650s), from Pers ḥūrī ‘nymph in Paradise’, from Ar ḥawra [sic!] ‘to be beautifully dark-eyed’, like a gazelle + ‑i, Pers formative element denoting the sg. – EtymOnline
ḥūriyyaẗ al-māʔ, n., water nymph, nixie. 
ḥawwāraẗ حَوَّارة (ḥawāraẗ ?), also ḥuwwārà 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤWR 
n.f. 
cretaceous rock; chalk – WehrCowan1979. 
Etymology not clear. May depend either on ‘(marked contrast between black and) white’ (↗ḥawar) or on ‘hollowness’ (cf. discussion in ↗ḤWR_14, ↗Ḥawrān, ↗maḥār). 
▪ … 
▪ No direct cognates. For the (most probable) wider context, see ↗ḥawar ‘(marked contrast between black and) white’ and, for the whole picture, ↗ḤWR.
 
▪ There is no certain etymology for ‘cretaceous rock, chalk’ yet. It may have been called ḥaw(w)āraẗ or ḥawwārà after its whiteness, or a contrast between its whiteness and a dark surrounding. In this case it would be dependent on ↗ḥawar. The root ḤWR shows, however, also a basic meaning of ‘hollowness’, not to be found in MSA any longer, but cf. ClassAr ḥawr ‘bottom (of a well etc.)’, so that one could think of the cretaceous rock as the *‘hollow’ rock. A connection with ‘white’ seems more plausible, but there can be no final judgment on the matter.
 
– 
– 
ḥawāriyy حَوَارِيّ , pl. ‑ūn 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤWR 
n. 
disciple, apostle (of Jesus Christ); disciple, follower – WehrCowan1979. 
The word is most probably a loan from Ethiopic that dates from the so-called First Hijra (615-628 CE), when the Christian King of Aksum gave the Muslim refugees asylum. Many loans were made during this period, remarkably religious terms. The Gz term ḥawāryā ‘traveler, messenger, apostle’ is related to Gz ḥora ‘to go’, which is cognate to Ar ↗ḥāra ‘to (re)turn’. 
▪ eC7 (disciples of Christ) Q 61:14 kamā qāla ʕīsà 'bnu maryama lil-ḥawāriyyīna man ʔanṣārī ʔilà ’ḷḷāhi qāla ’l-ḥawāriyyūna naḥnu ʔanṣāru ’ḷḷāhi ‘as Jesus, son of Mary, said to the disciples, “Who will come with me to help God?”, the disciples said, “We shall be God’s helpers”’. – Cf. also Q 3:52; 5:111, 112. 
DRS 9 (2010)#ḤWR 3: Ar ḥāra ‘revenir, retourner’, ʔaḥāra ‘répondre’, Tham ḥr ‘retourner, revenir’, Ar ḥawāriyy ‘apôtre’; Gz ḥora, Tña ḥorä, Gaf (a)horä, Har ḥāra, Gur wärä ‘aller’; Gz ḥawāryā ‘voyageur, messager, apôtre’; Ar ḥāraẗ ‘quartier (d’une ville)’, ? SudAr ḥōr ‘mur circulaire non couvert’; Sab Qat ḥwr ‘établir, s’établier (dans une ville)’, ḥwr ‘résident, habitant, immigrant (dans une ville)’; Qat ‘ordonner, décréter’, Sab Min ḥwr ‘être mis en vigeur, être publié’, hḥr ‘décréter, ordonner’.
 
▪ Jeffery1938, 115-16: »It is used only of the disciples of Jesus and only in late Madinan passages. – as-Suyūṭī, Itq, 320, includes it in his list of foreign words, but in this he is quite exceptional.214 He says, “Ibn Abī Ḥātim quoted from al-Ḍaḥḥāk that ḥawāriyyūn means ‘washermen’ in Nabataean.”215 – Most of the Muslim authorities take it as a genuine Ar word either from √ḤWR [i.e. ↗ḥāra yaḥūru ] ‘to return’, or from ḥawira ‘to be glistening white’ [↗ḥawar ]. From the first derivation they get the meaning ‘disciples’ by saying that a disciple means a helper, and so ḥawāriyy means ‘one to whom one turns for help’ (cf. al-Thaʕlabī, Qiṣaṣ, 273). The other, however, is the more popular explanation, and the disciples are said to have been called ḥawāriyyūn because they were fullers whose profession was to clean clothes, or because they wore white clothing, or because of the purity of their inward life (cf. Baiḍ. on iii, 45; TA, iii, 161; LA, v, 299).216 – It was probably in this connection that there grew up the idea that the word was Aramaic, for [Aram] ḥăwar like Syr ḥəwar means ‘to become white’, both in a material and a spiritual sense. There can be no reasonable doubt, however, that the word is a borrowing from Abyssinia. The Eth [Gz] ḥawārəyā is the usual Eth translation of [Grk] apóstolos (cf. Mk. vi, 30). It is used for ‘messenger’ as early as the Aksum inscription (Nöldeke, Neue Beiträge, 48), and as early as Ludolf it was recognized as the origin of the Ar word.217 Dvořák, Fremdw, 64, thinks that it was one of the words that was learned by Muḥammad from the emigrants who returned from Abyssinia, but it is very possible that the word was current in Arabia before his day, for it occurs in a verse of al-Ḍābiʔ b. al-Ḥārith (Aṣmaʕīyāt, ed. Ahlwardt, p. 57) referring to the disciples of Christ.«
▪ Besides the association, mentioned by Jeffery, of the apostles with ‘fullers, white-washers’, ClassAr dictionaries sometimes also relate the ḥawāriyyīn in yet another way to ‘white’ (↗ḥawar), namely in the metaphorical sense of ‘those having a pure character, the virtuous ones, those who are free from vices’. Another common etymology is that the word is taken from ↗ḥāwara ‘to discuss’ (*‘those who discuss, debate’), and hence, or directly, from ↗ḥāra ‘to return’ (*‘those who come back to you with a reply’). BAH2008, who derive the word from the meaning ‘(to en)circle’ attached to ↗ḤWR, can regard the apostles as ‘entourage’ (the circle round Jesus, later also others’ entourage); so also Gabal2012: 405 who thinks that the ‘disciples’ most probably are called ḥawāriyyūn because they form a ‘circle’ around their master.218 But cf. DRS (s.v. #ḤWR-3), along the lines of Jeffery: »En guèze [Gz], ḥawāryā est le mot ordinaire désignant le ‘messager’, l’‘envoyé’. Il apparaît déjà dans les inscriptions d’Axoum 2/11 et a désigné plus tard les ‘apôtres’ du Christ. Il est en relation avec le verbe [Gz] ḥora ‘aller’. Le verbe correspondant en arabe, [Ar] ḥāra, ne signifie pas ‘aller’ mais ‘revenir’. Nöldeke […] souligne cette différence, qui conduit à rattacher l’arabe ḥawāriyyūna ‘apôtres’ comme le faisait Ludolf […] à l’éthiopien. Une forme Sab hwry (avec h !) ‘? annoncer, proclamer’ […] semble devoir être rattachée à WRY«.
EALL (Weninger, »Ethiopic Loanwords«) confirms: Ar ḥawāriyyūn ‘apostles’ was loaned from Gz ḥawārəyā ‘traveler, messenger, apostle’, during the First Hijra.
▪ Gabal2012 explicitly underlines that a foreign origin of this item cannot be supported. He also repeats the ClassAr theories that the name may derive from the ‘whiteness’ (↗ḥawar), i.e., purity, of the disciples’ heart. an idea that he dismisses since reports in the Bible describe them as fishermen, hunters, and doctors. 
– 
– 
Ḥawrān حَوْران 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤWR 
n.prop.loc. 
the Hauran, a mountainous plateau in SW Syria and N Jordan – WehrCowan1979. 
The etymology of the n.prop.loc. for a the very fertile basaltic region in SW Syria and N Jordan where grain and wine were/are cultivated, is still rather obscure. It may be related to the notion of ‘blackness’ or ‘hollowness’ that appears in a number of lexical items belonging to the root ḤWR. The name may however also go back to older Aram or Can words, as also the ‘hollowness’ of ḤWR may have be a borrowing and, ultimately, stem from ḪWR. Further investigation needed. 
▪ … 
▪ No obvious cognates. Following are some candidates for a possible relationship:

▪ ? DRS 9 (2010)#ḤWR 2: Ar ḥayrà ‘nuit très noire’, DaṯAr ḥawīr ‘indigotier’, Mhr ḥōwər, Ḥrs ḥéwər, Jib ḥɔr, Soq ḥáhər, ḥawr, f. ḥáwroh ‘noir’, Mhr ḥəwīrūr, Ḥrs ḥewērōr, Jib ənḥírér ‘noircir, devenir noir’, ? Soq ḥaro, ḥeyroh ‘brouillard’.
▪ ? DRS 9 (2010)#ḤWR 10: Ar ḥawr ‘profondeur’, ḥāʔir ‘dépression dans le sol, fond de citerne’, ? ‘maigre’.
▪ ? Steingass1884: ḥūrān, pl. of ḥāʔir, ‘place where water gathers’
▪ Ar ḫawr ‘low, or depressed, ground or land, between two elevated parts’ – Lane. 
▪ The etymology of the name of the highly fertile, basaltic mountainous plateau in SW Syria and N Jordan that came into being as a result of volcanic activity, is still subject to speculation. The item is not mentioned in DRS at all. According to BDB1906, several conjectures have been made:

▪ One of these is that the name originally means *‘black land’, after the black basalt. This hypothesis is supported by the notion of ‘black’ attached to some items belonging to the root ḤWR, as given, e.g., in DRS #ḤWR-2. These seem to be mostly modSAr. The fact that the possible cognate ḥawr ‘black’, given in BDB on the authority of Maltzan,219 is qualified as YemAr would also point in a SAr direction. BDB1906 also reports that there are tokens of immigration from Yemen into Ḥaurān.220
▪ Another meaning of the name, according to BDB1906, may be ‘land of caves’ (no Ar cognates mentioned).
▪ Yet another option is to connect it to the notion of ‘hollow’ which, according to Gabal2012, is one of the most basic meanings of the root, see ↗ḤWR. This value may also be contained in ↗maḥār ‘oyster(s)’.221
▪ Accord. to BDB, ‘hollow’ may be akin to Hbr ḥōr, ḥôr ‘hole’ which, however, is not from ḤWR but, probably, from ḤRR.
▪ BDB also considers the possibility of connecting the Hbr name ḥawr ān to Ar ḫawr (with initial , not !), which, according to the authors, means ‘hollow’. In the dictionaries of Ar the writer of the present entry was able to consult, however, ḫawr has nowhere the meaning of ‘hollow’, it rather denotes ‘low, or depressed, ground or land, between two elevated parts’ (Lane), which would be a good description of the Ḥawrān plateau. With this meaning, Ar ḫawr overlaps to a certain degree with Ar ḥawr ‘depth, cavity’ and, even more so, Ar ḥāʔir ‘depressed place, place in which water collects, place in the ground depressed in the middle and having elevated edges or borders, in which is water, and hence: a garden’ (Lane, s.v. ḤYR). The latter item is still found, e.g., in Steingass1884 as ḥāʔir ‘place where water gathers’ where it is said to have the pl. ḥūrān (but ClassAr has also ḥīrān). This, too, fits very well with the description of the landscape, given in EI²,222 as a place where »water from the many springs rising on the side of the massif «.
▪ As a note on the margin it should be said that the »low plateau (an average of 600 metres above sea-level) which forms the “heart” of the Ḥawrān [is] known as Nuqraẗ ‘hollow’«.223  
– 
– 
miḥwar مِحْوَر , pl. maḥāwirᵘ 
ID … • Sw – • BP 1645 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤWR 
n. 
1 axis (math.); axle, axletree; pivot, crucial point, that upon which s.th. hinges or depends. – 2 rolling pin 
▪ Formed after the mifʕal pattern, miḥwar is originally a n.instr., designating a certain tool that turns or is turned round. [v2] ‘rolling pin’ seems thus to be closer to the original meaning than [v1] that means a point rather than a tool. The item is made dependent on ḥāra ‘to (re)turn’ by most ClassAr lexicographers, but seen as distinct from the latter in DRS
▪ … 
▪ ClassAr dictionaries would search for cognates akin either to ‘to (re)turn’ (↗ḥāra) or to ‘(contrast between surrounding black and) white’ (↗ḥawar).
DRS 9 (2010)#ḤWR 8: Ar ḥawwara ‘étendre la pâte avec le miḥwar (rouleau)’, EgAr ḥawwar ‘modifier’, miḥwar ‘axe’.
 
▪ As one would expect from its form, which follows one of the common n.instr. patterns, mifʕal, miḥwar in ClassAr means a tool, namely 1. a ‘pin of wood (or iron) on which the sheave of a pulley turns, iron [pin] that unites the bent piece of iron which is on each side of the sheave of a pulley, and in which it [the miḥwar ] is inserted, and the sheave itself’; as such, lexicographers derive it either from ↗ḥāra ‘to turn’ or think that »it is so called because, by its revolving, it is polished so that it becomes white« (Lane), in this way relating it to ‘(marked contrast between black and surrounding) white’ (↗ḥawar); 2. ‘wooden implement of the baker or maker of bread with which he expands the dough […] and makes it round, to put it into the hot ashes in which it is baked’; ClassAr lexicographers again argue that this tool is »so called because of its turning round upon the dough, as being likened to the miḥwar of the sheave of a pulley, and because of its roundness«, seeing it as an extended use of ‘axis’. – In contrast, DRS (s.v. #ḤWR-8) puts miḥwar ‘axis’ together with vb. II ↗ḥawwara ‘to change, modify;224 to roll out (dough)’ and treats this group of items as a value distinct from ‘to (re)turn’ (ḥāra) as well as from ‘(contrast black/) white’ (ḥawar). – Semantic relations are not really clear, but for the writer of the present entry it seems rather unlikely a) that ‘axis’ and ‘baker’s instrument for rolling out the dough’ should have different origins, and b) that miḥwar should not be connected to ‘to (re)turn’.
 
– 
duwal al-miḥwar, n.pl., (formerly) the Axis Powers (pol.)

miḥwarī, adj., axial (math., techn.): nsb-adj.

Cf. also:
ḥawwara, vb. II, 1 to change, alter, amend, transform, reorganise, remodel, modify (DO or min s.th.). 2 to roll out (dough). – For other meanings cf. ↗ḥawar.
taḥawwara, vb. V, to be altered, changed, amended, transformed, reorganized, remodeled, modified: t-stem of ḥawwara, intr./quasi-pass.
taḥwīr, n., alteration, change, transformation, reorganization, reshuffle, remodeling, modification: vn. II.
 
maḥār مَحار (n.un. ‑aẗ
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤWR 
n.coll. (n.un. ‑aẗ
n.coll. (n.un. aẗ), oysters; shellfish, mussels; mother-of-pearl, nacre – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010)#ḤWR 12: Ar maḥāraẗ ‘coquillage’ is listed as distinct item, without any direct cognates in Sem or outside.
▪ But if it should nevertheless be akin to some other item(s) of ḤWR, the cognates will probably be found in the entries on ↗ḥawar ‘(marked contrast between black and) white’, ↗ḥāra ‘to (re)turn’, and ↗Ḥawrān. For the whole picture, cf. ↗ḤWR.
 
▪ The word maḥāraẗ does not only mean ‘oyster’ (originally probably ‘mother-of-pearl shell; oyster-shell ’) but until today is also a vn. of ḥāra ‘to (re)turn’. In ClassAr it is also a n.loc. and as such means ‘place that returns [like a circle], in which a return is made [to the point of commencement]’ (Lane), and is therefore also used to signify the ‘concha of the ear’. While these values thus seem to be akin to ↗ḥāra ‘to (re)turn’ (as also many others, cf. ↗ḤWR), the explanation, given by other lexicographers, of maḥāraẗ as ‘the external, deep, and wide, cavity, around the ear-hole’ lets also think of a possible relation to ḥawr in the sense, now obsolete, of ‘bottom (of a well etc.)’ (which in turn has perhaps to be seen together with the value ‘black’ as appearing in modSAr, cf. DRS#ḤWR-2, see entry ↗Ḥawrān), or with the ‘(marked contrast between black and) white’ as expressed in ↗ḥawar and derivatives. So, if maḥār in the meaning ‘oysters’ is not (as DRS seems to assume by listing it as a separate item) independent of other values of ḤWR, it may be either the *‘thing with the marked black-white contrast’ or the *‘thing that looks like a spiral’.
▪ The value, now obsolete, that maḥār (aẗ) could take in ClassAr in addition to that of ‘oysters’ and ‘place in which a return is made (to the point of commencement)’, namely ‘side, region, quarter, tract, etc.’ has probably to be seen together with ↗ḥāraẗ ‘quarter, lane’, see s.v.
▪ Lane mentions also the meaning »‘thing resembling [the kind of vehicle called] hawdaǧ ’ (pronounced vulgarly maḥārraẗ), pl. āt, maḥāʔirᵘ, often applied in the present day to the ‘dorsers, panniers, oblong chests which are borne, one on either side, by a camel, and, with a small tent over them, compose a hawdaǧ ’, ‘[ornamented hawdaǧ called the] maḥmil [vulgarly pronounced maḥmal ] of the pilgrims [which is borne by a camel, but without a rider, and is regarded as the royal banner of the caravan; such as is described and figured in Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians ]’«. This value is difficult to relate to any of the other ḤWR values and remains obscure.
 
– 
maḥāraẗ, n.un., oyster; oyster shell, mussel; trowel 
ḤWZ حوز 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 10Mar2023
√ḤWZ 
“root” 
▪ ḤWZ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤWZ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤWZ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘area, domain, holding; to incline, side with, press together’ 
▪ … 
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– 
– 
ḤWŠ حوش 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 10Mar2023
√ḤWŠ 
“root” 
▪ ḤWŠ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤWŠ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤWŠ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘an enclosure; unfamiliar; to exclude, avoid, turn away from; to hold off’ 
▪ … 
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– 
– 
ḤWṬ حوط 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 10Mar2023
√ḤWṬ 
“root” 
▪ ḤWṬ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤWṬ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤWṬ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘wall, fence, to encircle, encompass, protect; to comprehend; to be careful, guard against; to overwhelm, overtake’ 
▪ … 
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– 
– 
ḤWL حول 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 10Mar2023
√ḤWL 
“root” 
▪ ḤWL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤWL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤWL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘year, to complete a year; to change, alter, shift, deviate; to prevent, screen off, interpose, to bar; to try; to refer; around, about, circa; power; to plan, contrive, beguile; method; circumstance, conditions’ 
▪ From WSem *√ḤWL ‘to go around, turn, change’ – Huehnergard2011.
▪ …
 
– 
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl hawala, from Ar ↗ḥawālaẗ ‘bill of exchange’, from ↗ḥāla, vb. I, ‘to turn, change’. 
– 
ḤWY حوي 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 10Mar2023
√ḤWY 
“root” 
▪ ḤWY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤWY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤWY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘dark colours, particularly reddish black and greenish black; colour of dead vegetation; container, to collect; coil, to coil, intestines’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
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ḤYː (ḤYY) حيّ / حيي 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤYː (ḤYY) 
“root” 
▪ ḤYː (ḤYY)_1 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ḤYː (ḤYY)_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘life, living, to live, to bring to life, to keep alive; livelihood; animal kingdom; fertility, rain; living quarters, district; to keep vigil, to occupy with activity, to celebrate the memory of; to greet, greeting; to be modest, to be shy, bashfulness; adder, serpent’ 
▪ Kogan2011: from protWSem *ḥyy, *ḥwy ‘to live’.
▪ From protSem *√ḤYW ‘to live’, protSem adj. *ḥayy‑ ‘alive, living’ – Huehnergard2011.
▪ … 
– 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤW/YW/Y-1 Ug ḥwy, Phoen ḥwy, Pun ḥwʔ, Hbr ḥayā(h), Aram ḥayā, ḥayī, Syr ḥəyā, Mnd hia, Ar ḥayya, ḥayiya, Sab ḥyw, Soq ḥyy ‘vivre’, Sab *hḥyw, Mhr Ḥrs ḥewya EJib ḥuy, ḥóyi, CJib ḥē ‘être guéri’, Mhr Ḥrs ḥyīʔ, EJib ḥbé, ḥyéʔ, CJib aḥbé, oḥōi ‘soigner, guérir’, Soq ḥéyhi ‘être humain’, Gz ḥaywa ‘vivre, être vivant, revenir à la vie’, Tña ḥayäwä, ḥawäyä, Te ḥaya ‘vivre, être sain’, Gz ḥəywat, ḥiwat, Tña ḥəywät, Te ḥayot, Amh ḥəywät, Gur ḫeywät ‘vie’. – Hbr ḥayyā, Phoen ḥyt (pl.), JP ḥēwᵊtā, Syr ḥayyūtā, Ar ḥayawān ‘animal’. -2 Ug ḥwt ‘pays’, ḥwy ‘dépôt’, Pun ḥwt (pl.) ‘pays’, Hbr *ḥawwā ‘villages de tentes’, ḥayyā ‘troupe’, Ar ḥawà (y) ‘réunir; saisir; contenir’, ḥiwāʔ ‘réunion d’habitants’, ḥayy ‘quartier’, ? YemAr ḥawīyäh ‘cour derrière la maison où on entasse les ordures’, Sab ḥwy ‘investir, encercler’, Sab Min ḥw ‘serfs, manants’. -3 oAram ḥwh, EmpAram ḥwyh, Syr ḥewyā, Ar ḥayyaẗ ‘serpent’, taḥawwà (y) ‘se lover’, ? ḥāwiyaẗ ‘intestins’; Mhr həwū ‘ramper’, hatwi ‘se lover, être lové’, Jib hútbi ‘se draper’. -4 Ar ḥawiya, ĭḥwaw(w)à ‘être d’une teinte (vert ou rouge) foncée tirant sur le noir’, ḥuwwaẗ ‘noir, rouge foncé tirant vers le noir’, ḥuww ‘moreau (cheval)’, ĭḥwāwà ‘être vert’, Gz ḥawaya ‘se faire soir, devenir sombre, crépusculaire’; Te ḥoy, ḥawāy: robe de vache, sombre avec poitrail blanc; sombre, obscur. -5 Gz ḥawəy: interjection exprimant la peine. -6 Jib ḥē ‘récolter, rechercher’. -7 Ar ḥayiya ‘être distinct’. -8 ḥayiya, ĭstaḥ(y)à ‘avoir honte, être pudique’. -9 ḥawāʔ ‘bruit’.
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Eve, from lLat Ēva, from Hbr ḥawwâ ‘living, life’, from ḥāyâ ‘to live’; Ea, from Akk Ea, from oAkk *ḥayy‑ ‘living’; both akin to Ar ↗ḥayy ‘living, alife’. 
– 
ḥayyaẗ حيّة 
ID 246 • Sw –/144 • BP 7155 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤYː (ḤYY) 
n.f. 
snake, serpent, viper – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Kogan2011: prob. lit., *‘beast of the earth’, from ‘to live’.
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤW/YW/Y-3 oAram ḥwh, EmpAram ḥwyh, Syr ḥewyā, Ar ḥayyaẗ ‘serpent’, taḥawwà (y) ‘se lover’, ? ḥāwiyaẗ ‘intestins’; Mhr həwū ‘ramper’, hatwi ‘se lover, être lové’, Jib hútbi ‘se draper’.
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
 
ḥayāẗ حَياة 
ID 245 • Sw –/90 • BP 94 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḤYː (ḤYY) 
n. 
1 life; 2 lifeblood; 3 liveliness, animation – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 9 (2010) #ḤW/YW/Y-1 Ug ḥwy, Phoen ḥwy, Pun ḥwʔ, Hbr ḥayā(h), Aram ḥayā, ḥayī, Syr ḥəyā, Mnd hia, Ar ḥayya, ḥayiya, Sab ḥyw, Soq ḥyy ‘vivre’, Sab *hḥyw, Mhr Ḥrs ḥewya EJib ḥuy, ḥóyi, CJib ḥē ‘être guéri’, Mhr Ḥrs ḥyīʔ, EJib ḥbé, ḥyéʔ, CJib aḥbé, oḥōi ‘soigner, guérir’, Soq ḥéyhi ‘être humain’, Gz ḥaywa ‘vivre, être vivant, revenir à la vie’, Tña ḥayäwä, ḥawäyä, Te ḥaya ‘vivre, être sain’, Gz ḥəywat, ḥiwat, Tña ḥəywät, Te ḥayot, Amh ḥəywät, Gur ḫeywät ‘vie’. – Hbr ḥayyā, Phoen ḥyt (pl.), JP ḥēwᵊtā, Syr ḥayyūtā, Ar ḥayawān ‘animal’.
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
 
ḤYṮ حيث 
Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√ḤYṮ 
“root” 
▪ … 
ḥayṯiyyaẗ حَيْثيّة 
Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√ḤYṮ 
n.f. 
▪ …abstr. formation in -iyyaẗ 
ḤYD حيد 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 12Mar2023
√ḤYD 
“root” 
▪ ḤYD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤYD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤYD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘protrusions, to project; sides; to twist, bend, deviate from, stray, swerve, avoid’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ḤYR حير 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 12Mar2023
√ḤYR 
“root” 
▪ ḤYR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤYR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤYR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): (there is a degree of overlapping between this root and root ḤWR) ‘a ditch into which flood water is trapped, to go from one side to the other; to be confused, be puzzled, be distracted’ 
▪ … 
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– 
– 
muḥtār مُحْتار 
Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
√ḤYR 
adj. 
▪ …PA, VIII 
ḤYṢ حيص 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 12Mar2023
√ḤYṢ 
“root” 
▪ ḤYṢ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤYṢ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤYṢ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to veer away, swerve, dodge; confusion; an escape’ 
▪ … 
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– 
– 
ḤYḌ حيض 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 12Mar2023
√ḤYḌ 
“root” 
▪ ḤYḌ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤYḌ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤYḌ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘flooding, to flood; to menstruate, menstruation’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ḤYF حيف 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 12Mar2023
√ḤYF 
“root” 
▪ ḤYF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤYF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤYF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘deviation, to veer away; to be unjust, to wrong; to curtail, impair’ 
▪ … 
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– 
– 
ḤYQ حيق 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 12Mar2023
√ḤYQ 
“root” 
▪ ḤYQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤYQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤYQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to surround, encompass; to come back against, hardship; retribution, befitting punishment’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ḤYN حين 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 12Mar2023
√ḤYN 
“root” 
▪ ḤYN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤYN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḤYN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘time, period, a certain time; to approach, draw near, watch out for, await the opportunity, fix a regular time’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ḫāʔ خاء 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ 
R₁ 
The letter of the Arabic alphabet. 
▪ … 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
 
ḪBʔ خبأ 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 12Mar2023
√ḪBʔ 
“root” 
▪ ḪBʔ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḪBʔ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḪBʔ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘(there is a degree of overlap between this root and the root ḫ-b-w) to hide, to keep in safety, to treasure; secrets, treasure; woollen tents for living in, shelter’ 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ḪBT خبت 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 12Mar2023
√ḪBT 
“root” 
▪ ḪBT_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḪBT_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḪBT_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘wide low land, deep valley covered with herbage; to subside, abate, lie low; to become humble, show humility, feel tenderness in one’s heart’ 
▪ … 
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– 
– 
ḪBR خبر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḪBR 
“root” 
▪ ḪBR_1 (= DRS #ḪBR-2) ‘to try, test, experience; to have tried, experienced, know by experience; to get to know thoroughly; information, news, intelligence’ ↗ḫabara
▪ ḪBR_2 ‘cotter, peg, pin, wedge’ ↗ḫābūr

Other values, now obsolete or dialectal only, include (cf. Lane, Wahrmund1886, Hava1899, DRS 10 2012):
  • ḪBR_3 ‘große Reisetasche für Proviant’ (big bag for traveler’s provision): ḫabr (pl. ḫubūr) ~ ḫibr, ḫabrāʔ ; whence also (fig. use?): ‘plenty of young camels yielding much milk’.
  • ḪBR_4 (= DRS #ḪBR-7) ‘portion, ration’: ḫubraẗ (pl. ḫubar). Hence (?) also ‘sheep bought (and shared by a group of people) for being slaughtered; food; large bowl (in which a kind of soup is served, shared); provisions of a traveller’; MġrAr muḫābara ‘bail à portion de céréales dans lequel le cultivateur fournit les semences’.
  • ḪBR_5 (= DRS #ḪBR-5) ‘endroit où l’eau stagne et croupit’: ḫabraẗ, ḫabiraẗ, ḫabrāʔ . Hence also (ʔarḍ) ḫabiraẗ ‘soil/field with lote-tree’, (ʔarḍ) ḫabrāʔ (pl. ḫibār, ḫabārà, ḫabārī, ḫabrāwāt) ‘field with lote-trees’ > ‘lote-tree’ (also ḫabr).
  • ḪBR_6 ‘soft soil, soil with holes’: ḫabār, meaning also ‘burrow of a mole’. > denom. vb. ḫabira a ‘viele Mauslöcher (ḫabār) haben (Boden)’.
  • ḪBR_7 ‘the lion’: al-ḫabūr .
  • ḪBR_8 ‘seed-produce’: ḫabīr . (Cf. also ↗ḫabara as well as ḪBR_9 and ḪBR_10 below.)
  • ḪBR_9 ‘camel’s hair’: ḫabīr . (Cf. also ↗ḫabara, ḪBR_8, ḪBR_10.)
  • ḪBR_10 ‘foam of the mouth of a camel’: ḫabīr . (Cf. also ↗ḫabara as well as ḪBR_8 and ḪBR_9 above.)
  • ḪBR_11 (= DRS #ḪBR-3) part of the loom: ḫabbir .
  • ḪBR_12 ‘mantilla’: ḫabbāraẗ .
  • ḪBR_13 (= DRS #ḪBR-8) ‘tomber (feuilles, fruits de l’arbre)’: YemAr ḫabar .
  • ḪBR_14 ‘planta quaedam (Freytag1830), elder-tree (Hava1899), elder-berry (id., al-Mawrid 1995)’: ḫābūr . – ? (= DRS #ḪBR-9) MġrAr ḫābōr ‘genêt d’Espagne’ (spartium, Spanish broom), ḫābōre ‘jaune de la couleur de ces genêts’?
  • ḪBR_15 ‘black snake’: ḫaybarà .
BAH2008: ‘1 experience, to experience, expert, to be informed; 2 to inform, news, to seek information; 3 to test; 4 sense, intrinsic, the inner self’ 
Out of the 10 values DRS lists for the root ḪBR in Sem, only 1 or 2 are relevant for MSA, another 5 are obsolete or dialectal only. Most of the ḪBR items of MSA belong to ḪBR_1 (= DRS #ḪBR-2), while ḪBR_2 (ḫābūr ‘peg, pin, wedge’), obviously a loanword, unless belonging to the complex of Sem ‘to join, unite, associate’ (treated as #ḪBR-1 in DRS) or a somehow fig. use of the word for a plant (of obscure etymology, this one too), perhaps is of Akk origin. 
– 
DRS 10 (2012)#ḪBR-1 Akk ḫabāru ‘rassembler’, ḫibr- ‘clan’, Ug ḫbr ‘communauté?’, ḥbr [ḥ] ‘compagnon’, Hbr ḥābar ‘être uni, joint’, ḥäbrā ‘compagnie, association’, ḥabēr, Nab ḥbr ‘compagnon, camarade’, JP ḥabber ‘joindre, lier’, Syr ḥabbar ‘s’associer’, Gz ḫabara, ḫabra ‘être associé, s’associer, rejoindre, s’accorder, conspirer’. -2 Ar ḫabara ‘éprouver par expérience’, ḫabura ‘être bien informé, savoir pertinemment’, ḫabbara ‘informer, annoncer’, SAr Mhr ḫəbūr, Jib ḫōr ‘examiner quelqu’un’, Jib oḫōr ‘dire les mots de salutation’, ḫotbər ‘se saluer’, Ḥrs ḫebōr ‘savoir, demander des nouvelles’, Soq ḥəbor ‘sonder, mesurer; donner la nouvelle d’un décès’, ḥéyber ‘être limité’, maḥber ‘limite’. -3 Akk ḫabāru ‘faire du bruit’, ḫubūr- ‘bruit, tapage’. – ? Gz ḫəbr ‘incantation, sorcellerie’. – ? Ar ḫabbir : une partie du métier à tisser. -4 Akk ḫabāru ‘être épais’, ḫabbart - ‘vêtements épais?’, ‘vieux vêtements?’. -5 Akk ḫibarīt- ‘terrain marécageux’, Ar ḫabraẗ, ḫabiraẗ, ḫabrāʔ ‘endroit où l’eau stagne et croupit’. -6 Akk ḫabbur - : sorte de vin. -7 Ar ḫubraẗ ‘portion, ration’, MġrAr muḫābara ‘bail à portion de céréales dans lequel le cultivateur fournit les semences’, Gz ḫəbr ‘portion de terrain’. -8 YemAr ḫabar ‘tomber (feuilles, fruits de l’arbre)’. -9 MġrAr ḫābōr ‘genêt d’Espagne’, ḫābōre ‘jaune de la couleur de ces genêts’. -10 Akk ḫuburt- ‘écorce de roseau?’, ‘jeune fille’. 
▪ ḪBR_1: DRS distinguishes this value (= #ḪBR-2) from that of ‘to assemble, join, associate’ (= #ḪBR-1), while Klein1987 treats the two as belonging together (in entry on Hbr √ḤBR). The latter value does not seem to be represented in Ar (unless ḪBR_2 one day should turn out to be related, see below). – According to DRS, »les verbes ‘saluer’ sont délocutifs de Mhr ḫəbōr? ‘(quelles) nouvelles?’ (< ʔaḫbār, pl. de ḫəbēr […])«.
▪ ḪBR_2: The value ‘cotter, peg, pin, wedge’ is not found in the usual dictionaries of ClassAr (Freytag1830, Kazimirski, Lane, BustānīMuḥīṭ); there, ḫābūr is only ‘a certain plant’ (Freytag1830), a tree (Bustānī), identified however by Hava1899 as ‘elder-tree’ and by DRS (in MġrAr) as ‘genêt d’Espagne’ (see ḪBR_14, below).225 The fāʕūl form would suggest that we are dealing with a loanword, but the source remains obscure so far. Should we assume Akk (lBab, neoBab) ḫabburu (var. ḫaburru, ḫabūru ḫabbaru) ‘(green) shoot, stalk’ (CAD), in itself a Sum (?) loanword,226 to be the etymon? A direct loan cannot per se be excluded, but a borrowing via Aram would be more common. However, given that the word is not mentioned in ClassAr dictionaries and only seems to appear at rather late stage in the history of the language would make us doubt the Akk hypothesis. The item is neither mentioned by Fraenkel1886 nor Zimmern1914. The first attestation found so far is in Hava1899, where it is said to be LevAr. But, as evidenced by BadawiHinds1986, it is also an EgAr item: ḫā̆būr (pl. ḫawā̆bīr) ‘wedge, wooden peg or plug’;227 and both WehrCowan1979 and Baalbaki1995 (al-Mawrid) list it as a MSA item. If Akk ḫabburu ‘(green) shoot, stalk’ should have to be excluded and if the meaning ‘peg, pin, wedge’ is not just a development, however unlikely, from the homonymous ḫābūr ‘certain plant, elder-tree, spartium’ (ḪBR_14) (*used as peg, pin, wedge?), should we then assume a relation to Sem ḪBR (DRS #ḪBR-1) ‘to assemble, join, connect, associate’? Rather unlikely either.228
▪ ḪBR_3: identical with / belonging to ḪBR_4 (= DRS #ḪBR-7)?
▪ ḪBR_4 (= DRS #ḪBR-7): includes perh. ḪBR_3.
▪ ḪBR_5 (= DRS #ḪBR-5): According to DRS, von Soden relates this item to Sem KBR as well as to Akk ḫamāru ‘(se) dessécher’ (cf. Ar ḫamira ‘changer, subir un changement’).
▪ ḪBR_6: no further information available.
▪ ḪBR_7: probably fig. use of some of the other items, but which?
▪ ḪBR_8-10: the values ‘seed-produce’, ‘camel’s hair’, and ‘foam of the mouth of a camel’ come in addition to the more common values of ḫabīr such as ‘aware; omniscient (God)’ (ḪBR_1, ↗ḫabara); a case of homonymy or fig. use? – the semantics are highly confusing here.
▪ ḪBR_11 (= DRS #ḪBR-3) ḫabbir, a part of the loom: according to DRS, CAD »semble expliquer le nom d’une ‘partie du métier à tisser’ par le bruit qu’elle provoque. – Pour le Gz, le rapport avec l’Akk est supposé par Finkelstein JBL 75/328 qui le justifie par le fait que l’enchanteur émet des sons.«
▪ ḪBR_12: no further information available.
▪ ḪBR_13 (= DRS #ḪBR-8): no further information available.
▪ ḪBR_14 ‘elder-tree (Hava1899), elder-berry (id., al-Mawrid 1995)’: ḫābūr. – For Freytag1830, this is just ‘some kind of plant’ (planta quaedam). But is it the same as the one called ḫābōr in DRS (#ḪBR-9), marked MġrAr there and identified as ‘genêt d’Espagne’ (spartium, Spanish broom) (whence also ḫābōre ‘jaune de la couleur de ces genêts’)? Cf. also (CAD) Akk (lBab) ḫubūru C ‘(a plant)’. – For a possible relation (or identity?) with ḪBR_2, see above s.v.
▪ ḪBR_15: no further information available.
 
▪ See ↗ḫabar
– 
ḫabar‑ خَبَرَ , u (ḫubr , ḫibraẗ
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḪBR 
vb., I 
1 to try, test; to experience; 2 to have tried, have experienced, know by experience; 3 to get to know thoroughly, know well – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Inside Sem, the value ‘to try, test, experience’ for the root ḪBR is attested only for Ar and modSAr. Semantics partially overlapping with ↗ḤBR and ↗BḤR.
▪ Any relation with Sem ḪBR ‘to assemble, join, associate’, a value (treated in DRS as #ḪBR-1) that otherwise does not seem to be realized in Ar? For discussion, see “root”/disambiguation entry ↗ḪBR. 
▪ eC7 ḫubr (vn., used as adv.; knowledge of the internal secret state, understanding, comprehension) Q 18:91 ʔaḥaṭnā bi-mā laday-hi ḫubran ‘We encompassed all that he has in [Our] knowledge, We knew every thing about him’. – ḫabar 1 (item of news, tidings, report) Q 28:29 qāla li-ʔahli-hī ’mkuṯū ʔin-nī ʔānastu nāran laʕall-ī ʔātī-kum min-hā bi-ḫabarin ‘he said to his household, ‘Wait! I have caught sight of a fire, maybe I will bring you news from there’, 2 (record of affairs) Q 47:31 wa-la-nabluwanna-kum ḥattā naʕlama ’l-muǧāhidīna min-kum wa’l-ṣābirīna wa-nabluwa ʔaḫbāra-kum ‘We will try you till We know who strive hard among you and are steadfast; and We examine your record’. – ḫabīr (ints. PA) 1 (one who knows well, one in the know (in an interpretation of 35:14) wa-yawma ’l-qiyāmati yakfurūna bi-širki-kum wa-lā yunabbiʔu-ka miṯlu ḫabīrin ‘and on the Day of Judgement they will deny your associating [them with God] and none can inform you like someone in the know’, 2 (an attribute of God: the All-Knowing, All-Aware) Q 31:16 ʔinna ’llāha laṭīfun ḫabīrun ‘for God is All-Subtle and All-Aware’. 
DRS 10 (2012)#ḪBR-2 Ar ḫabara ‘éprouver par expérience’, ḫabura ‘être bien informé, savoir pertinemment’, ḫabbara ‘informer, annoncer’, SAr Mhr ḫəbūr, Jib ḫōr ‘examiner quelqu’un’, Jib oḫōr ‘dire les mots de salutation’, ḫotbər ‘se saluer’, Ḥrs ḫebōr ‘savoir, demander des nouvelles’, Soq ḥəbor ‘sonder, mesurer; donner la nouvelle d’un décès’, ḥéyber ‘être limité’, maḥber ‘limite’. 
DRS distinguishes the value ‘to try, test, experience’ (= #ḪBR-2) from that of ‘to assemble, join, associate’ (= #ḪBR-1), while Klein1987 (in entry on Hbr √ḤBR) treats the two as belonging together. The value ‘to assemble, join, associate’ does not seem to be represented in Ar (unless ↗ḫābūr ‘peg, pin, wedge’ one day should turn out to be related, see s.v.).
▪ According to DRS, »les verbes ‘saluer’ [in modSAr] sont délocutifs de Mhr ḫəbōr? ‘(quelles) nouvelles?’ (< ʔaḫbār, pl. de ḫəbēr […])«.
 
▪ See ↗ḫabar
ḫabura u, vb. I, to know thoroughly (bi‑ or DO), be fully acquainted (bi‑ or DO with s.th.).
BP#3894ḫabbara, vb. II, to notify, advise, apprise, inform, tell (s.o. bi‑ of or about): D-stem, caus.
ḫābara, vb. III, to write to (DO), address (s.o.), turn, appeal to, contact in writing; to communicate by telephone; to negotiate, treat, parley: L-stem, assoc., prob. denom. from ḫabar (*to direct a message to…).
BP#2683ʔaḫbara, vb. IV, to notify, inform, apprise, advise (s.o. bi‑ of), let know, tell (s.o. bi‑ about); to communicate, report, relate (to s.o. bi‑ s.th.), tell (s.o. bi‑ s.th.): Š-stem, caus.
taḫabbara, vb. V, to inquire (DO of s.o.), ask (s.o.): tD-stem.
taḫābara, vb. VI, 1 to inform one another, notify one another, keep one another informed; 2 to correspond, write each other; 3 to negotiate, treat, parley (maʕa with s.o., bi‑ about): tL-stem, recipr.
ĭḫtabara, vb. VIII, to explore (s.th.), search into, seek information about; to test, examine; to try, put to the test; to have tried, have experienced, know by experience; to know well:…
ĭstaḫbara, vb. X, to inquire (of s.o., ʕan about), ask (s.o. ʕan about): Št-stem, requestative.

ḫubr, n., knowledge; experience: could also serve as the etymon proper.
BP#285ḫabar, pl. ʔaḫbār, n., 1 news; information, intelligence; 2 report, communication, message; notification; 3 rumor; 4 story; 5 matter, affair; 6 (gram.) predicate of a nominal clause; 7 pl. annals | saʔala-hū ʕan ʔaḫbāri-hī, expr., to inquire of s.o. about s.o. else; kāna/daḫala fī ḫabari kāna, expr., to belong to the past, be passé, be no longer existent: could also serve as the etymon proper.
BP#1125ḫibraẗ, pl. ḫibarāt, n.f., experience (which s.o. has had); knowledge, skill resulting from experience: quasi-vn. | tabādul al-ḫibarāt, n., exchange of experience.
BP#1247ḫabīr, adj., 1 experienced, expert (bi‑ in); familiar, conversant, well-acquainted (bi‑ with), cognizant (bi‑ of): ints. quasi-PP; 2 al-~, the Knowing (one of the attributes of God); 3 (pl. ḫubarāʔᵘ), n., expert, specialist: nominalized adj. | ~ al-ḍarāʔib, n., tax expert, tax adviser. – Other values of ḫabīr, now obsolete (cf. ↗ḪBR): ‘4 seed-produce (ḪBR_8); 5 camel’s hair (ḪBR_9); 6 foam of the mouth of a camel (ḪBR_10)’.
maḫbar, n., 1 sense, intrinsic significance; 2 real message, sense, content (e.g., of a work of art; in contrast to its form); 3 inner nature of being, spirit and soul (of a person; in contrast to maẓhar external appearance); 4 (pl. maḫābirᵘ) laboratory : n.loc. (and fig. use).
miḫbār, pl. maḫābīrᵘ, n., test tube (chem.) : n.loc., neolog.
BP#2503muḫābaraẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., correspondence, (esp. written) information (in classified ads: al-~ bi-…, please write to…, please contact…), notice, notification, communication: vn. III | ~ tilifūniyyaẗ, n.f., telephone call, telephone conversation; ~ ḫāriǧiyyaẗ, n.f., long-distance call; ~ sirriyaẗ, n.f., secret communiqué; qalam al-muḫābarāt, n., or dāʔiraẗ al-muḫābarāt, n.f., intelligence bureau; wikālaẗ al-muḫābarāt al-markaziyyaẗ, n., Central Intelligence Agency, CIA; al-muḫābarāt al-ʕāmmaẗ, n.pl., General Intelligence (Jord.); al-~ ḥuḍūriyyan, expr., apply in person (in classified ads).
ʔiḫbār, n., 1 notification, information, communication, note, message; report; 2 indirect discourse, oratio obliqua (gram.): vn. IV.
ʔiḫbārī, adj., news-, information- (in compounds): nsb-adj. of preceding item.
ʔiḫbāriyyaẗ, n.f., denouncing, informing (against s.o.): abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ, from ʔiḫbār.
taḫābur, n., negotiation; correspondence; communication; intelligence contact (maʕa with a foreign power): vn. VI.
BP#2032ĭḫtibār, pl. ‑āt, n., 1 exploration, examination (of s.th., by o.’s own experience, experimentally); 2 test; test item (of an examination); trial, probation, testing; 3 experience, empirical knowledge; practical experience: vn. VIII. | ~āt taḥrīriyyaẗ, n.pl., written tests; ~ ḏātī, n., self-probing, self-knowledge (through testing or experience); ʕalà sabīl al-~, adv., experimentally; taḥt al-~, adv., on probation, on trial; ḥuqūl al-~, n.pl., experimental fields; ~ buqaʕ al-ḥibr, n., Rorschach test (psych.); ~āt ʕalà ’l-ḥayawānāt, n.pl., animal tests.
ĭḫtibārī, adj., experimental; experiential; empirical: nsb-adj., from preceding item. | masraḥ ~, n., experimental theatre.
ĭḫtibāriyyaẗ, n.f., empiricism : abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ, from ĭḫtibār; neolog.
BP#3334ĭstiḫbār, pl. ‑āt, inquiry; pl., secret service, intelligence service: vn. X | dāʔiraẗ al-~āt, n.pl., information bureau.
muḫbir, pl. ‑ūn, 1 reporter; 2 detective; 3 informer, stool pigeon; 4 denouncer: PA IV.
muḫtabar, pl. ‑āt, laboratory: n.loc. VIII. | ~ luġaẗ, n., language laboratory; ~ faḍāʔ, n., space laboratory.
muḫtabarī, adj.: ʔabḥāṯ muḫtabariyyaẗ, n.pl., laboratory research; taǧārib ~, n.pl., laboratory experiments.

For another item of the root cf. ↗ḫābūr. For the whole picture see ↗ḪBR. 
ḫabar خَبَر , pl. ʔaḫbār 
ID … • Sw – • BP 285 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḪBR 
n. 
1 news; information, intelligence; 2 report, communication, message; notification; 3 rumor; 4 story; 5 matter, affair; 6 (gram.) predicate of a nominal clause; 7 pl. annals – WehrCowan1979. 
(Resultative) quasi-vn. of vb. I, ↗ḫabara ‘to try, test, experience, get to know’. Could also be taken as the etymon proper of the complex treated under vb. I. 
▪ eC7 ḫabar 1 (item of news, tidings, report) Q 28:29 qāla li-ʔahli-hī ’mkuṯū ʔin-nī ʔānastu nāran laʕall-ī ʔātī-kum min-hā bi-ḫabarin ‘he said to his household, ‘Wait! I have caught sight of a fire, maybe I will bring you news from there’, 2 (record of affairs) Q 47:31 wa-la-nabluwanna-kum ḥattā naʕlama ’l-muǧāhidīna min-kum wa’l-ṣābirīna wa-nabluwa ʔaḫbāra-kum ‘We will try you till We know who strive hard among you and are steadfast; and We examine your record’. 
▪ See ↗ḫabara
See ↗ḫabara
▪ Lokotsch1927#763: Ar ḫabar ‘message, notification, information’ > Tu haber ‘id.’ > Rum habar, haber ‘worry, anxiety’; Bulg Serb haber, Serb habar ‘message, news’, Ru (dial.) xabar ‘advantage, profit; bribe’, xabarčij ‘messenger, courier’ [with Tu suffix -či, -ǧi, for occupations] > Ukr chabar ‘Sporteln’; Pol chabar ‘bribe’. 
saʔala-hū ʕan ʔaḫbāri-hī, expr., to inquire of s.o. about s.o. else
kāna/daḫala fī ḫabari kāna, expr., to belong to the past, be passé, be no longer existent: could also serve as the etymon proper.

For derivatives cf. ↗ḫabara
ḫibraẗ خِبْرة , pl. ḫibarāt 
ID … • Sw – • BP 1125 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḪBR 
n.f. 
1 experience (which s.o. has had); 2 knowledge, skill resulting from experience – WehrCowan1979. 
Vn. of vb. I ↗ḫabara ‘to try, test, experience; to have tried, experienced, know by experience; to (get to) know thoroughly, know well’. 
▪ … 
▪ See ↗ḫabara
See ↗ḫabara
– 
tabādul al-ḫibarāt, n., exchange of experience.

For related items cf. ↗ḫabara, ↗ḫabīr
ḫabīr خَبِير , pl. ḫubarāʔᵘ 
ID … • Sw – • BP 1247 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḪBR 
adj., n. 
adj., 1 experienced, expert (bi‑ in); familiar, conversant, well-acquainted (bi‑ with), cognizant (bi‑ of); 2 al-~, adj./n., the Knowing (one of the attributes of God); 3 (pl. ḫubarāʔᵘ), n., expert, specialist – WehrCowan1979. – Other values of ḫabīr, now obsolete (cf. ↗ḪBR): ‘4 seed-produce (ḪBR_8); 5 camel’s hair (ḪBR_9); 6 foam of the mouth of a camel (ḪBR_10)’. 
Quasi-PA, ints., and (v2, v3) nominalized adj., belonging to the complex treated s.v. ↗ḫabara, vb. I, ‘to try, test, experience; to have tried, experienced, know by experience; to (get to) know thoroughly, know well’. 
▪ eC7 ḫabīr (ints. PA) 1 (one who knows well, one in the know (in an interpretation of 35:14) wa-yawma ’l-qiyāmati yakfurūna bi-širki-kum wa-lā yunabbiʔu-ka miṯlu ḫabīrin ‘and on the Day of Judgement they will deny your associating [them with God] and none can inform you like someone in the know’, 2 (an attribute of God: the All-Knowing, All-Aware) Q 31:16 ʔinna ’llāha laṭīfun ḫabīrun ‘for God is All-Subtle and All-Aware’. 
▪ See ↗ḫabara
See ↗ḫabara
– 
ḫabīr al-ḍarāʔib, n., tax expert, tax adviser.

For related items cf. ↗ḫabara, ↗ḫibraẗ
ḫābūr خابُور , pl. ḫawābīrᵘ 
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√ḪBR 
n. 
peg; pin; wedge – WehrCowan1979. 
Etymology obscure. Unless simply a specialisation of the homonymous ḫābūr ‘(a plant, or tree, perh.) elder-tree (or spartium)’, a borrowing from Akk ḫabburu ‘(green) shoot, stalk’ (in itself a loanword) does not seem impossible, though not very likely, given that the modern value ‘peg, pin, wedge’ is attested only very late and there are no Aram cognates. Is it perhaps a representative of the other value that the root ḪBR can take in Sem, namely ‘to assemble, join, associate’? From a semantic perspective, this would seem difficult to explain. 
▪ … 
▪ No obvious cognates in Sem. But cf. DISC below and items/roots referred to there. 
▪ The value ‘cotter, peg, pin, wedge’ is not found in the usual dictionaries of ClassAr (Freytag1830, Kazimirski, Lane, BustānīMuḥīṭ); there, ḫābūr is only ‘a certain plant’ (Freytag1830), a tree (Bustānī), identified however by Hava1899 as ‘elder-tree’ and by DRS (in MġrAr) as ‘genêt d’Espagne’ (see ḪBR_14 s.v. ↗ḪBR). The fāʕūl form would suggest that we are dealing with a loanword, but the source remains obscure so far. Should we assume Akk (lBab, neoBab) ḫabburu (var. ḫaburru, ḫabūru ḫabbaru) ‘(green) shoot, stalk’ (CAD), in itself a Sum (?) loanword,229 to be the etymon? A direct loan cannot per se be excluded, but a borrowing via Aram would be more common. However, given that the word is not mentioned in ClassAr dictionaries and only seems to appear at a rather late stage in the history of the language would make us doubt the Akk hypothesis. The item is neither mentioned by Fraenkel1886 nor Zimmern1914. The first attestation found so far is in Hava1899, where it is said to be LevAr. But, as evidenced by BadawiHinds1986, it is also an EgAr item: ḫā̆būr (pl. ḫawā̆bīr) ‘wedge, wooden peg or plug’;230 and both WehrCowan1979 and Baalbaki1995 (al-Mawrid) list it as a MSA item. If Akk ḫabburu ‘(green) shoot, stalk’ should have to be excluded and if the meaning ‘peg, pin, wedge’ is not just a development, however unlikely, from the homonymous ḫābūr ‘certain plant, elder-tree, spartium’ (see above) (*used as peg, pin, wedge?), should we then assume a relation to Sem ḪBR (DRS #ḪBR-1) ‘to assemble, join, connect, associate’?231 Rather unlikely either. Hbr ḥābûr, which would be the closest item phonologically, means ‘attached, joined, connected’ (accord. to Klein1987 a PP of ḥāḇar ‘to be united, be joined’);232 so, if this is the etymon then the ‘peg, pin, wedge’ would originally be *‘the joining/joined one’ – not very convincing!
▪ According to PayneSmith1879 and BDB1906 there is also a n.pr.fl., Ar ḫābūr, Hbr ḥāḇûr, Syr ḥâbûr, ḥâbûrâ, Grk Xabṓras, which are from Akk ḫubur ~ ḫabur ‘place of the river ordeal; (the river of the) nether world’, which (accord. to CAD) is a Sum loanword. A connection with ‘peg, pin, wedge’ can probably be excluded. 
– 
– 
muḫābaraẗ مُخابَرَة , pl. ‑āt 
ID 247 • Sw – • BP 2503 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḪBR 
n.f. 
correspondence, (esp. written) information (in classified ads: al-~ bi‑…, please write to…, please contact…), notice, notification, communication – WehrCowan1979. 
Vn. III, associative, denom. from ↗ḫabar ‘news, information, message, notification’. 
▪ … 
▪ See ↗ḫabara
See ↗ḫabara
– 
muḫābaraẗ tilifūniyyaẗ, n.f., telephone call, telephone conversation
muḫābaraẗ ḫāriǧiyyaẗ, n.f., long-distance call
muḫābaraẗ sirriyaẗ, n.f., secret communiqué
al-muḫābaraẗ ḥuḍūriyyan, expr., apply in person (in classified ads)
qalam al-muḫābarāt, n., or dāʔiraẗ al-muḫābarāt, n.f., intelligence bureau
wikālaẗ al-muḫābarāt al-markaziyyaẗ, n.f., Central Intelligence Agency, CIA
al-muḫābarāt al-ʕāmmaẗ, n.pl., General Intelligence (Jord.)

For other related items cf. ↗ḫabara, ↗ḫabar
ĭḫtibāriyyaẗ اِخْتِبارِيّة 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḪBR 
n.f. 
empiricism – WehrCowan1979. 
Neolog., abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ, from ĭḫtibār, vn. of ĭḫtibara, vb. VIII, t-stem of ↗ḫabara, vb. I, ‘to try, test, experience’. 
▪ … 
▪ See ↗ḫabara
See ↗ḫabara
– 
For other related items cf. ↗ḫabara, ↗ḫabar, ↗ḫibraẗ
muḫbir مُخْبِر , pl. ‑ūn 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḪBR 
n. 
1 reporter; 2 detective; 3 informer, stool pigeon; 4 denouncer – WehrCowan1979. 
PA, from ʔaḫbara, vb. IV, ‘to notify, inform, communicate, report’, Š-stem, caus., from ↗ḫabar ‘news; information, intelligence; report, communication, message; notification; rumor; story’. 
▪ … 
▪ See ↗ḫabara
See ↗ḫabara
– 
For other related items cf. ↗ḫabar
muḫtabar مُخْتَبَر , pl. ‑āt 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḪBR 
n. 
laboratory – WehrCowan1979. 
n.loc., from ĭḫtibara, vb. VIII, t-stem of ↗ḫabara, vb. I, ‘to try, test, experience’. 
▪ … 
▪ See ↗ḫabara
See ↗ḫabara
– 
muḫtabar luġaẗ, n.f., language laboratory
muḫtabar faḍāʔ, n., space laboratory.

muḫtabarī, adj.: ʔabḥāṯ muḫtabariyyaẗ, n.pl., laboratory research; taǧārib ~, n.pl., laboratory experiments.

For other related items cf. ↗ḫabara, ↗ḫibraẗ, ↗ḫabīr
ḪBZ خبز 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḪBZ 
“root” 
▪ ḪBZ_1 ‘bread’ ↗ḫubz
▪ ḪBZ_2 ‘mallow’ ↗ḫubbāz

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘1 to beat with two hands, drive hard; 2 to subside, be beaten low; 3 to knead, bake, a baker, bread’ 
▪ … 
– 
DRS 10 (2012)#ḪBZ-1 Ar ḫubz ‘pain’, Mhr ḫəbūz, Ḥrs ḫebōz, Jib ḫōz ‘faire du pain’, Mhr, Jib Ḥrs ḫabz ‘pain’, Gz ḫabaza, Amh abbäzä ‘faire cuire le pain’, Te ḥəbbäzät ‘pain rond épais’, Gz ḫəbəst ‘pain’, ḫabbasa ‘faire le pain’, Tña ḫabəsti: sorte de pain de froment, hostie, pain d’autel pour la messe, ḫibist: pain sacramentel. -2 CollAr ḫubbāz, ḫubbayzaẗ, ḫubbēzaẗ, ḫəbbēzaẗ ‘mauve (plante )’, Gz ḫəbəst, Tña ḫəbəsti, Te ḫəbbəzät, Gur Ed ḫabz ‘cire d’abeille’. -3 MġrAr ḫbez ‘parler à tort et à travers; rouer de coups’, tḫābəz ‘se combattre par des intrigues’. -4 Ḥass ḫabze ‘creux de la main’. -5 Min ḫbz: bloc de pierre.
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
ḫubz خُبْز , pl. أخْباز ʔaḫbāz 
ID 248 • Sw – • BP 2153 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḪBZ 
n. 
bread – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ The word is generally regarded as a borrowing from Ethiopic that is to be found already in the Q
▪ eC7 (bread) Q 12:36 ʔinnī ʔarānī ʔaḥmilu fawqa raʔsī ḫubzan taʔkulu ’l‑ṭayru minhu ‘I see myself carrying on my head bread from which the birds are eating’. 
DRS 10 (2012)#ḪBZ-1 Ar ḫubz ‘pain’, Mhr ḫəbūz, Ḥrs ḫebōz, Jib ḫōz ‘faire du pain’, Mhr, Jib Ḥrs ḫabz ‘pain’, Gz ḫabaza, Amh abbäzä ‘faire cuire le pain’, Te ḥəbbäzät ‘pain rond épais’, Gz ḫəbəst ‘pain’, ḫabbasa ‘faire le pain’, Tña ḫabəsti: sorte de pain de froment, hostie, pain d’autel pour la messe, ḫibist: pain sacramentel.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1364: Within Sem, Ar ḫubz has cognates in Gz ḫəbəst, Ḥrs ḫabz, Mhr ḫabz, Śḥr ḫobz, all meaning ‘bread’. From these forms an original Sem root *ḫubz‑ may be reconstructed. Outside Sem, one finds a vuǯi ‘millet’ in a CCh language, and a buzu ‘seed’ in a ECh one, whence the authors reconstruct CCh *buʒ‑ and ECh *bus‑, both of which do not have the initial laryngeal of Sem. Orel&Stolbova explain this as loss of the initial sound and reconstruct AfrAs *ḫubuʒ‑ ‘cereal’. However, based on the Chad evidence where the initial *ḫu‑ is missing, they note that this *ḫu‑ may be a prefix in AfrAs (which then would have been preserved in Sem).
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ Jeffery1938, 121-22: »It occurs only in the baker’s dream in the Joseph story. – The word is from the Eth [Gz] as Nöldeke, Neue Beiträge, 56, has noted, pointing out that bread is an uncommon luxury to the Arabs, but literally the staff of life among the Abyssinians, and therefore a word much more likely to have been borrowed by the Arabs than from them. [Gz] ḫabaza is ‘to bake’ in general, and ‘to bake bread’ in particular, ḫabbāzī is a ‘baker’, as e.g. in the Joseph story, and ḫəbəst is ‘bread’, the z being modified to s before t, and was probably earlier *ḫəbəzt, as is indicated by the common Tigré word ḥəbəzt used for a popular kind of bread. It was probably an early borrowing into Ar, for the root has become well naturalized and many forms have been built from it.«
▪ Leslau 1979 ("Semitic roots"): cf. Gur ḫäbs.
▪ Schall1982: a loan, to be found already in the Q, from Gz ḫəbəst ‘bread’.
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ḫabaza, i (ḫabz), vb. I, and ĭḫtabaza, vb. VIII, to bake (bread): denom. (?)

ḫubzaẗ, n.f., loaf of bread: n.un.
ḫabbāz, pl. ‑ūn, n., baker: n.prof.
ḫibāzaẗ, n.f., baker’s trade, art of baking: vn. I.
maḫbzaẗ, n., maḫbazaẗ, n.f., pl. maḫābizᵘ, bakery: n.loc.
 
ḫubbāz خُبَّاز , var. ḫubbayz, ḫubbāzà 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḪBZ 
n. 
mallow (bot.) – WehrCowan1979. 
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DRS 10 (2012)#ḪBZ-2 CollAr ḫubbāz, ḫubbayzaẗ, ḫubbēzaẗ, ḫəbbēzaẗ ‘mauve (plante )’, Gz ḫəbəst, Tña ḫəbəsti, Te ḫəbbəzät, Gur Ed ḫabz ‘cire d’abeille’.
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ḪBṬ خبط 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 12Mar2023
√ḪBṬ 
“root” 
▪ ḪBṬ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḪBṬ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḪBṬ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to beat, beat about, strike with two feet, beat off leaves for animals; to go about aimlessly; to be confused, be insane; to brand’ 
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ḪBW خبو 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 12Mar2023
√ḪBW 
“root” 
▪ ḪBW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḪBW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḪBW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): (there is a degree of overlap between this root and root ↗ḪBʔ) ‘a small bedouin woollen tent, a house; the encasing of grains inside the ear of corn; (of fire) to abate, die out, become extinct’ 
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ḪTR ختر 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 12Mar2023
√ḪTR 
“root” 
▪ ḪTR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḪTR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḪTR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘numbness, relaxation, corruption; treachery, to betray, to corrupt’ 
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ḪTM ختم 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḪTM 
“root” 
▪ ḪTM_1 ‘seal ring, seal, ring; stamp; to finish, close, terminate’ ↗ḫātam
▪ ḪTM_2 ‘…’ ↗

BAH2008: ‘seal, sealing material; to seal up, enclose, block, secure, cover up, brand, mark; a ring, to wear a ring; to complete, conclude, the end part, the concluding one, conclusion’ 
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ḫātam خاتَم , var. ḫātim , pl. ḫawātimᵘ 
ID 249 • Sw – • BP 4763 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḪTM 
n. 
1 seal ring, signet ring; 2a ring, finger ring; b seal, signet; 3 stamp – WehrCowan1979. 
Probably from Eg ḫtm ‘stamp, seal’ (hypothesis doubted however by Pennacchio on account of missing attestation in Akk and Ug). 
▪ eC7 ḫātam (concluding one, final seal) Q 33:40 mā kāna muḥammadun ʔabā ʔaḥadin min riǧāli-kum wa-lākin rasūla ’ḷḷāhi wa-ḫātama ’l-nabiyyīna ‘Muḥammad is not the father of any one of your men; he is God’s Messenger and the seal of the prophets’ (»The passage is late Madinan and the word is used in the technical phrase ḫātam al-nabiyyīn «, Jeffery 1938). – ḫatama (to seal up) Q 36:65 al-yawma naḫtimu ʕalā ʔafwāhi-him wa-tukallimu-nā ʔaydī-him ‘on this day We will seal up their mouths, but their hands will speak out to Us’. – ḫitām (concluding/conclusion, end part, seal/sealing; crowning touch) Q 83:26 ḫitāmu-hū miskun ‘whose seal (or: end part, conclusion) is musk’. – maḫtūm (that which is sealed, concluded, ended) Q 83:25 yusqawna min raḥīqin maḫtūmin ‘they are given to drink of pure wine, sealed’. 
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2035: Hbr ḥoṭēm, Ar ḫatm ‘ring; seal (on a ring)’, Jib ḫotem, Ḥrs ḫōtem , Śḥr ḫotem ‘ring’. – Outside Sem: Eg ḫtm ‘stamp, seal’ (OK); katam ‘ring’ in 1 WCh lang.
DRS 10 (2012)#ḪTM–1 Hbr ḥātam, Phn nPun ḥtm ‘sceller, compléter’, EmpAram ḥwtm, JP ḥᵃtam, ChrPal ḥtm, Mand htm ‘compléter, sceller’, Syr ḥatmā ‘sceau, cachet’, Ar ḫatama ‘sceller, cacheter; se cicatriser’, ḫāta/im ‘sceau, bague’, ḫitām ‘clôture, conclusion, fin’, ḫātim ‘anus, bout du rectum’, MġrAr ḫtām ‘hymen, pucelage’, DaṯAr ḫattam ‘mettre le couvercle sur le four’, Qat ḫtm ‘appliquer son sceau’, Jib ḫtum ‘finir’, Mhr Ḥrs ḫōtəm, Jib ḫótəm ‘bague, anneau’, Gz ḫatama ‘sceller, terminer’, Tña ḥatämä, ḫatämä ‘sceller, imprimer’, ḥatma ‘sceau, empreinte’, Amh attämä, Arg hattäma, Gur atämä ‘sceller’. [–23 not represented in MSA. –4 SyrAr only] 
▪ Jeffery1938, 120-21: »On the surface it would seem to be a genuine derivative from ḫtm ‘to seal’, but as Fraenkel, Vocab, 17, points out, a form fāʕal is not regular in Ar, and the vb. itself, as a matter of fact, is denom.233 The verb occurs in the Qurʔān in vi, 46; xlv, 22, and the derivative ḫitām, which Jawharī says is the same as ḫātam, is used in lxxxiii, 26. All these forms are in all probability derived from the Aram as Noeldeke had already noted.234 – Hirschfeld, Beiträge, 71, claimed that the word was of Jewish origin, quoting the Hbr ḥôtām ‘seal’; Syr ḥatmā. In his New Researches, 23, he quotes Haggai ii, 23, a verse referring to Zerubbabel, which shows that the idea of a man being a seal was not foreign to Jewish circles, beside which Horovitz, KU, 53, appositely cites 1 Cor. ix:2, “ye are the seal of my Apostleship” – -σφραγίς μου τῆς ἀποστολῆς sphragís mou tē̂s apostolē̂s, where the Peshitta reads ḥatmā. The Targumic ḥtymh and ChrPal ḥtīmā,235 meaning ‘obsignatio, finis, conclusio, clausula,’ give us even closer approximation to the sense of the word as used in the Qurʔān. – In the general sense of ‘seal’ it must have been an early borrowing, for already in Imruʔu ’l-Qays, xxxii, 4 (Ahlwardt, Divans, 136), we find the pl. ḫawātim used, and in the SAr inscriptions we have ḫtm (Rossini, Glossarium, 158).«
▪ Pennacchio2011, 10-11: »… the noun ḫātam ‘seal’, appearing only once in the Qur’ān, in the expression ‘seal of the prophets’ (33-40). The Prophet Muhammad is regarded as the ‘seal’ of the prophets, meaning the last one. His book is so clear that it cannot be misunderstood and therefore no other apostle will be needed after him. For Fraenkel, fāʕal is not a regular form in Ar and the vb. ḫatama ‘to seal’ is denom. The n. ḫātam seems to have been borrowed from Aram. For Hirschfeld, the word may well have a Jewish origin since it is found in a passage of the Bible in which a man is compared to a ‘seal’ ḥôtām (Hag 2:23). This biblical image probably served as an inspiration for the Qur’ānic one, but the borrowed word with the sense of ‘to seal’ existed much earlier since it appears in ʔImruʔ al-Qays’ verses and in a SAr inscription. According to Maximilian Ellenbogen, the Hbr ḥôtām was borrowed from the Eg ḫtm. This is attested neither in Akk nor in Ug. The initial /ḫ/ in the Ar word suggests that the latter has the same source as the Hbr. Had the word been borrowed from Hbr or Aram, it would probably have started with a /ḥ/.«
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2035: The authors reconstruct Sem *ḫatm‑ ‘ring; seal (on a ring)’, Eg ḫtm ‘stamp, seal’, WCh *qatam‑ ‘ring’, all from AfrAs *qatam‑ ‘ring, seal’.
DRS 10 (2012)#ḪTM-1: From Eg ḫtm ‘sceau, sceller’. 
– 
ḫātam al-zawāǧ, n., wedding ring.
ḫātam al-nabiyyīn, n., the Seal (i.e., the last) of the Prophets = Mohammed.

BP#3681ḫatama, i (ḫatm, ḫitām), vb. I, 1 to seal, provide with a seal or signet: denom.; 2 to stamp, impress with a stamp; 3 to seal off, close, make impervious or inaccessible; 4 to put one’s seal on, conclude, terminate; 5 to wind up, finish, complete; to close, heal, cicatrize (wound): fig. use.
taḫattama, vb. V, to put on or wear a ring (bi‑): denom., self-ref./refl.
BP#3621ĭḫtatama, vb. VIII, to conclude, finish, terminate, wind up: intr.

ḫatm, n., sealing: vn. I. – (pl. ʔaḫtām, ḫutūm) seal, signet, seal impring; stamp, stamp imprint: transferred meaning (from action to instrument used in it, or its object); also = ḫatmaẗ (see following item).
ḫatmaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., recital of the entire Koran, esp. on festive occasions.
ḫātām, pl. ḫawātīmᵘ, n., seal ring, signet ring; ring:…
BP#1971ḫitām, n., 1 sealing wax: transfer of meaning from quasi-vn. [v2] to the wax used in sealing; 2 end, close, conclusion, termination, closure, end: quasi-vn.
BP#4010ḫitāmī, adj., concluding, closing, final: nsb-adj., from ḫitām.
ĭḫtitām, n., end, close, conclusion, termination: vn. VIII.
ḫātimaẗ, pl. ḫawātimᵘ, ḫawātīmᵘ, n., 1 end, close, conclusion, termination: nominalized PA I f.; 2 epilogue (of a book): specialisation of [v1]; 3 ḫawātīmᵘ, pl., final stage.
muḫattam, adj., ringed, adorned with a ring or rings (hand): PP II.
muḫtatam, adj., end, close, conclusion, termination: n.loc. 
ḪDː (ḪDD) خدّ/خدد 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 12Mar2023
√ ḪDː (ḪDD) 
“root” 
▪ ḪDː (ḪDD)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḪDː (ḪDD)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḪDː (ḪDD)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘cheek, pillow, lateral side; furrow, groove, ditch, trench, to furrow, (of a flood) to cut a channel, to become divided into factions’ 
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ḪDR خدر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḪDR 
“root” 
▪ ḪDR_1 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ḪDR_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
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– 
DRS 10 (2012) #ḪDR-1 Akk ḫadāru, adāru ‘être sombre, obscur’, Ar ḫadar ‘nuit obscure’, ʔaḫdar ‘sombre, obscur’, ḫudraẗ ‘grande obscurité’. – ḫadira ‘être engourdi (membres), rester blotti dans sa tanière’, ḫaddara ‘engourdir, anesthésier’, Syr ḫidir ‘indolent, endormi’. – Ug ḥdr ‘chambre’, Hbr ḥȩdȩr ‘intérieur de la maison, chambre funéraire’, Pun ḥdr, ḥdrt ‘chambre, chambre funéraire’, Ar ḫidr ‘intérieur des appartements, gynécée; rideau, portière, voile qui cache le reste des appartements’, ḫidār ‘antre, caverne (du lion)’, ḫadara ‘s’arrêter et séjourner dans un lieu’, DaṯAr maḫdara ‘hutte faite pour le mariage’, Sab ḫdr, m(ḫ)dr ‘chambre, chambre funéraire’, Qat ḫdr ‘établir un magasin, un dépôt de marchandises’, ḫdr ‘magasin, dépôt de marchandises’, Soq ḥdr ‘s’arrêter’, maḥdera ‘rideau’, Jib ḫadər ‘grotte habitée; maison couverte de chaume, enclos’, Gz ḫadara ‘rester dans un endroit, fixer son domicile’, māḫdar ‘siège, domicile’, Tña ḫadärä ‘passer la nuit, séjourner’, Te ḥadra ‘rester, demeurer’, Amh Gaf Gur addärä, Har ḥadära, Arg addära ‘passer la nuit’. – ?2 Akk ḫadāru ‘s’exciter, se fâcher’, ? adāru ‘être sombre, obscur; avoir peur’. -3 Arḫadar ‘intensité (du froid ou de la chaleur), Ṣaf ḫdr ‘être intense’; ? Jib ḫodor, Ḥrs ḫedōr ‘dresser un parasol, monter une tente’. -4 Akk ḫadir ‘parc à petit bétail’. -5 YemAr maḫdūr ‘percé, perforé’, DaṯAr ḫaddar ‘percer, trouer, perforer’. -6 EAr ḫadīr ‘bouse de vache fraîche’. -7 Tña ḫaddärä ‘pousser, mûrir rapidement à la superficie du sol (sorte de tubercules appelés ḫadar)’.
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muḫaddir مُخَدِّر 
ID 250 • Sw – • BP 2291 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḪDR 
¹adj.; ²n. 
I adj., anesthetic, painkilling, tranquilizing; II pl. ‑āt, n.pl.f., 1 an anesthetic; 2 a narcotic, drug, dope – WehrCowan1979. 
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DRS 10 (2012) #ḪDR- 1 Akk ḫadāru, adāru ‘être sombre, obscur’, Ar ḫadar ‘nuit obscure’, ʔaḫdarᵘ ‘sombre, obscur’, ḫudraẗ ‘grande obscurité’. – ḫadira ‘être engourdi (membres), rester blotti dans sa tanière’, ḫaddara ‘engourdir, anesthésier’, Syr ḫidir ‘indolent, endormi’. – Ug ḥdr ‘chambre’, Hbr ḥȩdȩr ‘intérieur de la maison, chambre funéraire’, Pun ḥdr, ḥdrt ‘chambre, chambre funéraire’, Ar ḫidr ‘intérieur des appartements, gynécée; rideau, portière, voile qui cache le reste des appartements’, ḫidār ‘antre, caverne (du lion)’, ḫadara ‘s’arrêter et séjourner dans un lieu’, DaṯAr maḫdara ‘hutte faite pour le mariage’, Sab ḫdr, m(ḫ)dr ‘chambre, chambre funéraire’, Qat ḫdr ‘établir un magasin, un dépôt de marchandises’, ḫdr ‘magasin, dépôt de marchandises’, Soq ḥdr ‘s’arrêter’, maḥdera ‘rideau’, Jib ḫadər ‘grotte habitée; maison couverte de chaume, enclos’, Gz ḫadara ‘rester dans un endroit, fixer son domicile’, māḫdar ‘siège, domicile’, Tña ḫadärä ‘passer la nuit, séjourner’, Te ḥadra ‘rester, demeurer’, Amh Gaf Gur addärä, Har ḥadära, Arg addära ‘passer la nuit’. – 2-7 […].
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ḪDʕ خدع 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 12Mar2023
√ḪDʕ 
“root” 
▪ ḪDʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḪDʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḪDʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to cover up, cover, hide; an inner room, bed chamber; to cheat, deceive, delude; to take precautions; to become bad, stagnant; the jugular veins’ 
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ḪDM خدم 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 21Feb2021
√ḪDM 
“root” 
▪ ḪDM_1 ‘to attend to, serve’ ↗ḫadama
▪ ḪDM_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
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DRS 10 (2012) #ḪDM-1 Ar ḫadama ‘servir qn; travailler, être à œuvre’, MġrAr ḫdəm ‘servir qn, être au service de qn; travailler’, ḫdīm ‘serviteur, domestique’, Sab ḫtdm ‘faire cultiver (les champs), être cultivé (champ)’, ḫdmt ‘servante’, Qat ḫdm ‘exécuter, faire’ ; Soq ḥédom, Mhr ḫədōm, Jib ḫódúm ‘travailler’, Ḥrs ḫedōm ‘faire, travailler, construire’. -2 SyrAr nḫadam ‘se renverser’. -3 MġrAr ḫudmi, ḫadmi ‘couteau (surtout de cuisine)’.
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ḫadam‑ خَدَمَ , i, u (ḫidmaẗ
ID 251 • Sw – • BP 2129 • APD … • © SG | 21Feb2021
√ḪDM 
vb., I 
1a domestic servant, help;b manservant; c woman servant; 2 employee; 3 attendant; 4 waiter; 5 deacon (Chr.) – WehrCowan1979. 
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DRS 10 (2012) #ḪDM-1 Ar ḫadama ‘servir qn; travailler, être à œuvre’, MġrAr ḫdəm ‘servir qn, être au service de qn; travailler’, ḫdīm ‘serviteur, domestique’, Sab ḫtdm ‘faire cultiver (les champs), être cultivé (champ)’, ḫdmt ‘servante’, Qat ḫdm ‘exécuter, faire’ ; Soq ḥédom, Mhr ḫədōm, Jib ḫódúm ‘travailler’, Ḥrs ḫedōm ‘faire, travailler, construire’.
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ḫadama ’l-ʔarḍ, vb., to till or cultivate the soil;
ḫadamahū ḫidamāt kaṯīraẗ , expr., he rendered him many services;
ḫadama rikāba fulān, vb., to be at s.o.’s beck and call;
ḫadama maṣāliḥa fulān, vb., to serve s.o.’s interests;
ḫadama ’l-quddāsaẗ, vb., to celebrate Mass (Chr.).

ḫaddama, vb. II, 1a to employ, hire (s.o.), engage the services (of s.o.); b to give work (to s.o.), provide work (for): D-stem, caus.
BP#1055ĭstaḫdama, vb. X, 1a to employ, hire, take on (s.o., li‑ for s.th.), engage the services (li‑ of s.o. for s.th.); b to put in operation, operate (e.g., a public utility); c to employ, use (s.th., li‑ for), make use, avail o.s. (of s.th., li‑ for a purpose): *Št-stem, caus.autobenef.

ḫadam, n., servants, attendants.
BP#307ḫidmaẗ, pl. ḫidam, ‑āt, n.f., 1a a service (rendered); b attendance, service; 2 operation; 3a office, employment, occupation, job; b work: vn. I | fī ḫidmaẗ šayʔ, expr., in the service of s.th.; fī ḫidmatikum, expr., at your service; ḫidmaẗan lil-ḥaqīqaẗ, expr., in the interest of truth, for the sake of truth; al- ḫidmaẗ al-ʕaskariyyaẗ, n.f., military service; al- ḫidmaẗ al-ʔiǧbāriyyaẗ, n.f., conscription, compulsory service; al-ḫidmaẗ al-sirriyyaẗ, n.f., secret service (pol.); ḫidmaẗ al-quddās, n.f., celebration of Mass (Chr.).
ḫaddām, pl. ‑aẗ, n., 1a manservant, servant, attendant; b woman servant, female domestic servant, maid: ints. formation.
ḫadāmaẗ, n.f., 1 attendance, service; 2 employment, occupation, office, job.
ḫaddāmaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., woman servant, female domestic servant, maid: ints. formation, f.
taḫdīm, n., work, occupation or duty of an employment agent: vn. II | maktab al- taḫdīm, n., labor office, employment bureau.
BP#645ĭstiḫdām, n., 1a (putting into) operation; b use, utilization; 2a employment, hiring (of an employee); b service, occupation, position, job: vn. X.
BP#2129ḫādim, pl. ḫuddām, ḫadamaẗ, n., 1a domestic servant, help;b manservant; c woman servant; 2 employee; 3 attendant; 4 waiter; 5 deacon (Chr.): PA I.
ḫādimaẗ, n.f., 1a woman servant; b female domestic servant, maid; c woman attendant: PA I, f.
ḫādimiyyaẗ, n.f., status of a servant: abstr. formation in ‑iyyaẗ.
maḫdūm, pl. ‑ūn, maḫādīmᵘ, n., master, employer: PP I, lit. *ʻperson attended to’.
maḫdūmaẗ, n.f., mistress, lady (of the house), woman employer: PP I, f. of preceding.
maḫdūmiyyaẗ, n.f., status of the master or employer: abstr. formation in ‑iyyaẗ.
muḫaddim, pl. ‑ūn, n., employment agent: PA II.
BP#3089mustaḫdim, pl. ‑ūn, n., employer: PA X.
BP#3259mustaḫdam, 1 adj., used, utilized, employed; – 2 (colloq. mustaḫdim), pl. ‑ūn, n., employee, official: PP X.
 
ḪDN خدن 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 12Mar2023
√ḪDN 
“root” 
▪ ḪDN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḪDN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḪDN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘friend, companion, confidant; to take a friend; lover’ 
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ḫidīw خِدِيو , var. ḫudaywī 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 16May2023
ḪDW 
n. 
khedive – WehrCowan1976 
▪ Rolland2014 : from Pers ḫidīv ‘ruler, governor, king’, from mPers ḫʷatāy ‘God’, IE *gʰeu‑ ‘to pour a libation’ or *gʰeu(ə)‑ ‘to invoke’.49 – « Du même etymon » (accord. to Rolland) : ↗ḫawāǧaẗ. – See also EgAr ↗ḫōgaẗ
... 
– (loanword) 
▪ »Khedive (mPers ḫidev, nPers ḫediv, Ott hidiv, hıdīv, Ar ḫidīw[ī]) ‘great prince, ruler, master, sovereign’ was a Persian honourific title of sultans and grand viziers in Ottoman Turkish correspondence and poetry, and the imperial rank of the Ottoman governor of Egypt between 1867 and 1914. By the end of the nineteenth century, it was used in the sense of ‘viceroy of Egypt’ in Arabic, French, English, and other languages. / ḫediv in nPers possibly derives from ClassPers ḫudā-var ‘god-like’, that is, ‘ruler’« – A. Mestyan, art. »Khedive«, in ³EI (2020). 
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ḫidīwī, adj., khedivial: nsb-formation 
ḪḎL خذل 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 12Mar2023
√ḪḎL 
“root” 
▪ ḪḎL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḪḎL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḪḎL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘straggler; to stay behind, be left behind; to fail to support; to weaken, stay put’ 
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*ḪR‑ خرـ 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḪR‑ 
“root” 
▪ *ḪR–_1 ‘…’ ↗
▪ *ḪR–_2 ‘…’ ↗
– 
A bi-consonantal sequence that forms part of groups of several tri-consonantal themes. 
– 
– 
DRS 10 (2012): séquence biconsonantique présente dans des groupes des racines triconsonantiques dont chacun possède une valeur commune: 1. ‘bon, bien’: ḪRW, ḪWR. – 2. ‘creuser’: ḪRW, ḪRR, ḪRḪR, ḪRKM/N, ḪRQ, ḪRT. – 3. ‘fendre, déchirer’: ḪRBQ, ḪRṬ, ḪRʕ, ḪRŚ, ḪRQ, ḪRM, ḪRML, ḪRT. – 4. ‘nez; gorge’: ḪRṬ(M,Ṭ), ḪRR, ḪMR. – 5. ‘excréments’: ḪRR, ḪRʔ/Y, ḪRŠ, comparer sous *GR-. – 6. ‘se gâter’: ḪRB, ḪRWṬ, ḪLBṬ, ḪRBṢ.

For realisations of these values in MSA, cf.

1. ‘good, good thing’ ↗ḪYR.
2. ‘to pierce, perforate, make a hole’ ↗ḪRT, ↗ḪRQ.
3. ‘to split, mince, chop, throw into disorder, confuse, spoil’ ↗ḪRBṬ, ↗ḪRBQ, (?↗ḪRDL,) ↗ḪRṬ, ↗ḪRQ, ↗ḪRM.
4. ‘nose; to snore, murmur, bubble, gurgle; rhinoceros; trunk (of elephant)’ ↗ḪRː (ḪRR), ↗ḪRḪR, ↗ḪRṬṬ, ↗ḪRṬM.
5. ‘excrement, feces’ ↗ḪRʔ, ↗ḪRY.
6. ‘(to become) destroyed, ruined’ ↗ḪRB

– 
– 
ḪRː (ḪRR) خرّ / خرر 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḪRː (ḪRR) 
“root” 
▪ ḪRː (ḪRR)_1 ‘…’ ↗
▪ ḪRː (ḪRR)_2 ‘…’ ↗

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘sound of blowing wind, falling water or falling stones; rumbling, snoring, purring; to enjoy affluence; to surprise; to fall, to crumble, to collapse; to die’ 
▪ …
 
– 
DRS 10 (2012) #ḪRR-1 Akk ḫarāru ‘creuser, évider’, Aram ḥᵃrar, Ar ḫarra ‘creuser, perforer, percer’. – Akk ḫurr‑, Ug ḫr, ḫrt, Hbr ḥōr ‘trou’, Ar ḫurr ‘trou de la meule’, Sar ḥrt ‘canal d’irrigation; digue’, Ḥrs ḫerayt ‘déchirure’, ? Har aḫraḫara ‘creuser’. -2 Akk ḫarurt‑, Syr ḥarroštā ‘gorge’. – Syr ḥar ‘être enroué’, Ar ḫarra ‘ronfler; murmurer (eau)’, SyrAr ḫarr ‘frotter, produire un bruit, cliquetis, grondement, etc.’. – Akk ḫarāru, araru ‘pousser des cris de souffrance, croasser (?), avoir des convulsions (?)’. -? MġrAr ḫarr ‘sortir et s’écouler avec un léger bruit’. -? Akk ḫarāra, ḫarra, harr ‘protestation’. -3 Akk ḫarāru, arāru ‘trembler, vaciller’. – ? 4 Akk ḫarāru ‘répandre un liquide putride’, Ug ḫr ‘avoir des spasmes de diarrhée’, Ḥass ḫəṛṛ ‘déféquer’. -5 Ar ḫarra ‘tomber, tomber roide mort, se prosterner’. -6 Ḥaḍr ḫrr ‘coloniser (?)’. -7 Akk ḫurri, ḫur ‘toujours’.
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
ḫurr خُرّ 
ID … • Sw – • BP –APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ ḪRː (ḪRR) 
n. 
hole in the millstone to put the corn in – Ehret1995. 
▪ …
 
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ Ehret1995#402: ‎from a bi-consonantal “pre-Proto-Semitic” (pPS, i.e. preSem) root *ḫr ‘to split, make a hole in’ < ‎AfrAs *‑ḫʷâr‑ ‘to split, make a hole in’. – Extensions from the same pre-Sem root: ‎‎↗ḪRB, ↗ḪRT, ↗ḪRʕ, ↗ḪRQ
– 
– 
ḪRʔ خرأ 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḪRʔ 
“root” 
▪ ḪRʔ_1 ‘to evacuate the bowels, defecate’ ↗ḫariʔa
▪ ḪRʔ_2 ‘…’ ↗
 
▪ Kogan2011: from protWSem *ḫ˅rʔ‑ ḫarr, ḫurʔ, ḫary, which is one out of a variety of Sem terms for ‘excrement, dung’; cf. also ↗ǧallaẗ, ↗dimn, ↗ḍafʕ, ↗kibà, kibaẗ, kubaẗ, as well as ↗ẓiyyaẗ ‘corpse in putrefaction’.
▪ … 
– 
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
ḫariʔ‑ خرِئ , a (ḫarʔ
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḪRʔ 
vb., I 
to evacuate the bowels, defecate – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Kogan2011: from protWSem *ḫ˅rʔ‑ ḫarr, ḫurʔ, ḫary, which is one out of a variety of Sem terms for ‘excrement, dung’.
▪ … 
▪ … 
DRS 10 (2012)# ḪRʔ/Y: Ug ḫrʔ, ḫr, Syr ḥᵉrā, Ar ḫariʔa, Maġr ḫṛa, Tña ḥarʔe, Te ḥarʕa, Amh arra, Gur arre ‘aller à la selle, déféquer’, Ug *hrʔu, Hbr ḥᵃrāʔīm, ḥiryōnīm, nHbr ḥᵃrē, JP ḥārayyā, Ar ḫurʔ, Soq ḥaryomoh, Tña ḥarʔi, Amh ar, Arg har, Gur arä ‘fiente, excréments, matières fécales’. – Eg ḥryt, Demot ḥr.t, Copt ḥayre, Berb_Sous ihhan (pl.), Sa Af hara, Som ḥar, […] ‘excrément’. 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
ḫurʔ and ḫarāʔ, n., excrement, feces 
ḪRB خرب 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 12Mar2023
√ḪRB 
“root” 
▪ ḪRB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ḪRB_2 ‘carob’ ↗ḫarrūb
▪ ḪRB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to pull down, lay waste, level, destroy, ruin; ruins; to desert, neglect; to pierce’ 
▪ [v2] : From protSem *ḫar(r)ūb‑ ‘carob’ – Huehnergard2011.
▪ …
 
– 
▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl carob; algaroba, from Ar (al‑) ḫarrūbaẗ ‘(the) carob pod’, from ↗ḫarrūb ‘carob’. 
– 
ḪRTT خرتت
 
ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 19May2023
√ḪRTT 
“root” 
▪ ḪRTT_1 ‘rhinoceros’ ↗ḫartīt
 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ḫartīt خَرْتيت , var. ḫarṭīṭ خَرْطيط
 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 19May2023
√ḪRTT 
n. 
rhinoceros – WehrCowan1976
 
▪ … 
– 
– 
– 
ḪRǦ خرج 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḪRǦ 
“root” 
▪ ḪRǦ_1 ‘to go out, come out, emerge’ ↗ḫaraǧa
▪ ḪRǦ_2 ‘expenditure, expense(s), costs; land tax’ ↗ḫarǧ
▪ ḪRǦ_3 ‘’ ↗
▪ ḪRǦ_4 ‘’ ↗
▪ ḪRǦ_.. ‘’ ↗
▪ ḪRǦ_.. ‘’ ↗
▪ ḪRǦ_.. ‘’ ↗
▪ ḪRǦ_.. ‘’ ↗
▪ ḪRǦ_.. ‘(land) tax, kharaj (Isl.Law)’ ↗ḫarāǧ
▪ ḪRǦ_.. ‘saddlebag, portemanteau’ ↗ḫurǧ

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to exit, to issue, to emerge, to come out, to leave, to eject; to explain, to deduce; to cultivate; to show ability, to blossom, to yield, a yield, land taxation; to gain experience; taste, (of colour of herbage) to be patchy’ 
▪ …
 
– 
DRS 10 (2012) #ḪRG-1 Ar ḫaraǧa ‘sortir, sortir contre qn, se révolter’, ḫarǧ, ḫurǧ ‘dépense, frais; revenu, revenus d’un pays, d’une terre; impositions’, Ḥrs ḫerōg ‘sortir, partir; s’acquitter de qc, mourir’, Jib ḫarog ‘mourir, être perdu’; oḫorg ‘investir’. -2 Ar ḫarraǧa ‘élever, instruire qn dans les lettres, les bonnes manières, etc.’; SAr s̃ḫerg ‘lire; écrire un charme’, Mhr ḫōrəg ‘servir qn’, Mhr šəḫārəg ‘lire, interpréter’. – ? Sab ḫrg ‘intenter un procès à’. -3 Ar ʔaḫraǧᵘ ‘à deux couleurs, noir et blanc, clair et sombre’, ḫ̣araǧ ‘bigarrure’. -4 Ar ḫurǧ, Jib ḫarg, Mhr ḫarǧ, Ḥrs ḫəri ‘selle à sacoches pour un âne’, Tña kärädit ‘sac’. -5 Akk ḫarāg: récipient en argile.
▪ …
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
– 
ḫarāǧ خَراج 
ID 252 • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḪRǦ 
n. 
1a tax; b kharaj, land tax (Isl. Law) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ …
 
▪ … 
▪ ? DRS 10 (2012) #ḪRG-1 Ar ḫaraǧa ‘sortir, sortir contre qn, se révolter’, ḫarǧ, ḫurǧ ‘dépense, frais; revenu, revenus d’un pays, d’une terre; impositions’, Ḥrs ḫerōg ‘sortir, partir; s’acquitter de qc, mourir’, Jib ḫarog ‘mourir, être perdu’; oḫorg ‘investir’. -2-5 […].
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
 
ḫaraǧ‑ خَرَجَ 
ID 253 • Sw – • BP 345 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḪRǦ 
vb., I 
1a to go out, walk out; b to come out (min of), emerge (min from); c to drive or ride out, go out (in a vehicle); d to flow out, exude, effuse; e to go away, depart, leave, retire; f to protrude, project, stick out; g to leave (min s.th.); h to dismount, alight, disembark (min from), get out, step out (min of); 2 to emanate, issue, arise, originate, result (min from); 3a to draw away, segregate, separate, secede, dissent (ʕan from), disagree (ʕan with); b to deviate, depart (ʕan from an arrangement, from a principle); c to be an exception (ʕan to); d to be outside a given subject (ʕan), go beyond a topic (ʕan), exceed (ʕan a topic); e to be alien (ʕan to), be extraneous (ʕan from), not to belong (ʕan to), be not included (ʕan in), have nothing to do with (ʕan); lā yaḫruǧ ʕan, expr., it is limited to …, it is nothing but …; 4a to go forth (into battle); b to attack (ʕalà s.o., s.th.), rise, fight (ʕalà against); c to rebel, revolt (ʕalà against); 5 to violate, break, infringe (ʕalà a rule, a regulation); 6a ~ ʕalay-hī bi‑ , expr., to come up to s.o. with …, confront s.o. with …; b to get out, bring out, take out (bi‑ s.o.); c to turn out, oust, dislodge (bi‑ s.o.); d to lead away, dissuade (ʕan from, ʕan bi‑ s.o.);7 to find out, discover (bi‑ s.th.) – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ …
 
▪ … 
DRS 10 (2012) #ḪRG-1 Ar ḫaraǧa ‘sortir, sortir contre qn, se révolter’, ḫarǧ, ḫurǧ ‘dépense, frais; revenu, revenus d’un pays, d’une terre; impositions’, Ḥrs ḫerōg ‘sortir, partir; s’acquitter de qc, mourir’, Jib ḫarog ‘mourir, être perdu’; oḫorg ‘investir’. -2-5 […].
▪ … 
▪ …
▪ … 
– 
 
ḫurǧ خُرْج , pl. ḫiraǧaẗ 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḪRǦ 
n. 
saddlebag, portemanteau – WehrCowan1979. 
From Pers ḫurǧ ‘id.’ 
▪ … 
DRS 10 (2012) #ḪRG-1-3 […]. -4 Ar ḫurǧ, Jib ḫarg, Mhr ḫarǧ, Ḥrs ḫəri ‘selle à sacoches pour un âne’, Tña kärädit ‘sac’. -5 […].
▪ … 
There is also the obsol. Ar kurz ‘shepherd’s bag, knapsack’, which is from the same Pers etymon as ḫurǧ, but via Aram kurzā ‘id.’. See KRZ_6 s.v. ↗KRZ. 
– 
– 
ḪRDL خردل 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḪRDL 
“root” 
▪ BAH2008: ‘mustard seeds; a large chunk of meat, to cut into small pieces; (of a palm tree) to shed its fruits before they are ripe’

▪ ḪRDL_1 ‘mustard, mustard seeds’ ↗ḫardal

Other values, now obsolete:
  • ḪRDL_2 ‘to cut into big pieces’: ḫardala

Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘mustard seeds; a large chunk of meat, to cut into small pieces; (of a palm tree) to shed its fruits before they are ripe’ 
Out of the 4 values given in DRS for the root in Sem, only 1 (ḪRDL_1) is realized in MSA. 
– 
DRS 10 (2012)#ḪRDL–1: JP ḥardᵉlā, Ar ḫardal, Soq ḥardal ‘moutarde, senevé’. –2 Ar ḫardala ‘couper en gros morceaux’. –3 AndAr ḫardal ‘cueillir des raisins dans une grappe’; être petis ou rare (raisins). –4 MġrAr ḫardəl ‘parler à tort et à travers’ 
▪ The Ar values given in DRS apart from ‘mustard, mustard seeds’ are obsolete in MSA.
▪ Any relation between ḪRDL_1 ‘mustard (seeds)’ and ḪRDL_2 ḫardala ‘to cut into big pieces’ ? The latter may belong to a group of roots that seem to be derived from, or extensions of, a bi-consonantal basis ↗*ḪR- ‘to split, mince, chop, throw into disorder, confuse, spoil’, to which also belong ↗ḪRBṬ, ↗ḪRBQ, ↗ḪRṬ, ↗ḪRQ, ↗ḪRM
– 
– 
ḫardal خَرْدَل 
ID 254 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḪRDL 
n.coll. (n.un. ‑aẗ
mustard seeds; mustard – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ According to Jeffery, the Ar word is borrowed from Syr ḥarḏᵊlā ‘mustard (seeds)’, of unknown origin.
▪ From a cultural-historical perspective, the use of mustard seeds for medical purposes is interesting, cf., e.g., Lane ii (1865): ‘[mustard-seed;] the grain of a certain tree, (Q) well known; (Ṣ,Q) a species of ḥurf [q.v.]; (JQ) heating; emollient; drawing; a phlegmagogue; lenitive; digestive; used as a liniment, good for the niqris [or gout], and [especially] the nasā [or sciatica], and the [malignant species of leprosy termed] baraṣ, (Q) and the [mild species thereof termed] bahaq; clearing to the face; good for the alopecia, especially the wild sort thereof; (TA) its smoke drives away serpents, or, as in the Qānūn, venomous or noxious reptiles or the like; (TA) its juice, dropped, allays earache, (Q) and in like manner its oil; (TA) and its powder, upon the aching tooth, is extremly efficacious, (Q) especially when ḥilṯīt [or assa] has been cooked with it’. 
▪ eC7 (mustard seed) Q 21:47 wa-ʔin kāna miṯqāla ḥabbatin min ḫardalin ʔataynā bi-hā ‘Though it be of the weight of a grain of mustard seed, We bring it’ 
DRS 10 (2012)#ḪRDL-1: JP ḥardᵉlā, Ar ḫardal, Soq ḥardal ‘moutarde, senevé’ 
▪ Fraenkel1886: 141: is to be found in the Q due to the parable of the mustard seed, but must have been known in Arabia already earlier, since the word is attested already in the Dīwān of the Huḏaylites (Div. Huḏ. 83,3). The existence of the variant ḫarḏal (with instead of d) arouses the suspicion that it is from Syr.
▪ Jeffery1938, 122: »Both passages [in the Qurʔān] are reminiscent of the [Grk] hōs kókkon sinápeōs of Matt, xvii, 20, etc. – The Muslim authorities take it as an Ar word, though they are in some doubt as to whether it should be ḫardal or ḫarḏal. Fraenkel, Fremdw, 141, has shown, however, that the word is a borrowing from Aram ḥardāl; Syr ḥarḏᵊlā. The probabilities are in favour of its being from the Syr ḥarḏᵊlā, which as a matter of fact translates sínapi in the Peshitta text of Matt. xvii, 20, etc., and occurs also in Christian Palestinian.236 The borrowing will have been early for the word is used in the old poems, e.g. Dīwān Hudhayl, xcvii, 11.«
▪ Any relation between ḪRDL_1 ‘mustard (seeds)’ and ḪRDL_2 ḫardala ‘to cut into big pieces’? The latter may belong to a group of roots that seem to be derived from, or extensions of, a bi-consonantal basis ↗*ḪR- ‘to split, mince, chop, throw into disorder, confuse, spoil’, to which also belong ↗ḪRBṬ, ↗ḪRBQ, ↗ḪRṬ, ↗ḪRQ, ↗ḪRM. Mustard, then, could be *‘the crushed, grinded seeds’. 
– 
– 
ḪRŠF خرشف 
ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḪRŠF 
“root” 
▪ ḪRŠF_1 ‘artichoke’ ↗ḫuršūf

Other values, now obsolete (Hava1899):
  • ḪRŠF_2 ‘hard and rugged ground’: ḫiršāf
  • ḪRŠF_3 ‘to stir; uncouth speech’: ḫaršafaẗ
  • ḪRŠF_4 ‘’:
 
▪ …
 
– 
DRS 10 (2012)#ḪRŚP-1 Ar ḫiršāf ‘sol raboteux’. -2 ḫaršafaẗ ‘confusion dans les paroles’. -3 ḫaršūf ‘artichaut’, MġrAr ḫəršəf ‘cardon’. -4 MġrAr ḫəršəf ‘bourgeonner (nez, visage), se couperoser’ 
▪ ḪRŠF_1 perhaps from mPers, cf. ↗ḫuršūf 
▪ See ↗ḫuršūf
– 
ḫuršūf خُرْشوف , pl. ḫarāšīfᵘ 
ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
√ḪRŠF 
n.coll. (n.un. ‑aẗ
artichoke – WehrCowan1979. 
▪ Etymology obscure. According to Rolland2014a perhaps from mPers ḫār-šōb ‘stick with thorns’ (in which the element ḫār goes back to IE *kar‑ / *ker‑ ‘hard’, and šōb is from oPers čop ‘stick’).
▪ The Ar word is the etymon of Eur words for ‘artichoke’. The Arabs probably used the plant in medicine, thanks to the bitter chemical constituent cynarine contained in it (Osman2002). Artichokes were known in Italy by the 1450s, brought to Florence from Naples in 1466. 
▪ … 
DRS 10 (2012)#ḪRŚP-1-2 […]. -3 ḫaršūf ‘artichaut’, MġrAr ḫəršəf ‘cardon’. -4 […].
▪ … 
▪ Hava1899 marks ḫuršūf as specifically EgAr.
▪ Relation to other items of the root ↗ḪRŠF unclear. 
▪ [gnrl] : If DRS is right, the Sem root ḪRṬ displays 4 major values, all of which are represented in Ar (1 only in MġrAr). There is, however, enormous diversity within DRS’s #ḪRṬ-1, which would cover all of values [v1]-[v4], kept distinct here for systematic reasons. If DRS’ juxtaposition is valid, [v2]-[v4] are somehow fig. use of and/or semantic extensions from [v1]. Given (still with DRS) the wide attestation in Sem, one may assume a common origin of [v1]-[v4] and its cognates in Sem *ḪRṬ ‘to pull\scrape off, strip’. – Values [v5] and [v6] are not mentioned in DRS, while [v7] and [v10] are treated under √ḪRṬṬ. [v8] corresponds to DRS #ḪRṬ-4, and [v9] to DRS #ḪRṬ-3.
▪ [v1] : Ar ¹ḫaraṭa ‘to pull off, strip (leaves from a tree)’ may have preserved the Sem etymon *ḪRṬ ‘to pull\scrape off, strip’ rather faithfully. As can be seen from what DRS regards as cognates of the Ar items (see DRS #ḪRṬ-1 in section COGN, below), there is considerable semantic diversity within this group across Sem, so that it is difficult to decide which of the values should be more original than others; but the Ar [v1] is certainly a strong candidate. The value ²‘to turn, shape with a lathe (wood, metal)’ is widespread in Ar as well and seems to have in its turn formed the basis for further semantic developments (see [v2], perh. also [v3], unless directly from [v1]). Despite its obvious old age, however, this development seems to have remained an Ar ideosyncrasy, a special use of the original *‘scraping, stripping’.
▪ [v2] : The value ‘to exaggerate, boast, brag, lie’ (³ḫaraṭa) is prob. the result of fig. use of the secondary aspect of [v1], ‘turning, shaping with a lathe’ (²ḫaraṭa). According to WehrCowan1976, this semantic development is specific to EgAr; in DRS the value is marked as SyrAr EAr.
▪ [v3] : ⁴ḫaraṭa ‘to cut into small pieces, mince, chop, dice (meat, carrots, etc.)’ could be a specialisation based on either ¹ḫaraṭa ‘to pull off, strip (leaves from a tree)’ or ²ḫaraṭa ‘to turn, shape with a lathe (wood, metal)’. However, given the fact that the semantic relation between these and ‘to cut, mince, chop’ is not self-evident, it is perh. safer, for the moment, to keep the value apart.
▪ [v4] : A relation of vb. VII ĭnḫaraṭa ‘to join, enter, affiliate with, penetrate, plunge headlong into, embark rashly upon’ and [v1] ‘to scrape off, strip; to turn, shape with a lathe’ or [v2] ‘to exaggerate, boast, brag, lie’ or also [v3] ‘to cut, mince, chop’ is less than obvious. If [v4] has somehow developed from [v1], the line of derivation may be imagined as *‘to get quickly rid of the bark, etc. (for so to be free to go over to s.th. else and) > plunge into, embark rashly upon’. But this is still rather speculative. DRS does not list this value. Interestingly enough, however, Klein1987 establishes a similarly distinct value for postBiblHbr hiṯḥārēṭ ‘to repent, regret’ (from a homonymous root ²ḤRṬ) and puts Ar ĭnḫaraṭa ‘to do ignorantly’ (sic!) alongside with it.
▪ [v5] : no obvious semantic relation between SyrAr ḫarrāṭaẗ ‘skirt’ and any of the other values; perh. *‘easy to strip off’ (in which case it would be derived from [v1]). The value is not mentioned in DRS. If not from √ḪRṬ, it may be a borrowing (< Akk ?). For more details and discussion, see entry ↗ḫarrāṭaẗ.
▪ [v6] : Prob. via It carta (< Lat c(h)arta) from Grk χártē ‘sheet of paper’, itself perh. a borrowing (with metathesis, from Eg sḫr.t ‘bundle of papyrus rolls, scroll’?). The earlier form, Grk χártēs ‘leaf of paper, made from the separated layers of papyrus’ (LidellScott1901), may be the origin of, or have the same etymon as, Ar ↗qirṭās. In MSA, ḫāriṭaẗ has become confused with, and ousted by, ḫarīṭaẗ (in ClassAr meaning ‘leathern container, receptable’, see [v9]; the confusion may have become possible because maps used to be stored in leathern receptables). – For more details, and also a possible etymology of the Grk χártēs, see entry ↗ḫāriṭaẗ.
▪ [v7] : For ḫarṭīṭ ‘rhinoceros’, see s.v. (arranged s.r. ↗ḪRṬṬ).
[v8] : The etymology of ḫaraṭ ‘coagulation of the milk in the udder’ and related items
50 is obscure. DRS lists it as a distinct value (#ḪRṬ-4), but without cognates in other Sem languages.
[v9] : In Hava1899, ḫarīṭaẗ is rendered as ‘leathern bag for silkworms’ eggs’, while Lane ii 1865 has still the more general ‘receptable, pouch, purse (of leather, rag, etc.)’.51 The word is a nominalized quasi-PP I describing, originally, *‘scraped off’ leather, hence also bags or other receptables made thereof. – The confusion of the old, genuine ḫarīṭaẗ ‘leathern receptable’ with the younger borrowing ḫāriṭaẗ (prob. from It c(h)arta, see above, [v6]) as ‘map, chart’, was perh. possible because maps used to be kept in leathern containers. According to DHDA, ḫarīṭaẗ is first attested in 681 CE (in the sense of ‘leathern container, receptable’), while ḫāriṭaẗ appeared only much later (not attested in sources of the first three Islamic centuries).
[v10] : Formed on the rare pattern XIII (ĭFʕawwaLa), the vb. ĭḫrawwaṭa comes with a variety of values of which some hardly can be linked to any of the other values represented in the root. One is ‘to become long (beard); to protract (bi‑ a journey)’. Etymology obscure.
[v11] : Another strange value ofĭḫrawwaṭa is ‘to hurry on’. Etymology obscure.
[v12] : For ḫirṭīṭ (pl. ḫarāṭīṭᵘ) ‘butterfly brightly coloured’, see s.v. (arranged s.r. ↗ḪRṬṬ).
 
– 
▪ Klein1987, DelOlmoLete2003, DRS #ḪRṬ-1 Akk ḫarāṭu ‘to eat, devour (leaves, etc.)’,113 Ug ḫrṭ ‘plumer (?) | to pull out, pull up, pluck’, Hbr ḥᵆrät ‘stylet pour écrire, graver | graving tool, stylus’, modHbr ‘pen, pencil’, postBiblHbr ḥāraṭ ‘to chisel, engrave’, modHbr ‘to etch, turn’, Syr ḥᵃrat ‘entailler, inciser, couper, déchirer | to cut, scratch, tear’, Ar ḫaraṭa ‘enlever l’écorce, effeuiller un arbre; tourner, façonner au tour; atterrer, ruiner, affliger’, SyrAr EAr ḫaraṭ ‘fabriquer des mensonges; trancher, frapper’, ḫaraṭ, ḫawraṭ ‘emporter la terre (eau de ravinement)’, MġrAr ḫarəṭ ‘raviner; bâcler; racler, raboter’, ? ḫarreṭ ‘faire peur, causer de la frayeur’; ttəḫrəṭ ‘se détourner pour dégainer son arme’, Sab ḫrṭ ‘saisir vivement, dégainer’, Soq ḥeroṭ ‘dégainer; cueillir’, Jib ḫaroṭ ‘dépouiller une branche de feuilles et de fruits’. Les verbes SAr et leurs formes dérivées ont aussi des sens figurés : ‘se disputer, injurier, insulter’. – Voir aussi ḪRT. -2 MġrAr ḫraṭ ‘s’habituer à, se familiariser avec; faire montre de trop de familiarité’, cp. KRT. -3 Hbr ḥārîṭ ‘poche, bourse’, Ar ḫarṭaẗ ‘sac, sacoche’. -4 Ar ḫaraṭ ‘maladie des femelles à lait, dont le lait coule en grumeaux’.
▪ Klein1987 : postBiblHbr hiṯḥārēṭ ‘to repent, regret’, Ar ĭnḫaraṭa ‘to do ignorantly’
 
– 
– 
ḫaraṭ‑ خَرَطَ , u, i (ḫarṭ)
 
ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 19May2023
√ḪRṬ 
vb., I 
1 to pull off, strip (leaves from a tree); 2 to turn, lathe, shape with a lathe (‑h wood, metal); – 3 u (EgAr) to exaggerate, boast, brag, lie; – 4 u (EgAr) a to cut into small pieces; b to mince, chop, dice (meat, carrots, etc.) – WehrCowan1976
 
▪ [v1] : ḫaraṭa in the sense of ‘to pull off, strip (leaves from a tree)’ may have preserved the Sem etymon *ḪRṬ ‘to pull\scrape off, strip’ rather faithfully. As can be seen from what DRS regards as cognates of the Ar items (DRS #ḪRṬ-1, see below, section COGN), there is considerable semantic diversity within this group across Sem, so that it is difficult to decide which of the values should be more original than others; but the Ar value is certainly a good candidate (see below, section DISC).
▪ [v2] ‘to turn, shape with a lathe (wood, metal)’ is widespread in Ar and seems to have itself formed the basis for further semantic development (see [v3] and [v4]). Despite its obvious old age, however, this development seems to have remained an Ar ideosyncrasy, a special use of the original *‘scraping, stripping’, i.e., [v1].
▪ [v3] ‘to exaggerate, boast, brag, lie’ is prob. the result of fig. use of [v2], where the fabrication of lies etc. is compared to ‘turning, shaping s.th. with a lathe’. According to WehrCowan1976, this semantic development is specific to EgAr; in DRS, however, the value is marked as SyrAr and EAr. Or should one compare Copt šōrt ‘to confuse; to be mentally confused, crazy, obsessed’? The latter is prob. fig. use, from Copt šort, šoort, šart ‘veil, cover’ (< Eg ḫrd ‘bundle of linen’) – Westendorf2008.52
▪ [v4] : The meaning ‘to cut into small pieces, mince, chop, dice (meat, carrots, etc.)’ of ḫaraṭa could be a specialisation based on either [v1] ‘to pull off, strip (leaves from a tree)’ or [v2] ‘to turn, shape with a lathe (wood, metal)’. However, given the fact that the semantic relation between these and ‘to cut, mince, chop’ is not self-evident, it is perh. safer, for the moment, to keep the value apart.
▪ [gnrl] : For historically attested values that clearly are akin to those of the present entry, see below, section HIST. For other (possibly related) values, see section DISC.
▪ [gnrl] : A relation of vb. VII, ↗ĭnḫaraṭa ‘to join, enter, affiliate with, penetrate, plunge headlong into, embark rashly upon’ and any of the other values of ḫaraṭa may exist, but is hard to establish. If ĭnḫaraṭa has somehow developed from [v1] ‘to strip/peel off (bark, etc.)’, the line of derivation may be imagined as *‘to get quickly rid of the bark, etc. (for so to be free to go over to s.th. else and) > plunge into, embark rashly upon’. But this is rather speculative. DRS does not list ĭnḫaraṭa. Interestingly enough, however, Klein1987 establishes a similar, distinct value for postBiblHbr hiṯḥārēṭ ‘to repent, regret’ (from a homonymous root ²ḤRṬ) and puts Ar ĭnḫaraṭa ‘to do ignorantly’ (sic!) alongside with it.
▪ [gnrl] : ḫarīṭaẗ ‘receptable, pouch, purse (of leather, rag, etc.)’ (↗ḪRṬ_9) seems to be a quasi-PP I describing, originally, *‘scraped off’ leather, hence also bags or other receptables made thereof. – For confusion and semantic merger ḫarīṭaẗ ~ ḫāriṭaẗ ‘map, chart’ (prob. from It c(h)arta), see ↗ḫāriṭaẗ.
▪ [gnrl] : No obvious semantic relation with other items from same root, √ḪRṬ. SyrAr ↗ḫarrāṭaẗ ‘skirt’ is perh. *‘(the garment that is) easy to strip off’ (in which case it would be derived from [v1]). The value is not mentioned in DRS. |
▪ [gnrl] : The etymology of ḫaraṭ ‘coagulation of the milk in the udder’ (↗ḪRṬ_8) and related items53 is obscure. DRS lists it as a distinct value (#ḪRṬ-4), but without cognates in other Sem languages.
▪ [gnrl] : For the rare vb. XIII, ĭḫrawwaṭa, and its various meanings, cf. ↗ḪRṬ_10-11.
 
▪ Hava1899 lists some more historically attested values that shed more light on the semantics in question here:
  • To [v1] we may put : ḫaraṭa (u, i; ḫarṭ) ‘to beat off (the leaves of a tree); to pick (grapes with the hand)’ ; ḫaraṭa (I) and ḫarraṭa (II) ‘to purge s.o. (medicine)’ (< * ‘to make s.o. get rid of unwanted food, etc.’), hence also ĭnḫaraṭa (VII) ‘to be slender (body)’ ; ĭḫtaraṭa (VIII) ‘to unsheathe (a sword)’ ; the adj. ḫarūṭ (pl. ḫurṭ) for ‘restive (animal)’ is obviously fig. use, likening an obstinate animal to a twig that resists being stripped of its leaves or bark.
  • Ad [v2] : ḫurāṭaẗ ‘parings falling from a lathe’
  • Ad [v3] : ḫaraṭa ‘to brag; to crack a joke’, (?) ḫarūṭ (pl. ḫurṭ) ‘blunderer; humbug’
  •  
    ▪ Klein1987, DelOlmoLete2003, DRS #ḪRṬ-1 Akk ḫarāṭu ‘to eat, devour (leaves, etc.)’,114 Ug ḫrṭ ‘plumer (Tropper2008 : ‘Federn rupfen’) | to pull out, pull up, pluck’, Hbr ḥᵆrät ‘stylet pour écrire, graver | graving tool, stylus’, modHbr ‘pen, pencil’, postBiblHbr ḥāraṭ ‘to chisel, engrave’, modHbr ‘to etch, turn’, Syr ḥᵃrat ‘entailler, inciser, couper, déchirer | to cut, scratch, tear’, Ar ḫaraṭa ‘enlever l’écorce, effeuiller un arbre; tourner, façonner au tour; atterrer, ruiner, affliger’, SyrAr EAr ḫaraṭ ‘fabriquer des mensonges; trancher, frapper’, ḫaraṭ, ḫawraṭ ‘emporter la terre (eau de ravinement)’, MġrAr ḫarəṭ ‘raviner; bâcler; racler, raboter’, ? ḫarreṭ ‘faire peur, causer de la frayeur’; ttəḫrəṭ ‘se détourner pour dégainer son arme’, Sab ḫrṭ ‘saisir vivement, dégainer’, Soq ḥeroṭ ‘dégainer; cueillir’, Jib ḫaroṭ ‘dépouiller une branche de feuilles et de fruits’. Les verbes SAr et leurs formes dérivées ont aussi des sens figurés : ‘se disputer, injurier, insulter’.115 – Voir aussi ḪRT. -2-4 ....
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ The reconstruction of Sem *ḪRṬ ‘to pull\scrape off, strip’ can be based on Akk ḫarāṭu ‘to eat, devour (leaves, etc.) | (von Soden, AHW:) abfressen (wie Heuschrecken), i.e., eat away, gnaw off (like locusts)’, Ar ḫaraṭa ‘to remove (bark), strip (a tree)’, MġrAr ḫarəṭ ‘to scrape, plane’, Soq ḥeroṭ ‘to draw; to pluck’, perh. also Ug ḫrṭ ‘to pluck (geese, etc.)’; Jib ḫaroṭ ‘stripping a branch of leaves and fruit’ may be an Arabism. (In Hbr and Syr, the general meaning is rather *‘to incise, cut, engrave’.)
    ▪ ...
     
    – 
    EgAr ḫarraṭ, vb. II, to cut into small pieces, mince, chop: D-stem, ints. (cf. ⁴ḫaraṭa)
    ĭnḫaraṭa, vb. VII, 1 to be turned, be lathed, be shaped with a lathe; 2-3 ↗s.v.: N-stem, pass. (< ²ḫaraṭa)

    ḫarṭ, n., 1 pulling-off (of leaves) | dūna ḏālika ḫarṭ al-qatād, expr., before one can do that, one must strip the tragacanth of its leaves, i.e., accomplish the impossible; 2 turning, turnery : vn. I of ¹ḫaraṭa and ²ḫaraṭa, respectively.
    ḫarrāṭ, n., pl. ‑ūn, 1 turner, lather; 2 (EgAr) braggart, bluffer, storyteller: ¹n.prof., ²fig. use (?) (both < ²ḫaraṭa)
    ḫirāṭaẗ, n.f., turner’s trade, turnery, art of turning: vn. I (²ḫaraṭa)
    ḫarrāṭaẗ, n.f., 1 ↗s.v.; – 2 (EgAr) chopping knife, mincing knife, mezzaluna: ²ints-formation, quasi-n.instr. (⁴ḫaraṭa)
    miḫraṭaẗ, n.f., pl. maḫāriṯᵘ, lathe: n.instr. (²ḫaraṭa)
    maḫrūṭ, 1a n., cone (math.); b adj., conic: PP I (< ²ḫaraṭa)
    maḫrūṭī, adj., conic : nsb-formation of preceding

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗(SyrAr) ḫarrāṭaẗ, ↗ḫāriṭaẗ and also ↗ḫarṭīṭ, as well as, for the whole picture, root entries ↗ḪRṬ and ↗ḪRṬṬ.
     
    ĭnḫaraṭaاِنْخَرَطَ, ‑nḫariṭ‑ (ĭnḫirāṭ)
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 19May2023
    √ḪRṬ 
    vb., VII
     
    1ḫaraṭa; 2a to join, enter, affiliate (, fī silkⁱ... with an organisation, a community); b to penetrate ( s.th. or into); c to plunge headlong ( into), embark rashly ( upon); 3 to labor, slave, toil – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ While the vb. VII ĭnḫaraṭa also occurs in the pass. sense of ‘to be turned, be lathed, be shaped with a lathe’ (where it is from ↗²ḫaraṭa), a relation of the values ²‘to join, enter, affiliate with, penetrate, plunge headlong into, embark rashly upon’ and ³‘to labor, slave, toil’ to any of the values of ↗ḫaraṭa is hard to establish. What could be the common denominator of ‘joining, entering, affiliating with; penetrating; laboring, toiling’ on the one hand, and ‘scraping off, stripping’, ‘shaping with a lathe’, ‘fabricating lies, boasting, bragging’ and ‘cutting, mincing, chopping’, on the other hand? If ‘joining, entering, affiliating with’ etc. is somehow dependent on ‘scraping off, stripping’, a derivation trajectory may be imagined as *‘to get quickly rid of the bark, etc. (for so to be free to go over to s.th. else and) > plunge into, embark rashly upon’. But this would be highly speculative. – DRS does neither list ĭnḫaraṭa nor items with similar semantics. In contrast, and interestingly enough, Klein1987 establishes a homonymous Hbr root ⁱⁱḤRṬ alongside the main ⁱḤRṬ; under ⁱⁱḤRṬ he groups postBiblHbr hiṯḥārēṭ ‘to repent, regret’ and list Ar ĭnḫaraṭa ‘to do ignorantly’ (sic!) as a cognate.
    ▪ An item with a similar meaning, traditionally likewise ascribed to √ḪRṬ, is the rare vb. XIII ĭḫrawwaṭa in the sense of ‘to be entangled (bi‑ in a snare; hunter); hence (?) also : to become long (beard); to hurry on; to protract (bi‑ a journey)’ – Hava1899.
     
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ Cf. ↗ḫaraṭa ?
    ▪ Klein1987 : postBiblHbr hiṯḥārēṭ ‘to repent, regret’, Ar ĭnḫaraṭa ‘to do ignorantly’ (sic!)
     
    ĭnḫaraṭa fī ’l-bukāʔ, to break into tears

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ḫaraṭa, ↗(SyrAr) ḫarrāṭaẗ, ↗ḫāriṭaẗ and also ↗ḫarṭīṭ , as well as, for the whole picture, root entries ↗ḪRṬ and ↗ḪRṬṬ.
     
    (SyrAr) ḫarrāṭaẗ خَرّاطة
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 19May2023
    √ḪRṬ 
    n.f. 
    1 (SyrAr) skirt; 2ḫaraṭa – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ While ḫarrāṭaẗ, in EgAr, signifies a [v1] ‘chopping\mincing knife, mezzaluna’ and is as such an ints-formation, used as a quasi-n.instr., from EgAr ↗⁴ḫaraṭa ‘to cut into small pieces, mince, chop, dice (meat, carrots, etc.)’, the SyrAr value [v2] ‘skirt’ does not have a self-evident etymology. Perhaps it is the *‘garment that is easy to strip off’, in which case it would be derived from ¹ḫaraṭa. – For other possible etymologies, see below, section DISC.
    ▪ …
     
    ḫarrāṭaẗ ‘petticoat’ – Hava1899.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ Klein1987, DelOlmoLete2003, DRS #ḪRṬ-1ḫaraṭa. -2 .... -3 Hbr ḥārîṭ ‘poche, bourse’, Ar ḫarṭaẗ ‘sac, sacoche’. -4 ....
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ The value ‘skirt’ is not mentioned in DRS but confirmed in several sources. If it is not from ¹ḫaraṭa ‘to strip off’, it is likely a borrowing. Hoch1994 #353 mentions the item as possibly related to Eg *ḫariṭa or *ḫariṭ (?) ‘a garment?, bag\purse?’, a word with unclear meaning but apparently signifying s.th. that is »always ... made of fine linen«. »Perhaps«, the author speculates, one has to compare »BiblHbr ḥᵃrîṭîm, sometimes rendered ‘purses’, which occurs in a list of women’s garments (Isa. 3:22), but is used to wrap pieces of silver (Kings 5:23). The Hbr word is apparently related to Ar ḫarīṭaẗ ‘bag’, modSyrAr ḫarrāṭaẗ ‘skirt’. The Akk ḫurdatu (a garment or cover), although dubious,237 is another possibility. Černý (Ety.Dict. 252) identified the word with SCopt šort ‘awning, veil’, but the connection is not certain.« – Given that the value ‘skirt’ of ḫarrāṭaẗ seems to be a specifically Levantine phenomenon, an Akk etymology would look more likely than a Copt one. But the morpho-phonological structures of Ar ḫarrāṭaẗ and Akk ḫurdaẗ are quite different, so that also an Akk etymology would be problematic. Moreover, Hoch’s equation of ḫarrāṭaẗ ‘skirt’ with ḫarīṭaẗ ‘(leathern) bag, purse, receptable’ is doubtful, as the latter is a quasi-PP I, orig. prob. meaning *‘scraped off’, sc. referring to the leather, while the Faʕʕālaẗ form of ḫarrāṭaẗ rather has active connotations. And: if the meaning ‘skirt’ were simply a semantic development from ‘bag’ – a skirt seen as a ‘container’ – then why should Levantines not have taken ḫarīṭaẗ itself?
    ▪ ...
     
    – 
    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ḫaraṭa, ↗ĭnḫaraṭa, ↗ḫāriṭaẗ and also ↗ḫarṭīṭ , as well as, for the whole picture, root entries ↗ḪRṬ and ↗ḪRṬṬ.
     
    ḫāriṭaẗخارِطة, pl. ‑āt
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP 3518 • APD … • © SG | 19May2023
    √ḪRṬ 
    n.f.
     
    map, chart – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ Prob. via It carta (< Lat c(h)arta) from Grk χártē ‘sheet of paper’, itself perh. a borrowing (with metathesis, from Eg sḫr.t ‘bundle of papyrus rolls, scroll’ ?). The earlier form, Grk χártēs ‘leaf of paper, made from the separated layers of papyrus’ (LidellScott1901), may be the origin of, or have the same etymon as, ↗qirṭās.
    ▪ In MSA, the value ‘map, chart’ is more frequently expressed by ḫarīṭaẗ than by ḫāriṭaẗ. In ClassAr, ḫarīṭaẗ meant ‘receptable, pouch, purse (of leather, rag, etc.)’ (see ↗ḪRṬ_9). Formed on the quasi-PP I pattern Faʕīlaẗ, ḫarīṭaẗ originally meant *‘scraped off’, prob. referring to the leather from which the bags etc. were made. – Was the confusion of, and eventual merger between, the old, genuine ḫarīṭaẗ ‘leathern receptable’ and the younger borrowing ḫāriṭaẗ as ‘map, chart’ perh. possible because maps used to be kept in leathern containers? According to DHDA, ḫarīṭaẗ is first attested in 681 CE (in the sense of ‘leathern container, receptable’), while ḫāriṭaẗ appeared only much later (not attested in sources of the first three Islamic centuries).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ Klein1987, DelOlmoLete2003, DRS #ḪRṬ- [?]1ḫaraṭa. -2 .... -[?] 3 Hbr ḥārīṭ ‘poche, bourse’, Ar ḫarṭaẗ ‘sac, sacoche’. -4 ....
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ Rolland2014̈ (s.v. ḫarīṭaẗ, var. ḫāriṭaẗ ‘carte (de géographie)’238 et q˅rṭās ‘cahier, feuille, papier’) : « Seraient tous deux issus – directement ou via les formes latinisées carta et chart – du Grk χártēs ‘rouleau de papyrus’. C’est l’opinion de Rajki, confirmé par Nişanyan. / Mais si l’emprunt semble avéré pour qarṭās, les choses sont moins claires pour ḫarīṭaẗ, que la plupart de nos auteurs semblent considérer comme un simple dérivé adjectival substantivé du verbe ḫaraṭa ‘dépouiller une branche de ses feuilles’. Auquel cas, l’origine de [Grk] χártēs étant inconnue, tout laisse supposer, pour ce mot comme pour bon nombre d’autres mots grecs, une origine sémitique (phénicienne?) commune à Ar ḫarīṭaẗ et au Grk χártēs. / Dans un deuxième temps, l’arabe aura emprunté à son tour Grk χártēs sous les formes ḫāriṭaẗ et qarṭās. / Du même étymon : ḫarṭūš ou ḫarṭūšaẗ ‘cartouche’ < Fr cartouche < It cartoccio, proprement ‘cornet de papier’, diminutif de carta ‘papier’ ; et [Ar] kārtūn ou kartūn ‘carton’ < Fr carton < It cartone, augmentatif de carta.
     
    ▪ Not from Ar ḫāriṭaẗ ~ ḫarīṭaẗ, but perh. from the main source is Engl card : »(eC15) ‘a playing card’, from oFr carte (C14), from mLat carta/charta ‘a card, paper; a writing, a charter’, from Lat charta ‘leaf of paper, a writing, tablet’, from Grk χártēs ‘layer of papyrus’, which is prob. from Eg (see below). The form has been influenced by It cognate carta ‘paper, leaf of paper’. Compare chart (n.). The shift in Engl from -t to -d is unexplained« – EtymOnline.
    ▪ Cf. also Fr chartre, from ClassLat chartula ‘petit écrit’, en LLat et mLat ‘acte, document’, from ClassLat charta ‘feuille de papyrus préparée pour recevoir l’écriture’, d’où ‘écrit’ et ‘lettre’, spécialement en LLat (pl.) ‘écrits, actes authentiques; pièces d’archives’; en mLat ‘acte dispositif’ – CNRTL.
    ▪ Grk (χártē <) χártēs is, in its turn, quite likely to be a borrowing. Beekes and others (EtymOnline, Kluge, etc.) assume that the donor must have been Eg; but, apparently, there is no semantically or phonologically obvious Eg etymon. The only candidates in TLA that could come close to Grk χártēs are the divine epitheton Eg ḥr.jt-wʾḏ=s ‘the one (goddess) who is on her papyrus column’ and sḫr.t ‘bundle of papyrus rolls, scroll’. The former is semantically prob. too specialised to pass as a serious candidate for the etymon of Grk χártēs; the latter could fit with regard to the semantics, but we would have to assume a metathesis Eg sḫr.t [> *ḫrts] > Grk χártēs. So, is it perh. from a Sem language (Phoen?, as Rolland2014 asks)? This would be similar to the view, put forward by ClassAr sources, that ḫarīṭaẗ is a quasi-PP I from ¹ḫaraṭa, i.e., the *‘(container made from) scrapped off (skin, i.e., leather)’.
    ▪ ...
     
    ḫāriṭaẗ al-ṭarīq, road map

    BP#2687ḫarīṭaẗ, pl. ḫarāʔiṭᵘ, ḫuruṭ, n.f., map, chart

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ḫaraṭa, ↗ĭnḫaraṭa, ↗(SyrAr) ḫarrāṭaẗ, and also ↗ḫarṭīṭ , as well as, for the whole picture, root entries ↗ḪRṬ and ↗ḪRṬṬ.
     
    ḪRṬŠ خرطش 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √ḪRṬŠ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḪRṬŠ_1 ‘cartridge; lead (of a pencil); cartouche (arch ); daybook’ ↗ḫarṭūš
    ▪ ḪRṬŠ_ ... 
    ▪ [v1] : (Rolland2014) : < Fr cartouche < It cartoccio, proprement ‘cornet de papier’, diminutif de carta ‘papier’ < Grk χártēs ‘rouleau de papyrus’ [perh., with metathesis, from Eg sḫr.t ‘bundle of papyrus roles, scroll’ – S.G.] 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḫarṭūš خَرْطوش , and ḫarṭūšaẗ, pl. ḫarāṭīšᵘ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √ḪRṬŠ 
    n./n.f. 
    1 cartridge; 2 lead (of a pencil); 3 cartouche (arch. ); 4 daybook – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ (Rolland2014): < Fr cartouche < It cartoccio, proprement ‘cornet de papier’, diminutif de carta ‘papier’ < Grk χártēs ‘rouleau de papyrus’ [perh., with metathesis, from Eg sḫr.t ‘bundle of papyrus rolls, scroll’ – S.G.] 
    ... 
    - (loanword) 
    ḪRṬṬ خرطط
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 19May2023
    √ḪRṬṬ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḪRṬṬ_1 ‘rhinoceros’ ↗ḫarṭīṭ
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḫarṭīṭ خَرْطيط, var. ḫartīt خَرْتيت
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 19May2023
    √ḪRṬ, ḪRṬṬ 
    n.
     
    rhinoceros – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ … 
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    – 
    – 
    ḪRṬM خرطم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 12Mar2023
    √ḪRṬM 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḪRṬM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḪRṬM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḪRṬM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘nose, trunk (of an elephant), to hit on the nose, to bottle up one’s anger; notables’ 
    ▪ … 
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    – 
    – 
    ḪRʕ خرع 
    Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
    √ḪRʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ … 
    ĭḫtirāʕ اِخْتِراع 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 4502 • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023
    √ḪRʕ 
    n. 
    ▪ vn., VIII 
    ḪRF خرف 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪRF 
    “root” 
    There seem to be 2 main themes:

    ▪ ḪRF_1 ‘to talk foolishly’ ↗ḫaraf
    ▪ ḪRF_2 ‘autumn, fall; lamb’ ↗ḫarīf, ↗ḫarūf 

    ▪ From protSem *√ḪRP ‘to be early, do (something) early’, with associated nouns denoting ‘early season’ – Huehnergard2011.
    … 
    – 
    ▪ For ḪRF_1 cf. DRS 10 (2012) s.v. ḪRP-3: Hbr *ḥārap ‘railler, insulter’ [BDB ḥārap̄ ‘to reproach’, prop. ‘to say sharp things against’, cf. Aram ḥᵃrap̄‑ ‘reproach’, Syr ḥarep ‘to sharpen’, ḥarīp ‘sharp, keen’, (CAD) Akk ḫarāpu (ḫarābu) ‘to cut’], Ar ḫarifa ‘avoir le cerveau troublé, délirer, radoter (vieillard)’, Maġr ḫarrəf, or. ḫarraf ‘débiter des balivernes, radoter’, ḫrāfa ‘conte’, Jib ḫarof ‘débiter des absurdités, des inepties’.

    For ḪRF_2 cf. ibid 10 (2012) s.v. ḪRP-2: Akk ḫarāpu (also ḫarābu) ‘être précoce’ [CAD ‘to be early’], ḫarp‑ ‘précoce’ [CAD ḫarpu ‘early’], ḫarpū (pl.) ‘autumn’ [CAD ḫarpū plurale tantum 1. (OA only) ‘(early) harvest’, 2. ‘summer’], ? Ug ḫrpnt ‘autumn’, Hbr ḥoręp‑ ‘autumn, autumn and winter’ [BDB ḥoräp̄ ‘harvest-time, autumn’], Ar ḫarīf ‘autumn, autumn rain’, ḫarāf ‘temps de la récolte des fruits’, YemAr ḫarīf ‘année (en cours)’, Maġr ḫrīf ‘arrière-saison, automne’, ḫrəf ‘passer de saison, cesser de donner des fruits’, Sab Qat ḫrf ‘autumn’, Qat ‘autumn harvest, year’, Mhr ḫarf, Jib ḫorf ‘période des pluies de mousson (de juin au début de septembre)’, Soq ḥorf, Hars ḫōref ‘autumn’, Gz ḫarif ‘l’année en cours’. – Akk ḫurāp‑ ‘mouton de l’année’ [CAD ḫurāpu adj. ‘spring (lamb/kid)’, from OB on], Ug ? ḫrpt ‘brebis (?)’, Syr ḥūrpā ‘brebis d’un an’, Ar ḫarūf ‘agneau, jeune mouton mâle, jeule poulain’, Min ḫrf ‘mouton (?)’. – [CAD ḫurpu ‘early crop’] Ar ḫarīf ‘cueilli (fruit), feuille d’automne, feuille tombée’ [BDB ‘freshly gathered fruit’], YemAr taḫarraf ‘to harvest’, Mhr ḫayref ‘mûrir, fleurir’, Jib ḫerf ‘produire des fruits’, Soq ḥorf ‘fruit, récolte’, Ḥars ḫōref ‘cueillir’. – ḫerefōt ‘petit lièvre’. 

    While ḪRF_1 and ḪRF_2 really seem to be different items,239 the relation within ḪRF_2 between ‘autumn, fall’ (↗ḫarīf) and ‘lamb’ (↗ḫarūf) is probably the fact that the lamb is called after the season, or a one year-old lamb after the return of the season in which it was born, a lamb thus being ‘the fall-born’. Cf. cognates as quoted from DRS above. 
    – 
    ḫarifa, a (ḫaraf), vb. I: ↗ḫaraf
    ḫarrafa, vb. II: ↗ḫaraf
    ḫarif and ḫarfān, adj. : ↗ḫaraf
    BP#3094ḫarīf, n.: ↗s.v.
    ḫarīfī, adj.: ↗ḫarīf
    , n.: ↗s.v.
    ḫurāfaẗ, n. : ↗ḫaraf
    ḫurāfī, adj. ↗ḫurāfaẗ
    maḫrafaẗ, n. ↗ḫaraf
    taḫrīf, n. ↗ḫaraf
    muḫarrif, adj./n., ↗ḫaraf 
    ḫaraf خَرَف 2  
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪRF 
    n. 
    feeble-mindedness, dotage, senility; childishness (of an old man) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ … 
    DRS 10 (2012) s.v. ḪRP-3: Hbr *ḥārap ‘railler, insulter’ [BDB ḥārap̄ ‘to reproach’, prop. ‘to say sharp things against’, cf. Aram ḥᵃrap̄‑ ‘reproach’, Syr ḥarep ‘to sharpen’, ḥarīp ‘sharp, keen’, (CAD) Akk ḫarāpu (ḫarābu) ‘to cut’], Ar ḫarifa ‘avoir le cerveau troublé, délirer, radoter (vieillard)’, Maġr ḫarrəf, or. ḫarraf ‘débiter des balivernes, radoter’, ḫrāfa ‘conte’, Jib ḫarof ‘débiter des absurdités, des inepties’. 
    ▪ Probably unrelated to ↗ḫarīf ‘autumn, fall’ or ↗ḫarūf ‘lamb’.
    ▪ Cf. ↗√ḪRF for the overall picture. 
    – 
    ḫarifa, a (ḫaraf), vb. I, to dote, be senile and feeble-minded; to drivel, talk foolishly: denominative (unless the vb. itself is the etymon).
    ḫarrafa, vb. II, to dote, be senile and feeble-minded; to drivel, talk foolishly: intensive formation, denominative or from I or the adj. ḫarif.
    ḫarif and ḫarfān, adj., feebleminded, doting; childish; n., dotard: While ḫarfān is clearly secondary (and intensive in ‑ān), ḫarif can be an adj. formation from the vb. ḫarifa or the n./vn. ḫarafa, or be itself the etymon from which the other forms are derived.
    ḫurāfaẗ, n.f., pl. ‑āt, superstition; fable, fairy tale:.
    ḫurāfī, adj., fabulous, fictitious, legendary: nsb-adj from ḫurāfaẗ.
    maḫrafaẗ, n.f., prattle, drivel, twaddle, bosh:.
    taḫrīf, n., folly, delusion; foolish talk, drivel, twaddle, bosh, buncombe: lexicalized vn. II.
    muḫarrif, adj., childish, foolish: PA II; n., (pl. ‑ūn) prattler, chatterbox, windbag; charlatan: nominalized PA II 
    ḫarīf خَرِيف 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 3094 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪRF 
    n. 
    autumn, fall – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *ḥ˅rp‑ ‘autumn’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Fronzaroli#3.: Akk ḫarpu ‘early, precocious’, (Ass.) ḫarpū (pl.) ‘autumn’, Hbr ḥōrep, Syr ḥurpā ‘one year-old lamb’, Ar ḫarīf ‘autumn’, ḫarūf ‘lamb’, SAr ḫrf ‘autumn, year’, Gz ḫarīf ‘current year’.
    ▪ Kogan2011: Akk ḫarpu ‘autumn’, (? Ug ḫrpnt,) Hbr ḥōräp, Ar ḫarīf ‘autumn; (also: year)’, SAr ḫrf ‘year’, Gz ḫarif ‘current year’, Mhr ḫarf, Jib. ḫɔrf, Soq ḥorf ‘autumn’.
    DRS 10 (2012) s.v. ḪRP-2: Akk ḫarāpu (also ḫarābu) ‘être précoce’ [CAD ‘to be early’], ḫarp‑ ‘précoce’ [CAD ḫarpu ‘early’], ḫarpū (pl.) ‘autumn’ [CAD ḫarpū plurale tantum 1. (OA only) ‘(early) harvest’, 2. ‘summer’], ? Ug ḫrpnt ‘autumn’, Hbr ḥoręp‑ ‘autumn, autumn and winter’ [BDB ḥoräp̄ ‘harvest-time, autumn’], Ar ḫarīf ‘autumn, autumn rain’, ḫarāf ‘temps de la récolte des fruits’, YemAr ḫarīf ‘année (en cours)’, Maġr ḫrīf ‘arrière-saison, automne’, ḫrəf ‘passer de saison, cesser de donner des fruits’, Sab Qat ḫrf ‘autumn’, Qat ‘autumn harvest, year’, Mhr ḫarf, Jib ḫorf ‘période des pluies de mousson (de juin au début de septembre)’, Soq ḥorf, Hars ḫōref ‘autumn’, Gz ḫarif ‘l’année en cours’. – Akk ḫurāp‑ ‘mouton de l’année’ [CAD ḫurāpu adj. ‘spring (lamb/kid)’, from OB on], Ug ? ḫrpt ‘brebis (?)’, Syr ḥūrpā ‘brebis d’un an’, Ar ḫarūf ‘agneau, jeune mouton mâle, jeule poulain’, Min ḫrf ‘mouton (?)’. – [CAD ḫurpu ‘early crop’] Ar ḫarīf ‘cueilli (fruit), feuille d’automne, feuille tombée’ [BDB ‘freshly gathered fruit’], YemAr taḫarraf ‘to harvest’, Mhr ḫayref ‘mûrir, fleurir’, Jib ḫerf ‘produire des fruits’, Soq ḥorf ‘fruit, récolte’, Ḥars ḫōref ‘cueillir’. – ḫerefōt ‘petit lièvre’. 
    ▪ Fronzaroli#3.31: Sem *ḫarup‑ ‘early (Fr/It precoce)’.
    ▪ Kogan2011: Sem *ḫ˅rp‑ ‘autumn’.
    ▪ Probably unrelated to ↗ḫaraf ‘foolish talk’.
    ▪ For the semantic connection between ḫarīf ‘autumn, fall’ and ḫarūf ‘lamb’ ↗s.v..
    ▪ See also ↗√ḪRF for the overall picture. 
    – 
    ḫarīfī, adj., autumnal: nsb-adj from ḫarīf 
    ḫarūf خَرُوف , pl. ḫirāf , ʔaḫrifaẗ , ḫirfān 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪRF 
    n. 
    young sheep, lamb, yearling; wether – WehrCowan1979. 
    The word seems to be akin to ↗ḫarīf ‘autumn, fall’, the original meaning being ‘yearling’ or *‘the fall-born’.
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *ḫ˅r˅p‑ ‘lamb’ (?).
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ According to DRS 10 (2012) s.v. ḪRP-2, ḫarūf is connected to ḫarīf ‘autumn’: Akk ḫarāpu (also ḫarābu) ‘être précoce’ [CAD ‘to be early’], ḫarp‑ ‘précoce’ [CAD ḫarpu ‘early’], ḫarpū (pl.) ‘autumn’ [CAD ḫarpū plurale tantum 1. (OA only) ‘(early) harvest’, 2. ‘summer’], ? Ug ḫrpnt ‘autumn’, Hbr ḥoręp‑ ‘autumn, autumn and winter’ [BDB ḥoräp̄ ‘harvest-time, autumn’], Ar ḫarīf ‘autumn, autumn rain’, ḫarāf ‘temps de la récolte des fruits’, YemAr ḫarīf ‘année (en cours)’, Maġr ḫrīf ‘arrière-saison, automne’, ḫrəf ‘passer de saison, cesser de donner des fruits’, Sab Qat ḫrf ‘autumn’, Qat ‘autumn harvest, year’, Mhr ḫarf, Jib ḫorf ‘période des pluies de mousson (de juin au début de septembre)’, Soq ḥorf, Hars ḫōref ‘autumn’, Gz ḫarif ‘l’année en cours’. – Akk ḫurāp‑ ‘mouton de l’année’ [CAD ḫurāpu adj. ‘spring (lamb/kid)’, from OB on], Ug ? ḫrpt ‘brebis (?)’, Syr ḥūrpā ‘brebis d’un an’, Ar ḫarūf ‘agneau, jeune mouton mâle, jeule poulain’, Min ḫrf ‘mouton (?)’. – [CAD ḫurpu ‘early crop’] Ar ḫarīf ‘cueilli (fruit), feuille d’automne, feuille tombée’ [BDB ‘freshly gathered fruit’], YemAr taḫarraf ‘to harvest’, Mhr ḫayref ‘mûrir, fleurir’, Jib ḫerf ‘produire des fruits’, Soq ḥorf ‘fruit, récolte’, Ḥars ḫōref ‘cueillir’. – ḫerefōt ‘petit lièvre’. 
    Probably unrelated to ↗ḫaraf ‘foolish talk’. For the overall picture ↗√ḪRF
    – 
    – 
    ḪRQ خرق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 12Mar2023
    √ḪRQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḪRQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḪRQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḪRQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘gap, hole, perforation; rag; to pierce; to invent, feign; to lie; to be foolish, ignorant, confused’ 
    ▪ … 
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    – 
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    ḪZN خزن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪZN 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḪZN_1 ‘to store, stock, amass; warehouse; treasury, financial department, (hence also: the Makhzan, i.e., Moroccan government); wardrobe, cupboard’ ↗ḫazana
    ▪ ḪZN_2 ‘the nearest, shortest way, a short cut’ ↗maḫāzinᵘ

    Other values, now obsolete or dialectal only:
    • ḪZN_3 ‘to feel bad’: ḎatAr ḫuzin

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘store, storing place, treasury; to store up; to hide, to keep secret, a storekeeper; to take a shortcut’ 
    ▪ Out of the 4 values of the root listed in DRS, only 1 (ḪZN_1 ‘to store, etc.’, acc. to Huehnergard from Aram ḥassen ‘to possess, hoard’, G-stem ḥəsan ‘to be strong, overpower’, Sem √*ḤS/ṢN) is represented in MSA. The value ‘(to take a) shortcut’ (ḪZN_2), to be found in dictionaries of ClassAr as well as MSA (WehrCowan1979), is missing from DRS and without obvious relation to ḪZN_1. So is also the dialectal (YemAr) ‘to feel bad’ (ḪZN_3). 
    – 
    DRS 10 (2012)#ḪZN-1 Ar ḫazana ‘garder, enfermer, conserver (dans un magasin, un cellier, etc.), maḫzan ‘magasin’, ḫizānaẗ ‘armoire’, DaṯAr ḫaznaẗ ‘trésor’; Jib ḫozun ‘mettre en lieu sûr’.116 -2 Akk ḫazann - ‘maire, bourgmestre’,117 nHbr ḥazzān, JP hazzānā ‘superintendant, officier, administrateur de synagogue’.118 -3 DaṯAr ḫuzin ‘sentir mauvais’. -4 Akk ḫuzūn : un objet en or; un vêtement. – ? Jib ḫezunt : bijou en or et perle fixé sur le nez. 
    ▪ ḪZN_1: Jeffery1938 (#ḫazānaẗ) thinks that »it is fairly obvious that ḫazana is a denominative vb., and the word has been recognized by many Western scholars as a foreign borrowing«. He dismisses, however, Hoffmann’s suggestion to derive ḫazana from Pers ganǧ ‘treasure’ (from which is Ar ↗kanz). Instead, he thinks that »Barth, Etymol.Stud., 51, makes the happier suggestion that it may be connected with the form that is behind the Hbr ḥōsän ‘treasure’«, a theory that is taken up by Huehnergard2011 (#ḪSN), who thinks that Ar ḫazana ‘to store’ is from Aram ḥassen ‘to possess, hoard’, D-stem of ḥəsan ‘to be strong’, Sem √*ḪSN. – Ar items from ḪZN denoting some kind of political or executive power are usually seen as deriving from ‘treasury’, the person in charge of the latter often fulfilling a higher governmental function. This latter may seem to bring the Akk ḫazannu ‘chief magistrate of a town, of a quarter of a larger city, a village or large estate’ (CAD), mentioned in DRS as a distinct value (ḪZN#2), close to ḪZN_1 (DRS: ḪZN#1); but this is a mere coincidence or a later overlapping, for the Akk word is probably from Sem √*X̣ZY, not from ḪZN (cf. Huehnergard2011: MishHbr, JudAram hazzân ‘superintendent, cantor’, from Akk ḫazannu ‘administrator, mayor’, perh. from earlier *ḫāziyānum ‘overseer’, PA of protAkk vb. ḫazāyum ‘to see’).
    ▪ ḪZN_2: Any relation to ḪZN_1 or ḪZN_3 or the other, non-Ar items given in DRS (#2, #4)?
    ▪ ḪZN_3: Landberg1920 thinks this item is a (metathetical) variant of ḫaniza (√ḪNZ) ‘sentir mauvais, (Lane: to become stinking)’, a vb./root that is missing from MSA.
     
    ▪ ḪZN_1: Engl magazinemaḫzan; For words signifying ‘treasury’ in Slav langs see ↗ḫaznaẗ (?). 
    – 
    ḫazan‑ خَزَنَ , u (ḫazn
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪZN 
    vb., I 
    1 to store, stock, lay up, hoard, amass, accumulate; 2 to contain, conceal (s.th., e.g., oil, minerals; of discovery sites); 3 to keep secret, keep (a secret) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Jeffery1938 and others believe the vb. to be denominative, but opinion differs as to what may be the etymon. The theory that it might be taken from Pers ganǧ ‘treasure’ is dismissed, given that ganǧ is likely to be origin of ↗kanz and that another, different derivation would be little probable. Instead, Jeffery follows Barth in assuming that the word »may be connected with the form that is behind the Hbr ḥōsän ‘treasure’«, an idea which is supported by Huehnergard2011 who thinks that Ar ḫazana ‘to store’ is from Aram ḥassen ‘to possess, hoard’, G-stem ḥəsan ‘to be strong’, Sem √*ḪSN).
    ▪ The pl. maḫāzin, from the n.loc. ↗maḫzan ‘storeroom, depot, etc.’, is at the origin of Eur words like Fr magasin ‘warehouse’ or Engl magazine, while ḫaznaẗ produced Slav words for ‘treasury’. 
    ▪ eC7 ḫāzin (PA I, one who stores up, keeps control, storekeeper) Q 15:22 fa-ʔanzalnā min-a ’l-samāʔi māʔan fa-ʔasqaynā-kumū-hu wa-mā ʔantum la-hū bi-ḫāzinīna ‘and We bring down out of the sky water and we give it to you to drink—and you are not its keepers’. – ḫazāʔinᵘ (pl. of ḫizānaẗ, 1 treasure house, storehouse, treasury) Q 12:55 qāla ’ǧʕal-nī ʕalà ḫazāʔini ’l-ʔarḍi ‘he said, “Put me in charge of the nation’s storehouses”’, (2 knowledge, control, resources, storehouses) Q 15:21 wa-ʔin min šayʔin ʔillā ʕinda-nā ḫazāʔinu-hū wa-mā nunazzilu-hū bi-qadarin maʕlūmin ‘there is nothing of which We do not have control, only sending it down according to a well-defined measure’ 
    DRS 10 (2012)#ḪZN-1 Ar ḫazana ‘garder, enfermer, conserver (dans un magasin, un cellier, etc.), maḫzan ‘magasin’, ḫizānaẗ ‘armoire’, DaṯAr ḫaznaẗ ‘trésor’; Jib ḫozun ‘mettre en lieu sûr’.119  
    ▪ Jeffery1938, 122-23: »The verb ḫazana does not occur in the Qurʔān, but besides ḫazānaẗ [sic!] (which occurs, however, only in the pl. form ḫazāʔinᵘ), we find a form ḫāzin ʻone who lays in storeʼ in xv:22; and ḫazanaẗ ʻkeepersʼ in xxxix:71,73; xl:49; lxvii:8. – It is fairly obvious that ḫazana is a denom. vb., and the word has been recognized by many Western scholars as a foreign borrowing.240 Its origin, however, is a little more difficult to determine. Hoffmann, ZDMG, xxxii, 760,241 suggested that we should find its origin in the [Pers] ganǧ. This ganǧ which BQ defines as zar va-gowharī keh dar zamīn dafn konand, is cognate with Skr gañǧa (= kīša), a ʻtreasuryʼ or ʻjewel roomʼ,242 and has been borrowed through the Aram gnzā; Syr gnzā into Ar as ↗kanz. It seems hardly likely that by another line of borrowing, through say Hbr gᵊnāzīm 243 or Mand גאזאנא244 it has come to form the Ar ḫazānaẗ. – Barth, Etymol. Stud, 51, makes the happier suggestion that it may be connected with the form that is behind the Hbr ḥosän ʻtreasureʼ.«
     
    ▪ For Fr magasin ‘warehouse’, Engl magazine, Ge Magazin, etc., cf. ↗maḫzan.
    ▪ Accord. to Lokotsch1927#855, Ar ḫazīnaẗ ‘treasure’ [should probably rather be ḫaznaẗ, S.G.] gave Tu hazna, whence the word went into Rum as hazna ‘treasury; toilet’, Venet casná ‘lot of money’ [L’Oriente I: 196]; Ru kazna ‘crown, state, assets, powder magazine’, kaznačej ‘(chief) cashier’ [this meaning probably under the influence of kasa ‘Kasse’], Bulg hazna ‘much money, treasure’, Serb hazna, Pol kazna, Ukr hazná ‘cashier, treasure’. 
    ḫazzana, vb. II, 1 to store, stock, lay up, warehouse (s.th.); to hoard, accumulate (provisions); to keep, put in safekeeping (s.th., esp. valuables); 2 to dam, dam up (water in a basin or reservoir); to store up (energy, etc.; phys., techn.): ints.
    ĭḫtazana, vb. VIII, to store, stock, hoard, accumulate; to keep, put in safekeeping: T-stem, autobenef.
    ḫazn, n., storing; accumulation, hoarding, amassing; storage, warehousing: vn. I.
    ḫaznaẗ, n.f., 1 treasure house; 2 safe, coffer, vault; 3 wardrobe, locker; 4 cupboard. – See also ↗s.v.
    BP#3757ḫizānaẗ, pl. ‑āt, ḫazāʔinᵘ, n.f., 1 treasure house; 2 money-box; 3 vault, safe; 4 treasury, treasury department (of an official agency), any office for the deposit and disbursement of funds; 5 locker, wardrobe, closet; 6 cupboard; 7 library: nominal formation with quasi-pass. sense | ḫizānaẗ al-dawlaẗ, ḫizānaẗ ʕāmmaẗ, n.f., public treasury, exchequer; ḫizānaẗ al-ṯalǧ, n.f., icebox, refrigerator; ḫizānaẗ al-kutub, n.f., bookcase, library; ḫizānaẗ ḫuṣūṣiyyaẗ, n.f., private library; ḫizānaẗ al-malābis, n.f., wardrobe, closet, locker.
    ḫazīnaẗ, pl. ‑āt, ḫazāʔinᵘ, n.f., treasure house; public treasury, exchequer; treasury, treasury department (of an official agency), any office for the deposit and disbursement of funds; cashier’s office; vault, coffer, safe; cashbox, tili (of a merchant): quasi-PP I, f. | al-ḫazīnaẗ al-ḫāṣṣaẗ, n.f., (formerly) the Royal Privy Purse (Ir.); ḫazīnaẗ al-dawlaẗ, n.f., public treasury, exchequer; ḫazīnaẗ (nuqūd) rāṣidaẗ, n.f., cash register.
    ḫazzān, pl. ‑āt, ḫazāzīnᵘ, n., 1 dam: ints., quasi-PA I; 2 reservoir; basin, sump, pool: meaning transferred from the activity (to store) to its result (stored); 3 storage tank (also for oil): mod. use; — 4 (pl. ‑ūn) storehouseman, warehouseman: n.prof. | ḫazzān al-waqūd, n., gasoline tank (of an auto).
    maḫzan, pl. maḫāzinᵘ, n., 1 storeroom, storehouse; depository; stockroom, storage room; 2 depot, magazine, warehouse; 3 store, shop, department store: n.loc.; 4 al-maḫzan, the Makhzan, the Moroccan government (formerly: governmental finance department; Mor.): specialized use, from the sense of ‘treasury’ | maḫzan ʔadwiyaẗ, n., drugstore; maḫzan al-ʔiṣdār, n., shipping room (com.);
    maḫzanī, adj., being under government control or administration, belonging to the government (Mor.): nsb-adj., from al-maḫzan in the special sense of ‘Moroccan government’ | ʔamlāk maḫzaniyyaẗ, n.pl., government land (Mor.).
    maḫāzinī, pl. ‑iyyaẗ, n., native gendarme (Mor.): nsb-adj., from maḫāzinᵘ, pl. of maḫzan [v4] ‘Moroccan government’.
    maḫāzinᵘ: m. al-ṭarīq, the nearest, shortest way, a short cut: belonging here, or to be distinguished as items with own etymology? Cf. ↗ḪZN and ↗s.v.
    maḫzanǧī, n., storehouseman, warehouseman: < maḫzan ‘storehouse’ + suffix ‑ǧī (Tu ‑cı ~ ‑ci, for professions).
    ḫazandār, ḫaznadār, n., treasurer: < ḫazna ‘treasury’ + Pers suffix ‑dār ‘keeper of…’.
    BP#4915taḫzīn, n., storage (also phys., techn.); accumulation; damming; safekeeping: vn. II, with lexicalized specializations | taḫzīn al-ṭāqaẗ, n., energy storage (phys., techn.).
    ḫāzin, pl. ḫazanaẗ, ḫuzzān, n., treasurer: lexicalized PA I.
    BP#4002maḫzūn, adj., stored, stored up, deposited, warehoused; in stock, in inventory (goods, materials): PP I; (pl. ‑āt), n., stock, store, supplies; reserves, deposits (of oil, in the ground, at a discovery site): nominalized adj.
     
    ḫaznaẗ خَزْنة 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪZN 
    n.f. 
    1 treasure house; 2 safe, coffer, vault; 3 wardrobe, locker; 4 cupboard – WehrCowan1979. 
    From Ar ↗ḫazana ‘to store, stock, keep’, probably from Aram ḥassen ‘to possess, hoard’, G-stem ḥəsan ‘to be strong’ (Sem √*ḪSN). 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ ↗ḫazana 
    ḫazana 
    ▪ Lokotsch1927#855 takes Ar ḫazīnaẗ [sic!] as the origin of Tu hazna, which he says is a vulgar form of Tu hazine. From Tu hazna derive Rum hazna ‘treasury; toilet’, Venet casná ‘lot of money’ [L’Oriente I: 196]; Ru kazna ‘crown, state, assets, powder magazine’, kaznačej ‘(chief) cashier’ [this meaning probably under the influence of kasa ‘Kasse’], Bulg hazna ‘much money, treasure’, Serb hazna, Pol kazna, Ukr hazná ‘cashier, treasure’. 
    – 
    ḫizānaẗ خِزانَة , pl. ḫazāʔinᵘ 
    ID 255 • Sw – • BP 3757 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪZN 
    n.f. 
    1 treasure house; 2 money-box; 3 vault, safe; 4 treasury, treasury department (of an official agency), any office for the deposit and disbursement of funds; 5 locker, wardrobe, closet; 6 cupboard; 7 library – WehrCowan1979. 
    While the n. looks as if it were a nominal formation from the vb. ↗ḫazana, Jeffery thinks that »[i]t is fairly obvious that ḫazana is a denom. vb., and the word has been recognized by many Western scholars as a foreign borrowing.« Both Pers ganǧ ‘treasure’ and another etymology (akin to Hbr ḥōsän ʻtreasureʼ) have been discussed, but these are probably not tenable. 
    Q 6:50, 11:31; 12:55; 17:100; 38:9; 52:37; 63:7 ‘treasury, storehouse’. 
    ▪ ↗ḫazana, ↗ḪZN 
    ▪ Jeffery1938, 122-23: »The verb ḫazana does not occur in the Qurʔān, but besides ḫazānaẗ [sic!] (which occurs, however, only in the pl. form ḫazāʔinᵘ), we find a form ḫāzin ʻone who lays in storeʼ in xv, 22; and ḫazanaẗ ʻkeepersʼ in 39:71, 73; 40:52; 67:8. – It is fairly obvious that ḫazana is a denom. vb., and the word has been recognized by many Western scholars as a foreign borrowing.245 Its origin, however, is a little more difficult to determine. Hoffmann, ZDMG, xxxii, 760,246 suggested that we should find its origin in the [Pers] ganǧ. This ganǧ which BQ defines as zar va-gowharī keh dar zamīn dafn konand, is cognate with Skr gañǧa (= kīša), a ʻtreasuryʼ or ʻjewel roomʼ,247 and has been borrowed through the Aram gnzʔ; Syr [gazzā, from] *ganzā into Ar as ↗kanz. It seems hardly likely that by another line of borrowing, through say Hbr gᵊnāzīm 248 or Mand גאזאנא249 it has come to form the Ar ḫazānaẗ. – Barth, Etymol. Stud, 51, makes the happier suggestion that it may be connected with the form that is behind the Hbr ḥosän ʻtreasureʼ.«
    ▪ Cf. ↗ḪZN, ↗ḫazana
    – 
    ḫizānaẗ al-dawlaẗ, ḫizānaẗ ʕāmmaẗ, n.f., public treasury, exchequer.
    ḫizānaẗ al-ṯalǧ, n.f., icebox, refrigerator.
    ḫizānaẗ al-kutub, n.f., bookcase, library.
    ḫizānaẗ ḫuṣūṣiyyaẗ, n.f., private library.
    ḫizānaẗ al-malābis, n.f., wardrobe, closet, locker.
     
    maḫzan مَخْزَن , pl. maḫāzinᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪZN 
    n. 
    1 storeroom, storehouse; depository; stockroom, storage room; 2 depot, magazine, warehouse; 3 store, shop, department store; 4 al-maḫzan, the Makhzan, the Moroccan government (formerly: governmental finance department; Mor.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    n.loc., from ↗ḫazana ‘to store, stock, keep’. – [v4] specialized use, from the sense of ‘treasury’. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ ↗ḫazana 
    ḫazana 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl magazine, from Ar maḫāzinᵘ, pl. of maḫzan, ‘storeroom, depository, depot, magazine’, from ḫazana, vb. I, ‘to store’, from Aram ḥassen ‘to possess, hoard’, derived stem of ḥᵊsan ‘to be strong’. - Cf. also EtymOnline: Engl magazine, »1580 s, ‘place for storing goods, especially military ammunition’, from mFr magasin ‘warehouse, depot, store’ (C15), from It magazzino, from Ar maḫāzin, pl. of maḫzan ‘storehouse’ (source of Span almacén ‘warehouse, magazine’), from ḫazana ‘to store up.’ The original sense is almost obsolete; meaning ‘periodical journal’ dates from the publication of the first one, Gentleman’s Magazine, in 1731, which was so called from earlier use of the word for a printed list of military stores and information, or in a figurative sense, from the publication being a “storehouse” of information‘–
    DRS 10 (2012) #ḪLL-1 Akk alālu, ḫalālu ‘pendre, suspendre (?)’, ḫalālu ‘enfermer, retenir’, ḫallat‑: sorte de corbeille, ? ḫullān‑ ‘couverture’, Hbr ḥlt ‘coffre, arche’, Phoen ḥlt, Aram ḥellᵊtā, ḥalīlā, Syr ḥālūlā ‘gaine, fourreau’, Ar ḫillaẗ ‘fourreau’, ḫalla ‘appliquer un drain, un séton’, Gz ḫəllat, Tña ḥəllät ‘canne, roseau creux sur lequel est fixée la croix’, Amh ḫəllät ‘bâton’, Tña Te ḥəll ‘sorte de bambou’. – ?2 Hbr ḥālal, Aram ḥᵃlal ‘perforer’, Ar ḫalla ‘percer, trouer, forer; pénétrer dans l’intérieur’; Jib ḫəll ‘pénétrer (pluie, eau); aḫlel ‘laisser pénétrer la pluie’; Akk ḫālil, ḫalīl ‘canal’, Ug ḥ/ḫln, Hbr ḥallōn ‘fenêtre’, ? ḫallālīt ‘pointes de flèche’, Aram ḥᵃlīl ‘creux’, ḥᵃlālā ‘cavité, caverne’, Ar ḫallaẗ ‘fente, brèche’, ḫilāl ‘intervalle’, ?Soq ḥele ‘profond’, Akk ḫālil, ḫallil: instrument en fer pour creuser. – ?3 Akk ḫalālu ‘siffler, gazouiller, murmurer’, Hbr ḥālīl: sorte de flûte. -4 Akk ḫalālu ‘(se) glisser furtivement, marcher à pas de loup’. -5 Hbr ḥālal ‘être troublé, en peine, trembler’, Ar ḫalla ‘diminuer de volume, maigrir, devenir indigent; être dérangé’, ThamAr ḫl ‘maigrir’, Jib ḫottel ‘avoir l’esprit dérangé’, Gz taḫalala, taḥalala ‘être agité, se fatiguer’, Te ḥalläla ‘rendre incapable’, taḥalläla ‘être incapable, être fatigué’. -6 Ar ḫill, ḫull, ḫalīl ‘ami intime, véritable’. -7 Akk ḫall, Syr ḥallā, Mnd hala, Ar ḫall ‘vinaigre’. -8 Akk ḫall ‘cuisse’. -9 Akk ḫallat ‘taxe sur la production horticole’. -10 Akk ḫulāl: une pierre précieuse.
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    DRS 10 (2012) #ḪLP-1 Ar ḫalifa ‘être louche, peu fiable; être gaucher; être gâté, corrompu, puant’, YemAr ḫulf ‘mauvaise période, famine’. – ? Akk ḫalp‑ ‘accusé’. -2 Akk ḫalp‑ ‘remplaçant’, Moab *ḥlp, Hbr ḥālaf ‘passer, s’en aller, passer outre, périr, changer, substituer’, BiblAram ḥᵃlaf ‘passer (temps)’, JP ḥᵃlap ‘passer devant, disparaître’, Nab ḥlf ‘vicissitude, sort’, Syr ḥᵊlap ‘succéder à’, Ar ḫalafa ‘suivre, être derrière, succéder à; remplacer’, ḫilf ‘ce qui est différent’, ḫilāf ‘désaccord, différend, contradiction’, ? ḤassAr ḫləf ‘chamelles suitées’, Sab ḫlf ‘chamelle pleine (?)’; Sab hḫlf ‘violer (un serment)’, hlft ‘gouverneur’; Jib ḫolof ‘prendre la place de’, aḫlef ‘changer’, Mhr Ḥrs ḫaylef ‘suivre, prendre la place de’, Soq ḥtlf ‘alterner’, Gz ḫālafa, Te ḥalfa, Tña ḥalläfä, Amh Gaf alläfä, Arg halläfa, Har ḥuluf bāya ‘passer’. – ?3 Tña ḥalläfä ‘surpasser, dépasser, ḥəlfät ‘supériorité’, Te ḥalfa ‘surpasser’; Tña maḥläfiya, Amh maläfiya ‘bon, excellent’, Gur alläfä ‘être meilleur, beau, joli’ -4 Ug mḫlpt, Hbr maḥlāpōt ‘tresses de cheveux’. -5 YemAr miḫlāf ‘province, région’, southern Ar ḫalfa ‘fenêtre’, Sab Qat ḫlf ‘porte (d’une ville), région, voisinage d’une ville, extérieur (de qc), passe entre des collines’; ‘citadins (?)’, Mhr ḫəlfēt, Jib ḫofet ‘fenêtre’. – 6 Akk ḫalāpu ‘se glisser dans’, naḫlap‑ ‘vêtement, manteau’, taḫlupt ‘vêtement, déguisement’, ḫalāp ‘vêtement de dessus’, Ug ḫlpn ‘vêtement’, Sab ḫlf ‘vêtement’. -7 Akk ḫalupp‑, ḫulupp ‘chêne’. -8 ḫilēp‑, Syr ḫellōpō, Ar ḫilāf ‘saule’. -9 Akk ḫulupp‑: sorte d’oiseau’. -10 ḫalp‑: sorte de puits.
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    DRS 10 (2012) #ḪLQ-1 Akk ḫalāqu ‘être perdu, disparaître, périr, s’enfuir’, ḫalq ‘fuyard’, ḫulq‑ ‘mauvais’, Ug ḫlq ‘périr ; être absent’, ḫlq ‘mauvais’, Hbr ḥilleq ‘détruire’, ḥālaq ‘être uni, lisse; insinuant, hypocrite’, Ar ḫaliqa, ḫaluqa ‘être usé, râpé (vêtement)’, Gz ḫalqa ‘être consumé, détruit, périr’, Tña ḥaläqä ‘finir, être fini’, Te ḥalqa ‘mourir sans avoir été abattu (animal)’, Amh Gur alläqä, Arg alläqa ‘finir, être fini, consumé’. – Akk ḫulāq‑ ‘vêtement usagé’, nHbr ḥālūq, JP ḥᵃlūqā ‘sous-vêtement’, Mhr Ḥrs ḫəlēq, Soq ḥaloq ‘habit, vêtement’. -2 Hbr ḥālaq ‘diviser, partager’, ḥȩlɛq ‘part’, BiblAram ḥᵃlāq ‘part, portion’, Syr ḥᵊlaq ‘distribuer, attribuer’, Nab ḥlq ‘créer’, Ar ḫalaqa ‘mesurer, former, composer, créer; rendre lisse, uni’, ḫalāq ‘part de bonheur attribué’, Liḥ ḥalāqat ‘portion’, Sab ḫlq ‘champ’, Min ḫlq ‘décision’, Jib ḫoloq ‘créer’, formes de passif: ḫiźiq, Mhr ḫalēq, Ḥrs ḫelēq ‘être né, créé, fait’, Soq ḥalqah ‘forme’, Gz ḫʷalaqʷa ‘compter, énumérer’, Gz Tña ḥəlqʷ ‘nombre, compte’, Amh əlq, əlqo ‘nombre’, Har ḥēläqa, Gur aläqä ‘compter’. -3 Mhr ḫəwḳāt, Ḥrs ḫəlḳāt ‘bouton d’acné, pustule’.
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »As a technical term for the portion of good allotted man by God this term occurs only in Madinan passages. In Sūra ix, it refers to man’s portion in this world, and in Sūras ii and iii to man’s portion in the life to come, the two latter passages indeed, as Margoliouth, MW, xviii, 78, notes, being practically a quotation from the Talmud (cf. Sanh, 90a, ʔyn lhm ḥlq l-ʕwlm). / It seems clear that it is a technical term of non- Arabic origin, for though the primitive sense of ḫalaqa is ‘to measure’ (cf. Eth [Gz] ḫʷalaqʷa ‘to enumerate’), its normal sense in Qurʔānic usage is ‘to create’, and this Madinan use of ḫalāq in the sense of ‘portion’ follows that of the older religions. Thus Hbr ḥälqâʰ [also ḥᵃluqqâʰ] is a ‘portion’ given by God, cf. Job xx, 29, and Aram ḥwlqʔ means a ‘portion in both worlds’ (cf. Baba Bathra, 122a, and Buxtorf, Lex. 400). Syr ḥelqā means rather ‘lot’ or ‘fate’, i.e. moîra as in ḥelqā d-mōtā = moîra θanátou, though in the ChrPal dialect ḥwlqā means ‘portion’, i.e. méros.
    250 / It is noteworthy that the Lexicons, which define it as al-ḥaẓẓ wa’l-naṣīb min al-ḫayr wa’l-ṣalāḥ,251 seem to interpret it from the Qurʔān, and the only verse they quote in illustration is from Ḥassān b. Ṯābit, which is certainly under Qurʔānic influence. Horovitz, JPN, 198 ff., thinks that the origin is Jewish, but Phoen ḥlq is also ‘to divide, apportion’ (Harris, Glossary, 102), so that the word may have been used in the Syro-Palestinian area among other groups.«
     
    – 
    – 
    ḫāliq خالِق 
    ID 267 • Sw – • BP 3655 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪLQ 
    n. 
    1 adj., creative; 2 n., Creator, Maker (God) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ See ↗ḫalaqa.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ḪLW خلو 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Mar2023
    √ḪLW 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḪLW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḪLW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḪLW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be vacant, be solitary, to vacate, be vacated; wide open space; to be set free, divorce; to be alone or in seclusion with s.o.; cell, hive; to devote o.s. to s.th.; to go past in time, s.th. of the past, passage of time; to produce herbage, pasture’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḪMD خمد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Mar2023
    √ḪMD 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḪMD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḪMD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḪMD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘(of fire) to die out, abate; to faint, be silent, contemplative’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḪMR خمر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪMR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḪMR_1 ‘to cover, hide, conceal’ ↗ḫamara_1
    ▪ ḪMR_2 ‘to leaven, raise, ferment; wine’ ↗ḫamara_2, ↗ḫamr

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘1a to mix, infect, intoxicate, intoxicating drinks, wine and spirits, to ferment; 1b to leaven, raise; 2 to hide, head‑cover, (of a woman) to cover the head and face; 3 to bear a grudge’ 
    A “root” with (according to DRS) up to 5 values in ClassAr. Whether some of these are related to each other, and if so, how, is not possible to decide from the material we have so far. Only 2 values (probably not connected) have survived into MSA: [v1] ‘to cover, hide, conceal’, and [v2] ‘to leaven, raise, ferment; wine’. 
    – 
    DRS 10 (2012)#ḪMR–1 Hbr ḥāmar ‘bouillonner, fermenter’, ḥamīr, Syr ḥᵃmīrā, Mand hmira, Ar ḫamraẗ ‘ferment, levain’, ḫamīraẗ ‘parcelle de levain’, ḫamara ‘faire lever (la pâte)’, MġrAr ‘fermenter, lever, cuver, macérer, s’imbiber’; Ug ḫmr, Hbr ḥā̈mär, Phn ḫmr, Syr ḥamrā, Mand hamra ‘vin’, Ar ḫamr ‘vin, toute boisson fermentée et enivrante’, YemAr ḫamr ‘grappe de raisin’, MġrAr ḫmər ‘fermenter, enter en transe’, Mhr ḫāmər, Jib ḫä̃r ‘vin’, oḫõr ‘enivrer’, ḫotmər ‘fermenter, pourrir, sentir mauvais’, ? Akk ḫammurt sorte de bière. –2 Akk ḫamāru, ḫemēru ‘dessécher’, ? Ar ḫamira ‘subir un changement’. –3 Ar ʔaḫmara ‘donner qc à qn’, YemAr ḫamar ‘octroyer, donner’, Sab ḫmr ‘accorder une faveur’, ḫmrn ‘donation, faveur’. –4 Ar ḫāmara ‘vendre comme esclave (un être libre d’origine)’, SAr ḫmr ‘esclave’. –5 Ar ḫamira ‘se cacher devant qn’, ḫamara ‘couvrir, envelopper, cacher’. –6 Akk ḫamurīt ‘gorge’. — Outside Sem, there is Copt ḥamir ‘levure, levain’, but this is probably a loan from Aram. 
    ▪ The identification in EtymArab of semantic values attached to the “root” ḪMR follows the differentiation made in DRS, see section "Cognates" above. Out of the 6 values listed in DRS only 4-5 are attested in Ar, and of these only 2 have survived into MSA.
    ▪ Arab lexicographers tend to connect ḪMR_1 and ḪMR_2, deriving the latter from the former, so that ‘leavening (of the dough)’ or ‘fermentation (of juice, etc.)’ is interpreted as the result of letting s.th. (dough, juice) stand ‘covered’ in a place.
    ▪ Also, ‘wine’ is said to be called ↗ḫamr because it ‘covers’ the mind. Popular etymology. 
    – 
    – 
    ¹ḫamar‑ خمر , u (ḫamr
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪMR 
    vb., I 
    to leaven, raise (dough); to ferment, cause fermentation; for another value cf. ↗ḫamara_2 – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ From Ar root √ḪMR ‘to cover, conceal’ – Huehnergard2011.
    … 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 10 (2012)#ḪMR-1: Hbr ḥāmar ‘bouillonner, fermenter’, ḥamīr, Syr ḥᵃmīrā, Mand hmira, Ar ḫamraẗ ‘ferment, levain’, ḫamīraẗ ‘parcelle de levain’, ḫamara ‘faire lever (la pâte)’, MġrAr ‘fermenter, lever, cuver, macérer, s’imbiber’; Ug ḫmr, Hbr ḥā̈mär, Phn ḫmr, Syr ḥamrā, Mand hamra ‘vin’, Ar ḫamr ‘vin, toute boisson fermentée et enivrante’, YemAr ḫamr ‘grappe de raisin’, MġrAr ḫmər ‘fermenter, enter en transe’, Mhr ḫāmər, Jib ḫä̃r ‘vin’, oḫõr ‘enivrer’, ḫotmər ‘fermenter, pourrir, sentir mauvais’, ? Akk ḫammurt sorte de bière. — Outside Sem, there is Copt ḥamir ‘levure, levain’, but this is probably a loan from Aram. 
    ▪ Ar lexicographers regard this value as secondary, derived from ↗ḫamara_2 ‘to cover’, the leavening of dough, or fermentation of juice, etc. being the result of letting the dough, juice, etc., stand covered in a place for some time. EtymArab follows DRS where the value is listed separately.
    ▪ Ar ḫamr ‘wine’ (and deriv.), though belonging to the same Sem root, may not be taken directly from Sem, but have come in only later via Aram., see s.v.
    – 
    ḫammara, vb. II, = I. – Cf. also ↗ḫamara_2.
    ḫāmara, vb. III, to permeate, pervade, mix, blend; to seize, permeate (s.o., feeling, thought, doubt):.
    ʔaḫmara, vb. IV, 1 to leaven, raise (dough); 2 to ferment, cause fermentation; to harbour, entertain; 3 to bear a grudge, feel resentment (li‑ against):.
    taḫammara, vb. V, to ferment, be in a staate of fermentation; to rise (dough); – For another value cf. ↗ḫamara_2.
    taḫāmara, vb. VI, to conspire, plot, collude, scheme, intrigue (ʕalà against):.
    ĭḫtamara, vb. VIII, 1 to ferment, be in a state of fermentation; to rise (dough); 2 to become ripe, ripen (also fig.: an idea in s.o.’s mind).

    BP#2982ḫamr, n.m. & f., wine; pl. ḫumūr, alcoholic beverages, liquor: ↗s.v..
    ḫamraẗ, n.f., wine: ↗ ḫamr.
    ḫamrī, adj., golden brown, reddish brown, bronze-coloured: ↗ ḫamr.
    ḫamriyyaẗ, n.f., wine poem, bacchanalian verse: ↗ ḫamr.
    ḫumār, n., aftereffect of intoxication, hang-over: ↗ ḫamr.
    ḫamīr, 1 adj., leavened (dough); ripe, mature, mellow; leaven; 2 n., leavened bread
    ḫamīraẗ, pl. ḫamāʔirᵘ, n., 1 leaven; ferment; barm, yeast; enzyme (chem.); 2 (fig.) starter, nucleus, basis (from which s.th. greater develops): according to Jeffery1938 directly of Aram origin, e.g. Syr ḥᵃmīrā ‘leaven’.
    ḫammār, n., wine merchant, keeper of a wineshop: ↗ ḫamr.
    ḫammāraẗ, n.f., wineshop, tavern; bar: ↗ ḫamr.
    ḫimmīr, n., winebibber, drunkard, tippler, sot: ↗ ḫamr.
    taḫmīr, n., leavening, raising (of dough); fermenting, fermentation
    ĭḫtimār, n., (process of) fermentation
    maḫmūr, adj., drunk, intoxicated, inebriated: ↗ ḫamr.
    muḫtamir, adj., 1 fermenting, fermented; 2 alcoholic: PA VIII; 2 ḫamr

    ²ḫamar‑ خمر , u (ḫamr
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪMR 
    vb., I 
    to cover, hide, conceal; for other meanings see ↗ḫamara_1 – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 10 (2012)#ḪMR-5 sees Ar ḫamira ‘se cacher devant qn’, ḫamara ‘couvrir, envelopper, cacher’ as a value that neither has cognates in Sem, nor outside. So also Huehnergard 2011. Cf., however, section "Discussion" below, as well as ↗ḪMR. 
    Ar lexicographers regard this value as the original one, of which ↗ḫamara_1 ‘to leaven, ferment’ is derived (*‘to cover s.th., esp. dough, juice, etc., so that it leavens, ferments, etc.’). EtymArab follows DRS where the value is listed separately. 
    ▪ Ar ḫimār has been loaned into Engl as khimar (Huehnergard2011). 
    ḫammara, vb. II, = I. – Cf. also ↗ḫamara_1.
    taḫammara, vb. V, to veil the head and face (woman): probably denom. from ḫimār. – For another value cf. ↗ḫamara_1.
    ḫimār, pl. ʔaḫmiraẗ, ḫumur, n., veil covering head and face of a woman:. 
    ḫamr خَمْر , pl. ḫumūr 
    ID 269 • Sw – • BP 2982 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪMR 
    n., m. & f. 
    wine; pl. ḫumūr alcoholic beverages, liquor – WehrCowan1979. 
    Although the underlying Sem root itself is not absent from Ar, the language does not seem to have had a term derived from it before speakers of Ar came into contact with Christians who produced and traded in it. Following Jeffrey, we assume that the word is from Syr ḥamrā ‘wine’. Cf., however, Kogan2011: from protWSem *ḫamr‑ ‘wine’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q 2:219, 5:90-91, 12:36,41, 47:15 ‘wine’.
    ▪ eC7 1 (intoxifating drink, spirits, wine in particular) Q 2:219 yasʔalūnaka ʕan‑i ’l‑ḫamri wa’l‑maysiri qul fīhimā ʔiṯmun kabīrun ‘they ask you about intoxicants and gambling: say, “There is great sin in both”’; 2 (grapes and other fruits taht may be fermented into wine) Q 12:36 qāla ʔaḥaduhumā ʔinnī ʔarānī ʔaʕṣiru ḫamran ‘one of them said: I see myself pressing grapes’ 
    ▪ Out of the items mentioned in DRS 10 (2012)#ḪMR-1, there is only Syr ḥamrā ‘wine’ that is directly relevant here, since the word probably is a loan from there. For the wider context of ‘to ferment, leaven’, to which ḫamr belongs via this loan, cf. ↗ḫamara_1
    ▪ Jeffery1938, 125: »The word is very commonly used in the old poetry, but as Guidi saw,252 it is not a native word, but one imported along with the article. The Ar ḫamara means ‘to cover’, ‘to conceal’ [↗ḫamara_2 ], and from this was formed ḫimār ‘a muffler’, the pl. of which, ḫumur, occurs in Sūra xxiv, 31. In the sense of ‘to give wine to’, it is denominative.253 – Its origin was doubtless the Aram חמרא = Syr ḥamrā which is of very common use. The Hbr ḥämär is poetical (BDB, 330) and probably of Aram origin.254 It is also suggestive that many of the other forms from ḫmr are clearly of Aram origin, e.g. ḥᵃmīrā ‘leaven’, gives [Ar] ḫamīr ‘ferment, leaven’, and Arm ḫmor ‘yeast'255 [Syr] ḥammārā ‘a wineseller is [Ar] ḫammār; [Syr] ḥamrān is [Ar] ḫamrān, etc. – The probabilities are all in favour of the word having come into Ar from a Christian source, for the wine trade was largely in the hands of Christians (vide supra, p. 21), and Jacob even suggests that Christianity spread among the Arabs in some parts along the routes of the wine trade.256 Most of the Ar terms used in the wine trade seem to be of Syriac origin, and ḫamr itself is doubtless an early borrowing from the Syr ḥamrā.« 
    – 
    ḫamraẗ, n.f., wine:.
    ḫamrī, adj., golden brown, reddish brown, bronze-coloured: nsb-adj; actually, ‘wine-coloured’.
    ḫamriyyaẗ, n.f., wine poem, bacchanalian verse: actually a f. nisba adj., ‘the one related to, or about, wine’.
    ḫumār, n., aftereffect of intoxication, hang-over:.
    ḫammār, n., wine merchant, keeper of a wineshop: n.prof.; according to Jeffrey1938 from Syr ḥammārā ‘a wineseller’.
    ḫammāraẗ, n.f., wineshop, tavern; bar: ints. n.loc.
    ḫimmīr, n., winebibber, drunkard, tippler, sot: ints. n. formation, pej.
    maḫmūr, adj., drunk, intoxicated, inebriated: PP I.
    muḫtamir, adj., 1 fermenting, fermented; 2 alcoholic: PA VIII. 
    ḪMS خمس 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪMS 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḪMS_1 ‘five’ ↗ḫamsaẗ
    ▪ ḪMS_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ḪMS_3 ‘…’ ↗

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘five, fifth, one fifth, to make five, to become five, to become the fifth, Thursday; great a;mr’ 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ Engl khamsinḫamsaẗ
    … 
    ḫamsaẗ خَمْسة , f. ḫams 
    ID … • Sw … • BP 330 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪMS 
    num.card. 
    five – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ From protSem *ḫam(i)š‑ ‘five’ – Huehnergard2011.
    … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘five’) Akk ḫamšu, Hbr ḥāmēš, Syr ḥammeš, Gz ḫams.
     
    … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl khamsin, from colloquial Ar ḫamsīn ‘fifty; khamsin’, from obl. case of Ar ḫamsūn, ‘fifty’, from ḫams, ‘five’. 
    BP#1526ḫamsūn, num.card., fifty | al‑ḫamsīnāt, n.f.pl., the Fifties
    BP#1115yawm al‑ḫamīs, Thursday.
    BP#1012ḫāmis, num.ord., fifth
     
    ḪMṢ خمص 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Mar2023
    √ḪMṢ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḪMṢ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḪMṢ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḪMṢ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘hunger, famine, to be hungry, be slim around the waist; the hollow of the foot; a heavy garment of striped wool or silk’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḪMṬ خمط 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Mar2023
    √ḪMṬ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḪMṬ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḪMṬ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḪMṬ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘type of lotus tree; bitter fruit, inedible fruit; fragrance of the blossoms of fruit-bearing trees; to ferment, to be haughty; to take by force’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḪNZR خنزر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪNZR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḪNZR_1 ‘swine, pig, hog’ ↗ḫinzīr
    ▪ ḪNZR_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘thick axe or adze; to be rough and crude; pig, wild boar; ulcers afflicting the neck’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    DRS 10 (2012) #ḪNZR-1 Ar ḫinzīr ‘porc’, MġrAr ḫanzīr ‘scrofules, écrouelles’. -2 ḫanzaraẗ ‘épaisseur’. -3 EAr ḫanzar ‘être très fertile’. -4 MġrAr ḫanzīraẗ ‘moyeu de la roue du rouet’. -5 SudAr ḫanzar ‘marcher sans se dépêcher’, ḫanzarah: sorte de trot. -6 Akk (ḫ)inzūr‑ ‘pommier’.
    DRS 10 (2012) #Ḫ(N)ZR: Akk ḫuzīr‑, Ug ḫzr, ḥᵃzīr ‘porc, sanglier’, JP Syr ḥᵃzīrā, ChrPal ḥwzyr ‘porc’, Ar ḫinzīr, Gz ḫanzir, ḫanzar, ḥanzir, ḥənzir ‘porc, marcassin’.
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ḫinzīr خِنْزير , pl. ḫanāzīrᵘ 
    ID 270 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪNZR 
    n. 
    swine, pig, hog – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *ḫ˅(n)zīr‑ ‘pig’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘(wild) pig’) Akk (ḫumṣēru), Hbr ḥzīr, Syr ḥzīrā, Gz (ḥanzīr).
    DRS 10 (2012) #ḪNZR-1 Ar ḫinzīr ‘porc’, MġrAr ḫanzīr ‘scrofules, écrouelles’. -2-6 […].
    DRS 10 (2012) #Ḫ(N)ZR: Akk ḫuzīr‑, Ug ḫzr, ḥᵃzīr ‘porc, sanglier’, JP Syr ḥᵃzīrā, ChrPal ḥwzyr ‘porc’, Ar ḫinzīr, Gz ḫanzir, ḫanzar, ḥanzir, ḥənzir ‘porc, marcassin’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ḫinzīr barrī, n., wild boar
    ḫanāzīr, n., scrofula, scrofulosis (med.)

    ḫinzīraẗ, n.f., sow: f.
    ḫanāzīrī, adj., scrofulous: nisba formation from ḫanāzīr
    ḪNS خنس 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Mar2023
    √ḪNS 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḪNS_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḪNS_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḪNS_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to contract, withdraw, hide in, shrink away, cause to draw back; deer’s shelter’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḪNQ خنق 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪNQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḪNQ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ḪNQ_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ḪNQ_3 ‘…’ ↗

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to strangle, to stifle, to choke, an animal killed by choking; necklace; constriction, the mouth of a valley, small apertures; diphtheria’ 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 10 (2012) #ḪNQ: Akk ḫanāqu ʻcomprimer, étrangler’, Ug ḫnq, Hbr ḥannēq, Phoen *ḥnq, Syr ḥᵊnaq, Ar ḫanaqa, Jib ḫonuq, Ḥrs ḫenōq, Soq ḥnq, Gz ḫānaqa, Tña ḥanäqä, Te ḥanqa, Arg hannäqa, Har ḥanäqa, Amh annäqä, Gur anäqä ʻétrangler’.
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    … 
    ḫanaq‑ خَنَقَ , u 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪNQ 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘to strangle’) Akk ḫnq (i), Hbr (ints) ḥnq, Syr ḥnq a (u), Gz ḫnq a (e).
    ▪ Almedlaoui2012: For ClassAr ḫanaqa and Hbr ḥnaq ‘to strangle’, cf. Berb nġa ‘to kill’
    DRS 10 (2012) #ḪNQ: Akk ḫanāqu ʻcomprimer, étrangler’, Ug ḫnq, Hbr ḥannēq, Phoen *ḥnq, Syr ḥᵊnaq, Ar ḫanaqa, Jib ḫonuq, Ḥrs ḫenōq, Soq ḥnq, Gz ḫānaqa, Tña ḥanäqä, Te ḥanqa, Arg hannäqa, Har ḥanäqa, Amh annäqä, Gur anäqä ʻétrangler’.
    ▪ …
    ▪ …… 
    … 
    … 
    … 
    ḪWǦ خوج 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 16May2023
    √ḪWǦ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḪWǦ_1 ‘sir, Mr. (title and form of address, esp., for Christians and Westerners)’ ↗ḫawāǧaẗ ▪ ḪWǦ_2 ‘teacher, schoolmaster’ ↗EgAr ḫōgaẗ ▪ ḪWǦ_ ... 
    ▪ [v1] : from Pers ḫʷāǧa ‘respected person, master’ – Rolland2014 ▪ [v2] : from Tu hoca (BadawiHinds1986), like [v1] from Pers ḫʷāǧa ~ ḫōǧe ‘respected person, efendi, master’, akin to oḪʷārezm ḫʷāǧīk ‘id.’ (Benzing I.3), from mPers ḫʷadāy (of uncertain origin) – Nişanyan14Nov2019 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḫawāǧaẗ خَواجة , pl. -āt 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 16May2023
    √ḪWǦ 
    n. 
    sir, Mr. (title and form of address, esp., for Christians and Westerners, used with or without the name of the person so addressed) – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ from Pers ḫʷāǧa ‘respected person, master’ – Rolland2014 
    ... 
    – (loanword) 
    ▪ Rolland2014 adds that ḫawāǧaẗ is « du même etymon » as also ↗ḫidīw ~ ḫudaywī ‘vice-king, khedive’, from Pers ḫidīv ‘ruler, governor, king’, from mPers ḫʷatāy ‘God’, IE *gʰeu‑ ‘to pour a libation’ or *gʰeu(ə)‑ ‘to invoke’257
    ▪ (Pers) ḫʷāǧa is »a title used in many different senses in Islamic lands. In earlier times it was variously used of scholars, teachers, merchants, ministers and eunuchs. In mediaeval Egypt, according to Qalqašandī, Ṣubḥ , vi, 13, it was a title for important Persian and other foreign merchants (cf. CIA, Égypte , i, no. 24). In Sāmānid times, with the epithet buzurg ‘great’, it designated the head of the bureaucracy; later it was a title frequently accorded to wazīrs, teachers, writers, rich men, and merchants. In the Ottoman Empire it was used of the ulema, and in the pl. form ḫʷāǧegān designated certain classes of civilian officials. In modern Turkey, pronounced hoǧa (modern orthography hoca) [see ↗ḫōgaẗ] it designates the professional men of religion, but is used as a form of address for teachers in general. In Egypt and the Levant (pronounced ḫawāgaẗ or ḫawāǧaẗ) it was used for merchants, then more particularly for non-Muslim merchants, and then as a more or less polite form of address for non-Muslims in general. In India it designates those Ismāʕīlīs who follow the Agha Khān.« – art. »Khdja« (ed.), in ²EI
    – 
    – 
    EgAr ḫōgaẗ خُوجة 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 16May2023
    √ḪWǦ 
    n. 
    teacher, schoolmaster – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ from Tu hoca (BadawiHinds1986), from Pers ḫʷāǧa ~ ḫōǧe ‘respected person, efendi, master’ (cf. ↗ḫawāǧaẗ), akin to oḪʷarezm ḫʷāǧīk ‘id.’ (Benzing I.3), from mPers ḫʷadāy (of uncertain origin) (see ↗ḫidīw) – Nişanyan14Nov2019 
    ... 
    – (loanword) 
    ▪ Tu hoca [Gülşehri, Manṭıḳu'ṭ-Ṭayr, 1317] satun alup satmağa çün bulaşır / assısın ol ḫoca ile üleşir – Nişanyan14Nov2019 
    – 
    ḪWR خور 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪWR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḪWR_1 ‘to low, moo (cattle)’ ↗ḫāra
    ▪ ḪWR_2 ‘to be\grow weak, decline in force; to abate (heat), to soften (snow)’ ↗ḫawira
    ▪ ḪWR_3 ‘inlet, bay; tract of land between two hills; gulf; mouth of a river’ ↗ḫawr
    ▪ ḪWR_4 ‘parson, curate, priest’ ↗ḫūrī

    Other values (obsolete, or dialectal only):

    ḪWR_5 ‘rectum, anus of the horse’ ↗ḫawrān; ‘hips, buttocks’ ↗ḫawwāraẗ
    ḪWR_6 ‘the best, the choice (camels)’ ↗ḫūr
    ▪ ḪWR_7 ‘avid, greedy, voluptuous’: YemAr ḫāwur, DaṯAr ʔaḫwar
    ▪ ḪWR_8 ‘moire’: SyrAr ḫārā

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘the lowing of an ox or a cow, to low, to moo; weakness, to weaken at the time of need, a coward; low land between high hills’

     
    ▪ The semantics in this root partially overlap with that of ↗√ḪRː (ḪRR) and √ḤWR.

    ▪ ḪWR_1 ḫāra ‘to low, moo (cattle)’: Landberg1920 thinks it is onomatopoetic, to be compared to √ḪRː (ḪRR) (↗ḫarra ‘to murmur, bubble, gurgle; to snore’); Orel&Stolbova1994 derive it from an AfrAs *qor- ‘to shout, say’ (with assumed cognates in Berb, Eg, and some WCh langs); Tropper2008 considers a possible relation of Ug ḫwr ‘to be weak (horse)’ (and, implicitly, also of Ar ḫawira, ḪWR_2) with the animal’s uttering such a sound; according to ClassAr lexicographers, from ‘to low, moo, bellow’ derives also the meaning ‘to bend, turn, incline’; BDB1906 (s.v. Hbr √ḤWR) identifies this latter meaning with that of ḪWR_2 ‘to be weak’.
    ▪ ḪWR_2 ḫawira ‘to be\grow weak, decline in force; to abate (heat), to soften (snow)’: Tropper2008 proposes to see the item together with Ug ḫwr ‘to be weak (horse)’ and Gz ḫəwwər, ḫəwwur ‘weak, strengthless’; to the latter may (acc. to Kogan2015 and DRS #ḪWR-1) perh. also belong some modSAr (Mhr, Jib, Soq) items meaning ‘a little’; alternatively, Tropper thinks Ug ḫwr could be cognate to Ar ḫāra ‘to low’ (ḪWR_1) or to Ar ↗ḫarra ‘to fall down, sink to the ground’; BDB1906 (s.v. Hbr √ḤWR) identifies ‘to be weak’ with this the obsolete ‘to bend, turn, incline’, which ClassAr lexicographers however derive from ḪWR_1 ‘to low, moo, bellow’.
    ▪ ḪWR_3 ḫawr ‘inlet, bay; tract of land between two hills; gulf; mouth of a river’: according to Ḍannāwī2004 perh. borrowed from a Pers hor (?); Freytag1830, too, thinks it is from Pers [nothing fitting in Steingass, but VahmanPedersen1998 has nPers ḫor ‘mouth of a river, small bay’; however, this may be an Arabism]; the Pers connection can seem plausible in the light of the E/GulfAr and modSAr forms given in DRS; in contrast, Landberg1920 identifies ḫawr with ↗ġawr ‘bottom; declivity, depression; graben, valley’; Cohen1969 #162 suggests cognates in Eg ḫrw ‘depression’ (> Dem ẖlt, Copt [B] ḫel(l)ot] ‘valley, rift, river’), as well as some Berb and Cush idioms, and thus sees an AfrAs dimension; BDB1906 compares Hbr √ḤWR (only in ḥor ‘hollow’, ?and perh. the n.prop.terr. ↗Ḥawrān) with Ar ḫāra ‘to bend, turn, incline, (of man) be weak’ (cf. ḪWR_1, ḪWR_2) and ḫawr ‘hollow, depressed ground between hills’.
    ▪ ḪWR_4 ḫūrī ‘parson, curate, priest (Chr.)’: some think the word is from Grk χorós ‘choir’; Dozy considered it an abbreviated form of Grk χōrepískopos ‘vice bishop in the countryside’ (cf. ↗ʔusquf); Wahrmund, in contrast, compares Fr curé ‘parson’.

    ḪWR_5 ḫawrān ‘rectum, anus of the horse’: acc. to Lane ii (1865), some ClassAr lexicographers relate this value to ḪWR_3 »because it [the anus] is like a depressed place between two hills (ḫawr)«; seen together in DRS with ḫawwāraẗ ‘hip, buttocks’; any relation to ḪWR_2 ḫawira ‘to be weak (?hence also: soft)’?
    ḪWR_6 ḫūr ‘the best, the choice (camels)’: acc. to Lane < *ḫuyrḫayr.
    ▪ ḪWR_7 YemAr ḫāwur, DaṯAr ʔaḫwar ‘avid, greedy, voluptuous’: Landberg1920 thinks the item belongs to ḪWR_2 (*‘to be weak > to long for s.th. to eat to regain strength’).
    ▪ ḪWR_8 SyrAr ḫārā ‘moire’: prob. from Pers ḫārā ‘very hard rock, perh. granite; [?hence:] kind of watered silk stuff, waved silk’ (Steingass, Redhouse).

     
    ▪▪ …
    ▪▪ …
     
    DRS 10 (2012) #ḪWR-1 Ar ḫāra ‘être faible, débile’, ḫawar ‘faiblesse, manque de vigueur’; EAr ḫār ‘s’ébouler (terre)’, Gz ḫəwwər ‘faible, invalide’, ? Mhr ḫawr, Jib ḫä́rín, Soq ḥarə́rən ‘un peu’. -2 YemAr ḫāwur ‘avide, plein de convoitise, voluptueux’. -3 Ar ḫawr, Ḏ̣ofAr ‘golfe, embouchure d’un fleuve’, ʕOmAr ḥōr ‘port’, DaṯAr ḫawr ‘port, golfe’, Mhr ḫawr, Soq ḫōr, ḥōr ‘baie, embouchure’, Jib ḫohr ‘bras de mer’. -4 Ar ḫawwāraẗ ‘cul, fesses’, ḫawrān ‘orifice de l’anus (chez les animaux)’. -5 ḫāra ‘mugir, beugler’. -6 Akk ḫūrat- ‘sumac utilisé dans le corroyage’. -7 SyrAr ḫārā ‘moire’. -8 Ḥrs ḫawrət ‘base du crâne, nuque’.
     
    See CONC and individual entries. 
    – 
    – 
    ḫār‑ / ḫur‑ خار / خُرـ , u (ḫuwār
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪWR 
    vb., I 
    to low, moo (cattle) – WehrCowan1994 
    ▪ Landberg1920 thinks it is onomatopoetic, to be compared to √ḪRː (ḪRR) (↗ḫarra ‘to murmur, bubble, gurgle; to snore’).
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994 derive it from an AfrAs *qor- ‘to shout, say’ (with assumed cognates in Berb, Eg, and some WCh langs).
    ▪ Tropper2008 considers a possible relation of Ug ḫwr ‘to be weak (horse)’ (and, implicitly, also of Ar ↗ḫawira) with the animal’s uttering such a sound.

     
    HDAL: earliest attestation in this sense 563 AD
    ▪ (ḫuwār ‘lowing, mooing’) Q 20:88 fa-ʔaḫraǧa lahum ʕiǧlan ǧasadan lahū ḫuwārun ‘so he produced for them a calf, an effigy that produced a lowing sound’
     
    DRS 10 (2012) #ḪWR-5 Ar ḫāra ‘mugir, beugler’: without cognates in Sem.
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994 #2044: AfrAs *qor- ‘to shout, say’ > Sem *ḫūr- ‘to bellow’ (reconstructed only from Ar ḫāra u), based on biconsonantal *ḫ˅r-. Cognates in Berb *kur- (Ahg kur-ət) ‘to call’, Eg ḫr ‘to say’ (OK), WCh *qwar- (gwar ‘to groan’; kwar, gwar-al ‘to shout, cry, call’ in some WCh idioms).
     
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994 #2044: Sem *ḫūr- ‘to bellow’ (reconstructed only from Ar ḫāra u), based on biconsonantal *ḫ˅r-, Berb *kur- (Ahg kur-ət) ‘to call’, Eg ḫr ‘to say’ (OK), WCh *qwar- (gwar ‘to groan’; kwar, gwar-al ‘to shout, cry, call’) < AfrAs *qor- ‘to shout, say’.

     
    – 
    ḫuwār, n., lowing, mooing: vn. I

     
    ḫawir‑ خَوِر , a (ḫawar), var. ḫār‑ / ḫur‑ خار , u (ḫuʔūr, ‑aẗ
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪWR 
    vb., I 
    to decline in force or vigor; to grow weak, spiritless, languid, to languish, flag; to dwindle, give out (strength) – WehrCowan1994 
    ▪ Tropper2008 suggests seeing the item together with Ug ḫwr ‘to be weak (horse)’ and Gz ḫəwwər ‘weak, strengthless’; to the latter may (acc. to Kogan2015 and DRS #ḪWR-1) perh. also belong some modSAr (Mhr, Jib, Soq) items meaning ‘a little’; alternatively, Tropper thinks Ug ḫwr could be cognate to Ar ḫāra ‘to low, moo’ (ḪWR_1) or to Ar ↗ḫarra ‘to fall down, sink to the ground’.

     
    HDAL: earliest attestation in this sense 570 AD.
    ▪ In pre-MSA texts, ḫāra / ḫawira is also attested as ‘to abate (heat); to soften (snow)’. 
    DRS 10 (2012) #ḪWR-1 Ar ḫāra ‘être faible, débile’, ḫawar ‘faiblesse, manque de vigueur’; EAr ḫār ‘s’ébouler (terre)’, Gz ḫəwwər ‘faible, invalide’, ? Mhr ḫawr, Jib ḫä́rín, Soq ḥarə́rən ‘un peu’.
    ▪ Kogan2015: 559 #51: For the modSAr forms Mhr ḫawr, Jib ḫɛ́rín, Soq ḥarə́rhɛn ‘a little’, Kogan reconstructs prot-modSAr *ḫūr‑, *ḫarrn- ‘a little’, adding that the origin is uncertain »although A. Jahn’s comparison (1902:199) with Ar ḫwr ‘to be weak, feeble’ is not unreasonable, see further Gz ḫəwwur ‘weak, invalid’, Te ḥawärä ‘perdre la parole (de faiblesse)’«. »Semantically more attractive is M. Bittner’s equation (1915a:40-41) with Ar ḥwr ‘to decrease, be defective or deficient’ [ḤWR_3, ↗ḥāra], but one is reluctant to accept it because of the phonological difference.«
    ▪ Tropper2008: Ug ḫwr ‘to be weak (horse)’, Gz ḫəwwər ‘weak, strengthless’. Alternatively, Ug ḫwr could be cognate to Ar ↗ḫāra ‘to low, moo’ (ḪWR_1) or to Ar ↗ḫarra ‘to fall down, sink to the ground’.
    ▪ ? Ar ḫawwāraẗ, n.f., hips, buttocks; ḫūr, n.f.pl. (said to be pl. of sg. ḫawwār, ‑aẗ, but regarded as pl.tantum by others) ‘women of ill fame’. – Cognates of ḫawira ‘to be weak (?hence also: soft)’ or rather to be seen together with ↗ḫawrān ‘rectum, anus’?

     
    – 
    – 
    ḫawar, n., weakness, fatigue, enervation, languor, lassitude
    ḫawwār, adj., weak, languid, strengthless
     
    ḫawr خَوْر , pl. ʔaḫwār, ḫīrān 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪWR 
    n. 
    inlet, bay – WehrCowan1994 
    ▪ Of unclear origin. Several etymologies have been suggested. Freytag1830 and Ḍannāwī2004 assume a Pers source, which could be in line with the fact that DRS 10 (2012) only give E/GulfAr and modSAr cognates. On the other hand, the word does not seem uncommon in EgAr and SudAr (BehnstedtWoidich2011). In contrast, Landberg1920 saw ḫawr related to ġawr, while BDB1906 would not exclude kinship with items from the root √ḪWR but also consider a Hbr word as cognate. Farthest, as often, goes Cohen1969, assuming an AfrAs origin.

     
    HDAL: earliest attestation in this sense 709 AD (al-ʕAǧǧāǧ).
     
    DRS 10 (2012) #ḪWR-3 Ḏ̣ofAr ‘golfe, embouchure d’un fleuve’, ʕOmAr ḥōr ‘port’, DaṯAr ḫawr ‘port, golfe’; Mhr ḫawr, Soq ḫōr, ḥōr ‘baie, embouchure’, Jib ḫohr ‘bras de mer’.
    ▪ Cohen1969 #162: Eg ḫrw ‘lowland, depression’, Copt (B) ḫel(l)ot [Copt (S) šlōt – Westerndorf2008: < Eg ḫ3r(w)ṯ, Dem ẖlt] ‘valley, rift, river’; Berb (Tom) égərəw ‘large river, lake, see’, tēgərt ‘rivulet, brook’; Bed kŭān, Bil kŭra, Ch aḳual ‘river’; Som hūr ‘lake’ (< Ar ?), ḫōri ‘river bank, rivulet, brook’. – ? Hbr ḳor ‘to flow’ (?), Gz ḳʷallā ‘lowland’ (valley of a large river), Amh kʷərē ‘pond, pool’.
    ▪ BehnstedtWoidich i (2011):424 #143 – In Kordofan, ḫōr typically means ‘river’. The ClassAr meanings (Lane: ‘low, or depressed, ground or land… between two elevated parts… an inlet from a sea or large river, entering into the land… a place, or channel, where water pours into a sea or large river”) are found in Luxor (BehnstedtWoidich1994), while Qāsim2002 (QAS) notes ‘valley, graben’ for the Sudan (hence also kóóru ‘river’ im Ki-Nubi/Kenia – Heine1982).
     
    ▪ In pre-MSA texts, ḫawr is attested as ‘tract of land between two hills, valley; gulf, bay, gulf; mouth of a river’.
    ▪ Of Pers origin? – According to Ḍannāwī2004, it is perh. borrowed from a Pers »هور« (hor ? – unidentifiable in my Pers dictionaries). Freytag1830, too, thought it was a »vox Persica«, i.e., a borrowing from Pers; Steingass1892 does not have anything that might fit this assumption, but VahmanPedersen1998 has nPers ḫor ‘mouth of a river, small bay’; however, this may be in itself an Arabism, as is assumed in Redhouse’s Tu–Engl dictionary of 1890 where »khavr, vulg. khor ‘bay, strait, channel; river mouth on the sea, harbor; low-lying bottom where water is apt to collect« is marked »A.«, indicating Ar origin]. The Pers connection can seem plausible in the light of the E/Gulf Ar and modSAr forms given in DRS. But compare BehnstedtWoidich2011 (see COGN) who found that the word is common also in Egypt and Sudan.
    ▪ Landberg1920 identified ḫawr with ↗ġawr ‘bottom; declivity, depression; graben, valley’.
    ▪ BDB1906 compared Hbr ḥōr ‘hollow’ (√ḤWR; Klein1987: ḥūr ‘hole’, ḥōr, ḥôr ‘hole, aperture’) with Ar ḫawr, rendered as »hollow, depressed ground between hills«, which, however, is also seen as co-original with ↗ḫāra (rendered as »to bend, turn, incline, of man be weak«), in this way equating also ḪWR_1 and ḪWR_2). In contrast, a connection with the n.prop.terr. ↗Ḥawrān is seen as unlikely.
    ▪ The AfrAs dimension suggested by Cohen1969 sounds rather far-fetched at first sight. However, in the light of the evidence given by BehnstedtWoidich2011 for Egypt and the Sudan, at least the Eg items could perh. be genuine cognates.
     
    – 
    – 
    ḫūrī خُوريّ , pl. ḫawārinaẗ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪWR 
    n. 
    parson, curate, priest (Chr.) – WehrCowan1994 
    ▪ Some think the word is from Grk χorós ‘choir’. Dozy considered it an abbreviated form of Grk χōrepískopos ‘vice bishop in the countryside’. In contrast, Wahrmund1887 compared Fr curé ‘parson’, a suggestion perh. worth following. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ – 
    ▪ Rolland2014: as also ḫūrus ‘choir’ from Grk χorós ‘choir’, of unknown origin. According to Dozy I, however, ḫūrī is short for Grk χōrepískopos ‘vice bishop in the countryside’.
    ▪ Wahrmund1887: < Fr curé ‘parish-priest’. This suggestion has not received much attention so far, but is phonologically convincing as it explains the final ‑ī in ḫūrī.

     
    ▪ If ḫūrī is from Grk χorós, then it has the same origin as Engl choir, c. 1300 queor ‘part of the church where the choir sings’, from oFr cuer, quer ‘(architectural) choir of a church; chorus of singers’ (C13, modFr chœur), from Lat chorus ‘choir’ (see chorus). In Engl, the meaning ‘band of singers’ is from c. 1400, quyre. Re-spelled mC17 in an attempt to match classical forms, but the pronunciation has not changed – EtymOnline.
    ▪ If it is from Fr curé, cognates in Eur langs are items that, ultimately, go back to Lat cura ‘care, concern, trouble’. Fr curé is first attested in 1259 as ‘parish-priest’; by extension, any ‘cleric’ (1845); from mLat curatus ‘one responsible for the care (of souls)’ (C11; very rare in the Middle Ages), derived from Lat cura, curare ‘to take care of’ (CNRTL, EtymOnline).

     
    al-ḫūrī al-ʔusqufī, n., representative of the bishop (Chr.); see also ↗ʔaḫyarᵘ.

     
    ḫawrān خوْران , pl. ‑āt, ḫawārīnᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪWR 
    n. 
    rectum, anus of the horse – Lane ii (1865) 
    ▪ Acc. to Lane, some ClassAr lexicographers relate this value to ↗ḫawr (ḪWR_3) »because it [the anus] is like a depressed place between two hills«.
    ▪ Seen together in DRS with ḫawwāraẗ.
    ▪ Any relation to ↗ḪWR_2 ḫawira ‘to be weak (?hence also: soft)’?
     
    ▪ Cf. also the obsolete ḫāra, u (ḫawr), vb. I, ‘to beat or prick animals in their hind parts (ḫawrān)’

     
    DRS 10 (2012) #ḪWR-4 Ar ḫawwāraẗ ‘cul, fesses’, ḫawrān ‘orifice de l’anus (chez les animaux)’ : no cognates given.
    ▪ ? ḫawwār ‘very weak; sensitive, touchy’, ḫawwāraẗ ‘hips, buttocks; (Hava1899:) weak; slender and fine she-camel’; ḫūr (pl.tantum, but regarded as pl. of sg. ḫawwār, ‑aẗ by some) ‘women of ill fame’ (but this latter item may be from Pers ḫʷur, ḫor ‘despicable, contemptible, abject, mean, vile, base, infamous’ – Steingass1892): cognates of ḫawrān or rather to be seen together with ↗ḪWR_2 ḫawira ‘to be weak (?hence also: soft)’? 
    … 
    – 
    – 
    ḫūr خُور (pl. tantum?) 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪWR 
    n.f.pl. (pl.tantum?) 
    1 the best, the choice (camels); 2 women of ill fame – Lane ii (1865) 
    ▪ [v1] Acc. to Lane < *ḫuyr; thus, see ↗ḫayr, √ḪYR

    ▪ [v2] Regarded as pl. of sg. ḫawwār, ‑aẗ ‘very weak; sensitive, touchy’ by some (↗ḫawira), but more likely a pl.tantum and as such from Pers ḫʷur, ḫor ‘despicable, contemptible, abject, mean, vile, base, infamous’ (Steingass1892)

     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ See CONC. 
    See CONC. 
    – 
    – 
    ḪWḌ خوض 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Mar2023
    √ḪWḌ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḪWḌ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḪWḌ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḪWḌ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to wade, ford, a ford; to plunge into a subject heedlessly, engage in discussion without much knowledge; ambiguity, confusion, to shake up’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḪWF خوف 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪWF 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḪWF_1 ‘to be frightened, scared, afraid, anxious’ ↗ḫāfa
    ▪ ḪWF_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘fear, fright, to fear, to frighten; awe, concern, worry; to know, to suspect, to become aware; unworthy act; fighting, to decrease, to shorten’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    DRS 10 (2012) #ḪWP-1 Akk ḫāpu, Ar ḫāfa ‘avoir peur’, Mhr ḫwīf, Soq ḥayef ‘craindre’. -2 Akk ḫūp‑ ‘cercle, anneau’. -3 EAr ḫāfa ‘poche en cuir’.
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ḫāf‑ / ḫif‑ خافَ / خِفْـ , ā (ḫawf, maḫāfaẗ, ḫīfaẗ
    ID 271 • Sw –/44 • BP 1042 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪWF 
    vb., I 
    ḫāfa a (ḫawf, maḫāfaẗ, ḫīfaẗ), 1a to be frightened, scared; b to be afraid (s.th., s.o. or min of), dread (s.th., s.o. or min s.o. or s.th.); c to fear (s.th., s.o. or min s.o., s.th.; ʕalà for s.o., for s.th.; ʔanna that) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 10 (2012) #ḪWP-1 Akk ḫāpu, Ar ḫāfa ‘avoir peur’, Mhr ḫwīf, Soq ḥayef ‘craindre’. -2-3 […].
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ḫawwafa, vb. II, to frighten, scare, alarm, fill with fear (s.o.): D-stem, caus.
    ʔaḫāfa, vb. IV, = II: *Š-stem, caus.
    taḫawwafa, vb. V, = I: Dt-stem, intr., self-ref.

    BP#862ḫawf, n., 1 fear, dread (min of); 2 ḫawfan, adv., for fear (min of), fearing (ʕalà for): vn. I.
    ḫīfaẗ, n.f., fear, dread (min of): vn. I.
    ḫawwāf, var. ḫawwīf, 1 adj., fainthearted, fearful, timid, timorous; 2 n., coward, poltroon: ints. formation.
    ʔaḫwafᵘ, adj., 1 more timorous; 2 more dreadful, more to be feared: elat.
    BP#2846maḫāfaẗ, n.f., fear, dread: vn. I | maḫāfaẗan ʔanna, adv., for fear that…, afraid that…
    maḫāwifᵘ, (pl. of maḫāfaẗ), n. pl., 1a fears, apprehensions, anxieties; b horrors, dangers, perils.
    taḫwīf, n., and var. ʔiḫāfaẗ, n.f., intimidation, bullying, cowing, frightening, scaring: vn. II and IV, respectively.
    taḫawwuf, n., fear, dread: vn. V.
    BP#1503ḫāʔif, pl. ḫuwwaf, adj., 1a fearful, timid, timorous; b scared, frightened, alarmed (min by); c afraid (min of); d anxious (ʕalà about), apprehensive (ʕalà for): PA I.
    maḫūf, adj., 1 feared, dreaded; 2 dangerous, perilous: PP I.
    BP#3387muḫīf, adj., fear-inspiring, frightful, dreadful, terrible, horrible: PA IV.
     
    ḪWL خول 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪWL 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḪWL_1 ʻ(maternal) uncle’ ↗¹ḫāl
    ▪ ḪWL_2 ʻchattels, property (livestock, slaves); servants; (EgAr) dancer, effeminate person’ ↗ḫawal; ʻoverseer (of a plantation), gardener’ ↗ḫawlī; ʻto authorize’ ↗ḫawwala
    ▪ ḪWL_3 ʻmole, birthmark (on the face); patch, beauty spot’ ↗²ḫāl (s.r. √ḪYL)

    Other values, now obsolete, include (Hava1899):

    ḪWL_4 ʻlower part of the bit’ : ḫawal (pl. ḫuwal)
    ḪWL_5 ʻcolours of an army’ : ḫāl
    ḪWL_6 ʻblack stallion-camel’ : ḫāl
    ḪWL_7 ʻbox-thorn’ : ʕawd al-ḫawlān
    ḪWL_8 ʻscattered on all sides (adv.)’: ʔaḫwalᵃ ʔaḫwalᵃ
    ḪWL_ ʻ…’ : …

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): (There is a degree of overlap between this root and ḪYL) ‘maternal uncle, maternal aunt; household, servants, helpers; ownership, property; to give in ownership, to bestow; to authorise, to enable; an overseer; to show pride, to scatter’ 
    ▪ [v1] Kogan2011: from protWSem *ḫāl‑ ‘maternal uncle’.
    ▪ [v2] DRS is not sure whether ʻproperty; to guard, administer (property); to authorize s.o.’ perh. depends on, or is related to, [v1] ʻmaternal uncle’. – For unknown reasons, DRS separates ʻdancer, effeminate person’ from ʻproperty (livestock, slaves); servants’ although it seems clear that the former is a derogatory development from the latter.
    ▪ [v3]: grouped s.r. √ḪWL in WehrCowan, but treated s.r. √ḪYL in DRS – prob. rightly so, as it seems to belong together with the appearance of omina and the complex of imagination.
    [v4] : mentioned also in Lane, but obviously regarded as dubious by many ClassAr lexicographers.
    [v5] : prob. from ↗√ḪYL rather from √ḪWL.
    [v6] : special use of [v2] ʻchattels, property (livestock, slaves)’?
    [v7] : ?
    [v8] : ?
     
    – 
    DRS 10 (2012) #ḪWL-1 Akk ḫāl‑, Palm ḥl ‘oncle maternel’, Nab *ḥlh ‘tante’, Syr ḥālā, Ar ḫāl, Ṣaf ḫl, Mhr Ḥrs ḫayl, Jib ḥiź, Soq ḥel (Kogan2011: ḥalēle) ‘oncle maternel’. – ?2 Ar ḫāla ‘garder, gérer, administrer’, ḫawal ‘biens, avoir’; Min ḫwl ‘personne autorisée’, Qat šḫl ‘diriger, administrer’, ?MġrAr ḫāl ‘octroyer, assigner’. -3 Ar ḫuwāl ‘jeune garçon danseur’, EgAr ḫawal ‘danseur, efféminé, homosexuel passif’, SudAr ḫawal: terme de mépris par lequel on traite l’homme qui manque de virilité; ḫawl d’un homme: sa domesticité. -4 EAr maḫyūl ‘somnolent’. -5 Akk ḫālu, ḫuālu ‘fondre, se dissoudre; exsuder, répandre un liquide’. -6 Akk ḫūl‑ ‘chemin, route’. -7 Jib aḫbel ‘provoquer (en ayant mal posé une attelle) la saillie d’un os cassé sous la peau d’un animal’, ḫoblun ‘maladroit’.
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ As is clear from [v3] and [v5], there is some overlapping between √ḪWL and √ḪYL.
    ▪ For [v1] and [v2], cf. also ↗√ḤW/YL (e.g., ḥawl ‘strength, power, might’ < protSem *ḥayl‑/*ḫayl‑ ‘strength’ – Kogan2015: 118 #12? – If there is such a connection, the ʻmaternal uncle’ is perh. *ʻthe powerful one (due to his possession of property, incl. livestock and slaves)’.
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ḫawwal‑ خَوَّلَ (taḫwīl
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪWL 
    vb., II 
    to grant, accord, give, concede (to s.o. s.th., also li‑; esp., the right, the power to do s.th.), bestow, confer (upon s.o. s.th., also li‑), vest, endow (s.o. with s.th., also li‑) – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ D-stem, caus., from the obs. vb. I, ḫāla ʻto manage (a business etc.), take care (ʕalà of)’ (Hava1899), perh. denom. from ↗ḫawal ʻchattels, property (livestock, slaves); servants’. Thus, the power\auhority bestowed upon s.o. through the action expressed in vb. II is, originally, the right to manage\control one’s livestock, servants, and slaves.
    ▪ If the ʻmaternal uncle’, ↗¹ḫāl, should be akin to ↗ḫawal ʻchattels, property (livestock, slaves); servants’ (as considered possible in DRS, the granting of authority could also be interpreted as *ʻmaking s.o. the “uncle” of livestock, slaves, servants, etc., i.e., its/their master’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 10 (2012) #ḪWL-1 Akk ḫāl‑, Palm ḥl ‘oncle maternel’, Nab *ḥlh ‘tante’, Syr ḥālā, Ar ḫāl, Ṣaf ḫl, Mhr Ḥrs ḫayl, Jib ḥiź, Soq ḥel (Kogan2011: ḥalēle) ‘oncle maternel’. – ?2 Ar ḫāla ‘garder, gérer, administrer’, ḫawal ‘biens, avoir’; Min ḫwl ‘personne autorisée’, Qat šḫl ‘diriger, administrer’, ?MġrAr ḫāl ‘octroyer, assigner’. -3-6 […].
    ▪ … 
    ▪ See above, section CONCISE.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    muḫawwal, adj., authorized (bi‑ to): PP II.

    For other values of the root, cf. ↗¹ḫāl, ↗²ḫāl, ↗ḫawal, and ↗ḫawlī, as well as, for the whole picture, root entries ↗√ḪWL and ↗√ḪYL. 
    ¹ḫāl خال , pl. ʔaḫwāl, huʔūl, ḫuʔūlaẗ 
    ID 272 • Sw – • BP 3188 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪWL 
    n. 
    1 (maternal) uncle – WehrCowan1976. – 2 (pl. ḫīlān) ↗²ḫāl (√ḪYL). 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protWSem *ḫāl‑ ‘maternal uncle’.
    DRS does not exclude the possibility that ʻmaternal uncle’, ¹ḫāl, may be akin somehow to the complex of ʻadministring’, or granting the right\power to administer, ↗ḫawal ʻchattels, property (livestock, slaves); servants’, so that either the former is dependent on the latter (the maternal uncle as *ʻowner\master of property, servants, slaves, etc.’), or vice versa (livestock and other property as *ʻs.th. under the control\administration of a maternal uncle’).
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 10 (2012) #ḪWL-1 Akk ḫāl‑, Palm ḥl ‘oncle maternel’, Nab *ḥlh ‘tante’, Syr ḥālā, Ar ḫāl, Ṣaf ḫl, Mhr Ḥrs ḫayl, Jib ḥiź, Soq ḥel (Kogan2011: ḥalēle) ‘oncle maternel’. – ?2 Ar ḫāla ‘garder, gérer, administrer’, ḫawal ‘biens, avoir’; Min ḫwl ‘personne autorisée’, Qat šḫl ‘diriger, administrer’, ?MġrAr ḫāl ‘octroyer, assigner’. -3-7 […].
    ▪ … 
    ▪ See above, section CONCISE.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    BP#2962ḫālaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., (maternal) aunt
    ḫuʔūlaẗ, n.f., relationship of the maternal uncle

    For other values of the root, cf. ↗²ḫāl, ↗ḫawal, ↗ḫawlī, and ↗ḫawwala, as well as, for the whole picture, root entries ↗√ḪWL and ↗√ḪYL. 
    ḫawal خَوَل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪWL 
    n. 
    1 chattels, property, esp., that consisting in livestock and slaves; 2 servants; 3 (EgAr) dancer; 4 effeminate person, sissy – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Either is ḫawal from the obs. vb. I, ḫāla ʻto manage (a business etc.), take care (ʕalà of)’ (Hava1899), property etc. being interpreted as *ʻs.th. under the authority\control of s.o.’, or it is the other way round and the vb. I is denom. from ḫawal, in which case ʻmanaging a business etc.’ originally would be ʻadministering chattels, property, etc.’.
    ▪ If the ʻmaternal uncle’, ↗¹ḫāl, should be akin to ḫawal (as is considered possible in DRS), the granting of authority could also be interpreted as *ʻmaking s.o. the “uncle” of livestock, slaves, servants, etc., i.e., its/their master’.
    ▪ It is not clear why DRS treats [v1-2] ʻchattels, property’, esp., that consisting in ʻlivestock and slaves; servants’ (their #ḪWL-2, see below, section COGN) as distinct from [v3-4] ʻdancer; effeminate person, sissy’ (their #ḪWL-3), while the latter meaning (an Arabic idiosyncrasy!) quite obviously seems to be a special – derogatory – use of the former: servants and slaves would be considered weak, their masters (“uncles”?) having the power to “let them dance”. Dancing slaves may also have been part of the owner’s property.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 10 (2012) #ḪWL-1 Akk ḫāl‑, Palm ḥl ‘oncle maternel’, Nab *ḥlh ‘tante’, Syr ḥālā, Ar ḫāl, Ṣaf ḫl, Mhr Ḥrs ḫayl, Jib ḥiź, Soq ḥel (Kogan2011: ḥalēle) ‘oncle maternel’. – ?2 Ar ḫāla ‘garder, gérer, administrer’, ḫawal ‘biens, avoir’; Min ḫwl ‘personne autorisée’, Qat šḫl ‘diriger, administrer’, ?MġrAr ḫāl ‘octroyer, assigner’. -3 Ar ḫuwāl ‘jeune garçon danseur’, EgAr ḫawal ‘danseur, efféminé, homosexuel passif’, SudAr ḫawal: terme de mépris par lequel on traite l’homme qui manque de virilité; ḫawl d’un homme: sa domesticité. -4-7 […].
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ See above, section CONCISE.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ḫawwala, vb. II, to grant, accord, give, concede (to s.o. s.th., also li‑; esp., the right, the power to do s.th.), bestow, confer (upon s.o. s.th., also li‑), vest, endow (s.o. with s.th., also li‑): D-stem, caus., from the obs. vb. I, ḫāla ʻto manage (a business etc.), take care (ʕalà of)’.

    ḫawlī, n., 1 supervisor, overseer (of a plantation); 2 gardener: nisba formation, perh. shortened from *ḫawalī ʻin charge of property, etc.’.
    muḫawwal, adj., authorized (bi‑ to): PP II.

    For other values of the root, cf. ↗¹ḫāl and ↗²ḫāl as well as, for the whole picture, root entries ↗√ḪWL and ↗√ḪYL. 
    ḫawlī خَوْليّ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪWL 
    n. 
    1 supervisor, overseer (of a plantation); 2 gardener – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Nisba formation, perh. shortened from *ḫawalī ʻin charge of property, etc.’, from ↗ḫawal ʻchattels, property (esp. livestock, slaves, etc.)’, akin to the obsol. vb. I, ḫāla ʻto manage (a business etc.), take care (ʕalà of)’ (Hava1899).
    DRSḫāl, belongs to this complex (see below, section COGN).
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 10 (2012) #ḪWL-1 Akk ḫāl‑, Palm ḥl ‘oncle maternel’, Nab *ḥlh ‘tante’, Syr ḥālā, Ar ḫāl, Ṣaf ḫl, Mhr Ḥrs ḫayl, Jib ḥiź, Soq ḥel (Kogan2011: ḥalēle) ‘oncle maternel’. – ?2 Ar ḫāla ‘garder, gérer, administrer’, ḫawal ‘biens, avoir’; Min ḫwl ‘personne autorisée’, Qat šḫl ‘diriger, administrer’, ?MġrAr ḫāl ‘octroyer, assigner’. -3-7 […]. 
    ▪ See above, section CONCISE.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    For other values of the root, cf. ↗¹ḫāl, ↗²ḫāl, ↗ḫawal, and ↗ḫawwala, as well as, for the whole picture, root entries ↗√ḪWL and ↗√ḪYL. 
    ḪWN خون 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Mar2023
    √ḪWN 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḪWN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḪWN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḪWN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘treachery, falsehood, disloyalty; to betray, let down; to give false advice; to shortchange; a furtive glance, glance furtively; to look after; to fall on hard times’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḪWY خوي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Mar2023
    √ḪWY 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḪWY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḪWY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḪWY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘space, void, an opening, emptiness, to be deserted; to be derelict, be crumbling; ruins; to be uprooted; wasteland; hunger’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḪYB خيب 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Mar2023
    √ḪYB 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḪYB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḪYB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḪYB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘the losing arrow in a game of fortune; to fail, be disappointed; to go wrong; frustration, failure’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḪYR خير 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪYR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḪYR_1 ‘to choose, select, prefer; good, better, the best; elite; charitableness’ ↗ḫayr
    ▪ ḪYR_2 ‘(LevAr) old man, senior’ ↗ĭḫtiyār
    ▪ ḪYR_3 ‘cucumber’ ↗ḫiyār
    ▪ ḪYR_4 ‘gillyflower’ ↗ḫīriyy

    ▪ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): [ḪYR_1] ‘goodness, to be good, be of use; to put ahead, select above others, the select, choice, the best; to have the/an option, preference, seek the best, seek God’s guidance before an action’ 
    ▪ ḪYR_1 (Huehnergard2011: protSem *√ḪYR ‘to choose’) belongs perhaps to a group of derivations from / extensions of a bi-consonantal root ↗*ḪR- ‘good’.
    ▪ Although ḪYR_2 ‘old man, senior’ is a borrowing from Tu, it ultimately belongs together with ḪYR_1 ‘to choose, prefer’ (< Sem *ḪYR).
    ▪ ḪYR_3 ‘cucumber’ and ḪYR_4 ‘gillyflower’ are both loan words from Pers. 
    – 
    DRS 10 (2012): Out of the six values the root *ḪYR can take in Sem, only two are represented in Ar: #ḪYR–1 Akk ḫiāru, ḫāru ‘choisir, élire’, ḫāʔir‑, ḫāwir‑, ḫāmir‑, ḫāyyir‑, ḫābir‑ ‘mari’, ḫāʔirut ‘état conjugal’, Nab ḥyr (adv.) ‘bien’, ḥyry(hm) ‘(leurs) notables’, Ar ḫāra ‘etre favorable à qn, préférer, choisir’, ḫayr ‘bon, meilleur; bien, avoir, bonheur’, ḫīr ‘noblesse, générosité’, MġrAr ḫayr ‘biens, richesse’, ḫīr ‘mieux, meilleur que’, Sab ḫyr ‘noble’, Mhr ḫayr ‘bien, santé, bien-être’, Soq ḥayr ‘meilleur, mieux’, Jib ḫar ‘bien-être, bien’, aḫyer ‘donner un choix’, Gz ḫayara ‘être bien, bon’, Tña ḫeray ‘bon, compatissant’. [–2 …; –3 …; –4 …; –5 …]. –6 Ar ḫiyār ‘concombre’. 
    ḪYR_1 = DRS #ḪYR-1; ḪYR_3 = DRS #ḪYR-6. – ḪYR_2 and ḪYR_4: not mentioned in DRS.
    ▪ Dolgopolsky2012#1934 reconstructs a Sem vb. *ḪYR (*‑ḫīr‑) ‘to prefer, choose; to be(come) good’ and a WSem n. *ḫayar ‘goodness’, both from Nostr *q̣uy˅r˅‑ ‘to love, covet’ (> ‘to prefer’). Sem *ḫ‑ goes back to *q‑, resulting from pAfrAs deglottalization of Nostr *q̣‑
    ▪ Engl mohair, moire, moiréḫayr
    – 
    ḫayr خَيْر , pl. ḫiyār , ʔaḫyār

    NB: For the notion of ‘goodness; select, pick (the good)’, the n. ḫayr has been chosen here as the main entry. But the vb. I, ḫāra , could have served the same purpose. It is impossible to decide whether ḫāra is denominative or ḫayr deverbative. Dolgopolski2012#1934 distinguishes WSem *ḫayar‑ ‘goodness’ (> Ar ḫayr , n.) from Sem *ḪYR (*‑ḫīr‑) ‘to prefer, choose; to be(come) good’ (> Ar ḫāra , vb. I). 
    ID – • Sw – • BP 140 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪYR 
    n./adj. 
    good; excellent, outstanding, superior, admirable; better; best; – (pl. ḫuyūr) good thing, blessing; wealth, property; – good, benefit, interest, advantage; welfare; charity – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ (According to Dolgopolsky2012#1934:) From WSem *ḫayar‑ ‘goodness’, Sem *ḪYR (*‑ḫīr‑) ‘to prefer, choose; to be(come) good’ (from Nostr *q̣uy˅r˅‑ ‘to love, covet’ > ‘to prefer’). 
    ▪ eC7 I (n.) 1 (goodness, all that is good) Q 3:26 bi-yadi-ka ’l-ḫayru ‘in Your hand is the good’; 2 (much wealth, great property) 2:180 kutiba ʕalay-kum ʔiḏā ḥaḍara ʔaḥada-kum-u ’l-mawtu ʔin taraka ḫayran-i ’l-waṣiyyatu lil-wālidayni wa’l-ʔaqrabīna ‘it is prescribed for you, when death comes to one of you if he is leaving behind great property, that he should make bequests to parents and close relatives’. II (elat.) 1 (usually with prep. min) 2:263 qawlun maʕrūfun wa-maʕrifatun ḫayrun min ṣadaqaẗin yatbaʕu-hā ʔaḏàn ‘a kind word [from a would-be giver] and forgiveness [from the would-be receiver of charity] is better than almsgiving after which follows hurt’, 2 (in ʔiḍāfaẗ) 3:110 kuntum ḫayra ʔummatin ʔuḫriǧat lil-nāsi ‘you are the best nation that has been brought forth for humankind’ – BAH2008. 
    DRS 10 (2012)#ḪYR-1: Akk ḫiāru, ḫāru ‘choisir, élire’, ḫāʔir‑, ḫāwir‑, ḫāmir‑, ḫāyyir‑, ḫābir‑ ‘mari’, ḫāʔirut ‘état conjugal’, Nab ḥyr (adv.) ‘bien’, ḥyry(hm) ‘(leurs) notables’, Ar ḫāra ‘etre favorable à qn, préférer, choisir’, ḫayr ‘bon, meilleur; bien, avoir, bonheur’, ḫīr ‘noblesse, générosité’, MġrAr ḫayr ‘biens, richesse’, ḫīr ‘mieux, meilleur que’, Sab ḫyr ‘noble’, Mhr ḫayr ‘bien, santé, bien-être’, Soq ḥayr ‘meilleur, mieux’, Jib ḫar ‘bien-être, bien’, aḫyer ‘donner un choix’, Gz ḫayara ‘être bien, bon’, Tña ḫeray ‘bon, compatissant’.
    ▪ See also the cognates given by Dolgopolsky (cf. DISC, below). 
    ▪ Dolgopolsky2012#1934 reconstructs a Sem vb. and a WSem n. – According to the author, 1 Sem *ḪYR (*‑ḫīr‑) ‘to prefer, choose; to be(come) good’ gave Akk ḫiāru ~ ḫāru ‘to choose, select; to pick and take as mate’, Ar ḫāra ī ‘to be propicious to; to prefer, select’, Gz ḫayara ~ ḫēra, Min ḫyr ‘to choose, authorize’; 2 WSem *ḫayar‑ ‘goodness’ gave Ar ḫayr ‘id.; good (n.); good, better, the best’ (> Soq ḥayr ‘better [adj., adv.]’, Mhr Ḥrs ḫayr ‘good, health’, Jib ḫer ‘best interest’), Mhr ḫār ‘better’, Mhr ḫɜyor, Ḥrs ḫɜyōr ‘best’, Jib ḫar ‘well-being, good’, Sab ḫyr ‘nobleman, noble’ (pl. ʔḫyr), Qat ʔḫyr (pl.) ‘élite, noblemen’, Gz ḫēr ‘good, excellent, good thing’.
    ▪ According to Dolgopolsky2012#1934, both Sem items (and a number of others from non-AfrAs families) are from Nostr *q̣uy˅r˅‑ ‘to love, covet’ (> ‘to prefer’). 
    ▪ Huehnergard2011, EtymOnline: Engl mohair (1610 s), earlier mocayre (1560 s) ‘fine hair of the Angora goat; a fabric made from this’, from mFr mocayart (C16), Ital mocaiarro, both from Ar muḫayyar ‘cloth of goat hair (lit., selected, choice)’, from ḫayyara, vb. II, ‘to (make) choose’. Spelling influenced in Engl by association with hair. – Engl moire ‘watered silk’ (1650 s), from Fr moire (C17), probably Engl mohair; thus, the item seems to have been first borrowed from Fr, then loaned back into this languange, and ultimately loaned back from there. – The adj. Engl moiré ‘having the appearance of watered silk’ is attested from 1823
    ḫayr al-nās, the best of all people; ḫiyār al-nās, ʔaḫyār al-nās, the best people, the pick of the human race.
    huwa ḫayr min-ka, he is better than you.
    huwa ḫayr la-ka, it is better for you.
    al-ḫayr kull al-ḫayr, the very best.
    al-ḫayr al-ʕāmm, the commonweal, general welfare; dawlaẗ al-ḫayr al-ʕāmm, welfare state.
    li-ḫayri, prep., for the benefit of; ~ ʔanfusi-him, for their own good.
    ʔaʕmāl al-ḫayr, charitable deeds.
    ṣabāḥ al-ḫayr and ṣabāḥ-ak bi’l-ḫayr, good morning!
    ḏakara-hū bi’l-ḫayr, to retain a good impression of s.o.; to speak well of s.o.
    bi-ḫayr, fine, in good health (as an answer to inquiries about one’s health and in wishes).
    ʔaḫū ’l-ḫayr, a good, benevolent person.
    ʔahl al-ḫayr, charitable people.

    ḫāra i to choose, make one’s choice; to prefer (ʕalà to): denominative from ḫayr, or is ḫayr from ḫāra?
    ḫayyara, vb. II, to make or let choose (bayna between, from), give (s.o.) the alternative, option or choice (bayna between, in); to prefer (s.th. ʕalà to): D-stem, denom./caus.
    ḫāyara, vb. Ill, to vie, compete (DO with s.o.); to make or let (s.o.) choose, give (s.o.) the choice, option or alternative: L-stem, associative.
    taḫayyara, vb. V, to choose, select, pick (DO s.o., s.th.): tD-stem, autoben.
    BP#1205ĭḫtāra, vb. VIII, to choose, make one’s choice; to choose, select, elect, pick (s.o., s.th.), fix upon s.o. or s.th. (DO); to prefer (ʕalà to): T-stem, autoben./refl. | ~ ’llāhu ʔilà ǧiwārihī, (approx.:) the Lord has taken… unto Himself.
    ĭstaḫāra, vb. X, to seek or request what is good or best for o.s. (2x DO); to consult an oracle, cast lots: Št-stem, request. | ~ ’llāha fī, to ask God for proper guidance in.

    BP#1256ḫayrī, adj., charitable, beneficent, benevolent, philanthropic: nsb-adj. | ǧamʕiyyaẗ ~aẗ, n., charitable organization.
    ḫayriyyaẗ, n.f., charity, charitableness, benevolence, beneficence: abstr. formation in ‑iyyaẗ.
    ḫayyir, adj., generous, liberal, openhanded, munificent; charitable, beneficent, benevolent; benign, gracious, kind: ints. adj.
    BP#3882ḫayraẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., good deed, good; pl. resources, treasures (e.g., of the earth, of a country), boons, blessings: n.un.
    BP#4964ḫīraẗ and ḫiyaraẗ, n.f., the best, choice, prime, flower, pick, elite:…
    ʔaḫyarᵘ, f. ḫīrà, ḫūrà, pl. ʔaḫāyirᵘ, adj., better, superior: elat.
    BP#1321ḫiyār, n., 1 choice; option, exercise of the power of choice (Isl. Law); refusal, right of withdrawal (Isl. Law); the best, choice, prime, flower, pick, elite; 2s.v..
    ḫiyārī, adj., optional, facultative; voluntary: nsb-adj. of ḫiyār.
    ĭḫtiyār, n., BP#9591 choice; election (also pol.; pl. ‑āt); selection; preference (ʕalà to); option; free will (philos.); ~an, of one’s own accord, spontaneously, voluntarily: vn. VIII. – 2 pl. ‑iyyaẗ, (Ir., Lev.), also ḫityār, pl. -iyyaẗ, adj., old; n., old man; elder, senior person in a community: (loaned into Tu, then back into Ar with the special meaning the word had acquired in Tu, lit., *‘wise person who knows how to make the right choices, experienced’).
    ĭḫtiyārī, adj., voluntary, facultative, elective (studies): nsb-adj., from ĭḫtiyār.
    muḫayyar, adj., having the choice or option: PP II.
    BP#4507muḫtār, 1 adj., free to choose, having the choice or option ( in), volunteering; ~an, adv., voluntarily, spontaneously, of one’s own accord: PA VIII; choice, select, exquisite; chosen, preferred, favorite; a favorite; ‑āt, pl., selection, selected writings, anthology: PP VIII; 2 pl. maḫātīrᵘ, n., village chief, mayor of a village; mayor of a city district (Syr., Leb., lr.): nominalized PP VIII.

    For other items of √ḪYR, cf. ↗ḫiyār and ↗ḫīriyy
    ḫīriyy خِيريّ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪYR, ḪYRY 
    n. 
    gillyflower (bot.) – WehrCowan1979. – Other dictionaries give ‘Viola alba, eiusque genera’ (Freytag1838), ‘(espèce de) violette’ (Kazimirski1860), ‘giroflée’ (Rolland2014). 
    ▪ From Pers ḫīrī ‘plant family of Malvaceae’ (Rolland2014), ‘mallows; name of a certain flower of which there are several species’ (Steingass1892), ‘levkøy’ (Petersen) 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ – 
    ▪ See above, section CONCISE. 
    – 
    – 
    ḫiyār خِيار 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪYR, ḪYāR 
    n. 
    1ḫayr . – 2 cucumber – WehrCowan1979. 
    DRS 10 (2012) #ḪYR-6, Rolland2014: From Pers ḫiyār ‘cucumber’. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ – 
    ▪ See above, section CONCISE. 
    – 
    – 
    ĭḫtiyār اخْتِيار , pl. ‑iyyaẗ , (Ir., Lev.), also ḫityār , pl. ‑iyyaẗ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪYR 
    n., adj. 
    adj./n., 1ḫayr. – 2, adj., old; n., old man; elder, senior person in a community – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Ultimately, the word belongs to the complex treated under ↗ḫayr, from Sem *ḪYR ‘to choose, prefer’. More specifically, it is the genuine Ar vn. VIII ĭḫtiyār (from ĭḫtāra, vb. VIII, ‘to choose, make one’s choice; to select, elect, pick; to prefer’) loaned into Tu as ihtiyar. In Tu, the sense of ‘(knowing how) to make the right choice, choose the best’ was transferred on the experienced usually elderly persons who had this quality, and was then generalized, coming to mean ‘aged, old’. As such, the word was loaned back into Ar in areas under Ottoman influence. 
    ▪ According to Nişanyan (29Dec2014), the word is first attested in OttTu in Meninski, Thesaurus, 1680
    ▪ For the complex ‘to choose, prefer, etc.’ to which the item belongs, see ↗ḫayr
    ▪ For the complex ‘to choose, prefer, etc.’ to which the item belongs, see ↗ḫayr
    – 
    – 
    muḫtār مُخْتار , ‑ūn , maḫātīrᵘ 
    ID 273 • Sw – • BP 4507 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪYR 
    ¹adj.; ²n. 
    1 adj., free to choose, having the choice or option ( in), volunteering; ~an, adv., voluntarily, spontaneously, of one’s own accord; choice, select, exquisite; chosen, preferred, favorite; a favorite; ‑āt, pl., selection, selected writings, anthology. – 2 pl. maḫātīrᵘ, n., village chief, mayor of a village; mayor of a city district (Syr., Leb., Ir.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ As an adj., the values of the word are those of a PA and PP of ĭḫtāra, vb. VIII, ‘to choose, make one’s choice; to select, elect, pick; to prefer’, i.e., they go back to a literal meaning of either ‘choosing, making a choice’ or ‘made to choose, given the chance/right to make a choice’.
    ▪ The value ‘village chief’ etc. is originally *‘the chosen one’ (or ‘s.o. having the ability to make the right choice’? Cf. ↗ĭḫtiyār). 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ For the complex ‘to choose, prefer, etc.’ to which the item belongs, see ↗ḫayr
    ▪ For the complex ‘to choose, prefer, etc.’ to which the item belongs, see ↗ḫayr
    – 
    – 
    ḪYṬ خيط 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Mar2023
    √ḪYṬ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḪYṬ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḪYṬ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḪYṬ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘thread, wire, string, rope; to sew, stitch up; needle, tailor, tailoring’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḪYL خيل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪYL 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḪYL_1 ʻto imagine, fancy, think, believe, suppose; (D-stem) to suggest, make believe; (Gt- and Lt-stems) to feel self-important, be conceited; to behave in a pompous, arrogant manner, swagger, strut about’ ↗ḫāla; ʻghost, spectre, phantom, fantasy, chimera; vision, imagination; shadow, trace, dim reflection’ ↗ḫayāl; ʻmole, birthmark; patch, beauty spot’ ↗²ḫāl
    ▪ ḪYL_2 ʻgreen woodpecker’ ↗ʔaḫyal
    ▪ ḪYL_3 ʻhorses’ ↗ḫayl

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): (There is a degree of overlapping between this root and ḪWL:) ‘imagining, to fancy, to suppose, to guess, to presuppose, to foresee; spectre, ghost, apparition, shadow; pride, conceit, snobbery; horse riders, horses; maternal uncle and aunt; mole (on skin)’ 
    ▪ [v1] : Although the semantic field built around the idea of ʻfantasy, imagination’ in Ar is rather broad and diversified and thus points to a long history and the genuineness of the root, the corresponding Ar items remain without obvious cognates in Sem. The picture changes slightly if we regard ʻfantasy, imagination’ (DRS #ḪYL-2) and ʻmole, birthmark; patch, beauty spot’ (DRS #ḪYL-4) as possibly belonging together, both sharing the basic idea of *ʻappearing, becoming visible’; moreover, in older times, birthmarks were often seen as omina, thus evoking a certain vision.54 Should the two be akin, then the Ar lexemes would perh. get at least one relative in Akk, and ²ḫāl ʻmole, birthmark; patch, beauty spot’ could be tentatively interpreted as *ʻmark\sign appearing, becoming visible (on the face or skin of a newborn child)’, or the complex of ʻfantasy, imagination’ could be regarded as derived from ²ḫāl, a fantasy or imagination appearing like a mole or a beauty spot on the face\skin of a newborn. But this is unsecured speculation that cannot build on harder data than the mere possibility of semantic dependence. The Akk “relative” signifying ʻblack mole (on the face and body); black spot (a disease of barley)’ may also be unrelated: while von Soden (on whom the data given in DRS are built) gives it as Akk ḫālu, CAD quotes it as Akk ḫalû (from oBab on), in which case it would belong together with Ar ḥalaʔ ʻpustules upon the lips (Hava1899) / boutons aux lèvres à la suite de la fièvre (BK1860)’ rather than with ²ḫāl.55
    ▪ [v2] : The modern use of ʔaḫyal for ʻgreen woodpecker’ may be dependent on [v1], more specifically on ²ḫāl in the sense of ʻpatch, beauty spot’, as the bird has white spots on some of its feathers (DRS #ḪYL-4). In older times, the word signified some (less specified) kind of bird that may have been called ʔaḫyal on account of its association with evil omen. Others explain it as an epithet based on taḫayyul, thus meaning *ʻthe one who feels self-important, conceited, the arrogant one’. – The word may have a cognate in a Hbr hapax. MilitarevKogan2005 (SED II #107) tentatively reconstruct protSem *ḫ˅l‑ ‘kind of bird’, adding that the reconstruction is little reliable, due to scarce attestation.
    ▪ [v3] : Ar ḫayl for ʻhorses’ stands isolated within Sem (Jib aḫyel ‘faire galoper’ could be an Arabism). Given that it cannot be connected to [v1] or [v2], it may belong to the complex of *ʻpower, strength’ (cf. DRS #ḪYL-5 in section COGN, below), otherwise realised in Ar by ↗√ḤW/YL (< protSem *ḥayl‑/*ḫayl‑ ‘strength’ – Kogan2015: 118 #12), rather than to √ḪYL or √ḪWL.56 According to Kogan (ibid., fn. 340), ḫayl ‘horses; riders’ has been interpreted already quite often as belonging together with ‘strength, power, might’ (cf. Marrassini 1971: 59).
    ▪ … 
    – 
    DRS 10 (2012) #ḪYL-1 Akk ḫiālu, ḫālu ‘frémir, éprouver les douleurs de l’accouchement’, ḫīlū ‘douleurs de l’accouchement’, Ug ḫl ‘éprouver de telles douleurs’; ‘sautiller’, ḫl ‘angoisse, douleur’, Hbr ḥīl ‘douleur (en particulier celle de l’accouchement), crainte, tremblement d’angoisse’, ? Soq meḥailil, muhailil ‘peureux’. -2 Ar ḫāla, ḫayyala ‘s’imaginer, se figurer’, ḫayāl ‘fantôme, ombre’, ḫāl ‘outrecuidance, arrogance, présomption’, YemAr ḫayāl ‘convoiter’. -3 Ar ḫayl ‘chevaux’, ḫayyālaẗ ‘troupeau de chevaux’, Jib aḫyel ‘faire galoper (son cheval)’. -4 Akk ḫālu ‘tache noire sur la peau’, Ar ḫāl ‘signe sur le visage, grain de beauté’, ʔaḫyalᵘ ‘qui a des grains de beauté (sur le visage)’, ḫīlān ‘signe, signe sur le corps ou le visage, grain de beauté’. -5 Hbr ḥayil ‘puissance’, SyrAr ḥēl, ‘vigueur, allant’, Sab ḫyl ‘pouvoir, puissance’, Qat ‘ressources, aide’, Gz ḫayl, Tña ḥayli, Te ḥil, Amh Gur hayl ‘pouvoir, puissance’. -6 Soq ḥal, ḥēl ‘aine’. -7 Tña ḫayal ‘cerf, grande antilope’. -8 Akk ḫīl‑ ‘résine’.
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ As is clear from [v…] and [v…], there is some overlapping between √ḪYL and ↗√ḪWL, and prob. also ↗√ḤW/YL.
    ▪ The value *ʻto be in labour; have labour pains’ (protSem *ḫylSED I #33) does not seem to have cognates in Ar, although it is quite widely attested throughout Sem (see DRS #ḪYL-1 in section COGN, above, and SED I #33).
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ḫāl‑ / ḫil‑ خال/خِلْـ , ā 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪYL 
    ḫ 
    1 to imagine, fancy, think, believe, suppose (ʔanna that); 2 to consider, deem, think (s.o. to be ..., s.th. to be ...), regard (s.o. as, s.th. as) – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Akin to ²ḫāl ʻmole, birthmark; patch, beauty spot’, sharing with it a basic idea of *ʻappearing, becoming visible’? If so, then ḫāla ʻto imagine, etc.’ is perh. also akin to ↗ʔaḫyal ʻgreen woodpecker’ (modern meaning) (< *ʻhaving spots on its wings’) – see DISC below.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 10 (2012) #ḪYL-1 […]. -2 Ar ḫāla, ḫayyala ‘s’imaginer, se figurer’, ḫayāl ‘fantôme, ombre’, ḫāl ‘outrecuidance, arrogance, présomption’, YemAr ḫayāl ‘convoiter’. -3 […]. -4 Akk ḫālu ‘tache noire sur la peau’, Ar ḫāl ‘signe sur le visage, grain de beauté’, ʔaḫyalᵘ ‘qui a des grains de beauté (sur le visage)’, ḫīlān ‘signe, signe sur le corps ou le visage, grain de beauté’. -5-8 […].
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Although the semantic field built around the idea of ʻfantasy, imagination’ in Ar is rather broad and diversified (cf. DERIV) and thus points to a long history and the genuineness of the root, the corresponding Ar items remain without obvious cognates in Sem. Things will look slightly different if we regard ʻfantasy, imagination’ (DRS #ḪYL-2) and ʻmole, birthmark; patch, beauty spot’ (DRS #ḪYL-4) as possibly belonging together, both sharing the basic idea of *ʻappearing, becoming visible’; moreover, in older times, birthmarks were often seen as omina, thus evoking a certain vision, esp. the imagination of an evil threatening the future; cf. also the fact that one explanation of the name ʔaḫyal given to a certain type of bird was its association with an evil omen.258 Thus, ²ḫāl ʻmole, beauty spot’ could be tentatively interpreted as *ʻmark\sign appearing, becoming visible (on the face or skin of a newborn)’, or the complex of ʻfantasy, imagination’ could be regarded as derived from ²ḫāl, a fantasy or imagination appearing like a mole or a beauty spot on the face\skin of a newborn. But this is unsecured speculation that cannot build on harder evidence than the mere possibility of semantic dependence. A possible Akk cognate of Ar ²ḫāl, signifying ʻblack mole (on the face and body); black spot (a disease of barley)’, may just as well be unrelated: while von Soden (on whom the data given in DRS are built) gives it as Akk ḫālu, CAD quotes it as Akk ḫalû (from oBab on), in which case it would belong together with Ar ḥalaʔ ʻpustules upon the lips (Hava1899) / boutons aux lèvres à la suite de la fièvre (BK1860)’ rather than with ²ḫāl.259
    ▪ Accord. to Lane ii (1865), the form V vb. taḫawwala (from √ḪWL) is found as a variant of ʔaḫāla, vb. IV, in the ClassAr expr. ʔaḫāla fīhi ḫālan min al-ḫayr ʻto bode well of s.th.’. It comes as no surprise, therefore, that ²ḫāl ʻmole, birthmark; patch, beauty spot’ is treated s.r. √ḪWL in some dictionaries, incl. WehrCowan, not sub √ḪYL.
    ▪ The modern use of ↗ʔaḫyal for ʻgreen woodpecker’ may be dependent on ²ḫāl in the sense of ʻpatch, beauty spot’, as the bird has white spots on some of its feathers (DRS #ḪYL-4). In older times, the word signified some (less specified) kind of bird that may have been called ʔaḫyal on account of its association with evil omen (ḫayāl). Others explain it as an epithet based on taḫayyul, thus meaning *ʻthe one who feels self-important, conceited, the arrogant one’ (cf. ḫuyalāʔᵘ, ḫaylūlaẗ, maḫīlaẗ ʻconceit, haughtiness, snobbery, arrogance, etc.’).
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ḫayyala, vb. II, to make (ʔilà s.o.) believe (ʔanna that), suggest (ʔilà to s.o., a s.th.), give s.o. (ʔilà) the impression that: D-stem, caus. | ḫuyyila ʔilayhi (lahū) ʔanna, expr., he imagined, fancied, thought that..., it seemed, it appeared to him that...; ʕalà mā ḫayyalat (al-nafs being understood), expr., as the heart dictates, i.e., as chance will have it, at random, unhesitatingly
    ʔaḫāla, vb. IV, to be dubious, doubtful, uncertain, intricate: *Š-stem, denom (from ḫayāl?)
    BP#4140taḫayyala, vb. V, 1 to imagine, fancy (s.th.); 2 to present itself, reveal itself (li‑ to s.o.’s mind), become the object of imagination, appear ( = II; li‑ to s.o.): Dt-stem, intr., self-ref./refl. | ~ fīhi ’l-ḫayr, vb., to suspect good qualities in s.o., have an inkling of s.o.’s good qualities, think, well of s.o., have a good opinion of s.o.
    taḫāyala, vb. VI, 1 to pretend (bi‑, li‑ to s.o. s.th., that ...), act (li‑ toward s.o., bi‑ as if); 2 to feel self-important, be conceited; 3 to behave in a pompous manner, swagger, strut about; 4 to conceive eccentric ideas, get all kinds of fantastic notions, have a bee in one’s bonnet; 5 to appear dimly, in shadowy outlines; 6 to appear, show (ʕalà on), hover (ʕalà about; e.g., a smile about s.o.’s lips), flit (ʕalà across, e.g., a shadow across s.o.’s face, etc.): Lt-stem, pretentious.
    ĭḫtāla, vb. VIII, 1 to feel self-important, be conceited; 2 to behave in a pompous manner, swagger, strut about: Gt-stem, self-ref.

    ²ḫāl, pl. ḫīlān, n., 1 (pl. ʔaḫwāl, huʔūl, ḫuʔūlaẗ) ↗¹ḫāl (√ḪWL); 2a mole, birthmark (on the face); b patch, beauty spot
    BP#1975ḫayāl, pl. ʔaḫyilaẗ, n., 1a disembodied spirit, ghost, specter; b phantom, apparition; c phantasm, fantasy, chimera, vision; 2a imagination; b shadow, trace, dim reflection | ~ šakk, n., slightest doubt; ~ al-ṣaḥrāʔ, n., scarecrow; ~ al-ẓill, n., shadow play
    ḫayālaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., 1 ghost, spirit, specter; 2 phantom; 3 phantasm, fantasy, chimera
    BP#3946ḫayālī, adj., 1 imaginary, unreal; 2 ideal, ideational, conceptual; 3 utopian: nisba formation, from ḫayāl
    ʔaḫyalᵘ, adj., more conceited, haughtier, prouder: elative formation (from ḫayāl?)
    ʔaḫyal, pl. ḫīl, ʔaḫāyilᵘ, n., green woodpecker: lit., *ʻthe arrogant one’ or *ʻthe one with spots on its wings’?
    ḫuyalāʔᵘ, n.f., 1 conceit, conceitedness, haughtiness, pride; 2 al‑~, adv., haughtily, proudly
    ḫaylūlaẗ, n.f., conceit, conceitedness, snobbery, arrogance, haughtiness
    maḫīlaẗ, n.f., 1 conceit, conceitedness, snobbery, arrogance, haughtiness; 2 pl. maḫāyilᵘ, nonhum.pl., indication, sign, symptom, characteristic; 3 visions, mental images, imagery
    taḫyīl, n., play acting | fann al‑~, n., dramatic art
    taḫayyul, pl. ‑āt, n., imagination, phantasy; 2 delusion, hallucination, fancy, whim, fantastic notion
    taḫayyulī, adj., fantastic, fanciful, imaginary
    ĭḫtiyāl, n., 1 pride; 2 arrogance, haughtiness
    muḫayyilaẗ, n.f., imagination, phantasy
    muḫīl, adj., 1 dubious, doubtful, uncertain, intricate, tangled, confused; 2 confusing, bewildering
    muḫtāl, adj., conceited, haughty, arrogant

    For other values of the root, cf. ↗ḫayl and ↗ʔaḫyal as well as, for the whole picture, root entries ↗√ḪYL and √ḪWL. 
    ḫayāl خَيال 
    ID 274 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 1975 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪYL 
    n. 
    1a disembodied spirit, ghost, specter; b phantom, apparition; c phantasm, fantasy, chimera, vision; 2a imagination; b shadow, trace, dim reflection – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ ↗ḫāla
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ ↗ḫāla .
    ▪ … 
    ▪ See above, section CONCISE.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ḫayālaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., 1 ghost, spirit, specter; 2 phantom; 3 phantasm, fantasy, chimera
    BP#3946ḫayālī, adj., 1 imaginary, unreal; 2 ideal, ideational, conceptual; 3 utopian: nisba formation, from ḫayāl
     
    ḫayāliyyaẗ خَياليّة 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 4Jun2023
    √ḪYL 
    n.f. 
    ▪ abstr. formation in -iyyaẗ 
    – 
    – 
    ʔaḫyal أَخْيَل , pl. ḫīl, ʔaḫāyilᵘ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪYL 
    n. 
    green woodpecker – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Accord. to Lane ii (1865) (see below, section HIST), ʻgreen woodpecker’ is a modern use, while in older times it meant a certain bird. Some ClassAr lexicographers explain the name of this bird as an epithet based on taḫayyul, thus meaning *ʻthe one who feels self-important, conceited, the arrogant one’; for others, it is connected to the idea of a bad omen. The more modern use could be due to the spots on the bird’s wings, reminding of a ²ḫāl ʻmole, birthmark; patch, beauty spot’ (see ↗ḫāla).
    ▪ (MilitarevKogan2005 SED II #107:) From protSem *ḫ˅l- ‘kind of bird’ (not very reliable, due to scarce attestation: in Hbr and Ar only, both not secured).
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Lane ii (1865): ʻa certain bird that alights upon the rump of the camel and is app. for that reason held to be of evil omen;11 applied in the present day to the green wood-pecker (picus viridis), and to the common roller (coracias garrula), so called because upon its wings are colours differing from its general colour, or because diversified with black and white, or the ↗šāhīn (a species of falcon)’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ MilitarevKogan2005 (SED II) #107: Hbr ḥōl ‘name of a fabulous bird, Phoenix’ (hapax in Job 29.18), Ar ʔaḫyal ‘faucon blanc de bon nid; oiseau à plumage bigarre, et regardé comme de mauvais augure’.
    DRS 10 (2012) #ḪYL-1 […]. -2 Ar ḫāla, ḫayyala ‘s’imaginer, se figurer’, ḫayāl ‘fantôme, ombre’, ḫāl ‘outrecuidance, arrogance, présomption’, YemAr ḫayāl ‘convoiter’. -3 […]. -4 Akk ḫālu ‘tache noire sur la peau’, Ar ḫāl ‘signe sur le visage, grain de beauté’, ʔaḫyalᵘ ‘qui a des grains de beauté (sur le visage)’, ḫīlān ‘signe, signe sur le corps ou le visage, grain de beauté’. -5-8 […].
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ See above, section CONCISE.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    For other values of the root, cf. ↗ḫāla and ↗ḫayl as well as, for the whole picture, root entries ↗√ḪYL and √ḪWL. 
    ḫayl خَيْل 
    ID 275 • Sw – • BP 2456 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪYL 
    n.coll. 
    1 horses; 2 horsepower, H.P. – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ The term ḫayl for ‘horses’ is an Ar idiosyncrasy. But, as Kogan2011 (#5.1.3.2) states, there is also »no deeply rooted common term for ‘horse’« in Sem. (For other terms, cf. ↗ḥiṣān, ↗faras, EgAr ↗sīsī.) ḫayl may belong to the complex of *ʻpower, strength, might’ (↗√ḤW/YL, with in from *); thus, it may originally be *ʻthe powerful one’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 10 (2012) #ḪYL-1-2 […]. -3 Ar ḫayl ‘chevaux’, ḫayyālaẗ ‘troupeau de chevaux’, Jib aḫyel ‘faire galoper (son cheval)’. -4 […]. -5 Hbr ḥayil ‘puissance’, SyrAr ḥēl, ‘vigueur, allant’, Sab ḫyl ‘pouvoir, puissance’, Qat ‘ressources, aide’, Gz ḫayl, Tña ḥayli, Te ḥil, Amh Gur hayl ‘pouvoir, puissance’. -6-8 […].
    ▪ … 
    ▪ The Ar term ḫayl for ʻhorses’ stands isolated within Sem (Jib aḫyel ‘faire galoper’ could be an Arabism). Given that it cannot be connected to other items of ↗√ḪYL or ↗√ḪWL, it may be true what earlier research often suggested,260 , namely that it belongs to the complex of *ʻpower, strength, might’ (cf. DRS #ḪYL-5 in section COGN, above), otherwise realised in Ar by ↗√ḤW/YL (< protSem *ḥayl‑/*ḫayl‑ ‘strength’ – Kogan2015: 118 #12), rather than to √ḪYL or √ḪWL.261
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    sabāq al-ḫayl, n., horse racing, horse race

    ḫayyala, vb. II, to gallop (on horseback): D-stem, denom.
    ḫayyāl, pl. -aẗ, ‑ūn, n., horseman, rider: ints. formation / n.prof.
    ḫayyālaẗ, n.f., cavalry (Ir.; Eg. 1939) | sariyyaẗ ḫayyālaẗ, n.f., cavalry squadron (Eg. 1939)

    For other values of the root, cf. ↗ḫāla and ↗ʔaḫyal as well as, for the whole picture, root entries ↗√ḪYL and √ḪWL. 
    ḪYM خيم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪYM 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḪYM_1 ‘tent, pavilion’ ↗ḫaymaẗ
    ▪ ḪYM_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ḫaymaẗ خَيْمَة , pl. ‑āt , ḫiyām , ḫiyam 
    ID 276 • Sw – • BP 3255 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḪYM 
    n.f. 
    tent; tarpaulin; arbor, bower; pavilion – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q 55:72 ‘tent; pavilion’ 
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2058: Within Sem, the many cognates of Ar ḫaym-at‑ have either the ‎meaning ‘tent’ (Ug ḫm-t, Gz ḫaymat, Jib ḫom = pl.) or ‘hut, cabin’ (SAr ḫym, Tgr ḫaymät, ‎Amh haym-ät), while Ḥrs ḫīm-ēt‑ can mean both.
    Outside Sem the word has cognates in Berb ‎‎*γ(˅)yam‑ (ta-γyam-t, Kby a-ḫḫam, Ahg ta-ḫyam-t ‘tent’; another ta-ḫyam-t ‘village’), ‎Eg ḫm ‘temple’ (pyr), ECh *kam-kam‑ (redupl.; reconstructed from the forms kankama and kamkama). 
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »It is found only in the pl. ḫiyām ‎in an early Meccan description of Paradise, where we are told that the Houries are maqṣūrāt fī ‘l-‎ḫiyām ‘kept close in pavilions’. – The word is obviously not Ar, and Fraenkel, Fremdw, 30, ‎though admitting that he was not certain of its origin, suggested that it came to the Arabs from ‎Abyssinia.262 Eth [Gz] ḫaymat means ‘tentorium’, ‘tabernaculum’ (Dillmann, ‎‎Lex, 610), and translates both the Hbr אהל‏ and Grk skēnḗ. Vollers, however, in ZDMG, ‎‎1, 631, is not willing to accept this theory of Abyssinian derivation,263 and thinks we must look to ‎Persia or NAfrica for its origin. The Pers ḫaymat, ḫiyam and ḫiyām, however, are direct ‎borrowings from the Ar264 and not formations from the root ‎‎√ḪMY meaning ‘curvature’. – We find the word not infrequently in the early poetry, and so it ‎must have been an early borrowing, probably from the same source as the Eth ḫaymat

    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2058: The common Sem ancestor is to be ‎reconstructed as *ḫaym‑ ‘tent; hut, cabin’. The cognates in Berb, ‎Eg, and ECh make the ‎authors suggest a common etymon in AfrAs *q̇am‑ / *q̇ayam‑ ‘tent, house’. 

    – 
    ḫayyama, vb. II, ‎to pitch one's tent, to camp; to settle down; to stay, linger, rest, lie down, lie; (fig.) to reign (e.g., ‎calm, silence, peace, etc.), settle: denominative.
    taḫayyama, vb. V, to pitch one's tent; to camp: denominative.

    ḫayyām, n., tentmaker: n.prof.
    BP#1249 muḫayyam, pl. ‑āt, n., camping ground, camp, ‎encampment: n.loc. II. 

    dāl دال 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ 
    R₁ 
    The letter d of the Arabic alphabet. 
    ▪ From protSem *dalt‑ (*‑t‑ feminine suffix) ‘door’ – Huehnergard2011.
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Cf. Engl daleth, from Hbr dālet, from Phoen *dalt ‘door, fourth letter of the Phoen alphabet’; delta, deltoid, from Grk delta, from Phoen *dalt (see above) or from a dialectal variant *dilt
     
    DʔB دأب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √DʔB 
    “root” 
    ▪ DʔB_1 ‘to persist, be indefatigable’ ↗daʔaba
    ▪ DʔB_2 ‘habit’ ↗daʔaba

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘custom, habit, persistence, to persevere, to do regularly, day and night’ 
    The basic idea in (W)Sem seems to be that of doing s.th. relentlessly and with great effort (and pain), over a longer period. From there, the notions of ‘persistence’ (Ar vb.), ‘becoming tired’ (Hbr, Mand) or ‘to melt, be worried, to grieve, pine away’ (JP, Hbr) as well as that of ‘habit’ (Ar n.) may have developed. 
    – 
    DRS 3 (1995)#DʔB: Hbr *dāʔab ‘languir’, dᵉʔābōn ‘faiblesse, langeur’, nHbr hidʔīb ‘couler, fondre’; JP dᵉʔēb ‘couler, se tourmenter, s’inquiéter’, dᵉʔābā ‘tristesse, angoisse’, Mand dʔb ‘languir’, Ar daʔaba ‘travailler assidûment à qc., peiner, faire effort’, daʔb‑ ‘état, condition’, ʔadʔub (pl.) ‘habitude, coutume’, daʔban ‘habituellement, sur le champ’, MorAr dābā ‘maintenant’; Ḥaḍr dʔb ‘exécuter un travail’. 
    ▪ The Ar vb. daʔaba seems to have best preserved what probably is the semantic kernel in Sem265 , namely the idea of doing s.th. relentlessly and with great effort (and pain), over a longer period.
    ▪ If this is the case, Ar daʔb ‘habit’ is secondary. Taking this for given, daʔb is treated as derivation from daʔaba
    – 
    – 
    daʔab‑ دَأَبَ , a (daʔb , daʔab , duʔūb
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √DʔB 
    vb., I 
    1 to persist, persevere, be indefatigable, untiring, tireless. – 2 to go in (ʕalà for s.th.), apply o.s., devote o.s. (ʕalà to), practice eagerly 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 3 (1995)#DʔB: Hbr *dāʔab ‘languir’, dᵉʔābōn ‘faiblesse, langeur’, nHbr hidʔīb ‘couler, fondre’; JP dᵉʔēb ‘couler, se tourmenter, s’inquiéter’, dᵉʔābā ‘tristesse, angoisse’, Mand dʔb ‘languir’, Ar daʔaba ‘travailler assidûment à qc., peiner, faire effort’, daʔb‑ ‘état, condition’, ʔadʔub (pl.) ‘habitude, coutume’, daʔban ‘habituellement, sur le champ’, MorAr dābā ‘maintenant’; Ḥaḍr dʔb ‘exécuter un travail’. 
    ▪ [v2] is likely to be the primary sense, [v1] only secondary, cf. DISC under ↗DʔB.
    daʔb ‘habit’ probably derives from [v2] rather than from [v1].
    ▪ According to Nallino et al., a pl. ʔādāb (< *ʔaʔdāb < *ʔadʔāb) served as basis for the (back-) formation of the sg. ↗ʔadab so that the notion of ‘habit, custom’ was added to the primary value of ↗ʔDB in Sem, which is ‘to invite’. 
    – 
    daʔb, pl. ʔadʔub, n., habit: probably vn. I (from the vb. with [v2]) with semantic specialisation.
    daʔb, daʔab, duʔūb, n., persistance, perseverance, tirelessness, indefatigability, assiduity, eagerness: vn. I.
    daʔib, dāʔib, adj., addicted, devoted, persistent, assiduous, eager, indefatigable, untiring, tireless:…
    daʔūb, adj., untiring, tireless, indefatigable, persevering, persistent: ints.
    ʔadʔabᵘ, adj., more persistent, more assiduous: elat. 
    DĀWŪD داوود 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Mar2023
    √DĀWŪD 
    “root” 
    ▪ DĀWŪD_1 ‘(personal name) King and Prophet David’ ↗Dāwūd
    ▪ ...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘King and Prophet David’ 
    ▪ BAH2008: a borrowing from Hbr, occurring 16 times in the Qur’an
    ▪ From protSem *√DWD, also *√WDD, ‘to love’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ eC7 Q
    ▪ ... 
    – 
    – 
    DBː (DBB) دبّ/دبب 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Mar2023
    √DBː (DBB) 
    “root” 
    ▪ DBː (DBB)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DBː (DBB)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DBː (DBB)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to move slowly, proceed gently; to move on feet; members of the animal kingdom; to spread, creep, circulate, flow; thudding sound’ 
    ▪ From protSem *√DBB, also *√DBY. protSem dubb‑ (also daby‑) ‘bear’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    – 
    DBR دبر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Mar2023
    √DBR 
    “root” 
    ▪ DBR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DBR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DBR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘back, backside, buttocks, the tail end, to turn one’s back; to boycott; to plan, arrange, organise, prepare; to depart, die; root, origin’ 
    ▪ [v1] : From CSem *√¹DBR various forms meaning ‘(honey‑)bee’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ [v2] : From WSem *√²DBR, variant (assimilated) form of protSem *√DPR ‘to turn one’s back on’ (prob. denominative from an old word for ‘back’) – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Deborah, from Hbr dᵊbôrâ ‘bee’, cf. Ar ↗dabbūr.
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Aldebaran, from Ar al-dabarān ‘the following, follower’, from ↗dabara, vb. I, ‘to follow’. 
    – 
    DBS دبس 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √DBS 
    “root” 
    ▪ DBS_1 ‘sirup, molasses’ ↗dibs
    ▪ DBS_2 ‘pin’ ↗dabbūs
     
    ▪ [v1] Kogan2011: from protSem *dibš‑ ‘honey’. – The main term in Ar for ‘honey’ is ↗ʕasal.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘honey’) Akk (dišpu), Hbr dḇaš, Syr deḇšā, SAr dbś.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    dabbūs دَبّوس , pl. dabābīsᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √DBS 
    n. 
    pin; safety pin – WehrCowan1979. 
    While DRS neither lists any cognates nor gives etymological hints, Youssef2003 thinks the word is from Eg tbs (Copt tōbs) ‘to prick’; in contrast, Rolland2014 derives it, though not without hesitation, from Pers dabūs ‘club, cudgel, manslayer’. 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    DRS 3 (1993) lists the item, but does not list any Sem cognates, nor quote any reference literature.
    ▪ Youssef2003: from Eg tbs, Copt tōbs ‘to prick’
    ▪ Rolland2014: from Pers dabūs ‘club, cudgel, manslayer’. »L’évolution sémantique de l’arabe reste à éclaircir. Il est possible que, dans son sens moderne, dabbūs soit l’ellipse de ʔibraẗ dabbūs ‘aiguille de masse d’arme’.« 
    – 
    – 
    DṮR دثر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Mar2023
    √DṮR 
    “root” 
    ▪ DṮR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DṮR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DṮR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to become blotted out, be forgotten; to become cold, to rust; to be covered, be wrapped up, an outer garment’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    DḤR دحر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Mar2023
    √DḤR 
    “root” 
    ▪ DḤR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DḤR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DḤR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to chase away, kick out, repel, to banish’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    DḤḌ دحض 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Mar2023
    √DḤḌ 
    “root” 
    ▪ DḤḌ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DḤḌ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DḤḌ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to slip, become slippery, lose one’s footing; to weaken, lose one’s grip; to refute, invalidate, argue down, prove wrong, (of the sun) to move away from the middle of the sky’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    DḤW/Y دحو/ي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Mar2023
    √DḤW/Y 
    “root” 
    ▪ DḤW/Y_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DḤW/Y_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DḤW/Y_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to spread out, to level up, to widen, enlarge, to relax’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    DḪR دخر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Mar2023
    √DḪR 
    “root” 
    ▪ DḪR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DḪR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DḪR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be humbled, to be compelled; to be confused, be subservient’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    DḪL دخل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √DḪL 
    “root” 
    ▪ DḪL_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ DḪL_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘entrance, door, doorway, to enter, to penetrate; obscurity, secret, confidant; ill feeling, cheating; defects, loneliness; emaciation; to infiltrate, to come in between; guest, outsider’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    daḫal‑ دَخَلَ 
    ID 277 • Sw – • BP 297 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √DḪL 
    vb., I 
    1a to enter (less frequently , also ʔilà s.th.), go, step, walk, move, come, get (, ʔilà into); b to penetrate, pierce (, ʔilà s.th.); 2a to take possession of s.o., befall, seize (s.o.; e.g., doubt); b to come (ʕalà over s.o.; e.g., joy); c to take up (ḫidmaẗ post), start at a job; c to enter s.o.’s (ʕalà) room or house, drop in on s.o. (ʕalà), come to see s.o. (ʕalà); 3 to call on s.o. (ʕalà); 4 to consummate the marriage, cohabit, sleep (ʕalà or bi‑ with a woman); 5 (gram.) to be added (ʕalà to); 6a to supervene, enter as a new factor, aspect, element, etc. (ʕalà upon s.th.), be newly introduced (ʕalà into s.th.); b to be included ( in; also ḍimnᵃ), fall, come (, ḍimnᵃ, taḥtᵃ under), belong, pertain (, ḍimnᵃ, taḥtᵃ to), be within s.th. (, ḍimnᵃ, taḥtᵃ); 7a to make one’s own, acquire (ʕalà s.th.); b to join, enter (s.th. or e.g., a religious community); c to participate, take part (in); 8 to set in, begin (time, event); 9 pass.: duḫila to be sickly, diseased, abnormal – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    taʕdīl daḫala ʕalà ’l-ʔamr, expr., the matter has undergone modification
    daḫala ’l-ḫidmaẗᵃ, vb., to take up one’s post, start at a job, report for work
    daḫala al-madrasaẗᵃ, vb., to enter school
    daḫala al-mīnāʔ, vb., to enter the harbor, put in
    daḫala fī ’l-mawḍūʕ, vb., to come to the point
    daḫala fī ʕaqlih\ǧismih, vb., to suffer from a mental\physical disturbance.

     
    madḫaliyyaẗ مَدْخَليّة 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 4Jun2023
    √DḪL 
    n.f. 
    ▪ abstr. formation in -iyyaẗ, from ↗madḫal, n.loc. of ↗daḫala
    – 
    – 
    DḪN دخن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √DḪN 
    “root” 
    ▪ DḪN_1 ‘millet’ ↗duḫn
    ▪ DḪN_2 ‘smoke’ ↗duḫān

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘smoke; famine, hunger; to be of bad character, the heat of the day’ 
    ▪ Some scholars assume a dependence of ‘millet’ on ‘smoke’, due to the plant’s colour, but this is doubtful.
    ▪ For further etymology, cf. individual entries ↗duḫn and ↗duḫān
    – 
    DRS 4 (1994)#DḪN–1 *duḫn‑ ‘millet’: Akk duḫnu, Hbr dōḥan, JP dōḥīnā, Syr duḥnā, Ar duḫn. –2 Ar daḫan ‘fumée, méchanceté, haine’, duḫnaẗ ‘couleur foncé’, daḫnān ‘sombre, couvert, nuageux’, dial. ʔadḫan ‘grisâtre, terne’, Ḥrs edḫān ‘de couleur foncé, pourpre’, ? Jib nideḫ ‘fumer’, məndoḫ, Śḥr endoḫ, Mhr nīdēḫ, mənādəḫ ‘fumée’. –3 Gz dəḫna, Te Tña däḥanä ‘être sain et sauf’, Amh danä ‘être guéri, sauvé, délivré’, Gz dəḫun ‘sain et sauf, en bonne santé’, dāḫn ‘en bonne santé, innocent, non coupable’, Te däḥan ‘bien-être, paix’, Amh danä ‘guérir’, dähna ‘en santé, en bon état’, Gz madḫən ‘sauveur, rédempteur, garant’, Tña mädḥən, mädən, Gur mädin ‘garant’. –4 Akk diḫnu diḫnu 120 : formule magique utilisée dans les incantations. 
    DRS 4 (1994)#DḪN-1. According to some, the name of the plant derives from its colour, which would relate it to DḪN_2; but many do not accept this etymology. – 2. Cf. the Ar nouns, now obsolete, daḫaḫ ‘couleur noir, foncé’, duḫḫ, daḫḫ ‘fumée’ (not in Lane!). – The forms in Jib Šḫ Mhr show metathesis.
    ▪ Kogan2011 reconstructs Sem *duḫn- for ‘millet’ (DḪN_1), for details see ↗duḫn.
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994 and TB2007 see an AfrAs dimension for both DḪN_1 and DḪN_2; for details cf. ↗duḫn and ↗duḫān, respectively.
    ▪ Can there be a connection between the value ‘health, healthiness’ of DḪN in EthSem (i.e., DḪN-3 in DRS) and ‘to smoke, fumigate’ (DḪN-2)?
    ▪ And is possibly also the Akk magic formula diḫnu diḫnu (or diḫun diḫun, as in CAD266 ), mentioned in DRS 4 (1994)#DḪN-4, related to DḪN-2? The formula is said to be »used in incantations« (CAD). Smoke may have had a magical function…
    ▪ If DḪN-1, DḪN-3 and DḪN-4 (DRS) could be proven to depend on ‘smoke’, then DḪN-2 would be the primary etymon. 
    – 
    – 
    duḫn دُخْن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √DḪN 
    n. 
    pearl millet, dukhn – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *duḫn‑ ‘millet’.
    ▪ The word may have an AfrAs ancestor like AfrAs *doḫ˅n‑ ‘millet, grain’ (Orel&Stolbova1994) or *duḫ˅n‑ ‘sorghum, corn’ (TB2007). 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 4 (1994)#DḪN-1: Akk duḫnu, Hbr dōḥan, JP dōḥīnā, Syr duḥnā, Ar duḫn. – For the complex ‘smoke; dark colour’ which according to some may be related, cf. ↗duḫān.
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994 #727: In addition to cognates in Sem (given as in DRS), the authors mention the word dawna ‘corn’ in a CCh language. TB2007 #736 gives the latter as dawn ‘corn’. 
    ▪ References unanimously reconstruct Sem *duḫn‑ ‘millet’.
    DRS 4 (1994)#DḪN-1: According to some, the name of the plant derives from its colour, which would relate it to DḪN_2 ‘smoke’ (↗duḫān); but many do not accept this etymology.
    ▪ For the CCh word dawn or dawna, both Orel&Stolbova1994 and TB2007 reconstruct CCh *dwan‑ ‘corn’ (contracted from *dwaH˅n‑, according to Orel&Stolbova). Together with the Sem evidence, the authors reconstruct AfrAs *doḫ˅n‑ ‘millet, grain’ (Orel&Stolbova) or *duḫ˅n‑ ‘sorghum, corn’ (TB2007). 
    – 
    – 
    duḫān دُخان, var. duḫḫān , pl. ʔadḫinaẗ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 2269 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √DḪN 
    n. 
    1 smoke, fume, vapor. – 2 tobacco – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ The word seems to be Sem, but given the different position of n – final in Ar, initial in modSAr –, reconstruction is difficult. Orel&Stolbova go for *d˅ḫan‑ ‘¹to be smoked; ²dark-colored’, TB suggests Sem *duḫḫān‑ ~ *nidāḫ‑ ‘smoke’.
    ▪ There may also be some CCh cognates, and if these are valid, the word may have AfrAs origins. Orel&Stolbova reconstruct AfrAs *deḫan‑ ‘smoke’ (derived AfrAs *daḫ‑ ‘smoke’), and TB has AfrAs *daḫ‑ (?) ‘smoke’.
    ▪ One could think of ‘smoke’ being the origin of other meanings of DḪN (‘millet’ as *‘the dark-coloured [plant]’, ‘healthiness’ as the result of a treatment with – magical? – smoke, and the Akk incantation formula as conjuring up the healthy spirits/power of smoke). But these have to remain, for the moment, pure working hypotheses that still have to be corroborated by textual evidence.
    ▪ v2 transferred from the smoke that is emitted to the product that emits it when burnt.
     
    ▪ … 
    DRS 4 (1994)#DḪN-2: Ar daḫan ‘fumée, méchanceté, haine’, duḫnaẗ ‘couleur foncé’, daḫnān ‘sombre, couvert, nuageux’, dial. ʔadḫan ‘grisâtre, terne’, Ḥrs edḫān ‘de couleur foncé, pourpre’, ? Jib nideḫ ‘fumer’, məndoḫ, Śḥr endoḫ, Mhr nīdēḫ, mənādəḫ ‘fumée’.
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994 #675: Śḥr edḫān ‘to be dark-colored’. Outside Sem: a cognate mi-ḍeni ‘smoke’ in a CCh language.
    ▪ TB2007 #1109: Mhr nidiḫ, Jib mǝ-ndoḫ, Ḥrs nedēḫ. – Outside Sem: (CCh) Lame dèákú, Peve dēoka, Mesme deu ‘smoke’. 
    DRS 4 (1994)#DḪN: According to some, the name for ‘millet’, duḫn, derives from ‘smoke’, due to its dark colour, which would make DḪN a more uniform root in Ar; but many do not accept this etymology.
    ▪ Is also the magic formula Akk diḫnu diḫnu (or diḫun diḫun, as in CAD)267 , mentioned in DRS 4 (1994)#DḪN-4, related to ‘smoke’? It is said to be »used in incantations« (CAD). Smoke may have had a magical function there…
    DRS 4 (1994)#DḪN-2 also points to the Ar nouns, now obsolete, daḫaḫ ‘couleur noir, foncé’, duḫḫ, daḫḫ ‘fumée’ (not in Lane!), which do not show final ‑n.
    ▪ If the Ar form reflects the Sem situation, then Jib Šḫ Mhr show metathesis. But see below TB20007’s reconstruction of Sem where the Ar and modSAr forms are treated on equal terms.
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994 #675 reconstruct Sem *d˅ḫan‑ ‘¹to be smoked; ²dark-colored’ and CCh *dyaH˅n‑ ‘smoke’, both from AfrAs *deḫan‑ ‘smoke’. The latter, they say, is derived from #630 AfrAs *daḫ‑ ‘smoke’, which gave Sem *duḫ(ḫ)‑ ‘smoke’ > Ar daḫḫ‑, duḫḫ‑ (with secondary ‑u‑), and CCh *dyaH‑ (*daHi‑) ‘smoke’. Cf. the obsolete nouns lacking in final n mentioned by DRS (see above).
    ▪ Similarly also TB2007 #1109: Sem *duḫḫān ~ *nidāḫ‑ 'smoke', CCh *dyaHu‑ 'smoke', both from #630 AfrAs *daḫ‑ (?) ‘smoke’.
     
    – 
    daḫina, a, vb. I, to be smoky; to taste or smell of smoke: denom.
    daḫana, a u, vb. I, to smoke, emit emoke (fire): probably denom.
    daḫḫana, vb. II, to fumigate, fume (s.th.); to smoke, cure with smoke (foodstuffs); to smoke (a cigarette, tobacco, a pipe):.
    ʔadḫana, vb. IV, to smoke, emit smoke (fire): denom.
    tadaḫḫana, vb. V, to be smoked, be cured with smoke; to be fumigated: pass. of II.

    daḫan, n., smoke, fume, vapor: alongside with duḫ(ḫ)ān another candidate for the position of the etymon proper.
    duḫnaẗ, n.f., 1 smoke color; 2 a kind of incense (Calamus aromaticus) :.
    daḫīnaẗ, pl. daḫāʔinᵘ, n., cigarette: pseudo-PP.
    daḫāḫinī (eg., tun.), n., tobacconist: nsb-adj.
    madḫanaẗ, pl. madāḫinᵘ, n., chimney, smokestack, funnel : n.loc.
    BP#2333tadḫīn, n., 1 fumigation; smoking (e.g., of fish); 2 (tobacco) smoking: vn. II.
    dāḫinaẗ, pl. dawāḫinᵘ, n., chimney, smokestack, funnel: a neologism, lit. a f. PA I, meaning ‘the smoking one’.
    mudaḫḫin, pl. ‑ūn, n., smoker : PA II.
    mudaḫḫan, adj., smoked (foodstuff): PP II.
     

    DRː (DRR) درّ/درر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Mar2023
    √ DRː (DRR) 
    “root” 
    ▪ DRː (DRR)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DRː (DRR)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DRː (DRR)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to flow, run, (of teats) fill up with milk, (of income) increase, to rain heavily, (of plants) flourish, (of load-carrying animals) go fast; a great pearl; to shine brightly; to spin tightly’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    DRʔ درأ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Mar2023
    √DRʔ 
    “root” 
    ▪ DRʔ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DRʔ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DRʔ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to push, dispute; to delay, avert; to come upon suddenly; to spread out; to hide, shelter, a hideout, to shield, a shield; to support’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    DRB درب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √DRB 
    “root” 
    ▪ DRB_1 ‘mountain pass; path, trail, track, alley, lane’ ↗darb
    ▪ DRB_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    darb دَرْب 
    ID 278 • Sw – • BP 1590 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √DRB 
    n. 
    1a narrow mountain pass; b path, trail, track; 3a road; b alley, lane – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    darb al-tabbānaẗ, n., Milky Way

     
    DRǦ درج 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Mar2023
    √DRǦ 
    “root” 
    ▪ DRǦ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DRǦ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DRǦ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘rank, level, station; to walk slowly, do s.th. gradually, flood channel; to wrap up, fold, a sheet for writing on; to allure’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    DRS درس 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    DRS 
    “root” 
    DRS_1 ‘…’ ↗
    DRS_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to fade away, to pale, to be obliterated; to break in a camel, to separate the wheat from the chaff; to study a book, to learn, to examine carefully, to learn by heart, a learned person, a person who is constant in his studies’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl Midrashdarasa; madrasamadrasaẗ
    – 
    daras‑ دَرَسَ 
    ID 279 • Sw – • BP 1066 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    DRS 
    vb., I 
    1 to wipe out, blot out, obliterate, efface, extinguish (s.th.); 2 to thresh (grain); 3 to learn, study (s.th., ʕalà under s.o.), ~ al-ʕilm ʕalà, to study under (a teacher, a professor); – 4 u (durūs) to be effaced, obliterated, blotted out, extinguished – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ From WSem *√DRŠ ‘to seek, examine, study’ – Huehnergard2011.
    … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Midrash, from Hbr midrāš, exposition, commentary, Midrash, from dāraš, to seek, study’ > Ar darasa
     
    madrasaẗ مَدْرَسَة 
    ID 280 • Sw – • BP 303 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    DRS 
    n.f. 
    1 madrasah (a religious boarding school associated with a mosque); 2 school – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl madrasa, from Ar madrasaẗ ‘school’, from darasa ‘to study’. 
    madrasaẗ ĭbtidāʔiyyaẗ, n.f., the lower grades of a secondary school, approx. = junior high school
    madrasaẗ awwaliyyaẗ, n.f., elementary school, grade school
    madrasaẗ ṯānawiyyaẗ, n.f., secondary school, high school
    madrasaẗ ʔiʕdādiyyaẗ, n.f., commercial college or school
    madrasaẗ ḥarbiyyaẗ, n.f., military academy
    madrasaẗ ḫiliyyaẗ, n.f., boarding school
    madrasaẗ ʕāliyaẗ \ ʕulyā, n.f., college
    madrasaẗ al-funūn wa-l’-ṣanāʔiʕ, n.f., school of industrial arts, school of applied art and handicraft
    madrasaẗ kubrà, n.f., college
    al-madrasaẗ al-qadīmaẗ, n.f.,the old "school" (= intellectual or artistic movement)

     
    DRK درك 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Mar2023
    √DRK 
    “root” 
    ▪ DRK_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DRK_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DRK_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to reach, overtake; to accumulate; to ripen, reach maturity, become of age; to follow up, come one after the other, rectify, put in order; the bottom level, lowest level’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    DRWŠ دروش 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √DRWŠ 
    “root” 
    ▪ DRWŠ_1 ‘dervish’ ↗darwīš
    ▪ DRWŠ_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    darwīš درْويش 
    ID 281 • Sw – • BP??? • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √DRWŠ 
    n. 
    dervish – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
     
    DRY دري 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Mar2023
    √DRY 
    “root” 
    ▪ DRY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DRY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DRY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to know, comprehend, understand; to inform, teach; to disguise, a hideout; to act furtively; to deal gently, placate, comb’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    DSː (DSS) دسّ/دسس 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Mar2023
    √ DSː (DSS) 
    “root” 
    ▪ DSː (DSS)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DSː (DSS)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DSː (DSS)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to shove in, infiltrate, hide in, adulterate, bury; a spy, a plot, intrigue; sand adder’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    DSTR دستر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √DSTR 
    “root” 
    ▪ DSTR_1 ‘statute(s), constitution’ ↗dustūr
    ▪ DSTR_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
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    dustūr دُسْتُور 
    ID 282 • Sw – • BP 1287 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √DSTR 
    n. 
    1a statute; b regulations; c by-laws; d (basic) constitutional law; e constitution (pol.); – 2 (colloq.) dastūr, permission – WehrCowan1979. 
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    DSR دسر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17Mar2023
    √DSR 
    “root” 
    ▪ DSR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DSR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DSR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘nails, ropes with which a ship’s planks are tightened, to repair a ship; to push, to step; big hefty man, great she-camel’ 
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    DSKR دسكر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 08Apr2023
    √ DSKR 
    “root” 
    ▪ DSKR_1 ‘village’ ↗daskaraẗ
     
    ▪ [v1] : from Per daskara ‘ville, chateau sur une colline’ – Rolland2014
     
    – 
    – 
    – 
    daskaraẗ دَسْكَرة , pl. dasākirᵘ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 08Apr2023
    √DSKR 
    n.f. 
    village – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ Most references consulted suggest a Pers origin of the word. Cf., however, Steingass1892 (A Comprehensive Persian-English Dict.), where Pers daskaraʰ ‘town; castle on a hill; litter for transporting the sick; name of a town in Persian Irāq’ is marked with a small a preceding the entry, indicating instances »where a word is common in both languages [here: Pers and Ar] without proof positive to which it belongs originally«. The variety of semantic values that are attested for the word in Ar and other languages seems to suggest that, etymologically, we may be dealing not only with one, but with several items that have fallen together.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ First attestations accord. to DHDA: <609 CE ‘plain earth’, <652 CE ‘castle-like building surrounded by houses’, <670 CE ‘tavern, inn’, <698 CE ‘village’, <813 CE ‘garden compound’
    ▪ Lane ii 1867: ‘building like a qaṣr, surrounded by houses, or chambers, and places of abode for the servants and households, pertaining to kings; building like a qaṣr […] surrounded by houses, or chambers, and in which the vitious, or immoral, assemble; houses of the foreigners in which are wine and instruments of music or the like; Christian’s cloister, cell; town, village; plain, level land’
    ▪ Hava1899: ‘large village; hermit’s cell; plain; tavern’
    ▪ Redhouse1890 (for OttTu): deskereʰ1 village; hamlet; town; 2 house of revelry and debauchery; theatre; tavern; 3 Christian monastery or hermitage; 4 villa, country-house’.
    ▪ …
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Asbaghi1988: Ar daskaraẗ ‘die Stadt des Khosroi’, from mPers dast-kart < oPers dasta-karta, Talmudic loanword dasqartā268
    ▪ Ḍinnāwī2004: دَسْگرة dasgaraẗ ‘large village; munk’s cell, eremitage; plain earth; castle-like building, surrounded by houses inhabited by scoundrels (šuṭṭār); houses of the Persians where there is wine and entertainment’: from Pers daskaraẗ ‘town, village’, or from Syr dasqarto ‘large village, munk’s cell, castle-like building’. Attested already in a verse by al-ʔAḫṭal and in a ḥadīṯ
    ▪ Rolland2014: ‘localité, village’, du Pers daskara ‘ville, chateau sur une colline’
     
    – 
    – 
    Dʕː (Dʕʕ) دعّ/دعع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17Mar2023
    √ Dʕː (Dʕʕ) 
    “root” 
    ▪ Dʕː (Dʕʕ)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ Dʕː (Dʕʕ)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ Dʕː (Dʕʕ)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to push violently, shove, drive away; barren stony land; to fill up, to walk with a limp’ 
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    DʕW دعو 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √DʕW 
    “root” 
    ▪ DʕW_1 ‘to call, summon, invite; to pray’ ↗daʕā
    ▪ DʕW_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008, s.r. Dʕw/y): ‘to call, to summon, to invite, to call upon; to invoke, to pray to, to appeal to, to induce; to claim, to allege; to pretend, to accuse, to require; to weaken, to collapse, to rally; to gang up on’ 
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    daʕā / daʕaw‑ دَعا / دَعَوْـ 
    ID 283 • Sw – • BP 418 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √DʕW 
    vb., I 
    1 to call (s.o.); 2a to summon (bi‑ or s.o.), call or send for s.o. (bi‑ or s.o.); b to call up (s.o., ʔilà, li‑ for); c to call upon s.o., appeal to s.o. for s.th. or to do s.th. (li‑, ʔilà), invite, urge (li‑, ʔilà s.o. to do s.th.); d to invite, ask to come (ʔilà s.o. to; e.g., to a banquet); e to call (bi‑, s.o. by a name), name (bi‑, s.o. so and so), pass.: duʕiya to be called, be named; f to invoke (āllah God = to pray to); g to move, induce, prompt (li‑, ʔilà s.o. to do s.th.), prevail (li‑, ʔilà on s.o. to do s.th.); 3a to wish (li‑ s.o.) well, bless (li‑ s.o.; properly: to invoke God in favor of s.o.), invoke a blessing (bi‑) upon s.o. (li‑), pray (bi‑ for s.th., li‑ on behalf of s.o.), implore (bi‑ li‑ for s.o. s.th.); b to curse (ʕalà s.o.; properly: to invoke God against s.o.), call down evil, invoke evil (ʕalà upon s.o.); 4 to propagate, propagandize (ʔilà s.th.), make propaganda, make publicity (ʔilà for); 5 to demand, require (ʔilà s.th.), call for (ʔilà); 6 to call forth, bring about, cause, provoke, occasion (ʔilà s.th.), give rise (ʔilà to) – WehrCowan1979. 
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    duʕiya lil-ĭǧtimāʕ, vb., to be summoned, be called into session (parliament)
    duʕiya ʔilà ḥaml al-silāḥ, vb., to be called up for military service, be called to the colors
    raǧul yudʕà, expr., a man called…, a man by the name of…
    daʕā la-hū bi-ṭūl al-ʕumr, expr., he wished him a long life

     
    daʕwaẗ دَعْوَة 
    ID 285 • Sw – • BP 582 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √DʕW 
    n.f. 
    1 call; 2a appeal; b bidding, demand, request; 3a call, convocation, summons (ʔilà to), calling up, summoning; b (official) summons, citation; c invitation; 4 claim, demand, plea; 5 missionary activity, missionary work (also našr al-~), propaganda; – 9 pl. daʕawāt invocation, imploration, supplication, prayer; 10 good wish – WehrCowan1979. 
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    daʕawāt ṣāliḥāt, n. pl., good wishes
    daʕwaẗ bi’l-šarr, n.f., imprecation, curse
    sāḥib al- daʕwaẗ, n., host

     
    duʕāʔ دُعاء 
    ID 284 • Sw – • BP 1591 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √DʕW 
    n. 
    1 call; 2 invocation of God, supplication, prayer; 3a request, plea; b good wish (li‑ for s.o.); c imprecation, curse (ʕalà against s.o.) – WehrCowan1979. 
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    DFʔ دفأ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17Mar2023
    √DFʔ 
    “root” 
    ▪ DFʔ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DFʔ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DFʔ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘warmth, to warm up, a fireplace, warm clothing; food and wool obtained from animals, provisions, to give generously; to gather together’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    DFʕ دفع 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √DFʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ DFʕ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ DFʕ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to push forcefully, a forceful person, to gush, a great flood; to defend, a defence; to rush about, to run fast, to stall’ 
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    difāʕ دِفاع 
    ID 286 • Sw – • BP 542 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √DFʕ 
    n. 
    1 protection; 2 defence (ʕan of s.th., of s.o., also jur.) | ḫaṭṭ al-~, n., 1a line of defence; b halfbacks (soccer); maǧlis al-~, n., defence council; wizāraẗ al-~, n.f., ministry of defence, war ministry; al-~ al-waṭanī, n., national defence; al-~ al-muḍādd al-ṭāʔirāt, n., anti-aircraft defence; ~ šarʕī legitimate self-defence – WehrCowan1979. 
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    ḫaṭṭ al-difāʕ, n., 1a line of defence; b halfbacks (soccer)
    maǧlis al-difāʕ, n., defence council
    wizāraẗ al-difāʕ, n.f., ministry of defence, war ministry
    al-difāʕ al-waṭanī, n., national defence
    al-difāʕ al-muḍādd al-ṭāʔirāt, n., anti-aircraft defence
    difāʕ šarʕī legitimate self-defence

     
    DFQ دفق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17Mar2023
    √DFQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ DFQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DFQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DFQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to gush forth; (of a valley) to fill up with flood water, (of a river) to breach its banks; to stampede; to act rashly’ 
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    DQː (DQQ) دقّ / دقق 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √DQː (DQQ) 
    “root” 
    ▪ DQː (DQQ)_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ DQː (DQQ)_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘ground, fine’) Akk daqqu, Hbr daq, Syr (vb.) daq (ipfv neddaq), Gz (daqī́q).
    ▪ … 
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    – 
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    daqq‑ / daqaq‑ دَقَّ / دَقَقْـ 
    ID 287 • Sw – • BP 1176 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √DQː (DQQ) 
    vb., I 
    1a to be thin, fine, fragile, frail; b to be little, small, tiny, minute; 2a to be subtle, delicate; b to be too fine, too subtle (ʕan for perception); c to be insignificant, unimportant, trifling, inconsiderable; – 3a u (daqq) to crush, bruise, bray (s.th.); b to grind, pulverize, powder (s.th.); c to pound (s.th., e.g., meat); 4a to strike (clock); b to beat, throb (heart); c to hammer, throb (engine); d to knock, rap, bang (al-bābᵃ on the door); 5 to bump (raʔsa-hū bi’l-ḥāʔiṭ, one’s head against the wall); 6a to drive (a nail); b to ram in, drive in (constr. eng.); 7a to beat, strum, play (ʕalà a musical instrument); b to type (ʕalà on a typewriter); – 8 to sound, resound, ring out (said of musical instruments) – WehrCowan1979. 
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    daqqa ’l-ǧarasᵃ, vb., to ring the bell
    daqqa ǧarasᵃ ’l-ḫaṭar, vb., to sound the alarm
    daqqa al-ǧarasᵃ ʕalà, vb. I, to call s.o. up, give s.o. a ring
    daqqa al-ǧarasᵘ, expr., the bell rang
    daqqat il-sāʕaẗᵘ, expr., the clock struck

     
    daqīq دَقِيق 
    ID 288 • Sw – • BP 4970 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √DQː (DQQ) 
    n. 
    1a fine, thin; b delicate, frail, fragile; c little, small, tiny, puny, minute; 2a subtle; b precise, accurate, exact; c painstaking, scrupulous, meticulous; 3 paltry, petty, trifling, trivial; 4 inexorable, relentless, strict, rigorous; 5 delicate (situation), critical, trying, serious, precarious. – 6 flour, meal – WehrCowan1979. 
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    daqīq al-ḥisāb, n., adj., keeping strict account, strict, relentless, inexorable
    daqīq al-šuʕūr, adj., sensitive
    daqīq al-ṣanʕ, adj., 1a finely worked; b of delicate workmanship
    daqīq al-naẓar, adj., clear-sighted, penetrating, discerning, sensitive
    ʔabū daqīq, n., butterfly
    al-ʔaʕḍāʔ al-daqīqaẗ, n. pl., the genitals

     
    daqīqaẗ دَقِيقَة 
    ID 289 • Sw – • BP 424 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √DQː (DQQ) 
    n.f. 
    1 particle; 2 nicety; 3a intricacy; b detail, particular; 4 minute (time unit) – WehrCowan1979. 
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    – 
    daqāʔiq al-ʔumūr, n.pl.f., the niceties, intricacies, or secret implications of things

     
    DKː (DKK) دكّ/دكك 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17Mar2023
    √ DKː (DKK) 
    “root” 
    ▪ DKː (DKK)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DKː (DKK)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DKː (DKK)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to pull down, to level up, level sand dunes, low banks of mud, short stout horses, humpless camel, to be stout and well built; to fill in a pit with dirt; to weaken, to humiliate’ 
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    DKTR دكتر 
    Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | created 4Jun2023
    √DKTR 
    “root” 
    doctor 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    duktūr دُكْتُور 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 253 • APD … • © SG | created 4Jun2023
    √DKTR 
    n. 
    doctor 
    ▪ …loanword 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    DLː (DLL) دلّ/دلل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17Mar2023
    √ DLː (DLL) 
    “root” 
    ▪ DLː (DLL)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DLː (DLL)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DLː (DLL)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘guide, to guide, seek guidance; proof, to seek proof, enquire; to be at ease; to be coy, be coquettish; to act brazenly; a middleman’ 
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    dalīl دَليل 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 934 • APD … • © SG | created 5Jun2023
    √DL: (DLL) 
    n. 
    ▪ … 
    DLK دلك 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17Mar2023
    √DLK 
    “root” 
    ▪ DLK_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DLK_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DLK_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to rub; to try, gain experience, a well-travelled camel, to be hard up; (of the sun) to pass the meridian, set, rise’ 
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    DLW دلو 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √DLW 
    “root” 
    ▪ DLW_1 ‘bucket’ ↗dalw
    ▪ DLW_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ DLW_3 ‘…’ ↗

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘bucket, pail, to let down a bucket into a well; to hang down, to come near; to lead on, to tempt, to deceive; to submit a proof, to offer money as a bribe; to use one’s good offices’ 
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    dalā دَلا , ū 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √DLW 
    vb., I 
    bucket 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘to pull up the bucket’) Akk idlū, Hbr dalā yiḏlē, Syr dlā (ipfv neḏlē), Gz daláwa (ipfv yédlū) ‘to weigh’.
     
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    DM دم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √DM 
    “root” 
    ▪ DM_1 ‘blood’ ↗dam
    ▪ DM_2 ‘…’ ↗
    d-m-w/y

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008, s.r. DMw/y): ‘blood, to bleed, blood revenge, to be red in colour’ 
    ▪ DM_1 : (Kogan2015 Sw#9:) from protSem *dam‑ ‘blood’ (SED I #50).
     
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    dam دَم 
    ID 290 • Sw 30/15 • BP 363 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √DM 
    n. 
    1 blood; 2 pl. dimāʔ, homicide cases (jur.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2015 (Sw#9): from protSem *dam‑ ‘blood’ (SED I #50).
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘blood’) Akk damu, Hbr dām, Syr dmā, Gz dam.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    dam al-ʔaḫawayn, n., dragon’s blood (a dark-red, resinous substance derived from the dragon tree, Dracaena draco)

     
    DMDM دمدم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17Mar2023
    √DMDM 
    “root” 
    ▪ DMDM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DMDM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DMDM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘anger, to shake up violently; to inflict great punishment; to bury; to smother’ 
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    DMR دمر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17Mar2023
    √DMR 
    “root” 
    ▪ DMR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DMR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DMR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to destroy, obliterate, attack; a useless, good-for-nothing person; to enter without permission’ 
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    DMʕ دمع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17Mar2023
    √DMʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ DMʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DMʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DMʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘tears, to shed tears; to rain, fill up a cupful of water’ 
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    DMĠ دمغ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17Mar2023
    √DMĠ 
    “root” 
    ▪ DMĠ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DMĠ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DMĠ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘brain, a concussion, to fracture a skull, to kill by a blow to the head; sunstroke; to vanquish, destroy’ 
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    DMQRṬ دمقرط 
    Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | created 5Jun2023
    √DMQRṬ 
    “root” 
    ▪ … 
    – 
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    – 
    dīmūqrāṭiyyaẗ ديموقراطيّة , var. dīmuqrāṭiyyaẗ 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 1003 • APD … • © SG | created 5Jun2023
    √DMQRṬ 
    n.f. 
    democracy 
    ▪ abstr. formation in -iyyaẗ, from … loanword 
    DMW/Y دمو/ي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17Mar2023
    √DMW/Y 
    “root” 
    ▪ DMW/Y_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DMW/Y_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DMW/Y_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘blood, to bleed, blood revenge, to be red in colour’ 
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    DNW دنو 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √DNW 
    “root” 
    ▪ DNW_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ DNW_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be near, come close, approach, bring close; to approximate; this life (as opposed to the next); the world, the earth; to become bare, behave despicably, a vile person’ 
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    dunyā دُنْيا 
    ID 291 • Sw – • BP 494 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √DNW 
    n.f. 
    1a world; b earth; c this world (as opposed to ↗ʔāḫiraẗ); 2 life in this world, worldly existence; 3a worldly, temporal things or possessions; b earthly things or concerns – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Cf. Fück1950: 118.
    ▪▪ … 
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    – 
    al-ḥayāẗ al-dunyā, n.f., life in this world
    ʔumm al-dunyā, n.f., Cairo
    ʔaqāma ’l-dunyā wa-ʔaqʕadahā, expr., approx.: to kick up a dust, make a stir, move heaven and earth

     
    tadanniⁿ تَدَنٍّ 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 4845 • APD … • © SG | created 5Jun2023
    √DNW 
    ▪ vn., V 
    ▪ … 
    DHR دهر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17Mar2023
    √DHR 
    “root” 
    ▪ DHR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DHR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DHR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘time, eternity, this life, long time, age, fate; hardship, to be afflicted, calamity’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
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    DHQ دهق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17Mar2023
    √DHQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ DHQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DHQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DHQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘great pressure, to apply continuous pressure; to empty out, spill; to fill up, fill to the brim, set things tightly close to each other’ 
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    – 
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    DHM دهم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17Mar2023
    √DHM 
    “root” 
    ▪ DHM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DHM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DHM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘blackness, dark green; large numbers of people; attack, to overtake, overwhelm, calamity’ 
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    DHN دهن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √DHN 
    “root” 
    ▪ DHN_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ DHN_2 ‘oil’ ↗duhn

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘fat, grease, oil, to be oily, to anoint; to act hypocritically, to act insincerely; a sprinkle of rain, to wet, to look sprightly; red leather, affluence; desert’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
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    – 
    – 
    duhn دُهْن 
    ID 292 • Sw 32/42 • BP 3994 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √DHN 
    n. 
    1a oil (edible, lubricating, for the skin); b fat, grease – WehrCowan1979. 
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    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ …
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    – 
     
    DHY دهي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17Mar2023
    √DHY 
    “root” 
    ▪ DHY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DHY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DHY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘wisdom, rationality; to be solemn, to be experienced; calamity, to afflict, come upon by surprise’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    DWR دور 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √DWR 
    “root” 
    ▪ DWR_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ DWR_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a circle, to circle, to go round, to turn; a halo; a frame; a wide open space between mountains; to treat, to manage; a dwelling, a house; to have a setback, to be afflicted; to dispute with, to dissuade’ 
    ▪ From protSem *√DWR ‘to turn, circle, dwell’ – Huehnergard2011.
    … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl arsenaldār (and ↗ṣināʕaẗ). 
    – 
    dār دار 
    ID 293 • Sw – • BP 594 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √DWR 
    n.f. 
    1a house; b building, structure, edifice; c habitation, dwelling, abode; d residence, home; e seat, side, locality; 2a area, region; b land, country (esp. pl. diyār, see below) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl arsenal, from Ar dār ‘house’ (originally a Bedouin encampment with tents arranged in a circle), from dāra ‘to turn, circle’, and al-ṣināʕaẗ ‘the manufacture, industry’, see ↗ṣanaʕa ‘to make, produce’. 
    dār al-ʔāṯār, n.f., museum (of antiquities)
    dār al-barīd, n.f., post office
    dār al-baqāʔ, n.f., the eternal abode, the hereafter
    ĭntaqala lil-dār al-bāqiyaẗ, vb., to pass away, die
    al-dār al-bayḍāʔ, n.f., 1 Casablanca (seaport in W Morocco); 2 the White House (in Washington)
    dār al-tiǧāraẗ, n f., commercial house, business house
    dār al-ḥarb, n.f., war zone, enemy territory (Isl. Law: non-Muslim countries)
    dār al-riyāsaẗ, n.f., seat of the chief executive of a country
    dār al-saʕādaẗ, n.f., Constantinople
    dār al-salṭanaẗ, n.f., Constantinople (designation before World War I)
    dār al-salām, 1 paradise, heaven; 2 epithet of Baghdad; 3 Dar es Salaam (seaport and capital of Tanganyika Territory)
    dūr al-sīnimā, n. pl., cinemas, movie houses
    dār al-šurṭaẗ, n.f., police station
    dār al-ṣanʕaẗ or dār al-ṣanāʕaẗ, n.f., arsenal
    dār ṣīnī, n.f., cinnamon
    dār al-ḍarb and dār al-sikkaẗ, n.f., mint (building)
    dār al-ʕulūm, n.f., name of a college in Cairo
    dār al-fanāʔ (as opposed to dār al-baqāʔ see above), n.f., the temporal world, this world
    dār al-qaḍāʔ, n.f., court of justice, tribunal
    dār al-kutub, n.f., public library
    dār al-lahw, n.f., 1 amusement centers; 2 night clubs
    dār al-tamṯīl, n.f., theater, playhouse
    dār al-mulk, n.f., (royal) residence
    al-diyār al-miṣriyyaẗ, n. pl., Egypt
    dār al-hiǧraẗ, n.f., Medina
    dār al-ʔaytām, n.f., orphanage, orphans’ home

     
    DūSīH دوسيه 
    Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | created 5Jun2023
    √DūSīH 
    “root” 
    ▪ … 
    dūsīh دُوسِيه 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 5Jun2023
    √DūSīH 
    n. 
    dossier, file 
    ▪ loanword, < Fr dossier 
    DWL دول 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √DWL 
    “root” 
    ▪ DWL_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ DWL_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to circulate, to go from one situation to its opposite, to be a bone of contention; to work in turns; to exchange opinions; defeat, a great sethack, a calamity’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
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    dawlaẗ دَوْلَة 
    ID 294 • Sw – • BP 51 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √DWL 
    n.f. 
    1 alternation, rotation, change; 2 change of time, torn of fortune; 3 dynasty; 4 state, country; 5 power, empire – WehrCowan1979. 
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    ṣāḥib al-dawlaẗ, n., title of the Prime Minister
    dawlaẗ raʔīs al-ḥukūmaẗ, n.f., His Excellency, the Prime Minister
    faḫāmaẗ al-dawlaẗ, n.f., title of the President of the Republic (Syr., Leb.)
    al-dawlaẗ al-ʕaliyyaẗ, n.f., name of the ancient Ottoman Empire
    al-duwal al-kubrà \ al-ʕuẓmà, n. pl., the big powers
    dawlaẗ muntadabaẗ, n.f., mandatory power

     
    DWM دوم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17Mar2023
    √DWM 
    3730“root” 
    ▪ DWM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DWM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DWM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be constant, persist, continue, remain, last, persevere, be diligent; to circle, hover, the eddy of a whirlpool, cyclone’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    DWN دون 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17Mar2023
    √DWN 
    “root” 
    ▪ DWN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DWN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DWN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): no verbal root, although some philologists derive it from ↗DWN ‘to weaken’ or ‘to be base’. The sense of ‘to write down’ is a borrowing from Pers in the early Islamic period 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    DYN دين 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √DYN 
    “root” 
    ▪ DYN_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ DYN_2 ‘religion, creed, faith’ ↗dīn

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘judge, ruler, controller; debtor, creditor, to lend, borrow; punishment, reward; to obey; custom, habit; to worship, religion, creed, conviction; slave, to be enslaved, be owned; to compel; to submit, to own up, to sin’ 
    ▪ From protSem *√DYN ‘to judge’ – Huehnergard2011.
    … 
    – 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ For Engl n.prop. Daniel and Midian cf. ↗dīn
    – 
    dīn دِين 
    ID 295 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 333 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 11Apr2023
    √DYN 
    n. 
    religion, creed, faith, belief – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Cheung2017rev: may have been borrowed directly from Pers, or via Aram, cf. mPers or Parth dēn, but also Syr dʔyn, dyn ‘religion’. For details, see below, section DISC.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
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    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Cf. Engl Daniel, from Hbr dānīʔēl, dānīyēʔl ‘my judge (is) God’ (alternatively, ‘God has judged’), from dān ‘judge’, PA of dān ‘to judge’; Midian, from Hbr midyān ‘place of judgment’ (sense uncertain), from dān (see above). 
    yawm al-dīn, n., the Day of Judgment

     
    DĪNĀR دينار 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17Mar2023
    √DĪNĀR 
    “root” 
    ▪ DĪNĀR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DĪNĀR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ DĪNĀR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a gold coin, dinar’, borrowed from Grk or lat, maybe through Pers, and occurring once in the Qur’an (Q 3:75) 
    ▪ … 
    – 
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    ḏāl ذال 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ 
    R₁ 
    The letter of the Arabic alphabet. 
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    ḎʔB ذأب 
    ID … • Sw … • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḎʔB 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḎʔB_1 ‘wolf’ ↗ḏiʔb
    ▪ ḎʔB_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ḎʔB_3 ‘…’ ↗

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘wolf, wolf-like, ruffians; nobility; to act in a devious way; forelock; summit’ 
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    ḏiʔb ذِئْب 
    ID … • Sw … • BP 2884 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḎʔB 
    n. 
    wolf 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘wolf’) Akk zību, Hbr zʔēḇ, Syr dēḇā, Gz zeʔb ‘hyena’.
     
    … 
    … 
    … 
    ḎʔM ذأم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 18Mar2023
    √ḎʔM 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḎʔM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḎʔM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḎʔM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to expel, drive out; to insult, compel, humiliate; a fault’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḎBː (ḎBB) ذبّ / ذبب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḎBː(ḎBB) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḎBː (ḎBB)_1 ‘flies’ ↗ḏubāb
    ▪ ḎBː (ḎBB)_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ḎBː (ḎBB)_3 ‘…’ ↗

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘flies, bees, ‘fly-whisk’, swatter, to chase away; to become emaciated; tip or point of a blade’ 
    ▪ … 
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    ▪ …
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    … 
    ▪ Engl Beelzebub cf. (↗baʕl and) ↗ḏubāb
    … 
    ḏubāb ذُباب , pl. ḏibbān, ʔaḏibbaẗ
     
    ID … • Sw … • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḎBː(ḎBB) 
    n.coll. (n.un. ‑aẗ
    flies, fly – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ From protSem *ḏibb‑, *ḏubāb‑, *ḏubūb‑ ‘fly’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2652/53: From protSem *ḏumb‑ ‘fly’ (n.) < AfrAs *ǯa(m)b‑ ‘fly’; alternatively, (#2653) from protSem *ḏ˅b˅b‑ ‘fly’ < AfrAs*ǯa(m)bib‑ ‘fly’ (perh. an extens. of the former).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘flies’) Akk (zubbu), Hbr zḇūḇ, Syr dabbāḇā, Mhr (ḏebēb).
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2652: Akk zumbu, Te zəmbi, Amh zəmb, Arg zəmb, Gaf zəmbä, Har zəmbi, Gur zəmb, Mhr ḏebb‑et, Ḥrs ḏebb‑et, Jib ḏəbb‑ət. – Outside Sem: Berb a‑zəb, e‑zəb, i‑zəbb, i‑zəβ, Ahg a‑həb. A WCh language shows šombo, CCh words for ‘fly’ include žiḅi or ǯebi. – Cf. also the extended var.: (Sem) Hbr zəbūb, Aram dəbbōb, Ar ḏubāb, ḏibbāb‑at‑, Soq dbib‑oh; (Berb) Ahg a‑zəbibibər ‘species of coleoptera’; HEC zəmbib‑uite ‘gnat, mosquito’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2652: The word is common inside Sem as well as outside. For the Sem forms, protSem *ḏumb‑ ‘fly’ may be reconstructed. For protBerb, the authors reconstruct *ʒ˅b‑ ‘fly’, for the Chad langs protWCh *ǯamb‑ ‘fly’, protCCh *ǯabiʔ‑ (»suffix *‑iʔ‑«). All from hypothetical AfrAs *ǯa(m)b‑ ‘fly’ (n.). – There seems also to be a derivative (#2653) AfrAs*ǯa(m)bib‑ ‘fly’, which gave protSem *ḏ˅b˅b‑, Berb *ʒ˅bib‑, and HEC *ǯ˅mbib‑ (zəmbib‑uite) ‘gnat, mosquito’.
    ▪ Lipiński2001 thinks (with Diakonoff) the word can probably be segmented into root *ḎB‑ plus AfrAs »key consonant« ‑b for strong and/or dangerous animals, cf. also ↗ʔarnab, ↗dubb, ↗ḏiʔb, ↗kalb, ↗labb, ↗ʕaqrab, ↗ṯaʕlab.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Beelzebub, from Hbr baʕal zᵊbûb ‘lord of the flies’, pejorative alteration of baʕal zᵊbûl ‘lord prince’ (name of a Philistine god; cf. Ar ↗baʕl
    ḏubāb qāriṣ, n., horsefly

    ḏabba, u, vb. I, 1 to drive away, chase away; 2 to defend: denom.?

    ḏubābaẗ, n.f., 1 fly; 2 tip (of the sword, or the like): n.un.
    ḏubbānaẗ, var. ḏibbānaẗ, n.f., 1 fly; 2 sight, bead (on a firearm): n.un.
    miḏabbaẗ, n.f., fly wisk, fly swatter: n.instr.f.
     
    ḎBḤ ذبح 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḎBḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḎBḤ_1 ‘cut the throat, slay, slaughter; to sacrifice’ ↗ ḏabaḥa
    ▪ ḎBḤ_2 ‘disease in the throat, angina’ ↗ḏabaḥa
    ▪ ḎBḤ_3 ‘flood channels’ : ?
    ▪ ḎBḤ_4 ‘a certain plant; or truffle’: ?

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘flood channels; a disease in the throat; to cut the throat, to slay, a butchered animal, to sacrifice, an animal fit or prepared for slaughter or sacrifice’ 
    Disambiguation according to Badawi2008. But since all values can be thought to derive from one (see DISC) and Sem cognates do not contradict this, all will be treated in the ↗ḏabaḥa entry. 
    – 
    See ↗ ḏabaḥa
    ▪ The Sem evidence does not suggest more than one basic value. But Badawi 2008 gives three values of √ḎBḤ in ClassAr: ‘1. flood channels; 2. a disease in the throat; 3. to cut the throat, to slay, a butchered animal, to sacrifice, an animal fit or prepared for slaughter or sacrifice’.
    DRS 4 (1993)#ḎBḤ treats ‘disease in the throat, angina’ as belonging to ‘to cut the throat, sacrifice’ (cf. Lane: ‘a disease, or pain, in the throat which sometimes kills, blood which chokes and kills, an ulcer that comes forth in the throat or fauces of a man […], an ulcer that appears in that part, obstructing it, and stopping the breath, and killing’). No mention of ‘flood channels’ (but Lane has, as one value of maḏbaḥ, also ‘a trench in the earth, […] such as is made by a torrent, the channel of a torrent […]’).
    ▪ Apart from the values mentioned so far, Lane has also the items ḏubaḥ ‘a certain plant which ostriches eat’, and ḏibaḥ ‘a species of […] truffle, of a white colour’.269
    ▪ The earliest meaning may have been ‘to cut lengthwise, split’, then transferred to trenches/channels made in the earth by torrents etc., and also specialised as ‘to cut the throat’, hence also ‘disease in the throat’. 
    – 
    – 
    ḏabaḥ‑ ذبح , a (ḏabḥ
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḎBḤ 
    vb., I 
    to kill (by slitting the throat); to slaughter, butcher; to massacre; to murder, slay; to sacrifice, offer up, immolate (an animal) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Militarev/Stolbova suggest that the word derives from Sem *ḏ˅b˅ḥ‑ ‘to slaughter; to sacrifice’, from AfrAs *ǯ˅b˅ḥ‑ ‘to make a sacrifice’. 
    ▪ eC7 The Koran has both the vb. I ḏabaḥa ‘to slay’ (2:21 la-ʔuʕaḏḏibanna-hū ʕaḏāban šadīdan ʔaw la-ʔaḏbaḥanna-hū), ‘to ritually sacrifice’ (2:67 ʔinna ’ḷḷāha yaʔmuru-kum ʔan taḏbaḥū baqaratan), the vb. II ḏabbaḥa ‘to be in the habit of slaughtering, to slaughter in number’ (28:4 yastaḍʕifu ṭāʔifatan min-hum yuḏabbiḥu ʔabnāʔa-hum wa-yastaḥyī nisāʔa-hum), and the n. ḏibḥ ‘animal earmarked or fit to be sacrificed, a sacrificial animal’ (37:107 wa-faday-nā-hu bi-ḏibḥin ʕaẓīmin).
    ▪ Attestations in Polosin 1995 (ḏabaḥa, ḏābiḥ) do not alter the picture. 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928 (for Ar ḏibḥ): Akk zību, Hbr zéḇaḥ, Aram deḇḥā, Gz zebḥ ‘sacrifice (n.)'
    DRS 4 (1993): Akk zebū, Ug dbḥ, Hbr zābaḥ, Pun zbḥ, BiblSyr dᵉbaḥ, Mand dba, SAr ḏbḥ, Gz zabḥa ‘égorger, immoler’, Te zabḥa ‘dépouiller, écorcher (une vache)’. – Akk zib ‘(offrande alimentaire)’, Ug dbḥ, Hbr zebaḥ, EmpAram dbḥ, JP dibḥā, Syr debḥā, Ar ḏibḥ ‘sacrifice sanglant’
    , SAr ḏbḥ, Gz zebḥ ‘victime sacrificielle’; – Ug mdbḥt, Pun mdbḥ, Hbr mizbēᵃḥ, EmpAram mdbḥ, Syr madbəḥā, Ar maḏbaḥ, SAr mḏbḥt ‘autel à sacrifies’; Mand madbha, madba ‘sanctuaire’; – Ar ḏibḥaẗ, ḏubḥaẗ ‘douleur à la gorge, angine’.
    ▪ In addition to the Sem cognates (given as in DRS), Militarev/Stolbova 2007 #1246 mention (EChad) Bidiya ziib ‘to make a sacrifice before eating the new corn’, and (LECush) Som dabaaḥ ‘to slaughter’, ? Eg dbḥ ‘to beg for, request’ (dbḥt-ḥtp ‘the requisite offerings, full menu of offerings’). 
    DRS 4 (1993) mentions that Cohen1969 »rapproche un certain nombre de racines cham.-sém. dont la constitution phonique présente des analogies avec celle de ḏbḥ signifiant ‘tuer, abattre, etc.’«, but adds, rightly, that none of these show »correspondances rigoureuses«—they are too far-fetched.
    ▪ Militarev&Stolbova2007 #1246 reconstruct Sem *ḏ˅b˅ḥ‑ ‘to slaughter; to sacrifice’, EChad *ʒiHib‑ (metath.) ‘to make a sacrifice before eating the new corn’, LECush *ǯabaḥ‑ ‘to slaughter’, all from AfrAs *ǯ˅b˅ḥ‑ ‘to make a sacrifice’.
    ▪ For ḏibḥaẗ / ḏubḥaẗ ‘angina; diphtheria’ beloning, or not belonging, to ḏabaḥa, cf. DISC in ↗ḎBḤ.
     
    – 
    ḏabbaḥa, vb. II, to kill, slaughter, butcher, massacre, murder: ints.

    ḏabḥ, n., slaughtering, slaughter: vn. I.
    ḏibḥ, n., sacrificial victim, blood sacrifice:.
    ḏibḥaẗ, var. ḏubḥaẗ, n.f., angina (med.); diphtheria: probably related to the complex of ‘slaughtering’ via the idea of ‘cutting the throat’. | ḏ. ṣadriyyaẗ / fuʔādiyyaẗ, n., angina pectoris (med.).
    ḏabbāḥ, adj., slaughtering, killing, murdering: ints.; n., slaughterer, butcher: n.prof.
    ḏabīḥ, adj., slaughtered : quasi-PP.
    ḏabīḥaẗ, pl. ḏabāʔiḥᵘ, n., slaughter animal; sacrificial victim, blood sacrifice: f. of quasi-PP; sacrifice, immolation; offering, oblation: transferred from the object to the act of sacrificing.
    maḏbaḥ, pl. madābiḥᵘ, n., slaughterhouse; altar (Chr.): n.loc.
    maḏbaḥaẗ, n.f., massacre, slaughter, carnage, butchery: n.loc.f.
     

    ḎBḎB ذبذب 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 18Mar2023
    √ḎBḎB 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḎBḎB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḎBḎB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḎBḎB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to make s.th. dangle or move to and fro; to perplex; to harm; to be in a state of commotion’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḎḪR ذخر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 18Mar2023
    √ḎḪR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḎḪR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḎḪR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḎḪR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘the lower section of the stomach, stored provisions, to select, store up, treasure’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḎRː (ḎRR) ذرّ / ذرر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḎRː (ḎRR) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḎRː (ḎRR)_1 ‘to strew, scatter, spread, sprinkle; progeny; atom, powder; to rise resplendent over the horizon (sun)’ ↗ḏarra
    ▪ ḎRː (ḎRR)_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘small ants, specks, motes, powder; offspring; to sprinkle, to scatter, to cause to multiply, to spread creatures over the earth; to sprout’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    DRS 4 (1993)#ḎRR–1. Syr dar ‘enfanter’, Ar ḏarra ‘répandre, saupoudrer; se lever (soleil), pousser (plantes)’, ḏuriyyaẗ ‘progéniture’, Mġr ḏərri ‘enfant’, Mhr dērē, Jib ḏərrit, Te zəryät ‘descendance’, Amh zärəyya ‘tribu’. – Ar ʔaḏarra, ʔaḏrara ‘épouser la veuve de son frère’, ḏarrar ‘maître d’école’, ḏarr ‘petites fourmis; atome’, ḏarūr ‘poudre’, Sab *hḏr ‘être arrosé (sol)’, ḏrm ‘à satiété’, Min mḏr ‘champ irrigué’, Mhr Jib Ḥrs ḏərr ‘s’éparpiller, se répandre’, Jib ḏerret, Ḥrs ḏarr ‘fourmis’, Gz zarra, zarara, Amh zärrärä ‘étendre le grain pour le faire sécher’. –2. Syr darr ‘combattre’, darā ‘combat’, Ar ḏirār ‘colère violente’. – Cf. ḎRʔ, ḎRW/Y
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    … 
    ḏarr‑, ذرّ , ḏarar‑, u (ḏarr ; ḏurūr
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḎRː (ḎRR) 
    vb., I 
    (ḏarr) to strew, scatter, spread; to sprinkle; – (ḏurūr) to rise, come up, rise resplendent over the horizon (sun) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ The basic meaning seems to be either ‘to have children’
    or ‘to scatter and spread’, more probably the latter.
    ▪ In DRS, a ḏarrar ‘maître d’école’, now obsolete, is mentioned as belonging to this item, but it seems difficult to relate this semantically to either ‘progeny’ or ‘to scatter, spread’.
    ḏirār ‘colère violente’ obviously does not belong to ḏarra and therefore is likely to be from another, homonymous root.
    ▪ Cf. ḎRʔ, ḎRW/Y
    ▪ … 
    DRS 4 (1993)#ḎRR–1. Syr dar ‘enfanter’, Ar ḏarra ‘répandre, saupoudrer; se lever (soleil), pousser (plantes)’, ḏuriyyaẗ ‘progéniture’, Mġr ḏərri ‘enfant’, Mhr dērē, Jib ḏərrit, Te zəryät ‘descendance’, Amh zärəyya ‘tribu’. – Ar ʔaḏarra, ʔaḏrara ‘épouser la veuve de son frère’, ḏarrar ‘maître d’école’, ḏarr ‘petites fourmis; atome’, ḏarūr ‘poudre’, Sab *hḏr ‘être arrosé (sol)’, ḏrm ‘à satiété’, Min mḏr ‘champ irrigué’, Mhr Jib Ḥrs ḏərr ‘s’éparpiller, se répandre’, Jib ḏerret, Ḥrs ḏarr ‘fourmis’, Gz zarra, zarara, Amh zärrärä ‘étendre le grain pour le faire sécher’. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ḏarr, n., strewing, scattering, sprinkling: vn. I; n.coll., tiny particles, atoms, specks, motes: resultative.
    BP#3972ḏarraẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., atom; tiny particle; speck, mote: n.un. of ḏarr (n.coll.).
    BP#3722ḏarrī, adj., atomic: nsb-adj from ḏarr / ḏarraẗ | qunbulaẗ ḏarriyyaẗ atomic bomb; al-našāṭ al-ḏ., ṭāqaẗ ḏarriyyaẗ atomic energy.
    ḏarūr, n., powder:
    ḏarūrī, adj., powdery, powdered, pulverized: nsb-adj from ḏarūr.
    ḏarīraẗ, pl. ḏarāʔirᵘ, n., fragrant powder, cosmetic scented powder:.
    ḏurayraẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., subatomic particle, smallest structural unit of the atomic nucleus (phys.): dimin. of ḏarraẗ
    ḏurrī, adj., of or pertaining to the offspring or progeny: nsb-adj from….
    ḏurriyyaẗ, pl. ‑āt, ḏarāriyy, n., progeny, descendants, children, offspring:…
     
    ḏarraẗ , ذرّة , pl. ‑āt 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḎRː (ḎRR) 
    n.f. 
    atom; tiny particle; speck, mote – WehrCowan1979. 
    If akin to ↗ḏarā ‘to winnow, scatter’, then the item belongs to the complex of Sem *ḎRW ‘to winnow, scatter, disperse’ – Huehnergard2011. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
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    – 
    qunbulaẗ ḏarriyyaẗ, n.f., atomic bomb.
    al-našāṭ al-ḏ., ṭāqaẗ ḏarriyyaẗ, n.f., atomic energy.

    BP#3722ḏarrī, adj., atomic: nsb-adj
    ḏurayraẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., subatomic particle, smallest structural unit of the atomic nucleus (phys.): dimin. of ḏarraẗ

    ḎRʔ ذرأ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 18Mar2023
    √ḎRʔ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḎRʔ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḎRʔ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḎRʔ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘first sprouts of a plant; offspring, to create, cause to increase in number; to spread; to produce’ 
    ▪ 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḎRʕ ذرع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 18Mar2023
    √ḎRʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḎRʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḎRʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḎRʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘arm, front legs of a four-legged animal; dextrous; a cubit, to measure in cubits; power, capability; pretext, means’ 
    ▪ From WSem *dirāʕ ‘arm’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḏuraẗ ذُرة 
    ID 296 • Sw – • BP 5431 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḎRW 
    n.f. 
    durra, a variety of sorghum – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ḎʕN ذعن 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 18Mar2023
    √ḎʕN 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḎʕN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḎʕN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḎʕN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to submit, give in; to hurry up; to confess’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḎQN ذقن 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 18Mar2023
    √ḎQN 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḎQN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḎQN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḎQN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘chin, beard; to place the hand under the chin, hit on the chin; to annoy’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḎKR ذكر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḎKR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḎKR_1 ‘male’ ↗ḏakar
    ▪ ḎKR_2 ‘steel’ ↗ḏakīr
    ▪ ḎKR_3 ‘to remember’ ↗ḏakara
    ▪ ḎKR_4 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ḎKR_5 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘male, male organ, manhood, masculinity; weighty head of the axe; power; honour, renown, good name; to mention, to remember, to remind, to commit to memory, to learn by heart, to study, to investigate; to propose marriage; a record; to praise; to insult, to defame’ 
    ▪ Any connection between ḎKR_1 ‘male’, ḎKR_2 ‘steel’ and ḎKR_3 ‘to remember’ ? Lane gives the classical lexicographers’ opinion that ḏakar ‘male’ originally meant the one often ‘mentioned’ and much ‘talked of’. From the ‘much talked-of’ = the ‘male’, the idea of masculinity could then have been transferred to a sword, a cutting, sharp one being a ‘male’. DRS 4 (1993), too, groups ‘steel’ (attested only in Ar) together with ‘male’ as one item, as opposed to the ‘remember, mention’ complex. BDB, however, thinks that the original sense of ḎKR could have been ‘to be sharp’ (of which ḏakīr, ḏakar ‘steel’ would be some traces). 
    – 
    DRS #ḎKR-1 Akk zakāru ‘déclarer, mentionner, nommer, invoquer’, zikr‑ ‘discours, mention, ordre, renommée, serment’; CAN. ta. zakāru, Phoen *skr, Pun Hbr zākar, skr; EmpAram zkr, JudPal dᵊkar, Syr ʔeddᵊkar ‘se souvenir de’, Mand dkar ‘rappeler, commémorer’, zakar ‘réciter (une incantation)’; Can zēker ‘mention’, zikkārōn, Phoen skr, skrn, Pun skr; ancEmpAram zkrn, BiblAram dikrōn, dākrān, Nab Palm dkrn, JudPal Syr dūkrānā ‘souvenir, mémorial’, Nab Palm dkyr, Syr dᵊkīr ‘commémoré’; Syr zakkūrā ‘revenant, devin’; Ar ḏakara ‘se souvenir, rappeler, mentionner, raconter’, ḏikr ‘souvenir, mention, récit, renommée’; SAr ḏkr ‘mentionner, enregistrer; déclaration, notification’, Mhr Ḥars ḏēker, Jib ḏekər, Soq dekir ‘penser, se souvenir’; Gz zakara, Te zäkrä, ǧäkkärä, Tña zäkkärä, Amh täzäkkärä ‘se souvenir de’, Gz zəkr, tazkār ‘souvenir, mémoire’, Amh Gur zäkkärä ‘faire un repas funéraire’; Hbr ʔazkārāh, JudPal ʔadkārā ‘mémorial’. -2 Akk zikar‑, zakr‑ ‘mâle, viril’, zikrūt‑ ‘virilité’; Ug dakaru ‘homme’; Hbr zākār ‘homme, bélier’; EmpAram zkr, Nab Palm dkr, JudPal dikrā, Syr dekrā ‘mâle’, BiblAram *dᵊkar ‘bélier’; Ar ḏakar, SAr ḏkr, Ḥars ḏekar ‘mâle’, Jib mməḏkər ‘chevreau mâle’, Soq mišer ‘palmier mâle’; Ar ḏakar ‘acier’, ḏakkara ‘acérer le tranchant’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl n.prop. Zechariahḏakara
    – 
    ḏakar‑ ذكر , u (ḏikr , taḏkār
    ID 298 • Sw – • BP 266 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḎKR 
    vb., I 
    to remember, bear in mind, think of; to keep in mind; to recall, recollect; – (ḏikr) to speak, talk (of, about); to name, mention, cite, quote; to state, designate, indicate; to give (data, facts); to point, refer to; to report, relate, tell – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ From protSem *√ḎKR ‘to mention, remind, remember’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ For the classical lexicographers’ assumption of a connection between ‘to remember’, ‘male’, and ‘steel’ ↗√ḎKR. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘to remember’) Akk zkr (u) ‘to name’, Hbr zkr a (o), Syr (t-stem) dkr, Gz zkr a (e).
    DRS 4 (1993)#ḎKR-1: Akk zakāru ‘déclarer, mentionner, nommer, invoquer’, zikr ‘discours, mention, ordre, renommée, serment’, Pun Hbr zākar, skr, EmpAram zkr, JP dᵉkar, Syr ʔeddᵉkar ‘se souvenir de’, Mand dkar ‘rappeler, commémorer’, zakar ‘réciter (une incantation)’, Can zēker ‘mention’, zikkārōn, Ph skr, skrn, Pun skr, oEmpAram zkrn, BiblAram dikrōn, dākrān, Nab Palm dkrn, JP Syr dukrānā ‘souvernir, mémorial’, Nab Palm dkyr, Syr dᵉkīr ‘commémoré’, Syr zakkūrā ‘revanant, devin’, Ar ḏakara ‘se souvenir, rappeler, mentionner, raconter’, ḏikr ‘souvenir, mention, récit, renommée’, SAr ḏkr ‘mentionner, enregistrer; déclaration, notification’, Mhr Ḥrs ḏēker, Jib ḏekər, Soq dekir ‘penser, se souvenir’; Gz zakara, Te zäkrä, ǧäkkärä, Tña zäkkärä, täzäkkärä ‘se souvenir de’, Gz zəkr, tazkār ‘souvernir, mémoire’, Amh Gur zäkkärä ‘faire un repas funéraire’, Hbr ʔazkārāh, JP ʔadkārāh ‘mémorial’. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Zechariah, from Hbr zᵊkaryāh ‘Yahweh has remembered’, from Hbr zᵊkar, reduced form of zākar ‘he remembered’, akin to Ar ḏakara
    BP#3198ḏakkara, vb. II, to remind: caus.1
    ḏākara, vb. III, to parley, negotiate, confer, have a talk, take counsel; to memorize, commit to memory, learn, study.:.
    ʔaḏkara, vb. IV, to remind, call to s.o.’s mind.: caus.
    BP#1217taḏakkara, vb. V, to remember, bear in mind, think of: t-stem of II.
    taḏākara, vb. VI, to remind each other, revive each other’s memory of; to confer, have a talk, take counsel: t-stem of III.
    ĭddakara = V:.
    ĭstaḏkara, vb. X, to memorize, commit to memory, learn, study; to remember, recall, keep in mind, know by heart: t-stem of IV, autoben.

    BP#1002ḏikr, n.: vn. I. – See also ↗s.v..
    ḏukraẗ, n.f., reputation, repute, renown:.
    BP#960ḏikrà, pl. ḏikrayāt, n., remembrance, recollection, memory; pl. reminiscences, memoirs | ḏ. sanawiyyaẗ annual celebretion or commemoration ceremony:.
    taḏkār, tiḏkār, n., remembrance; reminder, memento; memory, commemoration; souvenir, keepsake; memorial day:.
    BP#3570taḏkiraẗ reminder; memento; (mostly pronounced taḏkaraẗ), pl. taḏākirᵘ, n., message, note; slip, paper, permit, pass; card; ticket; admission ticket | t. barīd postcard; t. ʔiṯbāt al-šaḫṣiyyaẗ, n., identity card:.
    taḏkarǧī ticket seller, ticket clerk; (streetcar) conductor: n.prof., made of taḏkār + (Turk.) ‑ǧī.
    BP#4411taḏkīr, n., reminding, reminder, memento: vn. II.2
    muḏākaraẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., negotiation, consultation, conference; deliberation (of a court; Syr.); (Mor.) conversation; learning, memorizing, memorization; study: vn. III.
    taḏakkur, n., memory, remembrance, recollection: vn. V.
    ĭstiḏkār, n., memorizing, memorization, committing to memory: vn. X.
    BP#1306ḏākiraẗ, n.f., memory (human and computer): PA I, f. (*‘the remembering one’).
    BP#2003maḏkūr, adj., mentioned; said, above-mentioned; worthy of mention; celebrated: PP I.
    BP#2270muḏakkiraẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., reminder; note; remark; notebook; memorandum, memorial, aide-mémoire, (diplomatic) note; ordinance, decree; treatise, paper, report (of a learned society, = Fr. mémoires); official report (concerning an incident); official notice; pl. reminiscences, memoirs: PP II.
     

    ḏikr ذِكْر , pl. ʔaḏkār 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 1002 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḎKR 
    n. 
    recollection, remembrance, reminiscence, memory, commemoration; reputation, repute, renown; naming, stating, mention(ing), quoting, citation; report, account, narration, narrative; invocation of God, mention of the Lord’s name; (pl. ʔaḏkār) collective liturgical exercises of Sufi orders, consisting in incessant repetition of certain words or formulas in praise of God, often accompanied by music and dancing – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ vn. of ↗ḏakara, vb. I ‘to remember; to mention’. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ḏakara 
    ḏakar ذكر , pl. ḏukūr , ḏukūraẗ , ḏukrān 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 2598 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḎKR 
    ¹adj.; ²n. 
    male; (pl. ḏukūr) penis – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *ḏakar‑ ‘male’.
    ▪ For the classical lexicographers’ assumption of a connection between ‘male’, ‘steel’, and ‘to remember’ ↗√ḎKR.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 4 (1993)#ḎKR-2: Akk zikar‑ , zakr‑ ‘mâle, virile’, zikrūt‑ ‘virilité’, Ug dakaru ‘homme’, Hbr zākār ‘homme, bélier’, EmpAram zkr, Nab Palm dkr, JP dikrā, Syr dekrā ‘mâle’, Ar ḏakar, SAr ḏkr, Ḥrs ḏekar ‘mâle’, Jib mməḏkər ‘chevreau mâle’, Soq mišer ‘palmier mâle’; Ar ḏakar ‘acier’, ḏakkara ‘acérer le tranchant’. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ḏakkara, vb. II, to make masculine (gram.): caus., denom.

    ḏakarī, adj., male: nsb-adj
    muḏakkar, adj., masculine (gram.): PP II. 

    ḏakīr ذكير 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḎKR 
    n. 
    steel – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ For the classical lexicographers’ assumption of a connection between ‘steel’, ‘male’, and ‘to remember’ ↗√ḎKR. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
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    – 
    – 
    ḏākiraẗ ذاكِرَة 
    ID 297 • Sw – • BP 1306 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḎKR 
    n.f. 
    memory (human and computer) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Properly a PA I, f. *‘the remembering one’. For etymology see ↗ḏakara
    ▪ … 
    ḏakara 
    ḏakara 
    – 
    – 
    ḎKW ذكو 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 18Mar2023
    √ḎKW 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḎKW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḎKW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḎKW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘the sun, (of fire) to burn strongly; intelligence; to be witty; to slaughter an animal in the ritually approved manner; to purify’ 
    ▪ From protSem *√ḎKW ‘to be(come) clean, pure’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḎLː (ḎLL) ذلّ/ذلل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 18Mar2023
    √ḎLː (ḎLL) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḎLː (ḎLL)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḎLː (ḎLL)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḎLː (ḎLL)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘mercy, kindness; to become humbled, become humiliated; to be tamed, become docile; to be within easy reach’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḎMː (ḎMM) ذمّ/ذمم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 18Mar2023
    √ ḎMː (ḎMM) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḎMː (ḎMM)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḎMː (ḎMM)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḎMː (ḎMM)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘pact, pledge, guarantee, protection; dirt, to revile, abuse’ 
    ▪ From CSem *√ḎMM ‘to blame, plot’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
    – 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl dhimmi, from Ar ↗ḏimmī, from ↗ḏimmaẗ ‘protected status of a dhimmi’, from ↗ḏamma ‘to blame’. 
    – 
    ḎNB ذنب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḎNB 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḎNB_1 ‘tail’ ↗ḏanab
    ▪ ḎNB_2 ‘offense, sin, crime’ ↗ḏanb

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘tail, tail end, consequence; guilt, crime, sin, to sin; the end of the valley, the place where floodwater gathers, a great bucket; share, portion’ 
    ▪ Apart from the two values ḎNB_1 and ḎNB_2, DRS 4 (1994)#ḎNB-3 mentions also a third one (#ḎNB-3), which, however, is realized only in HispAr ḏanab ‘fish glue’. 
    – 
    ▪ ↗ḏanb
    ▪ ↗ḏanab 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ḏanb ذَنْب , pl. ḏunūb 
    ID 299 • Sw – • BP 1998 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḎNB 
    n. 
    offense, sin, crime, misdeed – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 4 (1994)#ḎNB-2: Ar ḏanb, Jib ḏenb, Ḥrs ḏenōb, Te zənub, ǧənub ‘péché, faute’; Ar ʔaḏnaba, Jib eḏnib ‘pécher’ 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ʔaḏnaba, vb. IV, to do wrong, commit a sin, a crime, an offense; to be guilty, be culpable: denom.
    ĭstaḏnaba, vb. X, to find or declare (s.o.) guilty of a sin, of a crime, of an offense: declarative, t-stem of ʔaḏnaba.
    muḏnib, adj./n., culpable, guilty; sinner; evildoer, delinquent, criminal: PA IV. 
    ḏanab ذنب , pl. ʔaḏnāb 
    ID … • Sw –/160 • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḎNB 
    n. 
    tail; appendage; follower, henchman; pl. ʔaḏnāb, dependents, clique of followers, following (of s.o.) 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *ḏanab‑ ‘tail’.
    ▪ Cf. also Som dábo ‘tail’?
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘tail’) Akk (zibbatu), Hbr zānāḇ, Syr dunḇā, Gz zanáb.
    DRS 4 (1994)#ḎNB-1: Akk zibbat‑ , zimbat‑ , Ug ḏnb, Hbr zānāb, TargAram danbā, dunbā, gᵉnūbtā, Syr dūnbā, dūnbᵉtā, dᵉnūbtā, Mand dīnbā, Ar ḏanab, Mhr ḏenob, Ḥrs deneb, Jib ḏunub, Soq denob, Gz zanab, Te zänäb; Hbr zinnēb, Syr dannēb ‘annéantir l’arrière-garde’, Ar ḏanaba ‘suivre pas à pas’, Sab ḏnb ‘mettre en déroute’, Te zännäbä ‘rester en arrière’, Ar ḏānib, ḏunābaẗ ‘adhérent, partisan’. 
    ▪ Fronzaroli#2.79, DRS 4 (1994), Kogan2011: Sem *ḏanab‑.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ḏawāt al-ʔaḏnāb, n.pl., comets.

    ḏanabī, adj., caudal, tail (in compounds); appendaged, appendant, dependent: nsb-adj.
    ḏunayb, n., petiole, leafstalk (bot.): dimin.
    muḏannab, n., comet: nominalized PP II. 

    ḎHB ذهب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḎHB 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḎHB_1 ‘gold’ ↗ḏahab
    ▪ ḎHB_2 ‘to go’ ↗ḏahaba

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘gold; to go, to go away, to set out; to take away; creed, faction, sect, to adopt as a conviction’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    In addition to the values ‘gold’ (ḎHB_1, ↗ḏahab) and ‘to go’ (ḎHB_2, ↗ḏahaba, DRS 4 (1993) lists a third item: #ḎHB-3: Ar ḏihbaẗ ‘pluie fine’, oYemAr ḏahab ‘champ’, anc. mod.: mesure de capacité, SAr ḏhb ‘vallée alluvial; irrigation semi-annuelle’, mḏhbẗ ‘terre alluviale’, Mhr Ḥrs ḏehēb, Jib ḏhēb ‘être inondé’, Mhr Ḥrs ḏehib, Jib ḏheb ‘inondation’. 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl dahabeahḏahab
    – 
    ḏahab‑ ذَهَبَ , a (ḏahāb , maḏhab
    ID 301 • Sw 65 • BP 489 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḎHB 
    vb., I 
    to go; to betake o.s., travel; to go away, leave, depart; to disappear, vanish, decline, dwindle; to perish, die, be destroyed; with bi‑ : to carry s.th. off, take s.th. away, abduct, steal s.th., sweep s.th. or s.o. away, annihilate, destroy s.th. or s.o.; ḏ. bihī ʔilā to lead or conduct s.o. to, take s.o. along to; to think, believe, hold the view, be of the opinion (ʔilà that); to escape (ʕan s.o.; fig.), slip (ʕan s.o.’s mind), ḏ. ʕanhu ʔanna to lose sight of the fact that…, forget that …; to ignore, skip, omit (ʕan s.th.); (with imperf.) to prepare to …, be about to… | ḏ. wa-ǧāʔa to go back and forth, walk up and down; ḏ. ʔilà ʔabʕada min… to go beyond… (fig.); mā yaḏhabu fī nazʕatih what follows along these lines; ʔayna yuḏhabu bika! the idea of it! you can’t mean it! ḏ. sudàn to be futile, be in vain, be of no avail; ḏ. ʔadrāǧa ‘l-riyāḥ to go the ways of the winds, i.e., to pass unnoticed, without leaving a trace; to end in smoke, come to nothing, be futile, be in vain; ḏ. ka-ʔamsi ‘l-dābir to vanish into thin air, disappear without leaving a trace (lit.: like yesterday gone by; ḏ. bi-bahāʔih to take the glamor away from s.th.; ḏ. bi-nafsihi to kill s.o. (joy, terror, etc.); ḏ. bi-ḫayālih to let one’s imagination wander; ḏ. maḏhabahū to embrace s.o.’s maḏhab (see below); to follow s.o.’s teaching, make s.o.’s belief one’s own, embrace s.o.’s ideas; to adopt s.o.’s policy, proceed exactly like s.o.; ḏ. kulla maḏhabin to do everything conceivable, leave no stone unturned, go to greatest lengths – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2672 reconstruct AfrAs *ǯ˅hab‑ ‘to go, trot’ as the ancestor of Sem *ḏ˅hab‑ ‘to go away’ and WCh *ǯ˅H˅b‑ ‘to trot’. But reconstructions are based on evidence in one language only in each case. 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 4 (1993)#ḎHB-2: no cognates in Sem.
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2672: no cognates in Sem. -- Outside Sem: WCh *ǯ˅H˅b‑ (ǯōp) ‘trot’. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ʔaḏhaba, vb. IV, to cause to go away, make disappear, remove, eliminate; to take away: caus.
    tamaḏhaba, vb. II, to follow, adopt, embrace (<~a teaching, a religion, etc.): denom. from maḏhab.

    BP#1594ḏahāb, n., going; passing, passage, falling away, decrease, dwindling, loss, disappearance; leave, departure; trip, journey; outward-bound trip or journey (as opposed to ʔiyāb return trip; railroad); opinion, view (ʔilà ʔan that): vn. I | ḏ-an ʔiyāban there and back; back and forth, up and down; taḏkaraẗ ḏ. wa-ʔiyāb round-trip ticket.
    ḏuhūb, n., going: vn. I | ḏ. wa-maʔāb coming and going; fī ǧīʔaẗ wa-ḏ. coming and going, in a state of fluctuation, having its ups and downs.
    BP#2488maḏhab, pl. maḏāhibᵘ, n., going, leave, departure; way out, escape; manner followed, adopted procedura or policy, road entered upon; opinion, view, belief; ideology; teaching, doctrine; movement, orientation, trend (also pol.); school; mazhab, orthodox rite of fiqh (Isl. Law); religious creed, faith, denomination: vn. I | m-uhū fī ‘l-ḥayāẗ his philosophy of life, his Weltanschauung; al-m. al-tārīḫī historism; m. al-rūḥiyyaẗ spiritualism; al-m. al-riwāqī stoicism; al-m. al-sulūkī behaviourism; al-m. al-ʔiṣlāḥī reformism; al-m. al-ṭabīʕī naturalism; al-m. al-ʕaqāʔidī dogmatism; m. al-laḏḏaẗ hedonism; m. al-miṯāliyyaẗ idealism; al-m. al-māddī the materialistic ideology, materialism; al-m. al-wāqiʕī realism; ḏahaba m-an baʕīdan to go very far, be very extensive.
    BP#4026maḏhabī, adj., denominational, confessional; doctrinaire; following or representing a particular doctrine; sectarian: nsb-adj from maḏhab.
    maḏhabiyyaẗ, n.f., doctrinaire attitude, devotion to an ideology; sectarianism: n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ from maḏhab.
    ḏāhib: ḏ. al-lawn, adj., faded, colorless, discolored: PA I.
    maḏhūb bihī and maḏhūb al-ʕaql, adj., out of one’s mind, demented: PP I. 

    ḏahab ذَهَب 
    ID 300 • Sw – • BP 1904 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḎHB 
    n.m. and n.f. 
    gold; gold piece, gold coin – WehrCowan1979. 
    DRS 4 (1993)#ḎHB-1: From protSem (Huehnergard2011: CSem) *ḏahab‑ ‘gold’.
     
    ▪ … 
    DRS 4 (1993)#ḎHB-1: Hbr zāhāb, oAram zhb, EmpAram Palm dhb, BiblAram TargAram Syr dᵉhab, Mand dahba, zahba, Ar ḏahab ‘or’; SAr ḏhb ‘or, encens’, Mhr Jib ḏehēb, Soq dheb, Te Tña dähab ‘or’. – SAr ḏhb : aromate, sorte d’encens, ETH dähob ‘encens, fumigation’, dähabä ‘encenser’. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl dahabeah, from Ar ḏahabiyyaẗ ‘the Golden One’ (name of the gilded barge of the Muslim rulers of Egypt), from ḏahab ‘gold’. 
    ḏahab ʔabyaḍ, n., platinum.

    ḏahhaba, vb. II, to gild (* s.th.): caus. denom.

    BP#1692ḏahabī, adj., golden, of gold; precious, excellent, apposite (e.g., advice, saying, etc.): nsb-adj | ʔāyaẗ ḏ-iyyaẗ golden word, maxim, epigram.
    ḏahabiyyaẗ, pl. ‑āt, dahabeah, a long light-draft houseboat, used on the Nile:….
    muḏahhab, adj., gilded: PP II.
    muḏhab, adj., gilded: PP IV. 

    maḏhab مَذْهَب , pl. maḏāhibᵘ 
    ID 302 • Sw – • BP 2488 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḎHB 
    n. 
    going, leave, departure; way out, escape; manner followed, adopted procedura or policy, road entered upon; opinion, view, belief; ideology; teaching, doctrine; movement, orientation, trend (also pol.); school; mazhab, orthodox rite of fiqh (Isl. Law); religious creed, faith, denomination – WehrCowan1979. 
    vn. I of ↗ḏahaba
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ḏahaba
    – 
    maḏhabuhū fī ‘l-ḥayāẗ, his philosophy of life, his Weltanschauung.
    al-maḏhab al-tārīḫī, historism.
    maḏhab al-rūḥiyyaẗ, spiritualism.
    al-maḏhab al-riwāqī, stoicism.
    al-maḏhab al-sulūkī, behaviourism.
    al-maḏhab al-ʔiṣlāḥī, reformism.
    al-maḏhab al-ṭabīʕī, naturalism.
    al-maḏhab al-ʕaqāʔidī, dogmatism.
    maḏhab al-laḏḏaẗ hedonism.
    maḏhab al-miṯāliyyaẗ idealism.
    al-maḏhab al-māddī, the materialistic ideology, materialism.
    al-maḏhab al-wāqiʕī, realism.
    ḏahaba maḏhaban baʕīdan, to go very far, be very extensive.

    tamaḏhaba, vb. II, to follow, adopt, embrace (<~a teaching, a religion, etc.): denom.

    BP#4026maḏhabī, adj., denominational, confessional; doctrinaire; following or representing a particular doctrine; sectarian: nsb-adj.
    maḏhabiyyaẗ, n.f., doctrinaire attitude, devotion to an ideology; sectarianism: n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ from maḏhab

    ḎHL ذهل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 18Mar2023
    √ḎHL 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḎHL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḎHL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḎHL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘part of the night; to become distracted, be bewildered, forget’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḎWʕ ذوع 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḎWʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḎWʕ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ḎWʕ_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ↗ḎYʕ 
    Items from this root like ḏāʕa, vb. I, ‘to loose, dilapidate’ or ʔaḏāʕa, vb. IV, ‘to lift, carry away, drink everything’ have become obsolete in MSA. – Acc. to DRS, one has to compare ↗ḎYʕ
    – 
    DRS 4 (1993): – [No cognates in Sem]. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ḎWQ ذوق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 18Mar2023
    √ḎWQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḎWQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḎWQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḎWQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to taste, cause to taste, experience, experiences, learning’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḏawq ذَوْق 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 2450 • APD … • © SG | created 5Jun2023
    √ḎWQ 
    n. 
    taste 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ḎYʕ ذيع 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḎYʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḎYʕ_1 ‘to spread, be(come)/make public’ ↗ḏāʕa, ī (ḏuyūʕ)
    ▪ ḎYʕ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to declare, to announce, to divulge, a telltale; to take away’ 
    ▪ Acc. to DRS, one has to compare (the now obsolete) ↗ḎWʕ
    – 
    DRS 4 (1993): – [No cognates in Sem]. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ḏāʕ‑ ذاع , ḏiʕ‑ , ī (ḏuyūʕ
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḎYʕ 
    vb., I 
    to spread, get about, circulate, be spread, be disseminated, be or become widespread; to leak out, become public, become generally known – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 4 (1993): – [No cognates in Sem]. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ʔaḏāʕa, vb. IV, to spread, spread out, disseminate, propagate; to make known, announce, make public, publicize, publish; to promulgate; to show, manifest, display, give evidence; to reveal, disclose, divulge; to emit (electric waves); to broadcast, transmit (radio) | ʔ. bi’l-talfazaẗ to telecast; ʔ. barnāmaǧan to broadcast a program: caus.
    ḏuyūʕ, n., widespreadness, commonness; spreading, spread, dispersion, diffusion; circulation (of news): vn. I.
    miḏyāʕ, pl. maḏāyīʕᵘ, n., telltale, talebearer, tattler; communicative, indiscreet; radio set; microphone; O transmitter: n.instr.
    BP#1919ʔiḏāʕaẗ, n.f., spreading, dissemination, propagation; announcement, proclamation; publication; revelation, disclosure; playback (of a tape; as opposed to recording); broadcasting, radio; (pl. ‑āt) (radio) broadcast, transmission: vn. IV | ʔ. al-ʔaḫbār, n., newscast, news (radio); ʔ. talfaziyyaẗ, n., television broadcast, telecast; ʔ. lā-silkiyyaẗ and rādyūfūniyyaẗ, n., radio broadcast; broadcasting, radio; ʔ. al-būlīs, n., police radio; al-ʔ. al-marʔiyyaẗ (Lib.), n., television; maǧallaẗ al-ʔ., n., radio magazine.
    ʔiḏāʕī, adj., radio, television, TV (in compounds): nsb-adj from ʔiḏāʕaẗ | ḥadīṯ ʔ., n., radio talk; radio interview; maḥaṭṭaẗ ʔiḏāʕiyyaẗ, n., radio station:.
    ḏāʔiʕ, adj., widespread, common, general; circulating, in circulation; widely known: PA I | ḏ. al-ṣīt, adj., famous, noted, renowned, widely known.
    BP#4304muḏīʕ, pl. ‑ūn, adj./n., spreader, disseminator, propagator, proclaimer; broadcasting, transmitting (used attributively); (radio) transmitter; radio announcer; speaker (at a microphone): PA IV.
    muḏīʕaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., (radio and TV) announcer (f.): PA IV, f. 
    ʔiḏāʕaẗ إذاعة , pl. ‑āt 
    ID 303 • Sw – • BP 1919 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḎYʕ 
    n.f. 
    spreading, dissemination, propagation; announcement, proclamation; publication; revelation, disclosure; playback (of a tape; as opposed to recording); broadcasting, radio; (pl. ‑āt) (radio) broadcast, transmission – WehrCowan1979. 
    vn. IV of ↗ḏāʕa ‘to spread’. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ḏāʕa 
    – 
    ʔiḏāʕaẗ al-ʔaḫbār, n., newscast, news (radio).
    ʔiḏāʕaẗ talfaziyyaẗ, n.f., television broadcast, telecast.
    ʔiḏāʕaẗ lā-silkiyyaẗ and rādyūfūniyyaẗ, n.f., radio broadcast; broadcasting, radio.
    ʔiḏāʕaẗ al-būlīs, n., police radio.
    al-ʔiḏāʕaẗ al-marʔiyyaẗ (Lib.), n., television.
    maǧallaẗ al-ʔiḏāʕaẗ, n.f., radio magazine.

    ʔiḏāʕī, adj., radio, television, TV (in compounds): nsb-adj | ḥadīṯ ʔ., n., radio talk; radio interview; maḥaṭṭaẗ ʔiḏāʕiyyaẗ, n., radio station. 

    ḎYL ذيل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḎYL 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḎYL_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ḎYL_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ḏayl ذَيْل , pl. ḏuyūl , ʔaḏyāl 
    ID 304 • Sw 35/160 • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḎYL 
    n. 
    1 tail; 2a lappet, coat tail; b the lowest or rearmost part of s.th., lower end; c hem, border (of a garment); d train (of a skirt); e bottom, foot, end (of a page); 3a appendage, appendicle; b addenda, supplement, appendix (of a book); 4a retinue, attendants, suite; b dependent; c result, consequence – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 4 (1993): Syr dāl ‘être humble’, Ar ḏāla ‘trainer par terre (vêtement); être peu estimé, bas’, ḏayl ‘partie inférieure, bas, queue’, PalAr tḏāyal ‘tourner autour’. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    fī ḏaylihī, adv., immediately thereafter.
    ṭāhir al-ḏayl, adj., innocent, blameless, upright, honest.
    ṭahāraẗ al-ḏayl, n., innocence, moral integrity, probity, uprightness, honesty.
    ṭawīl al-ḏayl, adj., long, lengthy, extensive.
    ḏayl ḥiṣān, n., ponytail.
    šorbaẗ ḏayl al-ṯawr, n., oxtail soup.
    tamassaka bi-ʔaḏyālih, vb. V, to cling to s.o.’s coat tails, hold on to s.o.
    ǧarra ʕalayhi ḏayl al-ʕafāʔ, vb., to wipe out s.th., bring about the doom of s.th., let s.th. sink into oblivion.
    lāḏa bi-ʔaḏyāl al-šayʔ, vb. I, to resort to s.th.

    ḏayyala, vb. II, to furnish (esp. a book) with an appendix, add a supplement; to provide at the end (bi‑ with); to extend; pass.: to have a sequel of aftereffect; not to be at an end, be continued: denom., caus.
    ʔaḏāla, vb. IV, to trample underfoot, degrade, debase: denom., caus.

    taḏyīl, n., addition of a supplement, of an extension: vn. II.
    muḏayyal, adj., extended (by an addition, supplement, etc.): PP II. 

    taḏyīl تَذْييل 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 5Jun2023
    √ḎYL 
    n. 
    ▪ vn. of ḏayyala, vb. II, ‘to attach’, denom. from ↗ḏayl ‘tail’ 
    taḏyīlī تَذْييليّ 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 5Jun2023
    √ḎYL 
    adj. 
    ▪ nsb-formation, from ↗taḏyīl, vn. of ḏayyala, vb. II ‘to attach’, denom. from ↗ḏayl ‘tail’ 
    rāʔ راء 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ 
    R₁ 
    The letter r of the Arabic alphabet. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    رء
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 23Jul2023
    √Rʔ
     
    "root" 
    ▪ Rʔ_1 ‘lung’ ↗riʔaẗ
    ▪ Rʔ_2 ...
     
    ▪ [v1] : From Sem *riʔ(-at)- ‘lung’, from AfrAs *w˅ray/ʔ- ‘lung’ – MilitarevKogan2000 (SED I) #224.
    ▪ [v2] : …
     
    ▪ –
     
    ▪ [v1] MilitarevKogan2000 (SED I) #224 : postBiblHbr rēʔā, Syr rāʔᵊtā (raʔtā, rātā), Mhr rəyēʔ, Ḥrs reyī, Jib rɔ̄t (pl. rói), EJib rīʔ (pl.),121 Ar riʔaẗ ‘lung’; cf. prob. also wāriyaẗ, waràⁿ ‘maladie des poumons’ (arranged s.r. ↗WRY). »In these forms, w- could be regarded as a secondary element (a triconsonantizer?) if not for a comparison to Berb and CChad terms in w- which makes one suppose them to be a vestige of the old AfrAs form *w˅ray/ʔ‑.« | Outside Sem: (Berb) Ahaggar t-ârûri (<*ta‑wrawray, with redupl.), Ghadames t-ūra (pl. t-ūraw-īn), Qabyle t-ure-c, Ntifa t-uri-n (pl.), Zenaga t-uʔr-an (pl. without sg.), (CChad) Logone werwer (redupl.) ‘lungs’ (differenty compared [ibid.], cf. in #9 Sem *ʔir(r)-at- ‘chest, breast’). – Cf. also DRS 7 (1997) #WRʔ~WRY-1-2 .... -3 Ar warà(y) ‘blesser au poumon’.122 -4 ....
     
    ▪ [v1] Apart from Sem *riʔ(-at)-, MilitarevKogan2000 (SED I) #224 reconstruct also Berb *ta-wray ‘lung’ and give some CChad forms (without reconstructing a proto-form), all from a hypothetical AfrAs *w˅ray/ʔ‑ ‘lung’.
    ▪ [v1] If Ar riʔaẗ is comparable directly as a vestige of AfrAs *w˅ray/ʔ‑, then Sem *riʔ(-at)- can be interpreted as a secondary stem with a Iost *wa- or as a variant root.
    ▪ [v1] In Ar wāriyaẗ, waràⁿ ‘lung disease’ (arranged s.r. ↗√WRY), initial w- »could be regarded as a secondary element (a triconsonantizer?) if not for a comparison to Berb and CChad terms in w- which makes one suppose them to be a vestige of the old AfrAs form *w˅ray/ʔ‑« – MilitarevKogan2000 (SED I) #224.
    ▪ ...
     

     

     
    riʔaẗ رِئَة , pl. riʔūn, riʔāt
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP 4524 • APD … • © SG | 23Jul2023
    √Rʔ
     
    n.f.
     
    lung – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ From Sem *riʔ(-at)- ‘lung’, from AfrAs *w˅ray/ʔ- ‘id.’ – MilitarevKogan2000 (SED I) #224.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ MilitarevKogan2000 (SED I) #224 : postBiblHbr rēʔā, Syr rāʔᵊtā (raʔtā, rātā), Mhr rəyēʔ, Ḥrs reyī, Jib rɔ̄t (pl. rói), EJib rīʔ (pl.),123 Ar riʔaẗ ‘lung’; cf. prob. also wāriyaẗ, waràⁿ ‘maladie des poumons’ (arranged s.r. ↗WRY).124 | Outside Sem: (Berb) Ahaggar t-ârûri (<*ta‑wrawray, with redupl.), Ghadames t-ūra (pl. t-ūraw-īn), Qabyle t-ure-c, Ntifa t-uri-n (pl.), Zenaga t-uʔr-an (pl. without sg.); (CChad) Logone werwer (redupl.) ‘lungs’ (differenty compared [ibid.], cf. in #9 Sem *ʔir(r)-at- ‘chest, breast’).
    ▪ Cf. also DRS 7 (1997) #WRʔ~WRY-1-2 .... -3 Ar warà(y) ‘blesser au poumon’.125 -4 ....
     
    ▪ MilitarevKogan2000 (SED I) #224 : Apart from Sem *riʔ(-at)-, the authors reconstruct Berb *ta-wray ‘lung’ and give some CChad forms (without reconstructing a proto-form), all from an hypothetical AfrAs *w˅ray/ʔ‑ ‘lung’.
    ▪ If the Ar forms are comparable directly as a vestige of the suggested AfrAs form, Sem *riʔ(-at)- can be interpreted as a secondary stem with a Iost *wa- or as a variant root.
    ▪ In contrast, in the older n.s wāriyaẗ, waràⁿ ‘lung disease’ (arranged s.r. ↗√WRY), »w- could be regarded as a secondary element (a triconsonantizer?) if not for a comparison to Berb and CChad terms in w- which makes one suppose them to be a vestige of the old AfrAs form *w˅ray/ʔ‑« – MilitarevKogan2000 (SED I) #224.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ –
     
    riʔawī, adj., pulmonary, pulmonic, pneumonic, of or pertaining to the lung, lung (used attributively): nsb-formation
     
    RʔS رأس 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RʔS 
    “root” 
    ▪ RʔS_1 ‘head’ ↗raʔs
    ▪ RʔS_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘head, top part, uppermost section; first day of the month or the year; leader, chief; a leading horse, a domestic animal’ 
    ▪ RʔS_1 : (Kogan2015 Sw#38:) from protSem *raʔš‑ ‘head’ (SED I #225).
    ▪ RʔS_2 : …
    ▪ RʔS_3 : …
     
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ …. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    raʔs رَأْس 
    ID 305 • Sw 38/68 • BP 215 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RʔS 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2015 (Sw#38): from protSem *raʔš‑ ‘head’ (SED I #225).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘head’) Akk rēšu, Hbr rōš, Syr rēšā, Gz reʔs.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    raʔīs رَئِيس 
    ID 306 • Sw – • BP 47 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RʔS 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    RʔF رأف 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Mar2023
    √RʔF 
    “root” 
    ▪ RʔF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RʔF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RʔF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘mercy, kindness, compassion, to have pity, show kindness, be merciful’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RʔY رأي 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last update 3Jun2023
    √RʔY 
    “root” 
    ▪ RʔY_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ RʔY_2 ‘»Listen to us«’ (Q 2:104, 4:46) ↗rāʕi-nā (arranged s.r. ↗√RʕY, though actually perh. rāʔi-nā)
    ▪ RʔY_3 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to see, to behold, to sight, in full view; spectator; mirror; to show vanity; to cause to see, to make a show before others, to act hypocritically, to demonstrate, to come into view; to conceive, to consider, to deem, an opinion; a dream, a vision, outer appearance’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    raʔà / raʔay‑ رَأَى / رَأَيْـ 
    ID 307 • Sw 57/130 • BP 75 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RʔY 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    RBː (RBB) ربّ / ربب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RBː (RBB) 
    “root” 
    ▪ RBː (RBB)_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ RBː (RBB)_2 ‘rabbi’ ↗rabbānī
    ▪ RBː (RBB)_ ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘master, lord, owner, guardian, to have possessions; to be characteristic of; to pamper, to raise, to educate; a word; an adopted person; animal kept for milk; a woman newly delivered of a baby; to do well; mesh, thickened juice; a group of people; a rabbi, a person learned in divine law; early youth, to approximate’. 
    ▪ [v2] : The words ribbiyyūn and rabbāniyyūn are considered borrowings from Hbr or Syr - Jeffery1938. 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl rabbi, Reb, rebbe, rabbinical: cf. ↗rabb.
    ▪ Engl rebecrabāb
    – 
    rabb رَبّ 
    ID 308 • Sw – • BP 194 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RBː (RBB) 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl rabbi, Reb, rebbe, from Hbr and Aram rabbî ‘my master’, from rab(b) ‘master, chief’, from rab ‘to be(come) much, many, great’ (‑î ‘my’; cf. Ar ↗rab(b)). – Engl rabbinical, prob. from Aram rabbin, pl. of rab(b) ‘master’ (see above). 
     
    rabbānī رَبّانيّ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Jun2023
    √RBː (RBB)
     
    n. 
    rabbi – Jeffery1938
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q iii, 73; v, 48, 68 – Jeffery1938.
     
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »The passages are all late, and the reference is to Jewish teachers, as was recognized by the Commentators. Most of the Muslim authorities take it as an Arabic word, a derivative from rabb (cf. TA, i, 260; Rāġib, Mufradāt, 183; and Zam. on iii, 73). Some, however, knew that it was a foreign word, though they were doubtful whether its origin was Hbr or Syr.270 / As it refers to Jewish teachers we naturally look for a Jewish origin, and Geiger, 51, would derive it from the Rabbinic rabbān, a later form of rabbī used as a title of honour for distinguished teachers,271 , so that there grew up the saying gdwl m-rby rbn ‘greater than Rabbi is Rabbān’. The difficulty in accepting [Ar] rabbānī as a direct derivative from [Hbr] rabbān, however, is the final yāʔ, which as Horovitz, KU, 63, admits, seems to point to a Christian origin. In Jno xx: 16, Mk x: 51, we find the form [grk] rʰabbouneí (ʰo légetai Didáskale), or rʰabbōneí, which seems to be formed from the Targumic ribbôn,272 and it was this form that came to be commonly used in the Christian communities of the East, viz. Syr rabbōnī, Eth [Gz] rabbuni, Arm ṙabbowni.273 . The Syr rabbōnī was very widely used, and as Pautz, Offenbarung, 78, n. 4, notes, rbnā was commonly used for a ‘doctor of learning’, and the dim. rabbōnī was not uncommonly used as a title of reverence for priests and monks, so that we may conclude that the Qurʔānic word, as to its form, is probably of Syr origin.274 «
     
    – 
    – 
    RBḤ ربح 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RBḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ RBḤ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ RBḤ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘growth, gain, to profit, to earn, to win; trade, goods kept for trading; young sheep and camels’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ribḥ رِبْح 
    ID 309 • Sw – • BP 1877 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RBḤ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    RBṢ ربص 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Mar2023
    √RBṢ 
    “root” 
    ▪ RBṢ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RBṢ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RBṢ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to sit in waiting, bide one’s time, be on the look-out; to lurk, waylay, ambush, wait for s.th. to befall s.o., await a chance to act’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RBṬ ربط 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Mar2023
    √RBṬ 
    “root” 
    ▪ RBṬ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RBṬ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RBṬ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to tie, tie up, connect, unite; to station, garrison; to line up, (of an army) take up a position; to conclude an agreement; a band, fetters, shackles; a place where animals, particularly horses, are kept, stables’ 
    ▪ From Ar root √RBṬ ‘to bind, tie’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl marabout1, from Ar murābiṭ ‘posted, stationed; marabout’, PA of rābaṭa ‘to be posted, L-stem of ↗rabaṭa ‘to bind, tie’. 
    – 
    RBʕ ربع 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RBʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ RBʕ_1 ‘four’ ↗ ʔarbaʕ(aẗ); here belong also (ḥummà al-) ↗ribʕ ‘quartan (fever)’, ↗rubʕ ‘fourth part, quarter’ etc., ↗ʔarbaʕūnᵃ ‘forty; Ascension Day’, (yawm) al-ʔarbiʕāʔ or al-ʔarbaʕāʔᵘ ‘Wednesday’, as well as items like tarbīʕ ‘lunar quarter; quadrangle; square, plaza’, tarbīʕaẗ ‘tile, floor tile’, murābiʕ ‘partner in an agricultural enterprise (sharing one quarter of the gains or losses)’
    ▪ RBʕ_2 ‘to gallop (horse), jump high (jerboa)’ ↗ rabaʕa, ‘jerboa’ (a hopping desert rodent) ↗yarbūʕ
    ▪ RBʕ_3 ‘to sit, stay, live; living zone, inhabited area, territory; large group of people, clan’ ↗ rabʕ
    ▪ RBʕ_4 ‘of medium height, medium-sized, well-built (of people)’ ↗rabʕaẗ (also marbūʕ [al-qāmaẗ]); here belongs also the rabbāʕ ‘athlete (boxer, wrestler, weight lifter, etc.)’
    ▪ RBʕ_5 ‘spring, vernal season; Rabia I and II (name of the third and fourth months of the Muslim year’ ↗ rabīʕ

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘four, fourth, to happen each fourth day, foursome; square, quarter; living quarters, neighbourhood; a well-built, medium-height person; spring, to become fertile, spring rains, to be in one’s prime, lushness’ 
    ▪ RBʕ_1 … .
    ▪ RBʕ_2 : For the nominal prefix ya- and the n. pattern ya-yaR₁R₂ūR₃ see ↗yāʔ (#Y_3).
    ▪ RBʕ_3: …
    ▪ RBʕ_4: …
    ▪ RBʕ_5: … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
    – 
    – 
    ʔarbaʕaẗ أَرْبَعة , f. ʔarbaʕ 
    ID … • Sw … • BP 356 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RBʕ 
    num.card. 
    four 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘four’) Akk arbaʔu, Hbr ʔarbaʕ, Syr ʔarbaʕ, Gz ʔarbā́ʕ.
     
    … 
    … 
    … 
    RBW ربو 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RBW 
    “root” 
    ▪ RBW_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ RBW_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘hill, elevated part of the land, to go on the top of a hill; growth, to increase; usury; to be out of breath, to have asthma; to raise, to grow under s.o.’s care, to educate, to cultivate; a group of ten thousand people’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    riban ربا , det. ‑ā 
    ID 311 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RBW 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    tarbiyaẗ تَرْبِيَة 
    ID 310 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 829 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RBW 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ vn., II 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    RTʕ رتع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Mar2023
    √RTʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ RTʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RTʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RTʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to pasture in lush grass, be in fertile land, have plenty to eat and drink, live in great affluence; to lark about in a carefree manner’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RTQ رتق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Mar2023
    √RTQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ RTQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RTQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RTQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘space between any two fingers; a closed up mass, darkness; to mend, join together, repair, patch up; sticking together’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RTL رتل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Mar2023
    √RTL 
    “root” 
    ▪ RTL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RTL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RTL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to have well-formed and neatly spaced teeth; to be symmetrical, be neatly arranged; to enunciate clearly and deliberately; the good of e..v erything’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    *RǦ‑ رجـ* 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 5Apr2023
    √ RǦː (RǦǦ) 
    2-cons. “root nucleus” 
    ▪ The basic meaning of the nucleus seems to be *‘to shake, rock, agitate, convulse, make tremble, etc.’
     
    ▪ In its essence, this value is preserved in ↗RǦː (RǦǦ) ‘to convulse, shake, rock’. Extensions in 3rd radicals include:
    • ↗RǦZ ‘to thunder, roar, surge (sea)’
    • ↗RǦS ‘to act brutally, atrocity’
    • ↗RǦF ‘to agitate, convulse, shake, make tremble’
    • (?) ↗RǦL ‘to hit the ground (?), set free; foot’
    • ↗RǦM ‘to stone’
     
    – 
    – 
    ↗RǦː (RǦǦ), ↗RǦZ, ↗RǦS, ↗RǦF, ↗RǦM, perh. also ↗RǦL. 
    RǦː (RǦǦ) رجّ/رجج 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Mar2023, last updated 5Apr2023
    √ RǦː (RǦǦ) 
    “root” 
    ▪ RǦː (RǦǦ)_1 ‘to convulse, shake, rock’ ↗raǧǧa
    ▪ RǦː (RǦǦ)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RǦː (RǦǦ)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘the dregs of society, the dregs in a drinking trough; to shake, agitate, rouse, (of the sea) become tumultuous, turmoil, commotion, excitement, the sound of thunder’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    raǧǧ‑ / raǧaǧ‑ رَجَّ/رَجَجْـ , u (raǧǧ)
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Apr2023
    √RǦː (RǦǦ) 
    vb., I 
    to convulse, shake, rock; pass. ruǧǧa, to be shaken, tremble, shake, quake – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ … 
    ĭrtaǧǧa, vb. VIII, to be convulsed, shake, tremble, quake: Gt-stem, self-ref.

    raǧǧ, n., shaking, rocking, convulsion: vn. I
    raǧǧaẗ, n.f., 1a convulsion; b shock, concussion: lexicalized n.vic.
    raǧǧāǧ, adj., trembling, quaking, shaking, rocking: ints. formation
    ĭrtiǧāǧ, n., 1a shock, concussion; b trembling, tremor: vn. VIII | ĭrtiǧāǧ al-muḫḫ, n., cerebraI concussion (med.)
     
    RǦʔ رجأ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Mar2023
    √RǦʔ 
    “root” 
    ▪ RǦʔ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RǦʔ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RǦʔ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to postpone, delay, cause to wait’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RǦRǦ رجرج
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 5Apr2023
    √RǦRǦ 
    “root” 
    ▪ RǦRǦ_1 ‘to tremble, quiver; to sway’ ↗raǧraǧa
    ▪ RǦRǦ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RǦRǦ_3 ‘...’ ↗...
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    raǧraǧ‑ رَجْرَجَ , -raǧriǧ‑ (raǧraǧaẗ)
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 5Apr2023
    √RǦRǦ 
    vb., I
     
    1a to tremble, quiver; b to sway – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    taraǧraǧa , vb. II, = I: t-stem, self-refl.
    raǧrāǧ, adj., 1a agitated; b trembling, tremulous; c swaying; d quivering: ints. formation | al-raǧrāǧ, the sea
     
    RǦZ رجز 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Mar2023, last update 5Apr2023
    √RǦZ 
    “root” 
    ▪ RǦZ_1 ‘punishment (inflicted by God)’ ↗¹ruǧz; ‘to thunder, roar, surge (sea)’ ↗²ĭrtaǧaza
    ▪ RǦZ_2 ‘rajaz (a poetical meter)’ ↗raǧaz
    ▪ RǦZ_3 ‘dirt, filth’ (riǧz) ↗riǧs
    ▪ RǦZ_4 أرجوز : popular spelling of ↗q͗araʰ-gūz, i.e., ‘Karagöz’
    ▪ RǦZ_ ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘ballast used to steady a camel’s hawdaj/litter, weakness; plague, filth, abomination, guilt, devil’s insinuation, the worshipping of idols’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ¹ruǧz رُجْز 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Jun2023
    √RǦZ 
    n. 
    ▪ wrath – Jeffery1938
    ▪ punishment (inflicted by God) ... 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q lxxiv, 5 – Jeffery1938.
     
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »The Sura [74] is an early one, and in this passage [74:1ff] the Prophet is urged to magnify his Lord, purify his garments, and flee from the wrath to come – wa’l-ruǧza fa-’hǧur. | It is usual to translate the word as ‘abomination’ or ‘idolatry’ and make it but another form of riǧz, which occurs in ii:56, vii:131, etc. (cf. LA, vii, 219; Rāġib, Mufradāt, 186, and the Commentaries). | There was some feeling of difficulty about the word, however, for Zam[aḫšarī] thought the reading was wrong and wanted to read riǧz, instead of ruǧz, and al-Suyūṭī, Itq, 311, would explain it as the form of riǧz in the dialect of Huḏayl. | It seems probable, however, as Bell, Origin, 88, and Ahrens, Muhammed, 22, have suggested, that the word is the Syr rūgzā ‘wrath’, used of the ‘wrath to come’, e.g. in Matt, iii, 7.275 . (Fischer, Glossar, 43, says Aram rūgzâ.)«
     
    – 
    – 
    raǧaz رَجَز
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 5Apr2023
    √RǦZ 
    n.
     
    name of a poetical meter – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ »The proper meaning of the word is ‘tremor, spasm, convulsion (as may occur in the behind of a camel when it wants to rise)’. It is not clear how this word became a technical term in prosody. The other etymological meaning of raǧaz ‘thunder, rumble, making a noise’, may perhaps be taken into consideration. In that case, there might be an allusion to the iambic, monotonous and pounding rhythm of these poems (cf. ka-mā samiʕta raǧaza ’l-ṣawāʕiq, ʔAbū Nuwās, ed. E. Wagner, ii: 299; for the etymology, see also T. Fahd, La divination arabe, Leiden 1966: 153-8)« – M. Ullmann / W. Heinrich, art. »Radjaz«, in EI²
    – 
    ĭrtaǧaza, vb. VIII, 1 to compose or declaim poems in the meter raǧaz; 2ruǧz: Gt-stem, self-ref.

    ʔarǧāz, 1 verses in the meter raǧaz; 2 little (work) song
    ʔurǧūzaẗ, pl. ʔarāǧīzᵘ, n.f., poem in the meter raǧaz
     
    RǦS رجس 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Mar2023, last updated 5Apr2023
    √RǦS 
    “root” 
    ▪ RǦS_1 ‘dirt, filth; dirty act, atrocity’ ↗riǧs
    ▪ RǦS_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RǦS_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘dirt, filth, punishment, abomination, misbehaviour, doubt; the roar of camels, thunder, to gauge the level of water in a well’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    riǧs رِجْس , pl. ʔarǧās
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 5Apr2023
    √RǦS 
    n.
     
    1 dirt, filth; 2 dirty thing or act, atrocity – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    raǧisa, a (raǧas) and raǧusa, u (raǧāsaẗ), vb. I, 1 to be dirty, filthy; 2 to commit a shameful act, do s.th. disgraceful or dirty: G-stem, denom.(?)
    raǧas, pl. ʔarǧās, n., dirt, filth
    raǧis, adj., dirty, filthy
    raǧāsaẗ, n.f., dirt, squalor: vn. I
    raǧǧās, adj., 1 roaring, surging (sea); 2 thundering: ints. formation
     
    RǦʕ رجع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Mar2023
    √RǦʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ RǦʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RǦʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RǦʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to return, turn back, recur, revert; to take back, claim back; to back down, reply, give back, resume an activity; to become emaciated’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RǦF رجف 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Mar2023, last updated 5Apr2023
    √RǦF 
    “root” 
    ▪ RǦF_1 ‘to be convulsed, shaken; to tremble, quake, shiver, shudder; to agitate, convulse, shake’ ↗raǧafa
    ▪ RǦF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RǦF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to quake, earthquake, tremor, to tremble, agitate, shiver, shudder; to spread lies, spread false rumours; to thunder, prepare for war’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    raǧaf‑ رَجَفَ , u (raǧf, raǧafān)
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 5Apr2023
    √RǦF 
    vb., I
     
    1a to be convulsed, be shaken; b to tremble, quake; c to shiver, shudder; – 2 to agitate, convulse, shake – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ʔarǧafa, vb. IV, 1a to make (s.o.) tremble or shudder; b to convulse, shake, rock; 2 to spread lies, false rumors; also with bi‑, e.g., ʔarǧafa bi-’ftirāʔāt, to spread calumnies: *Š-stem, caus.
    ĭrtaǧafa, vb. VIII, 1a to tremble, quake; b to shudder: Gt-stem, self-ref.

    raǧfaẗ, n.f., 1a trepidation, tremor; b shudder, shiver: n.vic.
    raǧǧāf, adj., 1a trembling, quaking; b shaken, convulsed: ints. formation
    ʔirǧāf, pl. ʔarāǧīfᵘ, n., untrue, disquieting talk, false rumor: lexicalized vn. IV 
    RǦL رجل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 5Apr2023
    √RǦL 
    “root” 
    ▪ RǦL_1 ‘foot’ ↗¹riǧl
    ▪ RǦL_2 ‘swarm (esp. of locusts)’ ↗²riǧl
    ▪ RǦL_3 ‘common purslane (Portulaca oleracea L.; bot.)’ ↗³riǧl
    ▪ RǦL_4 ‘man’ ↗raǧul, ‘masculinity, virility, manhood’ ↗ruǧūlaẗ
    ▪ RǦL_5 ‘to comb (hair)’ ↗raǧǧala
    ▪ RǦL_6 ‘to improvise, extemporise’ ↗ĭrtaǧala
    ▪ RǦL_7 ‘cooking kettle, caldron; boiler’ ↗mirǧal

    Other values, now obsolete, include (Hava1899):

    RǦL_8 ‘set free with its mother (suckling)’: raǧil~raǧal; cf. also ʔarǧala ‘to let (a young one) free with his mother; (fig.) to grant a respite to s.o.’
    RǦL_9 ‘somewhat curly (hair)’: raǧil~raǧl~raǧal
    RǦL_10 ‘variegated (garment)’: muraǧǧal
    RǦL_11 ‘hard ground’: raǧlà~raǧlāʔᵘ
    RǦL_12 ‘blank paper; misfortune; precedence; time’: riǧl
    RǦL_ ‘...’: ...
    ▪ For several names of plants and stars, cf. [v1] ↗¹riǧl ‘foot’ and [v3] ↗³riǧl ‘purslane’

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘man, manhood, masculinity; foot, leg, to go on foot, dismount; to comb one’s hair; to improvise, talk or give an improvised speech; rocky land difficult to walk upon; (of locusts) to swarm; poverty, lazy person’. 
    ▪ [gnrl] : There is hardly any value in this root that does not seem to be ultimately based on [v1] ‘foot’, though exact details remain unclear in many cases. The hypothesis of ‘foot’ as the overall etymon is corroborated by the fact that no other value but [v1] ‘foot’ has cognates in Sem and the broad spectrum of other meanings covered by √RǦL apparently is an Ar idiosyncrasy.
    ▪ [v1] : As Kogan2011 #6.3.2 observes, »[t]here is no single protSem term for ‘foot’. [… cf. Ar ↗faʕama ‘to have fat hips; to be fat (arms)’]. Reflexes of *rigl- ‘foot’ are attested throughout CSem (Hbr, Syr, Ar, Sab […; see] SED I No. 228) except Ug and Phoen […]. There is no consensus about whether Gz ʔəgr and related EthSem terms (SED I #7) are connected with *rigl- (similar forms in Ar dialects, such as DaṯAr ʔižr, SyrAr ʔəžər, make the picture especially complicated. […].« – V. Christian thought √RǦL was an extension in -L from the 2-cons. root nucleus *RǦ , reflected in Ar ↗raǧǧa ʻ(to rustle, shake, rock >) be convulsed, tremble, quake, sway, be excited, be distressed; to move, (move away >) deter’, reduplicated in raǧraǧa ‘to be moved, tremble, quiver, sway, be faint’. According to the author, the basic value of RǦL, assumed to be *‘to shake > to hit’, also produced ¹riǧl ʻ(to hit > kick >) foot’ and raǧlaẗ ʻfirm step’, whereas [v4] raǧul ʻman’ probably was *‘strong one < who beats < who makes tremble\shake’.57
    ▪ [v2] : ‘Swarm (esp. of locusts)’ is prob. based on, or akin to, [v8] ‘to let/set free’, and is thus *‘(s.th., animal, etc.) set free and now spreading freely, uncontrollably’, cf. also below, values [v3], [v5], [v6], [v9], and [v10].
    ▪ [v3] : The use of riǧl for ‘common purslane’ seems to be motivated by the plant’s similarity with ‘curly hair’, which would make [v3] ³riǧl dependent on [v9] raǧil~raǧl~raǧal ‘curly (hair)’ and, via the latter, on [v8] *‘to be set free and spread uncontrollably’, cf. also [v2] ²riǧl ‘swarm (esp. of locusts)’.
    ▪ [v4] : ‘Man’ and derivatives (‘to behave like a man, masculinity, virility, manhood, etc.’) are prob. from ‘pedestrian’ (in Syr also ‘foot-soldier’), cf. the EgAr form rāgil which looks very much like a PA I, ‘going by foot’. But it could also be based on riǧlaẗ~ruǧlaẗ ‘vigour in walking’. See also V. Christian’s view, sketched above sub [v1].
    ▪ [v5] : raǧǧala ‘to comb (hair)’ is a D-stem with (prob.) the original caus. meaning of *‘to let (hair) fall down freely’, thus derived from [v8], cf. also values [v2], [v3], [v6], [v9], and [v10].
    ▪ [v6] : The notion of ‘improvisation, extemporisation’, associated with the Gt-stem ĭrtaǧala, is most likely a development from [v8] *‘to let/set free to spread/unfold spontaneously, uncontrolled’, itself prob. derived from [v1] ‘foot’; cf. also [v2], [v3], [v5], [v9], [v10]. Derivation from [v4] ‘man’ – improvisation as proof of ‘manliness, manly virtue’ – looks less likely, though perh. not impossible, cf. DaṯAr (Dt-stem) taraǧǧal »‘marchander’, […] et en cela faire preuve de raǧālaẗ ou m?rǧalaẗ [< raǧul]« Landberg1923 (s.v. raqam) – in the extemporisation of verses, the ideas of *‘letting free’ and *‘manly virtue’ may overlap like in bargaining for a good price.
    ▪ [v7] : Etymology obscure. The idea that ‘cooking kettle, caldron; boiler’ could be from [v1] ‘foot’ (as *‘kettle with “feet”’) is rejected by some sources. If not *‘kettle with feet’, is mirǧal then a *‘kettle put/set down on (some kind of) feet (e.g., stones)’? (Cf. ʔarǧala ‘to set down, discharge’, denom. vb. IV, from ¹riǧl ‘foot’). In principle, the miFʕaL pattern is used to form a n.instr., but this does not seem very meaningful for any of the other values that one may imagine as possible bases.
    [v8] : The value ‘set free with its mother’ (said of a suckling) is with all likelihood based on [v1] ‘foot’, from *‘newly born, managing/strong enough to stand on its own feet and to run around and/or to drink from her teats’. Apparently, the freedom and lack of control granted to a suckling or a foal was the model on which further ideas were developed, esp. ʔarǧala ‘to let free; (fig.) to grant a respite to s.o.’, as well values [v2], [v3], [v5], and [v6], discussed above, in addition to [v9] and [v10], below.
    [v9] : The fact that the same words (raǧil~raǧl~raǧal) are used in ClassAr to express both ‘somewhat curly (hair) and ‘set free’ makes it rather likely that [v9] represents some kind of fig. use of [v8], so that the original meaning of ‘curly hair’ would be *‘hair “set free”, hair that grows without control, like a young foal running/hopping freely around’; for related values see [v2], [v3], [v5], [v6], and [v10].
    [v10] : The term muraǧǧal for ‘variegated’ (said of a garment) is prob. extended use of muraǧǧal in the sense of ‘leaving traces of wings on the sand (locusts)’, a PP II which is evidently derived from [v2] ‘swarm (esp. of locusts)’, as such akin to [v3], [v5], [v6], [v8], and [v9].
    [v11] : The value ‘hard ground’ is mentioned also by BAH2008 as one of the chief values attached to √RǦL in ClassAr. The corresponding item, raǧlà~raǧlāʔᵘ is the f. of the elative ʔarǧalᵘ, meaning ‘white-spotted on one foot; large-footed’ (evidently from [v1] ‘foot’). It thus seems that ‘hard ground’ is somehow based on ‘foot’, though it seems difficult to find the tertium comparationis that would connect the two.
    [v12] : In ClassAr, the term riǧl appears not only with the values ‘foot’ (↗¹riǧl = [v1]), ‘swarm (esp. of locusts)’ (↗²riǧl = [v2]) and ‘common purslane (↗³riǧl’ = [v3]’), but also with still other values, as diverse as ‘blank paper; misfortune; precedence; riǧl time’). We may assume that these are somehow based on [v1], [v2], or [v3], but it is complete unclear how exactly one can get from the latter to the former.
     
    – 
    ▪ [v1] Kogan2015 175-6 #3: Ug ri-i[g]-lu, Hbr rägäl, Syr reglā, Ar riǧl, Sab rgl, Min rgl ‘foot’
    ▪ [v4] : According to Zammit2002, Ar raǧul ‘man’ has no cognates in Sem. But cf., perh. Syr ragālā, ragālāṯā ‘foot-soldier’.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ [gnrl] : See above, section CONC. In a more systematic manner, the spectrum of semantic values that seem to have developed from the basic ‘foot’, may perh. be sketched as follows:
    0 – ¹riǧl ‘foot; (esp.) hind-leg of beasts\quadrupeds; (meton.) part, portion’. – Several natural phenomena are named ‘foot of...’, due to their resemblance with a foot:
    0.1 riǧl al-baḥr ‘sea-gulf’
    0.2 stars in Orio: riǧl al-ǧabbār, riǧl al-ǧawzāʔ al-yusrà ‘Rigel, fixed star in the left foot of Orio’, riǧl al-ǧawzāʔ al-yusrà ‘star in the right foot of Orio’
    0.3 Several plants, too, may owe their name to a resemblance with *‘feet’: riǧl al-ʔasad ‘filago, lion’s foot; riǧl al-baqaraẗ ‘arum, friar’s cowl; riǧl al-ǧarād ‘atriplex, oroche; riǧl al-ḥamāmaẗ ‘anchusa, pigeon’s foot; riǧl al-daǧāǧaẗ ‘chamemelum, hen’s foot; riǧl al-ʔarnab ‘layopus, hare’s foot; riǧl al-zāġ, riǧl al-ġurāb ‘lotus ornithopodus, bird’s foot, trefoil; riǧl al-ʕuṣfūr ‘ornithopodus, bird’s foot; riǧl al-qiṭṭ ‘glechoma, ground-ivy; riǧl al-qaʕq, riǧl al-zurzūr, riǧl al-ʕiqāb ‘coronopus, crow’s foot; riǧl al-wazz ‘podophyllum, duck’s foot (dangerous plant); riǧl al-yamāmaẗ ‘delphinium, lark’s spur’. However, cf. also below on derivations from raǧil, raǧl ‘curly’.
    Immediately from ‘foot’ are three ideas, the third of which has sparked a larger sub-field in its own right:
    1 – raǧila (a, raǧal) ‘to have a white-spotted foot (horse)’, ʔarǧalᵘ (f. raǧlāʔᵘ, raǧlà, pl. ruǧl) ‘white-spotted on one foot; large-footed’, tarǧīl ‘white spot on a horse's foot’
    2 – raǧala (u, raǧl) ‘to tie s.o. by the feet’, ĭrtaǧala ‘to tie (a beast) by the foot; to seize s.o.’s foot’
    3 – raǧila (a, raǧal) ‘to go foot’, raǧl ‘walking on foot’, riǧlaẗ, ruǧlaẗ ‘pedestrianism’, raǧil, rāǧil (pl. raǧl, raǧǧālaẗ, ruǧǧāl, riǧāl, ruǧlān) ‘pedestrian, on foot’, raglān (pl. ruǧālà, raǧālà, raǧlà) ‘foot-passenger’, raǧīl (pl. ʔarǧilaẗ, ʔarāǧilᵘ, ʔarāǧīlᵘ) ‘foot-passenger, pedestrian’, (pl. raǧlà, ruǧālà, raǧālà) ‘good walker, tramp’ > al-ʔarāǧīl (pl.) ‘hunters’; ĭrtaǧala ‘to go at a middling pace (horse)’
    3.1 riǧlaẗ, ruǧlaẗ ‘vigour in walking’
    3.1.1 raǧl, raǧul ‘man; perfect; vigorous; husband’ > raǧulaẗ ‘manlike woman, virago’, ruǧlaẗ, ruǧliyyaẗ, raǧūliyyaẗ ‘manliness’, taraǧǧala ‘to be manlike (woman); to go down (a well) without rope’. – The identification, in EgAr rāgil, of PA I ‘pedestrian’ with ‘man’ may be influenced by Syr ragālā, ragālāṯā ‘foot-soldier’.
    3.2 taraǧǧala ‘to alight (rider); (fig.) to be advanced (day)’. – Cf. Syr etraggal ‘to come\go on foot, dismount, step forward’?
    3.3 ʔarǧala ‘to let s.o. go on foot; to let (a young one) free with his mother; (fig.) to grant a respite to s.o.’; raǧila, a (raǧal) ‘to be set free with his mother (young beast)’; raǧala (u, raǧl) ‘to let (a female) suckle her young; to suck (his mother: young)’, raǧil, raǧal ‘set free with his mother (suckling)’
    3.3.1 raǧil, raǧl ‘somewhat curly (hair)’, raǧal (pl. ʔarǧāl, raǧālà) ‘having curly hair’, raǧila (a, raǧal) ‘to be curly (hair)’
    3.3.1.1 raǧǧala ‘to comb (the hair); to comfort s.o.’, mirǧal ‘comb’, muraǧǧal ‘combed; hence also: variegated (garment)’
    3.3.1.2 perh. from *‘curly’ also the names of some plants: riǧl, riǧlaẗ ‘garden purslane’, tarāǧīl ‘smallage (herb)’.
    3.3.2 ²riǧl ‘swarm of locusts; hence also: large troop of beasts; and also: army’, muraǧǧal ‘leaving traces of wings on the sand (locusts)’
    3.3.3 ĭrtaǧala ‘to extemporise (speech)’
    ?4 – mirǧal ‘copper caldron’ > ĭrtaǧala ‘to cook s.th. in a kettle’
    ?5 – ²riǧl ‘blank paper; misfortune; precedence; time’
    ?6 – raǧlà, raǧlāʔᵘ ‘hard ground’
    ▪ [v1] Kogan2015 175-6 #3: »The origin of protCSem *rigl ‘foot’ is uncertain; no directly comparable roots or forms are attested in either Akk, or EthSem,276 or modSAr. One may suspect that *rigl- was the protCSem alternative to a more ancient general designation of ‘foot’, viz. *paʕm- (perhaps the main protSem term with this meaning in view of its basic status in Ug, Phoen and some of modSAr ...). The spread of this replacement was uneven. In Aram and Ar, *paʕm- was completely (or almost completely) ousted by *rigl-,277 whereas in Hbr the presence of *paʕm- ‘foot’ is rather marginal (purely anatomic attestations listed in HALOT 952 scarcely exceed half a dozen).278 Conversely, in Ug and Phoen *paʕm- fully preserves its basic status (Ug pʕn, Phoen pʕm), whereas *rigl- is hardly attested at all.279 «
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ [v1] (Huehnergard2011:) Engl (etc.) Rigel, a fixed star in Orio, from Ar ↗riǧl ‘foot’
     
    – 
    raǧǧal‑ رَجَّلَ , ‑raǧǧil‑ (tarǧīl)
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 5Apr2023
    √RǦL 
    vb., II
     
    1 to comb (the hair); 2 to let down (the hair), let it hang long – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ Among the two values in the MSA D-stem raǧǧala, [v1] ‘to comb (hair)’ is prob. secondary, based on [v2] with the original caus. meaning of *‘to let (hair) fall down freely’. The latter meaning seems in its turn to be derived from ↗RǦL_8 ‘set free with its mother’ (said of a suckling), which with all likelihood is based on ↗¹riǧl ‘foot’. The chain of semantic development can thus be imagined as follows: *‘foot > newly born (foal, etc.), managing/strong enough to stand on its own feet and run around freely, uncontrolled > to “release” the hair, let it fall down freely’. The value ‘to comb’ is a further development, as curly hair often needs to be treated with a comb in order to hang down freely. See also ↗RǦL_9 raǧil~raǧl~raǧal ‘somewhat curly (hair)’.
    ▪ The underlying idea of *‘set free, spreading freely, spontaneously, etc.’ can be found also in other items from the same root, such as ↗²riǧl ‘swarm (esp. of locusts)’, ↗³riǧl ‘common purslane’ (< *‘spreading freely’), ↗ĭrtaǧala ‘to improvise, extemporize’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Hava1899:) raǧil, raǧl ‘somewhat curly (hair)’, raǧal (pl. ʔarǧāl, raǧālà) ‘having curly hair’, raǧila (a, raǧal) ‘to be curly (hair)’; raǧǧala ‘to comb (the hair); to comfort s.o.’, mirǧal ‘comb’, muraǧǧal ‘combed; hence also: variegated (garment)’
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ No immediate cognates in Sem or outside, but ultimately based on ↗¹riǧl.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ ...
     
    – 

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹riǧl, ↗²riǧl, ↗³riǧl, ↗raǧul (with ↗ruǧūlaẗ), ↗ĭrtaǧala, and ↗mirǧal, as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√RǦL. 
    ĭrtaǧal‑ اِرْتَجَلَ , ‑rtaǧil‑ (ĭrtiǧāl)
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Apr2023
    √RǦL 
    vb., VIII
     
    to improvise, extemporize, deliver offhand (a speech) – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ Like many other items in the root, the Gt-stem ĭrtaǧala is, with all likelihood, a development from ↗RǦL_8 ‘to let/set free, (suckling) set free with its mother’, itself prob. based on ↗¹riǧl ‘foot’. The chain of semantic extension may be imagined as follows: *‘foot > newly born (foal etc.), managing/strong enough to stand on its own feet and to run around freely > (fig.) to let words or a melody come out freely, spontaneously’.
    ▪ With this underlying idea, ĭrtaǧala is akin to ↗²riǧl ‘swarm (esp. of locusts)’, ↗³riǧl ‘common purslane’ (< *‘≈ curly hair, spreading freely/uncontrollably’), ↗raǧǧala ‘to let (hair) fall down freely (> to comb)’.
    ▪ Derivation from ↗raǧul ‘man’ – improvisation as proof of ‘manliness, manly virtue’ – looks less likely, though perh. not impossible, cf. DaṯAr (Dt-stem) taraǧǧal »‘marchander’, […] et en cela faire preuve de raǧālaẗ ou m?rǧalaẗ [< raǧul]« (Landberg1923, s.v. raqam) – in the extemporisation of verses, the ideas of *‘letting free’ and *‘manly virtue’ may overlap like in bargaining for a good price.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ No immediate cognates in Sem or outside, but ultimately based on ↗¹riǧl; cf. perh. also ↗raǧul.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ ...
     
    – 
    ĭrtiǧāl, n., improvisation, extemporization, extemporary speech: vn. VIII
    ĭrtiǧālī, adj., extemporary, improvised, impromptu, offhand, unprepared: nsb-formation, from vn. VIII
    murtaǧal, adj., improvised, extemporaneous, extemporary, impromptu, offhand: PP VIII

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹riǧl, ↗²riǧl, ↗³riǧl, ↗raǧul (with ↗ruǧūlaẗ), ↗raǧǧala, and ↗mirǧal, as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√RǦL. 
    ¹riǧl رِجْل , pl. ʔarǧul
     
    ID 314 • Sw 46/56 • BP 4356 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 3Apr2023
    √RǦL 
    n.f. 
    1a foot; b leg; 2 ↗²riǧl; 3 ↗³riǧl – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ As Kogan2011 #6.3.2 observes, »[t]here is no single protSem term for ‘foot’. [… cf. Ar ↗faʕama ‘to have fat hips; to be fat (arms)’]. Reflexes of *rigl- ‘foot’ are attested throughout CSem (Hbr, Syr, Ar, Sab […; see] SED I No. 228) except Ug and Phoen […]. There is no consensus about whether Gz ʔəgr and related EthSem terms (SED I #7) are connected with *rigl- (similar forms in Ar dialects, such as DaṯAr ʔižr, SyrAr ʔəžər, make the picture especially complicated. […]«
    ▪ V. Christian thought √RǦL was an extension in -L from the 2-cons. root nucleus ↗*RǦ-, reflected in Ar ↗raǧǧa ʻ(to rustle, shake, rock >) be convulsed, tremble, quake, sway, be excited, be distressed; to move, (move away >) deter’, reduplicated in raǧraǧa ‘to be moved, tremble, quiver, sway, be faint’. According to the author, the basic value of √RǦL, assumed to be *‘to shake > to hit’, also produced ¹riǧl ʻ(to hit > kick >) foot’ and raǧlaẗ ʻfirm step’; cf. also ↗raǧul ʻman’ (*‘strong one < who beats < who makes tremble\shake’).58
    ▪ There is hardly any value in the root ↗RǦL that does not seem to be ultimately based on ¹riǧl ‘foot’, though exact details remain unclear in many cases. The hypothesis of ‘foot’ as the overall etymon is corroborated by the fact that hardly any other value but ‘foot’ has cognates in Sem and the broad spectrum of other meanings covered by the root RǦL is, apparently, an Ar idiosyncrasy. For an overview of the ‘foot’-related semantic field, cf. section DISC in root entry ↗√RǦL. Among the many “feet” are the names of several stars (Rigel, in Orio) and plants (“foot of…”). The most productive secondary values derived from ‘foot’ seem to have been: (1) ‘to go on foot, walk’ (> ‘pedestrian’ > ‘foot-soldier’ > ‘man’), (2) ‘to alight (rider) (< *to stand on one’s feet)’, and (3) ‘to let go on foot, let (a young one) free with his mother’ > ‘to spread freely, uncontrollably’ (… > 3.1 ‘curly hair’ > 3.1.1 ‘to comb’ > ‘to comfort’; 3.1.2 ‘garden purslane’; … > 3.2 ‘swarm’ > ‘troop of beasts’ > ‘army’; … > 3.3 ‘to improvise, extemporise’).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ Kogan2015 175-6 #3: Ug ri-i[g]-lu, Hbr rägäl, Syr reglā, Ar riǧl, Sab rgl, Min rgl ‘foot’
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ Kogan2015 175-6 #3: »The origin of protCSem *rigl- ‘foot’ is uncertain; no directly comparable roots or forms are attested in either Akk, or EthSem,280 or modSAr. One may suspect that *rigl- was the protCSem alternative to a more ancient general designation of ‘foot’, viz. *paʕm- (perhaps the main protSem term with this meaning in view of its basic status in Ug, Phoen and some of modSAr ...). The spread of this replacement was uneven. In Aram and Ar, *paʕm- was completely (or almost completely) ousted by *rigl-,281 whereas in Hbr the presence of *paʕm- ‘foot’ is rather marginal (purely anatomic attestations listed in HALOT 952 scarcely exceed half a dozen).282 Conversely, in Ug and Phoen *paʕm- fully preserves its basic status (Ug pʕn, Phoen pʕm), whereas *rigl- is hardly attested at all.283 «
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Rigel, from Ar riǧl ‘foot’. 
    raǧila, a, vb. I, to go on foot, walk
    taraǧǧala, vb. V, 1 = I | taraǧǧala fī ṭarīqi-h, to walk all the way; 2 to dismount (min or ʕan from; rider); 3raǧul : tD-stem, denom.
    raǧil, adj., going on foot, pedestrian, walking
    ¹rāǧil, pl. raǧl, raǧǧālaẗ, ruǧǧāl, ruǧlān, adj., 1a going on foot, walking; b pedestrian: PP I

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗²riǧl, ↗³riǧl, ↗raǧul (with ↗ruǧūlaẗ), ↗raǧǧala, ↗ĭrtaǧala, and ↗mirǧal, as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√RǦL. 
    ²riǧl رِجْل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Apr2023
    √RǦL 
    n. 
    1 ↗¹riǧl; 2 pl. ʔarǧāl, n., swarm (esp. of locusts); 3 ↗³riǧl – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ The value ‘swarm (esp. of locusts)’ of the word riǧl (which also can mean ‘foot’ and ‘common purslane’, see ↗¹riǧl; and ↗³riǧl) is prob. based on, or akin to, ↗RǦL_8 ‘to let/set free’, and is thus *‘(s.th., animal, etc.) set free and now spreading freely, uncontrollably’, prob. based, ultimately, on ↗¹riǧl.
    ▪ With this underlying idea, ²riǧl ‘swarm (esp. of locusts)’ is akin to ↗³riǧl ‘common purslane’ (< *‘≈ curly hair, spreading freely/uncontrollably’), ↗raǧǧala ‘to let (hair) fall down freely (> to comb)’, as well as ↗ĭrtaǧala ‘to improvise, extemporize’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ No immediate cognates in Sem or outside, but prob. ultimately based on ↗¹riǧl.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ ...
     
    – 

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹riǧl, ↗³riǧl, ↗raǧul (with ↗ruǧūlaẗ), ↗raǧǧala, ↗ĭrtaǧala, and ↗mirǧal, as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√RǦL. 
    ³riǧl رِجْل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Apr2023
    √RǦL 
    n. 
    1 ↗¹riǧl; 2 ↗²riǧl; 3 n., common purslane (Portulaca oleracea L.; bot.) (EgAr riglaẗ) – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ The value ‘common purslane’ of the word riǧl (which otherwise can mean ‘foot’ and ‘swarm, esp. of locusts’, see ↗¹riǧl and ↗²riǧl) is prob. due to the plant’s resemblance with ‘curly (hair)’ (↗RǦL_9), which in its turn seems to have developed from ↗RǦL_8 *‘to be set free and run around uncontrollably (suckling, foal)’, ultimately from ↗¹riǧl ‘foot’.
    ▪ With this underlying idea, ³riǧl ‘common purslane’ is akin to ↗²riǧl ‘swarm (esp. of locusts)’, ↗raǧǧala ‘to let (hair) fall down freely (> to comb > to comfort)’, as well as ↗ĭrtaǧala ‘to improvise, extemporize’ and other, now extinct values.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ No immediate cognates in Sem or outside, but ultimately based on ↗¹riǧl.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ ...
     
    – 

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹riǧl, ↗²riǧl, ↗raǧul (with ↗ruǧūlaẗ), ↗raǧǧala, ↗ĭrtaǧala, and ↗mirǧal, as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√RǦL. 
    raǧul رَجُل , pl. riǧāl, riǧālāt
     
    ID 313 • Sw 17/94 • BP 92 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 3Apr2023
    √RǦL 
    n. 
    man – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ ‘Man’ and derivatives (‘to behave like a man, masculinity, virility, manhood, etc.’) are prob. from ‘pedestrian’ (in Syr also ‘foot-soldier’), thus ultimately from ↗¹riǧl ‘foot’ (so also Kogan2011). – Cf. also the EgAr form rāgil which looks very much like a PA I, meaning *‘going on foot’ (and the EgAr pl. riggālaẗ ‘men’ sounds very similar to the Syr sg. ragālā ‘foot-soldier’). But it could also be based on riǧlaẗ~ruǧlaẗ ‘vigour in walking’.
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    ▪ According to Zammit2002, Ar raǧul ‘man’ has no cognates in Sem. But cf., perh. Syr ragālā, ragālāṯā ‘foot-soldier’.
    ▪ Ultimately prob. based on ↗¹riǧl.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ ...
     
    – 
    riǧālāt, n.pl., great, important men, leading personalities, men of distinction;
    riǧāl al-dawlaẗ, n.pl., statesmen;
    riǧāl al-sanad, n.pl., informants, sources of information

    taraǧǧala, vb. V, 1-2riǧl; 3 to assume masculine manners, behave like a man: tD-stem, denom.
    ĭstarǧala, vb. X, 1a to become a man, reach the age of manhood, grow up; b to act like a man, display masculine manners or qualities: *Št-stem, denom., desider.

    riǧālī, adj., men’s, for men (e.g., apparel): nsb-formation, based on pl. of raǧul
    BP#4771ruǧūlaẗ, n.f., masculinity, virility, manhood: abstr. formation on pattern FuʕūLaẗ
    ruǧūliyyaẗ, n.f., masculinity, virility, manhood: : abstr. formation in ‑iyyaẗ, based on preceding
    EgAr BP#4471 ²rāgil, pl. riggālaẗ, n., man

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹riǧl, ↗²riǧl, ↗³riǧl, ↗raǧǧala, ↗ĭrtaǧala, and ↗mirǧal, as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√RǦL. 
    mirǧal مِرْجَل , pl. marāǧilᵘ
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Apr2023
    √RǦL 
    n.
     
    1a cooking kettle, caldron; b boiler – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ The etymology of mirǧal ‘cooking kettle, caldron; boiler’ is somewhat obscure. The idea that it could be from ↗¹riǧl ‘foot’ (as *‘kettle with “feet”’) is rejected by some scholars. If not *‘kettle with feet’, is mirǧal then perh. a *‘kettle placed on (some kind of) “feet” (e.g., stones)’? (Cf. ʔarǧala ‘to set down, discharge’, denom. vb. IV, from ¹riǧl ‘foot’.) – In principle, the miFʕaL pattern is used to form nomina instrumenti, but this does not seem very meaningful for any of the values else associated with ↗√RǦL and, theoretically, candidates that could serve as bases of derivation. – I (S.G.) still think mirǧal is from ¹riǧl ‘foot’, perh. *‘instrument (kettle) that stands on its own “feet”’, like a foal\suckling that has become strong enough to stand on its own feet to get sucked by its mother (see ↗RǦL_8). Alternatively, it may be the *‘instrument that sets free (clouds of) steam etc.’, similar to ↗²riǧl ‘swarms\clouds (esp. of locusts)’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ ?
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    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ ...
     
    – 

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹riǧl, ↗²riǧl, ↗³riǧl, ↗raǧul (with ↗ruǧūlaẗ), ↗raǧǧala, ↗ĭrtaǧala, as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√RǦL. 
    RǦM رجم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RǦM 
    “root” 
    ▪ RǦM_1 ‘to curse; to stone; heap of stones’ ↗raǧama
    ▪ RǦM_2 ‘dragoman, to interpret’ ↗turǧumān (and ↗raǧama)
    ▪ RǦM_3 ‘shooting stars, meteorites’ ↗ruǧum (and ↗raǧama)
    ▪ RǦM_4 ‘diet’ ↗riǧīm

    Other values, now obsolete, include:
    • RǦM_5 ‘cross-beams of a pulley’ : riǧāmān (du. – Hava1899)
    • RǦM_6 ‘strong; battering (horse); sling’ : mirǧam (Hava1899)
    ▪ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘1 stones, to stone, kill by stoning, heap up stones (on a grave), heap abuse (on); 2 to curse, drive out, expel; 3 to doubt, conjecture; 4 boycotting; 5 shooting stars; 6 to gauge the level of water in a well’ 
    ▪ The situation within the Sem root RGM is summarized by Kogan2015:218#28 as follows: »Hbr rgm, Syr rgm, Ar rǧm < protCSem *RGM ‘to stone’. ⇒ [This meaning] represents an extension of the more original [Sem] ‘to speak (emphatically), to curse’,59 represented by Akk ragāmu ‘to call; to prophesy; to summon; to lodge a claim, sue’, Ug rgm ‘to say, tell, announce’, Ar rǧm ‘to revile, utter evil speech’, (III) ‘to plead in defense of someone’, Gz ragama ‘to curse, insult’, Jib s̃érégəm ‘to blame one another with harsh words’. Within this approach, Soq rígɛm ‘être lapidé’ can be plausibly explained as an Arabism. / The diachronic background of *rgm in modSAr remains problematic. Throughout modSAr, the basic meaning of this root is ‘to cover, protect’: Mhr rəgūm ‘to cover (usually food to keep the flies off it)’, Jib ɛrgúm ‘to cover, put a lid on’, Soq régom ‘couvrir, protéger’. As such, this meaning can hardly have anything to do with stoning, and it seems wise, therefore, to keep apart Soq rígɛm ‘to be stoned’ and régom ‘to cover, protect’ as different (homonymous) roots […]. At the same time, it is noteworthy that one of the prominent applications of rgm in Jib is connected with covering a dead body with stones: erógəm ‘to cover (a dead body, with stones and soil)’, rɔ́tgəm ‘(corpse) to be buried’, s̃ergím ‘to be covered, buried alive (as, e.g., a witch)’, rəgmún ‘stoned, covered by stones; covered by stones and soil (in the grave)’. The same semantic nuance is attested in Ar: raǧam ‘stones that are placed upon a grave’, rǧm (II) ‘to place a stone on one’s grave’. These facts may prompt one to abandon the traditional semantic explanation […], disconnecting the meaning ‘to stone’ from ‘to blame, curse’ and deriving it instead from ‘to cover (with stones).’60 It is more likely, however, that the meaning ‘to cover with stones’ in Ar represents a secondary development from ‘to stone (as punishment)’, which, in its turn, influenced Jib rgm ‘to cover’, originally unconnected to the present root.«
    ▪ RǦM_1-3 seem to be etymologically related. As suggest by Leslau and substantiated by Kogan2015, the development within the Sem root seems to have been: Sem *RGM ‘to speak, say, shout’ > ‘to speak against, bring legal action against’ > ‘to abuse, curse’ > ‘to cast stones [while cursing]’ > ‘stone, tombstone; meteorites’; for ‘to interpret ’ see DISC below). – Cf., however, the fact that »[t]he lapidation and heaps of stones [as part of the ḥaǧǧ rituals] at Minā are called ǧamraẗ [↗√ǦMR, not √RǦM, i.e., with metathesis], [… traditionally derived from ǧamarāt al-ʕArab ‘groups of Bedouin tribes’, allegedly close to Ar ↗ǧamma and ↗ǧamaʕa ‘to reunite’]« – art. »radjm« (M. Gaudefroy-Demombynes / T. Fahd), in EI².
    ▪ In contrast, RǦM_4 is a borrowing from Fr régime ‘diet’.
    ▪ Value RǦM_5 ‘the two cross-beams of a pulley’, attested in ClassAr riǧāmān, seems to be an extension of riǧām ‘stone for cleansing a well; stone-work around a well’ (Hava1899), which clearly belongs to the ‘heap of stones’ of RǦM_1.
    ▪ Value RǦM_6 ‘strong; battering (horse); sling’, attested in ClassAr mirǧam (Hava1899), has with all probability to be seen in connection with the ‘cursing’ and ‘casting (of stones)’ that is among the main ideas of RǦM_1. 
    – 
    ▪ RǦM_1 : CAD, Zammit2002, Tropper2008, Kogan2015: Akk ragāmu ‘to call, call out; to prophesy; to summon, convoke; to lodge a claim, sue, bring a legal complaint, claim s.th. by lawsuit’, rigmu ‘voice, sound; noise; call, proclamation; thunder; wailing, lamentation; complaint, request, legal complaint’ (from oAkk on), Ug rgm ‘to say, tell, announce, report, talk’, Ar raǧama ‘to revile, utter evil speech; (L-stem) to plead in defense of someone’, Gz ragama, Gur räggämä, (as)suraggämä, Amh täräggʷämä, räggämä ‘to curse, insult, revile’, Jib s̃érégəm ‘to blame one another with harsh words’. – Hbr rāgam ‘to stone, kill by stoning’, Aram Syr rᵉgam, Ar raǧama ‘to stone’, (? Ar > ) Soq rígɛm ‘to be stoned’. – ? Mhr rəgūm ‘to cover (usually food to keep the flies off it)’, Jib ɛrgúm ‘to cover, put a lid on’, Soq régom ‘to cover, protect’, Jib erógəm ‘to cover (a dead body, with stones and soil)’, rɔ́tgəm ‘(corpse) to be buried’, s̃ergím ‘to be covered, buried alive (as, e.g., a witch)’, rəgmún ‘stoned, covered by stones; covered by stones and soil (in the grave)’, Ar raǧam ‘stones that are placed upon a grave’, raǧǧama ‘to place a stone on one’s grave’.
    ▪ RǦM_2 : ↗turǧumān, prob. akin to RǦM_1 (via the Akk etymon).
    ▪ RǦM_3 : ↗ruǧum, akin to RǦM_1.
    ▪ RǦM_4 : Ø (no cognates, foreign word).
    ▪ RǦM_5 : as RǦM_1.
    ▪ RǦM_6 : as RǦM_1. 
    ▪ RǦM_1 and RǦM_3 : Semantics in this Sem root oscillate between ‘to shout, etc.’, ‘to curse’, ‘to stone’, and ‘to cover with stones’. Which was first? According to Huehnergard2011, the primary meaning of Sem *RGM is ‘to say, speak, call, shout, contest, lay claim to’ (as in Akk, Ug, and partly also Ar)—this opinion is substantiated by Kogan2015, cf. above, section CONC. According to Huehnergard, there may also have been a t-stem *t-RGM ‘to speak to one another, translate’ already in protSem times. – The value ‘to curse, damn, revile’ (Ar, Gz) would then be a special development from ‘to shout, contest, lay claim to’, and ‘to stone; stones, missiles’ a transfer of meaning based on the fact that the throwing of stones often accompanied the condemnation of a person or an idol (cf. the symbolic stoning of Satan as part of the ḥaǧǧ rites). The fact, however, that Can (Hbr, Aram) only has ‘to stone’ makes this theory slightly questionable. Nöldeke thought that Ar, which shows both ‘stoning’ and ‘cursing’, had loaned the latter value from Gz, interpreting the epithet of Satan, Gz rəgūm ‘the cursed one’, as belonging to Ar rǧm which, according to this theory, only meant ‘to stone’ but then also came to mean ‘to curse’.
    ▪ RǦM_2 : Most previous research tends to see Ar tarǧama ‘to interpret’ and turǧumān ‘interpreter’ as—ultimately—dependent on the Akk targumannu and thus on Akk ragāmu ‘to speak, shout, call, etc.’ (RǦM_1) < Sem ] ‘to speak (emphatically), to curse’. Huehnergard2011 would not exclude the possibility of the t-stem *t-RGM ‘to speak to one another, translate’ going back as far as into protSem times. In contrast, Wellhausen1897 thought that the value ‘to explain, interpret’ is a generalisation of a more specific type of explanation, namely interpreting the stones/pebbles that used to been thrown (in the sand) as a heathen mantic practice, the notion of ‘interpreting’ thus being dependent on ‘to throw stones (with the aim of foretelling the future or getting advice)’.
    ▪ RǦM_3 : Ar ruǧum ‘shooting stars, meteorites’ seems to be the result of a transfer of meaning from the stones that are cast (at s.o. as a punishment, or at the Devil to curse him) on the *‘stones’ that *‘are cast through the sky’.
    ▪ RǦM_4-6 : See above, section CONC. 
    ▪ For Engl dragoman and Targum cf. entry tarǧama
    – 
    raǧam‑ رَجَمَ , u (raǧm
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RǦM 
    vb., I 
    1 to stone; 2 to curse, damn, abuse, revile – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ The traditional opinion, put forward, among others, by Lane, was that the ‘throwing, casting of stones’ was the »primary meaning« and [v2] thus dependent on [v1]. However, this view is contested by Kogan who, sorting out the difficult semantic entanglements within the Sem root, comes to the conclusion that the overall evidence seems to speak against the traditional theory. Following Leslau, Kogan assumes a semantic development along the line *‘to speak, say > to speak against, bring legal action against > to abuse, curse > to cast stones > heap of stones > stone(s)’. 
    ▪ eC7 raǧama (to stone) Q 18:20 ʔin yaẓharū ʕalay-kum yarǧumū-kum ‘if they should discover you, they will stone you’. – raǧm (the act of stoning) Q 18:22 raǧman bi’l-ġaybi ‘conjecturing, guessing in the dark, guessing at what is being kept hidden, shooting in the dark [lit., throwing stones without seeing, blindly)’. – ruǧūm (pl. of raǧm : materials for stoning, rocks, projectiles, missiles) Q 67:5 wa-ǧaʕalnā-hā ruǧūman liš-šayāṭīni ‘and We have made them [the stars] rocks for stoning the devils’. – raǧīm (quasi-PP: stoned, cast out) Q 15:17 wa-ḥafiẓnā-hā min kulli šayṭānin raǧīmin ‘and guarded it from every outcast devil’; (epithet of Satan) Q 16:98 al-~ ‘the outcast, the stoned’. – marǧūm (stoned, castaway, outcast) Q 26:116 la-takūnanna min-a ’l-marǧūmīna ‘you will be among those stoned’.
    ▪ Lane describes two series of semantic values attached to raǧm in ClassAr: (1) ‘throwing, casting of stones’ > ‘slaying (in any manner, but generally:) stoning, putting to death’ > ‘beating, battering’ (al-ʔarḍ the ground, said of camels); (2) act of ‘cursing, reviling’ > ‘driving away; expelling; putting, or placing, at a distance, away, or far away; cutting off from friendly, or loving communion or intercourse; forsaking; abandoning’
    ▪ Hava1899 has still raǧama u (raǧm) in the sense, among others, of ‘to put a stone on (DO a tomb)’, the L-stem rāǧama ‘to throw stones (DO at s.o.); to contend (DO with s.o., in words); to protect (ʕan)’, the tL-stem tarāǧama ‘to throw stones at one another’, as well as the PP II muraǧǧam ‘doubtful (news)’ and the (PA III, nominalized adj.?) murāǧim ‘foul speech’. 
    ▪ CAD, Zammit2002, Tropper2008, Kogan2015: (a) [Sem *RGM ‘to speak (emphatically), to curse’] Akk ragāmu ‘to call, call out; to prophesy; to summon, convoke; to lodge a claim, sue, bring a legal complaint, claim s.th. by lawsuit’, rigmu ‘voice, sound; noise; call, proclamation; thunder; wailing, lamentation; complaint, request, legal complaint’ (from oAkk on), Ug rgm ‘to say, tell, announce, report, talk’, Ar raǧama ‘to revile, utter evil speech; rāǧama ‘to plead in defense of s.o.’, Gz ragama, Gur räggämä, (as)suraggämä, Amh täräggʷämä, räggämä ‘to curse, insult, revile’, Jib s̃érégəm ‘to blame one another with harsh words’. – > (b) [protCSem *RGM ‘to stone’] Hbr rāgam ‘to stone, kill by stoning’, Aram Syr rᵉgam, Ar raǧama ‘to stone’, (? Ar > ) Soq rígɛm ‘to be stoned’. – > (c) [non-Eth SSem (Ar SAr)] Jib erógəm ‘to cover (a dead body, with stones and soil)’, rɔ́tgəm ‘(corpse) to be buried’, s̃ergím ‘to be covered, buried alive (as, e.g., a witch)’, rəgmún ‘stoned, covered by stones; covered by stones and soil (in the grave)’, Ar raǧam ‘stones that are placed upon a grave’, raǧǧama ‘to place a stone on one’s grave’. – ? [SAr] Mhr rəgūm ‘to cover (usually food to keep the flies off it)’, Jib ɛrgúm ‘to cover, put a lid on’, Soq régom ‘to cover, protect’.
     
    ▪ In their EI² entry on »radjm«, M. Gaudefroy-Demombynes and T. Fahd still seem to put forward the traditional opinion that the primary value of raǧm is ‘the casting of stones’: »r-ǧ-m is a Sem root, derivatives from which are found in the O[ld]T[estament] with the meaning of ‘to stone, to drive away or kill by throwing stones’ an abominable creature; raǧmaẗ is ‘a heap of stones, an assembly of men, cries, tumult’. / In Arabic, the root means ‘to stone, to curse’; raǧm ‘heap of stones’, also means simply the ‘stones placed upon tombs’ either as flagstones or in a heap, a custom which ḥadīṯ condemns, recommending rather that a grave should be level with the surface of the ground. In the ḥadīṯ of ʕAbd Allāh b. Muġfal, it is discussed whether lā turaǧǧimū qabrī means ‘do not build my grave in a mound’ or ‘do not utter imprecations there’.«
    ▪ However, the same entry also states that »[t]he lapidation and heaps of stones at Minā are called [with metathesis] ǧamraẗ [√ǦMR, not √RǦM!], and ǧamarāt al-ʕArab means ‘the groups of Bedouin tribes’; we find there the two old meanings of the root which can be taken back to ǧ-m-, in Ar ↗ǧamma and ↗ǧamaʕa ‘to reunite’. The Arab grammarians derive ǧamraẗ ‘lapidation’ from ǧamarāt al-ʕArab. / In addition to the meaning of ‘ritual stoning as a punishment for fornication’, raǧm means the casting of stones at Minā, which is one of the pre-Islamic rites preserved by Muḥammad and inserted among the ceremonies of the pilgrimage« (op.cit. supra).
    ▪ For the most recent analysis cf. Kogan2015, quoted above in section CONC and, in more detail, in “root” entry ↗RǦM. 
    ▪ Tu recm (<1500) Kıpçak Türkçesi Sözlüğü : from Ar raǧm ‘a stoning, killing by stoning’, akin to Akk ragāmu ‘to speak, call, lodge a claim at court’ – Nişanyan14Oct2014. 
    raǧama bi’l-ġayb, vb. I, 1 to talk about s.th. of which one knows nothing; 2 to guess, surmise, make conjectures; 3 to predict the future: from the pre-Isl mantic practice of casting pebbles in the sand to predict the future; see raǧǧama, next paragraph.

    raǧǧama, vb. II, 1 to talk about s.th. of which one knows nothing; 2 to guess, surmise, make conjectures; 3 to predict the future: denom. from ruǧmaẗ ‘pile of pebbles’ or ruǧūm ‘materials for stoning’. As already noted by Wellhausen1897, Ar tarǧīm has the same meaning as ḍarb bi’l-ḥaṣy, the art of prophesy from throwing pebbles. From this, the sense of ‘to assume, conjecture’ could be derived: *‘to throw stones > to interpret the results, try to give them a meaning > to make conjectures, assume’. ↗tarǧama, too, may be dependent on the heathen practice: *‘to throw stones > to (try to) interpret the results, solve the riddle > to interpret (in general)’

    raǧm, n., 1 stoning: vn. I; 2 (pl. ruǧūm) missile: transfer of meaning from the act of stoning to anything that is thrown. – Cf. also ruǧmaẗ, below. | raǧm bi’l-ġayb, n., conjecture, guesswork; prophecy: see preceding paragraphs.
    ruǧum, n., shooting stars, meteorites: transfer of meaning (*‘s.th. thrown, missile > what looks like missiles in the sky’)? See also ↗s.v.
    ruǧmaẗ, pl. ruǧam, riǧām, n.f., tombstone: prob. deverb., resultative (originally *‘heap of pebbles’, piling up when stones are thrown, hence also: ‘heap of stones on a tomb’). – Cf. Wellhausen1897: 111-2: »Bei gewissen Heiligtümern war eine eigentümliche Sitte mit dem Umlauf [i.e., the ↗ṭawāf ritual] verbunden, nemlich das ĭrtiǧām, das Werfen kleiner Steine. In einem Verse des ʔAʕšà heisst es: “sie läuft um sie herum und geht hin und her zu ihnen, so wie ein Steinwerfender um einen Steinhaufen den Umlauf macht”.3 Die Sitte ist uns namentlich daher bekannt, dass sie am zehnten Tage des ↗ḥaǧǧ und an den drei folgenden Tagen bei den drei ǧamarāt von Mina ausgeübt wird. Das Heiligtum, die ruǧmaẗ oder ǧamraẗ, ist in diesem Fall kein einzelner Stein, sondern ein Steinhaufen. Auch bei den Hebräern (Gal, Gen. 31:51s., nicht Gilgal) und bei den Aramäern (Igura) hat es solche Steinhaufen gegeben, ebenso bei den Saracenen des Nilus. Hieronymus übersetzt [Hbr] ki-ṣrôr ʔäḇän bᵊ-margēmāh Prov[erbs] 26:8 mit ‘mittere lapidem in acervum Mercurii’;4 er denkt an die griechische Sitte der [Grk] hérmakes, auf die jeder Vorübergehende einen Stein warf. Der Steinhaufen kann aber auch ein ‘Grab’ bezeichnen, und auch dann kommt es vor, dass die Vorübergehenden neue Steine hinzu werfen.5 Im Islam war das allerdings eine Entehrung des Toten,6 ursprünglich aber wol eine Verehrung, wie die Analogie vermuten lässt und das Beispiel des Abu Righal von Tâif (BHisham 32,20) zu beweisen scheint.7 «
    raǧīm, adj., 1 stoned; 2 cursed, damned: quasi-PP I; see also ↗s.v.3 For another value, see ↗riǧīm
    raǧīm رَجيم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RǦM 
    adj. 
    1 stoned; 2 cursed, damned. – 3 For another value, see var. ↗riǧīm – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Although the vb. raǧama is known in Ar, Jeffery1938 follows Rückert and Nöldeke in assuming that raǧīm in the meaning ‘the cursed one’ is a borrowing from Gz and thus secondary. This assumption, however, is contested by Kogan who thinks the value ‘to stone’ is secondary to that of ‘to curse’; cf. ↗RǦM, ↗raǧama
    ▪ (quasi-PP: ‘stoned, cast out’) Q 15:17 wa-ḥafiẓnā-hā min kulli šayṭānin raǧīmin ‘and guarded it from every outcast devil’; (epithet of Satan) Q 16:98 al-~ ‘the outcast, the stoned’.
    ▪ Cf. also Q 3:36, 15:34, 38:77, 81:25 ‘stoned, pelted, driven away by stones, execrated’. 
    ▪ The narrower context is provided by Gz ragama, Gur räggämä, (as)suraggämä, Amh täräggʷämä, räggämä ‘to curse, revile’. For the general frame, however, see ↗raǧama
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »We find it used only of Satan and his minions, and it is said to derive from the tradition that the demons seek to listen to the counsels of Heaven and are pelted away by the angels284 (cf. Sura 67:5). / The Muslim authorities naturally take it as a pure Ar word, a form faʕīl from ↗raǧama which is used several times in the Qurʔān. As a technical term associated with Satan, however, it would seem to be the Eth [Gz] rəgūm and mean ‘cursed’ or ‘execrated’ rather than ‘stoned’. [Gz] ragama means ‘to curse’ or ‘to execrate’ and is used of the serpent in Gen. iii: 14, and of those who are delivered over to the fire prepared for the devil and his angels in Matt. xxv: 41. Rückert, in his notes to his translation of the Qurʔān (ed. A. Müller, p. 440),285 had noted this connection with the Eth [Gz], and Nöldeke, Neue Beiträge, 25, 47, thinks that Muḥammad himself in introducing the Eth word [Gz] šayṭān = [Ar] šayṭān introduced also the epithet rəgūm, but not knowing the technical meaning of the word treated it as though from raǧama […] ‘to stone’286 (Cf. Ahrens, Christliches, 39).«
    ▪ Jeffery’s argument is taken up also by Nişanyan287 . But Kogan2015’s findings seem to make the old theory obsolete; ↗RǦM, ↗raǧama
    ▪ Tu racim (<1400) Kıpçak Türkçesi Sözlüğü , < Ar raǧīm1 taşlanan, recmedilen, 2 lanetli (şeytanın sıfatı)’ < Gz ragīm ‘lanetli (şeytanın sıfatı)’ < Eth √rgm ‘lanetlemek, mahkûm etmek’ – Nişanyan01Apr2013. 
    – 
    riǧīm رِجيم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RǦM 
    n. 
    diet – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ From Fr régime ‘course of diet, exercise’, from Lat regimen ‘rule, guidance, government, means of guidance, rudder’, from reg-ere ‘to rule, direct, keep straight, guide’, IE *reg- ‘to move in a straight line’, hence, ‘to direct in a straight line, rule, guide’ – Rolland2014a. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Skr raǧ- ‘king, leader;’ Av razeyeiti ‘directs’; Pers rāst ‘right, correct’; Lat regere ‘to rule’, rex ‘king, leader’, rectus ‘right, correct’; oIr ri, Gael righ ‘king’; Gaul -rix ‘king’, in personal names, such as Vircingetorix; Goth reiks ‘leader’; oEngl rice ‘kingdom’, -ric ‘king’, rice ‘rich, powerful’, riht ‘correct’; Goth raihts, oHGe recht, oSwed reht, oNo rettr ‘correct’) – EtymOnline
    ▪ See above, section CONC. 
    – 
    – 
    RǦW رجو 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Mar2023
    √RǦW 
    “root” 
    ▪ RǦW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RǦW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RǦW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘hope, to hope, look forward to, anticipate, expect; to fear, be apprehensive about; areas covered by (e.g., a room, a house, a town), directions, sides’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RḤB رحب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RḤB 
    “root” 
    ▪ RḤB_1 ‘(to be, grow) wide, large, spacious’ ↗raḥ˅ba
    ▪ RḤB_2 ‘welcome!’ ↗marḥaban

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be wide, to be spacious, to be ample; to welcome; courtyard, flood channels in a valley, spacious fertile lands’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    raḥ˅ba 
    RḤB_2 ‘welcome!’ is probably related to RḤB_1; but cf. entry ↗marḥaban for theories that derive it from Aram or Pers. 
    – 
    – 
    raḥib‑ رحِب , a (raḥab), and raḥub‑ رحُب , u (ruḥb, raḥābaẗ
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RḤB 
    vb., I 
    to be wide, spacious, roomy 
    According to Huehnergard2011, the root can be traced back not farther than WSem *rḥb ‘to be(come) wide, large’. 
    ▪ eC7 Q 9:25 wa-ḍāqat ʕalay-kumu l-ʔarḍu bi-mā raḥubat ‘and the earth, vast as it is, was straitened for you’.12 Cf. also the parallel in Q 9:118. 
    ▪ BDB1906: Hbr rāḥab, Aram rəḥab (in deriv.), Ar raḥiba, raḥuba, Gz rəḥəba ‘to be, or grow, wide, large’. – Cf. also Hbr raḥab ‘breadth, broad expanse’, rōḥab ‘breadth, width’, rāḥāb ‘wide, broad’, rəḥôb ‘broad, open place, plaza’, märḥāb ‘broad, roomy place’. – BDB1906 gives also a Akk rêbitu ‘open place’, but I could not verify this in CAD. There, one finds only rību ‘street’ and ribītu ‘street, main street, thoroughfare’; but are these related?
    ▪ Müller2010: Sab rḥb ‘umfassend sein’, rḥb ‘erweitern, vergrößern’. 
    ▪ Huehnergard2011: < WSem *rḥb ‘to be(come) wide, large’ 
    – 
    BP#2022raḥḥaba, vb. II, to welcome (bi‑ s.o., s.th.), bid welcome (bi‑ to s.o.); to receive graciously, make welcome (bi‑ s.o.): caus. of I (then ‘to welcome’ is, literally, ‘to make the space wide (for a guest, etc.)’), or denom. from ↗marḥaban ?
    taraḥḥaba, vb. V, to welcome (bi‑ s.o.), bid welcome (bi‑ to): refl. of II ?

    raḥb, adj., wide, spacious, roomy; unconfined: this (or ruḥb, or raḥab) may be the proper etymon from which all the other items derive. | r. al-ṣadr, adj., generous, magnanimous; broad minded, open-minded, liberal; frank, candid, open hearted; carefree; r. ṣadr, n., generosity, magnanimity; open-mindedness, broad-mindedness, liberality; frankness, candor; r. al-bāʕ, adj., generous, open handed, liberal; r. al-ḏirāʕ, adj., dto.
    ruḥb, n., vastness, wideness, spaciousness, unconfinedness: this (or raḥb, or raḥab) may be the proper etymon from which all the other items derive. | ʔatà ʕalà ’l-r. wa’l-saʕaẗ, vb., to be welcome; wajada r~an wa-saʕatan, vb., to meet with a friendly reception.
    raḥab, n., vastness, wideness, spaciousness, unconfinedness: this (or raḥb, or ruḥb) may be the proper etymon from which all the other items derive. | r. al-ṣadr, n., magnanimity, generosity; lightheartedness.
    BP#4753raḥbaẗ, raḥabaẗ, pl. raḥabāt, riḥāb, n., wide area, wide space; large square; courtyard, inner court (e.g., of a mosque); pl. riḥāb, wideness, vastness; generosity, magnanimity, big-heartedness; sacred precinct, protected area: f. formation of raḥb; the pl. riḥāb may be, originally, a sg. (cf. Hbr rəḥôb ‘broad, open place, plaza’). | riḥāb al-kawn and riḥāb al-faḍāʔ, n.pl., vastness of outer space; ʔanā fī riḥābika, I am under your protection, in the realm of your generosity! (spoken at the grave of a saint); nazala fī riḥābihī ḍayfan, he came to him as a guest; riḥāb al-ǧāmiʕaẗ, n.pl., university grounds, campus.
    raḥīb = raḥb : ints. formation.
    raḥābaẗ, n.f., wideness, vastness, spaciousness, unconfinedness | r. al-ṣadr, n., magnanimity, generosity.
    BP#1072marḥaban bika, adv., welcome!: ↗s.v..
    tarḥāb, n., welcome, greeting:. | qābalahū bi-t., vb. III, to receive s.o. with open arms.
    BP#2889tarḥīb, n., welcoming, welcome, greeting: vn. II.
    tarḥībī, adj.: nsb-adj from tarḥīb | kalimaẗ tarḥībiyyaẗ, n., welcoming speech, word of welcome. 

    marḥaban مرْحباً 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 1072 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RḤB, MRḤB 
    adv. 
    welcome! 
    The popular greeting is often claimed (by Christians or non-Arabs) to be of Aram/Syr or Pers origin. But there is no cogent reason why it should not be genuinly Arabic. The meaning ‘welcome!’ is in any case attested already in the Q. 
    ▪ eC7 Q 38:59-60 hāḏā fawǧun muqtaḥimun maʕa-kum, lā marḥaban bi-him [▪ …] qālū: bal ʔantum lā marḥaban bi-kum ‘Here is an army rushing blindly with you. (Those who are already in the Fire say): No word of welcome for them. [▪ …] They say: Nay, but you (misleaders), for you there is no word of welcome.’
     
    ▪ BDB1906: Hbr märḥāb ‘broad, roomy place’, which is also used figuratively »of freedom from distress and anxiety«.
    ▪ Cf. also ↗raḥ˅ba
    Several etymologies have been suggested:

    ▪ Arab lexicographers derive it from ↗√RḤB ‘ample, wide’ as a vn. or n.loc. »You say marḥaban and marḥaban bi-ka meaning ‘Thou hast come to, or found, ampleness, spaciousness, or roominess’, or ‘alight you, or abide you in ampleness, etc.’, for such we have for thee, the word being put in the acc. because of a verb understood; or ‘thou hast alighted in an ample […] space’, ‘welcome to ampleness [etc.]’« (Lane iii 1867). – Cf. Hbr märḥāb ‘broad, roomy place’, which is also used figuratively »of freedom from distress and anxiety« (BDB1906).
    ▪ Another theory traces it back to Syr mār ḥūbā ‘The Lord is (full of) love’, allegedly a greating among Aramaic-speaking Christians.
    ▪ A third explanation sees it as an Arabized form of Pers mehr-bān, an adj. signifying (accord. to Steingass) ‘benevolent, benficient, kind, affectionate, friendly, compassionate, favouring, loving; […] a friend’. 

    – 
    BP#2022raḥḥaba, vb. II, to welcome (bi‑ s.o., s.th.), bid welcome (bi‑ to s.o.); to receive graciously, make welcome (bi‑ s.o.): caus. of vb. I ↗raḥVba ‘to be wide, spacious’ (then ‘to welcome’ is, literally, ‘to make the space wide (for a guest, etc.)’), or denom. from ↗marḥaban ?
    taraḥḥaba, vb. V, to welcome (bi‑ s.o.), bid welcome (bi‑ to): refl. of II ?

    tarḥāb, n., welcome, greeting:. | qābalahū bi-t., vb. III, to receive s.o. with open arms.
    BP#2889tarḥīb, n., welcoming, welcome, greeting: vn. II.
    tarḥībī, adj.: nsb-adj from tarḥīb | kalimaẗ tarḥībiyyaẗ, n., welcoming speech, word of welcome. 

    RḤḌ رحض 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RḤḌ 
    “root” 
    ▪ RḤḌ_1 ‘to rinse, wash’ ↗raḥaḍa
    ▪ RḤḌ_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ RḤḌ_3 ‘…’ ↗ 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    … 
    raḥaḍ‑ رَحَضَ , a (raḥḍ
    ID … • Sw … • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RḤḌ 
    vb., I 
    to rinse, wash – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘to wash’) Akk (rḫṣ (i)), Hbr rḥṣ a (a), PapyriAram rḥʕ, Gz rḥḍ –/a (a) ‘to sweat’.
     
    … 
    … 
    mirḥāḍ, pl. marāḥīḍᵘ, n., lavatory, toilet: n.instr.
     
    RḤQ رحق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Mar2023
    √RḤQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ RḤQ_1 ‘wine’ ↗raḥīq
    ▪ RḤQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RḤQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): no known verbal root, occurs once in the Qur’an: ‘wine, the most exquisite pure mature wine (83:25) they are given to drink of the best of wines, sealed’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RḤL رحل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RḤL 
    “root” 
    ▪ RḤL_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ RḤL_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to travel, to set out, to go away; travel gear, travel bags, saddles; to take as a mount; (of a camel) a strong traveller; journey’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    raḥal‑ رَحَلَ 
    ID 315 • Sw – • BP 2203 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RḤL 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    riḥlaẗ رِحْلَة 
    ID 316 • Sw – • BP 1009 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RḤL 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    marḥalaẗ مَرْحَلَة 
    ID 317 • Sw – • BP 366 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RḤL 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    RḤM رحم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RḤM 
    “root” 
    ▪ RḤM_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ RḤM_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘the womb, blood relatives; mercy, kindness, compassion, pity, sympathy, to show mercy, to show compassion, to let off, to be kind, forgiveness, bounty, good fortune, blessing’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘to have pity’) Akk irēm, Hbr (ints) rḥm, Syr rḥm e (a) ‘to love’, Gz (mḥr (a)).
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    raḥim رَحِم 
    ID 318 • Sw – • BP 2372 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RḤM 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *raḥim‑ ‘womb’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    raḥmaẗ رَحْمَة 
    ID 319 • Sw – • BP 972 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RḤM 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    raḥmān رَحْمٰن / رَحْمان 
    ID 320 • Sw – • BP 4105 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RḤM 
    n./adj. 
    the Merciful (i.e., God) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q : Occurs some fifty-six times outside its place in the superscription of the Suras, ‎‎'The Merciful’. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ‎‎‎‎▪ Jeffery1938, 140-41: »I[n the Qurʔān, i]t occurs always as a title of God, almost as a personal ‎name for God.288 – Certain early authorities recognized the ‎word as a borrowing from Hebrew. Mubarrad and Thaʕlab held this view, says as-Suyūṭī, Itq, ‎‎321; Mutaw, 58, and it is quoted from az-Zaǧǧāǧ in LA, xv, 122. – The root rḥm is common ‎Semitic [↗√RḤM ], and several Ar forms are used in the Qurʔān, e.g. raḥima; raḥmaẗ; riḥm; raḥīm; marḥamaẗ; but the form of raḥmān is itself against its being genuine ‎Ar. Fraenkel, Vocab, 23, pointed out that RḤMNā occurs in the Talmud as a name of God ‎‎(e.g. ʔMR RḤMNā ‘saith the all-merciful'), and as Hirschfeld, Beiträge, 38, notes, it is also so used ‎in the Targums and in the Palmyrene inscriptions (cf. NSI, p. 300; RES, ii, 477). In the ‎Christian-Palestinian dialect we find RḤMN, which is the equivalent of the Targumic MRḤMN and ‎in Lk. vi, 36, translates [Grk] oiktírmōn,289 and in the SAr inscriptions RḤMNN occurs several ‎times290 as a divine ‎name.291 – ‎There can be little doubt that it was from S. Arabia that the word came into use in ‎Ar,292 but as Nöldeke-Schwally, i, 113, points out, it is hardly likely to have originated there ‎and we must look elsewhere for the origin.293 ‎Sprenger, Leben, ii, 198-210, in his discussion of the word, favours a Christian origin, 294 while Hirschfeld, Beiträge, 39, insists that it is of Jewish origin, and Rudolph, ‎‎Abhängigkeit, 28, professes to be unable to decide between them.295 The fact that the word occurs in the old poetry296 and is known to ‎have been in use in connection with the work of Muḥammad's rival Prophets, Musailama of ‎Yamāma297 and al-Aswad of Yemen, ‎‎298 would seem to point to a Christian rather than a Jewish origin, ‎though the matter is uncertain.«

    ▪ For the root itself cf. √RḤM

    ▪ Lokotsch1927#1687: Ar raḥmān > Tu rahman (or rather Hbr raḥᵃmānî ‘merciful, compassionate, pitiful’ [hapax in the Bible, Lam. 4:10])?) > Ru raḫmannyj, Pol rachmany (rare), more common rochmanny ‘tamed, mild, compassionate, tender’. 
     
    RḪW رخو 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Mar2023
    √RḪW 
    “root” 
    ▪ RḪW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RḪW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RḪW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to relax, slacken, ease up; affluence, to live in comfort; gentle breeze; to travel at a good easy pace, to be infrequent’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RDː (RDD) ردّ / ردد 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RDː (RDD) 
    “root” 
    ▪ RDː (RDD)_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ RDː (RDD)_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to turn back, to cause to go back, to give back, to stand back; to avert, to reject, to dissuade; to refer to, to submit a matter (to s.o.); to have an exchange of words, a dialogue; retreat, reneging; point of reference, judgement; reputation’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    radd‑ / radad‑ رَدَّ / رَدَدْـ 
    ID 322 • Sw – • BP 396 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RDː (RDD) 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ĭrtidād ارْتِداد 
    ID 321 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RDː (RDD) 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    RDʔ ردأ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Mar2023
    √RDʔ 
    “root” 
    ▪ RDʔ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RDʔ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RDʔ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘support, help, backing, to bolster, back up; to become bad, spoil; mean, vile, base; to go beyond’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RDF ردف 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Mar2023
    √RDF 
    “root” 
    ▪ RDF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RDF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RDF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘backside, posterior, rump; to come after, follow, come from the back, come in succession, ride behind s.o.; to stand in for, a ruler’s substitute; entourage’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RDM ردم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Mar2023
    √RDM 
    “root” 
    ▪ RDM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RDM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RDM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to fill (a hole in the ground) with earth, fill gaps in a wall; to mend, patch a tattered garment; to live off the good of the land; to remain, be constant; dam, big heap of earth’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RDY ردي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Mar2023
    √RDY 
    “root” 
    ▪ RDY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RDY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RDY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘death, destruction, demise, to perish, kill, cause death, die by falling, animal killed by falling, to bring to the ground, ruin; garment, cloak, to wear; to increase’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RḎL رذل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Mar2023
    √RḎL 
    “root” 
    ▪ RḎL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RḎL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RḎL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be base, uncouth, vile, low, despicable; dregs of society, rejects, dirt, vice’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RZː (RZZ) رزّ / رزز 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RZː (RZZ) 
    “root” 
    ▪ RZː (RZZ)_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ RZː (RZZ)_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl mortise, perh. from Ar murtazz ‘fastened’, PP of ĭrtazza, vb. VIII, ‘to be fixed (in place)’, Gt-stem of razza, vb. I, ‘to fix, stick, insert’. 
    – 
    ʔaruzz أَرُزّ , var. ruzz 
    ID 323 • Sw – • BP 4015 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʔRZ, RZː (RZZ) 
    n. 
    rice – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ »From its place(s) of origin in India or China ca. 3,000 BC, the use of rice spread to the Middle East, where it was also cultivated in pre-Islamic times, albeit in limited areas such as Mesopotamia and Jordan. Knowledge of rice spread slowly among the classical cultures of the Mediterranean; its diffusion westward as a cultivated crop is evident in Islamic times and references to its cultivation in al-Andalus from the 4th/10th century are numerous.« – D. Waines, »al-Ruzz«, in EI².
    ▪ Canard: »[Le riz] apparaît très anciennement dans l’Inde et en Chine. De l’Inde il fut introduit dans les pays iraniens, de là en Mésopotamie, puis en Syrie et enfin en Égypte. Ultérieurement il apparut dans certains pays d’Europe. Dans 1’antiquité, Strabon le signale dans 1’Inde, la Bactriane, la Susiane, la Babylonie et la Basse Syrie.«
    ▪ Littmann’s (1924: 15) assumption that rice came to Europe via the Persians is probably still correct. Therefore it is quite safe to search for the source of Grk óryza —the ancestor of most Eur words for ‘rice’—in an Iranian language. Since the Arabs, too, seem to have become acquainted with the cereal through the Persians, Ar (ʔa)ruzz is likely to stem from the same source as Grk óryza rather than from the Grk word itself (Rolland2014). ▪ Lexicographers have it that the form ruzz is more colloquial, while ʔaruzz is the variant used »among persons of distinction« (Lane).
    DRS seems to regard the var.s ʔurz and ʔuruz(z) as the most original ones in Ar, perhaps of Iran origin. 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 1 (1994)#ʔRZ-3: nHbr ʔōrez, Aram ʔūrzā, Ar ʔurz, ʔuruz(z), Soq ʔírhez, Mhr ḥayrez, Śḥr ʔiróz ‘riz’. 
    ▪ Engl rice, (mC13), from oFr ris, from It riso, from Lat orīza, from Grk óryza ‘rice’, via an IndIran lang (cf. Pashto vriže, oPers brizi), ultimately from Skr vrīhí-s ‘rice’. The Grk word is the ultimate source of all Eur words (Welsh reis, G Reis, Lith rysai, SrbCroat riza, Pol ryż, etc.). Introduced 1647 in the Carolinas – etymonline.com.
    ▪ Kluge2002: (As previous, adding that) oInd vrīhí‑ is of obscure etymology, perhaps of Sem origin. Rice came to Europe via the Arabs.
    ▪ Nourai (and after him Rolland2014) give 3 Pers and 3 Av words: Pers oroz, varīzeh, berenǧ, and Av brīzi, vrinǧ, urvinǧ.
    ▪ Lokotsch1927#1733: Ar ruzz, from < Grk óryza, from some Oriental source. From Ar (with def.art.) ar-ruzz are Span Portug arroz, Sard arrosu, Catal arros etc.
    ▪ Landberg1923 notes that some Ar lexicographers also give runz as a var. (Ṣiḥāḥ says that both ruzz and runz are coll. for ʔaruzz).299 Landberg thinks that the dialectal runz could be a dissimilation of ruzz, but considers also the possibility that it was the other way round, i.e., ruzz was secondary, the result of an assimilation, in which case, he says, runz would be the primary form »et le grec óryza proviendrait alors de l’arabe ou de l’aram.« 
    ▪ See DISC above. 
    – 
    RZQ رزق 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RZQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ RZQ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ RZQ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘provision, livelihood, earnings, means of living, subsistence, income, bounty, (of God) to provide with means of living, to seek to earn a living, (of God) to bestow with bounties or to favour with bounties, to grant as means of sustenance’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    rizq رِزْق 
    ID 324 • Sw – • BP 3000 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RZQ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    RSː (RSS) رسّ/رسس 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Mar2023
    √ RSː (RSS) 
    “root” 
    ▪ RSː (RSS)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RSː (RSS)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RSː (RSS)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to bring about reconciliation, mend; the onset of fever; to be firmly fixed, be well established, take root firmly; a sign; a wise person; an old well, to dig a well; to spread rumours’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RSḪ رسخ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Mar2023
    √RSḪ 
    “root” 
    ▪ RSḪ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RSḪ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RSḪ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be firmly fixed, be deeply rooted, be strongly established, stand firm, be completely absorbed into the soil, be thoroughly informed’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RSL رسل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RSL 
    “root” 
    ▪ RSL_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ RSL_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘flock, camels, a series of flocks, to drive groups of camels to the water in succession; ease, gentleness, slow pace, clear enunciation, to be lucid, to travel at an easy pace; message, messenger, to send a message, to dispatch, to exchange messages, an errand; to let go, to neglect; wind’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    rasūl رَسُول 
    ID 326 • Sw – • BP 523 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RSL 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    risālaẗ رِسالَة 
    ID 325 • Sw – • BP 433 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RSL 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    murāsil مُراسِل 
    ID 327 • Sw – • BP 4132 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RSL 
    ¹adj.; ²n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    RSM رسم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RSM 
    “root”. 
    ▪ RSM_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ RSM_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    marsūm مَرْسُوم 
    ID 328 • Sw – • BP 3380 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RSM 
    ¹adj.; ²n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    RSW رسو 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RSW 
    “root” 
    ▪ RSW_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ RSW_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to come to stand firm, to dock, to anchor; to sink (e.g. a peg) firmly into the ground; to mend, to effect a reconciliation; (of clouds) to break into a downpour’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    marsaⁿ, det. marsà مَرْسًى , var. mursà , pl. marāsin , det. marāsī 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RSW 
    n. 
    anchorage – WehrCowan1979. 
    n.loc. from ↗rasā ‘to be firm; to anchor’. 
    ▪ eC7 Q 11:41 wa-qāla 'rkabū fī-hā bi-'smi ’ḷḷāhi maǧrā-hā wa-mursā-hā ‘and he said: Bord it [the ark]! In the name of God will be its sailing and anchoring’; Q 79:42 yasʔalūna-ka ʕani ’l-sāʕati ʔayyāna mursā-hā ‘They ask you [prophet] of the Hour: when ever it its arrival [lit. coming to port]?’ – BAH2008. 
    ▪ ↗rasā 
    ▪ In the Q, the word appears as mursà, not marsà. Accord. to Jeffery1938, it is only in Q 11:41 that it means ‘harbour, haven’ (in other places it is ‘fixed time’). With this meaning, accord. to the author, the word is a loan from Gz marso ‘haven’. 
    – 
    – 
    RŠD رشد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Mar2023
    √RŠD 
    “root” 
    ▪ RŠD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RŠD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RŠD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘guidance, reason, good sense, correctness, to be rightly guided, lead to the correct path, seek guidance, directions, landmark, guide’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RṢː (RṢṢ) رصّ / رصص 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RṢː (RṢṢ) 
    “root” 
    ▪ RṢː (RṢṢ)_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ RṢː (RṢṢ)_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to line up, to align, to set together in a row or stack, to pile up, to fit together tightly; lead, soldering with lead’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    raṣāṣ رَصاص 
    ID 329 • Sw – • BP 1946 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RṢː (RṢṢ) 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    RṢD رصد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Mar2023
    √RṢD 
    “root” 
    ▪ RṢD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RṢD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RṢD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be on watch, observe, sit in waiting, watch out for s.th., a watching post; to prepare, designate; highway; downpour of rain’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RḌʕ رضع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Mar2023
    √RḌʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ RḌʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RḌʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RḌʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to suck a mother’s milk, suckle a baby, a suckling mother, a suckling baby, to seek a foster mother, breast-feeding’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RḌY رضي 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RḌY 
    “root” 
    ▪ RḌY_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ RḌY_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008, s.r. RḌw/y): ‘to accept, to agree, to consent, to be pleased, to be satisfied, approval, contentment, acceptance; favour, grace’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    raḍiy‑ رَضِيَ / رَضِيـ 
    ID 331 • Sw – • BP 1191 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RḌY 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    rāḍiⁿ , det. ‑ī راضٍ 
    ID 330 • Sw – • BP 3043 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RḌY 
    adj. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    RṬB رطب 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Mar2023
    √RṬB 
    “root” 
    ▪ RṬB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RṬB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RṬB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘moisture, to be moist, be wet, be soft, be ripe, be succulent; ripened, fresh dates, to ripen dates, palm trees, green verdant pasture’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RʕB رعب 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Mar2023
    √RʕB 
    “root” 
    ▪ RʕB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RʕB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RʕB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘fear, terror, fright, to frighten; to fill up a drinking trough; to be fat and flabby; to be sliced; a tall, slim, beautiful woman’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RʕD رعد 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RʕD 
    “root” 
    ▪ RʕD_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ RʕD_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘thunder, tremor, shiver, shudder, to agitate; to take fright, to threaten, faint-hearted; to be flabby’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    raʕd رعْد 
    ID 332 • Sw – • BP 6368 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RʕD 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *raʕd‑ ‘thunder’, functioning as sy synonym to *hadad‑ , cf. Ar hāddaẗ ‘thunder’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    RʕY رعي 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RʕY 
    “root” 
    ▪ RʕY_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ RʕY_2 ‘»Listen to us«’ (Q 2:104, 4:46) ↗rāʕi-nā (arranged here, s.r. √RʕY, though actually perh. rāʔi-nā, from ↗√RʔY)
    ▪ RʕY_3 ‘…’ ↗

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘pasture, grazing land, to graze, shepherd, to shepherd; to guard, to watch over, to observe, guardianship, to manage; to abide, to heed advice, to mend one’s ways’ 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    … 
    rāʕi(-nā) راعِنا 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Jun2023
    √RʕY, RʔY
     
    imperative? vocative? 
    Of uncertain meaning. Pickthall comments on his translation as “Listen to us” (see below, section HIST): »a word which the Muslims used to call the Prophet’s attention respectfully, rāʔinā, the Jews could change into an insult by a slight mispronunciation. It is not clear in which language the insult was made but it was probably a double entendre in Hbr, Syr, or Aram« 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q 2:104 yā-ʔayyu-hā ’llaḏīna ʔāmanū lā taqūlū rāʕi-nā wa-qūlū ’nẓur-nā wa-’smaʕū wa-lil-kāfirīna ʕaḏābun ʔalīmun ‘O ye who believe, say not (unto the Prophet): “Listen to us” but say “Look upon us,” and be ye listeners. For disbelievers is a painful doom’; Q 4:46 mina ’llaḏīna hādū yuḥarrifūna ’l-kalima ʕan mawāḍiʕi-him wa-yaqūlūna samiʕnā wa-ʕaṣaynā wa-smāʕ ġayra musmaʕin wa-rāʕi-nā layyan bi-ʔalsunati-him wa-ṭaʕnan fī ’l-dīni ‘Some of those who are Jews change words from their context and say: “We hear and disobey; hear thou as one who heareth not” and “Listen to us!” distorting with their tongues and slandering religion’
     
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »The reference is the same in both passages – ‘say not rāʕi-nā but say unẓur-nā.’ The Commentators tell us that the Jews in Arabia used to pronounce the word rāʕi-nā, meaning ‘look at us’, in such a way as to relate it with the root [Hbr] raʕ ‘evil’, so Muḥammad urged his followers to use a different word unẓur-nā ‘behold us’, which did not lend itself to this disconcerting play on words.300
    / Hirschfeld, Beiträge, 64, thinks the reference is to [Hbr] rʔhnʔ or rʔnw occurring in connection with some Jewish prayer, but it is much more likely that the statement of the Commentators is correct and that as Geiger, 17, 18, noted,301 it is a play on [Hbr] raʕ and rāʔâʰ and reflects the Prophet’s annoyance at the mockery of the Jews.«
     
    – 
    – 
    raʕà / raʕay‑ رَعَى / رَعَيْـ , ī 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 3051 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RʕY 
    vb., I 
    to protect; to sponsor – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘to let graze, pasture (tr.)’) Akk irʔī, Hbr rāʕā (ē), Syr rʕā (ē), Gz réʕya (ipfv yérʕay).
    ▪ Fronzaroli #6.44: Akk reʔū ‘to guard the flock’, Ug rʕy ‘shepherd’, Hbr rāʕā, Syr rᵉʕā, Gz réʕeya ‘to tend (a flock on the pasture)’.
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2115: Akk reʔū, Ug rʕy, Gz rʕy, Ḥrṣ Mhr , Soq reʕe ‘to herd’, Hbr rʕy, SAr rʕy ‘to graze’.
     
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2115: protSem *r˅ʕay‑ ‘to graze’, based on protSem *r˅ʕ‑. Together with protLEC *ʔa‑riʔ‑ ‘to chase’ from AfrAs *riʕ‑ ‘to drive, chase’.
     
    … 
    BP#3778rāʕà, vb. III, to heed, observe; to respect s.th.: L‑stem, associative.
    BP#1041riʕāyaẗ, n.f., custody; patronage; (social) welfare: vn. I.
    BP#3011murāʕāẗ, n.f., deference, respect; compliance: vn. III.
    BP#3229rāʕin, def. al‑rāʕī, n., guardian; patron, sponsor; steward: PA I
     
    RĠB رغب 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Mar2023
    √RĠB 
    “root” 
    ▪ RĠB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RĠB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RĠB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘desire, wish, to ask for s.th., to covet, a request; gluttony, a heavy load; a soft load’. 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RĠD رغد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Mar2023
    √RĠD 
    “root” 
    ▪ RĠD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RĠD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RĠD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘meadow, garden; easy living, affluence, to live in comfort, be pleasant and carefree (of living); to be weak, be strained’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RĠM رغم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Mar2023
    √RĠM 
    “root” 
    ▪ RĠM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RĠM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RĠM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘nose, pride; to be angry, reject, dispute, aversion; to compel, compulsion; dust, soil; humiliation; escape, refuge, places of refuge’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RFT رفت 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Mar2023
    √RFT 
    “root” 
    ▪ RFT_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RFT_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RFT_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘remnants, rejects, to break into small pieces, disintegrate, human remains, to decay, small pieces, dry broken grass’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RFṮ رفث 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Mar2023
    √RFṮ 
    “root” 
    ▪ RFṮ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RFṮ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RFṮ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘obscenity, indecency, indecent action or speech, to behave in an obscene manner, sexual intercourse’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RFD رفد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Mar2023
    √RFD 
    “root” 
    ▪ RFD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RFD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RFD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘augmentation, addition; help, support, assistance; to deputise, a king’s deputy; to choose as a leader; share, portion, tributary’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RFRF رفرف 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Mar2023
    √RFRF 
    “root” 
    ▪ RFRF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RFRF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RFRF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to flutter, flap wings, shiver; flaps, frills, sheer material; tent, the flaps of a tent, pillows, carpets, fine furnishings; to glitter; to favour with gifts, provisions, a flock of sheep’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RFʕ رفع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Mar2023
    √RFʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ RFʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RFʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RFʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to raise, lift up, hoist, elevate, erect; to submit; to rise; to glorify, exalt, honour; to eliminate, remove; to cease, dry up’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RFQ رفق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Mar2023
    √RFQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ RFQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RFQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RFQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘elbow, to lean on, seek support, support o.s.; companion, husband, wife, to accompany; utilities, victuals; kind, to be kind, be gentle and compassionate’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RQː (RQQ) رقّ/رقق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21Mar2023
    √ RQː (RQQ) 
    “root” 
    ▪ RQː (RQQ)_1 ‘to be(come) thin, delicate, fine, tender, soft; to have pity, feel compassion’ ↗raqqa; ‘flat bread; waffles’ ↗ruqāq
    ▪ RQː (RQQ)_2 ‘turtle’ ↗¹raqq
    ▪ RQː (RQQ)_3 ‘parchment’ ↗²raqq
    ▪ RQː (RQQ)_4 ‘Rakkah (city in N Syria)’ ↗al-Raqqaẗ
    ▪ RQː (RQQ)_5 ‘slavery, bondage’ ↗¹riqq
    ▪ RQː (RQQ)_6 ‘tambourine’ ↗(EgAr) ²riqq

    Other values, now obsolete, include (Hava1899):

    RQː (RQQ)_7 ‘hot (day); desert’: raqāq
    RQː (RQQ)_ ‘...’: ...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘ownership, slavery; parchment, scroll, written record; thin, to thin out, be sheer, become tattered; to be weak, be tender; to be clear, glimmer’ 
    ▪ [gnrl] : With the exception of [v2] ‘turtle’ (and perh. [v7] ‘hot (day); desert’), all other values attached to √RQː (RQQ) seem to go back to the one basic notion of [v1] *‘thinness, softness’. ▪ [v1] : from protSem *RQQ ‘(to be/become) thin, fine, soft, tender’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ [v2] : MilitarevKogan2005 (SED II) #190 reconstruct Sem *raḳḳ‑ ‘turtle’
    ▪ [v3] : According to Jeffery1938 a borrowing from Gz raqq ‘parchment’, thus via Gz ultimately from the same origin as [v1] (parchment seen as the *‘thin material’).
    ▪ [v4] : The city name al-Raqqaẗ is from †raqqaẗ (pl. riqāq) ‘land regularly flooded by a river’,61 obviously on account of its marshy surroundings; cf. also †ruqāq ‘shallow water, low sea’. The term is akin to [v1] *‘thinness, softness’ (sc. of the flooded land).
    ▪ [v5] : Accord. to Ar lexicographers, one of the terms for ‘slaves’, raqīq, is based on riqqaẗ in the (now obsol.) sense of ‘abjectness, meanness, paltriness, contemptibleness’ (Lane iii 1867, quoting from Tāǧ al-ʕArūs), thus based on [v1], with a development *‘thin > weak > mean, contemptible’.
    ▪ [v6] : In EgAr, the ‘tambourine’ is called ²riqq, obviously due to the instrument’s covering with a thin, parchment-like membrane.
    [v7] : prob. akin to [v1], but the exact nature of the relation remains obscure.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ▪ [v1] BDB1906, Leslau2006 (CDG), Tropper2008: Akk raqāqu ‘to be thin’, Ug rq /raqqu/ ‘thin, fine’ (Tropper), ‘thin cake’ (Leslau), Hbr raq ‘thin’, Syr raqqᵊq (D) ‘to make thin’, Gz raqqa, raqaqa ‘to be subtle, soft, thin, slight’, raqīq ‘soft, subtle, minute, thin, slender, slight, immaterial’, Te räqqa, Tña räqäqä, Amh räqqäqä ‘to be thin, delicate’, Ar raqqa ‘to be thin; (fig.) to be weak, slender, scanty, etc.’, DaṯAr raqraqa ‘to render thin’.
    ▪ [v2] MilitarevKogan2005 (SED II) #190: Akk (from oBab onwards) raḳḳu (f.pl. ruḳḳētu), Syr raqqā, Mnd riqa, ‘turtle’, Ar raqq ‘grande tortue; espèce d’amphibie resemblant au crocodile’ (BK1860)
    ▪ [v3] (inner-Sem borrowing) via Gz akin to ↗[v1].
    ▪ [v4] : ↗[v1]
    ▪ [v5] : ↗[v1]
    ▪ [v6] : ↗[v1]
    [v7] : ↗[v1] ?
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ ...
     
    – 
    – 
    raqq- / raqaq- رَقَقْـ/رَقَّ , i (riqqaẗ
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 21Mar2023
    √ RQː (RQQ) 
    vb., I 
    1a to be or become thin, delicate, fine; b to be tender, soft; 2 to be pure, clear, limpid (water); 3 to soften, relent (li‑ toward s.o.), have pity, feel compassion, have sympathy (li‑ for) – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ From protSem *RQQ ‘(to be\come) thin, flat, fine, soft, tender’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ The notion of *‘thinness, softness’ is the basis from which most other values attached to √RQː (RQQ) have developed, see in particular ↗¹raqq ‘parchment’ (via Gz < *‘thin material’), ↗al-Raqqaẗ (city in NSyr, lit. ‘land regularly flooded by a river’, i.e., covered by “thin”, ‘shallow water’), ↗¹riqq ‘slavery, bondage’ (< *‘contemptible < weak < thin’), ↗EgAr ²riqq ‘tambourine’ (covered with a thin, parchment-like membrane).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ BDB1906, Leslau2006 (CDG), Tropper2008: Akk raqāqu ‘to be thin’, Ug rq /raqqu/ ‘thin, fine’ (Tropper), ‘thin cake’ (Leslau), Hbr raq ‘thin’, Syr raqqᵊq (D) ‘to make thin’, Gz raqqa, raqaqa ‘to be subtle, soft, thin, slight’, raqīq ‘soft, subtle, minute, thin, slender, slight, immaterial’, Te räqqa, Tña räqäqä, Amh räqqäqä ‘to be thin, delicate’, Ar raqqa ‘to be thin; (fig.) to be weak, slender, scanty, etc.’, DaṯAr raqraqa ‘to render thin’.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ ...
     
    – 
    raqqa la-hū qalbu-h, expr., he took pity on him

    raqqaqa, vb. II, 1a to make thin, thin out; b to refine, make fine, soft or tender, render delicate; c to flatten, roll out (esp. metal); 2 to polish, smooth, make elegant (one’s speech): D-stem, caus.
    ʔaraqqa, vb. IV, 1 to make thin, fine or tender, render delicate, refine; 2 to soften (the heart): *Š-stem, caus.
    taraqqaqa, vb. V, to soften, relent (li‑ toward s.o.), have pity, have sympathy (li‑ for), sympathize (li‑ with): tD-stem, intr. self-ref.
    ĭstaraqqa, vb. X, 1 to be thin, fine, delicate; 2 to soften; 3 ↗¹riqq: *Št-stem

    ²raqq, var. ³riqq, n., parchment
    EgAr ²riqq, n., tambourine
    riqqaẗ, n.f., 1a thinness; b slenderness, slimness; 2 fineness, delicateness, delicacy; 3a gentleness, mildness; b amiability, graciousness, friendliness: vn. I | riqqaẗ al-ḥāšiyaẗ, n.f., friendliness, courteousness, amiability; riqqaẗ al-šuʕūr, n.f., sensitivity, delicacy of feeling, tact; riqqaẗ al-ṭabʕ, n.f., kindness, gentleness, mild temper, friendliness; riqqaẗ al-mazāǧ, n.f., gentleness, mild temper
    ruqāq, n., 1 flat loaf of bread; 2 waffles
    BP#2695raqīq, pl. ʔariqqāʔᵘ, I n., 1 ↗¹riqq; 2 flat loaf of bread (neǧd); II adj., 1a thin; b slender, slim; 2 fine, delicate; 3a soft, tender, gentle; b sensitive, tactful, discreet, prudent | raqīq al-ḥāl, adj., poor, needy; raqīq al-ḥāšiyaẗ\al-ḥawāšī, adj., friendly, courteous, civil, amiable; raqīq al-šuʕūr, adj., sensitive; raqīq al-ṭabʕ, adj., kind, gentle, mild-tempered, friendly; raqīq al-mazāǧ, adj., gentlehearted
    raqīqaẗ, n.f., lamina, flake: nominalized quasi-PP I.f.
    ʔaraqqᵘ, adj., 1a thinner; b slimmer; 2 more delicate: el.
    mirqāq, n., rolling pin: n.instr.
    marqūq, n., thin, flaky pastry: nominalized PP I.

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹raqq, ↗²raqq, ↗al-Raqqaẗ, ↗¹riqq, ↗²riqq, ↗ruqāq, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗RQː (RQQ). 
    ¹raqq رَقّ, pl. ruqūq 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 21Mar2023
    √ RQː (RQQ) 
    n. 
    turtle – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ MilitarevKogan2005 (SED II) #190 reconstruct Sem *raḳḳ‑ ‘turtle’
    ▪ No obvious relation with any of the other values attached to ↗RQː (RQQ).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ MilitarevKogan2005 (SED II) #190: Akk (from oBab onwards) raḳḳu (f.pl. ruḳḳētu), Syr raqqā, Mnd riqa, ‘turtle’, Ar raqq ‘grande tortue; espèce d’amphibie resemblant au crocodile’ (BK1860)
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ ...
     
    – 
    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗raqqa, ↗²raqq, ↗al-Raqqaẗ, ↗¹riqq, ↗²riqq, ↗ruqāq, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗RQː (RQQ). 
    ²raqq رَقّ , var. ³riqq 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 21Mar2023
    √ RQː (RQQ) 
    n. 
    parchment – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ According to Jeffery1938 a borrowing from Gz raqq ‘parchment’, thus via Gz ultimately of the same origin as ↗raqqa ‘(to be\come) thin, soft’ (parchment seen as the *‘thin material’).
    ▪ EgAr ²riqq ‘tambourine’ is prob. called so due to the instrument’s covering with a thin, parchment-like membrane.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ eC7 (‘volume, scroll of parchment’) Q 52:(1-)3 wa-ṭ-ṭūri | wa-kitābin masṭūrin | fī raqqin manšūrin ‘By the Mount | And a Scripture inscribed | On fine parchment unrolled’
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ ↗raqqa
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »The Lexicons take the word from ↗raqqa ‘to be thin’ (LA, xi, 414), which is plausible enough, but there can be little doubt that it is a foreign word borrowed from the Eth [Gz],302 where raqq means ‘parchment’ (charta pergamena, membrana, Dillmann, Lex, 284), which translates Grk membránai in 2 Tim. iv: 13. It was an early borrowing and occurs many times in the old poetry.«
    ▪ ...
     
    – 
    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗raqqa, ↗¹raqq, ↗al-Raqqaẗ, ↗¹riqq, ↗²riqq, ↗ruqāq, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗RQː (RQQ). 
    al-Raqqaẗ الرّقّة 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 21Mar2023
    √ RQː (RQQ) 
    n.prop.geogr. 
    Rakka, name of a NSyr city on the Middle Euphrates 
    ▪ The city name al-Raqqaẗ is from †raqqaẗ (pl. riqāq) ‘land regularly flooded by a river’,62 obviously on account of its marshy surroundings; cf. also ruqāq ‘shallow water, low sea’. With this, the name is akin to ↗raqqa ‘(to be\come) thin, soft’ (sc. referring to the ‘thin’ layers of ‘soft’ soil that covers flooded land).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ ↗raqqa ▪ ...
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ ...
     
    – 
    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗raqqa, ↗¹raqq, ↗²raqq, ↗¹riqq, ↗²riqq, ↗ruqāq, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗RQː (RQQ). 
    ¹riqq رِقّ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 21Mar2023
    √ RQː (RQQ) 
    n. 
    quality or condition of being a slave, slavery, bondage – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ Accord. to Ar lexicographers, one of the terms for ‘slaves’, raqīq, is based on riqqaẗ in the (now obsol.) sense of ‘abjectness, meanness, paltriness, contemptibleness’ (Lane iii 1867, quoting from Tāǧ al-ʕArūs), thus based on ↗raqqa ‘(to be\come) thin, soft’, with an assumed development *‘thin > weak > mean, contemptible’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ ↗raqqa
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ ...
     
    – 
    ĭstaraqqa, vb. X, 1-2raqqa; 3 to enslave, make a slave: *Št-stem, desiderative
    BP#2695raqīq, pl. ʔariqqāʔᵘ, I n., 1 slave, slaves (sg. and coll.) | tiǧāraẗ al-raqīq, n.f., slave trade; 2raqqa); II adj., ↗raqqa

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗raqqa, ↗¹raqq, ↗²raqq, ↗al-Raqqaẗ, ↗²riqq, ↗ruqāq, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗RQː (RQQ). 
    EgAr ²riqq رِقّ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 21Mar2023
    √ RQː (RQQ) 
    n. 
    tambourine – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ In EgAr, the ‘tambourine’ is called ²riqq, obviously due to the instrument’s covering with a thin, parchment-like membrane, see ↗²raqq ~ ³riqq ‘parchment’, all dependent on ↗raqqa ‘(to be\come) thin, soft’, and ‘parchment, membrane’ seen as *‘thin material’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ ↗raqqa ▪ ...
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ ...
     
    – 
    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗raqqa, ↗¹raqq, ↗²raqq, ↗al-Raqqaẗ, ↗¹riqq, ↗ruqāq, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗RQː (RQQ). 
    ruqāq رُقاق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 21Mar2023
    √ RQː (RQQ) 
    n. 
    1 flat loaf of bread; 2 waffles – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ From ↗raqqa ‘(to be\come) thin, flat, fine, soft’, from protSem *RQQ ‘id.’
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ...
     
    raqqa ▪ ...
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ ...
     
    – 
    raqqaqa, vb. II, 1a to make thin, thin out; b to refine, make fine, soft or tender, render delicate; c to flatten, roll out (esp. metal); 2 to polish, smooth, make elegant (one’s speech): D-stem, caus. of ↗raqqa
    ʔaraqqa, vb. IV, 1 to make thin, fine or tender, render delicate, refine; 2 to soften (the heart): *Š-stem, caus. of ↗raqqa
    raqīqaẗ, n.f., lamina, flake: nominalized quasi-PP I.f. of ↗raqqa
    mirqāq, n., rolling pin: n.instr., from ↗raqqa
    marqūq, n., thin, flaky pastry: nominalized PP I ↗raqqa

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗raqqa, ↗¹raqq, ↗²raqq, ↗al-Raqqaẗ, ↗¹riqq, ↗²riqq, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗RQː (RQQ). 
    RQB رقب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RQB 
    “root” 
    ▪ RQB_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ RQB_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘neck, responsibility; slave, war prisoner; an elevated place, a watching post, to watch, to observe, to guard, to regard; to stand in awe of, to show deference, to pay attention to s.o.’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    raqabaẗ رَقَبَة 
    ID 333 • Sw 50/103 • BP 3859 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RQB 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    RQD رقد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Mar2023
    √RQD 
    “root” 
    ▪ RQD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RQD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RQD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘sleep, to sleep, lie down; sleeping place, bedding; grave, resting place; to be lazy, be phlegmatic; to settle in one place; to become tattered’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RQM رقم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 28Mar2023
    √RQM 
    “root” 
    ▪ RQM_1 ‘to mark, brand, imprint; to stripe (a fabric); to provide with points (a text)’ ↗raqama
    ▪ RQM_2 ‘numeral, number’ ↗raqm
    ▪ RQM_3 ‘inscription tablet; letter, message’ ↗¹raqīm

    Other values, now obsolete, include (Lane iii 1867, Hava1899):

    RQM_4 ‘calamity, misfortune, thing that one cannot accomplish or manage’: (bint al-) raqim (var. raqam, raqm)
    RQM_5 ‘meadow; side of a valley; reservoir; mellow’: raqmaẗ
    RQM_6 ‘plant of the class pentandria’: raqamaẗ
    RQM_7 ‘remaining, staying, dwelling, abiding, remaining fixed’ (as a f. epithet): raqūm
    RQM_8 ‘a certain serpent’: ʔarqamᵘ
    RQM_9 ‘(name of a beek?, or a mountain?, near Mecca?)’: al-Raqam
    RQM_ ‘...’: ...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘speckles, speckled snake, markings, stripes, writings, dotting, to mark, dot, write; a great number; side of the valley, place where flood waters gather’. 
    ▪ [v1] : According to Landberg1923, the basic value of ClassAr raqama is ‘to mark’, hence also raqm ‘marking, mark, chiffre’. When Kogan2015: 121 #24 reconstructs protSem *rḳm ‘to embroider’ he seems to give the evidence of the non-Ar cognates (Hbr, Pun, Aram Syr, Gz) prominence over the more general Ar ‘marking’. But we should prob. not exclude the possibility that Ar may have preserved the more original meaning, so that one could assume a protSem *‘to mark, brand’ from which several more specific notions (‘to variegate, embroider’, ‘to stripe’, ‘to put dots on s.th., provide a text with points’, ‘to mark with a price label’, etc.) then would derive.
    ▪ [v2] : The meaning ‘numeral, number’ of Ar raqm seems to be a specialisation from the more general [v1] ‘to mark’: *‘… > to put a mark (on a garment, or piece cloth) specifying its price, put a price-mark on s.th. > price-mark > number’. One may also think of derivation from ‘to inscribe’ (see [v3]).
    ▪ [v3] : Like [v2], also [v3] ‘inscription tablet; letter, message’ may be derived, as a specialisation, from the more general [v1] ‘marking’, along a hypothetical line of development *‘(to mark, make distinct ↔ to embroider) > to variegate, weave in colour > to paint figures on a tissue, or parchment > to make incisions, write on a clay/lead tablet > inscription tablet > message, letter’. However, the word al-raqīm is first attested not earlier than in the Qur’ān and may be a borrowing or a misreading there. – The meaning ‘to write’ of the vb. I raqama may be secondary, based on the interpretation of al-raqīm as ‘writing, inscription’.
    [v4] : According to DHDA, the value ‘calamity, misfortune’ is first attested (as raqam) in a verse by the pre-Isl poet al-ʔAʕšà in which he describes the intensity with which his poetry affects the audience. If akin to [v1], a ‘calamity, misfortune’ brought about by sharp verses may originally have been a *‘decisive mark’ left on the public. Or is a ‘calamity, misfortune’ a ‘predetermined destiny’, *‘inscribed’ in the heavenly document where all events ever to happen in the world are listed? In this case, the closest value would be [v3] ‘inscription’. One may, however, also think of ‘calamity, misfortune’ as s.th. as poisonous as the [v8] ʔarqamᵘ type of snake. An argument in favour of an association with [v3] ‘inscription’ is the expression dāhiyaẗᵘⁿ raqīmᵘⁿ where raqīm is not an adj., but a noun, coming as apposition qualifying the type of dāhiyaẗ as ‘…of the type of / equal to (that of) a raqīm’, i.e., as a predetermined destiny. raqīm can, however, also be used as an adj., as the f. form ²raqīmaẗ ‘intelligent (woman)’ shows. Is the meaning ‘intelligent’ from ‘calamity’ or from ‘snake’, intelligence in a woman seen as ‘misfortune’, or as ‘poison’?
    [v5] : Morphologically, the term raqmaẗ for ‘meadow; side of a valley; reservoir’ (Hava1899) is the f. of raqm and can therefore be suspected to depend on the latter and thus, ultimately, on [v1]. But how exactly? The more detailed and complex definition found in Lane iii 186763 does not help to clarify the term’s origin. Could the ‘side of a valley’ have been regarded as an *‘embroidery’? Or did the ‘place where water collects’ look like *‘speckles’ or *‘stripes’?
    [v6] : The ‘plant of the class pentandria’ (Hava1899) called raqamaẗ seems to have gotten this name because the five stamens in each flower may have looked like dots or speckles; if this is correct, the term is a development from [v1] *‘to mark, make look distinct’.
    [v7] : The FaʕūL pattern of the adj. raqūm implies the strong presence of a certain quality associated with √RQM in the woman who is described as raqūm, but it remains unclear to which of the other values attached to √RQM the meaning ‘remaining, staying, dwelling, abiding, remaining fixed’ should be connected.
    [v8] : The type of snake labelled with the el. adj. ʔarqamᵘ is prob. so called after its dotted or two-coloured skin’, cf. the value ‘speckled snake’ given in BAH2008 as one of the values attached to the root in ClassAr (DHDA has ‘male black-white-coloured snake’). – Cf. also [v4].
    [v9] : al-Raqam , as in yawm al-Raqam ‘the Battle of al-Raqam’, is said by ClassAr lexicographers to mean a ‘water’ (or possibly a mountain?) close to Mecca, in the lands of the Ġaṭafān tribe. The origin of the name is obscure.
     
    – 
    ▪ [v1] BDB1906, Zammit2002, Leslau2008 (CDG), Kogan2015: 121 #24 : Hbr rāqam ‘to variegate, weave in colour’, riqmāʰ ‘variegated stuff (woven or embroidered)’, rōqēm ‘variegator, worker\weaver in colours’, Pun rqm ‘to embroider’, Aram riqmᵊṯâ, riqmāṯâ ‘variegated cloth or skin, checks, spots’, Syr tarqᵊmāṯā ‘freckles’, Ar raqama ‘to embroider’, Gz raqama ‘to embroider, paint figures on parchment, (T.Y.M.) make incisions, write’126
    ▪ [v2] : ↗[v1] (or ↗[v3])
    ▪ [v3] : ↗[v1] (unless borrowed from an obscure source, or a misreading in the Qurʔān)
    [v4] : < [v1]? (or perh. [v3], or [v8]?)
    [v5] : < [v1]?
    [v6] : < [v1]?
    [v7] : ?
    [v8] : < [v1]
    [v9] : ?
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ For more details about values [v1], [v2] and [v3], see ↗raqama, ↗raqm, and al-raqīm
    ▪ ...
     
    – 
    – 
    raqam- رَقَمَ , u (raqm
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 28Mar2023
    √RQM 
    vb., I 
    1 to write; 2a to point, provide with points (a text); b to brand (a horse); c to imprint (a trace, a mark); d to mark; 3 to stripe (a fabric); 4 to number – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ [gnrl] : From among the four main values the vb. raqama can take in MSA, [v2] and [v3] seem to be older, while [v1] and [v4] prob. represent secondary developments. According to Landberg1923, the basic value of ClassAr raqama is [v2d] ‘to mark’ (as distinct, clearly standing out, etc.’), hence also raqm ‘marking, mark, chiffre’. Giving prominence to the Sem evidence outside Ar (Hbr, Pun, Aram Syr, Gz), Kogan2015: 121 #24 reconstructs protSem *rḳm ‘to embroider’, a value that is attested in ClassAr also for raqama. But ‘to mark, make look different, variegate’ may actually be the older value, from which ‘to embroider’ then would only be a specialisation. If Kogan is right, it is the other way round and ‘to mark’ is a generalisation based on the more specific ‘to embroider’.
    ▪ [v2] : Within [v2], value [v2c] ‘to imprint’ is only a variant of the basic [v2d], focusing on the result of ‘marking’ (i.e., leaving an imprint), and [v2b] ‘to brand’ represents a case of special use (‘marking’ horses etc.). The same may be true for [v2a] ‘to put (diacritical) points on a text’, unless it is secondary from [v1] ‘to write’ (see below).
    ▪ [v3] : The value ‘striping (a fabric)’ seems to be closely associated with tissues etc., thus in proximity to Kogan’s *‘embroidery’ and the value of RQM in other Sem languages. But one may also regard the ‘striping’ as a special form of the more general [v2d] ‘marking, making distinct’ (which, as we said above, may be the primary value).
    ▪ [v1] : The value ‘to write’ is prob. a secondary development, either based on [v2a] ‘to put (diacritical) points on a text’ or a denom. derivation from ↗al-raqīm, a term appearing for the first time in the Qurʔān (18:9) and traditionally held to mean ‘inscription tablet, writing, inscription’ (though the commentators were not sure about that and several other meanings have been suggested); the etymology of al-raqīm itself is not clear, but its FaʕīL (quasi-PP) form does not exclude the value *‘s.th. written; s.th. written upon’, which, ultimately, could be from *‘marking, making distinct’.
    ▪ [v4] : Like [v1], also [v4] ‘to number’ may either be another specialisation of [v2d] ‘to mark’ or denominative from ↗raqm ‘numeral, number’ (itself prob. based on [v2d]).
    ▪ For other values of, or akin to, raqama in ClassAr see root entry ↗RQM.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Lane iii 1867: raqama ‘to write (a writing, book, letter); to seal, stamp, print, impress; to mark the writing with the dots, or points, and make its letters distinct, or plain; (al-ṯawb) to figure, variegate, decorate the garment, or piece of cloth; to make it striped, mark with stripes; to figure, variegate, decorate with a certain, or known, figuring, variegation or decoration, such as became a mark thereof; (esp. also) to mark, put a mark (on a garment, or piece cloth) specifying its price, put a price-mark on s.th.; to mark s.th. so as to distinguish it from other things (e.g., by writing etc.); (hence:) zāda fī ’l-raqm, expr., to add to one’s tradition and lie (from raqm signifying the writing upon a garment or piece of cloth)’
    ▪ ... 
    ▪ BDB1906, Zammit2002, Leslau2008 (CDG), Kogan2015: 121 #24 : Hbr rāqam ‘to variegate, weave in colour’, riqmāʰ ‘variegated stuff (woven or embroidered)’, rōqēm ‘variegator, worker\weaver in colours’, Pun rqm ‘to embroider’, Aram riqmᵊṯâ, riqmāṯâ ‘variegated cloth or skin, checks, spots’, Syr tarqᵊmāṯā ‘freckles’, Ar raqama ‘to embroider’, Gz raqama ‘to embroider, paint figures on parchment, (T.Y.M.) make incisions, write’127
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ ...
     
    – 
    raqqama, vb. II, 1 to point, provide with points (a text); 2a to stripe, streak; b to rule; 3 to number: D-stem, denom./caus.

    BP#351raqm, pl. ʔarqām, n., 1a numeral; b number, No. | al-ʔarqām al-hindiyyaẗ, the numerals of the Arabs; raqm al-qiyās or al-raqm al-qiyāsī, record (athlet.), saǧǧala raqmᵃⁿ qiyāsiyyᵃⁿ , to set a record (athlet.)
    BP#3664raqmī, adj., 1a numerical; b digital: nsb-formation from raqm
    raqīm, n., 1a inscription tablet; b letter, message: traditionally seen as quasi-PP I; cf., however, also ↗s.v.
    mirqam, pl. marāqimᵘ, n., 1a drawing pencil, crayon; b (painter’s) brush: n.instr.
    tarqīm, n., 1 pointing; 2 numbering, numeration: vn. II
    marqūm, pl. marāqīmᵘ, n., striped blanket: nominalized PP I.

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗raqm and ↗¹raqīm as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√RQM. 
    raqm رَقْم , pl. ʔarqām 
    ID – • Sw – • BP 351 • APD … • © SG | 28Mar2023
    √RQM 
    n. 
    1a numeral; b number, No. – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ ‘Numeral; number’ is only one out of a larger variety of values the word raqm could take in ClassAr. According to Lane (iii 1867), raqm is, originally, a vn. of raqama ‘to mark, variegate, make look different, put diacritical points on s.th. written, ( hence also) to write’. Lane reproduces the ClassAr opinion that, from ‘writing’, the meaning developed further: »(hence:) raqm al-ṯawb, writing [or price-mark, etc.] upon a garment, or piece of cloth; (hence:) al-raqm al-hindī, the Indian notation of numerals, adopted by the Arabs; […]«. This explanation sounds rather modern, and Landberg1923 is prob. right when he thinks that, among the bedouins of the South, »le prix d’une marchandise n’est jamais marqué, car il n’y a pas de “prix fixe” […]; il faut marchander […].« Therefore, we would think that the sense of ‘numeral; number’ is secondary, a generalisation from al-ʔarqām al-hindiyya, originally perceived as *‘Indian marks, or characters’ of a diacritical (or variegating?) function, *‘making a difference’ or functioning as a kind of *‘embroidery’. The *‘Indian marks\signs’ became the ‘Indian numbers’ when the Arabs began to understand the function of the Indian characters. Finally, the ‘Indian numbers’ became the numbers\numerals in general. 
    ▪ ... 
    ▪ ↗raqama
    ▪ ... 
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ Landberg1923: DaṯAr raqam ‘superposer une chose sur une autre, poser sur, appliquer sur’ (to cover s.th. with s.th. else) : »raqam est ici une prononciation pour rakam [↗rakama] .... Les Bédouins de Sud ne connaissent pas le sens littéraire de raqama ‘marquer’, ni le subst. raqm ‘marque, chiffre’. Le prix d’une marchandise n’est jamais marqué, car il n’y a pas de “prix fixe” ...; il faut marchander ....«
    ▪ ... 
    – 
    al-ʔarqām al-hindiyyaẗ, the numerals of the Arabs;
    raqm al-qiyās or al-raqm al-qiyāsī, record (athlet.) | saǧǧala raqmᵃⁿ qiyāsiyyᵃⁿ , to set a record (athlet.)

    raqama, u (raqm), vb. I, 1-3 see ↗s.v.; 4 to number: G-stem, denom. (?)
    raqqama, vb. II, 1-2raqama; 3 to number: D-stem, denom./caus.

    BP#3664raqmī, adj., 1a numerical; b digital: nsb-formation from raqm
    tarqīm, n., 1raqama; 2 numbering, numeration: vn. II

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗raqama and ↗¹raqīm, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√RQM. 
    raqīm رَقيم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 28Mar2023
    √RQM 
    n. 
    1a inscription tablet; b letter, message – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ Given the fact that the term al-raqīm, as appearing in Q 18:9 in the context of the Qur’ānic story of the ‘People of the Cave’ (the “Seven Sleepers”), gave rise to controversial discussion among Muslim scholars, the word does not seem to have formed part of the common Ar vocabulary of the time, and it is therefore quite plausible to assume that, unless it was a misreading (as some Western scholars believe), it may well have been a borrowing from another language (some Muslim lexicographers thought it was Grk, meaning ‘writing’ or ‘inkhorn’). Those who tend to take it as a misreading, would emend the text into *DQYS ‘Decius’ (the name of the Roman emperor figuring in the Christian legend) or into *al-ruqād ‘…of the sleep’ (cf. ↗raqada). Other readings include the name of a place (village, valley, mountain?, close to modern ʕAmmān, or in the SPal desert?), or that of the dog that, according to tradition, accompanied the Seven Sleepers and is mentioned a few verses later (Q 18:17). Despite its unclear meaning, tradition nonetheless tends to derive it, as a quasi-PP I, from √RQM, similar or even identical in meaning with the kitāb marqūm ‘writing, inscription’ (mentioned in Q 83:9 and containing the genuine PP I, marqūm, not the quasi-PP of the FaʕīL pattern). DHDA, for instance, confirms that the Qur’ānic verse is the first attestation of the term, gives its meaning as ‘tablet written on’ (al-lawḥ al-maktūb fīh), thus, implicitly, likening it to the lead tablet on which, according to the Christian version of the story, the names of the Seven Sleepers were inscribed.
    ▪ If the word is genuine, from √RQM, and if the meaning ‘writing, inscription’ is correct, one will have to imagine a semantic development along the line *‘(to mark, make look different, distinct? >) to embroider > to variegate, weave in colour > to paint figures on a tissue, or parchment > to make incisions, write on a clay/lead tablet > inscription’. In view of the attested meanings of ↗raqama and its Sem cognates, such a development is not inconceivable.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q 18:9 ʔam ḥasibta ʔanna ʔaṣḥāba ’l-kahfi wa’l-raqīmi kānū min ʔāyāti-nā ʕaǧaban ‘Or deemest thou that the People of the Cave and the Inscription are a wonder among Our portents? (Pickthall)| Or do you consider the People of the Cave and the inscription are a wonder among Our signs? (McAuliffe)’
    ▪ ClassAr period (as summarized from Lane iii 1867): ‘(sky) figured\decorated with stars; book, writing; tablet of lead whereon were inscribed\engraved the names of the People of the Cave (commonly called the Seven Sleepers) and their ancestry, and their story, and their religion, and what it was from which they fled; mass of stone; stone tablet on which were insribed their names, and a which was put upon the entrance of the cave; (or) the town\village from which they came forth, (or) the mountain\valley in which was the cave; (or) their dog; receptable for ink (Ibn Durayd, with uncertainty as to its correctness); said to be of the language of the Greeks; tablet’
    ▪ ... 
    ▪ ↗raqama (unless a borrowing from an unknown source)
    ▪ ... 
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ Horovitz1926[=KU]: 95: »Q 18:8 heißen die Siebenschläfer ʔaṣḥāb al-kahf wa’l-raqīm. Clermont-Ganneau, Études d’archéologie orientale III: 295, wollte darin mit al-Muqaddasī die Ortschaft al-Raqīm im Ostjordanland unweit ʕAmmān sehen, wo sich eine Höhle befindet. Doch steht nichts weiter fest, als daß man in nachkoranischer Zeit den Ort – wenn es im Koran einer ist – dorthin verlegte, vgl. zur Kritik dieser Gleichsetzung auch Huber, Die Wanderlegende von den Siebenschläfern, 236ff. Eher ist vielleicht an die Bedeutung ‘Schrift’ zu denken, um so mehr als in Q 83:9 kitāb marqūm vorkommt und die bleiernen Tafeln, auf welche die Jünglinge ihre Namen schrieben, in den verschiedenen Texten ausdrücklich hervorgehoben werden (Guidi, Testi, 20, 70f. lawḥē men abrā; Cod. Sachau 321 lawḥē de abrā). Von den Deutungen, die die arabische Tradition sonst noch für al-raqīm gibt, ist die eine, derzufolge darin der Name des Q 18:17 erwähnten Hundes zu sehen sei, auch in einem dem ʔUmayya zugeschriebenen Verse zu finden (Fragment 8,2 Schulthess); er stimmt jedoch mit Q 18:8,17 so nahe überein, daß er als unecht gelten muß). Neuerdings will Torrey (A Volume of Oriental Studies Presented to E. G. Browne, 457f.) raqīm als Verlesung von dqym deuten, das seinerseits fälschlich für Syr dqys stehe, der syrischen Umschreibung des Namens Decius. Aber koranische Namensformen, die auf Verlesung beruhen, sind sonst nicht nachweisbar, und selbst wenn man grundsätzlich eine Entstehung koranischer Namen aus Verlesung für möglich halten sollte, so bliebe immer noch der Artikel unerklärt; daß Muḥammad ihn von sich aus einem fremden Eigennamen vorgesetzt hätte, stimmt ebenfalls nicht zu seiner sonstigen Gewohnheit. Auch wird im Verlauf der Erzählung von den Siebenschläfern selbst im Koran sonst kein einziger der Beteiligten mit Namen genannt.«
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »al-Raqīm is mentioned at the commencement of Muḥammad’s version of the story of the Seven Sleepers. The Commentators present the widest divergences as to its meaning. Some take it as a place-name, whether of a village, a valley, or a mountain. Some think it was a document, a kitāb or a lawḥ. Others consider it the name of the dog who accompanied the Sleepers; others said it meant an inkhorn, and some, as Ibn Durayd, admitted that they did not know what it meant. / Their general opinion is that it is an Ar word, a form FaʕīL from √RQM, but some, says al-Suyūṭī, Itq, 321, said that it was Grk, meaning either ‘writing’ or ‘inkhorn’ in that tongue. / The probabilities are that it is a place-name, and represents [Syr] rqm ḏgānā, otherwise known as rqm bmr brā ḏṣyn, a place in the desert country of S. Palestine,303 very much in the same district as the Muslim geographers place al-Raqīm.304 ,305 «
    ▪ Paret1980 (Konk.) 310: »Vielleicht ist das Wort im Sinn von “Inschrift” gemeint, wobei an die bleiernen Tafeln zu denken wäre, auf denen nach christlicher Überlieferung die Namen der Siebenschläfer verzeichnet waren« (i.e., perh. ‘inscription’, sc. on the lead tablet on which, acc. to Christian tradition, the names of the Sleepers were inscribed)
    ▪ Luxenberg2000: 65-67 suggests that al-raqīm is a misreading for al-ruqād and translates accordingly: ‘Meinst du etwa, daß die Leute der Höhle und des Schlafes unter unseren Zeichen wunderlich waren?’
    ▪ ...
     
    – 
    raqama, u (raqm), vb. I, 1 to write: G-stem, perh. denom.; 2-3raqama; 4raqm

    mirqam, pl. marāqimᵘ, n., 1a drawing pencil, crayon; b (painter’s) brush: n.instr., from ↗¹raqama

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗raqama and ↗raqm, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√RQM. 
    RQW/Y رقو/ي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 23Mar2023
    √RQW/Y 
    “root” 
    ▪ RQW/Y_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RQW/Y_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RQW/Y_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘sand dune, ladder, to climb, ascend, ascension, advance; a charm, a spell, incantation’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    taraqqiⁿ تَرَقٍّ 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 5Jun2023
    √RQY 
    n. 
    ▪ vn., V  
    ▪ Tu terakki ‘advancement, progress; increase, augmentation, growth; advancement of salary’ 1429 (Aḥmed b. Ḳāḍı-i Manyas, Gülistān tercümesi) günden güne teraḳḳī-ile [ilerleyerek] muḳarreb-i sulṭān [sultanın yakını] oldı. – Deriv: terakkiperver ‘progressive’ 1892 (Tıngır & Sinapian, Iṣṭılāḥāt Luġati) Progressiste [Fr.]: terakkiperver. Le parti progressiste: terakkiperver fırkası – NişanyanSözlük_2Jul2015. 
    RKB ركب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RKB 
    “root” 
    ▪ RKB_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ RKB_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘mount, to mount, to ride, to board, a travelling group, caravan, boat; to accumulate, to stack up; complex; to commit; knee, to injure one’s knee’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    rakib‑ رَكِبَ 
    ID 334 • Sw – • BP 3076 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RKB 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘to ride, drive’) Akk rkb (a), Hbr rkb a (a), Syr rkb e (a), SAr rkb ‘horseman’.
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    rukbaẗ رُكْبة , pl. rukab , ‑āt 
    ID 335 • Sw 47 • BP 6780 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RKB 
    n.f. 
    knee – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *birk‑ ‘knee’.
    ▪ Ultimately perh. … < AfrAs *rukub‑ ‘knee, thigh’ (as suggested by Orel&Stolbova1994) or, with metathesis (and vowel change Sem *i > Ar u), from a Sem *birk‑ (DRS 2, Orel&Stolbova)?
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: Within Sem, Ar rukbaẗ shows metathesis, cf. Akk birku, Hbr béreḵ, Aram burka, Gz berk ‘knee’. – Cf. also ↗baraka (vb.) ‘to kneel down’.
    ▪ Kogan2011: Akk birku, Ug brk, Hbr bäräk, Syr burkā, Gz bərk, Mhr bark ‘knee’.
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2133: Aram ʔarkūbā. – Outside Sem: rukufe ‘thigh’ in one CCh language. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: Sem *birk‑ ‘knee’.
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2133: Based on the word rukufe ‘thigh’ in one CCh language, and on the Arab evidence, the authors reconstruct Sem *rukb‑ ‘knee’ and CCh *rukub‑ ‘thigh’ and, thence, AfrAs *rukub‑ ‘knee, thigh’. 
    – 
    ʔabū ’l-rukab, n., dengue, breakbone fever (med.)  
    RKD ركد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 23Mar2023
    √RKD 
    “root” 
    ▪ RKD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RKD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RKD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to abate, stagnate, become still, become sluggish, stagnation, stillness’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RKZ ركز 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 23Mar2023
    √RKZ 
    “root” 
    ▪ RKZ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RKZ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RKZ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘mysterious sound, low indistinct sound, whisper; to stick, fix a pole in the ground; mineral deposits, gum; fixing point, position; brains, control’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RKS ركس 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 23Mar2023
    √RKS 
    “root” 
    ▪ RKS_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RKS_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RKS_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a group of people; to turn upside down or back-to-front, be inverted; to relapse, fall back; a bridge; a weak, indecisive person’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RKḌ ركض 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 23Mar2023
    √RKḌ 
    “root” 
    ▪ RKḌ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RKḌ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RKḌ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to beat, hit with legs or feet; the sides of an animal, to urge an animal to run by beating its sides with one’s legs; (of birds) to beat wings in flight, beat the ground with one’s feet, run fast, run away; to quiver’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RKʕ ركع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 23Mar2023
    √RKʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ RKʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RKʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RKʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to bow, kneel; to submit, surrender, yield; to regress, deteriorate in health, fall on hard times, become poor’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RKM ركم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 23Mar2023
    √RKM 
    “root” 
    ▪ RKM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RKM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RKM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘heap, heap up, gather, hoard, pile up; large herd; middle of the road’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RKN ركن 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 23Mar2023
    √RKN 
    “root” 
    ▪ RKN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RKN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RKN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘corner; power, might, to be mighty, strong ally, support, to find support in, lean upon, rely upon; family; calm, confident’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RMḤ رمح 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 23Mar2023
    √RMḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ RMḤ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RMḤ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RMḤ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘spear, lance, to lance; to gallop, beat the ground with two hoofs together’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RMD رمد 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RMD 
    “root” 
    ▪ RMD_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ RMD_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘dust, ashes, to become dusty, to become ashes, to become grey; to be famished, to perish, to become poor; eye disease’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ramād رَماد 
    ID 336 • Sw 83/4 • BP 3471 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RMD 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    RMZ رمز 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 23Mar2023
    √RMZ 
    “root” 
    ▪ RMZ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RMZ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RMZ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘sign, signal, nod, wink, gesture, motion, to signal, gesticulate, move lips or eyes without uttering a sound; to move, quiver’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RMḌ رمض 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RMḌ 
    “root” 
    ▪ RMḌ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ RMḌ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘extreme heat of midday sun, hot stones, to become very hot (of sand and ground), to burn one’s feet on sun-baked, stony ground; to have aches and pains; to become very thirsty; to bake inside hot ashes; to sharpen’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl Ramadanramaḍān
    – 
    ramaḍān رمضان 
    ID 337 • Sw – • BP?60 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RMḌ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Ramadan, from Ar ramaḍān, from ramaḍ ‘parchedness’, from ramiḍa ‘to be(come) scorched’. 
     
    RML رمل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RML 
    “root” 
    ▪ RML_1 ‘sand’ ↗raml
    ▪ RML_2 ‘(to be/become) a widow(er)’ ↗ʔarmalaẗ
    ▪ RML_3 ‘ramal’ (a metre in classical poetry) ↗ramal

    For other values, now obsolete, cf. "DISC" below. 

    ▪ A rather complex root in ClassAr, RML today shows only three major values. Of these, ‘(to be/become) a widow(er)’ is said to be dependent on ‘sand’ by indigenous lexicographers, but this seems to be wrong.
    ▪ The root is only scarcely represented in Sem (only ‘sand’ in modSAr), and not at all in AfrAs. It seems to be an Ar innovation. 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Classical dictionaries make RML_2 depend on RML_1: the notion of be(com)ing a widow(er) seems to be a secondary value, developed from an earlier ‘to be(come) poor, needy’, thought to be a metaphorical extension from ‘sand’ (< *‘to look like s.o. who is creeping in the sand’, because s/he is near starvation). But Kogan2011 gives another etymology, see ↗ʔarmalaẗ.
    ▪ In contrast, RML_3 ‘ramal’, the term for one of the metres of classical poetry, is said to derive from ramala, u (ramalān, ramal, marmal), vb. I, now extinct, with the meaning of (inter al.) ‘to go in a kind of trotting pace, between a walk and a run; to go quickly’ or from RML_4, see below and s.v. ↗ramal).

    Other notions attached to √RML and found in ClassAr include:
    ▪ RML_4 ‘to weave (thinly, a mat of palm-leaves, or the like)’: ramala u (raml), vb. I, ? hence also: ‘to ornament with jewels, precious stones, gems, etc.’
    ▪ RML_5 ‘to have little rain’: ramila a (ramal), vb. I, in ramilat al-sanaẗ : perhaps fig. use of ‘to run short (of provision), become poor’, but it may also be denom. from ramal, pl. ʔarmāl, n., ‘weak rain, little rain’. Connected to RML_1 ‘sand’ ?
    ▪ RML_6 ‘to lengthen, make long, wide (rope, cord)’: one of the many values of ʔarmala (vb. IV); cf. also ramal ‘redundance, excess (in a thing)’.
    ▪ RML_7 ramal ‘(black/white) lines, or streakes, upon the legs of the wild cow’; rumlaẗ, pl. rumal, ʔarmāl ‘diversity of colours upon the legs of the wild bull; black line, or streak (upon the back and thighs of a gazelle)’; ʔarmalᵘ ‘(= ʔablaqᵘ) black and white’. – Connected to RML_1 ‘sand’ ?
    ▪ RML_8 ʔurmūlaẗ ‘stump of (the plant, tree, called) ʕarfaǧ, stock, stem’.

    ▪ Also from RML_1 ‘sand’ or, more precisely, the denom./caus. vb.s II rammala ‘to put sand into s.th. (food)’ (and hence contaminate) and IV ʔarmala ‘to become sandy; cleave to the sand’ are such specialised meanings as (II) ‘to smear (with blood)’ (probably < ‘sprinkle blood on s.th. like sand’), ‘to adulterate, corrupt, render unsound (speech)’ (<… like contaminating food by put sand into it) and (IV) ‘to be smeared with blood (arrow, the claws of a lion, etc.)’. – The value ‘geomancy’ derives from the fact that a kind of divination was practised by means of figures or lines in the sand. 

    – 
    – 
    raml رَمْل , pl. rimāl 
    ID 338 • Sw 78/126 • BP 2095 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RML 
    n. 
    sand – WehrCowan1979. 
    Not secured whether the word is Sem or an Ar innovation. If the former, one could follow TB2007 in reconstructing Sem *raml‑ ‘sand’. In ClassAr the derivational register is much richer than in MSA. – The word may also be the etymon of other values of ↗√RML, particularly the complex around ‘widow’ (↗ʔarmalaẗ). 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ TB2007 #3181: SAr rml ‘building sand’ (?), ? Gz ramal ‘sand’ (perhaps from Ar), Mhr rátmǝl ‘to be covered with sand’, ramlēt ‘sand; soil, dust’, Jib C rōl ‘to roll in the dust, to lie in wait’, E rǝmlɛ́t, C rɛ̄l ‘sand’, Soq rǝ́mɔl ‘to lie hidden crouch down’, rémol ‘s’étendre’ (perhaps denom. from ramal ‘sand’; le verbe aurait le sens ‘se coucher sur le sable’). 
    ▪ TB2007 #3181: On account of what seem to be cognates in the modSAr languages (and perhaps also Gz), the authors reconstruct Sem *raml‑ ‘sand’.
    ▪ For raml possibly being the etymon of other values of √RML, see ↗RML. 
    – 
    ʕilm al-raml, ḍarb al-raml, n., geomancy (divination by means of figures or lines in the sand)
    ʔumm rimāl, n., hyena.

    rammala, vb. II, to sprinkle with sand (s.th., so as to blot it): denom.
    ramlī, adj., sandy, sabulous; sand (in compounds): nsb-adj | sāʕaẗ ramliyyaẗ, n., sandglass, hourglass.
    rammāl, n., geomancer: n.prof., lit. ‘the thrower of sand, sand man’.
    mirmalaẗ, n.f., sandbox: n.loc./instr. 

    ramal رمَل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RML 
    n. 
    ramal (name of a poetical metre) [6 times fā-ʕi-lā-tun, i.e., – ᴗ – – ] – WehrCowan1979. 
    Arab lexicographers derive the name of one of the classical metres of poetry from a vb. I, now extinct, ramala u which, apart from meanings relating to ↗raml ‘sand’, in ClassAr also can mean either ‘to weave (thinly, a mat of palm-leaves, etc.)’ or ‘to walk quickly’. From our present state of knowledge it is difficult to decide whether there may be some truth at least to one of these etymologies. The fact that ramal sometimes is classified as an insound, somehow “contaminated” type of poetry, does not bring much more light into the word’s etymology. 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ »The name, according to the Arab view, […] is said to mean either “haste” or “woven” (Freytag, Darstellung der arab. Verskunst, p. 136)«.306
    ▪ Some theoreticians of Classical verse classify poetry in three main modes—qaṣīd, raǧaz, and ramal —and regard the latter as »incongruous, unsound, or faulty, in structure« (Lane 3-1867). Is ramal then a kind of “contaminated” poetry? In this case, one could think of a relation with ↗raml ‘sand’ from which, among others, rammala (vb. II) ‘to sprinkle s.th. with sand, so as to blot it’, in ClassAr also ‘to put sand into s.th.’, e.g., food, and hence contaminate it, or ‘to adulterate, corrupt, render unsound’ (said of speech), are derived. 
    – 
     
    ʔarmalaẗ أرْملة , pl. ʔarāmilᵘ , ʔarāmilaẗ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RML 
    n.f. 
    widow – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ If Kogan2011 is right, the word derives from protSem *ʔalman-at‑ ‘widow’. In this case, indigenous Ar etymology which makes the word dependent on raml ‘sand’ should probably be dismissed. Ar lexicographers regard ‘widow’ as a semantic extension: ‘sand’ > ‘to cleave to the sand’ > ‘to look (so poor and needy) like s.o. who is cleaving to the sand because his traveling provisions are exhausted’ > ‘to be in need of s.o. who provides for o.s.’ >, ‘to be a widow’ (because widows are in need of s.o. to provide for them).
    ▪ An explanation of this evidence could be that with the gradual mutation, in Ar, of a Sem *ʔalman-at‑ to ʔarmal-aẗ, the original value of *LMN ‘to be without/in need of support’ began to overlap with Ar RML ‘sand’, ‘be covered with sand’, ‘creep in the sand’, ‘look sandy’, etc., so that the explanation of ‘being in need of support’ as derived from ‘being destitute, look poor like s.o. covered with sand’ seemed plausible to the Arab lexicographers. 
    For the ClassAr dictionaries, the primary value of ʔarmalᵘ (as well as the PA IV, murmil) is (Lane iii-1867) ‘a man whose provisions, or travelling-provisions, have become difficult to obtain, or exhausted, or consumed, and who has become poor’, hence also the more general meaning ‘needy, needing, in want’ and even ‘destitute, indigent’, the pl. ʔarāmilᵘ and ʔarāmilaẗ being applied also to ‘men without women, or women without men, after they have become in need or want’. While the m. does not seem, in ClassAr, to be used (in the sg. at least) with the specific meaning ‘widower’, the f. ʔarmalaẗ can mean ‘woman having no husband’ (in general) and, more specifically, ‘widow’. Wherever ʔarmalᵘ nevertheless means ‘widower’ this is regarded by many authorities to be »cases of deviation from the usual course of speech [▪ …] because the man’s provision does not go in consequence of the death of his wife, since she is not his maintainer, whereas he is her maintainer«. 
    Kogan2011: Akk almattu 128 , Ug ʔalmnt, Hbr ʔalmānā, Syr ʔarmaltā ‘widow’ 
    ▪ Classical dictionaries make ʔarmalaẗ depend on ↗raml ‘sand’: for them, the notion of be(com)ing a widow(er) seems to be a secondary value, developed from an earlier ‘to be(come) poor, needy’. For the vb. IV ʔarmala, for example, Lane 3 (1867) gives ‘to become sandy’, hence (!) ‘to become poor’ [as though cleaving to the sand], ‘to become s.o. whose travelling-provisions became difficult to obtain, [… or] exhausted, or consumed’, and hence (!) ‘to become an ʔarmalaẗ (said of a woman), i.e., without a husband’ »because of her being in need of one to expend upon her«.
    ▪ Kogan2011 reconstructs Sem *ʔalman-at‑ ‘widow’ and thinks that the Syr and Ar forms (that show ‑r‑ instead of *‑l‑) »must be related with a mutation of sonorants.«
    ▪ Given, on the one hand, the wider Sem dimension and the old age of the meaning ‘woman without support, widow’ proper, and, on the other hand, the abundance of instances in ClassAr where the lack of support is associated with the “creeping in the sand” of those miserable who have come in a situation of need, we may be confronting a case of semantic overlapping and contamination here in which two originally distinct roots, *LMN and *RML, have merged, with *LMN mutating, phonologically, to RML and the sense of ‘lack of support’ intersecting and eventually being integrated into that of ‘sand’. 
    – 
    ʔarmala, vb. IV, to become a widower or a widow: denom. (?).
    tarammala, vb. V, = IV.
    ʔarmalᵘ, pl. ʔarāmilᵘ, n., widower: (secondary?) m. of ʔarmalaẗ.
    tarammul, n., widow(er)hood: vn. V. 
    RMN رمن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RMN 
    “root” 
    ▪ RMN_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ RMN_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to mend, to patch up; animal halter; to decay, decayed remnants, rotten and decayed bones.’ – The word rummān is classified by the philologists under this root and also under root RMː(RMM). 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    rummān رُمّان 
    ID 339 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RMN 
    n. 
    pomegranate – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q 6:99, 6:141, 55:68 ʻpomegranate’ 
    Orel&Stolbova1994#2122: Akk lurmu, Hbr rimmōn. – Outside Sem: Eg rrm.t ‘fruit’ (NK). 
    ▪ Jeffery1938, 144-45: »The generally accepted opinion among the Muslim authorities is that it is a form fuʕlān from ↗√RMː (RMM) (cf. Rāghib, Mufradāt, 203), but some had considerable doubts about it as we see from LA, xv, 1 48; and Jawharī, sub voc. – Guidi, Della Sede, 582, noted it as a loan-word in Ar, and Fraenkel, Fremdw, 142, suggested that it was derived from the Syr rūmanā, the Ar form being built on the analogy of tuffāḥ. As the Eth [Gz] rōmān and the Phlv ideogram rōramnā or romanā,307 are of Aram origin we may assume the same for Ar rummān, but the ultimate origin of the word is still uncertain.308 It occurs in Hbr as רמון, in Aram רימונא and רומנא, as well as Mandaean רומאנא,309 but appears to be non-Semitic.310 Horovitz, Paradies, 9, thinks that if it is true that the pomegranate is a native of Socotra we may have to look in that direction for the origin of the word. It is, of course, possible that it is a pre-Semitic word taken over by the Semites. (See Laufer, Sino-Iranica, 285.)«
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2122: From Sem *rimān‑ ‘granate’ < AfrAs *riman‑ ‘fruit’. If Eg rrm.t ‘fruit’ (NK) really is cognate, then it would show both assimilation of liquida and metathesis. 
    – 
    rummānaẗ, n.f., knob, pommel; (pl. ‑āt). | r. yadawiyyaẗ, n., hand grenade. 
    RMY رمي 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RMY 
    “root” 
    ▪ RMY_1 ‘to throw, cast’ ↗ramà
    ▪ RMY_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ RMY_3 ‘…’ ↗

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to throw, to cast, to cast away, to throw off; to shoot at, to hunt, target, aim, projectiles; to come in succession; to accuse, to defame; share, usury’ 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    … 
    ramà / ramay‑ رَمَى / رَمَيْـ , ī (ramy
    ID … • Sw … • BP 2645 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RMY 
    vb., I 
    1a to throw, cast; to fling, hurl; 1b to toss away, throw down; 2 to throw aside, toss aside, discard, lay aside; 3a to shoot, fire; 3b to pelt, hit, bombard, shoot, fire; 4 to charge, accuse, blame, reproach; to aim, drive, be aimed (at), have in view, purpose, intend, be out for – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ The original meaning ‘to throw, cast’ has taken additional notions, both concrete (‘to shoot, fire’) and metaphorical (‘to discard'; to throw accusations upon s.o. = ‘to charge, accuse, blame’). In the act of throwing, aiming is included, thence ‘to aim, have in view, intend, etc.’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘to shoot, throw’) Akk (ramû ‘to loosen, become weak’, rammû ‘to release, untie, remove’), Hbr rāmā (ē), Syr rmā (ē), Gz ramáya (ipfv yérmī).
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2097: Akk ramû, Hbr rmy, Ar rmy. – Outside Sem: (ECh) ram, rame ‘throw’; ram ‘shoot’.
     
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2097: For the Akk, Hbr and Ar forms, the authors reconstruct a common ancestor in portSem *r˅m˅y‑ ‘to throw, shoot’, which has to be assumed as being based on *r˅m‑, since none of the ECh COGNates (ram, rame ‘throw'; ram ‘shoot'; < ECh *ram‑) shows an extension in *‑y. The AfrAs ancestor is to be reconstructed as *ram‑ ‘throw’.
     
    … 
    … 
    RHB رهب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RHB 
    “root” 
    ▪ RHB_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ RHB_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘emaciated or fatigued she-ʕamel; to fear, to dread, to frighten, to threaten; monk, the state of being a monk, monasticism; small bone in the breast opposite the arm (the ensiform cartilage); sleeve’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ʔirhāb إِرْهاب 
    ID 340 • Sw – • BP 741 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RHB 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    RHF رهف 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 23Mar2023
    √RHF 
    “root” 
    ▪ RHF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RHF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RHF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘group of people, particularly men, under ten in number; a person’s family or tribe; mound covering one of the entrance to the jerboa’s tunnels; to take large mouthfuls’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RHQ رهق 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RHQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ RHQ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ RHQ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘lying, weak-mindedness; to approach, to cover, to overshadow, to eclipse, to catch up with; to reach adolescence; to be impetuous, to be peevish; to distress, to oppress, to humiliate’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    murāhaqaẗ مُراهَقَة 
    ID 341 • Sw – • BP 4536 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RHQ 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    RHN رهن 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 23Mar2023
    √RHN 
    “root” 
    ▪ RHN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RHN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RHN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘pledge, security, pawn, to place as security; hostage, to give as hostage; to venture, risk, wager; binding, to be subject to; to make constant’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RHW رهو 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 23Mar2023
    √RHW 
    “root” 
    ▪ RHW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RHW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RHW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be still, be calm, peaceful, tranquillity; to be wide, be ample; to go in succession; to enable; a ditch’. Some philologists consider rahw of Syr or Nab origin. 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RWD رود 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 24Mar2023
    √RWD 
    “root” 
    ▪ RWD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RWD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RWD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘scout, person scouting for pasture land, to scout, reconnoitre, search, seek; will, to want, covet; to soften up, dissuade, entice, tempt; handle, applicator’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RWʕ روع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 24Mar2023
    √RWʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ RWʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RWʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RWʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘fright, to frighten, take fright; to scare, alarm, surprise; to impress with beauty, fire the imagination, be inspired; to be extreme (in beauty); heart/soul/mind’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RWĠ روغ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 24Mar2023
    √RWĠ 
    “root” 
    ▪ RWĠ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RWĠ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RWĠ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to deviate, swerve, dodge, go by a side road, trick, a fox, to fox; to want; to approach, come over; to hide’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RWM روم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 24Mar2023
    √RWM 
    “root” 
    ▪ RWM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RWM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RWM_3 ‘Byzantine Romans’ ↗Rūm

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): proper name of Roman origin, used collectively, occurring once in the Qur’an: ‘Byzantine Romans, citizens of the Eastern Roman Empire (30:2-3)’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RWḤ/RYḤ روح / ريج 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RWḤ/RYḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ RW/YḤ_1 ‘to go’ ↗rāḥa
    ▪ RW/YḤ_2 ‘wind’ ↗rīḥ
    ▪ RW/YḤ_3 ‘spirit, soul’ ↗rūḥ
    ▪ RW/YḤ_4 ‘palm (of hand)’ ↗rāḥaẗ
    ▪ RW/YḤ_5 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ RW/YḤ_6 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008, s.r. RWḤ): ‘wind, to blow, to fan; smell, scent, fragrant shrubs to sniff; to decay, to smell rotten; soul, spirit, the jinn, the angels; the evening, to go home, to return after the day’s toil, to bring livestock home, to rest; great herds of animals, to pasture, grazing place; to depart, to walk away, to commence travelling; might, power, victory; mercy, bounty, pleasure, children; to do intermittently, to interchange’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl racket cf. perh. ↗rāḥaẗ
    – 
    rāḥ‑ / ruḥ‑ راحَ / رُحْـ 
    ID 343 • Sw – • BP 113 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RWḤ / RYḤ 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    rīḥ رِيح 
    ID 346 • Sw –/191 • BP 1235 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RWḤ / RYḤ 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: There is no protSem term for ‘wind’, but derivates of the root *rwḥ are common in CSem, which probably reflects the protWSem picture. Cf. also protSem *npš ‘to blow’ > Ar nafas ‘breath’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
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    rūḥ رُوح 
    ID 345 • Sw – • BP 389 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RWḤ / RYḤ 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
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    – 
     
    rāḥaẗ راحَة 
    ID 344 • Sw –/66 • BP 1476 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RWḤ / RYḤ 
    n.f. 
    palm of the hand…. – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *rāḥ‑at‑ ‘palm’, synonym of *kapp‑ (> Ar ↗kaff).
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl racket1, from Ar rāḥat, bound form of rāḥaẗ ‘palm of the hand’. 
     
    ĭstirāḥaẗ اِسْتِراحَة 
    ID 342 • Sw – • BP 4886 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RWḤ / RYḤ 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    RYB ريب 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 24Mar2023
    √RYB 
    “root” 
    ▪ RYB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RYB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RYB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘calamities; doubts, to suspect, entertain; to accuse, alarm’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    RYŠ ريش 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 24Mar2023
    √RYŠ 
    “root” 
    ▪ RYŠ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RYŠ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RYŠ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘feathers, plumage, to fix feathers to (e.g. arrows); to be affluent, fine clothes and furnishings; to be hospitable; to bribe’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
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    RYḌ ريض 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RYḌ 
    “root” 
    ▪ RWḌ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ RWḌ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘greenery with waters and foliage, meadows, gardens, wide open places with water and vegetation, bottom of the valley covered with plants and drinkable water; to tame, to train; to exercise, to practise’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
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    riyāḍaẗ رِياضَة 
    ID 347 • Sw – • BP 704 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RWḌ 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    RYʕ ريع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 24Mar2023
    √RYʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ RYʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RYʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RYʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘mountain, heights, roads; growth, to give a great yield; to return, recur; to run, spread; early stages (e.g. of youth)’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
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    RWY روي 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RWY 
    “root” 
    ▪ RWY_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ RWY_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    rawà / raway‑ رَوَى / رَوَيْـ 
    ID 349 • Sw – • BP 1994 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RWY 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protWSem *rwy ‘abundance of water’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
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    – 
     
    riwāyaẗ رِواية , pl. ‑āt 
    ID 348 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 1182 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RWY 
    n.f. 
    1 tale, narrative; 2 report account; 3 story; 4 novel; 5 play, drama; 6 motion picture, film – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
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    – 
    riwāyaẗ būlīsiyyaẗ, detective story
    riwāyaẗ muḥzinaẗ, tragedy
    riwāyaẗ masraḥiyyaẗ, play, stage play
    riwāyaẗ sīnamāʔiyyaẗ, motion picture, film
    riwāyaẗ muḍḥikaẗ, comedy
    riwāyaẗ ġināʔiyyaẗ, opera
    riwāyaẗ qiṣaṣiyyaẗ or qaṣaṣiyyaẗ, novel
    riwāyaẗ tamṯīliyyaẗ, play, drama
    riwāyaẗ nāṭiqaẗ, sound film
    riwāyaẗ hazliyyaẗ, comedy.
     
    RYF ريف 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RYF 
    “root” 
    ▪ RYF_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ RYF_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ,,, 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    rīf رِيف 
    ID 350 • Sw – • BP 3804 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √RYF 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    RYN رين 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 24Mar2023
    √RYN 
    “root” 
    ▪ RYN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RYN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ RYN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘filth, rust; to cover, engulf, seal, overwhelm, overpower, prevail’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
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    zāy زاي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ 
    R₁ 
    The letter z of the Arabic alphabet. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Englcedilla, izzard, zed, zeta, from Grk zēta, alteration (influenced by the following letter ēta ‘eta’) of Phoen *zēn, seventh letter of the Phoen alphabet; zayin, from Hbr zayin, from alteration of Phoen *zēn (see above); cf. Ar zāy
     
    zāǧ زاج 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZāǦ, ZWǦ 
    n. 
    vitriol – WehrCowan1979. 
    From Pers zāǧ ‘sulfate, vitriol (sulphuric acid), alum’ – Rolland2014a. 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
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    – 
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    zār زار 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZāR, ZWR 
    n. 
    name for a popular cult of spirits found in northeastern Africa and such adjacent regions as the Arabian peninsula – art. »zār« (A. Rouaud, T. Battain), in EI²
    ▪ »The zār ritual or practice seems to have originated in the Horn of Africa and, especially, in Ethiopia. According to E. Cerulli, the word (Ar zār, Amh zar, Som saar, etc.) may be said to derive from “the name of the supreme god of the pagan Cushitic peoples, the Sky-God called in Agaw (Bilen) ǧār, and in the Sidamo languages (Kaffa) yarō and (Buoro) darō ”. The Italian scholar further thought that, in the context of Ethiopian Christianity, this god must have been reduced to the role of an evil spirit, one which has been likewise retained among the Muslims and, probably, among the Falasha. These propositions do not provide answers to all the questions involved, but are still of value in so far as they have not been replaced by more information. Etymologies deriving zār from the Ar vb. zāra “to visit” seem fantastic, although current in Arab milieux« – art. »zār« (A. Rouaud, T. Battain), in EI².
    ▪ »a religious custom apparently originating in the Horn of Africa during the 18th century and later spreading throughout East and North Africa. Zār custom involves the possession of an individual (usually female) by a spirit. It is also observed in Egypt, Sudan, Somalia, southern Iran and elsewhere in the Middle East. / […] / The zār cult served as a refuge for women and effeminate men in conservative, Muslim-dominated Sudan. / In Ethiopia, zār also refers to malevolent demons. [… M]ental illness is often attributed to zār possession« – en.wiki 
    – 
    DRS 8 (1999)#[ZAR]: Te Tña Amh Gur zar, Ar zār ‘esprit mauvais’, Soq zehereh ‘sorcière’. 
    DRS 8 (1999)#[ZAR]: Ar < EthSem < Cush *‘sky; Sky-God’ 
    – 
    – 
    ZBD زبد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 24Mar2023
    √ZBD 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZBD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZBD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZBD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘froth, foam, scum; butter; essence; to be angry’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ZBR زبر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 24Mar2023
    √ZBR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZBR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZBR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZBR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘stone, to line the inside of a well with stone; inscribing on stone, reading, writing, written record; stamina, patience, intelligence’ 
    ▪ The word zabūr ‘psalter’, which is conveniently classified under this root, is a borrowing either from Syr or Hbr – BAH2008.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ZBRǦD زبرجد 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZBRǦD 
    “root” 
    ZBRǦD_1 ‘green jewels, chrysolite, topaz’ ↗zabarǧad 
    ▪ … 
    – 
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    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    zabarǧad زَبَرْجَد 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZBRǦD 
    n. 
    green jewels, cut from chrysolite or peridot – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ From Pers zabarǧad (Rolland2014a). 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZMRGD: a [ZMRGD], nHbr ʔizmaragd , Syr zamargᵊda, Ar zabarǧad, Gz zamaragd. – b [ZMRD] JP zᵊmōrad, ʔizmīrad, Syr zumrud, Ar zumurrud, Gz zamrud ‘émeraude’. 
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZMRGD-a: From Grk smáragdos. »Une autre étymologie propose la dérivation inverse, du Sem au Grk (Akk barraqt-, Hbr baräqät, etc., racine BRQ, v.s., ‘briller’)«. In a similar vein, an origin in Skr marak(a)ta-m ‘emerald’ has been both proposed and contested; »pour Zimmern[1914] […] et aujourd’hui selon Xavier Tremblay (communication personnelle), Skr marak(a)tam est au contraire un emprunt ancien au Sem, de même que Grk smáragdos est un emprunt plus récent, à moins que le Skr ne soit un archaïsme savant fondé sur le prâkrit emprunté au Grk.« 
    – 
    – 
    ZBN زبن 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 24Mar2023
    √ZBN 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZBN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZBN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZBN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to push, kick; to sell dates on the tree by estimating their quantity; to divert, keep good things away’. 
    zabāniyaẗ is considered by some as a borrowing from either Akk or Syr – BAH2008
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ZǦː (ZǦǦ) زجّ / زجج 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZǦː (ZǦǦ) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZǦː (ZǦǦ)_1 ‘ferrule, arrow-, spearhead’ ↗zuǧǧ
    ▪ ZǦː (ZǦǦ)_2 ‘to throw, hurl; to push, urge, drive; to press, squeeze, force’ ↗zaǧǧa
    ▪ ZǦː (ZǦǦ)_3 ‘having beautifully arched eyebrows; to pencil (eyebrows)’ ↗ʔazaǧǧᵘ
    ▪ ZǦː (ZǦǦ)_4 ‘glass’ ↗zuǧāǧ

    Other values, now obsolete, include:
    • ZǦː (ZǦǦ)_5 ‘to run (ostrich)’ : zaǧǧa u (zaǧǧ)
    • ZǦː (ZǦǦ)_6 ‘point/tip of the elbow’ : zuǧǧ
    • ZǦː (ZǦǦ)_7 ‘to produce a dull sound, mumble, murmur, cry’: zaǧǧa ; ‘drum’: zinǧ
    • ZǦː (ZǦǦ)_8 ‘berries; glass-vessels of the clove-tree; pellitory, wall-wort’ : (ḥašīšaẗ al-) zaǧāǧ

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘iron base of a spoon; arrow head; arching eyebrow; glass’. – zuǧāǧaẗ is regarded by some as a borrowing from Syr. 
    ▪ Out of the 6 values listed for Sem √ZGG in DRS, only 4 are represented in Ar; of these, 3 have survived into MSA.
    ▪ Apart from ZǦː (ZǦǦ)_4 (zuǧāǧ ‘glass’), which seems to be of Aram (< Phoen?) origin, at least one other item—ZǦː (ZǦǦ)_1 (zuǧǧ ‘ferrule, arrow-, spearhead’) —is probably a loanword (from a Pers word for arrows with pointed arrow-heads). On zuǧǧ ‘arrow-head’ and zuǧāǧ ‘glass’ seem to depend a number of secondary values: from ‘arrow-head’ are probably ZǦː (ZǦǦ)_2 ‘to throw, hurl; to push, urge, drive; to press, squeeze, force’ (see DISC, below) and ZǦː (ZǦǦ)_6 ‘point of the elbow’ (probably just a metaphorical use: an elbow as pointed as an arrow-head), while ZǦː (ZǦǦ)_8 ‘glass-vessels of the clove-tree’ with all likelihood is related to, if not identical with, ‘glass’. However, little research has been done on the root so far, and the relations suggested here are far from being established.
    ▪ The etymologies of ZǦː (ZǦǦ)_3 (ʔazaǧǧᵘ ‘having beautifully arched eyebrows’) and ZǦː (ZǦǦ)_5 (zaǧǧa ‘to run’, said of an ostrich)’ remain quite obscure.
    ▪ ZǦː (ZǦǦ)_7: Acc. to DRS without doubt based on a Pers etymon.
     
    – 
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZGG-1 Hbr zāg, TargAram zaggā, zuggā ‘peau de raisin’. -2 Syr zag ‘tinter (oreille); crier’, zənāgā ‘tintement, bruit; chœur’, Ar zaǧǧa ‘produire un bruit sourd, murmurer, crier’, zinǧ ‘tambour’. -3 Ar zaǧǧa ‘frapper avec le bout de la lance’, zuǧǧ ‘ferrure au bout de la lance, fer de flèche, pointe du coude’, MġrAr zəǧǧ ‘pousser’, tzəǧǧəǧ ‘se pousser mutuellement, se battre (chameaux)’, HispAr zaǧǧ ‘donner un coup de poing’, zuǧǧ ‘poing’, ʕAnâze zaǧǧ ‘jeter, vider’, DaṯAr zaǧǧ ‘boire d’un trait’. -4 zaǧǧa ‘être fin, allongé (sourcil)’, EgAr zaggig ‘se faire les sourcils (au crayon)’. -5 Ar zaǧǧa ‘courir’, HispAr zaǧǧaǧ ‘sortir en courant’, Malt zegg ‘glisser, patiner’, Jib zegg ‘courir’, Soq n-zgzg ‘marcher vite’, Mhr Soq zəg ‘changer de route’. -6 Te zəgaga ‘scrofules’, Tña zəgag : sorte de maladie. 
    ▪ ZǦː (ZǦǦ)_1 zuǧǧ (pl. zuǧāǧ, ClassAr ziǧāǧ, ziǧaǧaẗ) ‘ferrule, arrow-, spearhead’: acc. to Rolland2014a, the word is from Pers zuǧ ‘flèche dont le fer est en corne ou en ivoire, flèche courte, sans plumes’ (Steingass1892: ‘bone-headed arrow, very short arrow’). In ClassAr, there are also the (probably extended) meanings ‘point of the elbow’ [ZǦː (ZǦǦ)_6] and ‘tush of a stallion’ (Hava1899), all sharing the notion of peakedness or pointedness. – Cf. also zuǧaǧ ‘darts, javelins, furnished with iron-heads’; zaǧǧa (u, zaǧǧ), vb. I, ‘to hit s.o. with the butt-end of a spear, shoot arrows at; to strike (with the iron-foot of a spear)’, mizaǧǧ ‘short lance’; ʔazaǧǧa, vb IV, ‘to put an iron-foot to (a spear)’, muziǧǧ ‘ironed (spear-butt)’ (Hava1899).
    ▪ ZǦː (ZǦǦ)_2 zaǧǧa (u, zaǧǧ) ‘1 to throw, hurl; 2 to push, urge, drive; to press, squeeze, force’: With all likelihood, and as already suggested by ClassAr lexicographers, [v1] seems to be a development from the obsol. denom. vb. I, zaǧǧa (u , zaǧǧ), ‘to hit s.o. with the butt-end of a spear, shoot arrows at; to strike with (the iron-foot of a spear)’, cf. ZǦː (ZǦǦ)_1, while [v2] can be thought of as being a denom. vb. derived from zuǧǧ in the meaning of ‘(tip of the) elbow’ [ZǦː (ZǦǦ)_6, which seems to be essentially the same item as ZǦː (ZǦǦ)_1].
    ▪ ZǦː (ZǦǦ)_3 ʔazaǧǧᵘ ‘having beautifully arched eyebrows’: cf. also (denom.?) zaǧǧa (zaǧiǧ-) (a, zaǧaǧ) and ĭzdaǧǧa, vb. VIII, ‘to be thin and arched (eyebrows)’ (Hava1899). – In ClassAr, the vb. II, zaǧǧaǧa, would not only mean ‘to pencil the eyebrows’ but still also ‘to level (a place)’ (Hava1899), from *‘to clip the redundant portions of the hair or the eyebrows’. The etymology of the value itself remains obscure so far.
    ▪ ZǦː (ZǦǦ)_4 zuǧāǧ(aẗ), var. (acc. to Hava1899) zaǧāǧ, ziǧāǧ ‘glass’: from Aram zgūgīṯā ‘glass’ (Nişanyan_22Jun2015, reporting common opinion). For details cf. also Jeffery1938: 149-50 (see ↗zuǧāǧ). – Nişanyan believes that the ultimate origin of the word must be Phoenicia where glass was “invented” around 2500 BC.
    ▪ ZǦː (ZǦǦ)_5 : zaǧǧa (u, zaǧǧ) ‘to run (ostrich)’; cf. also ʔazaǧǧᵘ in the sense of ‘walking with widestreched legs (ostrich)’ (Hava1899): explained by ClassAr lexicographers as from ZǦː (ZǦǦ)_2 zaǧǧa in the sense of ‘to throw’, i.e., *‘he [the ostrich] threw out his legs’.
    ▪ ZǦː (ZǦǦ)_6 zuǧǧ (pl. ziǧāǧ, ziǧaǧaẗ) ‘point/tip of the elbow’: probably figurative use, likening the elbow with an arrow-head, i.e. = ZǦː (ZǦǦ)_1.
    ▪ ZǦː (ZǦǦ)_7 : zaǧǧa ‘to produce a dull sound, mumble, murmur, cry’; zinǧ ‘drum’: According to DRS, items belonging to this value are »[s]ans doute fondées sur une forme d’origine persane.« In the entry on Sem ZGG, DRS mentions Ar zinǧ ‘drum’, which obviously corresponds to Pers zinǧ ‘two brass orbs, which when struck together make a kind of music or accompaniment to other instruments’ (Steingass1892);311 but cf. also Pers zanǧ ‘plaint, lamentation; crying, weeping; [etc.]’ (ibid.). On the other side, the same entry refers the reader-user to the entry on ZÂG, where we find ZÂG#3 ‘clochette’ (little bell), not represented in Ar, but in nHbr zag, JP Syr zaggā, zuggā, Mand zanga, nSyr zīgā, zāgā, Ṭur zāgo and traced back to Pers zang ‘a bell carried by courier and qalandar-monks (Steingass1892), bell (VahmanPedersen1998)’.
    ▪ ZǦː (ZǦǦ)_8 : (ḥašīšaẗ al-) zaǧāǧ ‘berries; glass-vessels of the clove-tree; pellitory, wall-wort’ (Lane, Hava1899): dependent on ZǦː (ZǦǦ)_4 zuǧāǧ(aẗ) ‘glass’?
     
    – 
    – 
    zaǧǧ‑/ zaǧaǧ‑ زَجِّ / زَجَجْـ , u (zaǧǧ
    ID … • Sw – • … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZǦː (ZǦǦ) 
    vb., I 
    1 to throw, hurl (s.th.); 2 to push, shove, urge, drive (s.o. or s.th.); to press, squeeze, force, cram (s.o. or s.th., into) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ [v1] probably from zaǧǧa ‘to hit s.o. with the butt-end of a spear, shoot arrows at; to strike with (the iron-foot of a spear)’, from ↗zuǧǧ ‘arrow-head’.
    ▪ [v2] denom. from ↗zuǧǧ ‘(tip of the) elbow’. 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZGG-3 Ar zaǧǧa ‘frapper avec le bout de la lance’, zuǧǧ ‘ferrure au bout de la lance, fer de flèche, pointe du coude’, MġrAr zəǧǧ ‘pousser’, tzəǧǧəǧ ‘se pousser mutuellement, se battre (chameaux)’, HispAr zaǧǧ ‘donner un coup de poing’, zuǧǧ ‘poing’, ʕAnâze zaǧǧ ‘jeter, vider’, DaṯAr zaǧǧ ‘boire d’un trait’. 
    ▪ With all likelihood, and as already suggested by ClassAr lexicographers, [v1] ‘to throw, hurl’ seems to be a development from ClassAr zaǧǧa (u , zaǧǧ) in the—now obsolete—sense of ‘to hit s.o. with the butt-end of a spear, shoot arrows at; to strike with (the iron-foot of a spear)’, which is a denom. vb. I from ↗zuǧǧ ‘arrow-head’, in itself probably a borrowing from Pers zuǧ ‘id.’. – In contrast, [v2] ‘to push, urge, drive; to press, squeeze, force’ can be thought of as being a denom. from the same ↗zuǧǧ in the (now obsolete) meaning of ‘(tip of the) elbow’ [↗ZǦː (ZǦǦ)_6].
     
    – 
    zuǧǧa bi-hī fī ’l-siǧn, expr., he was thrown into prison

    For other values of the root, cf. ↗zuǧǧ, ↗ʔazaǧǧᵘ, ↗zuǧāǧ, and (for the general picture) ↗ZǦː (ZǦǦ). 
    zuǧǧ زُجّ , pl. zuǧāǧ 
    ID … • Sw – • … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZǦː (ZǦǦ) 
    n. 
    ferrule; arrowhead; spearhead – WehrCowan1979. 
    Probably a loanword from a Pers word for arrows with pointed arrow-heads. 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZGG-2 Syr zag ‘tinter (oreille); crier’, zənāgā ‘ tintement, bruit; chœur’, Ar zaǧǧa ‘produire un bruit sourd, murmurer, crier’, zinǧ ‘tambour’. -3 Ar zaǧǧa ‘frapper avec le bout de la lance’, zuǧǧ ‘ferrure au bout de la lance, fer de flèche, pointe du coude’, MġrAr zəǧǧ ‘pousser’, tzəǧǧəǧ ‘se pousser mutuellement, se battre (chameaux)’, HispAr zaǧǧ ‘donner un coup de poing’, zuǧǧ ‘poing’, ʕAnâze zaǧǧ ‘jeter, vider’, DaṯAr zaǧǧ ‘boire d’un trait’. 
    ▪ According to Rolland2014a, Ar zuǧǧ (pl. zuǧāǧ, ClassAr ziǧāǧ, ziǧaǧaẗ) ‘ferrule, arrow-, spearhead’ is from Pers zuǧ ‘flèche dont le fer est en corne ou en ivoire, flèche courte, sans plumes’ (Steingass1892: ‘bone-headed arrow, very short arrow’). In ClassAr, there are also the (probably extended) meanings ‘point/tip of the elbow’ [= ↗ZǦː (ZǦǦ)_6] and ‘tush of a stallion’ (Hava1899), all sharing the notion of peakedness or pointedness. – Cf. also zuǧaǧ ‘darts, javelins, furnished with iron-heads’; zaǧǧa (u, zaǧǧ), vb. I, ‘to hit s.o. with the butt-end of a spear, shoot arrows at; to strike (with the iron-foot of a spear)’, mizaǧǧ ‘short lance’; ʔazaǧǧa, vb IV, ‘to put an iron-foot to (a spear)’, muziǧǧ ‘ironed (spear-butt)’ (Hava1899).
    ▪ Cf. also the vb. I ↗zaǧǧa (u, zaǧǧ) which in MSA means ‘1 to throw, hurl; 2 to push, urge, drive; to press, squeeze, force’. With all likelihood, and as already suggested by ClassAr lexicographers, [v1] seems to be a development from the obsol. denom. zaǧǧa (u, zaǧǧ) ‘to hit s.o. with the butt-end of a spear, shoot arrows at; to strike with (the iron-foot of a spear)’, while [v2] can be thought of as being a denom. vb. derived from zuǧǧ in the meaning of ‘(tip of the) elbow’ [see preceding paragraph and ↗ZǦː (ZǦǦ)_6].
     
    – 
    For other values of the root, cf. ↗zaǧǧa, ↗ʔazaǧǧᵘ, ↗zuǧāǧ, and (for the general picture) ↗ZǦː (ZǦǦ). 
    ʔazaǧǧᵘ أَزَجُّ , f. zaǧǧāʔᵘ , pl. zuǧǧ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZǦː (ZǦǦ) 
    adj. 
    having beautifully arched eyebrows – WehrCowan1979. 
    Of unknown etymology. 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZGG-4 : zaǧǧa ‘être fin, allongé (sourcil)’, EgAr zaggig ‘se faire les sourcils (au crayon)’. 
    ▪ The adj. is an elative formation (for colours, handicaps, etc.) from an otherwise lost basis.
    ▪ ClassAr still knows the (denom?) vb. I, zaǧǧa (zaǧiǧ-) (a, zaǧaǧ), and vb. VIII, ĭzdaǧǧa, both meaning ‘to be thin and arched (eyebrows)’ (Hava1899). – In ClassAr, the corresponding vb. II, zaǧǧaǧa, would not only mean ‘to pencil the eyebrows’ but still also ‘to level (a place)’ (Hava1899), figurative/extended use of *‘to clip the redundant portions of the hair or the eyebrows’. The etymology of the value itself remains obscure so far.
     
    – 
    zaǧǧaǧa, vb. II, 1 to pencil | ~al-ḥaǧibayn, expr., to pencil the eyebrows; 2 see ↗zuǧāǧ.

    For other values of the root, cf. ↗zuǧǧ, ↗zaǧǧa, ↗zuǧāǧ, and (for the general picture) ↗ZǦː (ZǦǦ). 
    zuǧāǧ زُجاج 
    ID 351 • Sw – • BP 3050 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZǦː (ZǦǦ) 
    n. 
    glass (as substance) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Probably a back-formation from the f. zuǧāǧaẗ, which is from Aram zgūgīṯā, Syr zgōgīṯā ʻglass, crystal’.
    ▪ Ultimately perh. from a Phoen word for ‘glass’, since glass was “invented” in Phoenicia around 2500 BC. 
    ▪ eC7 zuǧāǧaẗ (glass container) Q 24:35 al-miṣbāḥu fī zuǧāǧaẗin il-zuǧāǧaẗu kaʔanna-hā kawkabun durriyyun ‘the lamp is in a glass container, and the glass is like a shimmering star’ 
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZGG : not mentioned [!]. Because it is not regarded as Sem?
    ▪ Aram zgūgīṯā, Syr zgōgīṯā ʻglass, crystal’. 
    ▪ Nişanyan_22Jun2015: Ar zuǧāǧ < Aram zagāg ‘glazier, glass-maker’ < Aram zgūgīṯā ‘glass’.
    ▪ Jeffery1938, 149-50 (on Qurʔānic zuǧāǧaẗ): »There was some uncertainty as to the vowelling of the word, whether zuǧāǧaẗ; zaǧāǧaẗ or ziǧāǧaẗ. The philologers attempt to derive it from ↗zaǧǧa though they do not suggest how it can be explained from this root.312 Fraenkel, Fremdw, 64, showed that it has no verbal root in Ar, and suggested that it is the Aram זגוגיתא, Syr zgōgīṯā meaning ʻglass’ or ʻcrystal’. The Syr word is early and quite common, and it was probably when the Arabs came to use glass that they took over the word along with the article.«
    ▪ Nişanyan believes that the ultimate origin of the word must be Phoenicia where glass was “invented” around 2500 BC.
    ▪ Is the obsol. (ḥašīšaẗ al-) zaǧāǧ ‘berries; glass-vessels of the clove-tree; pellitory, wall-wort’ (Lane, Hava1899) dependent on zuǧāǧ(aẗ) ‘glass’?
     
    ▪ Tu zücaciye (1680 Meninski, Thesaurus), from Ar zuǧāǧ (+ nsb-ending + f. -aẗ) – Nişanyan_22Jun2015. 
    zaǧǧaǧa, vb. II, 1 see ↗zaǧǧa (al-ḥaǧibayn). – 2 to glaze, coat with glass (s.th.); to enamel (s.th.): denom., applicative.

    BP#4490 zuǧāǧaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., 1 piece of glass; 2 (glass) bottle, flask; 3 (drinking) glass, tumbler: n.un.
    zuǧāǧī, adj., glassy, vitreous: nsb-adj.
    zaǧǧāǧ, n., glazier: n.prof.
    muzaǧǧaǧ, adj., glazed, enameled: PP II | muzaǧǧaǧāt and maṣnūʕāt muzaǧǧaǧaẗ, n.f. pl., enameled ware.

    For other values of the root, cf. ↗zuǧǧ, ↗zaǧǧa, ↗ʔazaǧǧᵘ, and (for the general picture) ↗ZǦː (ZǦǦ). 
    zuǧāǧaẗ زُجاجَة , pl. ‑āt 
    ID 351a • Sw – • BP 4490 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZǦː (ZǦǦ) 
    n.f. 
    1 piece of glass; 2 (glass) bottle, flask; 3 (drinking) glass, tumbler – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ The word looks as if it were a n.un., formed from the coll.n. ↗zuǧāǧ ‘glass’. Etymologically, however, zuǧāǧ may be a back-formation made from zuǧāǧaẗ
    ▪ eC7 zuǧāǧaẗ (glass container) Q 24:35 al-miṣbāḥu fī zuǧāǧaẗin il-zuǧāǧaẗu kaʔanna-hā kawkabun durriyyun ‘the lamp is in a glass container, and the glass is like a shimmering star’ 
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZGG : not mentioned [!] - because regarded as non-Sem?
    ▪ From Aram zgūgīṯā, Syr zgōgīṯā ʻglass, crystal’. 
    ▪ As mentioned above in section CONC, the word looks as if it were a n.un., formed from the coll.n. ↗zuǧāǧ ‘glass’. Etymologically, however, zuǧāǧaẗ seems to have been the word to have been loaned: from Aram zgūgīṯā, Syr zgōgīṯā ʻglass, crystal’.
    ▪ Jeffery1938, 149-50 (on Qurʔānic zuǧāǧaẗ): »There was some uncertainty as to the vowelling of the word, whether zuǧāǧaẗ; zaǧāǧaẗ or ziǧāǧaẗ. The philologers attempt to derive it from ↗zaǧǧa though they do not suggest how it can be explained from this root.313 Fraenkel, Fremdw, 64, showed that it has no verbal root in Ar, and suggested that it is the Aram זגוגיתא, Syr zgōgīṯā meaning ʻglass’ or ʻcrystal’. The Syr word is early and quite common, and it was probably when the Arabs came to use glass that they took over the word along with the article.«
    ▪ Nişanyan believes that the ultimate origin of the word must be Phoenicia where glass was “invented” around 2500 BC.
     
    – 
    zaǧǧaǧa, vb. II, 1 see ↗zaǧǧa (al-ḥaǧibayn). – 2 to glaze, coat with glass (s.th.); to enamel (s.th.): denom., applicative.

    BP#3050 zuǧāǧ, n., glass (as substance): n.coll., perh. a back-formation from zuǧāǧaẗ.
    zuǧāǧī, adj., glassy, vitreous: nsb-adj.
    zaǧǧāǧ, n., glazier: n.prof.
    muzaǧǧaǧ, adj., glazed, enameled: PP II | muzaǧǧaǧāt and maṣnūʕāt muzaǧǧaǧaẗ, n.f. pl., enameled ware.

    For other values of the root, cf. ↗zuǧǧ, ↗zaǧǧa, ↗ʔazaǧǧᵘ, and (for the general picture) ↗ZǦː (ZǦǦ). 
    ZǦR زجر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 24Mar2023
    √ZǦR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZǦR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZǦR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZǦR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to scold, rebuke; to forbid, restrain, prohibit; to drive away’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ZǦW زجو 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 24Mar2023
    √ZǦW 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZǦW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZǦW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZǦW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to urge gently, assist along, drive forward, propel’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ZḤZḤ زحزح 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 24Mar2023
    √ZḤZḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZḤZḤ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZḤZḤ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZḤZḤ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to budge, dislodge, shift, push away’ 
    ▪ This root can be regarded as a further derivative of the root ↗ZḤː (ZḤḤ) – BAH2008.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ZḤF زحف 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 24Mar2023
    √ZḤF 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZḤF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZḤF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZḤF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to crawl, creep, drag o.s. along, (of an army) to advance en masse, advance steadily and slowly, march’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ZḤM زحم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZḤM 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZḤM_1 ‘to push, shove, press; crowd, crush, jam’ ↗zaḥama
     
    ▪ Seems to be an exclusively Ar root.
    ▪ See ↗zaḥama
    – 
    See ↗zaḥama
    See ↗zaḥama
    – 
    – 
    zaḥam‑ زحم , a (zaḥm
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZḤM 
    vb., I 
    to push, shove, hustle, jostle, crowd, press, beset (s.o) - WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ An exclusively Ar root.
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZḤM: The Aram forms are borrowed from Pers, which is dependent on Ar. 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZḤM: Ar zaḥama ‘serrer, resserrer’, zāḥama ‘s’agglomérer, augmenter en nombre’, zaḥm, zuḥm ‘foule, affluence’, zaḥmaẗ ‘foule, respiration oppressée; peine, fatigue’; DaṯAr zaḥma ‘profond soupir d’une femme en mal d’enfant’, IrqAr zaḥḥam ‘ennuyer, troubler’, zdiḥam ‘être bondé, encombré, grouiller’, EAr tzāḥam ‘se disputer qc, se faire de la concurrence’, nzaḥam ‘être pressé, gêné’, SudAr ChadAr zaḥma ‘foule’, ?ChadAr zaḥam ‘vendre aux enchères’, HispAr zahán ‘presser l’un contre l’autre’, zihám ‘presse (de foule), hâte’, MġrAr Tak zḥəm ‘presser qn en le bousculant, faire des coudes dans une foule, concurrencer’, MorocAr zḥam ‘faire des efforts pour expulser (excréments, foetus)’, Maraz zḥam ‘se contracter dans un effort’, Ḥass zaḥme ‘dysenterie (chez l’homme)’; Zaër zḥəm ‘désirer ardemment qc’, Jib zaḥam ‘venir’, zotḥəm ‘être encombré’, zaḥmet ‘foule’. – nAram zaḥmta ‘cohue’, nSyr zāḥmat, zaḫmat ‘difficulté, ennui’. 
    See above, section CONC. 
    ▪ Tu zahmet [<1250 (1444) ʔEdīb ʔAḥmed, ʕAtebet-ül Ḥaḳāyıḳ) – Nişanyan_09Apr2015. – Tu ĭzdiḥām (1391 Seyf-i Sarāyî, Gülistān tercümesi) – Nişanyan_pre-2011. 
    zāḥama, vb. III, 1 to push, shove, hustle, jostle, crowd, press, beset (s.o.); 2 to compete, vie (with s.o.): associative.
    ʔazḥama, vb. IV, 1 to press together, crowd together, mill about; 2 to be closely packed ( in); 3 to compete with one another: ints.
    ĭzdaḥama, vb. VIII, to be crowded, teem, swarm (bi‑ with); to jostle, crowd together, mill about (e.g., people): T-stem, pseudo-pass./intr.
    BP#4048zaḥmaẗ, n.f., 1 crush, jam; 2 crowd, throng: vn. (?).
    BP#4421ziḥām, n., 1 crush, jam; 2 crowd, throng: vn. I/III.
    muzāḥamaẗ, pl. ‑āt, 1 competition; 2 rivalry: vn. I/III | lā yaqbalu al-~, expr., unrivaled, matchless, without competition.
    tazāḥum, n., (mutual) competition: vn. VI.
    ĭzdiḥām, n., 1 crowd, crush, jam; 2 overcrowdedness : vn. VIII.
    muzāḥim, pl. ‑ūn, n., competitor; rival: PA III.
    muzāḥimaẗ, n.f., rival (f.): PA III.f.
    muzdaḥim, adj., overcrowded, packed, jammed; teeming, swarming, crowded, crammed (bi‑ with): PA VIII.
    muzdaḥam, n., crowd, crush, jam: n.loc. VIII (or nominalized PP VIII). 
    zaḥmaẗ زَحْمَة 
    ID 353 • Sw – • BP 4048 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZḤM 
    n.f. 
    1 crush, jam; 2 crowd, throng – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    See ↗zaḥama
    ziḥām زِحام 
    ID 352 • Sw – • BP 4421 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZḤM 
    vn., III 
    1 crush, jam; 2 crowd, throng – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    See ↗zaḥama
    ZḪRF زخرف 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 24Mar2023
    √ZḪRF 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZḪRF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZḪRF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZḪRF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘gold, ornamentation, decoration, flowery talk, land covered with flowers’ 
    ▪ It has been suggested that the entire root is a borrowing from Syr – Bah2008.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    *ZR‑ زرـ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZR 
    2-cons. root nucleus 
    to spill (Ehret1989#18), disperser, éparpiller (DRS
    ▪ According to Ehret1989#18, a »pre-protSem« 2-cons. root nucleus ZR- existed with the meaning ‘to spill’. For 3-cons. extensions from this root nucleus cf. below, section DERIV.
    ▪ Cf. also DRS 8 (1999)#-ZR- : Plusieures racines signifiant ‘disperser, éparpiller’ contiennent cette séquence consonantique; souvent, il s’agit de racines à 4 consonnes qui peuvent, dans certains cas, constituer des développements de racines triconsonantiques par adjonction ou insertion, ou aussi par croisement avec une autre racine : voir par exemple ZRBS, ZRTS, qui sont liés à ZRS, ZRW, ZRR, ZRQ, ZRBB, ZNZR; cette séquence alterne avec ZL dans ZWLL, ZLNṬL; v. aussi s. -ḎR-. D’autres formes de sens analogue présentent une séquence Z + pharyngale ou laryngale, voir ZH/Ḥ/ʕ. 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    3-cons. extensions for the 2-cons. root nucleus *ZR-, according to Ehret1989#18:

    + “extendative” *‑b = ↗zariba ‘to flow, run, run out, flow over’
    + “sunderative” *‑ʕ = ↗zaraʕa ‘to sow, scatter seed, seed (n.)’
    + “andative” *‑ḳ = ↗zaraqa ‘to drop excrement; to throw, hurl’
    + “fortative” *‑m = zarama ‘to give birth’
     
    ZRB زرب 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 24Mar2023
    √ZRB 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZRB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZRB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZRB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘wooden sheep enclosure; entrance; lion’s den; waterfall course; carpet, field full of flowers’ 
    zarābiyy ‘carpets’ is considered by some as a borrowing from Pers, Syr or Gz.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ZRʕ زرع 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZRʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZRʕ_1 ‘to sow, plant, grow, cultivate; seed’ ↗zaraʕa
    ▪ ZRʕ_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ZRʕ_3 ‘…’ ↗

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to sow, plant, cultivate, grow plants’ 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    … 
    zaraʕ‑ زَرَعَ , a (zarʕ
    ID … • Sw … • BP 3141 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZRʕ 
    vb., I 
    1 to sow; 2 to spread, scatter; 3a to plant (in the soil) to grow, cultivate (plants); 3b to till, cultivate; 3c to culture (bacteria); 4a to implant (a foreign organ or tissue in the body), transplant (e.g., a heart; med. ); 4b to set (an explosive charge); 4c to lay (e.g., a mine) – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Is zaraʕa denominative from zarʕ ‘seed’, or the latter deverbative from the former?
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘seed’) Akk zēru, Hbr zéraʕ, Syr zarʕā, Gz (zarʔ).
     
    … 
    … 
    ĭnzaraʕa, vb. VII, N‑stem, pass. of vb I.
    ĭzdaraʕa, vb. VIII, to sow: Gt‑stem.
    ĭstazraʕa, vb. X, to utilize as acreage (land): *Št‑stem, desiderative.

    BP#3690zarʕ, n., 1 sowing: vn. I. – 2 (pl. zurūʕ) seed; 3a young standing crop, green crop; 3b plantation; field(s); 4 transplantation (of an organ; med. ): meton. use of vn. I. | al‑zarʕ wal‑ḍarʕ, expr., agriculture and stock farming.
    BP#1508zirāʕaẗ, n.f., agriculture; tilling, tillage; cultivation (of land); growing, raising (of crops); farming: vn. I. | zirāʕaẗ al‑qulūb, n.f., heart transplantation (med. ).
    BP#1579zirāʕī, 1 adj., agricultural, agrarian, farm‑ (in compounds); 2 (pl. ‑ūn), n., agronomist, agricultural expert: nisba from zirāʕaẗ.
    zarīʕaẗ, n.f., that which is sown or planted; crop: quasi‑PP I, f.
    zarrāʕ, pl. ‑ūn, n., peasant, farmer; planter: ints. formation, n.prof.
    BP#1769mazraʕ, n., (arable) land: n.loc.
    mazraʕaẗ, pl. mazāriʕᵘ, n.f., 1a field under cultivation; 1b farm; 1c plantation; 2 country estate: n.loc.
    mazraʕānī, n., farmer: n.prof. in ‑ānī.
    tazrīʕ, n., agriculturalization (of a country, in contrast with taṣnīʕ industrialization): vn. II.
    muzāraʕaẗ, n.f., temporary sharecropping contract (Isl. Law): vn. III.
    zāriʕ, pl. zurrāʕ, 1a seedsman, sower; 1b planter; 2a peasant; 2b farmer: PA I.
    mazrūʕ, adj., cultivated, planted: PP I.
    mazrūʕaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., 1 young standing crop, green crop; 2 planted land: PP I, f.
    BP#3932muzāriʕ, pl. ‑ūn, n., 1 peasant, farmer; 2 agronomist: PA III.
    munzariʕ, adj.: ʔarāḍin munzariʕaẗ, n.pl.f., planted land: PA VII.
     
    ZRQ زرق 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZRQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZRQ_1 ‘to drop excrement (bird)’ ↗zaraqa
    ▪ ZRQ_2 ‘to hit, pierce, jab, bore; injection; javelin; to throw, hurl (s.th.)’ ↗zaraqa
    ▪ ZRQ_3 ‘(to be/come) blue; dark-coloured; glaucoma; cyanosis (med.); jay (zool.)’ ↗ʔazraqᵘ
    ▪ ZRQ_4 (= ZWRQ) ‘boat, rowboat, skiff’ ↗zawraq
    ▪ ZRQ_5 (= ZRQN) ‘a bright red’ ↗zarqūn

    Other values, now obsolete, include:
    • ZRQ_6 ‘blindness’ : zaraq
    • ZRQ_7 ‘lie’ : zūraq

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘blue, to become blue; to pass through swiftly, to pass excrement’. – The term ʔazraq, which is usually translated as ‘blue’, in fact covers a range of colours in Arabic including grey, green, and white and also means purity of water. 
    ▪ Out of the 5 values listed in DRS for the root ZRQ in Sem, 3 are represented in Ar, of which 2 have survived into MSA. But there are more than only those listed in DRS.
    ▪ ZRQ_1-4 [≙ DRS#ZRQ-1&2]: In DRS, zaraqa in the sense of ‘to drop excrement (bird)’ (ZRQ_1) is seen together with zaraqa ‘to throw, hurl; to hit, pierce, jab, bore’ (ZRQ_2) and even zawraq ‘small boat’ (ZRQ_4). The meaning of the root in Sem in general varies between ‘to sprinkle, scatter’ and ‘to hit (and hence also: pierce)’. For the 2-cons. root nucleus *ZR- from which this ZRQ can be seen as an extension in *‑ḳ (Ar ‑q), Ehret1989 assumes an original value of ‘to spill’. If this is true, the semantic development could be imagined to have been as follows: ‘to spill’ > ‘to sprinkle, scatter, disperse’ > ‘to drop; to throw, hurl’ > ‘to hit’ > ‘to pierce’. In contrast, Orel&Stolbova1994#2610 reconstruct a Sem *z˅r˅ḳ‑ ‘to dart’, which they derive (together with SaAf *ʒ˅rig‑ ‘to stir’ and LEC *ʒarug‑ / *ʒaruk‑ ‘to shift, push’, from AfrAs *ʒariḳ‑ / *ʒaruḳ‑ ‘to throw, push’). – Given that the original value of Ar ʔazraqᵘ (ZRQ_3 = DRS#ZRQ-2) was not ‘blue’ but rather ‘iridescent, shimmering, glittering, flashing’ (said of water, eyes of birds, metallic arrowheads, etc.), a relation between ‘to sprinkle > to throw/hurl > to hit’ and ‘to radiate, shimmer, glitter, flash’ (i.e., “sprinkle > throw/hurl > hit with” light) does not seem too unlikely.
    ▪ ZRQ_3 [≙ DRS#ZRQ-2] : The value ‘blue’ is a rather late development from an earlier ‘iridescent, shimmering, glittering, flashing’. With this, the value can be seen as originating in a figurative use of ZRQ_2 ‘to throw, hurl’ (sc. beams of light, to radiate), which in itself is based on ZRQ_1 ‘to spill, disperse’ (esp. excrements, said of birds).
    ▪ ZRQ_4 [treated within DRS#ZRQ-1] : The value ‘boat, rowboat, skiff’ seems to be figurative use: a small boat (which elsewhere may be likened to a nutshell) is called a ‘bowl, basin’ here (cf. Ar mizraq ‘drinking cup, [Freytag1830:] crater, phiala’, Hbr mizrāq [Klein1987:] ‘bowl, basin’). The latter value seems to be derived from ‘to sprinkle’, the basic value inherent in ZRQ_1 and ZRQ_2 (and, indirectly, also ZRQ_3), see preceding paragraphs.
    ▪ ZRQ_5 [DRS: –] : from Pers zargūn ‘gold-coloured’ (composed of Pers zar ‘gold’ + gūn ‘colour’).
    ▪ ZRQ_6 [DRS: –] zaraq ‘blindness’: essentially the same as ZRQ_3 which today mainly signifies ‘blue’ but originally just described s.th. ‘iridescent, shimmering, glittering, flashing’, a quality that also characterizes the eyes of a blind person.
    ▪ ZRQ_7 [≙ DRS#ZRQ-5] zūraq ‘lie’: ?
     
    – 
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZRQ -1 Akk zarāqu ‘asperger’, Hbr zāraq [Klein1987: ‘to throw, toss, sprinkle’], JP Syr zᵊraq ‘répandre, asperger’, mzrqyʔ (pl.) ‘aspersoirs’; nSyr zāriq ‘paraître (soleil)’, zrāqa ‘lever (du soleil), Est’, Ar zaraqa ‘fienter (oiseau), lancer, jeter, percer, injecter (avec une seringue)’, zarraqa ‘répandre de l’eau, pisser; inciter’, Ḥass zrīg ‘lait additionné d’eau’; Ar mizrāq ‘javelot, lance courte’ mazāriq (pl.) ‘rayons de soleil’, zurraq : nom de diverses espèces de rapaces, PalAr zēraq ‘taon’, MġrAr zarrāqaẗ ‘tuyau, seringue’, zroq, zaraq ‘se lever, pointer à l’horizon (astre)’, ẓṛug ‘bondir, jaillir’, zrəg ‘glisser furtivement’, Ḥass ẓaṛgeg ‘couler lentement, à petit filet, laisser filtrer la lumière’; Mhr zərūq, Ḥrs zeroq, Jib zoroq ‘porter un coup avec une pointe, piquer’, Gz zaraqa, Tña zäräqä ‘percer d’une lance’, zäräq̄ä ‘percer, fendre, découper en lanières; tamiser’, Amh zärräqä ‘découper du bois à jour’. ? Te zärqä ‘être abondante (pluie)’, Gz məzrāq, Tña mäzraq ‘javelot’, Te märzaq : grand bâton avec une pointe en fer; Mhr Ḥrs zērəq, Jib zerq : sorte de serpent très rapide. – Akk zirīq-, zuruqq- : appareil primitif pour puiser de l’eau pour l’irrigation, Ar zirq ‘litière, fourrage’. Hbr mizrāq [Klein1987: ‘bowl, basin’], Ar mizraq ‘vase à boire’, Syr zūrqā, Ar zawraq, GulfAr zārūg ‘petit bateau’. – For possible cognates outside Sem cf. below, section DISC. -2 Akk zarrīq- ‘aux yeux iridescents’, Syr zārqā ‘bleu, vert bleu’, Mand zarūq, nSyr mazrič̣ ‘briller (yeux)’, Ar ʔazraqᵘ ‘bleu, pâle, livide; qui a les yeux bleu pâle, aveugle, brillant’, zarraqa ‘briller’, IrqAr zaraq, zarwaq ‘décorer, colorer’, Ḥass aẓṛag ‘pie (robe d’animaux), bariolé, bigarré’, ʕOmAr mzarga, Ḥrs mezarrget ‘chamelle rousse et noire’, Gz ʔazraq ‘bleu sombre’. – For possible cognates outside Sem cf. below, section DISC. – -3 Akk zirq ‘mouton’. -4 zirqaẗ : sorte de lynx. -5 Ar zūraq ‘mensonge’, Gz zaraqa ‘dire des paroles vaines, plaisanter’, Tña zäqqärä ‘plaisanter’, Gz zarq, Amh zärq ‘plaisanterie’. 
    ▪ ZRQ_1/2 [= DRS #ZRQ-1] : cf. above, section CONC. – Else (according to DRS): Sur les rapports entre Akk zuruqq- et Aram zarnūqā, Ar zurnūq, v. s. ZRNQ. – Ebl semble attester une forme de la racine désignant un bâton long; peut-être mazriqu à rapprocher de l’Ar mizrāq ou zirīq comme en Akk, v. ci-dessus. – Une forme Hbr zārqā (Hos. 7 /9) est parfois traduite par ‘s’insinuer’ d’après l’Ar dial. – TargAram présente quelques formes à consonne initiale d : dᵊraq, dārēq ‘asperger, répandre’; peut-être est-ce dû à l’influence de dᵊrā de même sens, v.s. ḎRW/Y? Il peut s’agir aussi d’un phénomène de dissimilation. – Pour zarrāq ‘astrologue’ = ‘jeteur (de sorts)’, rapport avec ‘percer’? – PalAr zeraq ‘taon’, en relation avec ‘injecter, piquer’. – Cf. also ZQː (ZQQ), ZRZQ. – As for outside Sem, DRS, quoting HSED 543 [#2610], compares some Cush formes: Sa -izrig-, -idrig- ‘to stir’, Som durk-, durug-, Arbore zarug, zurg-, zurug-) ‘to shift, push’; (Cush g/k corresponding Sem q ?). – DRS also suggests to compare [Berb] Mzab əzrəg ‘jaillir’, Tqblt zrirəg ‘couler, filer rapidement sur une surface lisse’, Tua əzrəg, əhrəg ‘aller à l’eau’, et aussi Tua zəreggət ‘percer, commencer à paraître’; emprunts à l’Ar? – Noter, en regard des formes éthiopiennes, [Berb] Tqblt aməẓṛag ‘gros bâton, lance, javelot’. – Orel&Stolbova1994#2610 reconstruct Sem *z˅r˅ḳ- ‘to dart’, [Cush] SaAf *ʒ˅rig- ‘to stir’, LEC *ʒarug- / *ʒaruk- ‘to shift, push’, all from AfrAs *ʒariḳ- / *ʒaruḳ- ‘to throw, push’.
    ▪ ZRQ_3 [= DRS #ZRQ-2] : In modAr, the sense of ‘blue’ is dominant in ʔazraqᵘ, but cf. e.g. Fischer1965 on earlier values in ClassAr. With these, the item is probably dependent on ZRQ_1/2, cf. above, section CONC. – NB in DRS : »Peut-être faut-il séparer le Ḥass ‘pie, bariolé, bigarré’ de la racine Ar et lier au [Berb] Tqblt izirig ‘ligne, rayures’, Tšlḥt azrirəg ‘rayure d’une étoffe’. – Par ailleurs on relève Tqblt zrurəg et ẓṛurəq ‘briller, étinceler’, ainsi que Mzab əzzərrag ‘bleu à rincer le linge’, emprunts à l’Ar.«
    ▪ ZRQ_4 [cf. also DRS #ZRQ-1] : As already mentioned above (section CONC), the Ar word for a small boat, zawraq, seems to be akin to Sem words for ‘to sprinkle’, hence also ‘to irrigate’ and ‘bowl’ (i.e., vessel for throwing or tossing a liquid). – According to PayneSmith1903, Syr zūrqā is from Ar (in DRS it is given as a genuine cognate).
    ▪ ZRQ_5 : From Pers zargūn ‘gold-coloured’, composed of Pers zar ‘gold’ (Av zar ‘gold’) + gūn ‘colour’ (EtymOnline ), akin to Aram zarag, zargūn ‘peony, peony-coloured’, Syr zrag ‘to glisten, be red’ (with wine, said of the eyes), zārgâ ‘wine colour (a colour betw. red and yellow), topaz, amethyst’ (PayneSmith1903).314
    ▪ ZRQ_6 zaraq ‘blindness’: belonging to ZRQ_3 which originally meant an ‘iridescence, shimmering, glittering, flashing’, that often also was ascribed to eyes, esp. those of birds, but evidently also to the eyes of blind persons.
    ▪ ZRQ_7 zūraq ‘lie’: probably akin to one of the above, but semantics are obscure.
     
    zarqūn
    – 
    1 zaraq‑ زَرَقَ , u , i (zarq)
    2 zaraq‑ زَرَقَ , u (zarq
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZRQ 
    vb., I 
    1 to drop excrement (bird)
    2 a to hit, pierce (s.o. bi‑ with); b to jab, bore (into s.o. or s.th.); c to throw, hurl (s.th.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ In DRS, zaraqa in the sense of ‘to drop excrement (bird)’ is seen together with zaraqa ‘to throw, hurl; to hit, pierce, jab, bore’ (and even ↗zawraq ‘small boat’). The meaning of the root in Sem in general varies between ‘to sprinkle, scatter’ and ‘to hit (and hence also: pierce)’. For the 2-cons. root nucleus *ZR- from which this ZRQ can be seen as an extension in *‑ḳ (Ar ‑q), Ehret1989 assumes a basic value of ‘to spill’. If this is correct, the semantic development could be imagined to have been as follows: ‘to spill’ > ‘to sprinkle, scatter, disperse’ > ‘to drop [=v1]; to throw, hurl [=v2c]’ > ‘to hit’ [=v2a] > ‘to pierce’ [=v2ab]. In contrast, Orel&Stolbova1994#2610 reconstruct a 3-cons. root Sem *z˅r˅ḳ‑ ‘to dart’, from AfrAs *ʒariḳ‑ / *ʒaruḳ‑ ‘to throw, push’.
    ▪ The vn. zarq seems to have been an early, though not very common med. techn. term for ‘injecting, injections’ (today: zarq al-ʔibar).
    ▪ For a possible connection with ↗ʔazraqᵘ (today: ‘blue’, but originally:) ‘iridescent, shimmering, glittering, flashing’ (water, eyes of birds, metallic arrowheads, etc.), cf. s.v. and DISC on ZRQ_1-4 and esp. ZRQ_3 in entry ↗ZRQ.
    ▪ Cf. also ZRQ_4 in ↗ZRQ on a possible relation between zaraqa and ↗zawraq ‘small boat’. 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZRQ-2 Akk zarrīq- ‘aux yeux iridescents’, Syr zārqā ‘bleu, vert bleu’, Mand zarūq, nSyr mazrič̣ ‘briller (yeux)’, Ar ʔazraqᵘ ‘bleu, pâle, livide; qui a les yeux bleu pâle, aveugle, brillant’, zarraqa ‘briller’, IrqAr zaraq, zarwaq ‘décorer, colorer’, Ḥass aẓṛag ‘pie (robe d’animaux), bariolé, bigarré’, ʕOmAr mzarga, Ḥrs mezarrget ‘chamelle rousse et noire’, Gz ʔazraq ‘bleu sombre’. – For possible cognates outside Sem cf. below, section DISC.
    ▪ For cognates of other items that perhaps also are related, cf. ↗ʔazraqᵘ, ↗zawraq, and ↗ZRQ. 
    ▪ In addition to what is said above, section CONC, DRS comments: Sur les rapports entre Akk zuruqq- et Aram zarnūqā, Ar zurnūq, v. s. ZRNQ. – Ebl semble attester une forme de la racine désignant un bâton long; peut-être mazriqu à rapprocher de l’Ar mizrāq ou zirīq comme en Akk, v. ci-dessus. – Une forme Hbr zārqā (Hos. 7 /9) est parfois traduite par ‘s’insinuer’ d’après l’Ar dial. – TargAram présente quelques formes à consonne initiale d : dᵊraq, dārēq ‘asperger, répandre’; peut-être est-ce dû à l’influence de dᵊrā de même sens, v.s. ḎRW/Y? Il peut s’agir aussi d’un phénomène de dissimilation. – Pour zarrāq ‘astrologue’ = ‘jeteur (de sorts)’, rapport avec ‘percer’? – PalAr zeraq ‘taon’, en relation avec ‘injecter, piquer’. – Cf. also ZQː (ZQQ), ZRZQ. – As for outside Sem, DRS, quoting HSED 543 [#2610], compares some Cush formes: Sa -izrig-, -idrig- ‘to stir’, Som durk-, durug-, Arbore zarug, zurg-, zurug-) ‘to shift, push’; (Cush g/k corresponding to Sem q ?). – DRS also suggests to compare [Berb] Mzab əzrəg ‘jaillir’, Tqblt zrirəg ‘couler, filer rapidement sur une surface lisse’, Tua əzrəg, əhrəg ‘aller à l’eau’, et aussi Tua zəreggət ‘percer, commencer à paraître’; emprunts à l’Ar? – Noter, en regard des formes éthiopiennes, [Berb] Tqblt aməẓṛag ‘gros bâton, lance, javelot’. – Orel&Stolbova1994#2610 reconstruct Sem *z˅r˅ḳ- ‘to dart’, [Cush] SaAf *ʒ˅rig- ‘to stir’, LEC *ʒarug- / *ʒaruk- ‘to shift, push’, all from AfrAs *ʒariḳ- / *ʒaruḳ- ‘to throw, push’.
    ▪ For a possible connection between ʔazraqᵘ ‘blue; (originally:) iridescent, shimmering’ and zaraqa in the sense of ‘to throw, hurl; to hit, pierce’, cf. ʔazraqᵘ and DISC in ↗ZRQ.
     
    ▪ Tu zerk ‘throwing a javelin’ (1680 Meninski, Thesaurus) < Ar vn. zarq. – The use as a med. technical term in the sense of ‘injecting, injection’ was marginal in Ar and did not appear in Ottoman before the 20th c. Then, however, it became widespread in this sense – Nişanyan_31Dec2014. – Tu mızrak ‘javelin’ (1354 Masʕūd b. ʔAḥmed, Süheyl ü Nevbahar terc. ], from Ar mizrāq ‘id.’ < Ar zaraqa ‘to throw a javelin’– Nişanyan_30Oct2014. 
    zarq al-ʔibar, n., injections, injectings: vn. I, specialisation.

    mizrāq, pl. mazārīqᵘ, n., javelin: n.instr. (from [v2ab]). 
    ʔazraqᵘ أَزْرَقُ , f. zarqāʔᵘ , pl. zurq 
    ID 354 • Sw – • BP 1754 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZRQ 
    adj. 
    1 blue; 2 dark-coloured – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ ‘Blue’ does not belong to the system of basic colour designations reconstructed (acc. to Kogan2011) by Bulakh for Sem (white ↗LBN, black ↗ẒLM, red ↗ʔDM, yellow-green ↗WRQ).
    ▪ BAH2008: »The term ʔazraq, which is usually translated as ‘blue’, in fact covers a range of colours in Ar including grey, green, and white and also means purity of water.«
    ▪ Fischer1965, 47 ff.: The original meaning of the adj. is ‘iridescent, shimmering, glittering, flashing’ (schillernd, schimmernd, glitzernd, blinkend, said of water, eyes of birds, metallic arrowheads,…), cf. also ʔazraqī ‘(a certain type of) falcon’ (so called because of the iridescence of the bird’s eyes), or zaraq ‘blindness’ (so called after the iridescence of blind people’s eyes); cf. ZRQ_3 and ZRQ_6 in “root” entry ↗ZRQ.
    ▪ Given the original value just mentioned, a relation between this ‘iridescence, shimmering, glittering’ and the semantic complex treated s.v. ↗zaraqa does not seem too unlikely: the iridescence of a water surface, of eyes, or of metallic arrowheads was perh. perceived as a kind of ‘sprinkling’ of light, or ‘throwing/hurling’ and ‘hitting’ the observer by the beams/flashes of light emitted by the glittering object. The value could thus be seen as having emerged from a figurative use of ↗zaraqa ‘to throw, hurl’ (ZRQ_2), which in itself is based on zaraqa ‘to spill, disperse’ (esp. excrements, said of birds = ZRQ_1). – Cf. also DISC in “root” entry ↗ZRQ.
    ▪ For suggestions on an AfrAs dimension in the etymology of zaraqa or its composition of a 2-cons. root nucleus + extension in *‑ḳ (Ar ‑q) cf. ↗ZRQ and ↗*ZR-.
     
    ▪ eC7 [blue, grey, green, white-eyed (with terror); sightless] Q 20:102 yawma yunfaḫu fī ’l-ṣūri wa-naḥšuru ’l-muǧrimīna yawmaʔiḏin zurqan ‘the day the Trumpet will be sounded and We gather the sinful, sightless’ 
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZRQ-2 Akk zarrīq- ‘aux yeux iridescents’, Syr zārqā ‘bleu, vert bleu’, Mand zarūq, nSyr mazrič̣ ‘briller (yeux)’, Ar ʔazraqᵘ ‘bleu, pâle, livide; qui a les yeux bleu pâle, aveugle, brillant’, zarraqa ‘briller’, IrqAr zaraq, zarwaq ‘décorer, colorer’, Ḥass aẓṛag ‘pie (robe d’animaux), bariolé, bigarré’, ʕOmAr mzarga, Ḥrs mezarrget ‘chamelle rousse et noire’, Gz ʔazraq ‘bleu sombre’.
    ▪ Cf. perh. also the cognates of ↗zaraqa (if ʔazraqᵘ should be etymologically related to zaraqa – see above, section CONC, and ↗ZRQ, ↗zaraqa). 
    See above, section CONC. 
    – 
    al-zarqāʔᵘ, n.f., the blue sky, the blue
    al-māʔ al-zarqāʔᵘ (eg.), n.f., glaucoma (med.)

    zariqa, a (zaraq), vb. I, to be blue: prob. denom. (from zaraq or ʔazraqᵘ).
    ĭzraqqa, vb. IX, to be blue: form IX for colours and handicaps.

    zaraq, n., 1 blue, blueness, blue color; 2 glaucoma (med.): vn. I.
    zurqaẗ, n.f., 1 blue, blueness, blue color; 2 cyanosis (med.):…
    zurayq and ʔabū zurayq, n., jay (zool.): so called on account of the colour/iridescence of its eyes.
    ĭzriqāq, n., blueness, blue: vn IX. | dāʔ al-~, n., cyanosis. 
    zawraq زَوْرَق , pl. zawāriqᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZRQ, ZWRQ 
    n. 
    boat, rowboat, skiff – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ In DRS, zawraq is treated together with ↗zaraqa. If this is correct, the value ‘boat, rowboat, skiff’ can be explained as figurative use: a small boat (which elsewhere is often likened to a nutshell) is called a ‘bowl, basin’ here (cf. Ar mizraq ‘drinking cup, [Freytag1830:] crater, phiala’, Hbr mizrāq ‘bowl, basin’). The latter value seems to be derived from ‘to sprinkle’, the basic value inherent in zaraqa. One could also imagine the small boat being likened to s.th. that is ‘thrown around’ or ‘scattered’ (by the waves).
     
    ▪ … 
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZRQ -1 Akk zarāqu ‘asperger’, Hbr zāraq [Klein1987: ‘to throw, toss, sprinkle’], JP Syr zᵊraq ‘répandre, asperger’, mzrqyʔ (pl.) ‘aspersoirs’; nSyr zāriq ‘paraître (soleil)’, zrāqa ‘lever (du soleil), Est’, Ar zaraqa ‘fienter (oiseau), lancer, jeter, percer, injecter (avec une seringue)’, zarraqa ‘répandre de l’eau, pisser; inciter’, Ḥass zrīg ‘lait additionné d’eau’; Ar mizrāq ‘javelot, lance courte’ mazāriq (pl.) ‘rayons de soleil’, zurraq : nom de diverses espèces de rapaces, PalAr zēraq ‘taon’, MġrAr zarrāqaẗ ‘tuyau, seringue’, zroq, zaraq ‘se lever, pointer à l’horizon (astre)’, ẓṛug ‘bondir, jaillir’, zrəg ‘glisser furtivement’, Ḥass ẓaṛgeg ‘couler lentement, à petit filet, laisser filtrer la lumière’; Mhr zərūq, Ḥrs zeroq, Jib zoroq ‘porter un coup avec une pointe, piquer’, Gz zaraqa, Tña zäräqä ‘percer d’une lance’, zäräq̄ä ‘percer, fendre, découper en lanières; tamiser’, Amh zärräqä ‘découper du bois à jour’. ? Te zärqä ‘être abondante (pluie)’, Gz məzrāq, Tña mäzraq ‘javelot’, Te märzaq : grand bâton avec une pointe en fer; Mhr Ḥrs zērəq, Jib zerq : sorte de serpent très rapide. – Akk zirīq-, zuruqq- : appareil primitif pour puiser de l’eau pour l’irrigation, Ar zirq ‘litière, fourrage’. Hbr mizrāq [Klein1987: ‘bowl, basin’], Ar mizraq ‘vase à boire’, Syr zūrqā, Ar zawraq, GulfAr zārūg ‘petit bateau’.
    ▪ For possible cognates outside Sem (if zawraq is related to ‘to throw, hurl’), cf. ↗zaraqa, ↗ZRQ. 
    See above, section CONC. 
    – 
    zawraq buḫārī, n., steam launch
    zawraq aṣ-ṣayd, n., fishing boat
    zawraq kanadī, n., Canadian canoe
    zawraq kayāk/kāyāk, n., kayak (rowing sport)
    zawraq al-naǧāẗ, n., lifeboat
    zawraq nāsif, n., torpedo boat
     
    ZRQN زرقن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZRQN 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZRQN_1 ‘bright red’ ↗zarqūn 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    zarqūn زَرْقُون 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZRQ, ZRQN 
    adj. 
    a bright red – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Perh. from Pers zargūn ‘gold-coloured’, composed of Pers zar ‘gold’ (Av zar ‘gold’) + gūn ‘colour’ (EtymOnline , DRS #ZRQN), akin to Aram zarag, zargūn ‘peony, peony-coloured’, Syr zrag ‘to glisten, be red’ (with wine, said of the eyes), zārgâ ‘wine colour (a colour betw. red and yellow), topaz, amethyst’ (PayneSmith1903).64
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (not real cognates, but akin to) Aram zarag, zargūn ‘peony, peony-coloured’ (Nişanyan_22Dec2014), Syr zrag ‘to glisten, be red’ (with wine, said of the eyes), zārgâ ‘wine colour (a colour betw. red and yellow), topaz, amethyst’ (PayneSmith1903). 
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZRQN-1 labels zarqūn ‘céruse rouge, minium’ (lead cerussite, red lead) a specifically HispAr item. According to the Dictionnaire historique de la langue française the word is a »réemprunt à l’Ar zarkūn lui-même pris au Lat hyacinthus et qui avait donné jargon
    ▪ Aram from Ar or Pers?
    ▪ In Syr zrag ‘to glisten, be red’ there is (conspicuous?) partial overlapping with ‘iridescent, shimmering, glittering’, the original meaning of Ar ʔazraqᵘ (now mostly ‘blue’). 
    ▪ Engl zircon, 1794, circon, also jargon, new name given in chemistry to jacinth, from Fr zircone and Ge Zirkon, from Ar zarqūn ‘cinnabar, bright red’, from Pers zargun ‘gold-colored’, from Av zari- ‘gold-colored’, from zar ‘gold’. – zirconium, metallic chemical element, 1808, coined in modLat by German chemist and mineralogist M. H. Klaproth (1743-1817) in 1789; so called because it was found in zirconEtymOnline
    ▪ Lokotsch1927#141: Ar zarkūn [sic!] > Span azarcón ‘red lead’, Port zarcão, azarcão.
    ▪ Rolland2014a: Perhaps this is the etymon also of It giargone ‘variety of diamant’, whence Fr jargon. Cf., however, CNRTL #jargon²: »1723 jargons ‘petits cristaux vendus par les droguistes pour de vrais hyacinthes’; 1752 ‘sorte de diamant jaune’, empr. à l’It giargone ‘variété de diamant’ attesté dep. C14 (d’apr. DEI), de même orig. que oFr jacunce, jargunce ‘pierre précieuse’, cf. jacinthe et hyacinthe.« If Fr jargon is not from Ar zarqūn but from Lat hyacinthus ‘plante à bulbe, glaïeul; sorte d’améthyste’, Grk hyákinthos, from Syr yaquntā, in itself a loan from Grk hyákinthos, then one will rather have to compare Ar ↗yāqūt.
    ▪ Tu zirkon, 1892 (Tıngır & Sinapian, Iṣṭılāḥāt Luġāti), from Fr zircon ‘red gem’, from Ge Zirkon (1789 Martin Heinrich Klaproth, Ge chemist), from Ar zarqūn1 brilliant red, 2 red gem’ – Nişanyan (22Dec2014, #zirkon).
     
    – 
    ZRY زري 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 24Mar2023
    √ZRY 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZRY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZRY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZRY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to abuse, scorn, reproach, humiliate, consider insignificant’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ZʕFR زعفر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZʕFR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZʕFR_1 ‘saffron’ ↗zaʕfarān
    ▪ ZʕFR_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    zaʕfarān زَعْفَران 
    ID 355 • Sw – • BP??? • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZʕFR 
    n. 
    saffron – WehrCowan1979. 
    Of obscure etymology, perh. from mPers. If so, zaʕfarān would be one out of the significant number of Pers botanical-culinary terms that found their way into Ar. 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZʕPR: Syr zʕprn, Ar zaʕfarān, Mhr Ḥrs EJib zaʕferān, Te zäʔəfran, Amh zəʔəfran ‘saffron’.
    ▪ … 
    EALL (Asbaghi, »Persian Loanwords«): a loan from mPers zarparān ‘saffron’ (lit. ‘with gold leaves’).
    ▪ Rolland2014a: »Peut-être du Pers zar-parān ‘aux pétales d’or’. Mais ce n’est qu’une des diverses hypothèses proposées pour ce mot à l’étymologie obscure. Boutrolle, Laffitte et Lemut315 optent pour un rattachement commun de zaʕfarān et ↗ʕuṣfur ‘carthame, safran bâtard’, à la famille de la racine ↗ṢFR ‘jaune’.«
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZʕPR: AHW 93 compares the Akk plant name azupīr-, azupirān-, but this is dismissed by CAD 1/II, 531, following Landsberger WO 3/260, n. 56. – The EthSem forms are based on a borrowing from Ar. 
    ▪ Out of the 5 values given by DRS for the root ZʕM in Sem, 3 are represented in Ar, of which only 1 in MSA (1 in ClassAr, 1 in EAr).
    ▪ ZʕM_1 : apparently without cognates in Sem. – For ClassAr zaʕama (u, z˅ʕm), Hava1899 gives the value ‘to assert s.th. true or false’, DRS has ‘parler, dire, énoncer une opinion’ as the basic value from which the others derive. The zaʕīm is the one who has the authority to decide between true and false, good and bad, right and wrong.
    ▪ ZʕM_2 : ClassAr zaʕāʔimᵘ is obviously the pl. of an (obsol.) sg. that, according to regular patterns, should be assumed to be *zaʕīmaẗ. Etymology obscure. Borrowed from a SAr lang?
    ▪ ZʕM_3 : The vb. I zaʕima ‘to covet, desire eagerly ( s.th.)’, which is not found in MSA any longer, belongs to ZʕM_1 ‘to assert, pronounce an opinion’: if you are convinced that s.th. is right, true, or good, and express your opinion vehemently, you may attach your emotions to it, hence desire it.
    ▪ ZʕM_4 zaʕamaẗ ‘glory, dignity, power’: from ZʕM_1; lit., quality of a zaʕīm.
    ▪ ZʕM_5 zuʕmī ‘truthful; mendacious’: from ZʕM_1; lit., subject to zuʕm, i.e., s.th. the quality of which still has to be tested and asserted, s.th. that can be either so or so.
    ▪ ZʕM_6 zaʕūm ‘having little fat; having much fat (she-camel, sheep, goat)’: from ZʕM_1; lit., (animal) »of which one doubts whether there be in her fat or not, and which is therefore felt with the hand, in order that one may know if she be fat or lean« (Lane). – Cf. also the less equivocal zaʕim ‘(of roasted meat:) dripping with its gravy; succulent, dripping with its juice or fat’ (ibid.) 
    ZFT_1
    ▪ According to DRS, Nişanyan_18Dec2014, and earlier studies, the Akk (lBab) and Ar words both are from Aram zep̄ṯā, and EthSem is dependent on Ar.
    ▪ With the values ‘diluer le moût de la bière’ (Gz zafata) and ‘sédiment, dépôt’ (Tña zäfta), EthSem shows interesting deviation from the standard value ‘pitch, pine-resin’. Does this point, against DRS, to an independence from Ar and then perh. also a more general meaning in protSem times?
    ▪ On account of the Hbr and Aram evidence, DRS dares to reconstruct (W?)Sem *zipt- ‘poix, résine de pin ou de sapin’.
    ▪ For a speculation about a Grk connection cf. ↗zift.
    ZFT_2-7
    ▪ The values are seen together as one etymological unit in DRS, which seems to suggest itself, given the fact that all values are attached to the same verb, ClassAr zafata. The variety of values, however, is neither explained nor discussed. However, some of these, though not all, may be variants of ZFD, as pointed out by DRS .
    ▪ The EthSem value ‘sediment, depot’ (Tña zäfta) in ZFT_1 brings lets us think of the production process of ‘pitch, pine-resin’, so that at least the early meaning ‘pine-resin’ could be understood as the *‘liquid/resin that sediments, forms depots (when the trees are tapped)’. From here, at least the meaning ZFT_2 of the obsol. vb. I zafata, ‘to fill (a vessel)’, could have developed.
    ▪ ZFT_3&4 share a notion of pushing, expelling, etc., but are difficult to link to both ZFT_1 and ZFT_2.
    ▪ ZFT_5&6: resultative from ZFT_3 or _4?
    ▪ ZFT_7: The value ‘to whisper’ is explained by Freytag1830 as a development from an original ‘evacuare’ (to evacuate), whispering s.th. into s.o.’s ears being a kind of ‘evacuating’ o.s. into s.o. else. If the basic meaning really is ‘to evacuate’, then it could be a semantically connected to the tapping of conifers to get the resin (ZFT_1) as well as the filling of a vessel (ZFT_2).
     
    ▪ The item is believed to be a loan from Aram zep̄ṯā, which in turn (according to DRS) is from a (W?)Sem *zipt‑ ‘pitch, pine-resin’.
    ▪ »Resin was extracted by tapping conifers. The liquid collected was solidified or heated in order to obtain a tar-like product. However, it could also be used in its fresh and unprocessed state. Wood tar was manufactured through dry distillation of wood. Theophrastus describes the method used in Macedonia. Similar to the production of charcoal, a round wood pile was stacked up that was covered almost completely with earth to control the inflow of air. Only a small opening remained through which the smouldering fire was lit; the fire could be kept burning for up to two days. The tar (pítta) flowed slowly from a trough under the kiln through a channel and into a catch pit (Theophr. Hist. pl. 9,3,1-4). Pliny mentions kilns out of which, after an aqueous preliminary discharge, a more viscous wood tar flowed that was further processed through boiling into actual pitch or refined through the addition of asphalt (bitumen) or vinegar (Plin. HN 16,52-5). By re-boiling it, palimpissa (Plin. HN 24,40) was obtained. Zṓpissa (Grk ζώπισσα; zṓpissa) was pitch drenched in salt water that was scraped off old ship timber (Plin. HN 16,56).« – art. »Pitch« (R.-B. Wartke, A. Burford-Cooper), in Brill’s New Pauly.
    65
    ▪ Are Aram zep̄ṯā, or WSem *zipt‑, in any way related to this Grk zṓpissa (Attic zṓpitta) ‘pitch drenched in salt water that was scraped off old ship timber’? Phonologically not very likely (how should one explain the loss of long stressed ṓ in the first syllable?), but the meaning ‘diluer le moût de la bière’ of Gz zafata, which is akin to the Sem words for ‘pine-resin, pitch’, could be conspicuously reminding of the drenching of pitch in salt water to produce zṓpissa.
    ▪ Does zift possibly belong to ↗ZFT_2 zafata ‘to fill (a vessel)’, pitch and resin dripping into a vessel when the conifers (or the kiln) are tapped? 
    ▪ In addition to the value ‘pitch, pine-resin’, ClassAr attaches some more values to the root (cf. ZFT_2-7 in entry ↗ZFT), cf., e.g., (Lat) Freytag1830 / (Ge) Wahrmund1887 / (Engl) Hava1899: zafata, u (zaft), 1 implevit / anfüllen / to fill (a vessel); 2 impulit (iumentum) / (das Thier) antreiben / to rouse s.o.; 3 repulit, removit, impedivit / zurücktreiben, abweisen, hindern / to expel, to hinder; 4 ira exarsit / in Zorn gegen jn. entbrennen / to anger; 5 molestia affecit / belästigen, fatigavit / ermüden / to weary s.o.; 6 evacuavit (totam traditionem in aures ei dixit) / jdm. etwas ins Ohr flüstern / Ø. 
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZPT-1 Akk zibt-, Hbr zépet, JP ziptā, zē(y)pā, Syr zeptā, zebtā, Ar zift ‘résine, poix’, zaffata ‘poisser’, Gz Te Amh zəft ‘goudron’, Amh zäffätä ‘enduire de goudron’; Gz zafata ‘diluer le moût de la bière’, Tña zäfta ‘sédiment, dépôt’. -2 Ar zafata ‘remplir (un vase); se mettre en colère; repousser, écarter; fatiguer, causer de la peine’, ẒofAr zfet ‘arracher’, SudAr zaffāt : chameau excité qui pousse des cris. -3 Mhr zaftét ‘aller spontanément avec qn’, Jib zotfet ‘flâner, papoter’.  
    ▪ According to DRS, Nişanyan_18Dec2014, and earlier studies, the Akk (lBab) and Ar words are both from Aram zep̄ṯā, and the EthSem forms are dependent on Ar.
    ▪ On account of the Hbr and Aram evidence, DRS dares to reconstruct (W?)Sem *zipt- ‘poix, résine de pin ou de sapin’.
    ▪ With the values ‘diluer le moût de la bière’ (Gz zafata) and ‘sédiment, dépôt’ (Tña zäfta), EthSem shows interesting deviation from the standard value ‘pitch, pine-resin’. Does this point, against DRS, to an independence of EthSem from Ar and, hence, also to a more general meaning of √ZPT in protSem times?
    ▪ The value ‘sediment, depot’ in the cognate Tña zäfta evokes the process of producing ‘pine-resin, pitch’, so that at least the early meaning ‘pine-resin’ could be understood as the liquid/resin that *‘sediments, forms depots’ when trees are tapped (perh. also ‘… when pitch kilns are tapped’). From here, at least the meaning of the obsol. vb. I zafata ‘to fill (a vessel)’ (ZFT_2 in ↗ZFT), could have developed.
    ▪ For a speculation about a Grk connection cf. above, section CONC.
     
    ▪ Tu zift (1387 İrşādü’l-Mülūk ve’s-Selāṭīn), from Ar/Pers zift ‘tar, asphalt’; ziftlenmek ‘to have a drink, drink alcohol’ (*to smear) (1926 H.R. Gürpınar, Tutuşmuş Gönüller) – Nişanyan_18Dec2014.
    ▪ If Ar zift should, in one way or another, be akin to Grk zṓpissa, var. zṓpitta (cf. above, section CONC), then also many Eur words for ‘pitch’ are also related, cf., e.g., Engl pitch »‘resinous substance, wood tar’, lC12, pich, from oEngl pic ‘pitch’, from a Germ borrowing (oSax and oFris pik, mDu pik, Du pek, oHGe pek, German Pech, oNor bik) of Latin pix (genitive picis) ‘pitch’, which according to Watkins is from a protIE root *pik- ‘pitch’ (cognates: Grk pissa, Lith pikis, oChSlav piklu ‘pitch’), but according to Pokorny this is from the same protIE root as pine « – EtymOnline
    zift wa-qaṭrān, (lit. pitch and tar), expr., 1 unpleasant, annoying, awkward; 2 damned (bad luck): expr.

    zaffata, vb. II, 1 to smear with pitch, to pitch; 2 to asphalt (a road): applicative, denom.
    mizfataẗ, pl. mazāfitᵘ, n.f., asphalting machine (tech.): n.instr.
    tazfīt, n., asphalting: vn. II 
    ZFR زفر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 24Mar2023
    √ZFR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZFR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZFR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZFR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to carry a heavy load; onset of a donkey’s bray, to groan, exhale, pant’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ZQM زقم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 24Mar2023
    √ZQM 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZQM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZQM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZQM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to swallow fast, drink too much milk; fresh butter with dates; plague; a certain foul-tasting, stinking tree said grow in the Arabian region of Tihlimah’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ZKRYā زكريا 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 24Mar2023
    √ZKRYā 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZKRYā_1 ‘Zacharias’ ↗zakariyyā
    ▪ ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): The philologists classify this word under the root ↗ZKR ‘to fill up a vessel’, while at the same time recognising it as of foreign origin. 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ZKW/Y زكو / زكي 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZKW/Y 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZKW/Y_1 ‘to thrive; to grow, increase’ ↗zakā / zakiya
    ▪ ZKW/Y_2 ‘to be pure in heart, be just, righteous, good; to be fit, suitable’ ↗zakā
    ▪ ZKW/Y_3 ‘alms tax, zakat (Isl.)’ ↗zakāẗ

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to grow, to flourish; to reach, to attain; to purify, to be purified’ 
    The semantics within this root reflect a rather complex overlapping of original meanings and later borrowings. It seems that, etymologically, two main values/items should be distinguished:

    ▪ ‘to grow, increase’, most probably attached to a Sem root *ZKW/Y, and
    ▪ ‘to be(come) clean, pure’, attached to Sem *ḎKW/Y.

    Both roots and their values are preserved in MSA. Sem *ḎKW/Y, however, has also gone into Hbr and Aram and taken on a specialized religious-ethical meaning there (initial Sem *Ḏ‑ became Z‑ in both—a regular sound change in Hbr, but probably under Akk influence in Aram; there are however also Aram forms with initial ḏ‑). From there, and with the technical religious sense of ‘moral purity’, the word(s) passed into Ar, coming on top of the values ‘growth’ (√ZKW/Y) and ‘brightness, sharpness, clarity’ (√ḎKW/Y) that already existed there from Sem times. This made √ZKW/Y a homonymous root although, from an etymological point of view, it should have been √ḎKW/Y rather than √ZKW/Y. 

    – 
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZKW/Y–1 Ar zakā, zakiya ‘croître, grandir, prospérer, être pur, probe’; Mġr zkā ‘gonfler en cuisant (couscous)’. –2 zakiya ‘avoir soif’. — See also ZKY. –1 See Ḏ/ZKW/Y/K.
    DRS 4 (1993)# Ḏ/ZKW/Y/K–1 Akk zakū ‘(être) propre, pur, clair, libre d’obligations’, Hbr zākāh ‘être pur’, zak ‘être clair, pur’, Phn zkʔ ‘pur’, EmpAram dky, zky ‘innocent, pur’, Palm *dk ‘rituellement pur’, Mand dakia ‘propre, pur’, BiblAram zākū ‘innocence’, JP Syr zəkā ‘être innocent’, zākūtā ‘innocence, victoire, règne’, Mand zakaia ‘innocent, victorieux’; Ar ḏakā ‘être égorgé selon les règles (animal)’, ḏakwaẗ ‘oblation (pour le péché)’; zakā ‘être pur, sans tache’, Sab ḏkw ‘égorger, achever’, Ar zakāẗ, Sab zkt ‘grâce divine’, Jib zeke, ziki ‘être pur’, Jib Mhr Ḥrs zekōt ‘aumône’, Gz zakik ‘pur, purifié’, Te zäkat ‘aumône légale, impôt’. Les formes en z semblent des emprunts à l’Akk; au contraire: Bauer OLZ 29:803 pense à un emprunt can. Ces formes Aram seraient passées à l’Ar. Sab zkt = empr. Aram. Pour les formes nommant l’aumône légale islamique, SAr et Eth dépendet évidemment de l’Ar. –2 Ar ḏakiya ‘paraître, pousser, percer’, ḏakā ‘être vif, perçant (esprit), être prompt à comprendre; brûler avec intensité, avec violence (feu), dégager une forte odeur’, Liḥ ḏakaw ‘flamme’, Ar ʔaḏkā ‘allumer, bouter le feu’; ? ‘envoyer’; Sab ḏkw ‘détacher (une troupe)’, ḏky, hḏky ‘envoyer’. 
    ▪ Jeffery1938 thinks that ‘to grow, increase’ (ZKW/Y_1) is the primary value of the root and the only one that Ar has directly from Sem, while ‘purity’ (ZKW/Y_2) and ‘alms tax’ (ZKW/Y_3) for him are Aramaisms. The corresponding root in Ar is not ZKW/Y but ↗ḎKW/Y.
    ▪ For Huehnergard 2011, [v3] is from Aram zākutā ‘innocence, justification, merit, meritorious deed’, from zəkā ‘to be innocent, be worth, give alms’. The latter (which is also akin to [v2]), H. thinks, is either from Can *zakā ‘to be worth, be worthy’, or Akk *zakû ‘to be(come) pure, innocent’, for which Sem *ḏkw ‘to be(come) clean, pure’ can be reconstructed.
    ▪ For unknown reasons, DRS in its entry #ZKW/Y-1 neither distinguishes between ‘croître, grandir, prospérer’ and ‘être pur, probe’ nor explains how these values could be seen as one. In fact, they probably can’t: ‘purity’ seems to be a secondary addition based on a borrowing from Aram which, etymologically, is akin to Ar ḎKW/Y rather than to ZKW/Y. 
    ▪ Engl zakatzakāẗ
    – 
    zakā / zakaw‑ زَكا / زَكَوْـ , ū (zakāʔ
    ID 360 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZKW 
    vb., I 
    1 to be pure in heart, be just, righteous, good; to be fit, suitable (bi‑ for s.o.). – 2 for other meanings ↗zakā / zakiya – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ With the meaning ‘purity’ (and also ‘alms tax’, ↗zakāẗ), the root ZKW/Y is most probably an Aramaism that came in addition to the earlier value ‘to grow, increase’ (↗zakā / zakiya), making the root a homonymous one.
    ▪ According to Huehnergard 2011, the source from which the Ar items are borrowed, Aram zəkā ‘to be innocent, be worth, give alms’, is from Can *zakā ‘to be worth, be worthy’, or Akk *zakû ‘to be(come) pure, innocent’, from Sem *ḏkw ‘to be(come) clean, pure’.
    ▪ Thus, etymologically speaking, the Ar items with this meaning are not akin to ZKW/Y but to ↗ḎKW/Y. 
    ▪ eC7 Of frequent occurrence in many forms in the Q : ʻto be pure’, e.g.,
    ▪ (zakā, u, vb. intrans., to reach a level of acceptability [by God], to attain enough purity; to increase in purity) Q 24:21 wa-law-lā faḍlu ’ḷḷāhi ʕalay-kum wa-raḥmatu-hū mā zakā min-kum min ʔaḥadin ʔabadan ‘were it not for God’s grace and mercy towards you, not a single one of you would ever have attained [enough] purity [to be acceptable to God]’
    ▪ (zakkà, vb II. trans., to purify, to cause to grow in purity) Q 9:103 ḫuḏ min ʔamwāli-him ṣadaqatan tuṭahhiru-hum wa-tuzakkī-him bi-hā ‘take from their possessions alms with which you cleanse them and purify them/cause them to grow in purity’, (to vouch for, to praise, to justify, to vindicate) 53:32 fa-lā tuzakkū ʔanfusa-kum huwa ʔaʕlamu bi-man ittaqà ‘so do not praise yourselves—He knows best who is mindful [of Him]’
    ▪ (tazakkà, v. V intrans., to seek purity, to strive for God’s grace) Q 35:18 wa-man tazakkà fa-ʔinna-mā yatazakkà li-nafsi-hī ‘whosoever purifies himself, does so only for [the good of] his own soul’
    ▪ (ʔazkà, elat., purer/purest, more/most godly or virtuous) Q 2:232 ḏālikum ʔazkà la-kum wa-ʔaṭharu ‘that is more virtuous/righteous and purer for you’, (better/best in quality) 18:19 fal-yanẓur ʔayyu-hā ʔazkà ṭaʕāman fal-yaʔti-kum bi-rizqin min-hu ‘let him look which is the best quality food, and bring you some of it’
    ▪ (zakiyy, quasi-AP, pure, pious) Q 19:19 qāla ʔinna-mā ʔanā rasūlu rabbi-ki li-ʔahiba la-ki ġulāman zakiyyan ‘He said, “I am only a messenger from your Lord, [come] to grant you a pure boy”’, (innocent) 18:74 ʔa-qatalta nafsan zakiyyatan bi-ġayri nafsin ‘how could you kill an innocent person without [it being in exchange for his killing of] another?’
    ▪ (zakāẗ, n., prescribed alms) Q 73:20 wa-ʔaqīmū ’l-ṣalāta wa-ʔātū ’l-zakāta wa-ʔaqriḍū ’ḷḷāha qarḍan ḥasanan ‘keep up the prayer, pay the alms, and make God a goodly loan’ 
    DRS 4 (1993)# Ḏ/ZKW/Y/K–1 Akk zakū ‘(être) propre, pur, clair, libre d’obligations’, Hbr zākāh ‘être pur’, zak ‘être clair, pur’, Phn zkʔ ‘pur’, EmpAram dky, zky ‘innocent, pur’, Palm *dk ‘rituellement pur’, Mand dakia ‘propre, pur’, BiblAram zākū ‘innocence’, JP Syr zəkā ‘être innocent’, zākūtā ‘innocence, victoire, règne’, Mand zakaia ‘innocent, victorieux’; Ar ḏakā ‘être égorgé selon les règles (animal)’, ḏakwaẗ ‘oblation (pour le péché)’; zakā ‘être pur, sans tache’, Sab ḏkw ‘égorger, achever’, Ar zakāẗ, Sab zkt ‘grâce divine’, Jib zeke, ziki ‘être pur’, Jib Mhr Ḥrs zekōt ‘aumône’, Gz zakik ‘pur, purifié’, Te zäkat ‘aumône légale, impôt’. Les formes en z semblent des emprunts à l’Akk; au contraire: Bauer OLZ 29:803 pense à un emprunt can. Ces formes Aram seraient passées à l’Ar. Sab zkt = empr. Aram. Pour les formes nommant l’aumône légale islamique, SAr et Eth dépendet évidemment de l’Ar. — 2 Ar ḏakiya ‘paraître, pousser, percer’, ḏakā ‘être vif, perçant (esprit), être prompt à comprendre; brûler avec intensité, avec violence (feu), dégager une forte odeur’, Liḥ ḏakaw ‘flamme’, Ar ʔaḏkā ‘allumer, bouter le feu’; ? ‘envoyer’; Sab ḏkw ‘détacher (une troupe)’, ḏky, hḏky ‘envoyer’. 
    ▪ Jeffery1938, 152-53: »The three forms [in the Qurʔān] which particularly concern us are zakā (cf. xxiv, 21), zakkà (ii, 146; iv, 52; xci, 9), and tazakkà (xx, 78; lxxxviL 14). – The primitive meaning of the Ar zky is ʻto grow, to flourish, thrive’, as is recognized by the Lexicons (cf. LA, xix, 77; and Rāghib, Mufradāt, 212).316 This is the meaning we find in the earliest texts, e.g. Ḥamāsa, 722, 11; Labīd (ed. Chalidi), etc., and with this we must connect the ʔazkà of ii, 232; xviii, 18, etc., as Nöldeke notes.317 In this sense it is cognate with Akk zakū ʻto be free, immune’318 ; Aram זכא ‘to be victorious’, Syr zəḵā, etc. – In the sense of ʻclean, pure’, however, i.e. zakā, i, zakkà, and tazakkà, it is obviously a borrowing from the older religions.319 Hbr זכא (like Phoen זכא) is ʻto be clean or pure’ in the moral sense, and its forms parallel all the uses in the Qurʔān. So the related Aram דכא, זכא, and זכי, Syr ḏəḵā, ḏəḵī, and zəḵā mean ʻto be clean’ both in the physical and in the moral sense. The Ar equivalent of these forms, of course, is ḏakā ʻto be bright’ [↗ √ḎKW/Y], and so there can be little doubt that zakā used in its technical religious sense was borrowed from an Aramaic form. It is, of course, difficult to decide whether the origin is Jewish or Christian. Nöldeke, Neue Beiträge, 25, n.; Schulthess, ZA, xxvi, 152; and Torrey, Foundation, 141, favour a Jewish origin, but Andrae, Ursprung, 200, points to the close parallels between Muḥammad’s use of the word and that which we find in contemporary Syriac literature,320 so that there is ground for thinking that it came to him from Christian sources.« 
    – 
    zakkà, vb. II, 1 to purify, chasten; to justify, vindicate, vouch for, or bear witness to s.o.’s integrity, declare s.o. honest, upright or just, attest the honorable record of s.o.; to attest to the truth, validity or credibility of s.th.: caus.; 2 for another meaning ↗zakā / zakiya.
    tazakkà, vb. V, to be purified, be chastened: refl./pass. of II.

    zakiyy, pl. ʔazkiyāʔᵘ, adj., pure; chaste; guiltless, blameless, sinless; (also = ḏakiyy, e.g. rāʔiḥaẗ zakiyyaẗ, n., delightful odor).
    zakāʔ, n., 1 (moral) purity, integrity, honesty, righteousness; 2zakā / zakiya : vn. I.
    BP#4006zakāẗs.v..
    ʔazkà, purer; more befitting, more appropriate; better; (also = ʔaḏkà, e.g., ʔazkà rāʔiḥaẗ, the most delightful odor): elat.
    tazkiyaẗ, n.f., purification, chastening; pronouncement of s.o.’s integrity or credibility; attestation of (a witness’) honorable record (Isl. Law): vn. II. 

    zakā زكا / zakaw‑ / zakiy زكِيَ , à (zakāʔ
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZKW/Y 
    vb., I 
    1 to thrive; to grow, increase. – 2 for other meanings ↗zakā ū – WehrCowan1979. 
    Jeffery 1938 thinks that this value of the root ZKW/Y is the primary one, i.e., the one that Ar has preserved from Sem, while other meanings (treated under ↗zakā here) are from Aram. 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZKW/Y–1 Ar zakā, zakiya ‘croître, grandir, prospérer, être pur, probe’; Mġr zkā ‘gonfler en cuisant (couscous)’ 
    DRS sees ‘croître, grandir, prospérer, être pur, probe’ as one semantic unit but does not explain why/how ‘croître, grandir, prospérer’ should be seen together with ‘être pur, probe’.
    ▪ The value ‘to grow, increase’ seems to be attested in Ar only. For ‘purity’ (and ‘alms’) which, as an Aramaism, ultimately goes back to Sem *ḎKW/Y rather than to *ZKW/Y, see ↗zakāzakāẗ.
    ▪ For a discussion of the complex entanglements within the root, see disambiguation entry ↗ZKW/Y. 
    – 
    zakkà, vb. II, 1 to increase, augment, make grow: ints.?; 2 for another meaning ↗zakā.
    ʔazkà, vb. IV, to cause to grow; to grow (s.th.): caus.

    zakāʔ, n., 1 growth: vn.; 2 for another meaning ↗zakā.
     

    zakāʔ زَكاء 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZKW/Y 
    n. 
    1 growth. – 2 (moral) purity, integrity, honesty, righteousness – WehrCowan1979. 
    zakāʔ is the vn. of both ↗zakā ū ‘to be pure in heart, be just, righteous, good’ and ↗zakiya à ‘to grow, increase’. 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    zakāẗ زَكاة var. زكَوة , pl. زكاً zakan , zakawāt 
    ID 361 • Sw – • BP 4006 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZKW 
    n. 
    purity; justness, integrity, honesty; justification, vindication; alms-giving, alms, charity; alms tax, zakat (Isl. Law) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ It seems that the word was borrowed in early Islamic times from JudAram zəḵūṯā ‘voluntary deed of merit in accordance with God’s commandments’ to provide a counter-concept ‘collective charity’ against, and to compete with, old Arabian charity as practised by clan/tribe chiefs through individual acts of generosity. The latter was integrated into Islam in a modified, ‘milder’ form as ↗ṣadaqaẗ while zakāẗ was made obligatory (and more reliable) and thus given priority over the latter. However, pre-Islamic ideals were not completely replaced by zakāẗ and ṣadaqaẗ; rather, they continued into Islamic times (↗ǧūd, ↗karam, ↗saḫāʔ). The meaning ‘alms (tax)’ does not seem to have been attached to the Aram source yet and was therefore probably added by Islam.
    ▪ Together with the vb. ↗zakā ‘to be pure in heart, be just, righteous’ (which is from Aram zəkā ‘to be innocent, be worth, give alms’), the item goes back to Can *zakā ‘to be worth, be worthy’, or Akk *zakû ‘to be(come) pure, innocent’, both from Sem *ḏkw ‘to be(come) clean, pure’.66  
    ▪ eC7 Q 2:43,83,110,177,277; 4:77, etc. ʻlegal Alms’. Occurs only in Medinan passages, such as Q 2:43,83,110,177,277; 4:77, etc. Another example is Q 73:20 wa-ʔaqīmū ’l-ṣalāta wa-ʔātū ’l-zakāta wa-ʔaqriḍū ’ḷḷāha qarḍan ḥasanan ‘keep up the prayer, pay the alms, and make God a goodly loan’. 
    Aram zkwt, Syr zᵊḵūṯā are not cognates proper since zakāẗ is loaned from there. This notwithstanding, it does of course belong to the same Sem root, cf. ↗ZKW/Y. The word appears already in some Sab inscriptions as zkt (dated 542 and 619 Himyarite era, i.e., c. 430 CE and 508 CE, respectively), meaning ‘Heilstat, Gnade (Gottes)’129 SAr zkt ? – Aram zkwt, Syr zᵊḵūṯā are not cognates proper since zakāẗ is loaned from there. This notwithstanding, the item does of course belong to the same Sem root, cf. ↗ZKW/Y
    ▪ Jeffery1938, 153: »Naturally the Muslim authorities explain this word from ↗zakā, and tell us that an Alms is so called because it purifies the soul from meanness, or even because it purifies wealth itself (cf. Bayḍ, on ii, 40, etc.),321 though some sought to derive it from the primitive meaning of ʻto increase’ (see Rāghib, Mufradāt, 212, and the Lexicons). – zakāẗ, however, is another of the technical religious terms taken over from the older faiths. Fraenkel, Vocab, 23, suggested that it was from the Aram זכות. The primary sense of זכות, זכותא is ʻpuritas, innocentia’, from which developed the secondary meaning of ʻmeritum’ as in the Targum on Ruth iv, 21, but it does not seem that זכותא, or its Syr equivalent zəḵūṯā, ever meant ʻalms’, though this meaning could easily be derived from it. Fraenkel is inclined to believe that the Jews of Arabia had already given it this meaning before Islam "sed fortasse Iudaei Arabici זכות sensu eleemosynarum adhibuerunt" (so Torrey, Foundation, 48, 141). Nöldeke, however (Neue Beiträge, 25), is inclined to believe that the specializing of the word for alms was due to Muḥammad himself.322 «
    ▪ Pennacchio2014, 19: The old writing with و as mater lectionis (زكوة) is a strong indication of the word’s Aram origin.
    ▪ Pennacchio2014, 138: »Dans la littérature rabbinique, zkwtʔ ‘bénéfice’, ‘mérite’ fonctionne comme l’équivalent hébraïque des ṣədāqā ‘aumône’. […] Le fait qu’on ait deux mots en ar., zakāẗ et ṣadaqaẗ, et en héb. zəkūtâ et ṣədāqā, suffit à prouver l’emprunt au judaïsme.«
    ▪ Huehnergard2011: from Aram zākutā ‘innocence, justification, merit, meritorious deed’, from zəkā ‘to be innocent, be worth, give alms’, from Can *zakā ‘to be worth, be worthy’, or Akk *zakû ‘to be(come) pure, innocent’, from < Sem ḏkw ‘to be(come) clean, pure’.
    ▪ Kerr 2014: »The nearest cognate meaning of this root is found in JP / Galilean Aram zky ‘to give to charity’. The precursors of this semantic development can probably still be seen in Syr zāḵūṯā ‘acquittal, innocence’ (also ‘grave of a martyr’) or possibly in Jewish-Babylonian Aram, Pal Targ-Aram and Galilean Aram zəḵūṯā ‘reward‚commendable deed’. The latter seems more likely to me.« 
    zakat: in Engl attested since 1802. Via Pers zakāt, from Ar zakāẗEtymOnline.
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl zakat, from Ar zakāẗ ‘purity, justness, alms, charity’, from Aram zākutā ‘innocence, justification, merit, meritorious deed’, from zᵊkā ‘to be innocent, be worth, give alms’, from Can zᵊkā or Akk zakû ‘to be(come) pure, innocent’. 
     
    ZLː (ZLL) زلّ / زلل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 24Mar2023
    √ ZLː (ZLL) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZLː (ZLL)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZLː (ZLL)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZLː (ZLL)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to trip over, slip, cause to slip; to remove’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ZLZL زلزل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZLZL 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZLZL_1 ‘to shake, rock, convulse, (cause to) tremble; earthquake’ ↗zalzala

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to shake violently, to rock, to tremble, earthquake, to agitate’ 
    ▪ Out of the 7 values listed by DRS for the root ZLZL in Sem, only 1 is represented in Ar.
    ▪ The root is obviously a reduplication of (= ints. formation from) the bi-consonantal element *‑zl‑ which also appears in combination with third (and forth) consonants, cf. e.g. ↗zāla ‘to go away, depart, pass away, shift’, ↗zalla ‘to slip, slide off, move away’, ↗zalaǧa ‘to slip, slide, glide along’, ↗zalaqa ‘to glide, slide, slip’. Like zalzala, these roots have in common the notion of »‘rapidité, agilité’, souvaint liée à celle de ‘glisser’ (et conjointement de ‘lisse, poli, brillant’« – DRS 8 (1999)#-ZL-, cf. also ↗*-ZL-. 
    – 
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZLZL-1 Syr ʔzdanzal ‘être secoué, trembler’, zunzālā ‘tremblement, turpitude, honte’, Ar zalzala ‘faire trembler, secouer, agiter’, zalzāl ‘tremblement (des membres)’, zalzalaẗ, EAr zanzale, HispAr zérzel, MġrAr zəlzla, zənzla, Ḥrs zəlzāl, EJib zelzelt ‘tremblement de terre’. ? Tña zälzäl bälä ‘ballotter (chose accrochée)’. -2 Hbr zalzallīm (pl.) ‘pousses de vigne’. -3 TalmAram zīlzūlā ‘mépris, dédain’, zalzīlā ‘débauché, prodigue’, zalzəlānā ‘glouton, vorace’. -4 Te zärzärä, Tña zälzälä, Amh Arg zäläzzälä, Gur zəläzälä ‘découper la viande en lanières’. -5 Te zəlzale ‘abeille’. -6 zälzal ‘gonflé, bouffant, trop ample’, ? Amh ʔažäläžžälä ‘être immense, innombrable’. -7 Gur zəläzälä ‘faire du petit commerce’. 
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZLZL-1: »Quelques formes présentent une dissimilation l > n (occasionnellement r) […]. – La base est ZLZL (et avec dissimilation ZNZL), formation à redoublement sur ZL, avec divers phénomènes de dissimilation; v. aussi s. ZLL.«
    ▪ For the 2-cons. basis of which ZLZL is a reduplication, cf. above, section CONC.
    ▪ »The semantic field of zlzl seems to be vibration. If the meaning ‘twig’ or ‘thin branch’ [of nEg ḏ3nḏ3nrt, ḏ3n3ḏ3n3, ḏ3nḏ3r(t), etc.] derives from this root, then possibly the semantic development is from the notion of ‘shaking a (pliant) stick’« – Hoch1994. 
    – 
    – 
    zalzal‑ زَلْزَلَ (zalzalaẗ , zilzāl , zalzāl
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZLZL 
    vb., I 
    1 to shake, rock, convulse, cause to tremble (s.th., s.o.); 2 pass. zulzila also: to waver, stumble – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ The root is obviously a reduplication of (= ints. formation from) the bi-consonantal element *‑zl‑ which also appears in combination with third (and forth) consonants, cf. e.g. ↗zāla ‘to go away, depart, pass away, shift’, ↗zalla ‘to slip, slide off, move away’, ↗zalaǧa ‘to slip, slide, glide along’, ↗zalaqa ‘to glide, slide, slip’. Like zalzala, many of these roots share the notion of »‘rapidité, agilité’, souvaint liée à celle de ‘glisser’ (et conjointement de ‘lisse, poli, brillant’« – DRS 8 (1999)#-ZL-, cf. also ↗*-ZL-. 
    ▪ eC7 zulzila (pass.) 1 (to be shaken by an earthquake) Q 99:1-2 ʔiḏā zulzilat-i ’I-ʔarḍu zilzāla-hā ‘when the Earth is shaken with its quaking’; 2 (to be disturbed, agitated) Q 33:11 hunālika ’btuliya ’l-muʔminūna wa-zulzilū zilzālan šadīdan ‘there the believers were sorely tested and deeply shaken’. – zilzāl 1 (earthquake, earth tremor) Q 99:1-2 ʔiḏā zulzilat-i ’I-ʔarḍu zilzāla-hā ‘when the Earth is shaken with its quaking’; 2 (agitation, disturbance) Q 33:11 hunālika ’btuliya ’l-muʔminūna wa-zulzilū zilzālan šadīdan ‘there the believers were sorely tested and deeply shaken’. – zalzalaẗ (shaking, shockwave, trauma) Q 99:1-2 ʔinna zalzalaẗa ’I-sāʕaẗi šayʔun ʕaẓīmun ‘the trauma of the [coming of the] Hour wil be a mighty thing’ 
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZLZL-1: Syr ʔzdanzal ‘être secoué, trembler’, zunzālā ‘tremblement, turpitude, honte’, Ar zalzala ‘faire trembler, secouer, agiter’, zalzāl ‘tremblement (des membres)’, zalzalaẗ, EAr zanzale, HispAr zérzel, MġrAr zəlzla, zənzla, Ḥrs zəlzāl, EJib zelzelt ‘tremblement de terre’. ? Tña zälzäl bälä ‘ballotter (chose accrochée)’. 
    ▪ Cf. above, section CONC.
    ▪ »The semantic field of zlzl seems to be vibration. If the meaning ‘twig’ or ‘thin branch’ [of nEg ḏ3nḏ3nrt, ḏ3n3ḏ3n3, ḏ3nḏ3r(t), etc., Copt ǧal ] derives from this root, then possibly the semantic development is from the notion of ‘shaking a (pliant) stick’« – Hoch1994. 
    ▪ Tu zelzele (<1300, Orta Asya’da Bulunmuş… Kuran Tefsiri, ed. Borovkov), from Ar zalzalaẗ – Nişanyan_19Nov2014. 
    tazalzala, vb. II, to quake (earth): T-stem, intr.

    zalzalaẗ, pl. zalāzilᵘ, n.f., earthquake: vn.
    zalzāl, var. BP#2702zilzāl, n., 1 concussion, shock, convulsion; 2 earthquake: vn. 
    zilzāl زِلْزال , var. zalzāl 
    ID 362 • Sw – • BP 2702 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZLZL 
    n. 
    1 concussion, shock, convulsion; 2 earthquake – WehrCowan1979. 
    vn. of ↗zalzala
    ▪ eC7 1 (earthquake, earth tremor) Q 99:1-2 ʔiḏā zulzilat-i ’l-ʔarḍu zilzāla-hā ‘when the Earth is shaken with its quaking’; 2 (agitation, disturbance) Q 33:11 hunālika ’btuliya ’l-muʔminūna wa-zulzilū zilzālan šadīdan ‘there the believers were sorely tested and deeply shaken’. –
    ▪ Cf. also ↗zalzala
    zalzala 
    zalzala 
    – 
    – 
    ZLF زلف 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 25Mar2023
    √ZLF 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZLF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZLF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZLF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to approach, draw near, advance; to crawl; to ingratiate o.s., seek God’s pleasure; time span’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ZLQ زلق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 25Mar2023
    √ZLQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZLQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZLQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZLQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to slip, slide, be slippery, be smooth’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ZLM زلم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 25Mar2023
    √ZLM 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZLM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZLM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZLM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to cut the loop of the ear; to emaciate through hunger; arrows, arrows used in divination in pre-Islamic Arabia’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ZMR زمر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 25Mar2023
    √ZMR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZMR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZMR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZMR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘windpipe, playing a flute; base people; group of people’ 
    ▪ From protSem *√ZMR ‘to make music’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl klezmer, from MishnaHbr zemer ‘music, song’, from zāmar ‘to make music’, cf. Ar ↗zamara, vb. I, ‘to blow, play (a wind instrument)’. 
    – 
    ZMRD زمرد 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZMRD 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZMRD_1 ‘emerald’ ↗zumurrud
    ▪ ZMRD_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    zumurrud زُمُرُّد 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZMRD 
    n. 
    emerald – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Perh from Grk smáragdos ‘emerald (or other green gem)’, via Pers. Some theories trace the word back also to the Sem root *BRQ ‘lightning; to shine, glitter, flash’, in which case it would be akin to Ar ↗barq ‘lightning’. 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZMRGD-b: For Brockelmann (ZDMG 65 (1911): 146), zumurrud derives from ↗zabarǧad. CDG 639 thinks it is of Pers origin, but for Steingass 621, zumurrud is genuinely Ar.
    ▪ Rolland2014a: »Peut-être du Grk smáragdos ‘émeraude ou autre pierre verte’, via le Pers. Pour Chantraine, le mot grec résulte d’un ‘emprunt oriental certain’. Pour Nişanyan, le Pers zumurrud ou zumrūd vient de l’Aram zmaragdā et est apparanté au Pers zabarǧad ‘chrysolite, topaze’ [loaned into Ar, ↗zabarǧad ]. On a aussi évoqué une lointaine parenté de ces deux mots avec la racine Sem *BRQ ‘briller’, Akk barraqtu, ainsi que le Skr marakata, qui tous deux désignent l’émeraude. On voit qu’il s’agit d’un mot voyageur dont il est difficile de déterminer le cheminement historique.« 
    ▪ Perhaps from the same Sem source as Engl emerald
    zumurrudī, adj., emerald(-coloured) 
    ZML زمل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 25Mar2023
    √ZML 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZML_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZML_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZML_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to run fast while veering to one side, to limp; to ride behind another person, a companion; to hide, wrap o.s.’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ZMN زمن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZMN 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZMN_1 ‘time, period of time, duration’ ↗zaman, ↗zamān
    ▪ ZMN_2 ‘(to be) chronically ill’ ↗zamin

    Other values, now obsolete, include:
    • ZMN_3 ‘to enrage’ : zamana
    • ZMN_4 ‘campement; richesses, équipement, mobilier’ : (Ḥass) zmān
     
    ▪ All the three values given by DRS for the root ZMN in Sem are represented in Ar, but only one (DRS #ZMN-1) is represented in MSA (with the two sub-values ZMN_1 and ZMN_2).
    ▪ ZMN_1: DRS reconstructs Sem *zaman‑ ‘temps déterminé’ as the shared origin of the cognates given under #ZMN-1. At the same time, DRS states that the Ar (as well as the Hbr and EthSem) forms probably are taken from Aram zᵊmān, which in itself goes back either to Akk simanu ‘season, proper time, time’ or oPers ǧamāna ‘time’. – The parallel existence of forms with short a and long ā has still to be explained.
    ▪ ZMN_2 : probably dependent on (i.e., special use of) ZMN_1.
    ▪ ZMN_3&4 : Etymology obscure. 
    – 
    ▪ ZMN_1: DRS 8 (1999)#ZMN-1 Hbr BiblAram zᵊmān, Palm zbn, Nab zmn, zbn, ChrPal zᵊbān, Syr zabnā, Mand zban, Ṭur zabno, nAram (pl.) zibnō, nSyr zōnā, Ar zaman, zamān, Mhr zebōn, Jib ziũn, Soq zem, Gz zaman, Tña Amh zämän, Har zäman, Gur zämän, zämär, zān, Te Tña Amh Arg zäbän, ‘temps, époque, période’, Te təzäbbänä ‘être opportun, coutumier’; Hbr *mᵊzumman ‘déterminé (temps)’, BiblAram *hizdᵊman, hizdammēn ‘convenir de, fixer’, Syr zammen ‘inviter, préparer’, zᵊmīnā ‘invité, convive’, Mand *zamin ‘convoquer’, Ar zamina ‘être atteint d’une maladie chronique’, zamān ‘vicissitudes du temps, destin, malheur’, Jib ezmin ‘être au début de la mousson’. ? -2 Ḥass zmān ‘campement; richesses, équipement, mobilier’. -3 Ar zamana ‘enflammer la colère’ 
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZMN-1 reconstructs Sem *zaman- ‘temps déterminé’, but at the same time says that the Hbr, Ar and EthSem forms seem to be borrowed from Aram. For the latter, two possible origins have been suggested by earlier research: either it is from Akk simān- ‘right moment’ [CAD: simanu (var. simunu, šimanu) ‘season, proper time, time’, from (w)asāmu ‘to be fitting, proper, suitable’, cf. Ar ↗wasīm ] or from oPers ǧamāna, mPers zamān, cf. Sogd zmn. – The forms showing -b- instead of -m- (ZBN) prevail in non-BiblAram; in Mand, zaman is to be found in Ar expressions, but there also exist forms with an Aram structure that are derived from ZMN, like zamanta, zamanuta, etc. ‘convocation, invitation. – In Ar, some semantic derivations are due to the influence of ↗dahr.
    ▪ Nişanyan_04May2015: Ar/Pers zamān ‘time, age, period’, akin to Akk simānu [sic!] ‘specific day or time, moment’, Hbr/Aram zəmān ‘id.’. mPers zəmānak ‘id.’ is probably a loan from Aram. – Arm žamanak ‘id.’ is from mPers.
    ▪ Is zaman simply a var. of zamān ? Or is zaman from Akk simanu ‘season, proper time, time’ while zamān is from mPers zamān ‘time’?
    ▪ ZMN_2-4 : see above, section CONC. 
    – 
    – 
    zaman زَمَن , pl. ʔazmān 
    ID 365 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 551 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZMN 
    n. 
    1 time; 2 period, stretch of time; 3 duration – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Simply a var. of ↗zamān or originally going back to a different etymon? While zaman could be from Akk simanu ‘season, proper time, time’, zamān may have Pers ancestors: mPers zamān < oPers ǧamāna ‘time’.
    DRS reconstructs Sem *zaman‑ ‘temps déterminé’ as the shared origin of the cognates given under #ZMN-1. At the same time, it is stated that the Ar (as well as the Hbr and EthSem) forms probably are taken from Aram zᵊmān, which in itself goes back either to Akk simanu ‘season, proper time, time’ or oPers ǧamāna ‘time’.
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ ZMN_1: DRS 8 (1999)#ZMN-1 Hbr BiblAram zᵊmān, Palm zbn, Nab zmn, zbn, ChrPal zᵊbān, Syr zabnā, Mand zban, Ṭur zabno, nAram (pl.) zibnō, nSyr zōnā, Ar zaman, zamān, Mhr zebōn, Jib ziũn, Soq zem, Gz zaman, Tña Amh zämän, Har zäman, Gur zämän, zämär, zān, Te Tña Amh Arg zäbän, ‘temps, époque, période’, Te təzäbbänä ‘être opportun, coutumier’; Hbr *mᵊzumman ‘déterminé (temps)’, BiblAram *hizdᵊman, hizdammēn ‘convenir de, fixer’, Syr zammen ‘inviter, préparer’, zᵊmīnā ‘invité, convive’, Mand *zamin ‘convoquer’, Ar zamina ‘être atteint d’une maladie chronique’, zamān ‘vicissitudes du temps, destin, malheur’, Jib ezmin ‘être au début de la mousson’. 
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZMN-1 reconstructs Sem *zaman- ‘temps déterminé’, but at the same time says that the Hbr, Ar and EthSem forms seem to be borrowed from Aram. For the latter, two possible origins have been suggested by earlier research: either it is from Akk simān- ‘right moment’ [CAD: simanu (var. simunu, šimanu) ‘season, proper time, time’, from (w)asāmu ‘to be fitting, proper, suitable’, cf. Ar ↗wasīm ] or from oPers ǧamāna, mPers zamān, cf. Sogd zmn. – The forms showing -b- instead of -m- (ZBN) prevail in non-BiblAram; in Mand, zaman is to be found in Ar expressions, but there also exist forms with an Aram structure that are derived from ZMN, like zamanta, zamanuta, etc. ‘convocation, invitation. – In Ar, some semantic derivations are due to the influence of ↗dahr.
    ▪ Is zaman simply a var. of ↗zamān ? Or is zaman from Akk simanu ‘season, proper time, time’ while zamān is from mPers zamān ‘time’? 
    – 
    zamanan, adv., for some time

    zamina, a (zamānaẗ), vb. I, to be chronically ill: denom. (?); see also ↗zamin.
    ʔazmana, vb. IV, 1 to stay, remain (bi‑ at a place); 2 to last long: denom. – 3zamin.
    zamanaẗ, n.f., period of time: quasi-n.un., from zaman (interpreted as n.coll.).
    zamin, var. zamīn, pl. zamnà, adj., chronically ill: specialisation; cf. also s.v.
    BP#737zamān, pl. ʔazminaẗ, n., 1 time; 2 duration; 3 fortune, fate, destiny: var. of zaman (?) | min ~, adv., for some time (past), for quite a while; ʕalà ’l-~, adv., always, ever; ʔahl zamāni-hī, n., his contemporaries; ḥikāyāt ~, n.f.pl., tale of yore, stories of the past; ʔayyāmᵃ zamān, adv., in days of yore, in bygone days.
    BP#2275zamanī, adj., 1 temporal, time (adj.); 2 worldly, earthly; 3 passing, transient, transitory; 4 secular: nsb-adj. | ʔalġām zamaniyyaẗ, n.f.pl., mines with time fuse; qunbulaẗ zamaniyyaẗ, n.f., time bomb.
    zamānī, adj., 1 temporal, time; 2 worldly, earthly; 3 passing, transient, transitory; 4 secular: nsb-adj., from zamān.
    zamaniyyaẗ, var. zamāniyyaẗ, n.f., period of time, given time: quasi-abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ.
    zamānaẗ, n.f., chronic illness: specialisation, cf. ↗zamin.
    mizmān, n., chronoscope (for measuring reaction time; psych.): n.instr., neolog.
    tazāmun, n., simultaneous existence (of several things), simultaneity, contemporaneousness; coincidence: vn. VI.
    BP#3768muzmin, adj., 1 lasting, enduring, longlived; 2 old, deep-seated, inveterate: PA IV; 3zamin.
    mutazāmin, adj., simultaneous, contemporaneous; conincident: PA VI.
     
    zamin زَمِن , var. zamīn , pl. zamnà 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZMN 
    adj. 
    chronically ill – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Probably dependent on ↗zaman ‘time, period of time, duration’, orig. *‘specified moment, specific time’. 
    ▪ … 
    zaman, ↗ZMN. 
    zaman, ↗ZMN. 
    – 
    zamina, a (zamānaẗ), vb. I, to be chronically ill: denom.

    ʔazmana, vb. IV, 1-2zaman; 3 to be chronic (disease), be inveterate: denom.
    zamānaẗ, n.f., chronic illness:…
    BP#3768muzmin, adj., 1-2zaman; 3 chronic (desease): PA IV.

    For other values of the root cf. ↗zaman, ↗zamān, ↗ZMN. 
    zamān زَمان , pl. ʔazminaẗ 
    ID 364 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 737 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZMN 
    n. 
    1 time; 2 duration; 3 fortune, fate, destiny – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Simply a var. of ↗zaman or originally going back to a different etymon? While zaman could be from Akk simanu ‘season, proper time, time’, zamān may have Pers ancestors: mPers zamān < oPers ǧamāna ‘time’.
    DRS reconstructs Sem *zaman‑ ‘temps déterminé’. At the same time, it is stated that the Ar (as well as the Hbr and EthSem) forms probably are taken from Aram zᵊmān, which in itself goes back either to Akk simanu ‘season, proper time, time’ or oPers ǧamāna ‘time’.
     
    ▪ … 
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZMN-1 Hbr BiblAram zᵊmān, Palm zbn, Nab zmn, zbn, ChrPal zᵊbān, Syr zabnā, Mand zban, Ṭur zabno, nAram (pl.) zibnō, nSyr zōnā, Ar zaman, zamān, Mhr zebōn, Jib ziũn, Soq zem, Gz zaman, Tña Amh zämän, Har zäman, Gur zämän, zämär, zān, Te Tña Amh Arg zäbän, ‘temps, époque, période’, Te təzäbbänä ‘être opportun, coutumier’; Hbr *mᵊzumman ‘déterminé (temps)’, BiblAram *hizdᵊman, hizdammēn ‘convenir de, fixer’, Syr zammen ‘inviter, préparer’, zᵊmīnā ‘invité, convive’, Mand *zamin ‘convoquer’, Ar zamina ‘être atteint d’une maladie chronique’, zamān ‘vicissitudes du temps, destin, malheur’, Jib ezmin ‘être au début de la mousson’.
    ▪ Nişanyan_04May2015: Akk simānu [sic!] ‘specific day or time, moment’, Hbr/Aram zəmān ‘id.’, Ar/Pers zamān ‘time, age, period’. 
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZMN-1 reconstructs Sem *zaman- ‘temps déterminé’, but at the same time says that the Hbr, Ar and EthSem forms seem to be borrowed from Aram. For the latter, two possible origins have been suggested by earlier research: either it is from Akk simān- ‘right moment’ [CAD: simanu (var. simunu, šimanu) ‘season, proper time, time’, from (w)asāmu ‘to be fitting, proper, suitable’, cf. Ar ↗wasīm ] or from oPers ǧamāna, mPers zamān, cf. Sogd zmn. – The forms showing -b- instead of -m- (ZBN) prevail in non-BiblAram; in Mand, zaman is to be found in Ar expressions, but there also exist forms with an Aram structure that are derived from ZMN, like zamanta, zamanuta, etc. ‘convocation, invitation. – In Ar, some semantic derivations are due to the influence of ↗dahr.
    ▪ Is zamān simply a var. of zaman (or vice versa)? Or is zaman from Akk simanu ‘season, proper time, time’ while zamān is from mPers zamān ‘time’?
    ▪ Nişanyan_04May2015: Ar/Pers zamān ‘time, age, period’, akin to Akk simānu [sic!] ‘specific day or time, moment’, Hbr/Aram zəmān ‘id.’. mPers zəmānak ‘id.’ is probably a loan from Aram. – Arm žamanak ‘id.’ is from mPers.
     
    ▪ Tu zaman (1330 ʕĀşıḳ Paşa, Ġarīb-nāme), from Ar/Pers zamān ‘time, age, period’ – Nişanyan_04May2015. 
    min zamān, adv., for some time (past), for quite a while
    ʕalà ’l- zamān, adv., always, ever
    ʔahl zamāni-hī, n., his contemporaries
    ḥikāyāt zamān, n.f.pl., tale of yore, stories of the past
    ʔayyāmᵃ zamān, adv., in days of yore, in bygone days

    zamānī, adj., 1 temporal, time; 2 worldly, earthly; 3 passing, transient, transitory; 4 secular: nsb-adj.
    zamāniyyaẗ, var. zamaniyyaẗ, n.f., period of time, given time: quasi-abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ.
    zamānaẗ, n.f., chronic illness:…

    For other values of the root cf. ↗zaman, ↗zamin, ↗ZMN. 
    tazāmun تزامُن 
    ID 363 • Sw – • BP 5264 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZMN 
    n. 
    simultaneous existence (of several things), simultaneity, contemporaneousness; coincidence – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ A vn. VI with associative-partitive meaning, lit. *‘to share (the same) ↗zaman (period), or ↗zamān (time, destiny) with s.o./s.th., be contemporaneous’.
    ▪ For etymology, cf. ↗zaman, ↗zamān
    ▪ … 
    See ↗zaman, ↗zamin, ↗zamān, ↗ZMN. 
    See ↗zaman, ↗zamin, ↗zamān, ↗ZMN. 
    – 
    mutazāmin, adj., simultaneous, contemporaneous; conincident: PA VI.

    For other values of the root cf. ↗zaman, ↗zamin, ↗zamān, ↗ZMN. 
    ZMHR زمهر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 25Mar2023
    √ZMHR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZMHR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZMHR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZMHR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): (possibly an extension of root ↗ZMH) ‘to be angry, be red in the face and eyes with rage; to glitter; to be gleeful; to be freezing cold’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ZNǦBL زنجبل 
    ID 366 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZNǦBL 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZNǦBL_1 ‘ginger’ ↗zanǧabīl 
    – 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    zanǧabīl زَنْجَبِيل 
    ID 367 • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZNǦBL 
    n. 
    ginger – WehrCowan1979. 
    A loan-word, ultimately from Skr śṛṅgavēr ‘horn-shaped’. Jeffery1938 suggests a borrowing via Pali singivēra > mPers singaβēr > Aram/Syr zangəbīlā > Ar.
    The Skr word is also the origin of the European words for ginger. Opinion however differs as to whether or not Ar has been involved in the transfer of the (word for the) spice to Europe. 
    lC6 / ▪ eC7 al-ʔAʕšā ka-ʔanna ǧaniyyan min al-zanǧabīli ḫālaṭa fā-hā ‘wie wenn frischgepflückter Ingwer sich ihrem Munde beigemischt hätte’ (Geyer, Zwei Gedichte, I, 57: E 64a).
    ▪ eC7 Q 76:17 wa-yusqawna fī-hā kaʔsan kāna mizāǧu-hā zanǧabīlan ‘There are they watered with a cup whereof the mixture is of Zanjabil’, Paret: ‘Sie bekommen darin (d.h. im Paradies) einen Becher (Wein) zu trinken, dessen Mischwasser (mit) Ingwer (gewürzt) ist’. 
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZNGBL: Syr zangᵊbīl, Amh zənǧi/əbəl, Te ǧänǧäbil, Tña ǧənǧəbäl ‘ginger’. 
    ▪ Jeffery1938: In the Qurʔān, the word »occurs ‎only in a passage descriptive of the delights of Paradise, where the exegetes differ as to whether ‎Zanǧabīl is the name of the well from which the drink of the Redeemed comes, or means the spice ‎by which the drink is flavoured (vide Ṭab., Zam., and Baiḍ. on the passage and LA, xiii, 332). – ‎There was fairly general agreement among the early authorities that it was a Pers word. al-Ṯaʕālibī, ‎‎Fiqh, 318, and al-Ǧawālīqī, Muʕarrab, 78, give it in their lists of Persian loan-words, and their ‎authority is accepted by as-Suyūṭī, Itq, 321; Mutaw, 47; and al-Khafāǧī, 99. – The modPers ‎word for ginger is šankalīl (Vullers, Lex, ii, 472; cf. also ii, 148) from Phlv singaβēr,323 which is the source of ‎the Arm sngrowēγ,324 and the Syr zangᵊbīlā; ‎Aram ‎זנגבילא‎.325 ‎The ultimate source seems to have been the Skr śṛṅgaber,326 / 327 Pali singivēra, from which comes the Grk ζιγγίβερις.328 There can be little doubt that the word passed into Ar from Syr ‎and was thence borrowed back into Persian in Islamic times.329 It occurs in the early ‎poetry330 and so was ‎evidently an early borrowing«. 
    ▪ While Osman2002 favours an ‘Arab connection’ (Skr śṛngavêra > Pers/Ar zanǧabīl‑ > Grk-Lat zingiberi > brought to Italy via Arabs and Venetians > C9 in Germany > mHGe gingebër, gingebëre, c1200 gingebëro > late mHGe inhwēr, C14 ingebër), others do not see Arabs involved in the Eur words’ history. For modEngl ginger, e.g., Jeffery1938 gives Skr śṛṅgaber‑ > Pali singivēra‑ > Grk zingíberis, later gingíberis > Lat gingiber‑ > mEngl gingevir‑ > modEngl ginger, and for modGe Kluge2002 describes the development thus: oInd śṛṅga-vera > mInd (Pāli) siṅgiveran > Grk ziggíberis‑ > Lat zingiber, gingiber > oFr gimgibre‑ > oHGe gingibero‑ > mHGe ingeber, ingwer.
    ▪ Forms in other Eur langs (accord. to Lokotsch1927#1930): Lat zingiber > It zenzevero, zenzero, gengiovo, oProv gingebre, Fr gingembre, Cat gingebre, Span gengibre, agengibre, Port gengibre, gengivre, Rum ghimber, zingifil, zinzifil; Du gember, Engl ginger, Ge Ingwer; Ru imbir’, inbir, Ukr imbir’, Pol imbier, jembier, Cz zázvor, Serb džendžefil, dumbir (via Hung győmbér). 
    – 
    ZNǦR زنجر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZNǦR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZNǦR_1 ‘verdigris’ ↗zinǧār . – Cf. also ↗zunǧufr ‘cinnabar’
    ▪ ZNǦR_2 ‘to flip, snap (with the fingers)’ ↗zanǧara
    ▪ ZNǦR_3 ‘chain’ ↗zinǧīr
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    DRS #ZNGR-1 Syr Mand zangārā ‘rouille’, Ar zinǧār ‘rouille, vert-de-gris’. -2 Ar zanǧara ‘claquer des doigts’, zinǧīr ‘chiquenaude’. -3 Te zəngərgər ‘bariolé’, Amh zänäggʷärä ‘être bariolé’, Gur zəngdärdär: vêtement multicolore. -4 Te zəngər ‘famille’. -5 Tña zängar ‘maigre, aux longues jambes’. -6 Amh zəngäro, ǧənǧäro, Arg ǧinǧäro, Gaf ǧənǧərä, Har zagäru, Gur zangärä ‘babouin’. -7 Gaf azänäggärä ‘descendre’. -8 nSyr zanǧil, Ar zinǧīr ‘chaîne’, Te ǧängär ‘entrave pour les pieds’, Tña ǧanǧär ‘chaîne de fer’, Amh zanǧär ‘cangue, carcan’. -9 nSyr zangūrē ‘sonner’. -10 Amh zängərir ‘vase en terre’, Tña zəngərir ‘bonbonne, cruche’.  
    ▪ ZNǦR_1 (≙ DRS #ZNGR-1): from Pers or the same source as the corresponding Pers word, cf. ↗zinǧār.
    ▪ ZNǦR_2 (≙ DRS #ZNGR-2): DRS reports the opinion of ClassAr lexicographers (as in Lane) that the word is a loan, but does not give further details.
    ▪ ZNǦR_3 (≙ DRS #ZNGR-8): from Pers, GNDR GNZR
    ▪ Metathetical variant: ↗ǦNZR. 
    ▪ –. But cf. ↗zunǧufr
    – 
    zanǧara زَنْجَرَ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZNǦR 
    vb., I 
    to flip, snap (with the fingers) ‒ WehrCowan1979. 
    DRS reports the opinion of ClassAr lexicographers (as in Lane) that the word is a loan, but does not give further details.
     
    ▪ … 
    DRS #ZNGR-2 Ar zanǧara ‘claquer des doigts’, zinǧīr ‘chiquenaude’. 
    See section CONC, above. 
    – 
    – 
    zinǧār زِنْجار 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZNǦR 
    n. 
    verdigris ‒ WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Rolland2014a: zinǧār ~ ǧinzār ‘verdigris’, and zinǧafr ~ zunǧufr ‘cinnabar’, from oPers sinkadruš ‘cinnabar, mercuric sulphide’. 
    ▪ … 
    DRS #ZNGR-1 Syr Mand zangārā ‘rouille’, Ar zinǧār ‘rouille, vert-de-gris’. 
    See section CONC, above. 
    ▪ –. But cf. ↗zunǧufr
    – 
    zinǧīr زِنْجير , pl. zanāǧīr 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZNǦR 
    n. 
    chain ‒ WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Rolland2014a: zinǧīr ~ ǧinzīr ‘chaine’, from mPers zenčīr ‘id.’ 
    ▪ … 
    DRS #ZNGR-8 nSyr zanǧil, Ar zinǧīr ‘chaîne’, Te ǧängär ‘entrave pour les pieds’, Tña ǧanǧär ‘chaîne de fer’, Amh zanǧär ‘cangue, carcan’. 
    See section CONC, above. 
    … 
    ḥisāb al-zinǧīr, n., double-entry bookkeeping 
    ZNǦFR زنجفر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZNǦFR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZNǦFR_1 ‘cinnabar’ ↗zunǧufr 
    zunǧufr 
    – 
    zunǧufr 
    zunǧufr 
    ▪ ↗zunǧufr 
    – 
    zunǧufr زُنْجُفْر , var. zinǧafr 
    ID … • Sw … • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZNǦFR, ZNǦR, cf. also ǦNZR 
    n. 
    cinnabar ‒ WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ From oPers sinkadruš ‘cinabre, sulfure de mercure’ (Rolland2014a) or Pers šangarf ‘minium, cinnabar’ (Lokotsch1927, DRS). 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZNGPR: Syr zngwpr, Ar zunǧufr
    ▪ Rolland2014a: zinǧār ~ ǧinzār ‘verdigris’, and zinǧafr ~ zunǧufr ‘minium, cinnabar’: from oPers sinkadruš ‘cinnabar, mercuric sulphide, vermillion’ (Nourai)
    ▪ Lokotsch1927#1827, DRS 8 (1999)#ZNGPR: From Pers šangarf ‘verdigris, minium, cinnabar’.
    ▪ NişanyanSözlük_01Dec2014: Ar zanǧafr, Pers zenǧefre, from zngūprā
    ~ sūngprā , from a Phoen source. 
    ▪ Tu zincifre: 1303 Codex Cumanicus: cenapio = Pers singft = Tr zingft; <1421? Yādigâr-ı İbn-i Şerīf: zincifre – NişanyanSözlük_01Dec2014.
    ▪ Engl cinnabar: mC15, »‘red or crystalline form of mercuric sulphide’, also applied to other ores of mercury, originally with reference to its use as a pigment; from oFr cinabre (C13), from lLat cinnābaris, from Grk kinnábari, of oriental origin (compare Pers zinǧafr, zenǧefreh in the same sense). Also used C14-C17 of red resinous juice of a certain Eastern tree, which was believed to be a mixture of dragon’s and elephant’s blood« – EtymOnline.
    ▪ Lokotsch1927#1827: Pers šangarf > Ar zinǧafr ~ zunǧufr , Tu zincifre > Grk tiggábari, kinnábari, Lat cinnābaris > It cinabro, Fr cinabre, Span Port cinabrio, Rum chinovar; Engl cinnabar, Ge Zinnober, Swed cinnober; Ru kinowar, Pol cynober, Cz cinobr, Serb cinober, Bulg kinowar
    – 
    ZNM زنم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 25Mar2023
    √ZNM 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZNM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZNM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZNM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): Derivatives of this root are taken from the n. zanamaẗ, the ‘lowest edge of the earlobe’. It was customary in pre-Islamic Arabia to slit the lower earlobe of certain pedigree animals at one end and leave it hanging as a mark of their value. Metaphorically, zanamaẗ came to convey the concept of ‘attachment’. zanīm said of animals means ‘pedigree’, but of humans it is associated with ‘servant, person of uncertain parentage and scoundrel’. 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ZNY زني 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZNY 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZNY_1 ‘to fornicate, (to commit) adultery’ ↗zanà

    Other values, now obsolete:
    • ZNY_2 ‘to be(come) strait, tight, narrow; (D-stem:) to oppress’: Lane

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘1 to fornicate, (to commit) adultery. – 2 to be in a tight place, (of s.th.) be narrow’ 
    ▪ ZNY_1 : from WSem *ZNY ‘to fornicate, (to commit) adultery’.
    ▪ ZNY_2 : etymology obscure; properly ZNW, not ZNY! 
    – 
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZNW/Y-1 [only Akk]. –2 Ar zanā (ZNW) ‘être resserré, étroit’. –3 Hbr zānāh, JP zənā, Mand zna, Ar zanà (ZNY), Mhr zənū, Jib zini, Ḥrs zenō, Gz zanaya, Te Amh zänna ‘commettre l’adulterie, forniquer’, Syr zanī ‘être débauché, déshonorer’, Gz zanawa ‘être sale, impur’; Hbr zonāh, Palm znytʔ, nSyr zanītā ‘prostituée’. – Outside Sem: Af sannaw , Sa zanaw ‘forniquer’. [-4 -5 -6 no represented in Ar.] 
    See section CONCISE, above. 
    – 
    – 
    zanà, zanay‑ زَنَى / زَنَيْـ , i (zinan , det. zinà or zinā ; zināʔ
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZNY 
    vb., I 
    to commit adultery, fornicate, whore – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ From WSem *ZNY ‘to fornicate, (to commit) adultery’.
     
    ▪ eC7 Q zanà (to commit adultery, fornicate) 60:12 yā-ʔayyu-hā ’l-nabiyyu ʔiḏā ǧāʔa-ka ’l-muʔminātu yubāyiʕna-ka ʕalà ʔan lā yušrikna bi-’llāhi šayʔan wa-lā yasriqna wa-lā yaznīna▪ … ‘Prophet, when believing women com to pledge to you that they will not ascribe God any partner, nor steal, nor commit adultery▪ …’. – zinā (adultery, fornication) 17:32 wa-lā taqrabū ’l-zinā ʔinna-hū kāna fāḥišatan wa-sāʔa sabīlan ‘and do not go near fornication—it is an abomination, and an evil path [to take]’. – zānī (fornicator, adulterer) 24:3 al-zānī lā yankiḥu ʔillā zāniyatan ʔaw mušrikatan ‘the fornicating male/adulterer is only [fit to] marry [also: only fornicates with] a fornicating female/adulteress or an idolatress’. 
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZNW/Y-3: Hbr zānāh, JP zənā, Mand zna, Ar zanà (ZNY), Mhr zənū, Jib zini, Ḥrs zenō, Gz zanaya, Te Amh zänna ‘commettre l’adulterie, forniquer’, Syr zanī ‘être débauché, déshonorer’, Gz zanawa ‘être sale, impur’; Hbr zonāh, Palm znytʔ, nSyr zanītā ‘prostituée’. – Outside Sem: Af sannaw , Sa zanaw ‘forniquer’.
    ▪ Dolgopolsky2012: (as DRS above, adding:) perhaps also Ug dnt ‘adultery, fornication’, with WSem *ḏ‑ > Ug d‑ under the influence of WSem *ḎMː ‘to blame, reprove; dispise, disgrace’ (cf. Ar ↗ḏamma)? 
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZNW/Y-3: The Af Sa forms are borrowed from Ar.
    ▪ Tropper2008#dnt, Dolgopolsky2012#2739: WSem *ZNY ‘to fornicate, (to commit) adultery’.
    ▪ Dolgopolsky2012#2739: from Nostr *ʒûw˅n˅‑ ‘to copulate’, (?) ‘membrum virile’. 
    – 
    zinan, det. zinà, n., adultery; fornication: vn. I.
    zināʔ, n., adultery; fornication: vn. I.
    zānin, det. zānī, pl. zunāẗ, n., fornicator, adulterer: PA I.
    zāniyaẗ, pl. zawānin, det. zawānī, n., whore, harlot; adulteress: PA I, f. 
    zinaⁿ زِنًى , det. zinà 
    ID 368 • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZNY 
    n. 
    adultery; fornication – WehrCowan1979. 
    vn. of ↗zanà ‘to fornicate, (to commit) adultery’, from WSem *ZNY ‘id.’. 
    ▪ eC7 (adultery, fornication) Q 17:32 wa-lā taqrabū ’l-zinā ʔinna-hū kāna fāḥišatan wa-sāʔa sabīlan ‘and do not go near fornication—it is an abomination, and an evil path [to take]’. – Cf. also ↗zanà
    Cf. ↗zanà
    Cf. ↗zanà
    – 
    Cf. ↗zanà
    ZHD زهد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 25Mar2023
    √ZHD 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZHD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZHD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZHD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to abstain, renounce, abandon, forsake (pleasures and wealth), withdraw’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ZHR زهر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 25Mar2023
    √ZHR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZHR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZHR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZHR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to flower, blossom; to be bright, shine, be radiant’ 
    ▪ From CSem *√ZHR ‘to shine, be splendid’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl hazard, perh. from Ar ↗zahr ‘gaming die’, perh. from ↗zahr ‘flowers’ (the sides of some medieval dice perh. being painted with images of flowers), from ↗zahara, vb. I, ‘to shine, be radiant’. 
    – 
    ZHQ زهق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 25Mar2023
    √ZHQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZHQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZHQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZHQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to expire, run out, pass away; to be fat; to be emaciated’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ZWǦ زوج 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZWǦ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZWǦ_1 ‘(one of a) pair; husband, wife; to marry, marry (off)’ ↗zawǧ
    ▪ ZWǦ_2 ‘vitriol’ ↗zāǧ

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘even number, pair, double, two things which are connected in some way; spouse, one of a pair; a species, type; to cause trouble’ 
    ▪ ZWǦ_1: borrowed, via Aram, from Grk, ↗zawǧ
    ▪ ZWǦ_2: borrowed from Pers, ↗zāǧ 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    zawǧ زَوْج , pl. ʔazwāǧ 
    ID 369 • Sw –/77 • BP 464 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZWǦ 
    n. 
    1 one of a pair. – 2 husband; wife; mate, partner. – 3 couple, pair (also, e.g., of shoes); dual zawjān couple, married couple – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ The common theory is that the word is one of only 17 words in the Q which, ultimately, are of Grk origin (via Aram zawgā from Grk zeŷgos).
    ▪ Cf., however, Orel&Stolbova’s reconstruction of Sem *zūg‑ ‘to marry, join’, from AfrAs *ʒ˅g‑ ‘id.’. 
    ▪ Early borrowing, appears already in pre-Isl poetry (muʕallaqaẗ of Labīd).
    ▪ eC7 Occurs also frequently in the Qurʔān: 1 (wife, husband, spouse) Q 2:102 fa-yataʕallamūna min-humā mā yufarriqūna bi-hī bayna ’l-marʔi wa-zawǧi-hī ‘from them (lit., these two), they learned that by which they cound cause discord between man and wife’; 2 (companion, mate) 39:6 ḫalaqa-kum min nafsin wāḥidatin ṯumma ǧaʕala min-hā zawǧa-hā ‘He created you from a single soul, then from it He made its mate’, 3 (two, one of a pair, a pairable individual) 6:143 ṯamāniyata ʔazwāǧin mina ’l-ḍaʔni ’ṯnayni wa-min-a ’l-maʕzi ’ṯnayni ‘eight members of pairs [pariable animals]: two of the sheep and two of the goats’, 4 (type, variety, kind) 22:5 wa-tarà ’l-ʔarḍa hāmidatan fa-ʔiḏā ʔanzalnā ʕalay-hā ’l-māʔa ’htazzat wa-rabat wa-ʔanbatat min kulli zawǧin bahīǧin ‘you perceive the earth lifeless, yet when We send down upon it water, it stirs and swells and puts forth [vegetation] of every joyous kind’.
    ▪ Cf. also Fück1950: 120.
    ▪▪ … 
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZWG-1: nHbr zūg, TargAram zōgā, Syr zawgā, Ar zawǧ, Gz zawg, Tña zäwg ‘couple paire’, Amh zog ‘côté, parti allié’, TalmAram ziwwēg, Syr zawwēg ‘joindre, accoupler’, Ar zāǧa ‘exciter l’un contre l’autre, mettre aux prises’, zawwaǧa ‘unir, joindre, accoupler, marier’, tazawwaǧa ‘se marier’, S-Ar EAr ǧōz ‘pair’, ǧawwaz ‘se marier’, Gz zoga, zawaga ‘être égal’, Tña zäwägä, Amh zäwwägä ‘former un groupe’, Te ǧoz ‘quelques-uns’. 
    ▪ Jeffery1938, 154-55: »It is a very early loan-word in Ar from Grk zeûgos through the Aram. The verbal forms zawwaǧa, etc., with this meaning are clearly denominative, the primitive root zāǧa meaning ʻto sow discord between’. In the Qurʔān we have many forms— zawwaǧa ʻto marry, to couple with’, zawǧ pl. ʔazwāǧ ʻa wife’ or ʻhusband’ (human); zawǧ ʻkind, species’; zawǧān ʻpair’; zawǧ ʻsex’. – No Muslim authority, as Fraenkel notes (Fremdw, 107), has any suspicion that the word is other than genuine Ar, but no derivation of the word is possible from Sem material, and there can be no reasonable doubt that its origin is to be found in [Grk] zeûgos.331 zeûgos is originally a ʻyoke’ from zeúgnimi ʻto join, fasten’,332 and then comes to mean ʻa couple’, so that katà zeûgos or katà zeúgē meant ʻin pairs’, and thus zeûgos = coniugium was used for a married pair. From Grk it passed eastwards and in the Rabbinic writings we have זוג meaning both ʻpair’ and ʻwife’,333 and זוגא ‘pair’, ʻhusband’, ʻcompanion’, besides the denominative זִיוֵּג ‘to bind, pair’, and זִווג = [Grk] zýgōsis, זוגדס = zeûgos + dís. So Syr zūgā is ʻyoke’, and the very common bar zūgā = ʻyokefellow’, commonly used for ʻhusband’ or ʻwife’, with verbal forms built therefrom. It was from this Syr that we get the Eth [Gz] zawg (Nöldeke, Neue Beiträge, 44) and the Arm zožgk',334 and it was probably from the same source that it passed into Ar. One might expect that it would be an early borrowing, and as a matter of fact it occurs in the early poetry.335 «
    ▪ Schall1982, EALL (Gutas, »Greek Loanwords«), DRS 8 (1999): : via Aram zōgā from Grk zeûgos ‘yoke’ (cf. also Syr zūgā ‘yoke’, bar zūgā ‘husband, wife’).
    ▪ Cf. however Orel&Stolbova1994#2639: AfrAs *ʒ˅g‑ ‘marry, join’ > Sem *zūg‑ ‘marry, join’: Hbr zwg, Arab zwǧ. Generally believed to be a Grk loanword. Cognate in Berb *ʒ˅g‑ (zeġ) ‘copulate’.
    ▪ Note that Dolgopolsky2012 does not mention Ar zawǧ (nor corresponding Sem words) among the borrowings from IE *yug-o-m ‘yoke’ (> Grk zyg-ón, Lat iug-um, Germ *yuka‑ > Engl yoke, etc.). The only ‘Oriental’ connection he gives is nPers ǧoft ‘pair’ (< cl-nPers ǧuft ‘yoke, pair’ < MPrs ā-yōḫ-tan ‘to harness’, Av yaog‑ / yuʒ‑ ‘to harness, yoke, join’, oInd yunákti, yugá‑ < narrIE *yeu̯g‑ / *yung‑ ‘to bind, harness, yoke’). 
    – 
    zawwaǧa, vb. II, to pair, couple, join in pairs or couples; to double, geminate; to employ parallelism (rhet.); to marry off, give in marriage: denom.
    zāwaǧa, vb. III, to form a pair or couple; to use in parallel construction, join in a pair; to marry, join in wedlock, unite in matrimony: denom., assoc.
    BP#>1700tazawwaǧa, vb. V, to marry s.o.; to get married: t-stem of II, refl.
    tazāwaǧa, vb. VI, to intermarry; to pair, come together forming a pair, be in pairs, be double: t-stem of III, recipr.
    ĭzdāǧa, vb. VIII, to pair, be in pairs, be double, appear twice: t-stem of vb. I.

    BP#496zawǧaẗ, n.f., wife: f. of zawǧ.
    zīǧaẗ, n.f., marriage, wedding:.
    BP#3031zawǧī, adj., in pairs, paired; double; marital, matrimonial, conjugal; doubles (tennis); pair-oar, paired oars (rowing sport).: nsb.adj.
    zīǧī, adj., marital, matrimonial, conjugal, connubial: nsb.adj. of zīǧaẗ.
    zawǧiyyaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., matrimony, marriage: abstr. formation in -iyyaẗ.
    BP#764zawāǧ, n., marriage; wedding; matrimony, wedlock | waḥdaẗ al-zawāǧ, n., monogamy.
    mizwāǧ, adj., frequently marrying: ints.
    tazwīǧ, n., marrying off (of a woman, min to): vn. II.
    ziwāǧ, n., doubling, duplication; parallelism (rhet.): vn. III.
    muzāwaǧaẗ, n., pairing, coupling, cloee union (of two things): vn. III.
    tazawwuǧ, n., marriage: vn. V.
    tazāwuǧ, n., intermarriage: vn. VI.
    ĭzdiwāǧ, n., pairedness, doubleness; coupling (el.): vn. VIII | ĭzdiwāǧ ḍarībī, n., double taxation
    ĭzdiwāǧiyyaẗ, n.f., twofoldness, doubleness: abstr. formation in -iyyaẗ from vn. VIII. | ĭzdiwāǧiyyaẗ al-luġaẗ, n., diglossia; bilingualism
    BP#3226mutazawwiǧ, adj., married (min to): PA V.
    muzdawiǧ, adj., double, twofold, two- (e.g., of a railroad: two-track): PA VIII. | ṣalīb muzdawiǧ (Tun.), n., swastika; ḥukm muzdawiǧ, n., double rule. 
    ZWD زود 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 25Mar2023
    √ZWD 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZWD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZWD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZWD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘provisions, to take provisions for a journey, food’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ZWR زور 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZWR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZWR_1 ‘to (pay) visit, call on; (fig.) to afflict’ ↗zāra
    ▪ ZWR_2 ‘upper part of the chest; throat’ ↗zawr
    ▪ ZWR_3 (= ZYR_3) ‘ladies’ man, philanderer’ ↗zīr_3
    ▪ ZWR_4 ‘lie, untruth, falsehood; to forge, counterfeit, fake, simulate’ ↗zūr_1
    ▪ ZWR_5 ‘force’ ↗zūr_2
    ▪ ZWR_6 ‘to incline, turn aside; inclination, obliqueness; squint’ ↗zawar
    ▪ ZWR_7 (= ZYR_1) ‘large jar’ ↗zīr_1, arranged under √ZYR.
    ▪ ZWR_8 (= ZāR) : ‘zār ceremony’ ↗zār, arranged under √ZāR.

    Other values, now obsolete or dialectal only, include:
    • ZWR_9 ‘phantom in sleep’ : zawr
    • ZWR_10 ‘intellect; [? hence:] resoluteness, (strength of) determination’ : zawr
    • ZWR_11 ‘stone which appears to a person digging a well, and which, being unable to break it, he leaves apparent; a mass of rock’ : zawr (Lane)
    • ZWR_12 ‘(straight and slender) palm-branch from which the leaves have been stripped off : YemAr zawr (Lane)
    • ZWR_13 ‘one time’ : zawraẗ
    • ZWR_14 ‘slave’ : zawraẗ
    • ZWR_15 (= ZYR_5) ‘angry, enraged’ : zīr
    • ZWR_16 ‘deep (well)’ : zawrāʔᵘ
    • ZWR_17 ‘silver vessel’ : zawrāʔᵘ
    • ZWR_18 ‘Bagdad (town)’ : zawrāʔᵘ
    • ZWR_19 ‘Tigris (river)’ : zawrāʔᵘ
    • ZWR_20 (= ZYR_4) ‘rope binding the fore to the hind-girth’ : ziwār, see MorAr ↗zayyar ‘to close (a button)’

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘1 whole, centre or upper part of the chest, cleavage; 2 twist; 3 leaning towards; 4 paying a visit, visitor; 5 perjuring o.s.’ 
    ▪ The extremely large variety of meanings attached to √ZWR (and √ZYR) in ClassAr is reduced on MSA to ca. 8 major themes. Some few of these may be etymologically related to each other. DRS identifies 3 basic etyma, the first of which shows in itself a rather broad spectrum of meanings the interrelatedness of which is not always clear and well-established. variety is divided into treated as being based.
    ▪ In spite of still unclear semantics, we can assume values ZWR_9 through ZWR_19 to be secondary, based on one of the others.
    ▪ The distribution of the remaining values among the three major groups in DRS is as follows:
    • DRS #ZW/YR-1 covers: ZWR_1 (≙ DRS #1f) ‘to visit’; ZWR_4 (≙ DRS #1b) ‘lie, untruth, falsehood; to forge, counterfeit, fake, simulate’; ZWR_6 (≙ DRS #1a) ‘to incline, turn aside; inclination, obliqueness; squint’; ZWR_9 (≙ DRS #1g) ‘phantom appearing while one is asleep’: probably based on ZWR_1 ‘to visit’; ZWR_13 (≙ DRS #1c) ‘one time’: probably akin to ZWR_1 ‘to visit’ and/or ZWR_6 ‘to turn aside’; ZYR_6 (≙ DRS #1e) ‘angry, enraged’. – While ClassAr lexicography usually derives ZWR_1 ‘to visit’ from ZWR_6 ‘to turn aside’, others think it is rather from the value DRS #1d ‘to hate, dislike, abandon; stranger; enemy’ (not represented as such in Ar). – Relations within this complex are not really clear, a fact that is reflected in the question marks figuring in the DRS entry.
    • DRS #ZW/YR-2 covers: ZWR_20 (= ZYR_4) ‘rope binding the fore to the hind-girth’, MorAr ↗zayyar ‘to close (a button)’, EgAr ‘to attach’ – The item seems to go back to a WSem root *ZW/YR ‘to join, press together’.
    • DRS #ZW/YR-3 comprises only 1 item: ZWR_7 (= ZYR_1) ‘large jar’ – The etymology of this item is underresearched, though commonly believed to be Sem.
    ▪ ZWR_2 ‘upper part of the chest’ : does not seem to be Sem—but what then?
    ▪ ZWR_3 ‘ladies’ man, philanderer’ : commonly assumed to be dependent on ZWR_1 ‘to visit’.
    ▪ ZWR_4 ‘lie, untruth, falsehood; to forge, counterfeit, fake, simulate’ : regarded as Sem in DRS but elsewhere treated as a loanword.
    ▪ ZWR_5 ‘force’: regarded as a loanword in DRS, and therefore not attributed to theWSem theme *‘to compress’ (cf. ZWR_20 ≙ DRS #2a).
    ▪ ZWR_6 ‘to incline, turn aside; inclination, obliqueness; squint’: see above.
    ▪ ZWR_7 (= ZYR_1) ‘large jar’ : ≙ DRS ZW/YR#3.
    ▪ ZWR_8 (= ZāR) : ‘zār ceremony’ : commonly believed to to back (via EthSem) to a Cush etymon.

     
    – 
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZW/YR-1 (a) Akk zāru ‘tordre, être tordu’, Hbr JP zār ‘s’écarter de’, zawwēr ‘rouler’, Ar zawira ‘être penché, courbé; aller en biais’, (b) zāra ‘mentir, accuser faussement’, zawwara ‘altérer, falsifier, défigurer, embellir, orner’, zūr ‘mensonge vanité’, (c) zuraẗ ‘fois’, S Ar zāra ‘quelquefois’, Syr zawar ‘regarder de travers’, Gz Te Arg zora, Tña Amh Gur zorä, Gaf zärä ‘tourner, aller autour’, Gz zawwara ‘durer, subsister’; Amh zäwärwärra ‘vagabond; tortueux (chemin)’, zəwərwər ‘en vrille’, žort ‘hérisson’. – (d)? Akk zēru ‘ne pas aimer, haïr, éviter; abandonner’, zayyār ‘ennemi’, Hbr zār, Phoen oYa zr ‘étranger, d’autrui’, TargAram zār ‘loger chez qn’. – (e) Ar zīr ‘qui est en colère’; (f) zāra ‘visiter (un lieu saint)’, MġrAr zār ‘rendre visite’; zyāra ‘visite’; Qat štzr ‘tenter de visiter’, Mhr Jib Ḥrs zōr ‘visiter’, Te Amh Gur zäyyärä ‘visiter, aller en pèlerinage’, Te təzäyyärä ‘être fatigué, épuisé’. – (g) Ar zawr : ombre que l’on voit dans le sommeil.
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZW/YR-2 (a) Hbr zār ‘presser, écraser’, nHbr məzōrā ‘pressoir’, māzōr ‘pansement’, TargAram zār ‘retenir’, zəyārā ‘pressoir’, Syr zār, zəwar ‘prendre, tenir; frapper du poing’, zəwārā ‘poing, poignée; main, pouvoir; massue’; Ar zayyara ‘serrer, presser, serrer les lèvres à un cheval avec des tenailles; attacher’, tazayyara ‘être mis à l’étroit, être embarrassé’, ziyār ‘tenailles, étau’, EgAr zayyar ‘attacher’, MġrAr ‘serrer, comprimer’, HispAr ziyār ‘bâillon’, EAr zawr ‘jointée, poignée’; IrqAr zōr ‘sous-bois, buisson dans un lieu marécageux’, Gz zawwara ‘garder, cacher’. – (b)? Hbr zēr ‘bordure’, JP zīrā ‘couronne, guirlande’.
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZW/YR-3 Ar zīr, Mhr zayr, Jib zir ‘grande jarre à eau’, Sab zwyr (pl.) ‘distributeur d’eau’ ?
     
    ▪ ZWR_1 (≙ DRS #ZW/YR-1f) zāra ‘to (pay) visit, call on; (fig.) to afflict’ : probably to be seen together with ZWR_4 ‘lie, untruth, falsehood’ and ZWR_6 ‘to turn aside’; the latter may be the etymon proper, representing the basic value from which ZWR_1 ‘to visit’ (> ZWR_3) and ZWR_4 ‘to lie’ are derived. Others would derive it from ZWR_2 ‘upper part of the chest’. – Kogan2015: 552 (#23) takes it for given that Ar zāra ‘to visit’ and close values in SSem langs336 , if belonging together with Akk zêru ‘to dislike, to hate, to avoid’ and SamAram zr ‘strange, other’, all go back to the basic meaning of ‘to be an outsider; to be strange, foreign’. – Dolgopolsky2012 thinks (but also has some doubts) that we could be dealing with two—originally distinct—values that have flown together and overlapped in Ar zāra ‘to visit’: a WSem *-zūr- ‘to visit’337 that gave the vb. zāra in the sense of ‘to visit a holy place (e.g., the tomb of a saint) or a person whom one wants to pay respect to’,338 and a Sem *zar- ‘foreign(er), enemy’,339 whence the Sem vb. root *√ZʔR or *√ZWR ‘to be foreign, hostile’ (»with insertion of an additional cons. in the root-medial position due to requirements of the Sem verbal morphology and on the analogy of triconsonantic verbs«)340 that gave Ar zāʔir ‘visitor, pilgrim’, which was interpreted as a PA of zāra ‘to visit’ although deriving from Sem *√ZʔR or *√ZWR and originally meaning ‘foreign, hostile’. – DRS mentions that, in the WAr Jewish dialects a distinction is made between zwāraẗ ‘visit to a person’ and zyāraẗ ‘visit to the tomb of a revered person’. The latter value may be the more original one. – Cf. also ZWR_9 and ZWR_13, below.
    ▪ ZWR_2 zawr ‘upper part of the chest; throat’: This value is neither mentioned in DRS nor in Militarev&Kogan2000, obviously because it does not have a Sem dimension. Nevertheless, Dolgopolsky2012 tentatively (and with doubts) reconstructs Sem *zawr- and suggests to link the latter to words for ‘heart’ in Turk langs (e.g., Tu yürek, Turk *jür-äk); on this basis, he reconstructs a common origin in Nostr *ʒ̍ûr˅ ‘inside of body’. – Some ClassAr lexicographers regard it as the etymon of the vb. ‘to visit’ (ZWR_1), interpreting the latter as *‘to meet s.o. with one’s zawr (chest, bosom), or: to repair to s.o.’s zawr (i.e., direction)’; hence, zawr is also, in a fig. sense, the ‘direction of a person to whom one repairs’ (Lane). – To zawr in the sense of ‘upper part of the chest; throat’ belong probably also the obsol. nouns zāraẗ, zāwiraẗ, and zāwūraẗ, all meaning ‘bird’s crop’. – An interesting link between ZWR_2 ‘upper part of the chest’ and ZWR_6 ‘to turn aside, be crooked, be distorted’ is the obsol. intr. vb. I, zawira ‘to have a distorted zawr ’; cf. also zawr ‘camel having the hump inclining’ (Lane).
    ▪ ZWR_3 : According to Lane iii (1867), a ‘ladies’ man, philanderer’ is called zīr because of his frequent visits to women, so the word seems to be dependent on ↗zāra ‘to visit’ (ZWR_1).
    ▪ ZWR_4 zūr ‘lie, untruth, falsehood; to forge, counterfeit, fake, simulate’: According to one research tradition, the word is from mPers. According to another tradition (≙ DRS #ZW/YR-1b), zūr has probably to be seen together with ZWR_1 and ZWR_6; the latter (‘to turn aside’ etc.) may be the etymon proper, representing the basic value from which both ZWR_1 ‘to visit’ (> ZWR_3) and ZWR_4 ‘to lie’ are derived. – In MSA, the corresponding D-stem (vb. II), zawwara, shows an exclusively negative meaning (‘to forge, falsify, counterfeit; to fake, simulate’), while in earlier times it was also often used with a positive connotation (‘to set right; to improve; to embellish’).
    ▪ ZWR_5 zūr ‘force’ : probably (via Tu zor ?) from mPers zūr, zōr ‘strength, power, vigour, violence, strong effort, force’. – DRS, where the word is seen as a specifically IrqAr (and Ṭur nSyr) phenomenon, says that the item does not seem to be related (»ne relève apparemment pas…«) to the complex ‘to compress’ treated in DRS as #ZW/YR-2 (incl. Hbr zār ‘to press down and out’, Syr zār, zəwar ‘to compress’, Ar zayyara ‘to twist the lip of a beast’, ziwār ‘rope binding the fore to the hind-girth’, etc., MorAr ↗zayyar ‘to close [a button]’ = ZWR_20/ZYR_4). – Wahrmund1887 thinks it is vulgar for zawr which, according to the same author, is distorted from ↗ǧawr ‘injustice, oppression, outrage, wanton deviation’. – Should one also compare ZWR_10 ‘(strength of) determination’ (? > ‘lord, leader, master, chief’)?
    ▪ ZWR_6 (≙ DRS #ZW/YR-1a) zawar ‘inclination, obliqueness; squint’ and (ĭzwarra, vb. IX., ‘to turn aside’; ʔazwarᵘ, adj., ‘inclined, slanting, oblique; crooked, curved; squint-eyed, cross-eyed’341 : probably to be seen together with ZWR_1 ‘to visit’ (> ZWR_3) and perh. also ZWR_4 ‘lie, falsehood’ as their etymon proper; Zammit2002, at least, reports the ClassAr view that ‘to visit’ actually is from *‘to turn aside’. – An interesting link between ZWR_6 ‘to turn aside, be crooked, be distorted’ and ZWR_2 ‘upper part of the chest’ is the obsol. intr. vb. I, zawira ‘to have a distorted zawr ’; cf. also zawr ‘camel having the hump inclining’ (Lane).
    ▪ ZWR_7 (≙ DRS #ZW/YR-3) zīr ‘large jar’ : = ZYR_1; of unknown origin, probably Sem (< AfrAs?). – For details see ↗s.v.
    ▪ ZWR_8 zār ‘zar ceremony’: perh. via EthSem from a Cush lang. – For details see ↗s.v.
    ▪ ZWR_9 (≙ DRS #ZW/YR-1g) zawr ‘phantom in sleep’ : ?, perhaps lit. *‘s.th. that visits you while you are asleep, dreaming’, from ZWR_1 ‘to visit’?
    ▪ ZWR_10 zawr ‘intellect; [? hence:] resoluteness, (strength of) determination’, hence (?) also zawr, zūr, ziwar ‘master, lord, chief, leader’, ziwwar, ziwarr ‘id.’, ziwarr ‘hard, solid’ (Wahrmund): unclear whether we are dealing with the same item as ZWR_9 or with a derivation from ZWR_2 ‘upper part of the chest’ (as the seat of resoluteness?), or none of these. – Lane wants the reader to compare also zūr ‘force’ (ZWR_5).
    ▪ ZWR_11 zawr ‘stone which appears to a person digging a well, and which, being unable to break it, he leaves apparent; a mass of rock’ (Lane) : obscure.
    ▪ ZWR_12 zawr ‘(straight and slender) palm-branch from which the leaves have been stripped off’ : according to the lexicographers a value specific to YemAr use (Lane); semantics unclear, etymology obscure.
    ▪ ZWR_13 (≙ DRS #ZW/YR-1c) zawraẗ ‘one time’ : according to DRS (following Nöldeke in Landberg, Glos. 1875) to be seen together with ZWR_1a ‘to turn aside’. As already observed by Nöldeke, the derivation of ‘one time’ from a vb. of motion has parallels in ↗marraẗ (from ↗marra ‘to pass by’), ↗ṭawr (from ṭāra ‘to go round, hover round, approach’, ↗ṬWR), ↗tāraẗ (from tāra ‘to run, flow’, ↗TWR).
    ▪ ZWR_14 zawraẗ ‘slave’ : semantics obscure.
    ▪ ZWR_15 (≙ DRS #ZW/YR-1e) zīr ‘angry, enraged’ : = ZYR_6. – Originally from √ZʔR?
    ▪ ZWR_16 zawrāʔᵘ ‘deep (well)’ : so called because of its crookedness? The word is obviously the f. of adj. ʔazwarᵘ , see ZWR_6, above.
    ▪ ZWR_17 zawrāʔᵘ ‘silver vessel’ : as ZWR_16.
    ▪ ZWR_18 zawrāʔᵘ ‘Bagdad (town)’ : as ZWR_16.
    ▪ ZWR_19 zawrāʔᵘ ‘Tigris (river)’ : as ZWR_16.
    ▪ ZWR_20 (≙ DRS #ZW/YR-2a) ziwār ‘rope binding the fore to the hind-girth’ : cf. also zāra (zawār) ‘to bind the fore to the hind-girth of a camel, (Lane:) to bind upon it the rope called ziwār ’; ziyār ‘horse-twitchers’ barnacles, instrument with which a farrier twists the lip of a beast’ : see MorAr ↗zayyar ‘to close (a button)’, ClassAr zayyara ‘to twist the lips (of a horse, of an animal) with a ziyār ’. Given the cognates mentioned in DRS, should we reconstruct a WSem root *ZW/YR ‘to join, press together’? – DRS does not think that the complex ‘to compress’ is etymologically related to ZWR_5 zūr ‘force’, which is treated as a specifically IrqAr (and Ṭur nSyr) phenomenon and believed to be (via Tu zor ?) from mPers zūr, zōr ‘strength, power, etc.’ (see above, ZWR_5). – Frequent overlapping with √ZR: (ZRR), cf. ↗zarra ‘to button up’, ↗zirr ‘button’.
     
    – 
    – 
    zār‑ / zur‑ زارَ/زُرْـ , u (zawr , var. ziyāraẗ
    ID … • Sw – • BP 1563 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZWR 
    vb., I 
    1 to visit (s.o.), call (on s.o.), pay visit (to); 2 to afflict (s.o.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Several etymologies have been suggested for zāra ‘to visit’: (a) from an original *‘to turn aside’ (a visitor being regarded as s.o. who leaves his regular path and ‘turns aside’ in order to see s.o.), (b) from ↗zawr ‘upper part of the chest’ (‘to visit’ < *‘to meet s.o. with one’s chest, repair to the direction of s.o.’s chest’), (c) from *‘to be an outsider; to be strange, foreign’, (d) the result of an overlapping of reflexes of WSem *‑zūr‑ ‘to visit’ (< ‘to look at, examine’, or ‘to watch, spy’) and Sem *zar‑ ‘foreign(er), enemy’ (> Ar zāʔir ‘visitor, pilgrim’, interpreted as a PA of zāra ‘to visit’ although deriving from Sem *√ZʔR / *√ZWR and originally meaning ‘foreign, hostile’, (e) the result of a blurring of two originally distinct notions, namely ‘to visit a person’ and ‘to visit the tomb of a revered person’. – For details see DISC below. 
    ▪ eC7 zāra (to visit, come to) Q 102:1-2 ʔalhā-kum-u ’l-takāṯuru ḥattà zurtum-u ’l-maqābira ‘striving for more distracts you until you die [lit., visit the graves]’ 
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZW/YR-1 (a) Akk zāru ‘tordre, être tordu’, Hbr JP zār ‘s’écarter de’, zawwēr ‘rouler’, Ar zawira ‘être penché, courbé; aller en biais’, (b) zāra ‘mentir, accuser faussement’, zawwara ‘altérer, falsifier, défigurer, embellir, orner’, zūr ‘mensonge vanité’, (c) zuraẗ ‘fois’, S Ar zāra ‘quelquefois’, Syr zawar ‘regarder de travers’, Gz Te Arg zora, Tña Amh Gur zorä, Gaf zärä ‘tourner, aller autour’, Gz zawwara ‘durer, subsister’; Amh zäwärwärra ‘vagabond; tortueux (chemin)’, zəwərwər ‘en vrille’, žort ‘hérisson’. – (d)? Akk zēru ‘ne pas aimer, haïr, éviter; abandonner’, zayyār ‘ennemi’, Hbr zār, Phoen oYa zr ‘étranger, d’autrui’, TargAram zār ‘loger chez qn’. – (e) Ar zīr ‘qui est en colère’; (f) zāra ‘visiter (un lieu saint)’, MġrAr zār ‘rendre visite’; zyāra ‘visite’; Qat štzr ‘tenter de visiter’, Mhr Jib Ḥrs zōr ‘visiter’, Te Amh Gur zäyyärä ‘visiter, aller en pèlerinage’, Te təzäyyärä ‘être fatigué, épuisé’. – (g) Ar zawr : ombre que l’on voit dans le sommeil.
    ▪ Zammit2002: Hbr zūr ‘to be a stranger’, Phoen zr ‘strange, other’, oAram zr ‘stranger, foreigner, outsider’, Aram zūr ‘to enter as a guest, lodge’, Ar zāra ‘to visit’ (< *al-mayl wa’l-ʕudūl), SAr z(w)r ‘to visit’, Gz zōra ‘vertigine laborare’, zawr ‘gyrus, orbis, circulus’. 
    ▪ According to ClassAr lexicographers, zāra ‘to (pay) visit, call on’ as well as ↗zūr_1 ‘lie, untruth, falsehood’ (DRS #ZW/YR-1b) are based on an original meaning of the root of ‘to turn aside’ (DRS #ZW/YR-1a), represented in MSA in the items treated s.v. ↗zawar ‘inclination, obliqueness; squint’ (ĭzwarra, vb. IX., ‘to turn aside’; ʔazwarᵘ, adj., ‘inclined, slanting, oblique; crooked, curved; squint-eyed, cross-eyed’).
    ▪ Others would derive it from ↗zawr ‘upper part of the chest’, interpreting ‘to visit’ as *‘to meet s.o. with one’s zawr (chest, bosom)’ or as *‘to repair to s.o.’s zawr ’ (i.e., in a fig. sense, the ‘direction of a person to whom one repairs’ – Lane).
    ▪ Kogan2015: 552 (#23) thinks that Ar zāra ‘to visit’ and closely related values in SSem langs342 perhaps belong together with Akk zêru ‘to dislike, hate, avoid’ etc. (DRS #ZW/YR-1d), a semantic complex the basic meaning of which is ‘to be an outsider; to be strange, foreign’ (cf. also SamAram zr ‘strange, other’).
    ▪ Dolgopolsky2012#2673/74 thinks (but also has some doubts) that the semantics of Ar zāra ‘to visit’ may be the result of a flowing together and overlapping of two originally distinct values, namely (a) a WSem *-zūr- ‘to visit’ (< AfrAs < Nostr *z̍UR˹i˺/ ?*z̍Uŕ˹i˺ ‘to look at, examine’, or *žUR˹i˺ ‘to watch, to spy’), which gave Ar zāra in the sense of ‘to visit a holy place (e.g., the tomb of a saint) or a person whom one wants to pay respect to’ (as well as the SSem cognates343 ), and (b) a Sem *zar- ‘foreign(er), enemy’ (< AfrAs < Nostr *z̍oR˅ ‘foreign, hostile’), whence the Sem vb. root *√ZʔR or *√ZWR ‘to be foreign, hostile’344 that not only gave Akk zêru ~ zeʔāru ‘to dislike, hate, avoid’, zāʔiru ~ zēʔiru ~ zêru ‘hostile’ (√ZʔR) etc.,345 but also Ar zāʔir ‘visitor, pilgrim’, interpreted as a PA of zāra ‘to visit’ although deriving from Sem *√ZʔR / *√ZWR and originally meaning ‘foreign, hostile’. – Cf. Kogan’s idea, see preceding paragraph.
    DRS mentions that in the MġrAr Jewish dialects a distinction is made between zwāraẗ ‘visit to a person’ and zyāraẗ ‘visit to the tomb of a revered person’. The arrangement within the entry and the values given to the Ar forms suggest that the latter value may be the more original one. – If this reflects an earlier, more widespread distinction, it could serve as an argument supporting Dolgopolsky’s idea of the confluence and overlapping, in MSA zāra, of two originally distinct themes.
    ▪ Apparently from zāra ‘to (pay) visit, call on’ is also ↗zīr_3 ‘ladies’ man, philanderer’, according to Lane iii (1867) so called because of his frequent visits to women.
    ▪ Perh. also the obsol. zawr ‘phantom in sleep’ (DRS #ZW/YR-1g) should be related to zāra, as *‘s.th. that visits you while you are asleep, in a dream’.
    ▪ Etymologies deriving ↗zār ‘zar ceremony’ from zāra ‘to visit’ »seem fantastic, although current in Arab milieux« – art. »zār« (A. Rouaud, T. Battain), in EI². The word seems to have come into Ar, together with the ritual, from EAfrica, via EthSem, ultimately from a Cush milieu.
     
    ▪ Tu ziyāret (1069, Kutadgu Bilig), from Ar ziyāraẗ – Nişanyan_03Apr2015. – Tu mezar (1557 Seydi Ali Reis, Mirʔātü’l-Memālīk), from Ar mazār – Nişanyan_09Apr2014. 
    ʔazāra, vb. IV, to induce s.o. to visit (a place): Š-stem, caus.
    tazāwara, vb. VI, to exchange visits: tL-stem, reciproque.
    ĭstazāra, vb. X, to desire s.o.’s (DO) visit: Št-stem, requestative.

    zīr, pl. ʔazyār, n., ladies’ man, philanderer: according to Lane iii (1867): 1269, »so called because of his frequent visits to them [sc., women]«.
    zawraẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., visit, call: n.vic.
    BP#490 ziyāraẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., 1 visit; 2 call (social, of a doctor); 3 (ir.) visit to holy places, pilgrimage: vn. I | ~ ḫāṭifaẗ, n.f., lightning visit, quick visit.
    mazār, pl. ‑āt, n., 1 place which one visits; 2 shrine, sanctuary: n.loc.
    mazūr, adj., visited: PP I.
    BP#2123 zāʔir, pl. ‑ūn, zuwwār, n.; zāʔiraẗ, pl. ‑āt, zuwwar, n.f., visitor, caller, guest: traditionally seen as PA I from zāra ‘to visit’; cf. however Dolgopolsky2012#2673-74 where Ar zāʔir ‘visitor’ and zāra ‘to visit’ are thought to perh. go back to different origins: zāʔir < Sem *zar‑ ‘foreign(er), enemy’ < Nostr *z̍oRV ‘foreign, hostile’; zāra < WSem *-zūr‑ ‘to visit’ < Nostr *z̍UR˹i˺ ‘to look at, examine’.
    muzawwir, pl. ‑ūn, n., 1zūr_1. – 2 pilgrim guide: PA II, D-stem, quasi-caus. (*‘making visit’).

    For other values of the root, cf. ↗zawr, ↗zīr, ↗zūr, ↗zawar, and (for the general picture) ↗ZWR. – Cf. also ↗ZYR. 
    zawr زَوْر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZWR 
    n. 
    1 upper part of the chest; 2 throat – WehrCowan1979.

    Other values, now obsolete, include
    • zawr ‘direction of a person to whom one repairs’ : ↗zawr, ↗zawar
    • zawr ‘camel having the hump inclining’ : ↗zawar
    • zawr ‘phantom in sleep’ : ? ↗zāra .
    • zawr ‘intellect; [? hence:] resoluteness, (strength of) determination’ : ? ↗zawr, ↗zūr_2
    • zawr ‘master, lord, chief, leader’ : ? ↗zawr, ↗zūr_2
    • zawr ‘stone which appears to a person digging a well, and which, being unable to break it, he leaves apparent; a mass of rock’ (Lane) : ?
    • zawr ‘(straight and slender) palm-branch from which the leaves have been stripped off’ : ?
     
    zawr ‘upper part of the chest; throat’ does not seem to be a Sem word.
    ▪ Dolgopolsky2012 tentatively, though not without doubts, links it to words for ‘heart’ in Turk langs (cf., e.g., modTu yürek).
    ▪ ClassAr lexicography regards zawr ‘upper part of the chest’ as the basis from which zāra ‘to visit’ is derived (as *‘to turn one’s chest to s.o.’ or *‘to turn o.s. to s.o.’s chest’).
    ▪ [v2] ‘throat’ is well secondary. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ No cognates in Sem found so far – DRS 8 (1999)#ZW/YR: Ø; Militarev&Kogan2000: Ø. 
    ▪ This value of √ZWR is neither mentioned in DRS nor in Militarev&Kogan2000, obviously because it does not have a Sem dimension.
    ▪ Nevertheless, Dolgopolsky2012#2753 tentatively, though not without marking the operation as doubtful, suggests to link Ar zawr ‘chest’ to words for ‘heart’ in Turk langs (e.g., Tu yürek < oTu jüräk). He reconstructs Sem *zawr- and Turk *jür-äk (< Alt *ǯür˅k‘˅ ‘heart’, × Nostr *dür˅ ¬ *dUrE ‘entrails, heart’), and, on this basis, proposes a shared origin in Nostr *ʒ̍ûr˅ ‘inside of body’.
    ▪ Some ClassAr lexicographers regard zawr as the etymon of the vb. ↗zāra ‘to visit’, interpreting the latter as *‘to meet s.o. with one’s zawr (chest, bosom)’ or ‘to repair to s.o.’s zawr (i.e., direction)’; hence, in ClassAr, zawr is also used in a fig. sense, as the ‘direction of a person to whom one repairs’ (Lane).
    ▪ To zawr in the sense of ‘upper part of the chest; throat’ belong probably also the obsol. nouns zāraẗ, zāwiraẗ, and zāwūraẗ, all meaning ‘bird’s crop’.
    ▪ An item that is interesting because it may link zawr ‘upper part of the chest’ to ↗zawar ‘to turn aside, be crooked, be distorted’, is the obsol. intr. vb. I, zawira ‘to have a distorted zawr ’; cf. also zawr ‘camel having the hump inclining’ (Lane).
    ▪ In ClassAr, zawr can take a number of other meanings, such as ‘intellect; [? hence:] resoluteness, (strength of) determination’, hence (?) also ‘master, lord, chief, leader’ (var. zūr, ziwar); ‘stone which appears to a person digging a well, and which, being unable to break it, he leaves apparent; a mass of rock’ (Lane); ‘(straight and slender) palm-branch from which the leaves have been stripped off’; ‘phantom in sleep’ (DRS #ZW/YR-1g). A relation between these items and zawr ‘upper part of the chest’ does not seem to be likely, although the etymologies of most of them are obscure. Only zawr in the sense of ‘phantom in sleep’ is probably literally *‘s.th. that visits you while you are asleep, dreaming’, which would make it dependent on ↗zāra ‘to visit’, not zawr ‘chest’.
    ▪ Any connections with ↗zūr_1 ‘lie, untruth, falsehood’ ? 
    – 
    ʔālām al-zawr, n.pl., sore throat

    For other values of the root, cf. ↗zāra, ↗zīr, ↗zūr, ↗zawar, and (for the general picture) ↗ZWR. – Cf. also ↗ZYR. 
    zīr زِير (3) , pl. ʔazyār 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZWR 
    n. 
    ladies’ man, philanderer – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ According to Lane iii (1867): 1269, a ‘ladies’ man, philanderer’ is called zīr »because of his frequent visits to them [sc., women]«, so the word is seen to be from ↗zāra ‘to visit’ (ZWR_1).
    ▪ ? Cf. iz-zīr Sālim, n.prop., a hero of popular epic – BadawiHinds1986. 
    ▪ … 
    zāra
    zāra
    – 
    For other values of the root, cf. ↗zāra, ↗zawr, ↗zūr, ↗zawar, and (for the general picture) ↗ZWR. – Cf. also ↗ZYR. 
    zūr زُور (disambig.) 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZWR 
    disambig. 
    ▪ zūr_1 ‘lie, untruth, falsehood’ ↗zūr (1)
    ▪ zūr_2 ‘force’ ↗zūr (2)

    Other values, now obsolete:
    • zūr_3 ‘master, lord, chief, leader’ : ? ↗zawr, ↗zūr_2
     
    ▪ zūr_1 ‘lie, untruth, falsehood’ : usually either derived from ‘to turn aside’ (↗zawar) or seen as a borrowing from mPers zūr ‘lie, falsehood, fiction’.
    ▪ zūr_2 ‘force’ : generally regarded as a borrowing (via Tu?) from Pers. A relation with ‘to compress’ (cf. ↗zayyara ‘to button up’) is usually denied by previous research. One source thinks it is a distortion of ↗ǧawr (> vulg. zawr) ‘injustice, oppression, outrage, wanton deviation’. – Should one also compare zūr_3 ‘lord, leader, master, chief’?
    zūr_3 ‘master, lord, chief, leader’ : has been connected to ↗zūr_2 ‘force’, but also interpreted as a var. of ↗zawr ‘upper part of the chest’, used in a fig. sense. 
    ▪ … 
    zūr_1, ↗zūr_2, ↗zawr, respectively. 
    zūr_1, ↗zūr_2, ↗zawr, respectively. 
    – 
    – 
    ¹zūr زُور 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZWR 
    n. 
    lie, untruth; falsehood – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ While Jeffery1938, and after him also Rolland2014a, assume an origin in mPers zūr ‘lie, falsehood, fiction’, the items given in DRS as cognates suggest a Sem etymology that connects ‘lie, untruth, falsehood’ to an original value *‘to turn aside, turn away, be averse, inclined, slanting, oblique, crooked, curved’, cf. ↗zawar.
    ▪ Cheung2017rev: prob. a direct borrowing from mPers zūr ‘id., deceit’. For details, see below, section DISC.
    ▪ On the Qurʔānic šahādaẗ al-zūr ‘perjury, false testimony’ (Q 22:30), cf. Raimund Köbert, »Die šahādat az-zūr «, Der Islam, 34 (1959): 94 ff.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 zūr (falsehood, perjury, false testimony) Q 58:2 wa-ʔinna-hum la-yaqūlūna munkaran min-a ’l-qawli wa-zūran ‘indeed they utter abominable (or, blameworthy) words and falsehood’ 
    ▪ (?) DRS 8 (1999)#ZW/YR-1 (a) Akk zāru ‘tordre, être tordu’, Hbr JP zār ‘s’écarter de’, zawwēr ‘rouler’, Ar zawira ‘être penché, courbé; aller en biais’, (b) zāra ‘mentir, accuser faussement’, zawwara ‘altérer, falsifier, défigurer, embellir, orner’, zūr ‘mensonge vanité’, (c) zuraẗ ‘fois’, S Ar zāra ‘quelquefois’, Syr zawar ‘regarder de travers’, Gz Te Arg zora, Tña Amh Gur zorä, Gaf zärä ‘tourner, aller autour’, Gz zawwara ‘durer, subsister’; Amh zäwärwärra ‘vagabond; tortueux (chemin)’, zəwərwər ‘en vrille’, žort ‘hérisson’. – (d)? Akk zēru ‘ne pas aimer, haïr, éviter; abandonner’, zayyār ‘ennemi’, Hbr zār, Phoen oYa zr ‘étranger, d’autrui’, TargAram zār ‘loger chez qn’. – (e) Ar zīr ‘qui est en colère’; (f) zāra ‘visiter (un lieu saint)’, MġrAr zār ‘rendre visite’; zyāra ‘visite’; Qat štzr ‘tenter de visiter’, Mhr Jib Ḥrs zōr ‘visiter’, Te Amh Gur zäyyärä ‘visiter, aller en pèlerinage’, Te təzäyyärä ‘être fatigué, épuisé’. – (g) Ar zawr : ombre que l’on voit dans le sommeil.
     
    ▪ Jeffery1938: Ar zūr »is linked with idolatry in Q 22:30, but in the other passages is quite colourless. – The usual theory of the philologers is that it is derived from zawwara though this is clearly a denominative, and that the authorities felt some difficulty with the word is clear from LA, v: 426. – Fraenkel, Fremdw, 273, suggested that it was from [Hbr] zr.346 There is a Hbr word zārâ ‘loathsome thing’ from √ZWR ‘to be loathsome’, but it seems hardly possible to derive the Ar from this. It would seem rather to be of Iranian origin. Pers zūr is ‘lie, falsehood’, which Vullers, Lex, ii: 158, gives, it is true, as a loan-word from Ar. He is certainly wrong, however, for not only does the word occur in mPers both simply as zūr, a ‘lie, falsehood, fiction’,347 and in compounds as zūr-gukāsīh ‘false evidence, perjury’348 and in the Pazend zur ‘a lie’,349 but also in the oPers of the Behistun inscription (where we read (iv: 63-4) naiy draužana āham, naiy zārakara āham ‘I was no liar, nor was I an evil-doer’, and further (iv: 65) naiy… zūra akunavam ‘I did no wrong’),350 and in the Av zūrōžata.351 From mPers the word was borrowed into Arm, where we find zowr ‘false, wrong’,352 which enters into several compounds, e.g. zraban ‘caluminator’, zrkankʽ ‘injustice’, etc., so that it was probably directly from mPers that it came into Arabic.«
    ▪ Rolland2014a: from mPers zūr ‘lie, falsehood, fiction’, akin to Av zūrah ‘to deceive, cheat, lie, betray’.
    ▪ While Jeffery1938 and Rolland2014a regard zūr ‘lie, untruth, falsehood’ as a borrowing from mPers (see preceding paragraphs), another tradition (cf. DRS) sees it (as also the vb. ↗zāra ‘to visit’) as development from an original ‘to incline, turn aside, etc.’, represented in MSA ↗zawar ‘inclination, obliqueness; squint’, ĭzwarra ‘to turn aside’, ʔazwarᵘ ‘inclined, slanting, oblique; crooked, curved; squint-eyed, cross-eyed’ (≙ DRS #ZW/YR-1b).
    ▪ In MSA, zūr and derivatives show an exclusively negative meaning (e.g., zawwara, vb. II, ‘to forge, falsify, counterfeit; to fake, simulate’), while in earlier times it was often used with a positive connotation; zawwara could then also mean ‘to set right; to improve; to embellish’.
     
    – 
    šahādat al-zūr, n.f., false testimony

    zawwara, vb. II, to forge, falsify, counterfeit (s.th.); to fake, simulate: denom. D-stem, declar./caus.
    BP#3672tazwīr, n., forgery, falsification: vn. II | ~ fī ’l-sanadāt, n., falsification of documents.
    muzawwir, pl. ‑ūn, n., 1 forger: PA II. 2zāra.
    muzawwar, adj., 1 forged, false, counterfeit; 2 obtained by swindle, faked: PP II.

    For other values of the root, cf. ↗zawr, ↗zīr, ↗zūr_2, ↗zawar, and (for the general picture) ↗ZWR. – Cf. also ↗ZYR. 
    ²zūr زُور 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZWR 
    n. 
    force – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ The common theory is that it probably is from mPers zūr, zōr ‘strength, power, vigour, violence, strong effort, force’. – No connection has been seen so far between zūr and the complex treated in DRS as #ZW/YR-2 (incl. Hbr zār ‘to press down and out’, Syr zār, zwar ‘to compress’, Ar zayyara ‘to twist the lip of a beast’, ziwār ‘rope binding the fore to the hind-girth’, etc., see ↗zayyar and ZWR_9 in ↗ZWR). – In contrast, Wahrmund1887 thinks zūr, zōr is vulgar for zawr which, according to the same author, is distorted from ↗ǧawr ‘injustice, oppression, outrage, wanton deviation’.
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Cf. ↗zayyar
    ▪ Rolland2014a, Nişanyan_05Aug2015: zūr ‘force’, esp. in the expr. bi’l-zūr : (via Tu zor ?) from mPers zūr, zōr ‘strength, power, vigour, violence, strong effort, force’, akin to Av zāvar ‘id.’ and Skr śūra ‘powerful, mighty, strong, valiant, heroic, brave’.
    DRS, where the word is seen as a specifically IrqAr (and Ṭur nSyr) phenomenon, says that the item does not seem to be related (»ne relève apparemment pas…«) to the complex ‘to compress’ treated in DRS as #ZW/YR-2 (incl. Hbr zār ‘to press down and out’, Syr zār, zəwar ‘to compress’, Ar zayyara ‘to twist the lip of a beast’, ziwār ‘rope binding the fore to the hind-girth’, etc., MorAr ↗zayyar ‘to close [a button]’ = ZWR_20/ZYR_4).
    ▪ Wahrmund1887 thinks zūr ‘force’ is vulgar for ↗zawr which, according to the same author, is distorted from ↗ǧawr ‘injustice, oppression, outrage, wanton deviation’.
    ▪ Should one also compare zawr ‘(strength of) determination’ (? > ‘lord, leader, master, chief’)? Cf. ↗zawr.
     
    ▪ Not from Ar zūr, but from the same source is Tu zor ‘difficult’ (1330 ʕĀşıḳ Paşa, Ġarīb-nāme) – Nişanyan_05Aug2015. 
    bi’l-zūr, adv., by force, forcibly

    For other values of the root, cf. ↗zāra, ↗zawr, ↗zīr, ↗zūr_1, ↗zawar, and (for the general picture) ↗ZWR. – Cf. also ↗ZYR. 
    zawar زَوَر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZWR 
    n. 
    1 inclination, obliqueness, slant; crookedness; 2 falseness; perfidy, insidiousness; 3 squint – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ A number of sources regard the notion of ‘to incline, turn aside’ (≙ DRS #ZW/YR-1a) as the etymon on which other main semantic complexes of the root ZWR, particularly ‘to visit’ (↗zāra, ≙ DRS #1f) and ‘lie, falsehood’ (↗zūr_1, ≙ DRS #ZW/YR-1b), are dependent. The latter is still also a value of zawar itself [v2].
    ▪ In [v3], the original ‘inclination’ is applied to the eyes. 
    ▪ eC7 tazāwara ʕan (to swerve away from, bypass, steer clear of, veer away from) Q 18:17 wa-tarà ’l-šamsa ʔiḏā ṭalaʕat ta[ta]zāwaru ʕan kahfi-him ḏāta ’l-yamīni ‘you could see the sun, as it rose, veering away from their cave towards the right’ 
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZW/YR-1 (a) Akk zāru ‘tordre, être tordu’, Hbr JP zār ‘s’écarter de’, zawwēr ‘rouler’, Ar zawira ‘être penché, courbé; aller en biais’, (b) zāra ‘mentir, accuser faussement’, zawwara ‘altérer, falsifier, défigurer, embellir, orner’, zūr ‘mensonge vanité’, (c) zuraẗ ‘fois’, S Ar zāra ‘quelquefois’, Syr zawar ‘regarder de travers’, Gz Te Arg zora, Tña Amh Gur zorä, Gaf zärä ‘tourner, aller autour’, Gz zawwara ‘durer, subsister’; Amh zäwärwärra ‘vagabond; tortueux (chemin)’, zəwərwər ‘en vrille’, žort ‘hérisson’. – (d)? Akk zēru ‘ne pas aimer, haïr, éviter; abandonner’, zayyār ‘ennemi’, Hbr zār, Phoen oYa zr ‘étranger, d’autrui’, TargAram zār ‘loger chez qn’. – (e) Ar zīr ‘qui est en colère’; (f) zāra ‘visiter (un lieu saint)’, MġrAr zār ‘rendre visite’; zyāra ‘visite’; Qat štzr ‘tenter de visiter’, Mhr Jib Ḥrs zōr ‘visiter’, Te Amh Gur zäyyärä ‘visiter, aller en pèlerinage’, Te təzäyyärä ‘être fatigué, épuisé’. – (g) Ar zawr : ombre que l’on voit dans le sommeil.
     
    ▪ According to some, the notion of ‘to incline, turn aside, be crooked’ (DRS #ZW/YR-1a) is the basic value from which also the complexes of ‘to visit’ (DRS #ZW/YR-1f, ↗zāra) and perh. also of ‘lie, falsehood’ (DRS #ZW/YR-1b, ↗zūr) are derived.
    ▪ Is there any relation to ↗zawr ‘upper part of the chest’? The obsol. intr. vb. I, zawira ‘to have a distorted zawr ’ could be an interesting link in which both values overlap.
    ▪ The obsol. zawraẗ ‘one time’ (≙ DRS #ZW/YR-1c) is probably also from ‘to turn aside’. According to DRS, Nöldeke (in Landberg, Glos. 1875) had already observed that there are parallel pairs ‘one time/ vb. of motion’, cf. e.g., ↗marraẗ and vb. ↗marra ‘to pass by’, ↗ṭawr and vb. ṭāra ‘to go round, hover round, approach’ (↗ṬWR), ↗tāraẗ and vb. tāra ‘to run, flow’ (↗TWR).
    ▪ The word zawrāʔᵘ which in ClassAr can mean ‘deep (well)’, ‘silver vessel’, ‘Bagdad (town)’, or ‘Tigris (river)’, is apparently the f. of the adj. ʔazwarᵘ, but semantics are not really evident. Are all these items called zawrāʔᵘ because of their crookedness? 
    – 
    ĭzwarra, vb. IX, 1 to turn aside, turn away, dissociate o.s. (ʕan from); 2 to be averse (ʕan to s.th.); ~ bi-hī, expr., to turn s.o. away, alienate s.o. (ʕan from): R3 gem. stem for colours and handicaps, denom., intr.

    ʔazwarᵘ, f. zawrāʔᵘ, pl. zūr, adj., 1 inclined, slanting, oblique; 2 crooked, curved; 3 squint-eyed, cross-eyed: ʔafʕal for colours and handicaps.
    ĭzwirār, n., 1 turning away; 2 (fig.) averseness, aversion, dislike, distaste: vn. IX.

    For other values of the root, cf. ↗zāra, ↗zawr, ↗zīr, ↗zūr, and (for the general picture) ↗ZWR. – Cf. also ↗ZYR. 
    ziyāraẗ زِيارَة , pl. ‑āt 
    ID 371 • Sw – • BP 490 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZWR 
    n.f. 
    1 visit; 2 call (social, of a doctor); 3 (ir.) visit to holy places, pilgrimage – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ziyāraẗ ḫāṭifaẗ, n.f., lightning visit, quick visit 
    ZWRQ زورق 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZWRQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZWRQ_1 ‘boat, row-boat, skiff’ ↗zawraq 
    zawraq, ↗ZRQ. 
    zawraq, ↗ZRQ. 
    zawraq, ↗ZRQ. 
    zawraq, ↗ZRQ. 
    – 
    – 
    zawraq زَوْرَق , pl. zawāriqᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZWRQ, ZRQ 
    n. 
    boat, row-boat, skiff – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    zawraq buḫārī, n., steam launch
    zawraq al-ṣayd, n., fishing boat
    zawraq kanadī, n., Canadian canoe
    zawraq kayāk (or kāyāk), n., kayak (rowing sport)
    zawraq al-naǧāẗ, n., lifeboat
    zawraq nāsif, n., torpedo boat

     
    ZWL زول 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 25Mar2023
    √ZWL 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZWL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZWL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZWL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to disappear, go away, cease, vanish; to abate, calm down; to practise’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ZYT زيت 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZYT 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZYT_1 ‘(olive) oil, olive (tree), to anoint’ ↗zayt, ↗zaytūn
    ▪ ZYT_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘oil, particularly olive oil, to anoint; olives, olive tree’ 
    ▪ From among the 3 values of ZYT listed in DRS, only the first is represented in Ar.
    ▪ While earlier research assumed that the meaning ‘(olive) oil’ was an Ar innovation—the primary value in Sem being ‘olives, olive tree’, more recent studies would not exclude that also ‘oil’ was an original value.
    ▪ However that may have been, Ar distinguishes between ‘oil’ (↗zayt) and ‘olive (tree)’ (↗zaytūn). 
    – 
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZYT-1 Ug zt ‘olive’, Hbr zayit, EmpAram zyt, TargAram Syr Mand nAram zayatā ‘olive, olivier’, Ar zayt ‘huile’, zaytūn, Mhr zaytūn Jib zetun ‘olive, olivier’, Soq zeyt ‘huile d’olive’, Gz zayt, Te zet, Tña zäyti, Amh Gur Har zäyt ‘olive, olivier; huile d’olive’. -2 SAr ziyyit ‘craquer (chaussure)’. -3 Gur zīt, zit, zitänä ‘malade possédé par un esprit’. 
    ▪See section CONC above.
    ▪ ZYT_1: It is probably not wrong to assume a (W)Sem *zayt- ‘olives, olive tree; (?) olive oil’ 
    – 
    – 
    zayt زَيْت , pl. zuyūt 
    ID 372 • Sw – • BP 1745 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZYT 
    n. 
    oil (edible, fuel, motor oil, etc.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Jeffery1938 thinks that Ar zayt is a loan from Syr zēṯā, following Fraenkel1886 who supported his assumption with the statement that the olive was not indigenous among the Arabs. But the term is so widespread in (W)Sem that such a claim can hardly be maintained.
    ▪ It is probably not wrong to assume a (W)Sem *zayt‑ ‘olives, olive tree; (?) olive oil’. 
    ▪ eC7 zayt (oil, olive oil) Q 24:35 yakādu zaytu-hā yuḍīʔu wa-law lam tamsas-hu nārun ‘its oil almost glows even when no fire touches it’.
    ▪ Cf. also ↗zaytūn
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZYT-1 Ug zt ‘olive’, Hbr zayit, EmpAram zyt, TargAram Syr Mand nAram zayatā ‘olive, olivier’, Ar zayt ‘huile’, zaytūn, Mhr zaytūn Jib zetun ‘olive, olivier’, Soq zeyt ‘huile d’olive’, Gz zayt, Te zet, Tña zäyti, Amh Gur Har zäyt ‘olive, olivier; huile d’olive’. 
    ▪ Jeffery1938, 156-57: »The word has no verbal root in Arabic, [the verb] zāta ‘to give oil’ being obviously denominative, as was clear even to the native Lexicographers (LA, ii, 340, etc.). – Guidi, Della Sede, 600, had noted the word as a foreign borrowing, and Fraenkel, Fremdw, 147, points out that the olive was not indigenous among the Arabs.353 We may suspect that the word belongs to the old pre-Semitic stratum of the population of the Syrian area. In Hbr, zayit means both ‘olive tree’ and ‘olive’,354 but Lagarde, Mittheilungen, iii: 215, showed that primitively it meant ‘oil’. In Aram we have zayṯā and Syr zēṯā, which (along with the Hbr) Gesenius tried unsuccessfully to derive from ZHH ‘to be bright, fresh, luxuriant’. The word is also found in Copt čōit beside čeeit and čoeit, where it is clearly a loan-word, and in Phlv ???? 355 and Arm cēt’ ‘oil’, cit’eni ‘olive tree’, which are usually taken as borrowings from Aram356 but which the presence of the word in Ossetian zet’i, and Georgian zethi would at least suggest the possibility of being independent borrowings from the original population.357 – The Ar word may have come directly from this primitive source, but more likely it is from the Syr zēṯā, which also is the source of the Eth [Gz] zayt (Nöldeke, Neue Beiträge, 42). 358 It was an early borrowing in any case, for it occurs in the old poetry, e.g. Divan Hudh, lxxii: 6; Aġānī, viii: 49, etc.«
    ▪ Nişanyan_20Aug2015: mPers zayt and Arm tsét are from Aram.
    ▪ Outside Sem: nEg ḏytw */zētu/, Copt ǧoeit, ǧōit, ǧaeit ‘olive tree, olive’ is regarded to be a borrowing from Sem – Hoch1994. 
    ▪ Lokotsch1927#2187: Ar zayt ‘oil’ > (+art. al-) gave Sp Port aceite ‘olive oil’. – See also ↗ zaytūn
    zayt ḥārr, n., linseed oil
    zayt ḥulw, n., sweet oil, oil free of hydrogen sulfide
    zayt al-ḥūt, n., cod-liver oil
    zayt al-ḫirwaʕ, n., castor oil
    zayt al-samak, n., cod-liver oil
    zayt al-tašḥīm, n., lubricating oil
    zayt al-ĭstiṣbāḥ, n., fuel oil
    zayt al-ġāz, n., kerosene

    zayyata, vb. II, 1 to oil, lubricate, grease (a machine, and the like); 2 to add oil (to some food): applicative, denom.

    zaytī, adj., oily, oil, oil-bearing: nsb-adj. | ṣūraẗ zaytiyyaẗ or lawḥaẗ zaytiyyaẗ, n.f., oil painting.
    zayyāt, n., oil dealer, oilman: n.prof.
    BP#2471zaytūn, n., 1 olive tree; 2 olive(s); 3 Zaytūn, or Zītūn, the Ar name of Quánzhōu (or another big commercial town in China): see ↗s.v.
    zaytūnaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., 1 olive tree; 2 olive: see ↗s.v.
    zaytūnī, adj., olivaceous, olive-colored, olive-green: nsb-adj. of zaytūn; (pl. ‑ūn), n., student of the Great Mosque of Tunis: nominalized nsb-adj., from (ǧāmiʕ al-)zaytūnaẗ, Zaytouna Mosque.
    zaytūniyyaẗ, var. ʔaḥad al-zaytūniyyaẗ, n.f., Palm Sunday (Copt. Chr.): nsb-adj., f.
    mazyataẗ, n.f., oil can, oiler: n.loc.
    muzayyat, adj., oiled: PP II. 
    ZYTN زيتن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZYTN 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZYTN_1 ‘olive(s), olive tree’ ↗zaytūn
    ▪ ZYTN_2 ‘Zaytūn’, Ar name of Quánzhōu (or another big commercial town in S China) ↗zaytūn [v3]
     
    ▪ ZYTN_1 : from (W)Sem ↗*zayt ‘olive(s), olive tree’.
    ▪ ZYTN_2 : Perh. the Arabized form a the name of big commercial centre in S China (Quánzhōu ?) 
    – 
    Cf. ↗zayt, ↗ZYT. 
    Cf. ↗zayt, ↗ZYT. 
    ▪ ↗zayt, ↗zaytūn
    – 
    zaytūn زَيْتُون 
    ID 373 • Sw – • BP 2471 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZYTN 
    n. 
    1 olive tree; 2 olive(s) – WehrCowan1979. – 3 Zaytūn, or Zītūn, the medieval Ar name of Quánzhōu (or another big commercial town in China). 
    ▪ The name for olives and the olive tree [v1-v2] is not to be confused with the Ar name of the Chinese town Quánzhōu, from which a certain kind of silk (satin) was imported [v3].
    ▪ [v1-v2] : »Olives and their oil […] have been used as a food and medicine since ancient times. In the Qurʔān, Sūrat al-Tīn, 95:1, we have an introductory oath “By the fig and the olive…”. / Olive oil has long featured in folk medicine, continuing up to the present time. It has the authority of the Prophet, for it is “from a blessed tree”, and is recommended in particular for erysipelas, itch, ulcers, and skin eruptions (Medicine of the Prophet, tr. Johnstone, 227). In Persia of the 1930s, it was “much used in magical rites”. […] Modern Western use is mainly culinary, but also as eardrops and in compound oils.« – Art. »Zaytūn, 1.« (P.C. Johnstone), in EI².
    ▪ [v3] : The name of the Chinese town is perh. the etymon, via its Ar name Zaytūn, or Zītūn, of Eur words for a certain textile, 
    [v1-v2]
    ▪ eC7 zaytūn 1 (olives) Q 95:1 wa’l-tīni wa’l-zaytūni ‘by the figs and the olives’; 2 (olive trees) Q 16:11 yunbitu la-kum bi-hī ’l-zarʕa wa’l-zaytūna wa’l-naḫīla wa’l-ʔaʕnāba ‘with it He grows for you plants, olives, palms, vines’. – ▪ eC7 zaytūnaẗ (olive tree) Q 24:35 yūqadu min šaǧaraẗin mubārakaẗin zaytūnaẗin ‘fuelled from a blessed olive tree’
    ▪ Cf. also ↗zayt.

    [v3]
    »Zaytūn, or more probably Zītūn, the name given in the later Arabic geographers (Ibn Saʕīd al-Maġribī, who flourished in the 7th/13th century, being apparently the first to mention it) and in Muslim travellers like Ibn Baṭṭūṭa (who landed there after his Chinese voyage of ca. 1346-7) to a great commercial port of China. It is usually identified as Ch’üan-chou or Quanzhou [Quánzhōu] in the modern Fukien or Fujian [Fújiàn] province, facing the Formosa strait [▪ …] or possibly as the nearby Chang-chou or Zhangzhou near Amoy in this same province [▪ …]. In Sung and Yüan times (12th-14th centuries) it had a flourishing colony of Arab and Persian Muslim merchants, who lived in a separate urban area of their own with all necessary buildings for the practice of their cult and for the meeting together of Ṣūfīs, whilst the Christian community had its own suffragan bishopric there under the Roman Catholic archdiocese of Khānbalīḳ or Peking (one incumbent of Zaytūn is mentioned as Andrew of Perugia) and Franciscan convents.« – Art. »Zaytūn« (C.E. Bosworth), in EI²
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZYT-1 Ug zt ‘olive’, Hbr zayit, EmpAram zyt, TargAram Syr Mand nAram zayatā ‘olive, olivier’, Ar zayt ‘huile’, zaytūn, Mhr zaytūn Jib zetun ‘olive, olivier’, Soq zeyt ‘huile d’olive’, Gz zayt, Te zet, Tña zäyti, Amh Gur Har zäyt ‘olive, olivier; huile d’olive’. 
    ▪ [v1-v2] : see above, section CONC, as well as ↗zayt.
    ▪ [v3] ʔaṭlas al-Zaytūn : cf. R. Laffitte, SELEFA Séance du 19/06/2014. 
    [v1-v2]
    ▪ Lokotsch1927#2187: Ar zaytūn ‘olives’, n.un. zaytūnaẗ ‘olive’, + Ar art. al- > Span aceituna, Port azeitona ‘Olive’. From Tu zeytin : Serb zejtin, Russ zitin ‘Baumöl’. – Cf. also ↗zayt.
    ▪ Tu zeytin ‘olive(s)’ (1303 Codex Cumanicus), from Ar zaytūn ‘id.’ < Ar zayt ‘(olive) oil’ < Aram zeytā ‘id.’, akin to Hbr zayt and Phoen zyt ‘id.’ – Nişanyan_20Aug2015.

    [v3]
    ▪ Lokotsch1927#2188: Ar zaytūn : medieval name for the big Chinese trade port Tseutung oder Tswan-tschou-fu in Fokien [see above, section HIST]. The name was eponymous for a certain type of textile, namely Ar ʔaṭlas zaytūn ‘Zaytunic satin’. Preceded by the article al-, the Ar n.pr.loc. gave Sp aceituni, setuni, mFr zatony, Fr satin, mIt zetani, It zetanino, setino [under influence of seta ‘silk’]; Engl satin, Ge Satin. Hirth ChinFW 204/205 remarks that Cantonese silk factories still were producing a textile known to this day under the name of ssū-tuan, Cantonese szetün ‘silk atlas’. »It seems that Ar traders confused the name of this textile with that of their own trading colony, Zaytūn, which had become famous already before Canton.« – Cf. however the following.
    ▪ Engl satin (mC14), »from oFrench satin (C14), perh. from Arabic (ʔaṭlas) zaytūnī, lit. ‘(satin) from Zaytūn ’, a Chinese city, perh. modern Quanzhou in Fukien province, southern China, a major port in the Middle Ages, with a resident community of European traders. The form of the word perhaps influenced in Fr by Lat seta ‘silk’. – OED finds the Ar connection etymologically untenable and takes the Fr word straight from Lat« – EtymOnline
    ʔaḥad al-zaytūn, n., Palm Sunday (Chr.); ǧabal al-~, n., Mount of Olives (Jerusalem)
    zaytūnaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., 1 olive tree; 2 olive | ǧāmiʕ al-~, n., the Zaytouna Mosque (large mosque and university in Tunis)
    zaytūnī, adj., olivaceous, olive-colored, olive-green; (pl. ‑ūn), n., student of the Great Mosque of Tunis
    zaytūniyyaẗ, var. ʔaḥad al-zaytūniyyaẗ, n.f., Palm Sunday (Copt. Chr.)
     
    ZYD زيد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 25Mar2023
    √ZYD 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZYD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZYD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZYD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to increase, grow, multiply; increase, growth’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ZYR زير 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZYR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZYR_1 ‘large jar’ ↗zīr_1
    ▪ ZYR_2 ‘highest string (of stringed instruments)’ ↗zīr_2
    ▪ ZYR_3 (= ZWR_3) ‘ladies’ man, philanderer’ ↗zīr_3, arranged under √ZWR
    ▪ ZYR_4 ‘to close (a button)’ ↗zayyar (MorAr)

    Other values, now obsolete, include:
    • ZYR_5 ‘horse-twitchers’ barnacles, (Lane:) instrument with which a farrier twists the lip of a beast’ : ziyār, cf. ↗zayyar .
    • ZYR_6 ‘angry, and severing o.s. from one’s companion’ (DRS #ZW/YR-1e) : zīr, zayir, cf. ↗ZʔR ?
    • ZYR_7 ‘flax’ : zīr
    • ZYR_8 ‘use, custom’ : zīr
     
    ▪ ZYR_1 zīr ‘large jar’ : of unknown origin, probably Sem – Rolland2014a. Orel&Stolbova1994 see also an AfrAs dimension.
    ▪ ZYR_2 zīr ‘highest string (of stringed instruments)’ : from Pers zīr ‘smallest string of a lute, guitar, etc.’ (Steingass1892), from mPers azīr ‘under’ – Rolland2014a
    ▪ ZYR_3 (= ZWR_3) : According to Lane iii (1867), a ‘ladies’ man, philanderer’ is called zīr »because of his frequent visits to them [sc., women]«, so the word seems to be from ↗zāra ‘to visit’ (ZWR_1).
    ▪ ZYR_4 MorAr zayyar ‘to close (a button)’: from a WSem root with the basic meaning of *‘to join, press together’.
    ▪ ZYR_5 ziyār, the name of an ‘instrument with which a farrier twists the lip of a beast’ (Lane) belongs to the same complex as also ↗zayyar (preceding item).
    ▪ ZYR_6 : zīr, zayir ‘angry’: DRS (#ZW/YR-1e) includes this value in the big complex whose semantics stretch from ‘to incline, turn aside’ via ‘to lie, falsify’ and ‘one time, once’ until ‘to hate; enemy, stranger, foreigner’, ‘to visit’ and ‘phantom appearing in a dream’. In contrast, Lane thinks at least zayir is corrupted from zaʔir, see ↗√ZʔR.
    ▪ ZYR_7 zīr ‘flax’ : semantics and etymology unclear.
    ▪ ZYR_8 zīr ‘use, custom’ : semantics and etymology unclear.
     
    – 
    ▪ ZYR_1 : DRS 8 (1999)#ZW/YR-3 Ar zīr, Mhr zayr, Jib zir ‘grande jarre à eau’, Sab zwyr (pl.) ‘distributeur d’eau’ ?
    ▪ ZYR_2 : Ø – borrowed from Pers.
    ▪ ZYR_3 : ↗zāra.
    ▪ ZYR_4 : DRS 8 (1999)#ZW/YR-2 Hbr zār ‘presser, écraser’, nHbr məzōrā ‘pressoir’, māzōr ‘pansement’, TargAram zār ‘retenir’, zəyārā ‘pressoir’, Syr zār, zəwar ‘prendre, tenir; frapper du poing’, zəwārā ‘poing, poignée; main, pouvoir; massue’; Ar zayyara ‘serrer, presser, serrer les lèvres à un cheval avec des tenailles; attacher’, tazayyara ‘être mis à l’étroit, être embarrassé’, ziyār ‘tenailles, étau’, EgAr zayyar ‘attacher’, MġrAr ‘serrer, comprimer’, HispAr ziyār ‘bâillon’, EAr zawr ‘jointée, poignée’; IrqAr zōr ‘sous-bois, buisson dans un lieu marécageux’, Gz zawwara ‘garder, cacher’. – ? Hbr zēr ‘bordure’, JP zīrā ‘couronne, guirlande’.
    ▪ ZYR_5 : DRS 8 (1999)#ZW/YR-1 (a) Akk zāru ‘tordre, être tordu’, Hbr JP zār ‘s’écarter de’, zawwēr ‘rouler’, Ar zawira ‘être penché, courbé; aller en biais’, (b) zāra ‘mentir, accuser faussement’, zawwara ‘altérer, falsifier, défigurer, embellir, orner’, zūr ‘mensonge vanité’, (c) zuraẗ ‘fois’, S Ar zāra ‘quelquefois’, Syr zawar ‘regarder de travers’, Gz Te Arg zora, Tña Amh Gur zorä, Gaf zärä ‘tourner, aller autour’, Gz zawwara ‘durer, subsister’; Amh zäwärwärra ‘vagabond; tortueux (chemin)’, zəwərwər ‘en vrille’, žort ‘hérisson’. – (d)? Akk zēru ‘ne pas aimer, haïr, éviter; abandonner’, zayyār ‘ennemi’, Hbr zār, Phoen oYa zr ‘étranger, d’autrui’, TargAram zār ‘loger chez qn’. – (e) Ar zīr ‘qui est en colère’; (f) zāra ‘visiter (un lieu saint)’, MġrAr zār ‘rendre visite’; zyāra ‘visite’; Qat štzr ‘tenter de visiter’, Mhr Jib Ḥrs zōr ‘visiter’, Te Amh Gur zäyyärä ‘visiter, aller en pèlerinage’, Te təzäyyärä ‘être fatigué, épuisé’. – (g) Ar zawr : ombre que l’on voit dans le sommeil.
     
    ▪ ZYR_1 : ↗zīr_1
    ▪ ZYR_2 : ↗zīr_2
    ▪ ZYR_3 : ↗zīr_3 , ↗zāra, ↗ZWR
    ▪ ZYR_4 : ↗zayyar
     
    ▪ ZYR_1 : Cf. Ital ziro ‘large jar’ – Lokotsch1927#2222.
    ▪ ZYR_2 : Cf. IE *ndʰer- ‘under’ (Skr adhas ‘below’ [cf. adhaḥ-stha ‘placed low, below’, adhaḥ-sthita ‘standing below’, ádhara-tas ‘below’], Av aṯara- ‘lower’, Lat infernus ‘lower’, infra ‘below’), Engl under.
     
    Cf. also ↗zār and ↗ZWR. 
    zayyar‑ زَيَّر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZYR 
    vb., II 
    (MorAr) to close (a button) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ From a WSem root with the basic meaning of *‘to join, press together’.
     
    ▪ … 
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZW/YR-2 (a) Hbr zār ‘presser, écraser’, nHbr məzōrā ‘pressoir’, māzōr ‘pansement’, TargAram zār ‘retenir’, zəyārā ‘pressoir’, Syr zār, zəwar ‘prendre, tenir; frapper du poing’, zəwārā ‘poing, poignée; main, pouvoir; massue’; Ar zayyara ‘serrer, presser, serrer les lèvres à un cheval avec des tenailles; attacher’, tazayyara ‘être mis à l’étroit, être embarrassé’, ziyār ‘tenailles, étau’, EgAr zayyar ‘attacher’, MġrAr ‘serrer, comprimer’, HispAr ziyār ‘bâillon’, EAr zawr ‘jointée, poignée’; IrqAr zōr ‘sous-bois, buisson dans un lieu marécageux’, Gz zawwara ‘garder, cacher’. – (b)? Hbr zēr ‘bordure’, JP zīrā ‘couronne, guirlande’.
    ▪ BadawiHinds1986: EgAr zayyar ‘to fasten, attach’, zayyār ‘rope attaching the rear end of the tiller to the rudder (naut.)’.
     
    ▪ The MorAr vb. II zayyar ‘to close (a button)’ belongs to a larger semantic complex that has its origin in a WSem root with the basic meaning *‘to join, press together’, cf. ClassAr zayyara ‘to twist the lips (of a horse, of an animal) with a ziyār ’, ziyār ‘horse-twitchers’ barnacles, instrument with which a farrier twists the lip of a beast’, ziwār ‘rope binding the fore to the hind-girth’, and the obsol. vb. I, zāra (ū, zawār) ‘to bind the fore to the hind-girth of a camel, (Lane:) to bind upon it the rope called ziwār ’.
    DRS does not think that the complex ‘to compress’ is etymologically related to ↗zūr_2 ‘force’, which is treated as a specifically IrqAr (and Ṭur nSyr) phenomenon and believed to be (via Tu zor ?) from mPers zūr, zōr ‘strength, power, etc.’.
    ▪ There seems to be frequent overlapping with √ZR: (ZRR), cf. ↗zarra ‘to button up’ (ClassAr: ‘to draw forcibly together, button, button up’), ↗zirr ‘button’.
    ▪ From its morphology, EgAr tazyīraẗ, pl. -āt, tazāyīr, n.f., a ‘black robe formerly worn by middle-class women’ (BadawiHinds1986), looks as if it belongs to zayyar as a vn. II. But semantics are not clear. Is this black robe called tazyīraẗ because it is buttoned up? Cf. however also EgAr mizayyaraẗ, n.prop., ‘evil spirit believed to appear in the form of a woman clad in white garb’ (BadawiHinds1986): so called after the tazyīraẗ, or is there any connection to the ↗zār ritual? 
    ziyār ‘instrument with which a farrier twists the lip of a beast’ is the etymon of Span acial ‘id’ -- JC Rolland (personal communication, 28Mar2016). 
    – 
    zīr زِير (disambig.) 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZYR 
    n. 
    ▪ zīr_1 ‘large jar’ ↗¹zīr
    ▪ zīr_2 ‘highest string (of stringed instruments)’ ↗²zīr
    ▪ zīr_3 (= ZWR_3) ‘ladies’ man, philanderer’ ↗³zīr, arranged under √ZWR. 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ¹zīr زِير , pl. ʔazyār , ziyār (EgAr, MġrAr) 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZYR 
    n. 
    large jar – WehrCowan1979. / large handle-less earthenware jar used for storing and filtering water (BadawiHinds1986), wide in the upper part and nearly pointed at the bottom (Lane). 
    Of unknown origin, probably Sem – Rolland2014a. 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 8 (1999)#ZW/YR-3: Ar zīr, Mhr zayr, Jib zir ‘grande jarre à eau’, Sab zwyr (pl.) ‘distributeur d’eau’?.
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2629: (outside Sem) Eg i͗ḏr.t ‘kind of vessel’. 
    ▪ On account of the Ar and Eg evidence, Orel&Stolbova1994#2629 reconstruct Sem *zīr- ‘big vessel’, Eg i͗ḏr.t (ḏ- <*ʒ- before a front vowel?) ‘kind of vessel’ (TLA: ‘ein Ölgefäß’), from AfrAs *ʒir- ‘vessel’. TLA, however, following Hoch1994, thinks the Eg word is a borrowing from Sem.
    ▪ In EgAr, the zīr figures in some proverbs/popular sayings, like ʔādi z-zīr wi-ʔādi ġaṭā-h (lit., here is the zīr and here is its cover – part of a children’s rhyme) ≈ ‘here is what clinches it!’ (in presenting proof); dawwar iz-zīr ʕala ġaṭā-h lamma ltaqā-h (lit., the zīr search for its cover, so/until it found it) ≈ ‘he met his match’; kasar zīr warā-h (lit., he broke a zīr behind him) ≈ ‘he said good riddance to him’ – BadawiHinds1986. 
    ▪ Lokotsch1927#2222: Ar zīr ‘large jar’ [similar in form to the Lat dolium, Grk píthis; ZDMG 50: 631] > Ital ziro ‘id.’. 
    EgAr mazyaraẗ, pl. mazāyir, n.f., cupboard-like stand on which a zīr is placed: n.loc. – BadawiHinds1986.

    For other values connected to the root, cf. ↗zīr (disamb.), ↗zīr_2, ↗zīr_3, and ↗ZYR; cf. also ↗zār and ↗ZWR. 
    ²zīr زِير 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ZYR 
    n. 
    highest string (of stringed instruments) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Lane specifies the meaning as ‘slender watar [or bow-string]: or the most slender (of such cords) and the most firmly twisted; hence the zīr [or smallest string] of muzhir [or lute]’. In this sense, he adds, zīr is apparantly of Pers origin. Rolland2014a gives the etymology as: from Pers zīr ‘smallest string of a lute, guitar, etc.’ (Steingass1892), from mPers azīr ‘under’, ultimately from IE *ndʰer‑ ‘under’. 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    See above, section CONC. 
    ▪ Cf. IE *ndʰer- ‘under’ (Skr adhas ‘below’ [cf. adhaḥ-stha ‘placed low, below’, adhaḥ-sthita ‘standing below’, ádhara-tas ‘below’], Av aṯara- ‘lower’, Lat infernus ‘lower’, infra ‘below’), Engl under
    For other values connected to the root, cf. ↗zīr (disamb.), ↗zīr_1, ↗zīr_3, and ↗ZYR; cf. also ↗zār and ↗ZWR. 
    ZYĠ زيغ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 25Mar2023
    √ZYĠ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZYĠ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZYĠ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZYĠ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to deviate, turn aside, swerve, turn away’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ZYL زيل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 25Mar2023
    √ZYL 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZYL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZYL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZYL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘separation, sorting out, distinguishing between; disappearance’ 
    ▪ [gnrl] Two different verbs are classified under this root: zāla, impf. yazālu, which, with preceding negative particles, means ‘still’ or ‘continuing to be’, and zāla, impf. yazīlu ‘to sort out’ – BAH2008.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ZYN زين 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 25Mar2023
    √ZYN 
    “root” 
    ▪ ZYN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZYN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ZYN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to decorate, ornament, adorn’ 
    ▪ From protSem *√ZYN or *√ḎYN. Root of uncertain meaning – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    – 
    sīn سين 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ 
    R₁ 
    The letter s of the Arabic alphabet. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl shin, from Hbr šîn, from Phoen *šinn ‘tooth; twenty-first letter of the Phoen alphabet’, akin to Hbr šēn, Ar↗sinn ‘tooth’. (The use of the word for ‘tooth’ for this letter is the result of folk etymology and is based on the shape of the letter, which resembles a row of pointed teeth. The letter originally depicted a composite bow, a powerful kind of bow that is made of layers of different materials such as horn and wood and usually has the tips curving away from the archer when unstrung. The earlier name of the letter was *šann < *ṯann ‘composite bow’).
     
     
    SʔL سأل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SʔL 
    “root” 
    ▪ SʔL_1 ‘to ask, question, demand, interrogate; to beg’ ↗saʔala
    ▪ SʔL_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘asking, inquiring, requesting, quest’ 
    saʔala 
    saʔala 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    saʔala 
    ▪ For Engl n.prop. Saul cf. ↗saʔala
    – 
    saʔal‑ سأل , a (suʔāl , masʔalaẗ , tasʔāl
    ID 374 • Sw – • BP 325 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last update 15Apr2022
    √SʔL 
    vb., I 
    to ask; to inquire; to ask, request, demand, claim; to pray to (God) | yusʔalᵘ he is responsible, answerable – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ The vb. can be assumed rather safely to be ComSem. – Militarev&Stolbova2007 reconstruct Sem *š˅ʔal‑ ‘to ask’; Dolgopolsky2012 #2052 posits Sem *√ŠʔL ‘to ask (a question), ask for’, from Nostr ²*s̄˹Eʔ˺æw˹ü˺L˅ ‘to look for, search, ask’.
    ▪ …
     
    eC7 more than 120 occurrences in the Q, all meaning ‘to ask, question, interrogate, inquire, query, seek clarification, etc; to beg; (pass.) to be taken to task, called to account’. 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘to ask’) Akk išʔal, Hbr šʔl e (a), Syr šel, Gz sʔl a (a).
    ▪ Zammit2002: Akk šālu, šaʔālu, Ug šʔal, Phn šʔl, Pun [y]sl[ym] ‘to ask’, Hbr šāʔal ‘to ask, inquire’, BiblAram šᵉʔēl ‘to ask’, Syr šeʔl ‘to ask, interrogate, ask counsel’, SAr sʔl ‘to ask, request, demand, lay claim’, Gz saʔala ‘rogare; petere, poscere, postulare, expetere’.
    ▪ Dolgopolsky2012 #2052: Akk šaʔālu ~ šâlu ‘to ask (a question), inquire’, Hbr, Pun, TargAram, JudPal, JEA, Syr, SamAram, Mnd √ŠʔL, Ar, Gz √SʔL, Qat √ŠʔL ‘to ask’. Deriv.: Sab Min Qat mšʔl ‘oracle’; epigrHbr, JudAram, Syr, Mnd √ŠʔL G, Ar, Gz saʔala, səʔla, Sab √ŠʔL ‘ask for, beg, plead’, Sab Min √ŠʔL ‘to ask, seek, require’, Jib šɛ̄l (sbjn. yšɔ̄l) ‘to demand payment for a dept’, Soq hoʔol ‘do., to borrow’. – Outside Sem: [Berb] Tsh siggəl (3s pf. isuggʷəl) ‘to look for’, ? Ahg səssəǵǵəl ‘chercher’, as well as Mz səwwəl, yətsewwəl ‘to ask (a question)’ (borr. < Ar √SʔL?).
    ▪ … 
    ▪ StarLing2007 reconstructs Sem *š˅ʔal‑ ‘to ask’ (only on the evidence of Ar).
    ▪ In form V, the vb. has taken the specialized meaning of ‘to beg’, attested already in the Q, overlapping with ↗tasawwala.
    ▪ Dolgopolsky2012#2052 reconstructs Sem *√ŠʔL ‘to ask (a question), ask for’ and (with due caution) Berb *√SWL ‘to look for’, all from a hypothetical Nostr ²*s̄˹Eʔ˺æw˹ü˺L˅ ‘to look for, search, ask’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Saul, from Hbr šāʔûl ‘asked, requested’, PP of šāʔal ‘to ask’, cognate of Ar saʔala
    sāʔala, vb. III, to ask, question, interrogate; to call s.o. to account:…
    ʔasʔala, vb. IV: ʔasʔalahū suʔlahū to fulfill s.o.’s wish, comply with s.o.’s request:…
    tasaʔʔala, and tasawwala, vb. V, to beg:…
    BP#1764tasāʔala, vb. VI, to ask; to ask o.s., wonder, ponder; to ask one another:…

    suʔl, n., demand, request, wish:…
    suʔlaẗ, n.f., demand, request, wish: n.un., from suʔl.
    BP#267suʔāl, pl. ʔasʔilaẗ, n., question; request; inquiry; demand, claim: lexicalized vn. I.
    saʔʔāl, adj., given to asking questions, inquisitive, curious: ints.
    saʔūl, adj., given to asking questions, inquisitive, curious: ints.
    BP#738masʔalaẗ, pl. masāʔilᵘ, n., question; issue, problem; affair, matter, case; request: lexicalized vn. I.
    musāʔalaẗ, n.f., questioning, interrogation: vn. III.
    tasawwul, n., begging, beggary: vn. V.
    BP#2176tasāʔul, pl. ‑āt, n., questions, doubts; self-questioning: vn. VI.
    BP#4273sāʔil, pl. ‑ūn, suʔʔāl, saʔalaẗ, adj., asking: PA I; n., questioner; petitioner; beggar: nominalized PA I.
    BP#354masʔūl, adj. official; responsible, answerable, accountable: PP I; pl. al-masʔūlūn, n., the bearers of responsibility; the functionaries: nominalized PP I.
    C BP#794masʔūliyyaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., responsibility, duty: abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ, from masʔūl.
    mutasawwil, n., beggar: nominalized PA V.
    BP#4116mutasāʔil, adj., asking o.s., wondering: PA VI. 

    masʔūl مَسْؤُول / مَسْئُول 
    ID 375 • Sw – • BP 354 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SʔL 
    ¹adj.; ²n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    masʔūliyyaẗ مَسْئوليّة 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 794 • APD … • © SG | created 5Jun2023
    √SʔL 
    n.f. 
    ▪ abstr. formation in -iyyaẗ 
    SʔM سأم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023
    √SʔM 
    “root” 
    ▪ SʔM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SʔM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SʔM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be averse, to be weary, bored, to be fed up, to be disdainful; to tire’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    SB: (SBB) سبّ/سبب 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023
    √ SB: (SBB) 
    “root” 
    ▪ SB: (SBB)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SB: (SBB)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SB: (SBB)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘reason; ladder, connection, rope; to revile; severance’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    sababiyyaẗ سَبَبيّة 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 5Jun2023
    √SBː (SBB) 
    n.f. 
    causality 
    ▪ abstr. formation in -iyyaẗ, from ↗sabab ‘reason, cause’ 
    SBT سبت 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SBT 
    “root” 
    ▪ SBT_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ SBT_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘resting, keeping the Sabbath’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ For Engl Sabbath, sabbatical, Shabbat, cf. ↗sabt
    – 
    sabt السبْت , pl. subūt 
    ID 376 • Sw – • BP 1148 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SBT 
    n. 
    Sabbath, Saturday – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Pennacchio2011: 10: »‘Shabbat’, sabt in Ar and šābaṯ in Hbr, which can only come from Judaism. This argument could be sufficient to prove a Jewish origin«. 
    ▪ … 
    DBD 1906: Ass šabātu prob. ‘to cease, be completed’, Hbr šāḇaṯ ‘to cease, desist, rest’, Ar sabata ‘to cut off, interrupt’. – Hbr šabbāṯ, Aram šabṯā ‘Sabbath’.
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2215: Outside Sem: Hs šabta ‘to strike with a knife’ [?]. 
    ▪ Jeffery1938, 160-61: »(Sprenger and others would add to this subāt ‘rest’ in xxv, 49; lxxviii, 9.359 ) – We find sabt only in relatively late passages and always of the Jewish Sabbath. The Muslim authorities treat it as genuine Ar from sabata ‘to cut’ [↗√SBT ], and explain it as so called because God cut off His work on the seventh day360 (cf. Baiḍ. on ii, 61; and Masʕūdī, Murūǧ, iii, 423). – There can be no doubt that the word came into Ar from Aram 361 and probably from the Jewish šaḇtā rather than from the Syr šbtā. The verb sabata of vii, 163, is then denominative, as Fraenkel, Vocab, 21, has noted. It is doubtful if the word occurs in this meaning earlier than the Qurʔān.«
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2215: AfrAs *sebit‑ ‘to cut’ > Sem *š˅bit‑ /*š˅but‑ (secondary variant with u after a labial) ‘cut, shave’ > Ar sbt‑, i, u. Also AfrAs > WCh *syab˅t‑. – AfrAs *sebit‑ is in its turn derived from *sib‑ ‘to cut, strike’ (cf. ↗√SBː (SBB)). 
    ▪ Not from Ar sabt but from the same etymon are Engl Sabbath, sabbatical, Shabbat: EtymOnline: »oEngl sabat ‘Saturday as a day of rest,’ as observed by the Jews, from Lat sabbatum, from Grk sabbaton, from Hbr šabbaṯ, properly ‘day of rest,’ from šāḇaṯ ‘he rested.’ Spelling with ‑th attested from lC14, not widespread until C16. – The Babylonians regarded seventh days as unlucky, and avoided certain activities then; the Jewish observance might have begun as a similar custom. Among Eur Christians, from the seventh day of the week it began to be applied early 15c. to the first day (Sunday), “though no definite law, either divine or ecclesiastical, directed the change” [Century Dictionary], but elaborate justifications have been made. The change was driven by Christians’ celebration of the Lord’s resurrection on the first day of the week, a change completed during the Reformation. – The original meaning is preserved in Span Sabado, Ital Sabbato, and other languages’ names for ‘Saturday.’ Hung szombat, Rum simbata, Fr samedi, Ge Samstag ‘Saturday’ are from VulgLat sambatum, from Grk *sambaton, a vulgar nasalized variant of sabbaton. Sabbath-breaking attested from 1650s.«
    ▪ Kluge2002#Sabbat: The word entered Ge in c13 as mHGe sabbat. From Lat sabbatum, sabbata < nLat-Grk sábbaton < Hbr šabbāṯ. The genuinely Jiddish form entered Ge as Schabbes, an elder variant of which resulted in Samstag ‘Saturday’. 
    sabata, u, vb. I, to rest; to keep the Sabbath: Jeffery1938 thinks the verb is denominative.
    ʔasbata, vb. IV, to enter on the Sabbath: denom. (acc. to Jeffery1938).

    sabtī, pl. ‑ūn, adj./n., Sabbatarian (Chr.): nsb-adj.
    subāt lethargy; slumber, sleep:.
    subātī, adj., lethargic: nsb-adj from subāt.
    musbit, adj., lethargic, inactive, motionless: PA IV. 

    SBḤ سبح 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023
    √SBḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ SBḤ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SBḤ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SBḤ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to swim, to cover a long distance; to spread or disperse in the land, to dig or burrow in the earth; to be active, to toil; to be free, to declare as free from impurity’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    SBṬ سبط 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Mar2023
    √SBṬ 
    “root” 
    ▪ SBṬ_1 ‘...’ ↗ʔasbāṭ
    ▪ SBṬ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SBṬ_3 ‘...’ ↗... 
    ▪ [v1] BAH2008: asbāṭ ‘tribes of the children of Israel’ (occurring five times in the Qur’an, e.g., 7:160) is a borrowing from Hbr.
    ▪ [v2] : …
    ▪ [v3] : … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    SBʕ سبع 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SBʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ SBʕ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ SBʕ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘number seven, to make up a group of seven, to be the seventh; animals and birds of prey (this meaning is said to be derived from seven, which is considered a perfect and powerful number)’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘seven’) Akk (sību), Hbr šéḇaʕ, Syr šḇaʕ, Gz sabʕū́.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Several items in Eur langs derive from the Hbr cognate of Ar ↗sabʕ(aẗ). (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Shavuot, from Hbr šābûʕôt, pl. of šābûaʕ, ‘week’, from šebaʕ ‘seven’; shiva, from Hbr šibʕâ ‘seven’, f. of šebaʕ (see above)’. – Bathsheba, from Hbr bat šebaʕ ‘daughter of an oath’ (bat ‘daughter; cf. Ar bint); Elizabeth, from Hbr ʔĕlîšebaʕ ‘my God (is) an oath’ (ʔĕlî ‘my God; cf. Ar allāh); Beersheba, from Hbr bᵊʔēr šebaʕ ‘well of oath’ (bᵊʔēr ‘well’, cf. Ar biʔr); all from šebaʕ ‘oath’, from *šābaʕ ‘to swear’, possibly denom. from šebaʕ ‘seven’ (? < *‘to bind oneself with sevens’ in swearing oaths). 
    – 
    ʔusbūʕ أُسْبُوع 
    ID 377 • Sw – • BP 393 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SBʕ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    – 
     
    ʔusbūʕiyyaẗ أُسْبوعيّة 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 5Jun2023
    √SBʕ 
    n.f. 
    weekly 
    ▪ nominalized adj.f., nsb-formation, from ↗ʔusbūʕ ‘week’ 
    SBĠ سبغ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023
    √SBĠ 
    “root” 
    ▪ SBĠ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SBĠ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SBĠ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be ample, complete, abundant; (of garments and attire) to be long and overflowing; ease of living’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
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    SBQ سبق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023
    √SBQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ SBQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SBQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SBQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘being ahead, in front, outpacing, outstripping’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    SBL سبل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SBL 
    “root” 
    ▪ SBL_1 ‘path’ ↗¹sabīl
    ▪ SBL_2 ‘public fountain’ ↗²sabīl
    ▪ SBL_3 ‘clay pipe’ ↗³sabīl
    ▪ SBL_4 ‘ears (of cereals); to let hang down, let drop; mustache’ ↗sabal
    ▪ SBL_5 ‘manure, dung’ ↗sablaẗ
    ▪ SBL_ ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘1 road, highway; 2 cause; 3a (of rain) to fall down in heavy showers, (of clothes) to be down to the ankles; 3b (of wheat) to put forth its ears’ 
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    sabal سَبَل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SBL 
    n. 
    ears (of cereals) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Given that the cultivation of cerials was not very common among pre-Islamic Arabs (while an old practice in the Fertile Crescent), the word sunbulaẗ is quite likely to be a borrowing, probably from Aram (as already suggested by Jeffery and recently confirmed by Pennacchio). In Sem outside Ar, there are forms showing ‑n‑ as well as others that don’t, as in Ar sabal. Kogan2011 therefore reconstructs protSem *šu(n)bul‑at‑ ‘ear of corn’.
    ▪ Cf. also ↗sunbulaẗ.
    ▪… 
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    ▪…
    ▪… 
    – 
    ʔasbala, vb. IV, 1a to let (s.th.) hang down; 1b to let fall, drop (curtain, drape, etc., ʕalà over); 1c to close, shut (the eyes); 1d to shed (tears); 2 to ear, form ears: denom.

    sabalaẗ, pl. sibāl, n.f., mustache: n.un., fig. use (?)
    masbūl, adj., lowered, down: PP I (curtain) 
    sablaẗ سَبْلة 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SBL 
    n.f. 
    manure, dung – WehrCowan1979. 
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    sabīl سَبِيل , pl. ¹subul, ²ʔasbilaẗ, ³siblān 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SBL 
    n. 
    ▪ sabīl_1 ‘way, road, path’ ↗¹sabīl
    ▪ sabīl_2 ‘public fountain’ ↗²sabīl
    ▪ sabīl_3 ‘clay pipe (bowl)’ ↗³sabīl 
    ▪ … 
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    ▪…
    ▪… 
    – 
    See ↗¹sabīl and ↗²sabīl
    ¹sabīl سَبِيل , pl. subul 
    ID 378 • Sw 85 • BP 543 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SBL 
    n.m/f. 
    1a way, road, path; 1b access; 1c means, expedient, possibility (ʔilà to, for); – 2 ↗²sabīl. – 3 ↗³sabīl – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Occurs frequently in the Q, cf. ii, 102 ‘way, road’, then metaphorically, a ‘cause’, or ‘reason’.
    ▪ eC7 1 (highway, road) Q 15:76 wa‑ʔinnahā la‑bi‑sabīlin muqīmin ‘indeed they [the towns of the people of Lot and Midian] are on a highway remaining [till now]’; *Q 2:177 wa‑’bna ’l‑sabīli ‘and the wayfarer’; *Q 9:5 fa‑ḫallū sabīlahum ‘set them free [lit., release their way]’; *Q 4:34 fa‑lā tabġū ʕalayhinna sabīlan ‘then do not act against them in any way’; *Q 4:88 fa‑lan taǧida la‑hū sabīlan ‘you will never find for him a way out’; *Q 29:29 taqṭaʕūna ’l‑sabīla ‘you waylay travellers [lit., you cut off the highway]’; *Q 40:11 yaǧʕala ’llāhu lahunna sabīlan ‘God gives them another way out’; 2 (cause) Q 61:11 wa‑tuǧāhidūna fī sabīli ’llāhi bi‑ʔamwālikum wa‑ʔanfusikum ‘and you struggle for His cause with your possessions and your persons’; 3 (with def.art.: the right path, the power of reasoning, the ability to discriminate between good and evil, the way of God) Q 76:3 ʔinnā hadaynāhu ’l‑sabīla ʔimmā šākiran wa‑ʔimmā kafūran ‘We guided him to the [right] way; then he is either thankful or ungrateful’; 4 (way of this life) Q 80:20 ṯumma ’l‑sabīla yassarahū ‘the He enabled him to find a way’. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Jeffery1938, 162: »In the Qurʔān it is used both of a road, and in the technical religious sense of ‘The Way’ (cf. Acts ix, 2), i.e. sabīl Allāh. The Muslim authorities take it as genuine Arabic, and Sprenger, Leben, ii, 66, agrees with them. It is somewhat difficult, however, to derive it from √SBL as even Rāġib, Mufradāt, 221, seems to feel, and the word is clearly a borrowing from the Syr šᵊḇīlā.362 As a matter of fact Hbr שׁביל and Aram שׁבילא mean both ‘road’ or ‘way of life’, precisely as the Syr šəḇīlā, but it is the Syr word which had the widest use and was borrowed into Arm as šawił,363 and so is the more likely origin. It occurs in the old poetry, e.g. in Nābigha v, 18 (Ahlwardt, Divans, p. 6), and thus must have been an early borrowing.«
    EALL (Retsö, »Aramaic/Syriac Loanwords«364 ): loaned from Syr šḇīl.ā ‘way, path’.
    ▪ How are the meanings ‘way, path’ and ‘public fountain’ related? Are they? Are there connections to other items of the root √SBL?
    ▪ …
    ▪… 
    – 
    ĭbn al-sabīl, n., 1a vagabond, tramp; 1b wayfarer, traveler
    fī sabīl…, prep., for the sake of, for, in behalf of, in the interest of
    bi‑ \ʕan sabīl…, prep., by means of, through, by
    fī sabīl allāh, expr., for the cause of God, in behalf of God and his religion
    ʕalà sabīl…, prep., by way of, for: e.g., ʕalà sabīl al‑taǧribaẗ, for a try, tentatively, ʕalà sabīl al‑fukāhaẗ, for fun, ʕalà sabīl al‑miṯāl, to quote s.th. as an example
    ḍāqat bihī ’l‑subul, expr., he was at his wit’s end
    laysa ʕalayya fī ḏālika sabīl, expr., there is nothing to keep me from doing that, I am free to do that, it is no sin if I do that

    sābil: ṭarīq sābilaẗ, n.f., a public, much‑frequented road
    al-sābilaẗ, n.f., the passers-by: PA I, f.

     
    ²sabīl سَبِيل , pl. ʔasbilaẗ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SBL 
    n. 
    1 ↗¹sabīl. – 2 (pl. ʔasbilaẗ) public fountain; – 3 ↗³sabīl – WehrCowan1979. 
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    – 
    sabbala, vb. II, to dedicate to charitable purposes

     
    ³sabīl سَبِيل , pl. siblān 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SBL 
    n. 
    1 ↗¹sabīl. – 2 ↗²sabīl. – 3 (pl. siblān) clay pipe bowl, clay pipe (of the Bedouins) – WehrCowan1979. 
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    STː (STT) ستّ / ستتـ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √STː (STT) 
    “root” 
    ▪ STː (STT)_1 ‘six’ ↗sittaẗ (s.r. √SDS)
    ▪ STː (STT)_2 ‘woman’ ↗sitt
    ▪ STː (STT)_3 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): Aas a result of a regressive assimilation the cardinal number sitt (six) and its derivatives are traditionally classified under root STT instead of root SDS. 
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    sitt سِتّ , pl. ‑āt 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 2881 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √STː (STT) 
    n.f. 
    lady – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ According to Youssef2003, the word is from Eg st ‘woman’, but this is little likely.
    ▪ So perhaps short for sayyidaẗ, via st.const. sayyidat‑ with a > i under the influence of yyi, ellipse of a/i in the ending, and assimilation of d to t.
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2306: protSem *šitt‑ ‘lady’ < AfrAs *süt‑ ‘woman’.
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2306: Ug št ‘lady’. – Outside Sem: (Berb) Kby suτ ‘woman’, (WCh) sut ‘sister’ in 1 lang), (CCh) suti ‘girl’) in 1 lang.
     
    ▪ According to Youssef2003, the word is from Eg st ‘woman’, but this is little likely.
    ▪ So perhaps short for sayyidaẗ (↗sayyid), via a st.const. form like sayyidaẗ-ī ‘my lady’ > *sīdaẗ-ī > *sīdẗ-ī > *sidẗ-ī > sitt-ī, without pron.suff. sitt ?
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2306: protSem *šitt‑ ‘lady’, protBerb *sut‑ ‘woman’, protWCh *sut‑ ‘sister’, CCh *sut‑ ‘girl’, all from AfrAs *süt‑ ‘woman’.
     
    – 
    sitt al-ḥusn, n., a variety of morning-glory (Ipomoea caïrica Webb; bot.); also = belladonna, deadly nightshade (bot.) 
    STR ستر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Mar2023
    √STR 
    “root” 
    ▪ STR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ STR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ STR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to cover, conceal, hide; to take cover; veil, covering’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    SǦD سجد 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SǦD 
    “root” 
    ▪ SǦD_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ SǦD_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘prostrating with the forehead touching the ground; submission; adoration; worship’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl masjid, mosquemasǧid
    – 
    saǧad‑ سجد 
    ID 379 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SǦD 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ For Engl masjid, mosque, cf. ↗masǧid
     
    masǧid مَسْجِد 
    ID 380 • Sw – • BP 852 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SǦD 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl masjid, mosque, from Ar masǧid ‘mosque’, from Aram *masgid ‘place of worship’, from sᵊged ‘to bow down, worship’. ↗ 
     
    SǦR سجر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Mar2023
    √SǦR 
    “root” 
    ▪ SǦR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SǦR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SǦR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to fill, flow, overflow; to stretch, elongate; to set on fire, fuel’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    SǦL سجل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 17Apr2023
    √SǦL 
    “root” 
    ▪ SǦL_1 ‘scroll; register; list, index; records, archives’ ↗siǧill (with saǧǧala ‘to register, record’, musaǧǧil ‘registrar, notary public; tape recorder’)
    ▪ SǦL_2 ‘to rival, contend; to dispute, debate; to contest’ ↗sāǧala

    Other values, no obsolete, include (BK1860, Hava1899):

    SǦL_3 ‘bucket filled with water; hence: share, portion; gift, present; bountiful man; great udder’: saǧl (pl. siǧāl, suǧūl); cf. also saǧala, u (saǧl), vb. I, ‘to pour out, spill (a liquid); jeter (bi‑ qc) de haut en bas’; saǧǧala (II) ‘to pour down (bi‑ a liquid)’; ʔasǧala (IV) ‘to give a bucket-full, fill a vessel or watering-trough; to give much, make large (gifts); to be rich; to set loose (cattle), set free, leave (a beast with its mother), leave alone, forsake; to leave (an affair, li‑ to s.o.), make free\allowable (s.th. li‑ to s.o.); to make (the speech, language) unrestricted, speak absolutely’; saǧūl ‘tearful (eye); abundant (spring); abounding in milk (she-goat)’
    SǦL_4 ‘stone of baked clay | pierre sur laquelle sera gravé le nom de l’infidèle qui doit en être frappé selon les arrêts de Dieu’: siǧǧīl
    SǦL_5 ‘flask-case | étui à flacon’: sawǧal(aẗ), sāǧūl
    SǦL_ ‘...’: ...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘great buckets full to the brim with water, the amount of water contained in large buckets, large buckets at the mouth of a well; turn-taking in a duet and handling, in a relay’ 
    ▪ [v1] : siǧill ‘scroll, register, list, index, record, etc.’: from (Grk sigíllon =) Lat sigillum ‘seal’, derived (dimin.) from sīgnum ‘sign, distinctive mark’ – Jeffery1938, Rolland2014
    ▪ [v2] : Accord. to ClassAr dictionaries, the value ‘to rival, contend’ of the assoc. L-stem (vb. III), sāǧala, is based on [v3] ‘bucket filled with water’, the original meaning being *‘to compete in the drawing of water, each bringing forth one’s saǧl bucket [from a well], the like of what the other brought forth’ – Lane iv 1872.
    [v3] : saǧl ‘bucket filled with water, bucket-full’: of unknown etymology. – For related items, see ↗sāǧala, section HIST.
    [v4] : siǧǧīl ‘stone of baked clay’ is prob. a direct borrowing from mPers *sig u gil ‘stone and clay’ – Cheung2017rev; cf. already Jeffery1938 (mPers sang ‘stone’, gīl ‘clay’) or Rolland2014 (Phlv sang-gīl ‘pierre d’argile’). – For more details, see below, section DISC.
    [v5] : The words sawǧal and sāǧūl seem to be (dimin.?) FawʕaL resp. FāʕūL formations from saǧala ‘to pour down’, which looks as if it could be denom. from [v3] saǧl ‘bucket filled with water’. The original meaning would thus be *‘little bucket to pour down from’
     
    ▪ [v1] : ↗siǧill.
    ▪ [v2] : ↗sāǧala.
    [v3] : ↗sāǧala.
    [v4] : eC7 Q 11:82 fa-lammā ǧāʔa ʔamru-nā ǧaʕalnā ʕāliya-hā sāfila-hā wa-ʔamṭarnā ʕalay-hā ḥiǧāraẗan min siǧǧīlin manḍūdin ‘So when Our commandment came to pass We overthrew (that township) and rained upon it stones of clay, one after another’. – Q 15:74 fa-ǧaʕalnā ʕāliya-hā sāfila-hā wa-ʔamṭarnā ʕalay-him ḥiǧāraẗan min siǧǧīlin ‘And We utterly confounded them, and We rained upon them stones of heated clay’. – Q 105:4 tarmī-him bi-ḥaǧāraẗin min siǧǧīlin ‘Which pelted them with stones of baked clay’.
    [v5] : ↗sāǧala.
     
    ▪ [v1] : – usually considered a loanword from Grk or Lat; but see DISC in entry ↗siǧill.
    ▪ [v2] : ↗sāǧala.
    [v3] : ?
    [v4] : – (loanword).
    [v5] : ↗sāǧala.
     
    [v4] : Jeffery1938: »The last of these passages [sc. Q 105:4, see above, section HIST] refers to the destruction of the army of the Elephant, and the others to the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah. In both cases the siǧǧīl is something rained down from heaven, and as the latter event is referred to in Sūra li, 33, we get the equivalence of ṭīn = siǧǧīl, which gives the Commentators their cue for its interpretation.365 / It was early recognized as a foreign word, and generally taken as of Pers origin.366 Ṭab. going so far as to tell us wa-huwa bi-’l-fārisiyyaẗ sank wa-kil, which is a very fair representation of sang and gil (Fraenkel, Vocab, 25; Siddiqi, Studien, 73). [Pers] sang meaning ‘stone’ is the Phlv sang from Av asan367 and gil ‘clay’ the Phlv gīl,368 related to Arm kiṙ (Horn, Grundriss, 207).369 From mPers it passed directly into Ar. Grimme, ZA, xxvi, 164, 165, suggests SAr influence, but there seems [to be] nothing to support this.« – Rolland2014 adds that Phlv sang ‘stone’ is from IndEur *ak‑ ‘aigu, pointu’, and gīl ‘argile’ perh. (« hypothèse personnelle ») akin to Grk árgilos ‘id.’.
    ▪ For other values, see above, section CONC.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ [v1] : Engl seal etc. ↗siǧill.
     
    – 
    sāǧal- ساجَلَ , ‑sāǧil‑ (siǧāl, musāǧalaẗ)
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 17Apr2023
    √SǦL 
    vb., III
     
    1a to rival, contend; b to dispute, debate (‑h with s.o.); c to contest (‑h s.o.’s right -h to s.th.) – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ Accord. to ClassAr dictionaries, the value ‘to rival, contend’ of the assoc. L-stem, sāǧala (in ClassAr attested also in the sense of ‘to emulate, imitate s.o.’), is based on saǧl ‘bucket filled with water’ (↗SǦL_3), the original meaning of the denom. vb. III thus being ‘to compete with s.o. in the drawing of water [from a well], each bringing forth one’s saǧl bucket, the like of what the other brought forth’ – cf. Lane iv 1872. The etymology of saǧl itself is unknown; it may be from saǧala ‘to pour out, spill; to throw down from above’, unless the latter is denom. from the former.
    ▪ For related items, see section HIST.
     
    ▪ Historically attested related items include: saǧl (pl. siǧāl, suǧūl) ‘bucket filled with water; hence also: share, portion; gift, present; bountiful man; great udder’. – Derived or perh. itself the etymon of saǧl: saǧala, u (saǧl), vb. I, ‘to pour out, spill (a liquid); jeter (bi‑ qc) de haut en bas’. – Deriv: saǧǧala ‘to pour down (bi‑ a liquid)’; saǧūl, adj., ‘tearful (eye); abundant (spring); abounding in milk (she-goat)’, saǧīl ‘large, big (bucket, udder); share; hard’; – ʔasǧala, vb. IV, ‘(1) denom.: to give a bucket-full, fill a vessel or watering-trough; to give much, make large (gifts); to be rich; (2) from vb. I, *‘to pour down, let flow’: to set loose (cattle), set free, leave (a beast with its mother), leave alone, forsake; to leave (an affair, li‑ to s.o.), make free\allowable (s.th. li‑ to s.o.); to make (the speech, language) unrestricted, speak absolutely’; musǧal, adj. (PP IV), ‘pendant qu’on laisse pendre comme un seau; dont l’usage est permis à tous | allowable’; – sawǧal, sawǧalaẗ, sāǧūl ‘flask-case | étui à flacon’
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ ? 
    ▪ The expression al-ḥarb siǧāl ‘war has various chances’ is explained in BK1860 as ‘La guerre est comme des seaux, pour dire que les armes sont journalières, que l’on a tantôt le dessus, tantôt le dessous, comme des seaux dont l’un descend dans le puits pendant que l’autre remonte’.
    ▪ As the expression just quoted shows, the ‘buckets’ one has to imagine here are buckets let down in a well to draw water from it. If the corresponding vb. I, saǧala, is not denom. from saǧl (in which case saǧl would be deverb. from saǧala), then ‘bucket’ would be based on ‘to pour down, throw down’, a notion that looks similar to that associated with many items pertaining to ↗√RǦL, such as ↗RǦL_8 raǧil~raǧal ‘set free with its mother (suckling)’, ↗²riǧl ‘swarm (esp. of locusts)’, ↗RǦL_9 raǧil~raǧl~raǧal ‘somewhat curly (hair)’, ↗raǧǧala ‘to let fall down (hair), to comb’.
    ▪...
     
    – 
    sāǧala-hu l-ḥadīṯᵃ, to draw s.o. into a conversation, have a talk with s.o.

    siǧāl, n., contest, competition with alternate success: vn. III | kānat il-ḥarb bayna-hum siǧālᵃⁿ, expr., their battle had its ups and downs, they fought each other with alternate success: see above, section DISC.
    musāǧalaẗ, pl. -āt, 1a contest, competition; b discussion, talk: vn. III

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗siǧill (with musaǧǧil, musaǧǧal, etc.) as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗SǦL. 
    siǧill سِجِلّ , pl. ‑āt
     
    ID 381 • Sw – • BP 3019 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 17Apr2023
    √SǦL 
    n. 
    1 scroll; 2a register; b list, index; c pl. siǧillāt, records, archives – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Jeffery1938, Rolland2014: from (Grk sigíllon =) Lat sigillum ‘small picture, engraved figure, seal’, dimin. of sīgnum ‘sign, distinctive mark’ (see below, section WEST). 
    ▪ eC7 (‘scribe, overseer of records; written scroll’) Q 21:104 yawma naṭwī ’l-samāʔa ka-ṭayyi ’l-siǧilli li-l-kutubi ‘The Day when We shall roll up the heavens as a recorder rolleth up a written scroll | on the Day, We roll up the skies the way a scribe rolls up scrolls (or, the way a folded up scroll rolls up/enfolds [its] writings)’ 
    ▪ – (loanword). – OrelStolbova1994 #2234 mention the parallel Eg (OK) sḏꜢw.t ‘stamp, seal’ [TLÆ: ‘Siegelung’; cf. also sḏꜢ ‘Halskette mit Siegelzylinder’], but think the item is probably a Sem loanword.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »The meaning of sijill in this eschatological passage was unknown to the early interpreters of the Qurʔān. Some took it to be the name of an angel, or of the Prophet’s amanuensis, but the majority are in favour of its meaning some kind of writing or writing material. (Ṭab. and Bagh. on the passage, and Rāghib, Mufradāt, 223.) – There was also some difference of opinion as to its origin, some like Bagh. taking it as an Arabic word derived from musājalaẗ, and others admitting that it was a foreign word, of Abyssinian or Persian origin.370 It is, however, neither Persian371 nor Abyssinian, but the Grk sigíllon = Lat sigillum, used in Byzantine Grk for an Imperial edict.372 The word came into very general use in the eastern part of the Empire, so that we find Syr sīgīlyūn (PSm, 2607)373 meaning ‘diploma’, and Arm sigel meaning ‘seal’.374 It may have come through Syr to Ar as Mingana, Syriac Influence, 90, claims, but the word appears not to occur in Arabic earlier than the Qurʔān, and may be one of the words picked up by Muḥammad himself as used among the people of NArabia in its Grk form. In any case, as Nöldeke insists,375 it is clear that he quite misunderstood its real meaning.«
    ▪ OrelStolbova1994 #2234 think Eg sḏꜢw.t ‘stamp, seal’ is probably a Sem loanword (< Lat sigillum). But if not, one would have to think of a shared origin of the Eg and Ar words in a hypothetical AfrAs *sigul- ‘stamp, seal’ (> Sem *šigil- ‘roll, scroll, register’).
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Not from Ar siǧill but from the same source is Engl seal ‘design stamped on wax’, especially an impressed figure attached to a document as evidence of authenticity, c. 1200, sel, sele, from oFr seel, seal ‘seal on a letter’ (modFr sceau), from VulgLat *sigellum (source of suggello, Span sello; also oFris mHGe sigel, Ge Siegel), from Lat sigillum ‘small picture, engraved figure, seal’, dimin. of sīgnum ‘identifying mark, token, symbol; signal, omen; sign in the heavens, constellation’ (EtymOnline). According to Watkins (cited ibid.), the latter is literally *‘standard that one follows’, from protIndEur *sekw-no-, from root *sekw- (1) ‘to follow’. »De Vaan has it from protIndEur *sekh-no- ‘cut’, from protIndEur root *sek- ‘to cut’. He writes: “The etymological appurtenance to seco ‘to cut’ implies a semantic shift of *sek-no- ‘what is cut out’, ‘carved out’ > ‘sign’.” But he also compares Hbr sakkīn, Aram sakkīn ‘slaughtering-knife’ [see Ar ↗sikkīn], and mentions a theory that “both words are probably borrowed from an unknown third source”«. Pfeifer (in DWDS) supports derivation of Lat sīgnum from *‘to cut’: »eigentlich wohl ‘eingeschnitzte Marke, geschnitztes Bild’ oder auch ‘auf Holzstäben eingekerbtes Zeichen beim Losorakel’, zu Lat secāre ‘schneiden’, auch ‘schnitzen’; [in Ge] zuerst [C14] in der Lat Kaufmannssprache der Hanse für ‘Firmenzeichen, Handelsmarke’ gebräuchlich, von da im [C16] in den allgemeinen Sprachgebrauch übergegangen für ‘(abgekürzte) Unterschrift, Namenszeichen, Monogramm’, seit dem [C18] übertragen ‘Kennzeichen, Merkmal, Stempel, Gepräge’.«
    ▪ ... 
    al-siǧill al-tiǧārī, n., commercial register;
    al-siǧill al-ḏahabī, Golden Book;
    siǧill al-ziyārāt, visitors’ book, guest book;
    al-siǧill al-tašrīfāt, list of visitors (dipl.);
    siǧill (or siǧillāt) al-ʔaṭyān, cadastre, land register;
    al-siǧill al-ʕaqārī, do.

    BP#877saǧǧala, vb. II, 1a to register, enter (‑h s.th.), make an entry (‑h of s.th.); b to note down, record, make a note of; c to put down, write down, book (s.th. ʕalà to s.o.’s debit); d to have (s.th.) recorded, put on record, make a deposition or statement for the official records; e to capture, catch (a scene); f to set (a record; athlet.); g to register (a letter); h to enter (s.th.) in the commercial register; i to have (an invention) patented, secure a patent (‑h on); j to record (said of an apparatus; also, e.g., fī l-šarāʔiṭ al-musaǧǧalaẗ on tape); 2a to document, prove by documentary evidence; b to give evidence (-h of s.th.); to score (s.th., e.g., ʔiṣābaẗ a hit): D-stem, denom. | saǧǧala ʕalà nafsi-h ʔan, expr., to go on record for (doing or being s.th.)
    BP#1297tasǧīl, pl. ‑āt, n., 1a entering, entry, registration; b booking; c recording; d tape-recording; e registering (of mail) 2a documentation; b authentication: vn. II | tasǧīl ʕaqārī, n., entry in the land register; ʔālaẗ tasǧīl al-ṣawt, n.f., tape recorder
    BP#2805musaǧǧil, pl. ‑ūn, 1a registrar; b notary public; 2 (pl. ‑āt) tape recorder: PA II | šarīṭ musaǧǧil, magnetic tape; musaǧǧil al-kulliyyaẗ, secretary of the faculty
    BP#2956musaǧǧal, adj., registered, etc.: PP II. | risālaẗ musaǧǧalaẗ, registered letter; murāsalāt musaǧǧalaẗ, registered mail; ʔaṭnān musaǧǧalaẗ, register tons; haflaṭ musaǧǧalaẗ, concert of recorded music

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗sāǧala, as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗SǦL. 
    siǧǧīl سِجِّيل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 2Jun2023
    √SǦL
     
    n. 
    lumps of baked clay – Jeffery1938
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q xi, 84; xv, 74; cv, 4 – Jeffery1938..
     
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »The last of these passages refers to the destruction of the army of the Elephant, and the others to the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah. In both cases the siǧǧīl is something rained down from heaven, and as the latter event is referred to in Sūra li, 33, we get the equivalence of ṭīn = siǧǧīl, which gives the Commentators their cue for its interpretation.376 / It was early recognized as a foreign word, and generally taken as of Pers origin.377 Ṭab. going so far as to tell us wa-kil wa-huwa bi’l-fārisiyyaẗ sank, which is a very fair representation of sang and gel (Fraenkel, Vocab, 25; Siddiqi, Studien, 73). sang meaning ‘stone’ is the Phlv sang from Av asan378 and gel meaning ‘clay’, the Phlv gīl,379 related to Arm kir (Horn, Grundriss, 207).380 From mPers it passed directly into Ar. Grimme, ZA, xxvi, 164, 165, suggests SAr influence, but there seems [to be] nothing to support this.«
     
    tasǧīl تَسْجيل 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 1297 • APD … • © SG | created 5Jun2023
    √SǦL 
    n. 
    ▪ vn., II 
    SǦN سجن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SǦN 
    “root” 
    ▪ SǦN_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ SǦN_2 ‘...’ ↗siǧǧīn
    ▪ SǦN_3 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘prison, imprisonment, confinement, detention’. 
    ▪ Philologists who derive the Qur’anic word siǧǧīn from this root suggest ‘containment’ as the semantic link between the two, but it has also been suggested that it could be a borrowing from Lat insignia, the Roman emperor’s stamp which used to be affixed to important records. Also it has been suggested that this root was borrowed from Pers or Gz – BAH2008. 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    siǧn سِجْن 
    ID 382 • Sw – • BP 790 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SǦN 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    siǧǧīn سِجِّين 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Jun2023
    √SǦN
     
    n. 
    ... 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q IxxxSi, 7, 8 – Jeffery1938.
     
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »The early authorities differed widely as to what the Siǧǧīn of this eschatological passage might be. It was generally agreed that it was a place, but some said it meant ‘the lowest earth,’ al-ʔarḍ al-sābiʕaẗ, or a name for hell, or a rock under which the records of men’s deeds are kept, or a prison.381 The Qurʔān itself seems to indicate that it means a document, kitāb marqūm, so al-Suyūṭī, Mutaw, 46,382 tells us that some thought it was a Pers word meaning ‘clay’ (tablet). Grimme, ZA, xxvi, 163, thinks that it refers to the material on which the records are written, and compares with the Eth [Gz] ṣəngʷən or ṣəngūn meaning ‘clay writing tablets’. It is very probable, however, as Nöldeke, Sketches, 38, suggested long ago, that the word is simply an invention of Muḥammad himself. If this is so, then kitāb marqūm is probably an explanatory gloss that has crept into the text.«
     
    – 
    – 
    SǦY سجي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Mar2023
    √SǦY 
    “root” 
    ▪ SǦY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SǦY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SǦY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘(of the night) to become silent, quiet or still, calm down, become tranquil, placid’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    SḤB سحب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SḤB 
    “root” 
    ▪ SḤB_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ SḤB_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to drag, to pull along the ground, to trail; cloud, cover, film’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    saḥāb سَحاب 
    ID 383 • Sw 80/21 • BP 2599 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SḤB 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    SḤT سحت 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Mar2023
    √SḤT 
    “root” 
    ▪ SḤT_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SḤT_2 ‘unlawful’ ↗suḥt
    ▪ SḤT_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to eradicate, scrape off; unlawful gain, illicit earning’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    suḥt سُحْت 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Jun2023
    √SḤT
     
    adj. 
    unlawful – Jeffery1938
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q v, 46, 67, 68 – Jeffery1938.
     
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »The reference is to usury and to forbidden foods. It is clearly a technical term, and the passages, it will be noted, are of the latest Madinan group. / Sprenger, Leben, iii, 40, n., suggested that it was a technical term borrowed from the Jews, and there certainly is an interesting parallel from the Talmud, Šabb, 140b, where śḥt is used in this technical sense. It is, however, the Syr šūḥtā ‘depravity, corruption’, etc., which gives us a nominal form from which suḥt may have been derived.«
     
    – 
    – 
    SḤR سحر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Mar2023
    √SḤR 
    “root” 
    ▪ SḤR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SḤR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SḤR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be turned from one’s course of action; to fascinate, enchant, magic, sorcery, conjuring, works of magic; the last third of the night, time just before the breaking of dawn; lungs, stomach, food and drink; nourishment’. 
    siḥr ‘magic’ is considered by some scholars to be a borrowing from either Akk or Aram – BAH2008.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    SḤQ سحق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Mar2023
    √SḤQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ SḤQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SḤQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SḤQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to grind into fine dust; to be far off, go very deeply’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    SḤL سحل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Mar2023
    √SḤL 
    “root” 
    ▪ SḤL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SḤL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SḤL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to scrape off, strip off, slice; to strike; shore of a sea or a great river’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Swahili, from Ar sawāḥilī ‘of the coast, Swahili’, from sawāḥil, pl. of sāḥil ‘coast’, PA of ↗saḥala ‘to scrape off, smooth, plane’; Sahel, from Ar ↗sāḥil ‘coast’, PA of saḥala
    – 
    SḪR سخر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SḪR 
    “root” 
    ▪ SḪR_1 ‘to scoff, mock, ridicule; masquerad; irony’ ↗saḫira
    ▪ SḪR_2 ‘to subject, make subservient, employ, utilize; forced labour, corvée’ ↗saḫḫara
    ▪ SḪR_3 ‘to have a good wind (ship)’ ↗saḫara
    ▪ SḪR_4 ‘kind of Hyoscyamus, narcotic, henbane’ ↗suḫḫar

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to force, to constrain, to be made subservient, to use as a subject of forced labour; to ridicule’ 
    With the exception of SḪR_4 ‘henbane’ (but perhaps also this value), all values of √SḪR may go back, as suggested by Huehnergard, to one primary Sem *ŠḪR ‘to be(come) fearful, intimidated, stock-still’. For details, see DISC below. 
    ▪ See DISC below.
    ▪ For ClassAr, Badawi2008 gives the two main values of √SḪR as ‘[1] to force, to constrain, to be made subservient, to use as a subject of forced labour; [2] to ridicule’ 
    ▪ (following the suggestion in Huehnergard2011) CAD: Akk šuḫarruru (var. šaḫurruru, šuḫurruru, šuḫruru) ‘to become dazed, still, numb with fear; to abate, subside’, šaḫurratu (var. šuḫurratu, šuḫarratu) ‘awesome stillness’; cf. also šaḫrartu ‘deathly silence; devastation’, šuḫarriš (var. šuḫurriš) (adv.) ‘in numbed silence’.
    ▪ For [v2] cf. Aram šaḥēr ‘to confiscate, press into public service’, Syr šaḥar (Pa) ‘to levy forced service, compel, impress’, šaḥrūṯā ‘forced labour’.
    ▪ BDB1906 mentions [v1] Ar saḫara ‘to mock at, deride’ in the entry on Hbr sāḥar ‘to go around, travel about in’ (for which also cf. Syr sḫar ‘to go about as beggar, be beggar’, Akk saḫāru ‘to turn, surround; to return’). But letting an interrogation mark precede the juxtaposition, the authors obviously hesitate to accept this connection.
    ▪ 
    ▪ Without further explanation, Huehnergard2011 suggests a Sem šḫr ‘to be(come) fearful, intimidated, stock-still’ as the etymon of [v1], Ar saḫira ‘to jeer, scoff’. Obviously, he sees Akk šuḫarruru ‘to become dazed, still, numb with fear; to abate, subside’ as cognate to Ar saḫ˅ra. If he is right, then the primary meaning of the Ar vb. would be the one conserved in [v2] ‘to subject, make subservient’ (< *‘to intimidate’, caus. of vb. I, *‘to be fearful, numb with fear’) and [v3] ‘to have good wind (ship)’ (< *‘to make the wind subservient’, or *‘to obey to the wind’), while [v1] would probably be secondary, its semantics being derived from ‘to make subservient’ (‘to jeer, scoff, ridicule s.o.’ < *‘to make s.o. look as poor and ridiculous as if subjugated’, perhaps also in the special sense of ‘forced into corvée or doing compulsory labour’) or from *‘to intimidate’ (‘to jeer, scoff, ridicule’ < *‘to intimidate, make numb’ through mockery). In this case, however, one would have to assume Ar saḫara, not saḫira as the corresponding trans. vb. I (saḫira is constructed with min or bi‑ and, thus, intrans.). Another explanation could be that saḫira is a secondary formation, re-interpreted from vb. II., or denominative from one of the many vn.s meaning ‘forced labour, corvée’ which could be a borrowing from Syr, cf. ↗saḫḫara.
    ▪ [v2] is attested also in Aram Syr.
    ▪ [v3] is explained in some ClassAr dictionaries as being based on the notion of ‘making subservient’: a ship has a good wind ‘as though it makes the wind subservient, or submissive, to itself’, or ‘as though it obeys and runs the wind’s course’.
    ▪ [v4] If the plant is identical with ↗saykurān and, hence, toxic/narcotic, there may be a connection to (as in Akk) ‘to become dazed, still, numb’.
    ▪ Gabal2012 regards Ar √SḪR as an extension of a biconsonantal basis *SḪ ‘to be soft, smooth’. [v3] saḫara ‘to have a good wind’ is explained as *‘to let o.s. be drawn smoothly, without resistance’, something that implies a certain ‘lightness, ease’ (ḫiffaẗ). This ‘lightness’ is also to be found in [v1], ‘to jeer, scoff, mock’ actually meaning *‘to value lightly, disdain, look down upon, (hence also) not to take seriously’. As a lack of resistance is a result of a certain weakness, an extension of meaning into [v2] ‘to subject, make subservient (s.o. who is weak, does not show resistance’) is easily conceivable. 
    ▪ For Engl mask, to mask, masked, masking, masque(erade), see ↗saḫira ‘to mock, ridicule’. 
    – 
    saḫir‑ سَخِرَ a (saḫar , saḫr , suḫur , suḫr , suḫraẗ , masḫar
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SḪR 
    vb., I 
    to laugh, scoff, jeer, sneer (min or bi‑ at), mock, ridicule, deride, make fun (min or bi‑ of) – WehrCowan1979.
     
    Perhaps originally *‘to humiliate’ (by forcing into a subservient position, making to perform corvée, etc.?). If so, the vb. is akin to ↗saḫḫara ‘to subject, make subservient’ (perhaps from *‘to intimidate, silence from fear’) and may go back to a Sem *ŠḪR ‘to be(come) fearful, intimidated, stock-still’. 
    ▪ eC7 Q saḫira (to scorn, to ridicule) 49:11 lā yasḫar qawmun min qawmin ʕasā ʔan yakūnū ḫayran min-hum ‘no people should jeer at others, lest they be better than them’. – Cf. also siḫriyy (object of ridicule, laughing-stock) 38:63 ʔa-’ttaḫaḏnā-hum siḫriyyan ʔam zāġat ʕan-humu ’l-ʔabṣāru ‘Did we take them (wrongly) for a laughing-stock, or have our eyes missed them?’

     
    … 
    ▪ Accord. to Huehnergard2011, the vb. goes back to Sem *ŠḪR ‘to be(come) fearful, intimidated, stock-still’ (cf. Akk šuḫarruru ‘to become dazed, still, numb with fear; to abate, subside’).
    ▪ If Huehnergard is right, then the primary meaning of Ar saḫ˅ra is the one conserved in ↗saḫḫara ‘to subject, make subservient’ (< *‘to intimidate’, caus. of vb. I, *‘to be fearful, numb with fear’), and probably also in ↗saḫara ‘to have good wind (ship)’ (< *‘to make the wind subservient’, or *‘to obey to the wind’). ‘To jeer, scoff, ridicule’ would then be secondary, derived from ‘to make subservient’ (< *‘to look down at s.o., despise s.o., because he has been subjugated’, perhaps in the special sense of ‘forced into corvée, or compulsory labour’) or from *‘to intimidate’ (‘to jeer, scoff, ridicule’ < *‘to intimidate, make numb’ through mockery). In this case, however, the intransitivity of saḫira becomes problematic (the vb. is constructed with min or bi‑). Could it be denominative from one the many vn.s that may have come into Ar from another language, e.g. Syr? The Pael forms and vn.s in Syr that are cognate to ↗saḫḫara would support this assumption.
    ▪ Gabal2012 regards Ar √SḪR as an extension of a biconsonantal basis *SḪ- ‘to be soft, smooth’. He explains saḫara ‘to have a good wind’ as *‘to let o.s. be drawn smoothly, without resistance’, something that implies a certain ‘lightness, ease’ (ḫiffaẗ), which is also to be found in saḫara ‘to jeer, scoff, mock’, the latter actually meaning *‘to value lightly, disdain, look down upon, (hence also) not to take seriously’.
    ▪ For a discussion of the “root” as whole, see ↗SḪR. 
    ▪ Engl mask, 1530s, from mFr masque ‘covering to hide or guard the face’ (16c.), from Ital maschera, from mLat masca ‘mask, specter, nightmare’, perhaps (though not positively proven) from Ar masḫaraẗ ‘buffoon, mockery’, from saḫira ‘to mock, ridicule’.12 – From the n. mask also the vb. to mask ‘take part in a masquerade; to disguise’, as well as masked, masking, masking tape, etc. (EtymOnline). 
    tasaḫḫara, vb. V, to scoff, jeer, sneer: self-reflexive of caus. – For another meaning, see deriv. of ↗saḫḫara.

    suḫraẗ, n.f., laughingstock, target of ridicule: specialisation of vn. I. For another meaning, see ↗saḫḫara.
    suḫriyy, var. siḫriyy, n., laughingstock, target of ridicule: nominalized adj. or a vn. (of a rare type)? – For another meaning, see ↗saḫḫara.
    BP#3267suḫriyyaẗ, n.f., scorn, derision, mockery, irony: n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ; laughingstock, object of ridicule: specialisation of the preceding.
    masḫaraẗ, pl. ‑āt, masāḫirᵘ, object of ridicule, laughingstock: concretized vn. + ‑aẗ (n.un.?); ridiculous, droll, ludicrous: adjectivization; masquerade:.
    BP#3509sāḫir, adj., mocking, derisive; satirical: PA I. 
    saḫḫar‑ سَخَّرَ , ‑saḫḫir‑ (tasḫīr
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SḪR 
    vb., II 
    to subject, make subservient (li‑ to or for the purpose of); to make serviceable (li‑ to), employ, utilize, turn to profitable account (li‑ for), make use; to exploit – WehrCowan1979.
     
    ▪ … 
    C7 Q saḫḫara (to cause to be subservient) 14:33 wa-saḫḫara la-kumu ’l-šamsa wa’l-qamara dāʔibayni ‘and He made the night and day useful to you’. – Cf. also suḫriyy (forced labour; servitude; labour force) 43:32 wa-rafaʕnā baʕḍa-hum fawqa baʕḍin daraǧātin li-yattaḫiḏa baʕḍu-hum baʕḍan suḫriyyan ‘and We raised some of them above others in rank, so that some of them may take others in servitude’; musaḫḫar (subjected, made subservient, compelled to work or serve) 7:54 wa’l-šamsa wa’l-qamara wa’l-nuǧūma musaḫḫarātin bi-ʔamri-hī ‘the sun, the moon and the stars, all of which are made subservient by His order’.
    lC19 Hava1899 mentions also a value, now obsolete, ‘to appoint by law’, as in wakīl musaḫḫar ‘advocate appointed by law’. 
    ▪ Zammit2002: Aram šaḥēr ‘to confiscate, press into public service’, Syr šaḥar (Pa) ‘to levy forced service, compel, impress’. – Cf. also Syr šaḥrūṯā ‘forced labour’ – PayneSmith1903.
     
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    tasaḫḫara, vb. V, to reduce to servitude, subjugate: autobenef.; for other meanings see deriv. of ↗saḫira.

    suḫraẗ, n.f., corvée, statute labor, forced labor: specialised vn. I. – For other meanings see ↗saḫira | riǧāl al-~, n.pl., serfs, bondsmen; ʔaʕmāl al-~, n.pl., forced labor, slave labor.
    suḫriyy, var. siḫriyy, n., corvée, statute labor, forced labor: vn. I (rare pattern!). – For other meanings see ↗saḫira.
    tasḫīr, n., subjugation, subjection; exploitation: vn. II.
    musaḫḫir, n., oppressor: PA II. 
    saḫar‑ سَخَر a (saḫr
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SḪR 
    vb., I 
    to have a good wind and voyage (ship) – Hava1899, Lane4 (1872) 
    Dictionaries of ClassAr explain the semantics of this item as derived from a primary meaning of the vb. ‘to make subservient’. Ultimately it may thus goes back to a Sem *ŠḪR ‘to be(come) fearful, numb, stock-still’. For the whole picture, cf. ↗SḪR and ↗saḫḫara
    In ClassAr, the vb. is attested also as synonymous with ↗saḫira ‘to jeer, scoff, mock’ as well as with ↗saḫḫara ‘to subjugate, make subservient’. 
    ↗SḪR and saḫḫara
    saḫarat il-safīnaẗ ‘the ship had a good wind’ is explained by some ClassAr lexicographers as based on the notion of ‘making subservient’: ‘as though it made the wind subservient, or submissive, to it’, or ‘it obeyed, and ran its (the wind’s) course’ – Lane iv (1872). If this is correct, the item belongs to ↗saḫḫara ‘to make subservient’. 
    – 
     
    suḫḫar سُخَّر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SḪR 
    n. 
    kind of Hyoscyamus, narcotic (Hava1899), a certain herb, or leguminous plant (in Khurāsān), accord. to some lexicographers identical with ↗saykurān, an ever-green plant (Lane), henbane (WehrCowan1979.) 
    Etymology unclear. The word may be a local variant of ↗saykurān, but it may also be the other way round; phonologically, neither of these hypotheses sounds convincing. Given the toxic/narcotic effect of henbane, a connection with the Sem root *ŠḪR ‘to be(come) fearful, numb, stock-still’ should not be excluded, see ↗SḪR. 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    SḪṬ سخط 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Mar2023
    √SḪṬ 
    “root” 
    ▪ SḪṬ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SḪṬ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SḪṬ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘wrath, anger, displeasure’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    SḪW/Y سخو/سخي 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SḪW/Y 
    “root” 
    ▪ SḪW/Y_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ SḪW/Y_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    saḫāʔ سخاء 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SḪW/Y 
    n. 
    liberality, munificence, generosity – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    saḫā, saḫaw‑, ū; saḫiy-, à (saḫāʔ); saḫuw-, ū (saḫāwaẗ), vb. I, to be liberal, generous (bi‑ with s.th. ʕalà toward s.o.); to grant, award, confer, bestow (s.th. on s.o.): is the vb. denom. or vice versa?
    tasaḫḫà, vb. V, to show o.s. generous, display liberality: declar.; to endeavour to be liberal or generous: conat.
    tasāḫà, vb. VI, = V.

    saḫiyy, pl. ʔasḫiyāʔᵘ, adj., liberal, openhanded, generous; giving generously, being lavish: ints./pseudo-PP.
    saḫāwaẗ, n.f., generosity: a vn. I (of saḫuwa, ū). 

    SDː (SDD) سدّ / سدد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Mar2023
    √ SDː (SDD) 
    “root” 
    ▪ SDː (SDD)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SDː (SDD)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SDː (SDD)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘blocking, closing, plugging; to direct, be to the point, be correct’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    SDR سدر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Mar2023
    √SDR 
    “root” 
    ▪ SDR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SDR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SDR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘flowing down, continuing without interruption; lote tree’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    SDS سدس 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SDS 
    “root” 
    ▪ SDS_1 ‘six’ ↗sitt(aẗ)
    ▪ SDS_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ SDS_3 ‘…’ ↗

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘(see s-t-t) the number six is the basic concept associated with this root’ 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    … 
    sittaẗ سِتّة , f. sitt 
    ID … • Sw … • BP 591 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SDS 
    num.card. 
    six – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘six’) Akk šeššu, Hbr šēš, Syr šeṯ, Gz sessū́, SAr śdṯ.
     
    … 
    … 
    BP#2185sittūn, num.card., sixty
    BP#4676al‑sittīnāt, n.f.pl., the Sixties
    BP#1237sādis, num.ord., sixth
     
    SDW/Y سدو/ي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Mar2023
    √SDW/Y 
    “root” 
    ▪ SDW/Y_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SDW/Y_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SDW/Y_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to stretch the hands forward, elongate, stride, do a favour to; to neglect, cast s.th. away’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    SRː (SRR) سرّ / سرر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SRː (SRR) 
    “root” 
    ▪ SRː (SRR)_1 ‘umbilical cord; navel; centre, heart’: ↗surr, ↗surraẗ
    ▪ SRː (SRR)_2 ‘secret, to hide’: ↗sirr
    ▪ SRː (SRR)_3 ‘concubine’: ↗surriyyaẗ
    ▪ SRː (SRR)_4 ‘joy, happiness, to make glad’: ↗sarra
    ▪ SRː (SRR)_5 ‘bed, throne’: ↗sarīr
    ▪ SRː (SRR)_6 ‘line (of the palm or forehead), feature’: ↗surur, sirār
    ▪ SRː (SRR)_7 ‘last night (of the lunar month)’: ↗sarār

    Other values, now obsolete, include:
    SRː (SRR)_8 ‘holed, concave (piece of zand wood used as a touchwood)­; worn-out [and hence hollowed] (fire steel); galled in the breast (camel)’ (Hava1899): ʔasarrᵘ; cf. also sarra (sarr), vb. I, ‘to apply a piece of flammable wood (like tinder) to the zand touchwood, which is slightly hollowed’ (Kazimirski1860), sarar ‘hollowness (of a spear-shaft etc.)’ (Lane iv-1872)
    SRː (SRR)_9 ‘bundle of scented herbs’: surūr (pl.); cf. also masarraẗ, n.f., ‘[perhaps as being a cause of pleasure] the extremities of sweet-smelling plants’ – Lane iv (1872); sarra, vb. I, ‘complimenter qn en lui présentant des herbes odoriférantes’ – Kazimirski1860
    SRː (SRR)_10 ‘best/choice part of a race, (bottom) of a valley’: sarār(aẗ), also sirr (pl. ʔasirraẗ) ‘middle of the valley’; cf. also ʔasarrᵘ ‘good, excellent (soil, terrain)’ – Kazimirski1860, Hava1899.

    ▪ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘1 the inside, base (e.g., of the head or the navel), innermost part of an object; secrecy, secrets; 2 seat, bed; 3 pleasure, to please, delight
     
    ▪ The assumption, made by BAH2008, of three basic values in the root seems to be correct in principle, although perhaps not going far enough: probably, all the above values are dependent on only one or two: WSem (or CSem?) *šurr- *‘navel string’ and, perhaps, Sem *š/sar- / *s/car- ‘vertebral column, backbone’ (for [v5], as suggested by SED). The latter, however, is not really reliable, due to scarce attestation. For details of possible semantic relations see below, section DISC. For [v3] and [v7], too, other etymologies have been proposed, but none with reliable evidence.
    ▪ Zetterstéen1942 postulated (for the whole root) a »sense primitif« of *‘lier, serrer’ [based on ‘umbilical cord’?]. In the light of the Sem evidence, this assumption seems hardly tenable; cf., however, Dolgopolsky2012 #2106, who puts Sem *šurr- ‘navel (string)’ together with Berb *√sr˻w˼ ‘to bind, weave’ and NatIndEur *ser- ‘thread, string’ [cf. etymonline: IE *ser- ‘to line up’], all going back to a hypothetical Nostr *säR˹U˺ (= *säRo?) ‘sinew, fibre’.
    ▪ Regarding the ‘navel string’, not the ‘navel’ itself as the primary value makes sense in the light of the fact that Ar surraẗ ‘navel’ appears to be formed from surr ‘umbilical cord’, not the other way round. (Otherwise, surr would be a back formation from surraẗ, to distinguish the ‘navel string’ from the ‘navel’.)
    ▪ All other values in the root, however, seem to be dependent on ‘navel’ rather than on ‘navel string’. Therefore, one may assume that surraẗ, once derived from surr, started to live a life of its own, leaving the ‘navel string’ behind as a rather isolated value within the Ar root.
     
    – 
    SRː (SRR)_1 (and perh. also all others):
    SED #254: Ug šr (?); Hbr šōr, postBiblHbr šārār ‘navel, umbilical cord’; JP šōrā ‘umbilical cord’, Syr šerrā, šurtā ‘umbilicus’, Mand šura ‘navel’; Ar surr, sarar, sirar ‘umbilical cord’; Mhr *šīrε̄ ‘navel’ (see comments below), Hrs šerā, Soq šíraḥ, pl. šireʕheten ‘nombril’, also ŝiraḥ. According to Kogan2015: 198-99 #54, Ug šr is not reliably attested epigraphically, so it is not clear whether one should stop reconstruction at the WSem level or whether the word might have a CSem dimension.
    ▪ Dolgopolsky2012 #2106: Ug šr, BiblHbr šor* ‘navel string, navel’, JPA šôrā, JEA šûrâ, Syr šerrā, Mand šura, nMand šorra ‘navel’, Ar surr ‘navel string’; Mhr ŝīrε̄ ‘navel’, Hrs šerā, Jib s͗irᴐʕ, Soq ŝirᴐʕ ̃ širᴐʕ. – On the AfrAs level, the author sees cognates in (Berb) Izn/Rf asraw ‘fil de chaîne du métier à tisser’, Rf B/A fiřu usra ‘fil horizontal (trame)’, Tmz i-sirr (pl. i-sarr-ən) ‘fibre de bois\viande; fil de trame, fin pour le tissage des djellabas ou des burnous’. – For an assumed IE connection and, hence, a Nostr dimension, see DISC below.

    SRː (SRR)_3 (unless dependent on [v1]):
    ▪ Leslau2006 (CDG) suggests to see Ar surriyyaẗ ‘concubine’ together with Gz tasarra ‘to be covered (female animal), be attacked’.

    SRː (SRR)_5 (unless dependent on [v1]):
    SED #253: Ar sarīr ‘base de la tête, endroit où elle est jointe au cou’, sarāẗ ‘dos; milieu’ (< *saraw/y-aẗ-), ? Amh säräsär ‘vertebra, spinal cord, sinew’; also sərasəra ‘vertebrae’ (cf. šə(r)rət ‘fin of a fish’, Gur (Sel) särsär, (End) sässär ‘rib of the animal’).

    SRː (SRR)_7 (unless dependent on [v1]):
    ▪ DelOlmoLeteSanmartín2003 postulate a connection with an Ug srr meaning ‘sunset’, from an alleged verbal root Ug √srr ‘to set, sink, hide’ (in its turn perh. cognate to Hbr swr, srr). But this rendering seems doubtful to Tropper2008.
     
    ▪ SRː (SRR)_1:
    Given the broad attestation throughout Sem, it is safe to assume WSem *šurr- / *surr- ‘navel, navel string’ as the common origin of the Ar, Hbr, Aram and modSAr forms. There might even be a CSem dimension once Ug šr, currently not reliably attested epigraphically, should be established more firmly.
    Dolgopolsky2012 #2106 goes beyond that in postulating not only an AfrAs but also a Nostr dimension. The evidence he puts forward for the AfrAs dimension is what he believes to be Berb cognates, all from protBerb *√sr˻w˼; he then sees the Sem and Berb forms together with NatIndEur *ser- ‘thread, string’ (cf. etymonline: IE *ser- ‘to line up’), justifying his reconstruction of Nostr *säR˹U˺ (= *säRo?) ‘sinew, fibre’.
    ‘Navel’ may well be the etymon from which most of the other values in the Ar root, perh. even all of them, are derived, by metaphorical or allegorical extension. The navel is both the centre of the belly and a small cavity in it. From ‘cavity’, both the ‘hollowness’ of [v8] and the lines (“furrows, trenches”) of the palm or forehead and, hence, the notion of [v6] ‘(facial) features’ can easily be derived. Something having a navel-like cavity may also be regarded as deficient, hence the extended meaning ‘worn-out, galled’ (ʔasarrᵘ, formed along the ʔaFʕaLᵘ pattern for colours and bodily afflictions) of [v8]. The notion of ‘centre’ (obviously seen as primary value by BAH2008, which, however is hardly tenable, given the many “umbilical” cognates outside Ar) may then have become the starting-point for further semantic changes. The centre or middle can have been identified with [v5], originally meaning ‘the part where the head rests upon the neck’ (hence: ‘neck-rest > bed’); [v7] the ‘middle (of the lunar month)’ (later shifting in meaning to its ‘first, or last, night’; but cf. DISC on [v7] below); and [v10] the ‘best/choice part of s.th.’, the ‘middle or bottom’ of a valley, offering ‘good soil, excellent terrain’, or the nobility of a social group, usually being regarded as its central representatives. Centre, however, is close also to the innermost part of an object, its essence, its very best, its ‘marrow’ (= again [v10]), or (if it is, as usually is the navel, invisible, covered, concealed) its innermost [v2] ‘secret’, something ‘hidden’ from the viewer’s eyes. From here, the value ‘pudenda’ developed, to which belongs the [v3] ‘concubine’, as a woman whom a man may let see his pudenda (if the concubine is not the one whom he conceals from his wife, as another interpretation would have it). Along the same lines, ‘fornication’ as well as ‘marriage’ became attached to secrecy, intimacy. In modern usage, al-ʕādaẗ al-sirriyyaẗ ‘the secret habit’ is a common circumscription of ‘masturbation’. – Ultimately, even the [v4] ‘joy, happiness, to make glad’ may have arisen from the pleasures granted by the “meeting of the pudenda”, or the vision of the “hidden secret” of the latter, or the navel, or, simply, by being let into a secret. [v9] ‘bundle of scented herbs’ is said to belong to [v4], as sweet-smelling plants are a cause of pleasure.
    The long distance between [v1] ‘navel’ and [v4] ‘happiness, joy’ seems to be the reason why BAH2008 separate the value ‘inside, base (e.g., of the head or the navel), innermost part of an object; secrecy, secrets’ from that of ‘pleasure, delight’. At the same time, by mentioning ‘base of the head’ alongside with ‘navel’, the authors appear to be open to derive also [v5] ‘bed, throne’ from the notion of centre, inside, base. In their list of basic values, they separate the value from the first by a semicolon; but there are others who think that the original meaning of sarīr is *‘the part where the head rests upon the neck’, hence (?) *‘neck-rest > place to rest > bed’.

    ▪ SRː (SRR)_2 ‘secret, to hide’: probably from [v1] ‘navel, centre, innermost part, essence’.

    ▪ SRː (SRR)_3 ‘concubine’: usually interpreted as *‘woman whom a man may let see his “secret parts”, i.e., his pudenda’ or *‘woman at whose vulva a man is allowed to look’, or *‘woman whose existence a man conceals from his wife’, all based on the idea of [v2] ‘secrecy, intimacy’. The shift in surriyyaẗ from sirr to surr is usually explained as phonologically motivated. But why such a far-fetched, little plausible explanation? It is easy to interpret the woman’s navel as the secret that the concubine reveals to a man or through which he is attracted to her; thus, [v3] can be derived directly from [v1] rather than from [v2]. – Leslau2006 (CDG) suggests regarding Ar surriyyaẗ as cognate to Gz tasarra ‘to be covered (female animal), be attacked’.

    ▪ SRː (SRR)_4 ‘joy, happiness, to make glad’: dependence of this value on [v2] ‘secret’ (*‘to experience joy on account of being let into a secret’) is more probable than on [v3] (*‘… being shown the navel/pudenda’). But the semantic distance is still rather great. Alternatively, one may think of ‘joy, happiness, tranquility of the mind’ as the result of ‘affluence, ease’, a value connected to [v5] ‘bed, throne’. But ClassAr lexicographers see it the other way round, see next paragraph. A dependence of ‘joy’ on [v6] ‘line of the forehead, facial feature’, as *‘emotion recognizable from facial expression’, is not considered anywhere.

    ▪ SRː (SRR)_5 ‘bed, throne’: ClassAr lexicographers tend to relate this value to the preceding, [v5] ‘joy, happiness’, deriving sarīr from surūr ‘pleasure, tranquility of the mind’ because »it [sc. a sarīr] generally belongs to persons of ease and affluence and of authority, and to kings« (hence also the values ‘throne; dominion, sovereignty, rule, authority | dignité royale, royauté; ease, comfort, affluence | bien-être’, with the expr. zāla ʕan sarīrih ‘déchu de son bien-être’, and, as an appellation of good omen, ‘bier, before the corpse is carried upon it’ – Lane iv (1872) | Kazimirski1860). However, as discussed under [v4], it may be the other way round, i.e., ‘bed, throne’ > ‘ease, happiness, peace of mind’. According to SED and Kogan2015, the original meaning of sarīr is ‘the part where the head rests upon the neck’ (a value given also by Freytag1833 and Kazimirski1860), which, actually, also is the value first attested in the sources (555 CE, according to HDAL). So one could think of a development *‘neck > neck-rest > place to rest > bed’. Given another early attestation of sarīr (590 CE – HDAL) as ‘middle (of a valley)’, the assumption made by BAH2008 that one should connect the ‘base of the head, neck’ to [v1] ‘centre, innermost part’, may be correct. In contrast, SED and Kogan2015 suggest for [v5] an origin different from that of [v1]. SED #253 tentatively assumes a Sem *š/sar- or *s/car- ‘vertebral column, backbone’ as the common source of the Ar and some EthSem forms. However, »[s]carce attestation in Ar and MEth only; neither of these languages distinguishes between *š and *s. Note doubling of the second radical and annexation of -w as a third radical in Ar and a full stem reduplication in Eth. See a derived term in Eth and Gur (Sel, Cha, Enn, End, Gye) särsär ‘instrument made of the ribs of a cow and used for leveling the floor’.« The idea, put forward in SED, that this complex is »likely related«, »with a meaning shift«, to modSAr forms meaning ‘behind’ is rejected by Kogan2015: 569 #97.

    ▪ SRː (SRR)_6 ‘line (of the palm or forehead), feature’: from *‘hollow, cavity’ (cf. [v8]), from [v1] ‘navel (cavity it in the belly)’.

    ▪ SRː (SRR)_7 ‘last night (of the lunar month)’: The meaning given in WehrCowan is only one of several other options, including ‘commencement\first night of the lunar month’, or its ‘middle’. We would assume that the latter is the original one, cf. also sirr al-šahr / al-layl ‘the middle of the month / the night’. If this is correct, [v7] is rather clearly derived from [v1] ‘navel (> centre, innermost part)’. – In contrast, DelOlmoLeteSanmartín2003 put Ar sarār, var. sarar, together with Ug srr ‘sunset, dawn’ (as in b srr špš ‘at the setting of the Sun’), from a verbal root Ug √srr ‘to set, sink, hide’ (seen as cognate to Hbr swr, srr); Tropper2008 seems to acknowledge that √srr can be a variant of √sw/yr ‘to go away, leave, disappear’ (cf. Ar ↗sāra), but doubts the rendering of Ug srr as ‘sunset, dawn’.

    SRː (SRR)_8 ‘holed, concave’: The adj. ʔasarrᵘ is often applied to a piece of wood used as a touchwood to make fire, but also to a worn-out spear-shaft or a wound in a camel’s breast. The notion of concaveness, common to all of these values, is clearly derived from [v1] ‘navel (cavity in the belly)’.

    SRː (SRR)_9 ‘bundle of scented herbs’: likely dependent on [v4] ‘joy, happiness’, as the herbs/flowers are seen as a cause of pleasure.

    SRː (SRR)_10 ‘best/choice part of s.th., also of a race; good, excellent (soil, terrain)’: from [v1] ‘navel > centre, middle’, or [v8] ‘cavity, bottom’, as the ‘middle/bottom of a valley’ is the most copious and fertile of its parts. There may also be a relation to [v4] the ‘comfort, richness, ease, happiness’ that is usually connected with [v5] ‘bed, throne’.
     
    ▪ Dolgopolsky2012 #2106 sees Sem *šurr- ‘navel (string)’ together with Berb *√sr˻w˼ ‘to bind, weave’ and NatIndEur *ser- ‘thread, string’ [cf. EtymOnline: IE *ser- ‘to line up’] and postulates Nostr *säR˹U˺ (= *säRo?) ‘sinew, fibre’. If his hypothesis is true, the Sem words for ‘navel (string)’ and their derivatives are related to all what has sprung off IE *ser- ‘to line up’, e.g., Engl series, etc.
     
    – 
    sarr‑ / sarar‑ سرّ / سرر , u (surūr, tasirraẗ, masarraẗ
    ID 384 • Sw – • BP 5554 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SRː (SRR) 
    vb., I 
    to make happy, gladden, delight, cheer; pass. surra (surūr) to be happy, glad, delighted (li‑ or min at), take pleasure (in) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ The value ‘joy, happiness, to make glad’ of √SRː (SRR) seems to be dependent on ↗sirr ‘secret’, originally signifying the *‘joy experienced when let into a secret’, or, with a more specific sense of sirr, the *‘pleasure experienced when being shown the pudenda’ or the ‘navel’ (↗surraẗ, from ↗surr ‘umbilical cord’; cf. also ↗surriyyaẗ ‘concubine’). But the semantic distance is still rather great. Alternatively, one may think of ‘joy, happiness, tranquility of the mind’ resulting from ‘affluence, ease’, a value connected to ↗sarīr ‘bed, throne’. ClassAr lexicographers, however, would see it the other way round, deriving sarīr ‘bed, throne’ from surūr ‘pleasure, tranquility of the mind’ because »it [sc. a sarīr] generally belongs to persons of ease and affluence and of authority, and to kings« – Lane iv (1872). In contrast, a dependence of ‘joy’ on ↗surur, sirār ‘line of the forehead, facial feature’ (as *‘emotion recognizable from facial expression’) is not discussed anywhere. Moreover, on a few occasions, surūr is also interpreted as a pl., meaning ‘bundle of scented herbs’ (or flowers), so that the vb. sarra sometimes also takes the specific sense of ‘complimenter qn en lui présentant des herbes odoriférantes’ – Kazimirski1860. The values of sarra and surūr appear as specifications here; but couldn’t it be the other way round, so that ‘joy, happiness, pleasure’ could be read as a generalisation of ‘bundle of scented herbs’?
    ▪ Extra-Ar evidence that could help sort things out is scarce and perh. irrelevant, as the “cognates” suggested by some scholars probably aren’t genuine cognates or are based on weak textual evidence.
     
    ▪ Lane iv (1872) also has: sarr ‘man who rejoices, or gladdens, another, makes him happy’ (also in the connection with barr: raǧulun sarrun barrun ‘man who treats his brethren with goodness, affection, gentleness, rejoices them’)
     
    ▪ According to Leslau2006 (CDG), C. Rabin (in Hamito-Semitica, 1975: 90) connected Ar sarra ‘to rejoice’ with the complex Akk šarāru ‘to sway, vacillate’, Ug m-srr ‘bird’ (from srr ‘fly’), Aram srsr ‘to fly’, Gz sarara, śarara ‘to fly, fly forth, leap up in the air, leap upon, rush upon, spring forth, assault, cover (of male animal), roam’. Leslau himself would be reluctant to accept such a relation and rather connect the items put forward by Rabin to Ar ↗sāra ‘to leap, mount’.
    ▪ Zammit2002: cf. Ug mšr (< šrr) ‘Gegenstand der Freude’?
    ▪ For cognates of ↗surr, ↗surraẗ, or ↗sarīr on which sarra most likely is dependent, see s.v., and, for the general picture, ↗√SRː (SRR).
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC and, for the overall picture, ↗√SRː (SRR).
     
    – 
    sarrara, vb. II, to make happy, gladden, delight, cheer: caus.
    ʔasarra, vb. IV, 1 to make happy, gladden, delight, cheer: caus.; 2sirr.

    BP#3830surūr, n., joy, happiness, delight, pleasure; glee, gaiety, hilarity, mirth: vn. I.
    sarrāʔᵘ, n., happiness, prosperity: | fī ’l-sarrāʔ wa’l-ḍarrāʔᵘ, expr., in good and bad days, for better or for worse.
    masarraẗ, pl. āt, n.f., joy, happiness, delight, pleasure; glee, gaiety, hilarity, mirth: vn. I.
    sārr, adj., gladdening, gratifying, joyous, glad, cheering, delightful: PA I.
    masrūr, adj., glad, happy, delighted (bi at), pleased (bi with): PP I.
    musirr, adj., gratifying, delightful, pleasant: PA IV.
     
    sirr سِرّ , pl. ʔasrār 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 792 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SRː (SRR) 
    n. 
    1 secret; secret thought; secrecy; mystery; 2 underlying reason (of s.th.); 3 sacrament (Chr.); 4 heart, inmost – WehrCowan1979 
    ▪ The value ‘secret, to hide’ of √SRː (SRR) seems to be dependent on ‘navel’ (↗surraẗ, from ↗surr ‘umbilical cord’), either directly (the navel being interpreted as a pudendum or s.th. secret), or via the sense of ‘centre, middle’ and, hence, ‘innermost’ part of s.th., that surraẗ also can take (and thereby itself become equivalent to sirr which in its turn can signify the ‘heart, inmost’).
    ▪ Extra-Ar evidence that could help sort things out is scarce and perh. irrelevant, as the “cognates” suggested by some scholars probably aren’t genuine cognates. Thus neither the Ug srr (Gt) ‘to confide (?)’ nor Ug sr ‘false’ (Akk sarru), mentioned by Tropper2008, nor Ug šrr ‘in secret’ (Zammit2002) seem to be reliable enough to build a well-founded hypothesis on. Dillmann1865: 384 suggested to assume a kinship betw. Ar sārra, vb. III, ‘to confide a secret’, and Gz sawwara, śawwara ‘to hide, conceal, cover over, shield, screen, protect’, səwwər, səwwur ‘hidden, concealed, covered, secret, obscure’, (pl.) səwwərāt ‘mysteries’ (values given in Leslau2006-CDG; cf. also Aram swyr ‘hide’ and, ultimately, perh. also the complex treated under Ar ↗sūr ‘wall’). But this, too, is highly speculative.
    ▪ Possibly from sirr is derived ↗surriyyaẗ ‘concubine’, as *‘woman whom a man may show his “secret”, i.e., his penis, or who shows a man her pudenda, or whose existence a man tends to conceal, i.e., keep as a secret, from his wife’. In line with this are attestations of sirr in ClassAr as ‘penis, vulva’, then also ‘concubitus, cohabitation’ as well as ‘marriage’ and ‘adultery, fornication’ (see section HIST, below). Where the ‘secret’ has no sexual connotation it can take the meaning of *‘innermost, best part, essence’ and then signify, for instance, the ‘marrow, pure\choice\best part of s.th.’, or the ‘inmost = best\most fruitful part (of a valley, etc.)’, hence also ‘goodness, excellence’ in general.
    ▪ From ‘to let into a secret, confide s.th. to s.o.’, the meaning ‘to reveal (a secret)’ has developed, giving rise to counting sarra among the so-called ʔaḍdād, i.e., words that can take contradictory meanings—sometimes sparking hermeneutical controversies about the meaning of certain Qur’anic passages (see ↗surriyyaẗ).
     
    ▪ For sirr, Kazimirski1860 and Lane iv (1872) have also the values (now obsolete):
    • ‘penis, vulva, external portion of the organs of generation’, hence the expr. ĭltaqà ’l-sirrān ‘the two pudenda met’; hence also
    • ‘concubitus | cohabitation avec une femme; hence also marriage’, cf. expr. wāʕadahā sirran ‘he promised her marriage, she promising him the same’; but also ‘adultery, fornication’ (cf. walad al-sirr ‘bastard’)
    • ‘commencement\first night of the lunar month’, or its ‘middle’, e.g., sirr al-šahr / al-layl ‘the middle of the month / the night’;
    • ‘marrow, pure\choice\best part of s.th.’;
    • ‘the low\depressed part of a valley, its best\most fruitful part, or its middle’; cf. also ʔarḍun sirrun ‘fruitful\good land’, hence also ‘goodness; excellence’ in general
    Moreover, there is sarar ‘secret discourse, secret communication (betw. two persons or parties)’
    ▪ Due to the ambiguity in meaning of vb. IV, a controversy arouse around Q 10:54 (and 34:33) wa-ʔasarrū ’l-nadāmaẗa lammā raʔaw-u ’l-ʕaḏāba. While some interpreted this as ‘and they will be openly remorseful when they see the chastisement’, others read it as ‘▪ … secretly remorseful▪ …’
     
    ▪ ?Tropper2008: Ug sr** ‘falsch’, Akk sarru.
    ▪ Tropper2008: Ug srr (Gt) ‘anvertrauen (?)’, Ar srr III, IV ‘jdm e Geheimnis anvertrauen, heimlich mitteilen’.
    ▪ Zammit2002: cf. Ug šrr ‘in secret’.
    ▪ Leslau2006 (CDG): Gz sawwara, śawwara ‘to hide, conceal, cover over, shield, screen, protect’, səwwər, səwwur ‘hidden, concealed, covered, secret, obscure’, (pl.) səwwərāt ‘mysteries’. Cf. Aram swyr ‘hide’, (Dillmann 1865: 384 suggests) Ar sārra ‘to confide a secret’.
     
    ▪ Kogan2015: 396-7 #12: »The only immediate cognate of protAram *šūr ‘wall’ is Ar ↗sūr with the same meaning. The Ar term has often been considered an Aramaism (Fraenkel 1886: 237-8), which becomes less evident in view of Sab ms₁wrt (pl.) ‘wall,’ h-s₁r ‘to build a wall’, Qat s₁wr ‘to build a wall around’ and Te sor ‘wall, partition wall’ (unless an Arabism). Hbr šūr, although probably autochthonous in such passages as Ps 18:30 = 2S 22:30 and Gn 49:22, is a rare poetic synonym of the standard Hbr terms for wall, such as ḳīr, ḥōmā and gādēr. No fully persuasive verbal origin for *šūr- is at hand, but an ultimate connection with Gz sawwara ‘to hide, conceal, shield, screen, protect’ (CDG 520, with cognates in other EthSem langs) and Mhr sər, Jib serr ‘to cover’ cannot be excluded (cf. Marrassini 1971:76-9)«.
    ▪ Nöldeke1904 counts sarra among the ʔaḍdād, meaning, allegedly, not only ‘to hide, conceal’ but also ‘to reveal’, developed from *‘to deal with the hidden in such a way that it is brought to light’. The two contrary significations are mentioned also in Lane iv (1872), following Zabīdī’s Tāǧ; however, Lane thinks that the attribution of the sense of ‘to reveal’ to sarra is due to a »mistranscription«, where it actually should be vb. IV, ʔasarra ‘to tell confidentially, confide (bi or h s.th. ʔilà to s.o.)’, hence ‘to reveal (s.th. to s.o.)’.
     
    – 
    sirran, adv., secretly, privately
    sirran wa-ʕalaniyyaẗan, adv., secretly and publicly
    sirr al-layl, n., watchword, password
    ʔasrār al-qurʔān, n.pl., the secret meaning of the Koran
    kātib al-sirr and kātim al-sirr, n., secretary
    kalimaẗ al-sirr, watchword, password
    bi-sirrikum or fī sirrikum, expr., to your health!, cheerio! skoal!
    fī sirrihī, adv., secretly, inwardly, in his heart
    ʔatʕaba sirrahū, vb. IV, to trouble [s.o.’s heart], worry, bother, harass s.o.
    ʔaǧrà sirran, vb. IV, to dispense a sacrament (Chr.)
    qaddasa ’llāhu sirrahū, expr., may God hallow his secret/heart/soul! (eulogy after the name of a deceased Muslim saint)

    sārra, vb. III, to confide a secret (-h to s.o.): assoc. | sārrahū fī ʔuḏnih, expr., to whisper in s.o.’s ear.
    ʔasarra, vb. IV, 1sarra; 2 to keep secret, hide, conceal, disguise (s.th.); to tell confidentially, confide (bi‑ or -h s.th. ʔilà to s.o.); to tell under one’s breath, whisper: denom. | ʔasarra fī ʔuḏnih, expr., to whisper in s.o.’s ear (s.th.).
    ĭstasarra, vb. X, 1 to try to hide; to hide, be hidden (ʕan from): conat.; 2surriyyaẗ

    BP#1848sirrī, adj., 1 secret; private; confidential; mysterious, cryptic; 2 sacramental (Chr.): nisba formation. | al-ʔamrāḍ al-sirriyyaẗ, n.pl., venereal diseases.
    BP#2744sirriyyaẗ, n.f., secret; secretiveness, secrecy: abstr. formation in iyyaẗ for abstract concepts.
    sarīraẗ, pl. sarāʔirᵘ, n.f., 1 secret; secret thought; 2 mind, heart, soul:… | ṣafāʔ al-sarīraẗ, n., clearness of conscience; ṭayyib al-sarīraẗ, adj., guileless, simplehearted.
    misarraẗ, pl. masārrᵘ, n.f., 1 speaking tube; 2 telephone: n.instr., cf. the old value ‘instrument in which one speaks secretly, like a roll, or scroll’ – Lane iv (1872): vn. I.
    mustasarr, n., place of concealment: n.loc.
     
    surriyyaẗ سُرِّيّة , pl. sarāriyy 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SRː (SRR) 
    n.f. 
    concubine – WehrCowan1979 
    ▪ Related to / derived from ‘secret’ (↗sirr) or ‘navel’ (↗surraẗ, from surr ‘umbilical cord’), as *‘woman who shows her secret parts/navel, or to whom a man shows his secrets/navel’, or from ‘to please’ (↗sarra), as *‘woman who gives pleasure’?
    ▪ Is the ambiguity in the corresponding vb.s between tasarrara and tasarrà (V), or ĭstasarra and ĭstasarrà (X), simply due to phonological reasons, the long vowel in tasarrà / ĭstasarrà compensating the loss of a syllable or facilitating pronunciation, or should one suspect the lexicographers’ explanation and rather assume some other—hitherto obscure—reason, an indication of an origin that is different from both ‘secret’ and ‘to please’? But what could that be?
     
    ▪ First attestation, according to HDAL, in a ḥadīṯ (tentatively dated 632 by HDAL) in which the Prophet talks to his wife Ḥafṣaẗ bt. ʕUmar (Sunan al-Bayhaqī) telling her that he will regard a certain surriyyaẗ as taboo.
     
    ▪ ?Leslau2006 (CDG): Gz tasarra ‘to be covered (female animal), be attacked’
     
    ▪ Lane iv (1872) reports the controversy among the ClassAr lexicographers around the two versions of vb. V, tasarrara and tasarrà. While some regard the latter simply as a variant owing to the difficulty of pronunciation of forms like tasarrartu (with -rr-r- > rr-y, giving tasarraytu), others thought that tasarrà was not only an alleviating form, but the correct root.
    ▪ Lane iv (1872) also reports that surriyyaẗ is generally thought to derive from sirr as signifying ‘concubitus’ or, alternatively, ‘concealment’ »because a man often conceals and protects her from his wife«, the change of vowel from i to u in the nisba being a phenomenon known also from dahr/duhrī, sahlaẗ/suhlī, etc.; others think it is u »to distinguish it from sirriyyaẗ which is applied to ‘a free woman with whom one has sexual intercourse secretly’, or ‘one who prostitutes herself’; others think it is not from sirr ‘concubitus’ but from surr in the sense of surūr ‘joy’ »because her owner rejoices in her«.
     
    – 
    tasarrà (and tasarrara), vb. V, to take (bi‑ or -hā a woman) as concubine (surriyyaẗ): denom.?
    ĭstasarra, vb. X, 1sirr; 2 to take as concubine (-hā a woman): request., denom.?

    tasarrin, det. , n., concubinage: vn. V.
    ĭstisrār, n., concubinage: vn. X.
     
    surr سُرّ , pl. ʔasirraẗ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SRː (SRR) 
    n. 
    umbilical cord – WehrCowan1979 
    ▪ From WSem (or CSem?) (Kogan2011: protSem, best attested in CSem) *šurr‑ ‘navel (string)’.
    ▪ Zetterstéen1942 postulated (for the whole root √SRR) a »sense primitif« of *‘lier, serrer’ [? based on ‘umbilical cord’]. In the light of the Sem evidence, this assumption seems hardly tenable; cf., however, Dolgopolsky2012 #2106 who puts Sem *šurr- ‘navel string’ together with Berb *√sr˻w˼ ‘to bind, weave’ and NatIndEur *ser- ‘thread, string’ [cf. etymonline: IE *ser- ‘to line up’], all going back to a hypothetical Nostr *säR˹U˺ (= *säRo?) ‘sinew, fibre’. Regarding the navel string, not the navel itself as the primary value makes sense in the light of the fact that in Ar, the n.f. surraẗ ‘navel’ appears to be formed from the n.m. surr ‘umbilical cord’, not the other way round. All other values in the root, however, seem to be derived from ‘navel’ rather than from ‘navel string’ which continued to live a rather isolated life while ‘navel’ began to develop several new meanings.
     
    HDAL: no attestation given yet 
    ▪ Cf. ↗surraẗ, n.f., 1 navel, umbilicus; 2 centre 
    ▪ See ↗surraẗ, and ↗√SRː (SRR) for the general picture.
     
    – 
    surrī, adj., umbilical | al-ḥabl al-surrī, n., umbilical cord
    surur and sirar, n., umbilical cord: var. of surr.
    surraẗ, pl. -āt, surar, n.f., 1 navel, umbilicus; 2 centre: derived from surr, or is the latter a back-formation? See ↗surraẗ.
     
    surraẗ سُرّة , pl. ‑āt, surar 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SRː (SRR) 
    n.f. 
    1 navel, umbilicus; 2 centre – WehrCowan1979 
    ▪ From WSem (or CSem?) (Kogan2011: protSem, best attested in CSem) *šurr‑ ‘navel (string)’.
    ▪ Zetterstéen1942 postulated (for the whole root √SRR) a »sense primitif« of *‘lier, serrer’ [? based on ‘umbilical cord’]. In the light of the Sem evidence, this assumption seems hardly tenable; cf., however, Dolgopolsky2012 #2106, who puts Sem *šurr- ‘navel (string)’ together with Berb *√sr˻w˼ ‘to bind, weave’ and NatIndEur *ser- ‘thread, string’ [cf. etymonline: IE *ser- ‘to line up’], all going back to a hypothetical Nostr *säR˹U˺ (= *säRo?) ‘sinew, fibre’. Regarding the navel string, not the navel itself as the primary value would make sense in the light of the fact that Ar surraẗ ‘navel’ appears to be formed, by adding f. aẗ, from the m. ↗surr ‘umbilical cord’, not the other way round. (Otherwise, surr would be a back formation from surraẗ, to distinguish the ‘navel string’ from the ‘navel’.)
    ▪ However, all other values in the root seem to be dependent on ‘navel’ rather than on ‘navel string’ – see ↗√SRː (SRR) for the wider picture. Therefore, one may assume that surraẗ, once derived from surr, started to live a life of its own, leaving the ‘navel string’ behind as a rather isolated value.
     
    ▪ For surraẗ, Lane iv (1872) has also
    • ‘small cavity, or hollow, of the belly, in the middle thereof’, hence also
    • surraẗ al-faras ‘[the navel of the horse =] the star, of Pegasus, that is in the head of Andromeda’, and
    • masrūraẗ n.f., ‘the kind of jar termed muzammalaẗ, having a surraẗ, meaning a perforation in the middle, in which is fixed a tube of silver or lead, whence one drinks’.
    ▪ For surraẗ, Kazimirski1860 not only gives ‘navel’ but also
    • ‘milieu, fond d’une vallée, la partie la plus encaissée’ and
    • ‘qui égaye, qui cause de la joie (femme)’.
    ▪ First attestations of several values in HDAL: 528 ‘navel’, 554 (surraẗ al-wādī) ‘the best part of the valley’ (cf. ↗sirr), 632 (surraẗ al-šahr) ‘the middle of the month’ (cf. ↗sarār), 811 ‘affluence, ease, well-being’ (cf. ↗sarīr
    SED #254, Kogan2015: 198-99 #54: Ug šr (epigraphically unreliable); Hbr šōr, postBiblHbr šārār ‘navel, umbilical cord’; JP šōrā ‘umbilical cord’, Syr šerrā, šurtā ‘umbilicus’, Mand šura ‘navel’; Ar surr, sarar, sirar ‘umbilical cord’; Mhr *šīrε̄ ‘navel’ (see comments below), Hrs šerā, Soq šíraḥ, pl. šireʕheten ‘nombril’, also ŝiraḥ.
    ▪ Dolgopolsky2012 #2106: Ug šr, BiblHbr šor* ‘navel string, navel’, JPA šôrā, JEA šûrâ, Syr šerrā, Mand šura, nMand šorra ‘navel’, Ar surr ‘navel string’; Mhr ŝīrε̄ ‘navel’, Hrs šerā, Jib s͗irᴐʕ, Soq ŝirᴐʕ ̃širᴐʕ. – On the AfrAs level, the author sees cognates in (Berb) Izn/Rf asraw ‘fil de chaîne du métier à tisser’, Rf B/A fiřu usra ‘fil horizontal (trame)’, Tmz i-sirr (pl. i-sarr-ən) ‘fibre de bois\viande; fil de trame, fin pour le tissage des djellabas ou des burnous’. – For an assumed IE connection and, hence, a Nostr dimension, see DISC below.
     
    ▪ According to Kogan2015: 198-99 #54, Ug šr is not reliably attested epigraphically, so it is not clear whether one should stop reconstruction at the WSem level or whether the word might have a CSem dimension.
    ▪ Kogan2015: 198-99 #54: »The origin of protCSem *šurr- ‘navel (­string)’ is uncertain, its attribution to the hypothetical biconsonantal element *Sr(S) “clustering about the notion of strength and stability” (Faber 1984: 213-215) is scarcely convincing, although an eventual connection with the verbal root *šrr ‘to be firm, hard,’ represented by Hbr šərīrūt ‘stubbornness’ (HALOT 1658) and Syr šar ‘convaluit, firmatus est’ (LSyr 802, SL 1611), cannot be ruled out. Possible modSAr cognates discussed in SED I #254 are rather unreliable«.
     
    ▪ If Dolgopolsky2012 is right in assuming a Nostr dimension, then Ar surr, surraẗ ‘navel (string)’ and its derivatives may be akin to all the descendants of IE *ser- ‘to line up’ (Dolgopolsky: ‘thread, string’), such as, e.g., Engl assert(ion), as-, con-sort, desert (vb., ‘to leave one’s duty’), dissertation, insert, sermon, sorcer-y, -er, series, sort.
     
    surrī, adj., umbilical: nisba formation. | al-ḥabl al-surrī, n., umbilical cord.
    surur and sirar, n., umbilical cord: var.s of surr.
    surr, pl. -āt, surar, n.f., 1 navel, umbilicus; 2 centre: f. formation
     
    surur سُرُر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SRː (SRR) 
    n. 
    line of the palm or forehead – WehrCowan1979 
    ▪ The meaning seems to have developed from the notion of *‘hollowness, cavity’ associated with the ‘navel’ (*‘cavity in the belly’). surur and the synonymous sirār therefore belong to the complex treated under ↗surr ‘umbilical cord’ and ↗surraẗ ‘navel’ and, as a whole, in the root entry ↗√SRː (SRR).
    ▪ But is perh. also surūr ‘joy’ (↗sarra) dependent on surur ‘line of the forehead, facial feature’, as *‘emotion recognizable from facial expression’?
     
    ▪ Earliest attestations according to HDAL: surur not attested yet; var. sirār: 536 (sirār al-baṭn etc.) ‘wrinkles and folds in the belly’ (cf. ↗sarār). 
    … 
    … 
    – 
    sirār, pl. ʔasirraẗ, ʔasārīrᵘ, n., line of the palm or forehead; pl. features, facial expression, air, also ʔasārīr al-waǧh.
     
    sarār سَرار 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SRː (SRR) 
    n. 
    sarār al-šahr, n., last night of the lunar month – WehrCowan1979 
    ▪ Probably from *‘best part, choice’, from *‘middle, centre’, from ‘navel’ (↗surraẗ), from ‘navel string’ (↗surr), from WSem (?CSem) *šurr- ‘umbilical cord’, ultimately perh. from a hypothetical Nostr *säR˹U˺ (= *säRo?) ‘sinew, fibre’.
    ▪ Another etymology is considered by DelOlmoLeteSanmartín2003, where Ar sarar ‘last night of the lunar month’ is seen as cognate to Ug srr ‘to set, sink, hide’, in its turn allegedly cognate to Hbr swr, srr. Tropper2008, however, is not sure about the reading of the underlying Ug phrase b srr špš as ‘at the setting of the Sun’ (as the phrase is rendered in DelOlmoLeteSanmartín2003); he also leaves it open where the vn. srr should be derived from: from sw/yr ‘to leave’ (Hbr √swr) or its »Wurzelvariante« √srr.
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ If dependent on Ar ↗surraẗ ‘navel’, cf. there for cognates.
    ▪ If from another etymon, then cf. perh. DelOlmoLeteSanmartín2003, who translate the Ug b srr špš as ‘at the setting of the Sun’, seeing Ar the Ug √srr ‘to set, sink, hide’ (Hbr swr, srr) as cognate forms.
     
    ▪ The meaning ‘last night of the lunar month’ is probably secondary, the result of regarding the last night as the most important, or best, or essential, one. In ClassAr texts, one equally finds sarār (and also sirr) al-šahr in the sense of commencement\first night of the month’, or its ‘middle’, and sarār (or sirr) al-layl meaning ‘the middle of the the night’ – Lane iv (1872). Given the overall picture, ‘middle’ or ‘best part of’ seems to be the primary meaning.
    ▪ In contrast, DelOlmoLeteSanmartín2003 postulate a connection with an Ug word meaning ‘sunset’ (see section CONC, above); but this rendering seems doubtful to Tropper2008.
    ▪ For semantic development and relation to other items in the root, cf. ↗√SRː (SRR).
     
    – 
    – 
    sarīr سّرير , pl. ʔasirraẗ, surur, sarāyirᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 1951 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SRː (SRR) 
    n. 
    1 bedstead, bed; 2 throne, elevated seat – WehrCowan1979 
    ▪ ‘Bed, throne’ is usually seen to derive from surūr ‘joy, happiness, pleasure, tranquility of the mind’ (↗sarra).
    ▪ However, the primary meaning may have been ‘the part where the head rests upon the neck’ (Freytag1833, Kazimirski1860, SED) so that one could imagine a semantic development along the line *‘neck > neck-rest > place to rest > bed; throne’. For this ‘part where the head rests upon the neck’, SED #253 tentatively assumes a Sem *š/sar- or *s/car- ‘vertebral column, backbone’ as the common source of the Ar and some EthSem forms. However, such an assumption rests only of scarce attestations. A relation of this complex to modSAr forms meaning ‘behind’ is rejected by Kogan2015.
    ▪ One could also think of the ‘base of the head, neck’ as a value having arisen from the interpretation of [v1] the navel (↗surraẗ) as ‘centre, innermost part’, hence ‘base’.
     
    ▪ Lane iv (1872) has ‘the part where the head rests upon the neck’, »said to be derived from surūr [joy, pleasure, tranquility of the mind] because it generally belongs to persons of ease and affluence and of authority, and to kings« (> ‘dominion, sovereignty, rule, authority; ease, comfort, affluence’). – Hence, and as an appellation of good omen, ‘bier, before the corpse is carried upon it’
    ▪ Kazimirski1860 not only gives ‘bed’ and ‘throne’, but also (from the former) ‘brancard (avant qu’on y ait mis le cadavre)’ and ‘base de la tête, endroit où elle est jointe au cou’ (= Freytag1833: ‘radix capitis, qua cohaeret cum collo’), as well as (from the latter) ‘dignité royale, royauté’ and ‘bien-être’
    HDAL: 555 ‘place where the head rests upon the neck’, 569 ‘bier’, 575 ‘throne’, 590 ‘middle (of a valley)’, 621 ‘place to sit or sleep on’, 791 ‘well-off, affluent’
     
    ▪ Zammit2002: lists sarīr, but without cognates in Sem.
     
    ▪ ClassAr lexicographers tend to relate derive sarīr ‘bed, throne’ from surūr ‘joy, happiness, pleasure, tranquility of the mind’ (↗sarra) because »it [sc. a sarīr] generally belongs to persons of ease and affluence and of authority, and to kings« (hence also the values ‘throne; dominion, sovereignty, rule, authority | dignité royale, royauté; ease, comfort, affluence | bien-être’, as well as the expr. zāla ʕan sarīrih ‘déchu de son bien-être’, and, as an appellation of good omen, ‘bier, before the corpse is carried upon it’ – Lane iv (1872) | Kazimirski1860). However, it may be the other way round, i.e., ‘bed, throne’ > ‘ease, happiness, peace of mind’.
    ▪ According to SED and Kogan2015, the original meaning of sarīr is ‘the part where the head rests upon the neck’ (value given also by Freytag1833 and Kazimirski1860), which, actually, also is the value first attested in the sources (555 CE, according to HDAL). So one could think of a development *‘neck > neck-rest > place to rest > bed; throne’. Given another early attestation of sarīr (590 CE – HDAL) as ‘middle (of a valley)’, the assumption made by BAH2008 that one should connect the ‘base of the head, neck’ to ↗surraẗ ‘centre, innermost part’ (originally ‘navel’), may be correct. In contrast, SED #253 tentatively assumes a Sem *š/sar- or *s/car- ‘vertebral column, backbone’ as the common source of the Ar and some EthSem forms. However, the authors are aware of the fact that such an assumption is based on »[s]carce attestation in Ar and MEth only; neither of these languages distinguishes between *š and *s. Note doubling of the second radical and annexation of -w as a third radical in Ar and a full stem reduplication in Eth. See a derived term in Eth and Gur (Sel, Cha, Enn, End, Gye) särsär ‘instrument made of the ribs of a cow and used for leveling the floor’.« The idea, put forward in SED, that this complex is »likely related«, »with a meaning shift«, to modSAr forms meaning ‘behind’ is rejected by Kogan2015: 569 #97: »The origin of prot-modSAr *sar [> Mhr sār, Jib ser, Soq sɛr] ‘behind’ is uncertain. Contra W. Leslau and M. Bittner (1914:15), any connection with protSem *ʔaṯar- ‘trace’ can be safely excluded for phonological reasons. Quite far-fetched is the comparison between the modSAr terms and Ar sarīr ‘the part where the head rests upon the neck’ (Lane 1339), sarāt- ‘back’ (ibid. 1353), Amh säräsär ‘vertebra, spinal cord’ (AED 487) suggested in SED I #253. Shall one rather compare Hbr swr ‘to turn aside’ (HALOT 748), assuming a semantic development from the more original meaning ‘to turn back’?«
     
    – 
    – 
    SRB سرب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SRB 
    “root” 
    ▪ SRB_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ SRB_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to seep in, to leak out, to flow out; an underground passage; to flock, a flock; to be blurred’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    tasarrab‑ تسرّب 
    ID 385 • Sw – • BP 6242 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SRB 
    vb., V 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    SRBL سربل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Mar2023
    √SRBL 
    “root” 
    ▪ SRBL_1 ‘shirt; coat of mail; garment’ ↗sirbāl
    ▪ SRBL_ ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘wrapping, garment, a coat of mail; to crumble’. 
    sirbāl is considered as an early borrowing from Pers – BAH2008.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    sirbāl سِرْبال , pl. sarābīlᵘ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 27Mar2023
    √SRBL 
    n. 
    1 shirt; 2 coot of mail; 3 garment – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ Cheung2017rev: ultimately of Ir origin, but prob. borrowed indirectly, via BiblAram sarbāl ‘tunics’67 < oIr/Scyth *šarabāra-, cf. Grk gloss sarábara ‘Scythian trousers’, Pers šalwār ‘trousers’. For details, see below, section DISC.
    ▪ Rolland2014: (both sirbāl and sirwāl) «du même étymon Phlv que le Pers šalvār ou šulvār ‘calçon, pantalon de marin et de voyageur’, composé de s šal ‘cuisse’, IE *(s)kel ‘crochu, tortueux’, et de vār ‘comme’.68 sirbāl est probablement transité par l’Aram. / La différence sémantique entre les deux mots trouve peut-être son explication dans le fait que le costume deux-pièces oriental s’appelle en persan šalvār qamīṣ, littéralement ‘pantalon-chemise’. L’arabe sirbāl semble être ce qui reste de cette appellation. Ainsi, pendant que le persan šalvār devenait l’arabe sirwāl et continuait à ne désigner que le bas du costume, šalvār qamīṣ se réduisait à sirbāl (sous-entendu qamīṣ) pour n’en désigner que le haut. (Hypothèse personnelle.) »
    ▪ … 
    ... 
    sarbala, vb. I, to clothe (s.o.) with a sirbāl; to clothe, dress (s.o. bi in or with); to cover, wrap (bi with)
    tasarbala, vb. II, to put on a sirbāl; to put on, wear ( h a garment); to be clothed, clad, garbed (bi in, also fig. ); to wrap o.s. (bi in); to dress up (bi in)
    mutasarbil: mutasarbil bi’l-šabāb, blessed with youthfulness, evincing youthful freshness
     
    SRǦ سرج 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Mar2023
    √SRǦ 
    “root” 
    ▪ SRǦ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SRǦ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SRǦ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘saddle, saddle making; lantern, to light up a lantern’ 
    sirāǧ is considered by some philologists to be a borrowing from Pers – BAH2008.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    SRḤ سرح 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Mar2023
    √SRḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ SRḤ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SRḤ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SRḤ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to go to pasture, to set free’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    masraḥ مَسْرَح , var. marsaḥ 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 1211 • APD … • © SG | created 5Jun2023
    √SRḤ ~ √RSḤ 
    n. 
    theatre 
    ▪ n.loc. of ↗saraḥa ‘to stroll around freely’ 
    masraḥiyyaẗ مَسْرَحيّة 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 1211 • APD … • © SG | created 5Jun2023
    √SRḤ ~ RSḤ 
    n.f. 
    ▪ n.f., nsb-formation from ↗masraḥ ‘theatre’, n.loc. of ↗saraḥa ‘to stroll around freely’ 
    SRD سرد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Mar2023
    √SRD 
    “root” 
    ▪ SRD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SRD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SRD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to put things in a consecutive manner, relating in a sequence; to interweave; coat of mail, to make a coat of mail’ 
    ▪ It has been suggested that the sense of ‘coat of mail’ is a borrowing from Pers – BAH2008.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    SRDQ سردق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Mar2023
    √SRDQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ SRDQ_1 ‘large tent, canopy, pavilion’ ↗surādiq
    ▪ SRDQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SRDQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘tent and awning’ 
    ▪ [v1] It has been suggested that this root is a borrowing from Pers – BAH2008.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    surādiq سُرادِق, pl. -āt 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 27Mar2023
    √SRDQ 
    n. 
    large tent, canopy, pavilion – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ Cheung2017rev: (‘awning, tent cover’) may have been borrowed directly from Pers, or via Aram, cf. eParth / mPers *srādak, but also Mnd sradqa ‘canopy, awning’. For details, see below, section DISC.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q 18:29 ʔinnā ʔaʕtadnā liẓ-ẓālimīna nāran ʔaḥāṭa bi-him surādiqu-hā ‘We have prepared for disbelievers Fire. Its tent encloseth them’ 
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »The passage [Q 18:29] is eschatological, descriptive of the torments of the wicked, for whom is prepared a fire ‘whose awning shall enwrap them’. The exegetes got the general sense of the word from the passage, but were not very sure of its exact meaning as we see from Bayḍ’s comment on the verse. – It was very generally recognized as a foreign word. Rāghib, Mufradāt, 229, notes that the form of the word is not Arabic, and al-Jawālīqī, Muʕarrab, 90, classes it as a Persian word,383 though he is not very certain as to what was the original form. Some derived it from sarādar, meaning an ‘antechamber’, others from sarāpardaʰ ‘curtains’, others from sarāṭāq,384 and yet others from sarāče.385 – Pers sarāpardaʰ is the form from which we must work. It is defined by Vullers as ‘velum magnum s. auleum, quod parietis loco circum tentorium expandunt’,386 and is formed from pardaʰ ‘veil, curtain’ (Vullers, i, 340), and an oPers √srāδa,387 from which came the Arm srah388 and the Judaeo-Persian srāh,389 both meaning ‘forecourt’ ([Grk] aulḗ or stoá). From some mPers formation from this √srāδa with the suffix [?] was borrowed the Arm srahak meaning ‘curtain’,390 and the Mandaean srādqā ‘roof of tent’ or ‘awning’.391 The word occurs in the old poetry, e.g. in Labīd (ed. Chalidi, p. 27), and was thus an early borrowing, but whether directly from Iranian or through Aram it is impossible now to say.« 
    – 
    – 
    SRṬN سرطن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SRṬN 
    “root” 
    ▪ SRṬN_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ SRṬN_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    saraṭān سَرَطان 
    ID 386 • Sw – • BP 2134 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SRṬN 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
     
    SRʕ سرع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 28Mar2023
    √SRʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ SRʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SRʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SRʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘speed, to hasten, fast, quick’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    SRF سرف 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 28Mar2023
    √SRF 
    “root” 
    ▪ SRF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SRF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SRF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be heedless or negligent, pass by or leave behind, exceed all bounds, be extravagant or immoderate’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    SRQ سرق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 28Apr2023
    √SRQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ SRQ_1 ‘to steal’ ↗saraqa
    ▪ SRQ_2 ‘dung, manure’ ↗sirqīn (arranged s.r. ↗√SRQN)
    ▪ SRQ_

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to steal, pilfer and to take away by stealth’ 
    ▪ [v1] Kogan2015: 237: from protSem *šrḳ ‘to steal,’ broadly present outside NWSem. – In NWSem, *šrḳ has been completely ousted by protNWSem *gnb (> Hbr gnb, Syr gnb) ‘to steal’, which »is likely related to the anatomical term *ganb ‘side’, with a semantic shift from ‘to put aside’ or similar« (cf. Ar ↗ǧanb, ↗ǧānib, as well as ↗taǧannaba ‘to avoid’).
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ▪ [v1] Kogan2015: 237: Akk šarāḳu, Ar srq, Sab s₁rḳ, Gz saraḳa, Mhr hərūḳ, Jib šɛŕɔ́ḳ, Soq yhéraḳ
     
    – 
    – 
    saraq- سَرَقَ , i (saraq, sariq, saraqaẗ, sariqaẗ, sarqān
    ID – • Sw – • BP 3005 • APD … • © SG | 28Apr2023
    √SRQ 
    vb., I 
    to steal, pilfer, filch (s.th., min from s.o.); to rob – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ Kogan2015: 237: from protSem *šrḳ ‘to steal,’ broadly present outside NWSem. – In NWSem, *šrḳ has been completely ousted by protNWSem *gnb (> Hbr gnb, Syr gnb) ‘to steal’, which »is likely related to the anatomical term *ganb ‘side’, with a semantic shift from ‘to put aside’ or similar« (cf. Ar ↗ǧanb, ↗ǧānib, as well as ↗taǧannaba ‘to avoid’).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Kogan2015: 237: Akk šarāḳu, Ar srq, Sab s₁rḳ, Gz saraḳa, Mhr hərūḳ, Jib šɛŕɔ́ḳ, Soq yhéraḳ
    ▪ ...
     
    sarraqa, vb. II, to accuse of theft, call a thief: D-stem, appell.
    sāraqa, vb. III: L-stem, assoc., fig. use: sāraqa ’l-naẓarᵃ ʔilayh, to steal a glance at s.o., glance furtively at s.o.; sāraqa ’l-nawmᵃ, to take a short nap
    ĭnsaraqa, vb. VII, pass. of I: N-stem
    ĭstaraqa, vb. VIII, 1a to steal, filch, pilfer (s.th. min from); b to steal (ʔilà into): Gt-stem, self-ref. | ĭstaraqa ’l-samʕᵃ, to eavesdrop; to monitor (radio, telephone, etc.); ĭstaraqa ’l-naẓarᵃ ʔilayh = sāraqa ’l-naẓarᵃ ʔilayh; ĭstaraqa ’l-ʔanfās, to gasp, pant

    BP#2798sariqaẗ, n.f., 1a stealing, filching, pilfering; b robbery; c (pl. ‑āt) theft, larceny: vn. I / n.vic.
    sarrāq, n., thief
    sāriq, pl. -ūn, saraqaẗ, surrāq, n. (f. sāriqaẗ, pl. sawāriqᵘ), thief: PA I
    masrūqāt, non-hum.pl., stolen goods: PP I, f.pl.
    munsariq: munsariq al-quwwaẗ, debilitated, exhausted
     
    SRMD سرمد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 28Mar2023
    √SRMD 
    “root” 
    ▪ SRMD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SRMD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SRMD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be continuous, be incessant’ 
    ▪ Philologists consider this root a further derivation from root ↗SRD, but Penrice suggests that sarmad is “apparently of mixed Pers and Arab origin” – BAH2008.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    SRWL سرول 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 28Mar2023
    √SRWL 
    “root” 
    ▪ SRWL_1 ‘trousers, pants, drawers, panties’ ↗sirwāl
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    sirwāl سِرْوال , var. sirwīl, pl. sarāwīlᵘ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 28Mar2023
    √SRWL 
    n. 
    1a trousers, pants; b drawers; c panties – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ Cheung2017rev: [on ↗sirbāl] ultimately of Ir origin, but prob. borrowed indirectly, via BiblAram sarbāl ‘tunics’69 < oIr/Scyth *šarabāra-, cf. Grk gloss sarábara ‘Scythian trousers’, Pers šalwār ‘trousers’. For details, see below, section DISC.
    ▪ Rolland2014: [on both ↗sirbāl and sirwāl] «du même étymon Phlv que le Pers šalvār ou šulvār ‘calçon, pantalon de marin et de voyageur’, composé de s šal ‘cuisse’, IE *(s)kel ‘crochu, tortueux’, et de vār ‘comme’.70 sirbāl est probablement transité par l’Aram. / La différence sémantique entre les deux mots trouve peut-être son explication dans le fait que le costume deux-pièces oriental s’appelle en persan šalvār qamīṣ, littéralement ‘pantalon-chemise’. L’arabe sirbāl semble être ce qui reste de cette appellation. Ainsi, pendant que le persan šalvār devenait l’arabe sirwāl et continuait à ne désigner que le bas du costume, šalvār qamīṣ se réduisait à sirbāl (sous-entendu qamīṣ) pour n’en désigner que le haut. (Hypothèse personnelle.) »
    ▪ … 
    ... 
    – 
    SRY سري 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 28Mar2023
    √SRY 
    “root” 
    ▪ SRY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SRY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SRY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to seep, (of liquids) spread unobtrusively; to remove; to travel by night’ 
    ▪ From protSem *√ŠRY ‘to loosen, remove, begin’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    – 
    SṬḤ سطح 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 28Mar2023
    √SṬḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ SṬḤ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SṬḤ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SṬḤ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be flat, flattened, to spread out, upper side’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    SṬR سطر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SṬR 
    “root” 
    ▪ SṬR_1 ‘line, row; to draw lines, rule’ ↗saṭr
    ▪ SṬR_2 ‘cleaver’ ↗sāṭūr
    ▪ SṬR_3 ‘fable, legend, saga, story’ ↗ʔusṭūraẗ
    ▪ SṬR_4 ↗SYṬR
    ▪ …

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘row of trees, palm trees, objects arranged in a sequence; written words in rows; falsehood; stories with no foundations’. – It has, however, been suggested that the root originated from a borrowing either from Grk or Pers. 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    saṭr سَطْر, var. saṭar, pl. suṭūr, ʔasṭur, ʔasṭār 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 2901 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SṬR 
    n. 
    1a line; 1b row – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q yasṭurūna 68:1, masṭūr 17:58, 33:6, 52:2; 54:53 [also the forms muṣayṭir 88:22, and muṣayṭirūn 52:37] ‘to write’, ‘to inscribe’. They are all early passages save 33:6, and possibly all refer to the same thing, the writing in the Heavenly Scrolls – Jeffery1938.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »Nöldeke as early as 1860392 drew attention to the fact that the noun saṭr seemed to be a borrowing from [Syr] šᵊṭārā = [Aram] šᵊṭrā,393 so that the verb, as Fraenkel, Fremdw, 250, notes, would be denominative. The Aram šᵊṭrā = [Syr] šᵊṭārā means a ‘document’, and is from a root connected with Akk šaṭāru ‘to write’. It occurs as šṭr in Nab and Palm inscriptions,394 and in the SAr inscriptions we have sṭr ‘to write’, and ʔsṭr ‘inscriptions’.395 D. H. Müller, WZKM, i, 29, thinks that the Ar may have been influenced both by the Aramaeans of the north, and the Sabaeans of the south, and as a matter of fact as-Suyūṭī, Itq, 311, tells us that Ǧuwaybir in his comment on 17:58, quoted a tradition from Ibn ʕAbbās to the effect that masṭūr was the word used in the Ḥimyaritic dialect for maktūb.396 The presence of the Phlv stūrē, as, e.g., in the phrase ???? = ‘in lines’ (PPGl, 205), makes us think, however, that it may have been Aramaic influence which brought the word to SArabia.397 In any case the occurrence of the word in the early poetry shows that it was an early borrowing.«
    ▪ … 
    – 
    saṭara u (saṭr), vb. I, and saṭṭara, vb. II, 1 to rule (s.th.), draw lines (on a sheet of paper); 2 to write, jot down, record; 3 to draw up, compose: prob. denom.

    sāṭūr, pl. sawāṭīrᵘ, n., cleaver: …
    ʔusṭūraẗ, pl. ʔasāṭīrᵘ, n.f., fable, legend, saga, myth; fabulous story, yarn: ↗s.v.
    ʔusṭūrī, adj., mythical, legendary, fabulous: nisba formation, from ↗ʔusṭūraẗ.
    misṭaraẗ, pl. masāṭirᵘ, n.f., 1 ruler: n.instr.; 2 underlines, guideline sheet | misṭaraẗ al-ḥisāb, n.f., slide rule; see also ↗s.v..
    misṭār, n., trowel: n.instr. I.
    masṭarīn, n., (EgAr) trowel.
    tasṭīr, n., writing down, recording: vn. II.
    musaṭṭar, n., piece of writing, paper, document: PP II.
     
    SṬW سطو 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 28Mar2023
    √SṬW 
    “root” 
    ▪ SṬW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SṬW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SṬW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to assail, assault, pounce upon, attack violently’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    SʕD سعد 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SʕD 
    “root” 
    ▪ SʕD_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ SʕD_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘happiness, fortune; assistance; arm, power’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    saʕid‑ سَعِدَ 
    ID 387 • Sw – • BP 4503 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SʕD 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    saʕīd سَعِيد 
    ID 389 • Sw – • BP 1295 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SʕD 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    saʕūdī سَعُودِيّ 
    ID 388 • Sw – • BP 479 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SʕD 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    SʕR سعر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 28Mar2023
    √SʕR 
    “root” 
    ▪ SʕR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SʕR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SʕR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘intense burning of fire, to kindle a fire, intensity of thirst; madness; to fix a price to; fatigue, distress’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    SʕF سعف 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SʕF 
    “root” 
    ▪ SʕF_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ SʕF_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ʔisʕāf إِسْعاف 
    ID 390 • Sw – • BP 3663 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SʕF 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    SʕY سعي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 28Mar2023
    √SʕY 
    “root” 
    ▪ SʕY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SʕY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SʕY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘time span; strife, work, effort, to go about (one’s livelihood), to go to; a portion’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    SĠB سغب 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 28Mar2023
    √SĠB 
    “root” 
    ▪ SĠB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SĠB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SĠB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘debilitating hunger, fatigue, famine; thirst’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    SFḤ سفح 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 29Mar2023
    √SFḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ SFḤ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SFḤ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SFḤ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘base, bottom or lower part of a mountain; side of a mountain along which rain water pounds down unchecked; pouring down of water, spilling of blood; fornication’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    SFR سفر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SFR 
    “root” 
    ▪ SFR_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ SFR_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to reveal; to sweep away; to travel; (of daylight) to come or break’ 
    ▪ (BAH2008): Philologists classify ‘books’ and ‘scribes’ under this root on the strength of shared radical consonants. The latter two concepts are, in fact, borrowings from Aram and/or Syr.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ Engl safarisafar.
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl sofer, from Hbr sōpēr ‘scribe’, PA of sāpar ‘to count’; akin to Ar ↗sifr ‘book’. 
    – 
    safar سَفَر 
    ID 391 • Sw – • BP 1027 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SFR 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl safari, from Ar safariyyaẗ ‘journey’, from safar ‘departure, journey’, akin to the denom. vb. sāfara ‘to travel’. 
     
    safīr سَفِير 
    ID 392 • Sw – • BP 1015 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SFR 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    SFʕ سفع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 29Mar2023
    √SFʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ SFʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SFʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SFʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to taint black with other colours (in particular white); to slap with the open hand or (of a bird) with a wing; to drag along’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    SFK سفك 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 29Mar2023
    √SFK 
    “root” 
    ▪ SFK_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SFK_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SFK_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to shed tears or blood, to cause to flow’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    SFL سفل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SFL 
    “root” 
    ▪ SFL_1 ‘lower/lowest part of s.th., bottom’ ↗sufl
    ▪ SFL_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ SFL_3 ‘…’ ↗

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be low, to go low; to be base, to be vile’ 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    … 
    sufl سُفْل 
    ID … • Sw … • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SFL 
    n. 
    lowest part of s.th., bottom – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘low’) Akk šaplu ‘unterer’, Hbr šāp̄āl, Syr šap̄lā, SAr śfl; (Ar safala, safila, vb. I).
     
    … 
    … 
    safala, u (sufūl, safāl), and safila, a, vb. I, to be low, be below s.th. (‑h)
    safala, u, vb. I, to turn downward
    safula, u (safālaẗ), and safala, u (safl), vb. I, to be low, base, despicable.
    tasaffala, vb. V, 1 to abase o.s., sink low, go from bad to worse; 2 to act in a base manner: Dt-stem.
    suflī, adj., lower, at the bottom; low: nisba formation, from sufl.
    siflaẗ: siflaẗ al‑nās, n.f., lowly people, riffraff.
    safālaẗ, n.f., 1 lowness; 2a lowliness; 2b baseness, ignominy, despicableness: vn. I.
    sufālaẗ, n.f., lowest part.
    BP#2267ʔasfalᵘ, f. suflà, pl. ʔasāfilᵘ, adj., lower; lowest; lower or lowest part, bottom | ʔasfalᵃ, (quasi‑)prep., under, underneath, below.
    sāfil, pl. safalaẗ, adj., 1 low; 2a lowly; 2b base, mean, despicable: PA I.
     
    SFN سفن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SFN 
    “root” 
    ▪ SFN_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ SFN_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to peel off, to bare; ship, ark, boat’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    safīnaẗ سَفِينَة 
    ID 393 • Sw – • BP 1781 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SFN 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    SFH سفه 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 29Mar2023
    √SFH 
    “root” 
    ▪ SFH_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SFH_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SFH_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be ignorant, foolish, impulsive, weak in the mind; to be base’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    SQR سقر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 29Mar2023
    √SQR 
    “root” 
    ▪ SQR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SQR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SQR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘heat of the sun, sunburn, sunstroke’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    SQṬ سقط 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SQṬ 
    “root” 
    ▪ SQṬ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ SQṬ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘falling, falling down, falling off; to stumble upon; to deviate from; the low, base, reject’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ʔisqāṭ إِسْقاط 
    ID 394 • Sw – • BP 3337 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SQṬ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    SQF سقف 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 29Mar2023
    √SQF 
    “root” 
    ▪ SQF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SQF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SQF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘roof, ceiling, covering, roofing, thatching; (of a man) to be tall and bent’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    SQLB سقلب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 26Feb2023
    √SQLB 
    “root” 
    ▪ SQLB_1 ‘to throw down’ ↗saqlaba
    ▪ SQLB_2 ‘Slav(ic)’ ↗saqlabī
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ [v1] : an archaic *Š-stem (< *sa-qalaba ‘to cause to fall, make turn upside down’?) that has preserved (or re-imported?) the sa- prefix instead of the usual causative ʔa-? – For possibly similar cases, cf., e.g., ↗sabaqa (< *sa-bqà < *sa-baqiya?) or salaqa (< *sa-lqà < *sa-laqiya? – see ↗SLQ_12).
    ▪ [v2] : from ByzGrk sklábos ‘Slav’. The origin of the latter is a matter of discussion, see ↗saqlabī.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ▪ [v1] : ? ↗qalaba ?
    ▪ [v2] : – (loanword).
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ [v2] : Not from Ar saqlab but from the same source are also Eur words for ‘Slavs’ (later contaminated also with ‘slaves’).
    ▪ ...
     
    – 
    saqlab‑ سَقْلَبَ , yusaqlibᵘ (saqlabaẗ
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 26Feb2023
    √SQLB 
    vb., I
     
    to throw down – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ An archaic *Š-stem (< *sa-qalaba ‘to cause to fall, make turn upside down’?) that has preserved (or re-imported?) the sa- prefix instead of the usual causative ʔa-? – For possibly similar cases, cf., e.g., ↗sabaqa (< *sa-baqiya?) or salaqa (< *sa-lqà, sa-laqiya? – see ↗SLQ_12).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Wahrmund1886: ‘niederwerfen (ṣaraʕa), umwerfen, umhauen; (modern usage) umwenden, umdrehen’
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ ? Cf. ↗qalaba ?
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ Not from Ar saqlab but from the same source, ByzGrk Skláboi, are also Eur words for ‘Slavs’ (later contaminated also with ‘slaves’).
    ▪ ...
     
    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗saqlabī, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗SQLB. See also ↗ṣaqlab.
     
    saqlabī سَقْلَبيّ , pl. saqālibaẗ
     
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 26Feb2023
    √SQLB 
    n./adj.
     
    1a n., Slav; b adj., Slavic – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ According to Rolland2014, Ar saqlab and var. ṣiqlāb (↗ṢQLB) are from ByzGrk sklábos (pl. skláboi) ‘Slav’. – The origin of the ByzGrk ethnonym is a matter of controversial scholarly discussion. Some authors trace it back to proto-Slavonic *slava ‘glory, fame’; others regard it as ultimately from prot-Slav *slovo ‘word, speech’, used by the Slavs to mark themselves as *‘the speaking ones, those with clear language’, as opposed to *‘the dumb ones’, cf. oChSlav Nemici ‘Germans’; see below, section WEST.
    ▪ The var. ↗ṣaqlab is prob. from saqlab, with partly retrograde assimilation (ṣ‑ < s‑ under the influence of following q).
    ▪ Rolland2014: The var. sulāf seems to be a transcription of the Fr or Engl terms (slave, Slav).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ Due to the association of Slavs with slave trade, the ethnonym later also took the meaning of ‘slave’, a notion that seems to have reached Arabic, too (at least for the var. with initial ṣ‑ instead of sa-, see ↗ṣaqlab): BK1860 mentions the expr. ṣaqālibaẗ al-zanǧ, lit., *‘the negro\black Slavs’, for the ‘Ethiopians’, a meaning that must have emerged due to the fact that, for Arab slave traders, East Africa fulfilled a similar function as a reservoir of slaves as the Balkans and its hinterlands did in the North.398 . Cf. also Golden [et al.] in EI²: »The Ṣaḳāliba lands and peoples were intimately associated ... with the slave trade, so much so that their name became synonymous with it. Slaving raids aimed at the Ṣaḳāliba were largely carried out by the Hungarians and the Rūs. Ibn Rusta [C10], [Kitāb al-ʔaʕlāq al-nafīsaẗ, ed. de Goeje, Leiden: Brill, 1892] 142, has a particularly full notice. He reports that the “Maǧġariyya” [Magyar] rule over their Ṣaḳāliba neighbours. “They require of them raw materials (muʔan ġalīẓa) (as tribute)” and treat them like prisoners of war. They raid them regularly and take their captives to “Karǧ” (Kerč) in the Crimea. This, presumably, was their point of entry into the Byzantine world.«399
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ Not from Ar saqlab but from the same source, ByzGrk Skláboi, are Eur words for ‘Slavs’, such as Engl Slav, Fr slave, Ge Slawe, etc. – Sources disagree on the origin of the etymon itself, the ByzGrk ethnonym Skláboi. Rolland2014 follows those who think it is an emic term based on Slavonic *slava ‘glory, fame’ (< IE *kleu‑ ‘to hear, reknown’), an idea that, accord. to EtymOnline, is explicitly rejected by »Max Vasmer, the authority for Slavic etymologies«.13 Pfeiffer1993 (in DWDS), too, does not trace ByzGrk Skláboi (var. Stʰláboi) back to prot-Slav *slava ‘glory, fame’; rather, he thinks that it is shortened from ByzGrk Sklavēnoí (older also *Stʰlabēnoí) ‘Slavs from the Balkanic hinterland’, from the prot-Slav *slověne (pl.) ‘Slavs’ (sg. *slověninъ), accord. to EtymOnline prob. an emic ethnonym related to prot-Slav *slovo ‘word, speech’, which suggests that the name originally identified a member of a speech community (compare oChSlav Nemici ‘Germans’, related to nemu ‘dumb’, > Ar ↗nimsā, today ‘Austria’). – Some scholars also hold that, in Europe, ByzGrk Stʰlábos > Sklábos later also gave the words for ‘slave’: > medLat Sclavus ‘slave’ > oFr (C13) esclave > Engl (c. 1300) sclave, esclave ‘person who is the chattel or property of another’ (also mHGe slave ‘Unfreier, Knecht’, cf. DWDS). The same scholars think that the secondary sense is due to the fact that »many Slavs [were] sold into slavery by conquering peoples« (EtymOnline). In contrast, Kluge2002 proposes a different etymology for ‘slave’ (C13 Ge Sklave ‘slave’ < mHGe sklafe, slave, from mLat sclavus < *scylavus, akin to Grk skyleúō, skyláō ‘to make war-booty’, from skŷlon ‘war-booty’14 ), adding, however, that this word later merged with the Grk ethnonym for the ‘Slavs’, mGrk sklabēnói, which gave rise to »inappropriate etymological speculation«.
    ▪ ...
     
    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗saqlaba as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗SQLB. See also ↗ṣaqlab.
     
    SQM سقم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 29Mar2023
    √SQM 
    “root” 
    ▪ SQM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SQM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SQM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘sickness, to be sick, be ill-disposed, be troubled’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    SQY سقي 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SQY 
    “root” 
    ▪ SQY_1 ‘to give to drink, make s.o. drink; to water, irrigate’ ↗saqà
    ▪ SQY_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to give to drink, to water (animals, plants or land), to make drink’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    saqà/ saqay‑ سقيْـ/سَقَى, i (saqy
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SQY 
    vb., I 
    to give to drink, make s.o. drink; to water (cattle, plants) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ From Sem *šḳy ‘to irrigate, quench one’s thirst, provide enough water’ – Kogan 2011, 2015: 30, 537. According to Huehnergard, who also assumes Sem *šḳy, this word for the ‘watering of animals (and irrigation of fields)’ belongs to the oldest proto-Semitic layer of agricultural terminology that can be reconstructed (2011: 2068). Militarev/Stolbova’s reconstruction (*š˅ḳ- ‘to drink, give to drink’ < AfrAs *s˅ḳʷ- ‘to drink’) (2007) is supported by the extra-Semitic evidence, but little convincing inside Semitic itself. – Any connection with the IE theme ‘to suck’?
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser 1928, Zammit 2002: Akk šaqū ‘tränken, bewässern’, Ug šqy ‘to drink’, Hbr šāqā (hif.) ‘to cause to drink; to water’, Aram (af.) šᵉqā ‘to give drink; to water’, Syr (af.) ʔašqī ‘to water, irrigarte’, SAr sqy ‘to irrigate; to provide with water’, Gz saqaya ‘rigare, irrigare’, Ar saqā (y) ‘to water, give drink to’
    ▪ Militarev 2006 #1469 (< Orel/Stolbova 1994 #2220): Akk šaqû ‘to give a drink’, Ug šqy ‘to drink’, Hbr (hi) hi-šqâh, Jib šeḳe ‘to give a drink’. – Outside Semitic, Militarev / Stolbova 2007 (< Stolbova 2006) quote the forms soke ‘to give water (to a child)’) in a WCh language, and sexwì, sɛgwi, sakwù ‘to drink’ in some CCh idoms.
    ▪ For ClAr √SQY and Hbr √ŠQY ‘to give to drink’, Almedlaoui 2012 also compares Ber swa ‘to drink’.
     
    ▪ Militarev / Stolbova 2007 reconstruct Sem *š˅ḳ- ‘to (give to) drink’, WCh *suḳ- / *swaḳ- ‘to give water (to a child)’ and CCh *s˅ḳwa- ‘to drink’, and from these AfrAs *s˅ḳʷ- ‘to drink’.
    ▪ Dolgopolsky 2012 #2031 even connects Sem *šḳy ‘to give to drink’ with IE *seu̪g- (~ *°seu̪k-?) ‘to suck’ (> nHGe saugen, Engl suck, etc.) and reconstructs Nostr *s̄ük˅ʔa ‘to drink, suck’. Usually, however, the IE root is believed to be *seuə- ‘to take liquid’ (Kluge 2002 s.v. saugen, Harper s.v. suck, sup), without *‑g‑, so that Dolgopolsky’s equation of Sem *‑ḳ‑ and IE *‑g‑ remains without basis.
     
    – 
    saqy, n., watering; irrigation: vn. I.
    saqawī, adj., (maghr.) irrigational: nisba formation from the preceding
    siqāʔ, pl. ʔasqiyaẗ, ʔasqiyāt, ʔasāqin (det. ‑ī), n.f., waterskin, milkskin
    saqqāʔ, pl. -ūn, n., water carrier; – pelican (zool.): n.prof.
    siqāyaẗ, n.f., irrigation, watering; office of water supplier (spec., the traditional office of one in charge of providing water for Mecca pilgrims); watering place; drinking vessel: vn. I and specialized use.
    misqan, det. ‑à, pl. masāqin (det. ‑ī), n., (Eg.) irrigation canal: n.instr.
    musāqāẗ, n.f., sharecropping contract over the lease of a plantation, limited to one crop period (Isl. Law): vn. III.
    ĭstisqāʔ, n., dropsy; (Mor.) irrigation: vn. X
    ĭstisqāʔī, dropsical, hydropic: nisba formation, from the preceding.
    sāqin, det. sāqī, pl. suqāẗ, n., cupbearer, Ganymede, saki: PA I.
    sāqiyaẗ, n.f., 1. barmaid; 2. (pl. sawāqin, det. sawāqī) a. rivulet; irrigation ditch, irrigation canal; b. water scoop; c. sakieh, water wheel: PA f.
     
    SKː (SKK) سكّ / سكك 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SKː (SKK) 
    “root” 
    ▪ SKː (SKK)_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ SKː (SKK)_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
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    sikkaẗ سِكّة 
    ID 395 • Sw – • BP 7023 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SKː (SKK) 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
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    – 
     
    SKT سكت 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SKT 
    “root” 
    ▪ SKT_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ SKT_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘being silent, becoming silent, silence, to stop talking, to stop moving; to abate’ 
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    – 
    sakat‑ سَكَتَ 
    ID 396 • Sw – • BP 2975 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SKT 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
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    – 
     
    SKR سكر 
    ID 397 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SKR 
    “root” 
    ▪ SKR_1 ‘to shut, close, lock, bolt’ ↗sakar u (sakr).
    ▪ SKR_2 ‘intoxicating drink’ ↗sakar .
    ▪ SKR_3 ‘hendbane’ ↗saykurān .
    ▪ SKR_4 ‘sugar’ ↗sukkar .
    ▪ SKR_5 ‘cigar(ette)’ ↗sīgār

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘intoxicating drinks, intoxication, drowsiness, unconsciousness; blocking a gap, corking a bottle’. – It has been suggested that intoxication, along with its derivatives, are borrowings from either Gz or Aram. 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Probably no relation between SKR_1 and the rest.
    ▪ SKR_3 probably related to SKR_2.
    ▪ SKR_4 and SKR_5 are loan-words. 
    – 
    – 
    sakar‑ سكر , u (sakr
    ID 398 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SKR 
    vb., I 
    to shut, close, lock, bolt (s.th.) (chiefly syr., leb.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ ….. 
    Ass sekēru (sakāru) ‘to dam up; close, clog (a canal, a watercourse); to block (part of the body, e.g., to stop ears)’, sikkūru (sukkūru, sukīru) ‘bar, bolt (as locking device)’, Hbr sāḵar ‘to shut up, stop up’, Aram səḵar, Syr səḵar ‘to shut up, stup up, dam up’. 
    BDB 1906/2010: apparently kindr. with [Hbr] sgr‑ ‘to shut, close’. – Cf. Klein1987: Ug sgr‑ ‘to shut, close’, AramSyr səḡar‑ ‘to shut up, confine, seclude’, Akk sakāru‑ ‘to close’, šigaru‑ (sigaru) ‘door lock; cage’ (cad : ‘part of a lock; probably the bolt or bar’). – Cf. Ar ↗√SǦN.
    BDB 1906/2010: > Eg t’akar‑ ‘barrier’.
    ▪ Apparently not related to the theme ‘intoxicating drink, drunkenness’ (↗√SKR, ↗sakar). 
    – 
     
    sakar سكر 
    ID 399 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SKR 
    n. 
    an intoxicant; wine – WehrCowan1979. 
    As ‎most other wine terms, also sakar may have entered Arabic via Syriac (Syr šiḵrā ʻdate ‎wine’). Most probably, however, it is older and goes back to a common Sem n. *šikar‑ ~ *šakar‑ ‘intoxicating/alcoholic drink’ (Kogan2011). In Q 16:67 it is still considered lawful and a generous gift given by God to man. Later in the Q, the attitude towards sakar changes. 
    ▪ eC7 Q 16:67 wa-min ṯamarāti ’l-naḫīli wa’l-ʔaʕnābi tattaḫiḏūna minhu sakaran wa-rizqan ḥasanan ‘And of the fruits of the date-palm, and grapes, whence ye derive strong drink and (also) good nourishment’ (Pickthal) / ‘Und (wir geben euch) von den Früchten der Palmen und Weinstöcke (zu trinken), woraus ihr euch einen Rauschtrank macht, und (außerdem) schönen Unterhalt’ (Paret). 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘intoxicating drink’) Akk šikaru, Hbr šēḵār, Syr šeḵrā, Gz sekā́r.
    ▪ BDB1906: cf. also Gz səkār ‘drunkenness’, sakra ‘to drink, get drunk’, sakārī ‘drunkard’.
    ▪ Dolgopolsky2012#2032: BHbr šēḵār, Akk šikāru, šikru ‘alcoholic drink, beer’, Syr šaḵrā (abs. šəḵar) ‘sicera (alcoholic drink other than wine, esp. a liquor made from dates or from honey)’, JudAram [Trg] šiḵrā ‘alcoholic drink’. 
    ▪ Jeffery1938: 172-173: »With this should be associated all the other forms ‎‎[occurring in the Qurʔān] derived therefrom and connected with drunkenness, e.g. iv, 46; xv, 15, ‎‎72; xxii, 2. – as-Suyūṭī, Itq, 321 (Mutaw, 40), tells us that some early authorities considered it ‎an Ethiopic word. It is possible that the Eth [Gz] sakra is the origin of the Ar word, but the ‎word is widely used in the Semitic languages, e.g. Akk šikaru (cf. [Hbr] ‎šāḵar ‎; [Syr] šəḵar) ‘‎beer’;1 and Grk, e.g. síkera.400 Thus while it may have come into Ar from Syr as ‎most other wine terms did, on the other hand it may be a common derivation from early Semitic ‎‎(Guidi, Della Sede, 603).«
    ▪ Huehnergard2002 reconstructs a Common Sem n. *šikar‑ ‘intoxicating drink’. Similarly Dolgopolsky2012#2032: Sem *šikar‑ ~ *šakar‑ ‘alcoholic drink’.
    ▪ On account of what he thinks are ‘cognates’ in Korean (MKor sù ͉ìr ~ sù ͉ùr, NKor su˥‑ < proto-Kor *sù ͉ìr ‘wine, alcoholic drink’), Dolgopolsky reconstructs Nostr *s̄2˅˹k˺˅R˅ (or *s̄˅Ḳ˅R˅) ‘intoxicating drink’ ([in descendant languages] ↗‘alcoholic drink’) – Dolgopolsky2012#2032.
    ▪ Any relation to ↗SKR‑ ‘’? 
    ▪ Sem (Hbr, Aram?) > Grk síkera ‘fermented liquor, strong drink’ – Dolgopolsky2012 #2032. According to Huehnergard2002, the Sem n. is, via Grk síkera, the ancestor of the Engl cider
    sakira, a (sakar, sukr). vb. I, to be drunk; to get drunk, become intoxicated: probably denominative.
    ʔaskara, vb. IV, to make drunk, intoxicate, inebriate : causative of I.
    tasākara, vb. VI, to pretend to be drunk : denominative..
    sukr, n., intoxication, inebriety, drunkenness : vn. I..
    sakraẗ, n.f., pl. sakarāt, inebriety, intoxication, drunkenness : | s. al-mawt agony of death..
    sakrānᵘ, adj., f. sakrā, pl. sukārā, sakārā drunk, intoxicated; a drunk: ints.adj. | s. ṭīnaẗ (colloq.) dead drunk; s. bi’l-naṣr drunk with victory.
    sikkīr, adj., drunkard, heavy drinker: ints.adj..
    muskir, n., pl. ‑āt alcoholic beverage, intoxicating liquor: nominalized PA IV. 
    sukkar سُكَّر , pl. sakākirᵘ 
    ID 400 • Sw – • BP 1683 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SKR 
    n. 
    sugar; pl. sakākirᵘ sweetmeats, confectionery, candies – WehrCowan1979. 
    The word entered Ar either via Pers šä(k)kär (Waines, Kluge), mInd sakkharā (Vennemann) or, less specifically, from some Indo-Aryan source difficult to identify (Dolgopolsky). Ultimately it goes back to Skr śarkarā ‘grit, pebbles, gravel’.
    »The origin of sugar cane and its early domestication cannot be precisely determined, but it evidently derived from the family of large Saccharum grasses which grow in India and Southeast Asia« and which produce silicious concretions in their internodes. »From India, cultivation of the plant spread westward. Clear references to cultivation in Persia belong to the period immediately following the Islamic conquest, but it was possibly known somewhat earlier; papyrus evidence indicates that sugar cane was grown in Egypt by the mid-2nd/8th century and diffusion across North Africa was steady although its entry into areas of the Iberian peninsula under Muslim domination may not have occurred until the 5th/11th century. From Crusader times, the eastern coast of the Mediterranean and later Cyprus, were important; sources of supply for Christian Europe« – Waines1997. 
    ▪ … 
    Since the word is a loan from an Indo-Aryan source, there are no real cognates. For a possible relation of the ancestor of sukkar, Skr śarkarā ‘grit, pebbles, gravel’, with Cush words for ‘gravel, small stone, coarse sand’ as well as possible parallels within Nostr, see next paragraph. 
    ▪ Dolgopolsky2012#1131: Nostr *ḳär˅ (ḳa) (= *ḳärU (ḳa)?) ‘small stone’ > AfrAs: Cush: ECush: pOr {Bl.} *ḳirr‑ ‘gravel, small stone’ > Or č̣írr-ačča {Grg.} ‘coarse sand’, {Bl.} ‘small stone(s)’, Kns qírr-itta ‘small stone’, qírr-a ‘gravel’ || Kauk: GZ *ḳurḳa‑ > G ḳurḳa - ‘stone of a fruit’, Lz ḳurḳa id., ‘grain’ || IndoEur: NaIE *k̑orkā ‘gravel’ > OInd śarkarā f. ‘grit, pebbles, gravel’, OInd Ep śarkara > Pali sakkharā -, Prkr sakara ‑, Hindi sakkar ‘granulated sugar’ (an Indo-Aryan source ↗Grk sákkhar (on), NPer šä(k)kär, Ar sukkar - ‘sugar’, and the words for ‘sugar’ in the European languages [Ital zucchero, nHG Zucker, Fr sucre, NEngl sugar, Russ saxar, etc.]) ‖ Grk krókē, krokálai ‘abgerundeter Kieselstein am Meeresufer’ || Drav *kar˅c̉‑ ({ϑGS} *g‑) ‘gravel’ > Kn garasu, garusu, Tl garusu id., Tu karṅkallu id., ‘hard sand’.
    ▪ Unrelated to other items of the root ↗√SKR
    ▪ Pāli sakharā‑ > (Hellenistic period?) Grk sákkhar, sákkhari > Per šakar. Grk sákkharon > Lat saccharum. Ar sukkar > Ital zucchero, Fr sucre, Ge Zucker – Chantraine1977. 
    sukkar al-banǧar, n., beet sugar.
    sukkar al-ṯimār, n., fructose, levulose, fruit sugar.
    sukkar al-šaʕīr, n., maltose, malt sugar.
    sukkar al-ʕinab, n., dextro-glucose, dextrose, grape sugar.
    sukkar al-qaṣab, n., saccharose, sucrose, cane sugar.
    sukkar al-laban, n., lactose, milk sugar.
    sukkar al-nabāt, n., sugar candy, rock candy.
    qaṣab al-sukkar, n., sugar cane.
    maraḍ al-sukkar, n., diabetes (med.).

    sakkara, vb. II, to sugar, sprinkle with sugar; to candy, preserve with sugar: denominative.
    sukkarī, adj., sugar (adj.), sugary, like sugar, saccharine: nsb-adj.; pl. sukkariyyāt confectionery; sweetmeats, candy | maraḍ al-bawl al-s. and al-maraḍ al-s. diabetes (med.).
    sukkariyyaẗ, n.f., sugar bowl : nominalized nsb-adj. f.
    musakkarāt, n.f.pl., confectionery, sweetmeats, candy : nominalized PP II, denominative. 

    saykurān سيْكُران , var. saykarān 
    ID 401 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SKR, SYKR 
    n. 
    henbane [Schwarzes Bilsenkraut, Hexenkraut] (Hyoscyamus niger; bot.‑ ) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ ….. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Any relation with ↗sakar‑ ‘intoxicating drink’ ? 
    – 
    – 
    SKN سكن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SKN 
    “root” 
    ▪ SKN_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ SKN_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be quiet, to be still, to be tranquil, to inhabit, to dwell; to be poor; knife’. – It is possible that sikkīn is a borrowing from Syr or Aram and sakīnaẗ from Hbr. 
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    sakan‑ سَكَنَ 
    ID 402 • Sw – • BP 1328 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SKN 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ ….. 
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    sikkīn سِكِّين 
    ID 403 • Sw – • BP 4794 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SKN 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
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    sakīnaẗ سكينة 
    ID 404 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SKN 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    SL سل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 16Apr2022
    √SL 
    reduced “root” (< SʔL) 
    ▪ SL_1: ‘ask!’ ↗sal
    ▪ SL_2: cf. also ↗SLː (SLL), ↗SLW/Y, ↗SWL, ↗SYL 
    ▪ SL_1: result of reduction, from ↗SʔL (imperative only)
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ SL_1: ↗saʔala
    ▪ … 
    ▪ see above, section CONC.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    sal سَلْ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 16Apr2022
    √SL (for *SʔL) 
    imperative 
    ask! : short imperative of ↗saʔala – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ from *ĭsʔal, with omission of syllable-constituitive initial ĭ after elision of ʔ in postconsonantal position (*ĭsʔal > *ĭsal > sal).
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ ↗saʔala
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    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ … 
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    – 
    *SL‑ سلـ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 4Feb2022
    √*SL- 
    2-cons. root nucleus 
    ▪ *to draw out or off – Ehret1989 #21. 
    ▪ According to Ehret1989 #21, we may assume the existence of a pre-protSem 2-rad. root *SL with the meaning ‘to draw out or off’. In the author’s view, this root is preserved most ‘purely’ in Ar ↗salla (u, sall) ‘to draw out slowly’. For extensions with modifying R₃ cf. below, section DERIV. 
    … 
    … 
    … 
    – 
    According to Ehret1989 #21, the pre-protSem nucleus *SL is preserved most ‘purely’ in
    ▪ ↗salla (u, sall) ‘to draw out slowly’, while other extensions with modifying R₃ include:

    ▪ »concisive« *‑ʔ: ↗salaʔa (a, salʔ) ‘to purify butter, press sesame oil’
    ▪ »finitive fortative« *‑b: ↗salaba (u, salb) ‘to take from with violence, rob, plunder, steal’
    ▪ »durative« *‑t: ↗salata (i u, salt) ‘to draw one thing from another’
    ▪ »iterative« *‑ḥ: ↗salaḥa (a, salḥ) ‘to drop excrement’
    ▪ »extendative fortative« *‑ḫ: ↗salaḫa (a u, salḫ) ‘to skin, flay, throw off the slough; to undress’
    ▪ »sunderative« *‑ʕ: ↗saliʕa (a, salaʕ) ‘to split, cleave’
    ▪ »iterative« *‑p: ↗salafa (u, salf) ‘to harrow, level, plane, make even, prepare for sowing (land)’
    ▪ »intensive (effect)« *‑ḳ: ↗salaqa (u, salq) ‘to loosen the flesh from the bones’
     
    SLː (SLL) سلّ/سلل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 4Feb2022, last update 4Jul2022
    √SLː (SLL) 
    “root” 
    ▪ SLː (SLL)_1 ‘to pull out, withdraw, remove gently’ ↗salla
    ▪ SLː (SLL)_2 ‘to spread, extend; to slip, sneak, invade, infiltrate, penetrate’ ↗tasallala
    ▪ SLː (SLL)_3 ‘consumption, tuberculosis’ ↗sill
    ▪ SLː (SLL)_4 ‘basket’ ↗¹sallaẗ
    ▪ SLː (SLL)_5 ‘progeny, offspring; family; race’ ↗sulālaẗ
    ▪ SLː (SLL)_6 ‘large needle; obelisk’ ↗misallaẗ
    ▪ SLː (SLL)_7 ‘offprint’ ↗ (IrqAr) mustallaẗ

    Other values, now obsolete, include (Hava1899, Lane iv 1872):

    SLː (SLL)_8 ‘to steal; to aid in stealing’: ʔasalla; cf. also ²sallaẗ, n.f., ‘secret theft’, sallāl, n., ‘thief; horse-stealer’
    SLː (SLL)_9 ‘losing one’s teeth’: sall (Lane); ?cf. also sallà (sic!) ‘to lose the teeth’ (only Hava1899)
    SLː (SLL)_10 ‘pure wine’: ²salīl
    SLː (SLL)_11 ‘brain of the horse’: ³salīl
    SLː (SLL)_12 ‘spinal cord’ : salīl
    SLː (SLL)_13 ‘slice of flesh, (Lane:) sinew, portion of flesh having streaks, oblong portion of flesh of the part on either side of the backbone […]’: ¹salīlaẗ
    SLː (SLL)_14 ‘long fish, (Lane:) a certain long fish, having a long beak-like snout’: ²salīlaẗ
    SLː (SLL)_15 ‘cotton; wool upon the spindle’: ³salīlaẗ
    SLː (SLL)_16 ‘bottom of a valley; stream in a valley’: sāll (pl. sawāll), salīl (pl. sullān)

    ▪ SLː (SLL)_17 : Some dictionaries, both ClassAr and MSA, group under SLː (SLL) also the complex treated in EtymArab s.v. ↗silsilaẗ.

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (accord. to BAH2008): ‘to extract gently and unobtrusively, to pull out strands of wool; pedigree, breed; to move about stealthily’ 
    ▪ SLː (SLL)_1 : Accord. to Ehret1989 #21, geminated salla is the direct reflex (without extensions) of a pre-protSem 2-rad. root ↗*√SL ‘to draw out or off’. In addition, also many extensions with slightly modified meaning exist; they include: ↗salaʔa, ↗salaba, ↗salata, ↗salaḥa, ↗salaḫa, ↗saliʕa, ↗salafa, ↗salaqa. – OrelStolbova1994 #2274 reconstruct Sem *šul < AfrAs *sol ‘to pull’ (on account of assumed cognates in WCh and CCh). – Any relation to (MilitarevKogan2005 SED I #246) protSem *ša/ily(-at)- / *sa/ily(-at)‑ ‘afterbirth, fetal membrane’, (Fronzaroli, Studi, 37-8) *šily(-at)- ‘placenta’ (see SLː (SLL)_5, below; < s.th. *‘drawn out slowly’)? If valid, a more general basic meaning (*‘to pass gently through a narrow opening’) should prob. be assumed (cf. Gabal2012).
    ▪ SLː (SLL)_2 : prob. akin to SLː (SLL)_1. If so, this, too, could point to a more general basis, *‘to (make) pass through a narrow opening’, supplementing the one-directional ‘pulling, drawing’ of SLː (SLL)_1 by a movement away from the speaker, or not necessarily directed towards him/her.
    ▪ SLː (SLL)_3 : Accord. to Rolland2014 from Pers sil ‘consumption, tuberculosis’, perh. akin to sal, sull ‘lungs’. – Cf., however, below, section DISC.
    ▪ SLː (SLL)_4 : accord. to Fraenkel1886 a borrowing from Aram sallā ‘basket’, accord. to Corriente2008 from Eg (cf. Copt salo). But perhaps *‘the pierced one, thing with punctures’, as sallaẗ also could mean ‘awl, big needle’ (like misallaẗ, see SLː (SLL)_6) and ‘chink in a tank, fault\defect in a watering-trough or in a jar, breach, fissures in the ground that steal the water’. If valid, the ‘basket’ may be related to SLː (SLL)_1/2 and, via these, also to SLː (SLL)_5.
    ▪ SLː (SLL)_5 : prob. akin to salaⁿ ‘membrane qui enveloppe le foetus’ (*salay ), ¹salīl ‘male foetus, embryo; descendant, scion, son’, from protSem *ša/ily(-at)- / *sa/ily(-at)‑ ‘afterbirth, fetal membrane’ – MilitarevKogan2005 (SED I) #246. – Perh. related to SLː (SLL)_1 ‘to draw out slowly, remove gently’.
    ▪ SLː (SLL)_6 : accord. to Fraenkel (1886: 75) from a root with the basic meaning *‘to pierce’, but perh. related to SLː (SLL)_1/2 (and with the latter to SLː (SLL)_5); see below, section DISC.
    ▪ SLː (SLL)_7 : obviously a PP from ĭstalla, vb. VIII, ‘to pull out or remove gently; to withdraw gently’, Gt-stem of SLː (SLL)_1. Thus, the ‘offprint’ is, basically, a copy *‘drawn out smoothly’ of/from the original’. – Cf. also SLː (SLL)_5 ‘progeny, offspring’ with which ‘offprint’ shares the notion of a reproduction from an original source.
    SLː (SLL)_8 : The notions of ‘(aiding in) stealing’, ‘secret theft’, etc. are based on the *‘gentle passing through a narrow opening’ that can be assumed as the basic value of SLː (SLL)_1/2, showing a development from ‘gently’ to ‘secretly’, as already in SLː (SLL)_2 ‘to sneak, invade, infiltrate’.
    SLː (SLL)_9 ‘to lose one’s teeth’: The value is prob. based on SLː (SLL)_1 ‘to draw/pull out gently’.
    SLː (SLL)_10-15 : Given that the values [v10] ‘pure wine’, [v11] ‘brain of the horse’, and [v12] ‘spinal cord’ all are homonymous with ¹salīl ‘male foetus, embryo; descendant, scion, son’, and that the corresponding f. form, salīlaẗ, morphologically a quasi-PP, too, shows a similarly broad spectrum of meanings, from [v13] ‘(Hava:) slice of flesh, (Lane:) sinew, portion of flesh having streaks, oblong portion of flesh of the part on either side of the backbone […]’, over [v14] ‘(Lane:) a certain long fish, having a long beak-like snout’, to [v15] ‘cotton; wool upon the spindle’, it is likely that all are based on ¹salīl ‘male foetus, embryo; descendant, scion, son’, though the exact nature of such a dependence remains unclear so far. – Cf., however, Dolgopolsky2012#2057, who regards [v15] salīlaẗ ‘wool upon the spindle’ as akin not only to Ar ↗silkaẗ ‘spun thread’, but also to some extra-Sem (Chad and Heth!) items, all of which going back, in his opinion, to a hypothetical Nostr *sül̄˻w˼˅ ‘thread, string’.
    SLː (SLL)_16 ‘bottom of a valley; stream in a valley’: of obscure etymology, perh. *‘passing gently through (sc. the two sides of a valley)’ (sāll) or *‘spread’ (salīl), i.e., PA or quasi-PP, respectively, of salla in the sense of *‘to pass gently through s.th (SLː (SLL)_1) and then *spread (SLː (SLL)_2)’. – In contrast, Dolgopolsky2012#2047 considers (though with caution) an AfrAs and even a Nostr dimension (< Nostr ²*Sil˅ ‘hole’).
    ▪ SLː (SLL)_17 : Some dictionaries, both ClassAr and MSA, group under SLː (SLL) also the complex ‘1 to drip, dribble, fall in drops, flow down, trickle; 2 (hence?:) chain’, treated in EtymArab s.v. ↗SLSL (with ↗tasalsala and ↗silsilaẗ).

     
    … 
    1 [v1] (OrelStolbova1994 #2274): Hbr šly, Ar salla ‘to pull out, withdraw, remove gently’, Jib sell ‘to drag away’. – Outside Sem: [WCh] šwal, sol, šollu, [CCh] 1 səl , 1 sisal (with partial redupl.), all ‘to pull’. –?2 [v2] Ar tasallala ‘to spread, extend; to slip, sneak, invade, infiltrate, penetrate’. –?3 [v5] (MilitarevKogan2005 SED I #246): Akk (oBab, SBab) silītu, šelītu, šalitu ‘afterbirth; womb (poet.)’, Hbr šilyā ‘afterbirth’, postBiblHbr šālīl ‘embryo’, JudAram šilyətā, šilyā; silyətā, sīlətā ‘afterbirth’; šillūlā ‘embryo, birth’, Syr šəlītā ‘secundina; membrana foetum tegens’, Mnd šulita ‘membrane enveloping the foetus’, Ar salaⁿ ‘membrane qui enveloppe le foetus’ (*salay); salīl ‘fils; foetus male’, Gz sayl ‘foetus, embryo’ (metathesis of y!), Te səlät ‘placenta, afterbirth’, Tña šəlät ‘placenta o seconda delle bestie’; šəl ‘feto ancora nel ventre della madre’, Amh šəl ‘foetus, embryo, conception’, (Gur) Msq šəl šäkkätä ‘to be in the first stage of pregnancy’ (šäkkätä ‘to arrange, make, do, etc.’, Muh šər, Gye šīr (<*sil), Cha Eza Enn šərər (< *silil) ‘embryo’. – Note s- instead of the expected š- in part of Akk and JudAram forms. –?4 Ar misallaẗ ‘large needle; obelisk’. –?5 [v8] IrqAr mustallaẗ ‘offprint’. –?6 [v4] Aram sallā (> Ar sallaẗ ‘basket’). –7 [v3] Ar sill ‘consumption, tuberculosis’, (>?) Gz salla, salala, Amh sällälä ‘to be paralyzed, be withered’. –8 ‘(aiding in) stealing’, ‘secret theft’, etc. < [v1/2] *‘gentle passing through a narrow opening’? –9 ‘to lose one’s teeth’ < [v1] ‘to draw/pull out gently’? –10-15 [v10] ‘pure wine’, [v11] ‘brain of the horse’, [v12] ‘spinal cord’, [v13] ‘(oblong?) slice of flesh having streaks, sinew’, [v14] ‘certain long fish’, [v15] ‘cotton; wool upon the spindle’: all homonymous with (and hence based on?) #3 [v5] ¹salīl ‘male foetus, embryo; descendant, scion, son’? If so, how? – For 15 cf., however, Dolgopolsky2012 #2057: (from SLː + ext. in K) silkaẗ ‘spun thread’; outside Sem: [CCh] Mbara sílé ‘rope, corde’, Mln sā̀ā̀lú, Bcm sàlaké ‘rope’; [IE] Heth sue|il- ‘Faden, Band’. –16 (Dolgopolsky2012 #2047): Akk (from oBab onwards) šīlu(m) ‘Vertiefung (Eindruck auf Leber, Magen usw. in Omina; Vertiefung im Gelände)’, ? Ar sāll ‘bottom of a valley’; outsided Sem: [ECush] Kns silla ‘small hole’, Rn sī́l ‘vagina, birth canal’; [SCush (Omot)] Kz silimbayo ‘cave’; [CChad] Ms sùllà, Bnn sùldà, BnnM sula ‘hole’. –17SLSL.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ SLː (SLL)_1 (OrelStolbova1994 #2274): from Sem *šul , with cognates in WCh *sol and CCh *s˅l , all ‘to pull’, all from AfrAs *sol ‘to pull’ (Fraenkel1886: *‘to draw’). – For Ehret’s view, cf. above, section CONC. – Based on, or akin to, SLː (SLL)_5 *‘placenta, afterbirth’ (< *‘what slips out, or is drawn out, gently’)? If such a relation is valid, one should prob. assume for the vb. (with Gabal2012) a wider basic meaning like *‘to (make) pass gently through a narrow opening’, including both directions of passing, i.e., a drawing/pulling out/off and pushing/squeezing in – in which case also SLː (SLL)_2 ‘to spread; to slip, sneak, invade, etc.’, SLː (SLL)_6 ‘large needle’ (perh. < *‘instrument used to make a thread pass through s.th.’) and SLː (SLL)_4 ‘basket’ (perh. < *‘perforated, punctured, pierced’) may be explained as deriving from SLː (SLL)_1.
    ▪ SLː (SLL)_2 tasallala ‘to spread, extend; to slip, sneak, invade, infiltrate, penetrate’: If SLː (SLL)_1 is not only *‘to draw/pull out gently’, but also *‘to push, squeeze in gently’, the notion of ‘slipping, sneaking, invading, etc.’ can easily be seen as deriving from SLː (SLL)_1. Similarly, ‘to spread, extend’ may be explained as resultative of ‘pulling out gently’ (*< ‘to spread, extend o.s. after having been drawn out gently’), perh. *‘like the placenta/afterbirth’ (SLː (SLL)_5). – Influenced by ↗tasalsala ‘to drip, dribble, fall in drops, flow down, trickle’?
    ▪ SLː (SLL)_3 sill ‘consumption, tuberculosis’: accord. to Rolland2014 a borrowing from Pers; if this is valid, the EthSem cognates (Gz salla, salala, Amh sällälä ‘to be paralyzed, be withered’ – Leslau2006) must be in turn borrowed from Ar.
    ▪ SLː (SLL)_4 sallaẗ ‘basket’: Fraenkel (1886: 75) thinks that several names for baskets in Ar are taken from Aram. »For some of them it is not easy to decide whether they are indigenous or foreign, see, e.g., sall, sallaẗ.« Accord. to the author, the term can neither be explained from SLː (SLL)_1 *‘to draw out’ nor from SLː (SLL)_6 *‘to pierce’. »It is also suspicious that f. sallaẗ is more common than m. sall (as is Aram kylth). The word is absent also from Gz.« – Corriente2008 holds that sallaẗ ‘basket’ is »indeed a cognate of Copt salo (Crum 330), but its presence in other NWSem tongues (cf. Aram sallā) means that it must have been borrowed from much older Egyptian.« – Should one, however, compare the homophonous sallaẗ ‘(Hava1899:) awl [small pointed tool used for piercing holes, esp. in leather], (Lane iv 1872:) one’s sewing (a skin, hide, etc.) with two thongs in a single puncture, or stitch-hole’; also ‘(Hava:) chink in a tank, (Lane:) fault\defect in a watering-trough or in a jar, breach, fissures in the ground that steal the water’? If related, the sallaẗ type of ‘basket’ would originally be a *‘thing with punctures, perforated’, thus akin to ↗misallaẗ ‘large needle’, so that a relation to the idea of *‘piercing’ should not be excluded.
    ▪ SLː (SLL)_5 sulālaẗ ‘progeny, offspring; family; race’: MilitarevKogan2005 (SED I) #246 reconstruct protSem *ša/ily(-at)- / *sa/ily(-at)‑ ‘afterbirth, fetal membrane’, protSem *šalīl/*salīl (postBiblHbr, JudAram, Ar, part of Gur) ‘embryo’. – Fronzaroli, Studi, 37-8 had *šily(-at)- ‘placenta’, *šalīl‑ ‘embrione’.
    ▪ SLː (SLL)_6 misallaẗ ‘large needle; obelisk’: accord. to Fraenkel (1886: 75) from a root with the basic meaning *‘to pierce’. But this would be without cognates in Sem, which is why it may be safer to assume a relation with SLː (SLL)_1 in the more general sense of ‘to (make) pass gently through’, so that misallaẗ would be the *‘instrument making (a thread, etc.) glide/pass smoothly through s.th.’. – The value ‘obelisk’ is, of course, the result of a transfer of the original meaning to a stone object *‘looking like a large needle’.
    ▪ SLː (SLL)_7 (IrqAr) mustallaẗ ‘offprint’: see above, section CONC.
    SLː (SLL)_8: see above, section CONC.
    SLː (SLL)_9: see above, section CONC. – For the form sallà, given only by Hava1899 and, strangely enough, grouped under SLː (SLL), not SLY, I would suspect a misreading of salaqa (see SLQ_26) or salaġa (↗SLĠ), or, most probably, a misspelling for salla (impf. i) which BK1860 has as ‘perdre ses dents’ (cf. also Lane iv 1872 who has sall ‘losing one’s teeth’).
    SLː (SLL)_10 ‘pure wine’: < *‘extract, best choice, essence’, based on SLː (SLL)_5 salīl ‘progeny’?
    SLː (SLL)_11 ‘brain of the horse’: use as simile, based on salīl ‘placenta, afterbirth’ (SLː (SLL)_5)?
    SLː (SLL)_12 ‘spinal cord’: Should one compare ↗silsilaẗ al-ẓahr, silsilaẗ faqriyyaẗ ‘backbone, vertebral column’? – Cf. also the fact that [v12] shares with [v13] and [v14], and perh. also [v15] and [v16], the notion of *‘long, drawn out’, which may point to a relation with SLː (SLL)_1 < SLː (SLL)_5.
    SLː (SLL)_13-14: see above, section CONC, and preceding paragraph on [v12].
    SLː (SLL)_15: Is the value ‘cotton; wool upon the spindle’ originally *‘s.th. drawn gently out’, thus akin to salīl ‘placenta, afterbirth’ (SLː (SLL)_5)? Cf. also above, section CONC, and [v12] in this section. – Dolgopolsky2012#2057 draws a parallel to ↗silkaẗ ‘spun thread’ (from Sem *°√Š|SLK, perh. /*°š|silak-/, which he thinks may be an extension in K, based on Sem *°√Š|SLL ‘wool upon the spindle’, whence Ar salīlaẗ ‘dto.’). On account of the AfrAs (CChad) and IE (Heth) ‘cognates’ he reconstructs hypothetical Nostr *sül̄˻w˼˅ ‘thread, string’.
    SLː (SLL)_16: Like possibly also the preceding, also ‘bottom of a valley; stream in a valley’ may be a semantic extension going back to a basic *‘drawn out’. – Cf. however also above, section CONC. – Dolgopolsky2012 #2047 would not exclude a relation with Akk šīlu(m) ‘Vertiefung (Eindruck auf Leber, Magen usw. in Omina; Vertiefung im Gelände’ and thus consider a deeper Sem dimension. Moreover, he sees cognates also outside Sem and reconstructs ECu *sill- ‘small hole’, SCu [Omot] *sila ‘cave’, CCu *? ‘hole’, all from a hypothetical Nostr ²*Sil˅ ‘hole’. »The deviant vowel *u [in some forms] may be due to the contamination with the reflex of Nostr *šuʕ̱l˹ê˺ ‘throat, mouth’ (q.v.) [cf. Ar ↗saʕala ‘to cough’].«

    ▪ SLː (SLL)_17 : It is not clear whether also the complex ‘to drip, dribble, fall in drops, flow down, trickle’ (↗SLSL, esp. ↗tasalsala) should be seen together with SLː (SLL)_1 *‘to pass gently through an opening’, or whether it is based on unrelated (?) ‘chain’ (↗silsilaẗ).

     
    … 
    … 
    sall‑ / salal‑ سَلّـ / سَلَلْــ , u (sall
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 4Feb2022, last updated 4Jul2022
    √SLː (SLL) 
    vb., I 
    1 to pull out, withdraw, or remove gently; 2 pass. sulla, to have pulmonary tuberculosis, be consumptive – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ This entry is on [v1] only. For [v2], see ↗sill.
    ▪ Accord. to Ehret1989 #21, geminated salla is the direct reflex (without extensions) of a pre-protSem 2-rad. root ↗*SL ‘to draw out or off’. In addition, many extensions in a third radical exist, each with slightly modified meaning, see ↗salaʔa, ↗salaba, ↗salata, ↗salaḥa, ↗salaḫa, ↗saliʕa, ↗salafa, ↗salaqa.
    ▪ OrelStolbova1994 #2274 reconstruct Sem *šul < AfrAs *sol ‘to pull’ (on account of assumed cognates in WCh and CCh).
    ▪ Any relation to (MilitarevKogan2005 SED I #246) protSem *ša/ily(-at)- / *sa/ily(-at)‑ ‘afterbirth, fetal membrane’, (Fronzaroli, Studi, 37-8) *šily(-at)- ‘placenta’ (see ↗sulālaẗ)? If valid, the vb. could be denom.; otherwise, the placenta/afterbirth could be imagined as *‘what is drawn out slowly’.
    ▪ Probably, also the Dt-stem ↗tasallala ‘to spread, extend; to slip, sneak, invade, infiltrate, penetrate’ is related, so that one may have to assume a more general basic meaning *‘to (make) pass through a narrow opening’, supplementing the one-directional ‘pulling, drawing’ with a movement away from the speaker.
    ▪ If valid, a more general basic meaning (*‘to pass gently through a narrow opening’) should prob. be assumed (cf. Gabal2012), in which case also ↗misallaẗ ‘large needle’ can be regarded as a derivative (n.instr.).
    ▪ … 
    … 
    1 (OrelStolbova1994 #2274): Hbr šly, Ar salla ‘to pull out, withdraw, remove gently’, Jib sell ‘to drag away’. – Outside Sem: [WCh] šwal, sol, šollu, [CCh] 1 səl , 1 sisal (with partial redupl.), all ‘to pull’. –?2 Ar tasallala ‘to spread, extend; to slip, sneak, invade, infiltrate, penetrate’. –?3 (MilitarevKogan2005 SED I #246): Akk (oBab, SBab) silītu, šelītu, šalitu ‘afterbirth; womb (poet.)’, Hbr šilyā ‘afterbirth’, postBiblHbr šālīl ‘embryo’, JudAram šilyətā, šilyā; silyətā, sīlətā ‘afterbirth’; šillūlā ‘embryo, birth’, Syr šəlītā ‘secundina; membrana foetum tegens’, Mnd šulita ‘membrane enveloping the foetus’, Ar salaⁿ ‘membrane qui enveloppe le foetus’ (*salay); salīl ‘fils; foetus male’, Gz sayl ‘foetus, embryo’ (metathesis of y!), Te səlät ‘placenta, afterbirth’, Tña šəlät ‘placenta o seconda delle bestie’; šəl ‘feto ancora nel ventre della madre’, Amh šəl ‘foetus, embryo, conception’, (Gur) Msq šəl šäkkätä ‘to be in the first stage of pregnancy’ (šäkkätä ‘to arrange, make, do, etc.’, Muh šər, Gye šīr (<*sil), Cha Eza Enn šərər (< *silil) ‘embryo’. – Note s- instead of the expected š- in part of Akk and JudAram forms. –?4 Ar misallaẗ ‘large needle; obelisk’. –?5 IrqAr mustallaẗ ‘offprint’. –615 […].
    ▪ … 
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ĭstalla, vb. VIII, 1a to pull out or remove gently (‑h s.th.); b to withdraw gently (‑h s.th., e.g., kaffahū one’s hand, ʕan from); c to unsheathe, draw (‑h the sword); 2 to wrest, snatch (‑h s.th., min from s.o.): Gt-stem, self-ref.

    salīl, n., 1 drawn (sword): quasi-PP; 2 descendant, scion, son ↗sulālaẗ; may, however, also be a direct derivation, in the sense off *‘what come out, originates from (the same womb)’.
    mustallaẗ, pl. ‑āt, offprint (IrqAr): PP VIII, < *‘drawn out smoothly’ of/from the original’.

    For other meanings attached to the root, cf. ↗tasallala, ↗sill, ↗sallaẗ, ↗sulālaẗ, and ↗misallaẗ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√SLː (SLL). 
    tasallal‑ تَسَلَّل (tasallul
    ID … • Sw – • BP 3974 • APD … • © SG | 19Mar2022
    √SLː (SLL) 
    vb., V 
    1 to spread, extend, get (ʔilà to), reach (ʔilà 1.th.); 2a to steal away, slink away, slip away, escape; b to slip, slink, sneak, steal ʔilà into); c to betake o.s., go (ʔilà to, with secret designs); d to invade, infiltrate, enter (ʔilà s.th.); e to penetrate (ʔilà to, so far as) – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Prob. akin to, or directly derived (as Dt-stem) from ↗salla which, normally, only means ‘to pull out, withdraw, or remove gently’ but may be based on the more general notion of *‘to (make) pass through a narrow opening’, itself prob. akin to the protSem *ša/ily(-at)- / *sa/ily(-at)‑ ‘afterbirth, fetal membrane, placenta’, see ↗sulālaẗ.
    ▪ …
     
    … 
    1 (OrelStolbova1994 #2274): Hbr šly, Ar salla ‘to pull out, withdraw, remove gently’, Jib sell ‘to drag away’. – Outside Sem: [WCh] šwal, sol, šollu, [CCh] 1 səl , 1 sisal (with partial redupl.), all ‘to pull’. –?2 Ar tasallala ‘to spread, extend; to slip, sneak, invade, infiltrate, penetrate’. –?3 (MilitarevKogan2005 SED I #246): Akk (oBab, SBab) silītu, šelītu, šalitu ‘afterbirth; womb (poet.)’, Hbr šilyā ‘afterbirth’, postBiblHbr šālīl ‘embryo’, JudAram šilyətā, šilyā; silyətā, sīlətā ‘afterbirth’; šillūlā ‘embryo, birth’, Syr šəlītā ‘secundina; membrana foetum tegens’, Mnd šulita ‘membrane enveloping the foetus’, Ar salaⁿ ‘membrane qui enveloppe le foetus’ (*salay); salīl ‘fils; foetus male’, Gz sayl ‘foetus, embryo’ (metathesis of y!), Te səlät ‘placenta, afterbirth’, Tña šəlät ‘placenta o seconda delle bestie’; šəl ‘feto ancora nel ventre della madre’, Amh šəl ‘foetus, embryo, conception’, (Gur) Msq šəl šäkkätä ‘to be in the first stage of pregnancy’ (šäkkätä ‘to arrange, make, do, etc.’, Muh šər, Gye šīr (<*sil), Cha Eza Enn šərər (< *silil) ‘embryo’. – Note s- instead of the expected š- in part of Akk and JudAram forms. –?4 Ar misallaẗ ‘large needle; obelisk’. –515 […].
    ▪ … 
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
     
    – 
    ĭnsalla, vb. VII, 1a to steal away, slink away, slip away, escape; b to slip, slink, sneak, steal (ʔilà into); c to infiltrate (ʔilà s.th., also pol.); d to advance singly or in small groups (troops in the field; mil.); 2 to have pulmonary tuberculosis, be consumptive ↗sill

    BP#4290tasallul, n., 1 infiltration (pol.); 2 offside position (in football, hockey, etc.)
    ĭnsilāl, n., infiltration (pol.)

    For other meanings attached to the root, cf. ↗salla, ↗sill, ↗sallaẗ, ↗sulālaẗ, ↗misallaẗ, and ↗mustallaẗ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√SLː (SLL). 
    sill سِلّ , var. sull سُلّ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 19Mar2022, last update 4Jul2022
    √SLː (SLL) 
    n. 
    consumption, phthisis, tuberculosis – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ Accord. to Rolland2014 from Pers sil ‘consumption, tuberculosis’, perh. akin to sal, sull ‘lungs’.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ▪ (Leslau2006: Ar salla ‘to be consumptive’, Gz salla, salala, Amh sällälä ‘to be paralyzed, be withered’.)
    ▪ … 
    ▪ If Rolland2014 is right and the word is from Pers, then the EthSem parallels given by Leslau2006 must be in turn borrowed from Ar.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    al-sull al-tadarrunī, tuberculosis;
    al-sull al-riʔawī, pulmonary tuberculosis

    ĭnsalla, vb. VII, 1tasallala; 2 to have pulmonary tuberculosis, be consumptive: N-stem, denom., pass./intr.

    maslūl, adj., consumptive, affected with pulmonary tuberculosis: PP I, denom.< /p> For other meanings attached to the root, cf. ↗salla, ↗tasallala, ↗sallaẗ, ↗sulālaẗ, ↗misallaẗ, and ↗mustallaẗ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√SLː (SLL). 
    sallaẗ سَلّة , pl. silāl 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 2188 • APD … • © SG | 19Mar2022
    √SLː (SLL) 
    n.f. 
    basket – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ Earlier theories argued for a foreign origing (Aram, Copt), though the word may be genuin Ar.
    ▪ Fraenkel1886 from Aram sallā ‘basket’; accord. to Corriente2008 a borrowing from Eg (cf. Copt salo) (but, prob., the inverse is the case).
    ▪ Any relation to the homophonic sallaẗ ‘(Hava1899:) awl [small pointed tool used for piercing holes, esp. in leather], (Lane iv 1872:) one’s sewing (a skin, hide, etc.) with two thongs in a single puncture, or stitch-hole’; also ‘(Hava:) chink in a tank, (Lane:) fault\defect in a watering-trough or in a jar, breach, fissures in the ground that steal the water’? If connected, the sallaẗ type of basket may originally have been a *‘thing with punctures’, thus related to ↗misallaẗ ‘large needle’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ? sallaẗ ‘awl; sewing with two thongs; chink in a tank, fault\defect in a watering-trough\jar, breach’, misallaẗ ‘large needle’? – (If loanword: cf. Aram sallā, Copt salo ‘basket’).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Fraenkel (1886: 75) thinks that several names for baskets in Ar are taken from Aram. »For some of them it is not easy to decide whether they are indigenous or foreign, see, e.g., sall, sallaẗ.« Accord. to the author, the term can neither be explained from ↗salla *‘to draw out’ nor from salla *‘to pierce’. »It is also suspicious that f. sallaẗ is more common than m. sall (as is Aram kylth). The word is absent also from Gz.«
    ▪ Corriente2008 holds that sallaẗ ‘basket’ is »indeed a cognate of Copt salo (Crum 330), but its presence in other NWSem tongues (cf. Aram sallā) means that it must have been borrowed from much older Egyptian.« – In contrast, both Crum and, after him, Černy1976, think it is the other way round, i.e., that the Copt word is a loan from Sem.
    ▪ Cf., however, section CONC above, for the possibility of a connection with sallaẗ ‘awl; sewing with two thongs; chink in a tank, fault\defect in a watering-trough\jar, breach’. – If connected, one would have to assume a long chain of semantic development: *‘to (make) pass through a narrow opening’ (↗salla) > * ‘to pierce, sew’ (↗misallaẗ) > *‘opening, puncture’ > *‘basket with small openings, as though punctured by a needle’.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    sallaẗ al-muhmalāt, n.f., wastepaper basket;
    kuraẗ al-sallaẗ, n.f., basketball

    sall, n., basket
    sallāl, n., basketmaker, basket weaver

    For other meanings attached to the root, cf. ↗salla, ↗tasallala, ↗sill, ↗sulālaẗ, ↗misallaẗ, and ↗mustallaẗ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√SLː (SLL). 
    sulālaẗ سُلالة , pl. ‑āt 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 19Mar2022, last updated 4Jul2022
    √SLː (SLL) 
    n.f. 
    1a descendant, scion; b progeny, offspring; c family; 2a race; b strain, stock, provenience (of economic plants) – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ The word is with all probability akin to salīl ‘male foetus, embryo; descendant, scion, son’, salaⁿ ‘membrane qui enveloppe le foetus’ (*salay , √SLY), from protSem *ša/ily(-at)- / *sa/ily(-at)‑ ‘afterbirth, fetal membrane’ – MilitarevKogan2005 (SED I) #246.
    ▪ The latter may in itself be related to ↗salla ‘to draw out slowly, remove gently’ (unless the vb. is denom.).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Cf. also salīl, n., ‘colt’, and salīlaẗ, n.f., ‘filly’ – Hava1899.
    ▪ …
     
    1 (OrelStolbova1994 #2274): Hbr šly, Ar salla ‘to pull out, withdraw, remove gently’, Jib sell ‘to drag away’. – Outside Sem: [WCh] šwal, sol, šollu, [CCh] 1 səl , 1 sisal (with partial redupl.), all ‘to pull’. –?2 Ar tasallala ‘to spread, extend; to slip, sneak, invade, infiltrate, penetrate’. –?3 (MilitarevKogan2005 SED I #246): Akk (oBab, SBab) silītu, šelītu, šalitu ‘afterbirth; womb (poet.)’, Hbr šilyā ‘afterbirth’, postBiblHbr šālīl ‘embryo’, JudAram šilyətā, šilyā; silyətā, sīlətā ‘afterbirth’; šillūlā ‘embryo, birth’, Syr šəlītā ‘secundina; membrana foetum tegens’, Mnd šulita ‘membrane enveloping the foetus’, Ar salaⁿ ‘membrane qui enveloppe le foetus’ (*salay); salīl ‘fils; foetus male’, Gz sayl ‘foetus, embryo’ (metathesis of y!), Te səlät ‘placenta, afterbirth’, Tña šəlät ‘placenta o seconda delle bestie’; šəl ‘feto ancora nel ventre della madre’, Amh šəl ‘foetus, embryo, conception’, (Gur) Msq šəl šäkkätä ‘to be in the first stage of pregnancy’ (šäkkätä ‘to arrange, make, do, etc.’, Muh šər, Gye šīr (<*sil), Cha Eza Enn šərər (< *silil) ‘embryo’. – Note s- instead of the expected š- in part of Akk and JudAram forms. –?4 Ar misallaẗ ‘large needle; obelisk’. –515 […].
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC, as well as, for more details, ↗salla and root entry ↗√SLː (SLL).
    ▪ … 
    – 
    sulālī, adj., family… (adj.): nisba formation.
    salīl, n., 1 drawn (sword) ↗salla; 2 descendant, scion, son: quasi-PP I.
    salīlaẗ, pl. salāʔilᵘ, n.f., (female) descendant: f. or preceding item.

    For other meanings attached to the root, cf. ↗salla, ↗tasallala, ↗sill, ↗sallaẗ, ↗misallaẗ, and ↗mustallaẗ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√SLː (SLL). 
    misallaẗ مِسَلّة , pl. ‑āt, masāllᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 19Mar2022, last updated 4Jul2022
    √SLː (SLL) 
    n.f. 
    1 large needle, pack needle; 2 obelisk – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ The modern use in the sense of ‘obelisk’ is the result of a transfer of meaning from the earlier ‘large needle’ which, accord. to Fraenkel (1886: 75), would be from ↗salla in the sense of *‘to pierce’; more likely, however, is a dependence on salla with an assumed basic value of *‘to pass gently through a narrow opening’ (as suggested by Gabal2012). Morphologically a n.instr., misallaẗ is thus prob. orig. an *‘instrument making (a thread, etc.) glide/pass smoothly through s.th. (tissue, skin, etc.)’.
    ▪ For a possible dependence of the underlying vb. salla on protSem *ša/ily(-at)- / *sa/ily(-at)‑ ‘placenta, afterbirth, fetal membrane’, see ↗salla and root entry ↗SLː (SLL).
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    1 (OrelStolbova1994 #2274): Hbr šly, Ar salla ‘to pull out, withdraw, remove gently’, Jib sell ‘to drag away’. – Outside Sem: [WCh] šwal, sol, šollu, [CCh] 1 səl , 1 sisal (with partial redupl.), all ‘to pull’. –?2 Ar tasallala ‘to spread, extend; to slip, sneak, invade, infiltrate, penetrate’. –?3 (MilitarevKogan2005 SED I #246): Akk (oBab, SBab) silītu, šelītu, šalitu ‘afterbirth; womb (poet.)’, Hbr šilyā ‘afterbirth’, postBiblHbr šālīl ‘embryo’, JudAram šilyətā, šilyā; silyətā, sīlətā ‘afterbirth’; šillūlā ‘embryo, birth’, Syr šəlītā ‘secundina; membrana foetum tegens’, Mnd šulita ‘membrane enveloping the foetus’, Ar salaⁿ ‘membrane qui enveloppe le foetus’ (*salay); salīl ‘fils; foetus male’, Gz sayl ‘foetus, embryo’ (metathesis of y!), Te səlät ‘placenta, afterbirth’, Tña šəlät ‘placenta o seconda delle bestie’; šəl ‘feto ancora nel ventre della madre’, Amh šəl ‘foetus, embryo, conception’, (Gur) Msq šəl šäkkätä ‘to be in the first stage of pregnancy’ (šäkkätä ‘to arrange, make, do, etc.’, Muh šər, Gye šīr (<*sil), Cha Eza Enn šərər (< *silil) ‘embryo’. – Note s- instead of the expected š- in part of Akk and JudAram forms. –?4 Ar misallaẗ ‘large needle; obelisk’. –515.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    For other meanings attached to the root, cf. ↗salla, ↗tasallala, ↗sill, ↗sallaẗ, ↗sulālaẗ, and ↗mustallaẗ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√SLː (SLL). 
    mustallaẗ مُسْتَلّة , pl. ‑āt 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 19Mar2022, last updated 4Jul2022
    √SLː (SLL) 
    n.f. 
    offprint (IrqAr) – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ Morphologically a f. PP from ĭstalla, vb. VIII, ‘to pull out or remove gently’, Gt-stem of ↗salla ‘to draw/pull out gently’. Thus, a mustallaẗ ‘offprint’ is, basically, a copy *> smoothly drawn out’ of/from an original. – Cf. also ↗sulālaẗ ‘progeny, offspring’ with which ‘offprint’ shares the notion of a reproduction from an original source.
    ▪ For the etymology of the underlying vb. salla cf. ↗s.v..
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    1 (OrelStolbova1994 #2274): Hbr šly, Ar salla ‘to pull out, withdraw, remove gently’, Jib sell ‘to drag away’. – Outside Sem: [WCh] šwal, sol, šollu, [CCh] 1 səl , 1 sisal (with partial redupl.), all ‘to pull’. –?2 Ar tasallala ‘to spread, extend; to slip, sneak, invade, infiltrate, penetrate’. –?3 (MilitarevKogan2005 SED I #246): Akk (oBab, SBab) silītu, šelītu, šalitu ‘afterbirth; womb (poet.)’, Hbr šilyā ‘afterbirth’, postBiblHbr šālīl ‘embryo’, JudAram šilyətā, šilyā; silyətā, sīlətā ‘afterbirth’; šillūlā ‘embryo, birth’, Syr šəlītā ‘secundina; membrana foetum tegens’, Mnd šulita ‘membrane enveloping the foetus’, Ar salaⁿ ‘membrane qui enveloppe le foetus’ (*salay); salīl ‘fils; foetus male’, Gz sayl ‘foetus, embryo’ (metathesis of y!), Te səlät ‘placenta, afterbirth’, Tña šəlät ‘placenta o seconda delle bestie’; šəl ‘feto ancora nel ventre della madre’, Amh šəl ‘foetus, embryo, conception’, (Gur) Msq šəl šäkkätä ‘to be in the first stage of pregnancy’ (šäkkätä ‘to arrange, make, do, etc.’, Muh šər, Gye šīr (<*sil), Cha Eza Enn šərər (< *silil) ‘embryo’. – Note s- instead of the expected š- in part of Akk and JudAram forms. –?4 Ar misallaẗ ‘large needle; obelisk’. –5 IrqAr mustallaẗ ‘offprint’. –615 […].
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    For other meanings attached to the root, cf. ↗salla, ↗tasallala, ↗sill, ↗sallaẗ, ↗sulālaẗ, and ↗misallaẗ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√SLː (SLL). 
    SLʔ سلأ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 4Feb2022, last update 16Apr2022
    √SLʔ 
    “root” 
    ▪ SLʔ_1 ‘to purify butter, press sesame oil’ ↗salaʔa

    Other values, now obsolete, include (Lane iv 1872, Hava1899):

    SLʔ_2 ‘prickles of palm-trees; (hence also: ) arrow-head; a certain bird, dust-colored, and long-legged’: sullāʔ; cf. also (denom.?) salaʔa, vb. I, ‘to pluck off the (prickles of a tree)’
    SLʔ_3 ‘to pay (promptly, quickly, ready money) to s.o.’: salaʔa
    SLʔ_4 ‘to inflict (many, a hundred) lashes (on s.o.)’: salaʔa
    SLʔ_5 ‘…’ ↗

     
    ▪ SLʔ_1 : Accord. to Ehret1989 #21 an extension in »concisive« * ʔ from a 2-rad. pre-protSem root ↗*SL ‘to draw out or off’, preserved in Ar ↗salla ‘to draw out slowly’. Other extensions from the same basis would include ↗salaba, ↗salata, ↗salaḥa, ↗salaḫa, ↗saliʕa, ↗salafa, ↗salaqa.
    SLʔ_2 : Any relation between ‘(to pluck off) prickles of a palm-tree’ and SLʔ_1 ‘to clarify butter’? – See DISC, below.
    SLʔ_3 : Identity of terminology with SLʔ_1 ‘to clarify butter\oil’ and SLʔ_2 ‘to pluck off the prickles (of a palm-tree)’ suggests semantic kinship, though the exact nature of this relation remains obscure.
    SLʔ_4 : Is the ‘infliction of lashes’ derived from SLʔ_2 ‘to pluck off the prickles (of a palm-tree)’ (as lashing s.o. with palm fronds would make the latter lose their prickles)?
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ SLʔ_1 : See above, section CONC, and discussion below s.v. SLʔ_2.
    SLʔ_2 : Should the notions of ‘(to pluck off) prickles of a palm-tree’ and SLʔ_1 ‘to clarify butter’ be seen together? If the vb. is not denom. from sullāʔ ‘prickles’ and the latter rather dependent on the vb., then ‘plucking off prickles’ and ‘clarifying butter’ may have the *‘removal of unwanted bubbles, prickles, or similar’ in common.
    SLʔ_3 : See above, section CONC.
    SLʔ_4 : See above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    salaʔ‑ سَلَأ , a (salʔ
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 4Feb2022, last updated 25Feb2022
    √SLʔ 
    vb., I 
    to clarify (butter) – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Accord. to Ehret1989#21 an extension in »concisive« * from a 2-rad. pre-protSem root ↗*SL ‘to draw out or off’, preserved in Ar ↗salla ‘to draw out slowly’. Other extensions from the same basis include ↗salaba, ↗salata, ↗salaḥa, ↗salaḫa, ↗saliʕa, ↗salafa, ↗salaqa.
    ▪ Any relation with other, now obsolete values (see HIST)? – See below, section DISC.
     
    ▪ Other meanings of salaʔa, now obsolete, include ‘to pluck off the (prickles of a tree)’ (↗SLʔ_2), ‘to pay (promptly, quickly, ready money) to s.o.’ (↗SLʔ_3), and ‘to inflict (many, a hundred) lashes (on s.o.)’ (↗SLʔ_4).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
    ▪ For cognates in the wider sense (accord. to Ehret), see sections CONC and DISC.
     
    ▪ Accord. to Ehret1989 #21 an extension in »concisive« * ʔ from a 2-rad. pre-protSem root ↗*SL ‘to draw out or off’, preserved in Ar ↗salla ‘to draw out slowly’. Other extensions from the same basis would include ↗salaba, ↗salata, ↗salaḥa, ↗salaḫa, ↗saliʕa, ↗salafa, ↗salaqa.
    ▪ The identity of verbal terminology for ‘clarifying butter\oil’ and other, now obsolete values (see HIST) suggests some kind of kinship between the clarification of butter\oil and the other activities designated earlier by salaʔa, such as ‘plucking off the prickles (of a palm-tree)’, ‘inflicting lashes upon s.o.’, and ‘paying ready money to s.o.’. But the exact nature of this relation, if valid, would remain to be explained.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    silāʔ, pl. ʔasliʔaẗ, n., clarified butter 
    SLB سلب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, updated 5Jul2022
    √SLB 
    “root” 
    ▪ SLB_1 ‘to take way, steal, rob, plunder, loot’ ↗salaba
    ▪ SLB_2 ‘to put on or wear mourning, be in mourning’ ↗saliba
    ▪ SLB_3 ‘negative’ ↗salbī
    ▪ SLB_4 ‘spoils\hide, shanks and belly of a slaughtered animal’ ↗²salab
    ▪ SLB_5 ‘ropes, hawsers’ ↗EgAr ³salab
    ▪ SLB_6 ‘method, way, manner, mode, style’ ↗ʔuslūb

    Other values, now obsolete, include (Hava1899, Lane iv 1872, Wahrmund1887):

    SLB_7 : ʔaslaba, vb. IV, ‘to lose its leaves (tree)’, sallabat and ʔaslabat, vb. II/IV (f.), ‘to become deprived of one’s young one (she-camel); to lose one’s child (woman)’
    SLB_8 : ¹salib, adj., ‘light, active, quick’; ĭnsalaba, vb. VII, ‘to walk quickly, go at a very quick pace (horse, camel)’
    SLB_9 : ²salib, adj., ‘long, tall’
    SLB_ 10 : ²salaba, vb. I, ‘rohe Seide spinnen’, ²salb, n., ‘gesponnene Rohseide | (LevAr) spun silk’
    SLB_11 : silb, n., ‘Pflugsterz | plough-handle, (Lane:) the longest thing of the apparatus of the plough, piece of wood that is joined to the base of the […] ploughshare, its end being inserted in the hole\perforation of the latter’
    SLB_12 : salab, n., ‘bark of reeds; tree-fibres’
    SLB_13 : salab, n., ‘kind of hyacinth’
    SLB_14 : LevAr salab, n., ‘moorings’
    SLB_15 : ʔuslūb, n., ‘neck of a lion | cou du lion’
    SLB_16 : LevAr salbīn? al-ḥimār, n., ‘cotton-thistle’
    SLB_ : ‘…’

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (accord. to BAH2008): ‘to strip, peel off; to plunder, carry off by force; a row of palm trees, road’ 
    ▪ SLB_1 : Accord. to Ehret1989 #21 an extension in »finitive fortative« * b from a 2-rad. pre-protSem root ↗*SL ‘to draw out or off’,71 preserved in Ar ↗salla ‘to draw out slowly’ (for other such extensions, see below, section DISC). – In contrast, MilitarevKogan2005 (SED I) CXIV reconstruct protSem *šlṗ ‘to draw, pull out, unsheathe’. Dolgopolsky2012 #2058 has Sem *√Š|SLB ~ *√ŠLP < Nostr *śal˅b˅ ‘to cut out, pull out’. – Most of the values assembled in the root √SLB seem to go back to a basic *‘drawing out, taking away, depriving s.o. of s.th.’ (see below, section DISC).
    ▪ SLB_2 : The value ‘to put on or wear mourning, be in mourning’ is based on [v1] ‘to take away, strip, deprive s.o. of s.th.’, either (as in BK1860) 1 être privé d’un member de sa famille, et de là 2 porter le deuil’ or (as in Lane iv 1872 for tasallaba, vb. V) ‘to abstain from the wearing of ornaments, and the use of perfumes, and dye for the hands &c., and put on the garments of mourning’.
    ▪ SLB_3 salbī ‘negative’: < [v1] *‘to take away, strip, deprive of’: cf. (BK1860) ¹salab ‘absence de tout rapport entre les choses; absence de telles ou telles qualités ou attributs’
    ▪ SLB_4 ²salab ‘spoils\hide, shanks and belly of a slaughtered animal’: accord. to Lane (iv 1872) »[apparently] so called because given to the slaughterer, as though they were his spoil; or, in the case of an animal of the chase, to the dog/s«, i.e., from [v1] *‘to take away, strip, deprive of’; one may also think of an original meaning of *‘what is drawn out (sc. of the slaughtered animal)’.
    ▪ SLB_5 EgAr ³salab ‘ropes, hawsers’; cf. also salabaẗ, n.f., ‘string\cord that is tied to the muzzle\nose of the camel; sinew that is bound upon an arrow’: prob. based on [v12] salab ‘bark of reeds; tree-fibres’, esp. perh. [v13] salab ‘kind of hyacinth’ (prob. identical with [v16] salbīn (al-ḥimār) ‘cotton-thistle’); ultimately prob. related to [v1] *‘to take away, strip, deprive of’, as the fibres from which the ropes\hawsers are twisted are ‘taken out’ of the plant. – From ³salab is also ²sallāb, n., ‘seller\manufacturer of ropes or baskets made of ³salab’.
    ▪ SLB_6 ʔuslūb ‘method, way, manner, mode, style’: In addition to the modern meanings, there is (Hava1899 and others) also the older ‘road’ as well as (Lane iv 1872, BadawiAbdelHaleem2008) ‘row of palm-trees’. Lane thinks the latter »is app[arently] the primary signification, as seems to be indicated by its occupying the first place in the TA [Tāǧ al-ʕArūs]«. – Relations to the large ‘[v1] and derivatives’ complex cannot be excluded but would be difficult to prove; perh. either from *‘way of twisting ropes’ (↗SLB_5) or *‘way of (cleverly) getting away with s.th.’ (↗SLB_1). For more details see section DISC in entry ↗ʔuslūb.

    SLB_7 : The common denominator in all these items is *‘to lose, be deprived of’, i.e., a derivation from [v1] ‘to take away s.th. from s.o., deprive s.o. of s.th.’: ‘to lose its leaves (tree)’, ‘to become deprived of one’s young one (she-camel); to lose one’s child (woman)’; cf. also the quasi-PP I, ²salīb, adj./n. ‘woman whose husband has died [see v2]; she-camel\gazelle despoiled\deprived of her young one’.
    SLB_8 : Accord. to ClassAr lexicographers as quoted by BK1860 or Lane iv 1872, the meaning ‘light, active, quick’ of the adj. ¹salib can be explained as dependent on [v1] * ‘to take away, take off, deprive’, cf., e.g., vb. VII ĭnsalabat-i l-nāqaẗᵘ ‘the she-camel went so quick a pace that she was as though she went forth from her skin, or she outstripped’ (Lane iv 1872), salib ‘léger et agile, dégourdi, dégagé ou qui dégage et lance facilement qc’ (BK1860). According to Lane, a vb. I belonging to ¹salb ‘going\journeying, lightly and quickly (Lane); quick step (Hava)’ is not mentioned in the lexica; cf., however, the iḍāfa adj./n.s salib al-yadayn ‘qui a de l’adresse dans les mains, qui travaille vite | light-handed’, and (faras) salib al-qawāʔim ‘swift runner | cheval dégagé des jambes, rapide à la course’. – In Wahrmund1887, [v8] ‘light, active, quick’ is regarded as one with [v9] ‘long, tall’ (see below).
    SLB_9 : ²salib, adj., ‘tall | (BK1860:) long, particulièrem. lance très-longue’: prob. identical with (extended meaning from ¹salib, see preceding item). Wahrmund1887 has ‘langgestreckt und leicht’, combining [v8] and [v9].
    SLB_10 : LevAr ²salb ‘spun silk’ and the corresponding vb. I, ²salaba ‘rohe Seide spinnen’ (Wahrmund1887) are prob. special usage of [v5] ³salab ‘ropes, hawsers’ < [v12] ‘bark of reeds; tree-fibres’, esp. perh. [v13] ‘kind of hyacinth’/[v16] salbīn (al-ḥimār) ‘cotton-thistle’), ultimately prob. related to [v1] *‘to take away, strip, deprive of’ (see above).
    SLB_11 : The etymology of silb ‘plough-handle’ remains obscure so far.
    SLB_12 : Accord. to Lane iv 1872, salab means »[particularly] the bark\rind of a kind of tree, well known in El-Yemen, of which ropes [see v5] are made, and which is coarser and harder than the fibres of the Theban palm-tree; hence it is that a well-known kind of [thick] rope [made of the fibres of the common palm-tree] is called by the vulgar salabaẗ; bark of a kind of tree of which are made [baskets of the kind called] silāl [↗sallaẗ]; there is a market called sūq al-sallābīn [see v5, above] in El-Medeeneh […] , as being the market [of the sellers, or manufacturers, of what are made] of salab; […] accord. to Forskål (Flora Aegyptiaco-Arabica, […]) this name is applied in El-Yemen to a species of hyacinth, which he terms hyacinthus aporus]«. If these data are reliable we may assume that [v5] ‘ropes, hawsers’ is from [v12] ‘bark of reeds; tree-fibres’, esp. perh. [v13] ‘kind of hyacinth’/[v16] ‘cotton-thistle’), ultimately prob. related to [v1] *‘to take away, strip, deprive of’ (see above), because in the fabrication process, fibres needed for twisting a rope are isolated (*‘drawn out’) from the plant.
    SLB_13 : The salab ‘kind of hyacinth’ is prob. the plant the fibres of which are used to twist the [v5] type of ropes, cf. LandbergZetterstéen1942: »salab est aussi le nom d’une plante, Sanseviera Ehrenbergii72 (Hyacinthus aporus, Forsk[ål], Lane [et al.]), dont les feuilles contiennent des fibres [↗v12], employées pour la fabrication de cordes [↗v5], […] et c’est pourquoi ce mot est usité dans le sens de ‘cordes | Stricke’ (Schäfer, Lieder eines ägypt. Bauern n° X, 1,3 […]).«
    SLB_14 : Is Levsalab ‘moorings’ dependent on [v5] ‘ropes, hawsers’?
    SLB_15 : The value ‘neck of a lion’ of ʔuslūb is prob. some kind of metaphorical usage, but how would it be derived? Obscure semantics.
    SLB_16 : LevAr salbīn? al-ḥimār ‘cotton-thistle’ is, with all likelihood, identical with [v13], i.e., the ‘kind of hyacinth’ that is prob. the plant the fibres of which are used to twist the [v5] type of ropes.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    1 MilitarevKogan2005 (SED I) CXIV and Dolgopolsky2012 #2058: Akk šalāpu ‘to draw from a sheath, tear out, pull out, rescue’ (from oBab on); Hbr šālap ‘to pull out, pull off, take out’; JudAram šlp ‘to loosen, pull, draw’, TargAram √ŠLP G ‘to loosen, pull, draw’, JEAram √ŠLP G ‘to pull off\out, remove, draw’, ChrPalAram √ŠLP G ‘to draw from a sheath’, SamAram √ŠLP G ‘do.; to remove’, Syr šlap ‘extraxit, evellit’, Mnd šlp ‘to pull out, draw out, extract, unsheath, pluck out’ ~ Ar salaba ‘arracher qc de vive force a qn; voler, piller qn; tirer, extraire (le sabre du fourreau) | to carry off forcibly, plunder’; (?) Sab s₃lb ‘to draw water improperly (?)’; Gz salaba ‘to take off, strip off, take away, remove, deprive, take spoils, plunder’, Te sälbä ‘to castrate’, saläbä ‘to rob, snatch away’, Tña säläbä ‘evirare; disarmare nemici in guerra’, Amh sälläbä ‘to castrate, evirate; to take away s.o.’s property by sorcery’, End Sel Wol säläbä, Muh Msq Gog Sod sälläbä ‘to castrate a man’; Mhr səlūb ‘to disarm s.o., take s.o.’s arms by force, steal s.o.’s arms’, Hrs selōb ‘to disarm; to abort (camel)’, Jib. sɔ́lɔ́b ‘to take (s.o.’s gun) by force’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ SLB_1 : MilitarevKogan2005 (SED I) CVI: »The first treatment of irregular correspondences between p and b in various Semitic languages is [Barth ES 23-9]. Among the most convincing of Barth’s etymologies are Hbr and Syr pšṭ vs. Ar bsṭ [↗basaṭa] ‘to spread’; Hbr parʕōš, Syr purtaʕnā vs. Ar ↗burġūṯ ‘flea’; Hbr JudAram šlp vs. Ar and Gz slb ‘to draw’, etc. Adducing these and other examples, most of them convincing, Barth makes an important observation: in most cases, p is found in NSem (esp. Hbr) and b in SSem (incl. Ar). Barth suggests no explanation for this peculiar phenomenon, but his examples and ideas constitute a foundation for later scholars, some of whom have suggested that the apparent irregularity may reflect a protSem emphatic . […]« – Based on the Sem evidence, Dolgopolsky2012#2058 reconstructs protSem *√Š|SLB ~ *√ŠLP; on account of what he believes to be extra-Sem cognates, he even postulates Nostr *śal˅b˅ ‘to cut out, pull out’.
    ▪ SLB_1 : According to Ehret1989, other extensions from the same 2-rad. pre-protSem root basis ↗*SL ‘to draw out or off’ include ↗salaʔa, ↗salata, ↗salaḥa, ↗salaḫa, ↗saliʕa, ↗salafa, ↗salaqa. – Most of the values assembled in the root √SLB seem to go back to the basic notion of *‘drawing out, taking away, depriving of s.th.’: [v2] ‘to put on or wear mourning, be in mourning’ is prob. orig. *‘to be deprived of one’s husband’ or from *‘to abstain from dressing nicely, wearing ornaments, etc. (as a sign of mourning)’; [v3] ‘negation; negative’ is from *‘to be deprived of all attributes’; [v4] ‘spoils\hide, shanks and belly of a slaughtered animal’ is *‘what is drawn out’; [v5] ‘ropes, hawsers’ seem to be *‘fibers taken out (from a certain plant, see v12/13/16) and twisted’ (hence perh. also the LevAr v14 ‘moorings’); [v7] assembles several types of *‘depravation’: losing leaves, a child or young one, clothes, one’s senses, or taking away one’s life; [v8] ‘light, active, quick’ is explained in ClassAr dictionaries as metaphorical use, from *‘running to fast that it seems as if one left one’s skin behind’ (hence prob. also [v9] ‘long, tall’); [v10] ‘to spin raw silk; spun silk’ is with all likelihood a LevAr specialisation of [v5] ‘ropes, hawsers’, which seems to be based on [v12] ‘bark of reeds; tree-fibres’, esp. [v13] ‘kind of hyacinth’, which in turn is prob. identical with [v16] ‘cotton-thistle’. – The only values that are problematic to assign to the *’taking out/away, depravation’ etymon are [v6] ‘method, way, manner, mode, style’, [v11] ‘Pflugsterz | plough-handle’ and [v15] ‘neck of a lion’.
    ▪ SLB_2 : cf. also silāb, n., ‘mourning clothes of a woman’; cf. also ²salīb, adj./n. (quasi PP I) ‘woman whose husband has died’
    ▪ …
    SLB_10 : Cf. Landberg/Zetterstéen1942: »En Syrie salaba a aussi pris le sens de ‘filer la soie écrue’; de là salb ‘soie filée’«.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    salab‑ سَلَب , u (salb
    ID - • Sw … • BP … • APD … • © SG | 4Feb2022, last updated 6Jul2022
    √SLB 
    vb., I 
    1a to take away, steal, wrest, snatch (s.o., min s.th.), rob, strip, dispossess, deprive (s.o. min of s.th.); b to plunder, rifle, loot; c to strip of arms and clothing (‑h a fallen enemy); 2 to withhold (2x DO s.th. from s.o.), deny (s.o. s.th.) – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ Accord. to Ehret1989 #21, salaba is an extension in »finitive fortative« * b from a 2-rad. pre-protSem root ↗*SL ‘to draw out or off’,73 preserved in Ar ↗salla ‘to draw out slowly’ (for other such extensions, see below, section DISC). For other extensions from the same 2-rad. pre-protSem root see ↗salaʔa, ↗salata, ↗salaḥa, ↗salaḫa, ↗saliʕa, ↗salafa, ↗salaqa.
    ▪ MilitarevKogan2005 (SED I) cxiv reconstruct protSem *šlṗ ‘to draw, pull out, unsheathe’. Dolgopolsky2012 #2058 has Sem *√Š/SLB ~ *√ŠLP < Nostr *śal˅b˅ ‘to cut out, pull out’.
    ▪ Most of the values assembled in the root √SLB prob. go back to a basic *‘drawing out, taking away, depriving s.o. of s.th.’. Thus, ↗saliba ‘to put on or wear mourning, be in mourning’ is prob. orig. *‘to be deprived of one’s husband’ or from *‘to abstain from dressing nicely, wearing ornaments, etc. (as a sign of mourning)’; salb ‘negation’ (↗salbī ‘negative’) is from *‘to be deprived of all attributes’; ↗²salab ‘hide, shanks and belly of a slaughtered animal’ is *‘what is drawn out’ (from the animal after slaughtering); ↗³salab ‘ropes, hawsers’ seems to be a semantic extension from *‘fibers taken out (from a certain plant, see ↗SLB_12/13/16) and twisted’. For other derivations, now obsolete, see root entry ↗SLB.
    ▪ …
    ▪ Landberg/Zetterstéen1942: In DaṯAr, the vb. I salab has taken the sense of ‘to arm o.s.’, sc. with the salab (pl. ʔaslāb) ‘arms’ plundered from the enemy.
    ▪ … 
    eC7 (to plunder, snatch away, rob, carry off) Q 22:73 wa-ʔin yaslubu-humu ḏ-ḏubābu šayʔan lā yastanqiḏū-hu min-hu ‘and if the flies rob them of something, they can not rescue it from them’.
    ▪ … 
    1 MilitarevKogan2005 (SED I) CXIV and Dolgopolsky2012 #2058: Akk šalāpu ‘to draw from a sheath, tear out, pull out, rescue’ (from oBab on); Hbr šālap ‘to pull out, pull off, take out’; JudAram šlp ‘to loosen, pull, draw’, TargAram √ŠLP G ‘to loosen, pull, draw’, JEAram √ŠLP G ‘to pull off\out, remove, draw’, ChrPalAram √ŠLP G ‘to draw from a sheath’, SamAram √ŠLP G ‘do.; to remove’, Syr šlap ‘extraxit, evellit’, Mnd šlp ‘to pull out, draw out, extract, unsheath, pluck out’ ~ Ar salaba ‘arracher qc de vive force a qn; voler, piller qn; tirer, extraire (le sabre du fourreau) | to carry off forcibly, plunder’; (?) Sab s₃lb ‘to draw water improperly (?)’; Gz salaba ‘to take off, strip off, take away, remove, deprive, take spoils, plunder’, Te sälbä ‘to castrate’, saläbä ‘to rob, snatch away’, Tña säläbä ‘evirare; disarmare nemici in guerra’, Amh sälläbä ‘to castrate, evirate; to take away s.o.’s property by sorcery’, End Sel Wol säläbä, Muh Msq Gog Sod sälläbä ‘to castrate a man’; Mhr səlūb ‘to disarm s.o., take s.o.’s arms by force, steal s.o.’s arms’, Hrs selōb ‘to disarm; to abort (camel)’, Jib. sɔ́lɔ́b ‘to take (s.o.’s gun) by force’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    NB: Only ‘direct’ derivations are given here. For others, see above, section CONC, and cross-referenced items at the end of this section.

    ĭstalaba, vb. VIII = salaba: Gt-stem, self-ref.

    BP#3392salb, n., 1 spoliation, plundering, looting, pillage, robbing; 2 negation | ʕalāmaẗ al-salb, minus sign (math.): vn. I.
    BP#1236salbī, adj., 1 negative (also el.); 2 passive: from salaba or ↗saliba? | difāʕ salbī, muqāwamaẗ salbiyyaẗ, passive resistance
    salbiyyaẗ, n.f., negativism, negative attitude: abstr. formation in iyyaẗ, based on salbī.
    salab, pl. ʔaslāb, n., 1 loot, booty, plunder, spoils; 2 ↗²salab; — 3 ↗EgAr ³salab
    ¹sallāb, n., robber, plunderer, looter: ints. formation / n.prof.
    ¹salīb, adj., stolen, taken, wrested away: quasi-PP I.
    ĭstilāb, n., spoliation, plundering, looting, pillase, robbing: vn. VIII.
    sālib, adj., negative; (pl. sawālibᵘ), n., negative (phot.): PA I.
    maslūb, adj., unsuccessful: PP I.

    For other meanings attached to the root, cf. ↗saliba, ↗salbī, and ↗ʔuslūb, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√SLB. 
    salib‑ سَلِبَ , a (salab
    ID - • Sw … • BP … • APD … • © SG | 24Mar2022, last updated 7Jul2022
    √SLB 
    vb., I 
    to put on or wear mourning, be in mourning – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ The value ‘to put on or wear mourning, be in mourning’ is based on ↗salaba ‘to take away, strip, deprive s.o. of s.th.’, either (as in BK1860) 1 être privé d’un member de sa famille, et de là 2 porter le deuil’ or (as in Lane iv 1872 for tasallaba, vb. V) ‘to abstain from the wearing of ornaments, and the use of perfumes, and dye for the hands &c., and put on the garments of mourning’.
    ▪ For the etymology of the underlying salaba see ↗s.v.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ No direct cognates in Sem. For cognates of underlying salaba see ↗s.v.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ Cf. also silāb, n., ‘mourning clothes of a woman’ and ²salīb, adj./n. (quasi PP I) ‘woman whose husband has died’.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    tasallaba, vb. V, to be in mourning: Dt-stem, self-ref.

    silāb, pl. sulub, black clothing, mourning (worn by women)

    For other meanings attached to the root, cf. ↗salaba, ↗salbī, ↗²salab, ↗EgAr ³salab, and ↗ʔuslūb, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√SLB. 
    salbī سَلْبِيّ 
    ID - • Sw … • BP 1236 • APD … • © SG | 24Mar2022, last updated 7Jul2022
    √SLB 
    adj. 
    1 negative (also el.); 2 passive – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ From ↗salaba ‘to take away, strip, deprive of’, cf. (BK1860) ¹salab ‘absence de tout rapport entre les choses; absence de telles ou telles qualités ou attributs’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ See ↗salaba.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    difāʕ salbī, n., and muqāwamaẗ salbiyyaẗ, n.f., passive resistance

    salbiyyaẗ, n.f., negativism, negative attitude: abstr. formation in iyyaẗ
    sālib, adj., negative; (pl. sawālibᵘ), n., negative (phot.): PA of obsol. vb. I.
    maslūb, adj., unsuccessful: PP of obsol. vb. I.

    For other meanings attached to the root, cf. ↗salaba, ↗saliba, ↗²salab, ↗EgAr ³salab, and ↗ʔuslūb, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√SLB. 
    ²salab سَلَب 
    ID - • Sw … • BP … • APD … • © SG | 6Jul2022
    √SLB 
    n. 
    hide, shanks and belly of a slaughtered animal – WehrCowan1979 
    ▪ Accord. to Lane iv 1872, ²salab ‘spoils\hide, shanks and belly of a slaughtered animal’ is »[app(arently)] so called because given to the slaughterer, as though they were his spoil; or, in the case of an animal of the chase, to the dog/s«, i.e., from ↗salaba ‘to take away, strip, deprive of’. One may also think of an original meaning of *‘what is drawn out (sc. of the slaughtered animal)’.
    ▪ For the etymology of salaba see ↗s.v.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ ↗salaba.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    For other meanings attached to the root, cf. ↗salaba, ↗saliba, ↗salbī, ↗EgAr ³salab, and ↗ʔuslūb, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√SLB. 
    EgAr ³salab سَلَب 
    ID - • Sw … • BP … • APD … • © SG | 6Jul2022
    √SLB 
    n. (coll.) 
    ropes, hawsers – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ The value ‘ropes, hawsers’ for the n. salab is marked as specifically »EgAr« in WehrCowan, but as the ClassAr attestation in Lane iv 1872 (see below, section HIST) shows, it is prob. more widespread.
    ▪ ³salab is with all likelihood based on the obsol. salab ‘bark of reeds; tree-fibres’ (i.e., SLB_12 in root entry ↗SLB), esp. perh. the fibres of (SLB_13) salab, a ‘kind of hyacinth’, which in turn is prob. identical with (SLB_16) salbīn (al-ḥimār) ‘cotton-thistle’, i.e., the material from which the ropes\hawsers were produced.
    ▪ Ultimately, all the above are prob. related to ↗salaba ‘to take away, strip, deprive of’, as the fibres from which the ropes\hawsers are twisted are ‘taken out’ of the plant.
    ▪ … 
    salabaẗ, n.f., ‘string\cord that is tied to the muzzle\nose of the camel; sinew that is bound upon an arrow’ – Lane iv 1872.
    ▪ From ³salab is also ²sallāb, n., ‘seller\manufacturer of ropes or baskets made of ³salab’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ No direct cognates. For the prob. underlying salaba see ↗s.v.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ Prob. related are also the obsol. (SLB_10) LevAr ²salb ‘spun silk’ and the corresponding vb. I, ²salaba ‘rohe Seide spinnen’ (Wahrmund1887); cf. Landberg/Zetterstéen1942: »En Syrie salaba a aussi pris le sens de ‘filer la soie écrue’; de là salb ‘soie filée’«.
    ▪ … 
    For other meanings attached to the root, cf. ↗salaba, ↗saliba, ↗salbī, ↗²salab, and ↗ʔuslūb, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√SLB. 
    ʔuslūb أُسْلُوب , pl. ʔasālībᵘ 
    ID 405 • Sw – • BP 1017 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last update 6Jul2022
    √SLB 
    n. 
    1a method, way, procedure; b course; c manner, mode, fashion; d style (esp. literary); e stylistic peculiarity (of an author) – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ Etymology obscure, perh. either *‘way of twisting ropes’ (↗³salab ‘ropes, hawsers’) or *‘way of (cleverly) getting away with s.th.’ (↗salaba ‘to take away, steal, wrest, snatch’). See below, section DISC.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ No obvious cognates.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ The etymology of ʔuslūb ‘method, way, manner, mode, style’ is rather unclear. As there are no obvious foreign terms on which the word could have been modelled, it seems to be genuine Ar. Accord. to Barth1894: 225, the morphological pattern ʔuFʕūL on which ʔuslūb is formed, has almost no parallels outside Ar either.
    ▪ In ClassAr dictionaries, ʔuslūb is attested also with several other meanings. Most lexica have ‘road’ as a more concrete value than the modern abstract ‘method, mode, style’. Both Lane iv 1872 and BadawiAbdelHaleem2008 also register the meaning row of palm-trees’ which Lane thinks »is app[arently] the primary signification, as seems to be indicated by its occupying the first place in the TA [Tāǧ al-ʕArūs]«. Based on this remark, one may feel tempted to assume a development along the line *‘row of palm-trees > row > road, way > way of doing things, method’. Such a development is not attested, however, nor would the assumption solve the question of the origin of the value ‘row of palm-trees’.
    ▪ Apart from the above values, there are at least five others to be found in the ClassAr lexica, none of them however providing unambiguous hints as to the word’s etymology. Accord. to DHDA, ʔuslūb is first attested (in a Huḏaylī poem, dated pre-581 CE) as ‘type of tree, growing symmetrically and becoming high, among the plants that give the best material for twisting ropes’. Here, ʔuslūb seems to be close in meaning, or even identical with, the type of plant (a hyacinth, sansiveria, or cotton-thistle, East African wild sisal) mentioned s.v. ↗³salab ‘ropes, hawsers’. Based on this evidence, a hypothetical line of semantic development could be *‘sansiveria type of plant > fibres of this plant > to twist ropes/hawsers from these fibres > way of twisting ropes/hawsers > way, method’, hence also ‘literary style’, as *‘way of “twisting” words/sentences’. Not unconceivable. – Lane iv 1872 registered also a f. var.,ʔuslūbaẗ , meaning ‘a certain game of the Arabs of the desert, or some action that they perform among them; one says bayna-hum ʔuslūbaẗ “among them is a performance of what is termed ʔuslūbaẗ”’. As the type of game or performance is not specified, no conclusions can be drawn from this data either. However, one could imagine that the activity had s.th. to do with ↗salaba ‘to take away, steal, wrest, snatch, rob, strip, etc.’, in which case ʔuslūb(aẗ) would originally mean the methods of *‘(playfully) snatching s.th. from an opponent, trying to strip the opponent of s.th. (arms, clothing, etc.)’. Not unconceivable either, esp. in light of the fact that some SLB items show a connection to the idea of legerity, quickness, nimbleness, for instance, ¹salib ‘light, active, quick’. – Yet another older/extinct meaning of ʔuslūb is (BK1860) ‘toute la longueur du nez’; to this, we should perh. put (due to its length or being stretched out?) the ‘neck of the lion (Lane iv 1872) | cou du lion (BK1860)’. If the modern ʔuslūb should be connected to this notion of ‘length, extension’, the explanation would be in line with Gabal2012: 1079 who interprets ʔuslūb as »any extended way/road’ (kull ṭarīq mumtadd), in this way building a bridge to the above-mentioned ‘row of palm-trees’. – Lane iv 1872 has also ‘aperture of a watering-trough\tank through which the water flows’, but this seems to be a contamination (or misreading?) from ↗sallaẗ, now mostly ‘basket’, but also attested as ‘(Hava1899:) chink in a tank, (Lane iv 1872:) fault\defect in a watering-trough or in a jar, breach, fissures in the ground that steal the water’.
    ▪ In all the above cases, a semantic relation between modern ʔuslūb ‘method, way, manner, mode, style’ and the most productive general root meaning *‘to draw out, take away, deprive s.o. of s.th.’ (see ↗SLB and ↗salaba) can only be established with big caveats.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ʔuslūb kitābī, n., literary style

    For other meanings attached to the root, cf. ↗salaba, ↗saliba, ↗salbī, ↗²salab, and ↗EgAr ³salab, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√SLB. 
    SLT سلت 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 5Feb2022
    √SLT 
    “root” 
    ▪ SLT_1 ‘to draw one thing from another’ ↗salata
    ▪ SLT_2 ‘…’ ↗slt
     
    ▪ SLT_1 : Accord. to Ehret1989 #21 an extension in »durative« *‑t from a 2-rad. pre-protSem root ↗*SL ‘to draw out or off’, preserved in Ar ↗salla ‘to draw out slowly’. Other extensions from the same basis would include ↗salaʔa, ↗salaba, ↗salaḥa, ↗salaḫa, ↗saliʕa, ↗salafa, ↗salaqa.
    ▪ SLT_2 : ‘…’ ↗slt
     
    –… 
    –… 
    –… 
    – 
    – 
    salat‑ سَلَت , i, u (salt
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 5Feb2022
    √SLT 
    vb., I 
    to draw one thing from another
     
    ▪ Accord. to Ehret1989 #21 an extension in »durative« *‑t from a 2-rad. pre-protSem root ↗*SL ‘to draw out or off’, preserved in Ar ↗salla ‘to draw out slowly’. Other extensions from the same basis would include ↗salaʔa, ↗salaba, ↗salaḥa, ↗salaḫa, ↗saliʕa, ↗salafa, ↗salaqa.
     
    … 
    … 
    … 
    – 
    … 
    SLḤ سلح 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last update 25Feb2022
    √SLḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ SLḤ_1 ‘to void excrement, drop dung’ ↗salaḥa
    ▪ SLḤ_2 ‘arm(s), weapon(s)’ ↗silāḥ
    ▪ SLḤ_3 ‘apostle (Chr.)’ ↗salīḥ
    ▪ SLḤ_ ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ SLḤ_ ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (accord. to BAH2008): ‘arms, arming, fortifications; (of camels) to become fleshy; excreting’ 
    ▪ SLḤ_1 : Accord. to Ehret1989 #21 an extension in + »iterative« *‑ḥ from a 2-rad. pre-protSem root ↗*SL ‘to draw out or off’, preserved in Ar ↗salla ‘to draw out slowly’. Other extensions from the same basis would include ↗salaʔa, ↗salaba, ↗salata, ↗salaḫa, ↗saliʕa, ↗salafa, ↗salaqa.
    ▪ SLḤ_2 : ‘…’ ↗slḥ
    ▪ SLḤ_3 : ‘…’ ↗slḥ
     
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    salaḥ‑ سَلَح , a (salḥ
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SLḤ 
    vb., I 
    to drop excrement
     
    ▪ Accord. to Ehret1989 #21 an extension in »iterative« *‑ḥ from a 2-rad. pre-protSem root ↗*SL ‘to draw out or off’, preserved in Ar ↗salla ‘to draw out slowly’. Other extensions from the same basis would include ↗salaʔa, ↗salaba, ↗salata, ↗salaḫa, ↗saliʕa, ↗salafa, ↗salaqa.
     
    … 
    … 
    … 
    – 
    … 
    silāḥ سِلاح 
    ID 406 • Sw – • BP 514 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SLḤ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    SLḤF سلحف 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 10Feb2022
    √SLḤF 
    “root” 
    ▪ SLḤF_1 ‘turtle, turtoise’ ↗sulaḥfāẗ
    ▪ SLḤF_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ SL_ ‘…’ ↗

     
    ▪ SLḤF_1 : from protSem *šalaḥpaw/y-, *šalapḥaw/y- / *salaḥpaw/y-, *salapḥaw/y- ‘turtle’ – MilitarevKogan2005 (SED II) #202.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    SLḤF 1 Akk šeleppû (šelappû, šelippû) ‘turtle; a snake’, šeleppûtu ‘she-turtle’ (from oAkk on), Ebl ša-la-pù-um, interpreted as /šalaḥpuyum/ ‘taratuga’ in Conti 1990:67 (cf. also Civil 1984b:90), Ar sulaḥfà, sulḥafà, sulaḥfāʔ, sulaḥfāẗ, sulaḥfiyaẗ ‘turtle’; Mhr salefḥōt ‘turtle’ (poss. < Ar); ? Syr slwpytʔ ‘testudo’: likely an Akkadism – MilitarevKogan2005 (SED II) #202.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    sulaḥfāẗ سُلَحْفاة , var. silaḥfāẗ, pl., salāḥifᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 10Feb2022
    √SLḤF 
    n.f. 
    turtle, tortoise – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ From protSem *šalaḥpaw/y-, *šalapḥaw/y- / *salaḥpaw/y-, *salapḥaw/y- ‘turtle’ – MilitarevKogan2005 (SED II) #202.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ MilitarevKogan2005 (SED II) #202: Akk šeleppû (šelappû, šelippû) ‘turtle; a snake’, šeleppûtu ‘she-turtle’ (from oAkk on), Ebl ša-la-pù-um, interpreted as /šalaḥpuyum/ ‘taratuga’ in Conti 1990:67 (cf. also Civil 1984b:90), Ar sulaḥfà, sulḥafà, sulaḥfāʔ, sulaḥfāẗ, sulaḥfiyaẗ ‘turtle’; Mhr salefḥōt ‘turtle’ (poss. < Ar); ? Syr slwpytʔ ‘testudo’: likely an Akkadism.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Cf. also a number of forms with z- in Ar dialects: zəḥəlfa ‘turtle’, zaḥlīfe ‘lizard’, zíləḥfe, zilḥifa ‘turtle’ – MilitarevKogan2005 (SED II) #202.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    sulaḥfāʔiyyaẗ, n.f., dawdling, dilatoriness: abstr. formation in ‑iyyaẗ
    SLḪ سلخ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 5Feb2022
    √SLḪ 
    “root” 
    ▪ SLḪ_1 ↗salaḫa (a u, salḫ) ‘to skin, flay, throw off the slough; to undress’
    ▪ SLḪ_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ SLḪ_ ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (accord. to BAH2008): ‘to strip off the hide, or skin, of an animal, to pull off; to bone, to extricate; (of months) to pass away, to depart’ 
    ▪ SLḪ_1 : Accord. to Ehret1989 #21 an extension in »extendative fortative« *‑ḫ from a 2-rad. pre-protSem root ↗*SL ‘to draw out or off’, preserved in Ar ↗salla ‘to draw out slowly’. Other extensions from the same basis would include ↗salaʔa, ↗salaba, ↗salata, ↗salaḥa, ↗saliʕa, ↗salafa, ↗salaqa.
    ▪ SLḪ_2 : ‘…’ ↗slḫ
     
    … 
    … 
    … 
    – 
    – 
    salaḫ‑ سَلَخ , a, u (salḫ
    ID – • Sw … • BP … • APD … • © SG | 5Feb2022, last updated 25Feb2022
    √SLḪ 
    vb., I 
    1a to pull off, strip off ( h s.th.); 2 to detach (s.th. ʕan from); 3 to skin, flay ( h an animal); 4 to end, terminate, conclude, bring to a close ( h a period of time); 5 to spend ( h a period of time, doing s.th.) – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ Accord. to Ehret1989 #21 an extension in »extendative fortative« *‑ḫ from a 2-rad. pre-protSem root ↗*SL ‘to draw out or off’, preserved in Ar ↗salla ‘to draw out slowly’. Other extensions from the same basis would include ↗salaʔa, ↗salaba, ↗salata, ↗salaḥa, ↗saliʕa, ↗salafa, ↗salaqa.
    ▪ …
     
    … 
    … 
    … 
    – 
    … 
    SLSBL سلسبل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 29Mar2023
    √SLSBL 
    “root” 
    ▪ SLSBL_1 ‘a spring in Paradise; spring, well’ ↗salsabīlᵘ
    ▪ SLSBL_ ‘...’ ↗... 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    salsabīlᵘ سَلْسَبيلُ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 29Mar2023
    √SLSBL 
    n. 
    1a name of a spring in Paradise; b spring, well – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ A quintupal word, occurring once in the Qur’an. It is also classified under various other roots: ↗SLS ‘to be smooth, easy flowing, soft, easy of manner’, ↗SLSL ‘to be sweet and thirst quenching’, and ↗SLː (SLL) ‘to extract gently and unobtrusively’. Also said to be a borrowing – BAH2008
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ eC7 (palatable and easy on the gullet; choicest of wine; proper name for a spring in Paradise) Q 76:17-18 wa-yusqawna fī-hā kaʔsan kāna mizāǧuhā zanǧabīlan ʕaynan fī-hā tusammà salsabīlan ‘and they will be given a drink infused with ginger from a spring called Salsabīl’
    ▪ ...
     
    – 
    – 
    SLSL سلسل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Apr2021
    √SLSL 
    “root” 
    ▪ SLSL_1 ‘to flow down, trickle; to drip, dribble, fall in drops’ ↗tasalsala
    ▪ SLSL_2 ‘(iron) chain; series’ ↗silsilaẗ
    ▪ SLSL_3 ‘…’ ↗slsl

     
    ▪ …– 
    …– 
    …– 
    …– 
    – 
    – 
    tasalsal‑ تَسَلْسَلَ (tasalsul
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Apr2021
    √SLSL 
    vb., II 
    1a to flow down, trickle (in a continuous stream); b to drip, dribble, fall in drops (water); 2a to form a chain or series, be continuous; b to be interlinked, interlocked, linked together, concatenate – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ …– 
    …– 
    …– 
    …– 
    – 
    salsala, vb. I, 1absilsilaẗ; 2 to pour (al-māʔ fī water into)

    salsal, n., cool fresh water

    For other values of the root, cf. ↗silsilaẗ. as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√SLSL. 
    silsilaẗ سِلْسِلة , pl. salāsilᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 1719 • APD … • © SG | 6Apr2021
    √SLSL 
    n.f. 
    1a iron chain; b chain (also fig.); 2 series (of essays, articles, etc.) – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    eC7 (‘chain’) Q 69:32 ṯumma fī silsilatin ḏarʕu-hā sabʕūna ḏirāʕan ‘And then [insert him] in a chain whereof the length is seventy cubits’; Q 76:4 ʔinnā ʔaʕtadnā li-l-kāfirīna salāsila wa-ʔaġlālan wa-saʕīran ‘Lo! We have prepared for disbelievers manacles and carcans and a raging fire’
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Jeffery1938:) Akk šaršarratu (?), Aram ŠLŠLTā, Syr šīšLTā, Gz sənsəl, lHbr šalšäläṯ, possibly also in Safaite.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »It is used only in connection with descriptions of the torments of hell and may be a technical term in Muḥammad’s eschatological vocabulary, borrowed in all probability from one of the Book religions. – In any case it cannot be easily explained from an Ar root, and Guidi, Della Sede, 581, already suspected it as non-Arabic. – Fraenkel, Fremdw, 290,401 relates it to the Aram ŠLŠLTā, Syr šīšLTā,402 which is the origin of the Eth [Gz] sənsəl (Nöldeke, Neue Beiträge, 42), and possibly of the late Hbr šalšäläṯ.403 The borrowing from Aram would doubtless have been early, and it is possible that we find the word in Safaite (cf. Ryckmans, Noms propres, 151).«
    ▪ … 
    – 
    silsilaẗ ǧibāl, mountain chain;
    silsilaẗ al-ẓahr, or silsilaẗ faqriyyaẗ, backbone, vertebral column;
    silsilaẗ ʔakāḏīb, fabric of lies;
    silsilaẗ al-nasab, lineage, line of ancestors

    salsala, vb. I, 1a to link together, concatenate, interlink, interlook, connect, unite (bi‑ with); b to chain up, enchain, fetter, shackle (s.o.); 2tasalsala | salsalahū ʔilà, to trace s.o.’s lineage back to s.o.
    tasalsala, vb. II, 1tasalsala; 2a to form a chain or series, be continuous; b to be interlinked, interlocked, linked together, concatenate: prob. denom.

    tasalsul, n., sequence, succession: vn. II., denom.(?) | bi’l-tasalsul, adv., without interruption, successively, consecutively, continuously; našarahū bi-tasalsul, to serialize s.th., publish s.th. in serial form
    musalsal, adj., 1 chained; 2 continuous (numbering); BP#17043 n., serial show, soap opera: PP I. | radd fiʕl musalsal, n., chain reaction (phys.); al-marʔaẗ al-musalsalaẗ, Andromeda (astron.)
    mutasalsil, adj., continuous (numbering): PA II.

    For other values of the root, cf. ↗tasalsala as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√SLSL. 
    SLṬ سلط 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SLṬ 
    “root” 
    ▪ SLṬ_1 ‘…’ ↗, ‘power, authority (Grk exousía)’ ↗sulṭān
    ▪ SLṬ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘power, authority, mastery; to prevail, to predominate; being hard; argument’. 
    ▪ [v1] : A foreign origin for the word sulṭān has been suggested, either through Syr or Aram – Jeffery1938. 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl soldan, sultan, sultanasulṭān
    – 
    sulṭaẗ سُلْطَة 
    ID 407 • Sw – • BP 328 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SLṬ 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    sulṭān سُلْطان 
    ID 408 • Sw – • BP 950 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SLṬ, SLṬN 
    n. 
    ▪ power, authority (Grk exousía) – Jeffery1938
    ▪ … – WehrCowan1979 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Of very frequent occurrence in the Q, cf. iii, 144; iv, 93; vi, 81 – Jeffery1938.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »The denominative verb sallaṭa ‘to give power over’, occurs in iv, 92; lix, 6. The primitive verb salaṭa ‘to be hard, strong’ occurs frequently in the old poetry404 but not in the Qurʔān. It is cognate with Eth [Gz] śalaṭa ‘to exercise strength’,405 and with a group of NSem words, but in NSem the sense of the root has developed in general to mean ‘to domineer, have power over’, e.g. Akk šalāṭu ‘to have power’,406 Hbr šālaṭa ‘to domineer, be waster of’,407 Aram šlaṭ, Syr šlaṭ ‘to have mastery over’. Under this Aram influence the Eth [Gz] śalaṭa later comes to mean ‘potestatem habere’.
    The Muslim philologers were entirely at sea over the Qurʔānic sulṭān which they wish to derive from salīṭ (cf. LA, ix, 193), and Sprenger, Leben, i, 108, rightly took it as a borrowing from the Aram.408 In BiblAram, šālṭān occurs several times, with the meaning ‘sovereignty, dominion’, like the Rabbinic šwlṭʔnʔ and šlṭnwt. In the Nab inscriptions also we find šlṭwn ‘rule, dominion’ (cf. Lidzbarski, Handbuch, 376), but it is in Syr that we find the word most widely used. In particular šūlṭanā is used in precisely the same senses as sulṭān is used in the Qurʔān, and it was doubtless from this source that both the Arab sulṭān and Eth [Gz] śəlṭān were derived.409 «
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl soldan, sultan, from Ar sulṭān ‘power, authority, ruler, sultan’, from Aram šulṭānā ‘power, authority, rule, ruler’, from šᵊlaṭ ‘to dominate, rule, prevail’; sultana, from Ar sulṭānaẗ, f. of sulṭān
     
    SLṬN سلطن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SLṬN 
    "root" 
    ▪ SLṬN_1 ‘power, authority (Grk exousía)’ ↗sulṭān (arranged s.r. ↗√SLṬ)<
    ▪ SLṬN_ ... 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    Engl sultan etc.: see s.r. ↗√SLṬ 
    – 
    SLʕ سلع 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last update 25Feb2022
    √SLʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ SLʕ_1 ‘to crack, split, cleave, become cracked’ ↗saliʕa
    ▪ SLʕ_2 ‘commodity, commercial article’ ↗¹silʕaẗ
    ▪ SLʕ_3 ‘sebaceous cyst, wen’ ↗²silʕaẗ
    ▪ SLʕ_ ‘…’ ↗

     
    ▪ SLʕ_1 : Accord. to Ehret1989 #21 an extension in »sunderative« *‑ʕ from a 2-rad. pre-protSem root ↗*SL ‘to draw out or off’, preserved in Ar ↗salla ‘to draw out slowly’. Other extensions from the same basis would include ↗salaʔa, ↗salaba, ↗salata, ↗salaḥa, ↗salaḫa, ↗salafa, ↗salaqa.
    ▪ SLʕ_2 : ‘…’ ↗slʕ
     
    … 
    … 
    … 
    – 
    – 
    saliʕ‑ سَلِع , a (salaʕ
    ID – • Sw … • BP … • APD … • © SG | 5Feb2022
    √SLʕ 
    vb., I 
    to crack, become cracked – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ Accord. to Ehret1989 #21 an extension in »sunderative« *‑ʕ from a 2-rad. pre-protSem root ↗*SL ‘to draw out or off’, preserved in Ar ↗salla ‘to draw out slowly’. Other extensions from the same basis would include ↗salaʔa, ↗salaba, ↗salata, ↗salaḥa, ↗salaḫa, ↗salafa, ↗salaqa.
    ▪ …
     
    … 
    … 
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    … 
    SLF سلف 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 5Feb2022, last update 25Feb2022
    √SLF 
    “root” 
    ▪ SLF_1 ‘to be over, past, bygone; to precede, antecede’ ↗salafa; ‘predecessors; ancestors, forefathers’ ↗¹salaf; ‘advance payment; loan’ ↗²salaf
    ▪ SLF_2 ‘brother-in-law’ ↗silf, f. silfaẗ ‘sister-in-law’
    ▪ SLF_3 ‘choicest wine’ ↗sulāf
    ▪ SLF_4 ‘to harrow, level, plane, make even, prepare for sowing (land); harrow (n.)’ ↗mislafaẗ

    Other values, now obsolete, include:

    ▪ SLF_x ‘...’ ↗slf

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to go past, to precede, to come to an end; to go over; to level up; to give an advance; previous generations’ 
    ▪ SLF_1 : ‘to be over, past, bygone; to precede, antecede’ ↗salafa
    ▪ SLF_2 : ‘…’ ↗slf
    ▪ SLF_3 : ‘…’ ↗slf
    ▪ SLF_4 : Accord. to Ehret1989 #21, salafa (u, salf) ‘to harrow, level, plane, make even, prepare for sowing (land)’ is an extension in »iterative« * p from a 2-rad. pre-protSem root ↗*SL ‘to draw out or off’, preserved in Ar ↗salla ‘to draw out slowly’. Other extensions from the same basis would include ↗salaʔa, ↗salaba, ↗salata, ↗salaḥa, ↗salaḫa, ↗saliʕa, ↗salaqa.
     
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ SLF_1 : Engl Salafisalaf.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    salaf‑ سَلَف , u (salf
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 5Feb2022
    √SLF 
    vb., I 
    to harrow, level, plane, make even, prepare for sowing (land)
     
    ▪ Accord. to Ehret1989 #21 an extension in »iterative« *‑p from a 2-rad. pre-protSem root ↗*SL ‘to draw out or off’, preserved in Ar ↗salla ‘to draw out slowly’. Other extensions from the same basis would include ↗salaʔa, ↗salaba, ↗salata, ↗salaḥa, ↗salaḫa, ↗saliʕa, ↗salaqa.
    ▪ …
     
    … 
    … 
    … 
    – 
    … 
    salaf سَلَف 
    ID 409 • Sw – • BP 2888 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SLF 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Salafi, from Ar salafī ‘of the forbears, of the predecessors’, from salaf ‘forbear, predecessor’. 
     
    SLFT سلفت 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9Feb2022
    √SLFT 
    “root” 
    ▪ SLFT_1 ‘sulfate’ ↗sulfāt
    ▪ SLFT_2 ‘to asphalt’ ↗salfata
    ▪ SLFT_ ‘…’ ↗

     
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    … 
    – 
    … 
    SLQ سلق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17Jan2022, last update 1Oct2022
    √SLQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ SLQ_1 ‘to lacerate the skin ( h of s.o.; with a whip)’ ↗¹salaqa
    ▪ SLQ_2 ‘to remove (hair, etc.) with boiling water’ ↗²salaqa
    ▪ SLQ_3 ‘to boil, cook in boiling water’ ↗³salaqa
    ▪ SLQ_4 ‘to scald (plants; said of excessive heat)’ ↗⁴salaqa
    ▪ SLQ_5 ‘to hurt (with one’s tongue)’ ↗⁵salaqa, ‘vicious tongue, violent language, violence of language’ ↗salāqaẗ; cf. also sallāq, mislaq, mislāq ‘eloquent (speaker); sharp’
    ▪ SLQ_6 ‘to ascend, mount, climb, scale’ ↗¹tasallaqa; ‘Ascension (of Christ)’ ↗sullāq
    ▪ SLQ_7 ‘a variety of chard’ ↗(EgAr) salq͗
    ▪ SLQ_8 ‘dish made of grain cooked with sugar, cinnamon and fennel (SyrAr)’ ↗¹salīqaẗ; cf. also (Wahrmund1887) ¹salīq ‘geschälte Gerste u. Speise daraus’
    ▪ SLQ_9 ‘inborn disposition, instinct’ ↗²salīqaẗ
    ▪ SLQ_10 ‘red lead, minium’ ↗salaqūn
    ▪ SLQ_11 ‘saluki, greyhound, hunting dog’ ↗¹salūqī

    Other values, now obsolete, include (Kazimirski1860, Lane1872, Wahrmund1887, Hava1899):

    SLQ_12 ‘to prostrate s.o. on the back of his neck, throw s.o. down; to push, repell’: salaqa, u (salq), and salqà (silqāʔ)
    SLQ_13 ‘to pierce (with a spear)’: salaqa, u (salq)
    SLQ_14 ‘to leave prints (on the soil: foot)’: salaqa, u (salq); cf. also salāʔiqᵘ (pl., from sg. ³salīqaẗ) ‘marks made by the feet of men and by the hoofs of horses or the like on the road (and to these the marks made by the [plaited thongs called] ʔansāʕ upon the belly of the camel are likened)’; also prob. belonging here: DaṯAr slq, u, ‘to cultivate, plough, till’, sāliq pl. sawāliq, ‘sillon (où se trouve déjà la semence du ṭaʕām)’, silāqaẗ ‘cultivation, tillage’ (LandbergZetterstein1942).
    SLQ_15 ‘to oil, grease (a leathern water-skin, etc.), to smear (a camel all over with tar)’: salaqa, u (salq)
    SLQ_16 ‘(al-ǧuwāliqᵃ) to insert one of the two loops of the sack called ǧ. into the other’; ‘(al-ʕūd fī ’l-ʕurwaẗ) to insert the stick into the loop [of the ǧ.]’: ¹⁰salaqa, u (salq)
    SLQ_17 ‘to call out, cry out, shout vehemently (esp. after the death of a person or at a calamity); to slap and scratch one’s face (mourning woman)’ : ¹¹salaqa, u (salq) ; cf. also ¹silqaẗ (pl. sulqān, silqān, silq) and sāliqaẗ (pl. sawāliqᵘ) ‘weeping loudly (woman), slapping her face; long-tongued and vehemently clamorous, foul, evil, lewd’
    SLQ_18 ‘to run’: ¹²salaqa, u (salq); cf. also saylaq ‘quick, swift (she-camel)’
    SLQ_19 ‘to collect herbs’: sallaqa
    SLQ_20 ‘to be(come) restless, agitated, in a state of commotion, fret (from grief, anxiety, pain)’: ²tasallaqa
    SLQ_21 ‘red garden-beet’: ¹silq (pl. sulqān)
    SLQ_22 ‘wolf’: ²silq (pl. sulqān, silqān); f. ²silqaẗ ‘she-wolf’
    SLQ_23 ‘female lizard; female locust, when she has laid her eggs’: ³silqaẗ
    SLQ_24 ‘water-course, channel in which water flows, between two tracts of elevated, or elevated and rugged, ground’: silqaẗ
    SLQ_25 ‘even plain, smooth, even, tract, of good soil, depressed, even plain in which are no trees; low tract, or portion, of land, that produces herbage, meadow’: salaq (pl. ʔaslāq, sulqān)
    SLQ_26 ‘pimples, pustules that come forth upon the root \ on the tip of the tongue (Lane); Lösung d Zahnfleischs (Wahrmund1887); lippitude of the eyelids (Hava) | 1 Tumeur qui se forme sur les bords des paupières et fait tomber les cils; 2 déchaussement des dents, maladie des gencives, qui fait que les dents n’étant plus retenues par les gencives tombent; 3 tubercule à la racine de la langue; 4 enflure’: sulāq. – Cf. also al-ʔasāliq ‘what is next to the lahawāt [pl. used as sg., meaning the ‘uvula’] of the mouth, internally, or the upper parts of the interior of the mouth, those to which the tongue rises’ (BK); also vb. I, pass., suliqat il-ʔafwāh… ‘the mouths broke out with pimples, or small pustules’; and ĭnsalaqa, vb. VII, ‘[…]; to be(come) affected with what is termed sulāq’.
    SLQ_27 ‘what falls off from trees (leaves, etc.)’: ²salīq
    SLQ_28 ‘honey which the bees build up along the length of their hive, or habitation’: ³salīq
    SLQ_29 ‘pot herbs | Kücherkräuter’: salīq
    SLQ_30 ‘side of a road’: salīq
    SLQ_31 ‘(a sort of) coat of mail’: ²salūqī
    SLQ_32 ‘sitting-place of the rubbān [or captain] of a ship, sitting-place of a pilot’: salūqiyyaẗ
    †?SLQ_33 ‘natte de folioles de palmier’: DaṯAr salqaẗ (pl. salaq), ʕAdanAr ḤaḍramawtAr silqaẗ (pl. silaq) (LandbergZetterstein1942)
    †?SLQ_34 ‘ruines’: DaṯAr mislāq (LandbergZetterstein1942)
    SLQ_35 ‘natural, untaught, incorrect (speech)’: ( kalām) salīqī ‘natural, or untaught (speech); (speech whereof) the desinential syntax is not much attended to, but which is chaste and eloquent respect of what has been heard, though often tripping, or stumbling, in respect of grammar; speech which the dweller in the desert utters according to his nature and his proper dialect, though his other speech be nobler and better’, salīqiyyaẗ ‘dialect in which the speaker thereof proceeds loosely, or freely, according to his nature, without paying much attention to desinential syntax, and without avoiding incorrectness’ (Lane1872)
    SLQ_36 ‘…’

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (accord. to BAH2008): ‘to throw on the back; to flay with a whip; to insult; to scald; to lacerate the skin; boiling, cooking lightly by boiling; intrinsic nature’ 
    ▪ The stunning semantic diversity within the root seems to be the result of a merger of at least two Sem roots (*√ŠLḲ ‘to cook, broil, boil’, and *√SLḲ ‘to ascend, climb’, possibly from *ŚḲ ‘to be\grow high’), perh. a third (with metathesis *QLS > SLQ), in addition perh. to contamination from Ar ↗√SLḪ ‘to skin, flay’ (Sem *šlḫ ‘skin, hide’) and √ṢLQ ‘to shout, shriek; to writhe about’, combined, on the one hand, with semantic extensions and, on the other, borrowings from other languages (SLQ_10 salaqūn, SLQ_7, SLQ_21 silq) as well as derivations from proper names (SLQ_11, SLQ_31 and SLQ_32 salūqī, salūqiyyaẗ) and other – still unclear – developments.
    ▪ SLQ_1 : accord. to Ehret1989 #21, ¹salaqa may be analyzed as an extension in * (»intensive (effect)«) from pre-protSem *√SL74 ‘to draw out or off’; so also ↗salaḫa (< *sl + »extendative fortative« *) ‘to skin, flay, throw off the slough’; perh. contamination of overlapping senses. – Leslau2006 thinks that Ar ¹salaqa ‘to peel off (flesh) from (the bone)’ has cognates in Akk šalāqu ‘to cut open, split’ to cut’ (CAD) and EthSem (e.g., Gz śalaqa~salaqa ‘to grind fine, crush, peel, husk’); if this is valid, one may reconstruct protSem *ŠLḲ ‘to cut, crush, peel off’, which, however, would be homonymous with protSem *ŠLḲ ‘to boil, cook’ (see SLQ_3), rather reliably reconstructed on the basis of wide attestation (Kogan2011). – Or is ‘to lacerate the skin’ a development from SLQ_2 ‘to remove (hair, etc.) with boiling water’, in its turn perh. result of semantic extension from ‘to boil, cook in boiling water’ (SLQ_3), perh. under the influence of ↗salaḫa ‘to skin, flay, etc.’?
    ▪ SLQ_2 ‘to remove (hair, etc.) with boiling water’: specialization from SLQ_3 ‘to boil, cook in boiling water’, overlapping with SLQ_1 ‘to peel of the skin, loosen flesh from the bones’?
    ▪ SLQ_3 ‘to boil, cook in boiling water’: from protSem *ŠLḲ ‘to boil, cook’ (widely attested in Sem; Dolgopolsky2012: »CSem«). – Accord. to Dolgopolsky2012#2053, CSem *ŠLḲ ‘to cook, broil, boil’ is akin to (and extension from?) WSem *C̣LY (*-c̣lay-) ‘to roast’ (> Ar ↗ṣalà ‘to roast, broil, fry’, ṣaliya ‘to burn, be exposed to the blaze of s.th.’), with cognates also in Berb and Cush, ultimately from a hypothetical Nostr *s̄i˻ʔ˼L˅ ‘to roast, fry, cook’.
    ▪ SLQ_4 ‘to scald (plants; said of excessive heat)’: most likely special use of SLQ_3, perh. in its earlier meaning of ‘to burn’; see SLQ_3, above.
    ▪ SLQ_5 ‘to hurt (s.o., with one’s tongue), insult’ (esp. Q 33:19): Accord. to ClassAr lexicography, this is fig. use of SLQ_13 ‘to pierce (with a spear)’; but why not of SLQ_1 ‘to lacerate the skin (with a whip)’ (> ‘to hurt’)? – Parallels with initial instead of s may also point to a contamination with, or influence from, ṣalaqa ‘to attack (a tribe); to smite s.o. (sun); to strike’. – Cf., however, Zammit2002 and Leslau2006 who tend to regard Ar ⁵salaqa (and Gz tasālaqa ‘to joke, scoff at, deride, mock, ridicule, etc.) as cognate (via metathesis) to NWSem *QLS (Hbr qilles ‘to jeer at’, with Ug and Aram parallels).
    ▪ SLQ_6 ‘to ascend, mount, climb, scale’: The common opinion is that Ar ¹tasallaqa is denom. from sullāq ‘Ascension (of Christ)’, itself with all likelihood a borrowing from Aram sūlqā ‘do.’, slaq ‘to ascend’ (so already Fraenkel1886: 277). Based on these data, some authors would reconstruct an old (C)Sem root *√SLḲ ‘to ascend, climb’. – Kogan2015: 386 #15 tends to explain protAram *SLḲ as the result of a splitting of an original lateral *ś- into the combination sl- at an early stage, so that the Aram forms (together with the Hbr and Ar ones that are borrowed from Aram) should be seen together with with Akk šaḳu ‘to grow high, rise, ascend’ and Ar ↗ŠQY ‘to grow’, šāqiⁿ ‘high, inaccessible’ etc. – For another speculation (BDB1906), see below, section DISC.
    ▪ SLQ_7 ‘a variety of chard’ (and SLQ_21 ‘red garden-beet’): perh. (via Aram?) from Grk Σικελία ‘Sicily’ (with metathesis ḳ-l > l-q), thus *‘the Sicilian (vegetable)’, but this is rather uncertain and not unproblematic (see DISC).
    ▪ SLQ_8 ‘dish made of grain cooked with sugar, cinnamon and fennel’: from SLQ_3 ‘to boil, cook in boiling water’, or SLQ_2 ‘to remove (hair, etc.) with boiling water’.
    ▪ SLQ_9 ‘inborn disposition, instinct’: prob. from SLQ_1 ‘to lacerate, skin’ or SLQ_2 ‘to remove (hair, etc.) with boiling water / through boiling in water’, thus properly *‘what remains, or comes out, after “skinning” or “peeling off” the outer layers of s.th.’.
    ▪ SLQ_10 ‘red lead, minium’: prob. akin to ↗zarqūn ‘bright red’. Or *‘the Syrian (mineral), the (red) substance from Syria’, from Grk συρικόν syrikón (suggested by Nişanyan_1Jul2017)?
    ▪ SLQ_11 ‘greyhound, hunting dog, saluki’: nominalized nsb-formation, from the place name Salūq, of uncertain identity and location (Yemen, Armenia, Iran, …?; ultimately, perh. based on “Seleucia”).
    SLQ_12 ‘to prostrate s.o. on the back of his neck, throw s.o. down’: prob. reflex of an archaic *Š-stem, caus. of ↗√LQY, cf. the var. salqà (prob. < *ša-lqà) (meaning the same as ʔalqà, vb. IV).
    SLQ_13 ‘to pierce (with a spear)’: may be a special use of SLQ_1 ‘to lacerate the skin (with a whip)’ (> ‘to hurt’). But contamination from, or influence of, ṣalaqa (!) ‘to attack (a tribe); to smite s.o. (sun); to strike s.o. (bi with a stick)’ is not unconceivable. - Borg2021#327 compares Eg śrq ‘(Gk) die Feinde schlachten, sie töten’ (Calice 1936: 80; Wb IV 204).
    SLQ_14 ‘to leave prints (on the soil: foot)’: The quasi-PP pattern of related salāʔiqᵘ (sg. ³salīqaẗ) ‘marks made by the feet/hoofs on the road’ suggests interpretation of the latter as *‘scratchings, carvings’, based on special use of SLQ_1 ‘to lacerate, skin, peel off’, foot/hoof prints being likened to scars on the skin due to laceration, esp. after lashing. DaṯAr slq ‘semer; to cultivate, plough, till’ (with sāliq ‘sillon’, silāqaẗ ‘cultivation, tillage’) (LandbergZetterstein1942) is prob. from *‘to make furrows in the soil, “scratch, lacerate” the earth’. – Cf. also homonymous ²salīqaẗ ‘inborn disposition, instinct’ (SLQ_9), prob. likewise based on SLQ_1 though with different semantics, due to fig. use in another domain. – See also below, SLQ_22 ‘wolf’ and SLQ_25 ‘even plain’.
    SLQ_15 ‘to oil, grease (a leathern water-skin, etc.), to smear (a camel all over with tar)’: etymology obscure; a misreading of salafa ‘to grease (a skin)’? – For more options, see below, section DISC.
    SLQ_16 ‘to insert one of the two loops of the sack called ǧuwāliq into the other’: etymology obscure.
    SLQ_17 ‘to call out, cry out, shout vehemently (esp. after the death of a person or at a calamity); to slap and scratch one’s face (mourning woman)’: akin to SLQ_5 ‘to hurt (with one’s tongue)’? Perhaps also influence from ṣalaq (wie ) ‘shriek of distress’?
    SLQ_18 ‘to run; quick, swift (she-camel)’: etymology obscure.
    SLQ_19 ‘to collect herbs’ (sallaqa, vb. II): prob. denom. from SLQ_27 ‘what falls off from trees (leaves, etc.)’ (²salīq) or SLQ_29 ‘pot herbs’ (salīq), both of of obscure etymology (perh. *‘peeled, scratched off’, from SLQ_1?). – In contrast, OrelStolbova1994 find what they believe to be cognates in Eg sꜣḳ and CCh *caḳal ‘to gather, collect’ and reconstruct Sem *s˅l˅ḳ < AfrAs *calaḳ ‘to gather’ – highly speculative.
    SLQ_20 ‘to be(come) restless, agitated, in a state of commotion, fret (from grief, anxiety, pain)’ (²tasallaqa, vb. V): perh. due to confusion with taṣallaqa (with ) ‘do.’, unless the reverse is the case. The latter item is prob. denom. from ṣalaq ‘shriek of distress’, without reliable etymology either.
    SLQ_21 ‘red garden-beet’ (¹silq): accord. to Fraenkel1886 a borrowing from Aram Syr silqā ‘do.’, itself of unknown origin. ¹silq ‘red garden-beet’ is prob. identical with SLQ_7 silq, EgAr salq ‘a variety of chard’, as both are varieties of the same plant, beta vulgaris. – Accord. to some (Fraenkel, Dozy, et al.), Aram Syr silqā is prob. from Grk sikelós, thus *‘the Sicilian (plant)’. But shouldn’t one also consider the Pers šalġam ‘turnip, rape’ as a possible source? See below, section DISC.
    SLQ_22 ‘wolf’ (²silq, ²silqaẗ ‘she-wolf’): prob. fig. use, either *‘the mangy one’ (from SLQ_1 ‘to lacerate the skin’) or, more likely, *‘the howling one’ (akin to SLQ_17 ‘to call out, cry out, shout vehemently’). – Or of foreign origin? If so, perh. (with metathesis) from Grk λύκος lúkos ‘wolf’?

    SLQ_23 ‘female lizard; female locust, when she has laid her eggs’ (³silqaẗ): of obscure origin. – Any relation to Eg snḥm (> Copt sanneḥ) ‘locust’, itself borrowed from Sem (cf. Hbr sālʕām ‘kind of locust’, hapax in the Bible; slʕm ‘to swallow, consume, devour’, Aram salʕem ‘to swallow, destroy’ – ErmanGrapow1921: 147, Klein1987)?
    SLQ_24 ‘water-course, channel in which water flows, between two tracts of elevated, or elevated and rugged, ground’ (silqaẗ): etymology obscure; perh. from *‘furrow carved in the earth\soil (by the running water)’ < SLQ_1 ‘to lacerate, scratch’; or akin to SLQ_18 ‘to run; quick, swift (she-camel)’ or SLQ_25 ‘even plain, low tract that produces herbage, meadow’; see DISC below.
    SLQ_25 ‘even, plain, smooth, even tract of good soil, depressed land, meadow’ (salaq): either contamination from ṣalaq (with initial ) ‘do.’ (itself of obscure etymology) or akin to SLQ_1 ‘to lacerate the skin’ and SLQ_14 ‘to leave (foot\hoof) prints (on the soil)’, i.e., orig. *‘tract of land from which most vegetation on the surface has been “scraped off”, “lacerated” region’.
    SLQ_26 ‘tumor/swelling/pustule on the edges of the eyelids or on the gum, causing eyelashes or teeth to fall out’ (sulāq): the basic notion of ‘falling out’ (eyelashes, teeth) due to a disease/swelling/pustule may be related to SLQ_27 ‘falling off (of leaves, etc.) from trees’, itself prob. akin to SLQ_1 ‘to lacerate the skin, peel off, etc.’.
    SLQ_27 ‘what falls off from trees (leaves, etc.)’ (²salīq): prob. *‘what has been scratched off (from a tree) (and left it bare, like lacerated skin)’, (like SLQ_26 ‘falling off eyelids, teeth, etc.’?) from (or at least akin to) SLQ_1 ‘to lacerate the skin, (Ehret1989: to loosen the flesh from the bones)’. – Does also DaṯAr salqaẗ ‘natte de folioles de palmier’ (SLQ_33) belong here?
    SLQ_28 ‘honey which the bees build up along the length of their hive, or habitation’ (³salīq): etymology obscure.
    SLQ_29 ‘pot herbs’ (salīq): etymology obscure; identical with SLQ_27 ‘what falls off from trees (leaves, etc.)’, or akin to SLQ_7 ‘a variety of chard’, or prop. *‘what is (going to be) cooked in hot water’ (from SLQ_3 ‘to boil, cook in boiling water’)?
    SLQ_30 ‘side of a road’ (salīq): etymology obscure; perh. properly *‘the bare (slopes) along a road’? Or should one see it together with salaq ‘even plain, low tract, depressed land, meadow’ (SLQ_25)?
    SLQ_31 ‘(a sort of) coat of mail’ (²salūqī): like ¹salūqī ‘greyhound, hunting dog, saluki’ (SLQ_11) orig. *‘the one from Salūq’, i.e., from a town of uncertain location (Yemen, Armenia, …?), perh. related to ancient Seleukia for the Seleucids. – Cf., however, below, section DISC.
    SLQ_32 ‘sitting-place of the captain\pilot’ (salūqiyyaẗ): like SLQ_11 and SLQ_31 a nisba from salūq, though details remain obscure.
    SLQ_33 (DaṯAr ʕAdan Ḥaḍramawt) ‘natte de folioles de palmier’: Cf. perh. SLQ_27 ‘what falls off from trees (leaves, etc.)’.
    SLQ_34 (DaṯAr ʕAdan Ḥaḍramawt) ‘ruines’: etymology obscure.
    SLQ_35 ‘natural, untaught, incorrect (speech)’: according to Olivieri2020 borrowed from Grk σολοικισμός soloikismós ‘incorrectness in the use of language, solecism’.
    SLQ_ ‘…’:  
    ▪ SLQ_5 : for Qurʔānic use, see ↗⁵salaqa 
    1 From pre-protSem *SL130 ‘to draw out or off’ (> Ar ↗salla ‘to draw out slowly’) + *-Ḳ (Ehret1989 #21)? If valid, cognate extensions could be ↗salaʔa ‘to purify butter, press sesame oil’, ↗salaba ‘to take from with violence, rob, plunder, steal’, ↗salata ‘to draw one thing from another’, ↗salaḥa ‘to drop excrement’, ↗salaḫa ‘to skin, flay, throw off the slough; undress’, ↗saliʕa ‘to split, cleave’, ↗salafa ‘to harrow, level, plane, make even, prepare for sowing (land)’; perh. partial overlapping/merger with salaḫa. – Or akin to #2 (<#3?), perh. influenced by salaḫa ‘to skin, flay, etc.’. – Cf. also Leslau2006: Akk šalāqu ‘to cut’ (CAD: ‘to cut open, split’), Ar ¹salaqa ‘to peel off (flesh) from (the bone)’, Gz śalaqa (var. salaqa) ‘to grind fine, crush, peel, husk’, Tña säläqä, Amh sälläqä, Gur säläqä ‘to grind fine’, Amh šäläqqäqä ‘husk, shell, hull’, etc. – 2 based on #3? – 3 Akk salāḳu, JudAram (> postBiblHbr) Syr šlḳ, Ar ³salaqa ‘to boil, cook in boiling water’, DaṯAr slq ‘griller de façon que la viande ne soit ni crue ni à point, mais entre les deux; donner au pain une caisson légère’; prob. also Tña šäläḳä ‘to be burned; to simmer’ (Kogan2011). – ?Cf. also (Dolgopolsky2012#2053), (without extension in ?) BiblHbr c̣ālā (√C̣LY), JudPalAram, JEA c̣əlā (√C̣LW|Y) ‘to roast (meat)’, SamAram √ṢLY ‘to roast’, Ar ṣalà ‘to roast, broil, fry’, ṣaliya ‘to burn (intr.), be exposed to the blaze (bi of’), Gz √ṢLW ‘to broil, roast’; outside Sem: [Berb] Kab əsli ‘cuire rapidement’; [ECush] Brj sal- ‘to cook by boiling, bake’, Kmb šol-, Hd sar ‘id.; to fry, roast’; Sa sōl- ‘braten, rösten auf dem brennenden Feuer’, sōˈlā ‘Fleisch auf heißen Steinen gebraten; Feuerbrand’, Af sola ‘campfire for roasting meat’, Som sol- ‘to grill, toast, roast’; Som šīl- ‘to fry’, Or sil-awu ‘affumigarsi, arruginirsi, ossidarsi’. – 4 prob. special use of #3 (in the earlier sense of ‘to burn’). – 5 perh. fig. use of #13 ‘to pierce (with a spear)’ (ClassAr lexicographers), but perh. special use of #1 (with ‘to lacerate the skin’ > ‘to hurt’ > ‘to insult’). – ?Cf. also ṣalaqa (initial !) ‘to attack (a tribe); to smite s.o. (sun); to strike s.o. (bi with a stick)’; cf. similar ambivalence also in the adj./n.s mislaq, mislāq ‘eloquent (speaker); sharp (tongue)’ (prob. < *‘hurting (tongue)’ vs. miṣlaq, miṣlāq) ‘eloquent (speaker)’ (Lane1872, Hava1899). – In contrast, Zammit2002, Leslau2006: Ug qlṣ ‘verhöhnen’, Aram qallāsā ‘shouting, derision’, Hbr qilles ‘to jeer at’, (with metathesis) Gz tasālaqa ‘to joke, scoff at, deride, mock, ridicule, make fun of, make fun of one another’ (> QurAr ⁵salaqa ‘to abuse, insult’). – 6 Aram slaq, Palm slq, Syr sleq ‘to ascend’, sūlqā ‘Ascension (of Christ)’ > Ar sullāq ‘id.’ (> ¹tasallaqa ‘to ascend, climb’) (Fraenkel1886: 277 and others after him). – ?Cf. (BDB1906) Hbr (< Aram) *śālaq ‘to kindle, burn’, (*Š-stem) hissîq ~ hiśśîq ‘to make a fire, burn’, Aram slq (*Š-stem:) ‘to cause to go up (in flame), offer sacrifice’. – In another theory: (Kogan2015: 386 #15) Ar < Aram < protAram *slḳ ‘to go up’ < (dissociation sl- < ś- ) *ŚḲ, cognate to Akk šaḳu ‘to grow high, rise, ascend’, Ar ŠQY ‘to grow’, šāqiⁿ ‘high, inaccessible’. – 7 = #21 ‘red garden-beet’? If so, borrowed from Aram Syr silqā ‘id.’ (? with metathesis < Grk sikelós ‘Sicilian’, < Grk Σικελία ‘Sicily’). – ?Akin to #27 ²salīq ‘what falls off from trees (leaves, etc.)’, #29 salīq ‘pot herbs’, or #19 sallaqa ‘to collect herbs’? – 8 prob. orig. *‘boiled food; what is cooked with hot water (herbs, leguminous plants, and the like’ < #3. – 9 Ar ²salīqaẗ ‘inborn disposition, instinct’: prob. < #1 or #2 (< #3), i.e., *‘what remains, or comes out, after “skinning” or “peeling off” the outer layers concealing/covering the inner nature of s.th.’; cf. also #14 ‘marks made by feet\hoofs on the road, or by thongs upon the belly of a camel etc.’, from salaqa ‘to leave prints (on the soil; foot, hoof)’, akin to/from #1. – Is modHbr salqāh ‘natural (music)’ a cognate? – 10 Ar salaqūn ‘red lead, minium’, also saliqūn , sariqūn , EgAr salaq͗ōn, zalaq͗ōn: prob. akin to Ar zarqūn ‘bright red’ (? < Pers zargūn ‘gold-coloured’ or Grk συρικόν syrikón, i.e., *‘Syrian’ mineral, red substance *‘from Syria’). – 11 < town name Salūq (< Grk?)? Cf. #31 and #32. – 12 and var. salqà ‘to prostrate, throw down’: perh. archaic *Š-stem, from √LQY ‘to find’, i.e., orig. caus. *‘to make to be found (lying on earth). – 13 prob. dependent on #1 ‘to lacerate the skin (with a whip)’ (> ‘to hurt’), or contamination from, or influence of, ṣalaqa (with ) ‘to attack (a tribe); to smite s.o. (sun); to strike s.o. (bi with a stick)’. – 14 salaqa ‘to leave prints (on the soil: foot)’, salāʔiqᵘ (pl.) ‘marks made by feet\hoofs on the road’, salq ‘mark\scar (of a gall, a thong), sore, on the skin of a camel’: perh. orig. *‘the scratched ones’, from #1 ‘to lacerate, skin, peel off’; so prob. also DaṯAr slq ‘semer; to cultivate, plough, till’, sāliq ‘sillon’, silāqaẗ ‘cultivation, tillage’. – ?Cf. also #22 ‘wolf’ and #25 ‘even plain’? – 15 ? Misreading of salafa ‘to grease (a skin)’? Or cf. #25 ‘even plain, smooth, even tract, of good soil, etc.’? Or akin to Hbr ²šālaq ‘to make smooth, trim’, perh. šiphʕel formation from ḥālaq ‘to be smooth’ (Klein1987)? – 16 ? – 17 ‘to call out, cry out, shout vehemently (esp. after the death of a person or at a calamity)’ is prob. secondary meaning, from ‘to slap and scratch one’s face (mourning woman)’, thus similar to #5 ‘to hurt (with one’s tongue)’ < #1. – ?Cf. also (with initial ): ṣalaqa ‘to call out, cry out, shout vehemently; to raise one’s his voice on the occasion of a calamity\death’, ṣalaq ‘shriek of distress’, taṣallaqa ‘to scream in child-birth’ (Lane1872)̀; see also #20. – 18 ? – Barth1902 thinks ‘to run’ is special use of #6, reading saylaq ‘swift, quick (she-camel)’ as *‘the climbing one’. – 19 vb. II (‘to collect herbs’) is prob. denom., from #29 salīq ‘pot herbs’ or #27 ²salīq ‘what falls off from trees (leaves, etc.)’, both perh. *‘peeled, scratched off’, i.e., < #1. – Cf., however, OrelStolbova1994’s view that Ar slq ‘to gather’ has no cognates in Sem, but outside: Eg sꜣḳ (*-l > -ꜣ ) ‘to gather’, CCh caḳal (metathesis) ‘to gather, collect’. – 20 prob. result of confusion with taṣallaqa (with ) ‘to be(come) restless, agitated, in a state of commotion, fret (from grief, anxiety, pain)’ , itself prob. denom. from ṣalaq ‘shriek of distress’, cf. #17. – 21 According to Fraenkel1886 a loan from Aram Syr silqā ‘red garden-beet’ (prob. identical with #7 ‘a variety of chard’; botanically, both are varieties of Beta vulgaris), itself perh. (with metathesis) from Grk sikelós ‘Sicilian’ (Fraenkel, Dozy, et al.). – ?Cf. also Ar salǧam ‘turnip’, EgAr ‘rape’ (via Tu? from Pers šalġam ‘turnip, rape’? – 22 ? – Is ‘wolf’ *‘the mangy one’ (< #1 ‘to lacerate the skin’, #14 ‘mark\scar, sore, on the back of a camel’), or *‘the howling one’ (< #17 ‘to call out, cry out, shout vehemently’). Or a borrowing? From Grk? – 23 ?Cf. Eg snḥm (> Copt sanneḥ) ‘locust’ (ErmanGrapow1921: < Sem, cf. Hbr sālʕām; cf. also Hbr slʕm ‘to swallow, consume, devour’, Aram salʕem ‘to swallow, destroy’ – Klein1987)? – 24 ? Is ‘water-course’ orig. perh. *‘the carved\carving one, leaving a furrow in the soil’ (#14), or *‘the running one, the quick, swift one’ (#18), or akin to ‘even plain, low tract, meadow’ (#25)? – 25 Contamination of ṣalaq (of obscure etymology)? Or is ‘even plain, low land, depression, meadow’ from #1 ‘to lacerate the skin, loosen the flesh from the bones’, i.e., ‘even plain’ < *‘tract of land from which most vegetation on the surface has been “scraped off”, “lacerated” region’? – 26 prob. akin to #1 (‘falling out, loosening’ of eyelashes, teeth, etc., due to a disease ≈ #27 ‘falling off’ of leaves from trees’, akin to #1 ‘to lacerate the skin, peel off, etc.’). – 27 prob. orig. *‘what has been scratched off (from a tree) (and left it bare, like lacerated skin)’, i.e., based on #1 ‘to lacerate the skin, (Ehret1989: to loosen the flesh from the bones)’. – 28 ? – 29 ? – Perh. ‘pot herbs’ < #27 ‘what falls off from trees (leaves, etc.)’ (< #1)? Or < #7 ‘a variety of chard’? Or *‘what is going to be cooked in hot water’ (< #3 ‘to boil, cook in boiling water’)? – 30 ? – Perh. properly *‘the bare (slopes) along a road’ (< #1)? Or akin to #25 ‘even plain, low tract, depressed land, meadow’? – 31 < town name Salūq ? Cf. #11 and #32. – Any relation to modHbr sᵊlîq ‘arms cache’, (*Š-stem) hislîq ‘to hide (arms) in a cache’ (Klein1987)? 32 < town name Salūq ? Cf. #11 and #31. – … 33 Cf. perh. #27 (< #1). – … 34 ? – 35 lw., from Grk σολοικισμός soloikismós ‘incorrectness in the use of language, solecism’. – … ▪ …
     
    ▪ SLQ_1 : Ehret1989 #21 suggests to analyse ¹salaqa (u, salq) ‘to loosen the flesh from the bones’ as an extension in »intensive (effect)« *-ḳ from a pre-protSem 2-rad. basis *SL410 ‘to draw out or off’. Semantic proximity to other such assumed extensions, like ↗salaḫa (a u, salḫ, from *sl + »extendative fortative« *) ‘to skin, flay, throw off the slough; undress’, is indeed striking. – Alternatively, one may interpret the meaning ‘to lacerate the skin’ as a development from SLQ_2 ‘to remove (hair, etc.) with boiling water’, which in its turn may be a semantic extension based on SLQ_3 ‘to boil, cook in boiling water’. Such a development may have happened under the influence of ↗salaḫa ‘to skin, flay, etc.’. – Cf., however, Leslau2006 who thinks that one may have to compare Ar ¹salaqa ‘to peel off (flesh) from (the bone)’ to Akk šalāqu ‘to cut’ (CAD: ‘to cut open, split’), Gz śalaqa (var. salaqa) ‘to grind fine, crush, peel, husk’, Tña säläqä, Amh sälläqä, Gur säläqä ‘to grind fine’, Amh šäläqqäqä ‘husk, shell, hull’, etc. It is tempting to reconstruct from these forms a protSem root *ŠLḲ ‘to cut, crush, peel off’, which, however, would be homonymous with protSem *ŠLḲ ‘to boil, cook’ (see SLQ_3), rather reliably reconstructed on the basis of fairly wide attestation (Kogan2011).
    ▪ SLQ_2 : The value ‘to remove (hair, etc.) with boiling water’ is perh. a specialization, developed from one of the primary meanings of salaqa, namely SLQ_3 ‘to boil, cook in boiling water’.
    ▪ SLQ_3 ‘to boil, cook in boiling water’: value attested in major branches of Sem (Akk, Aram, Ar, ?EthSem), which allows reconstruction of protSem *ŠLḲ ‘to boil, cook’ (Kogan2011). — According to Dolgopolsky2012#2053, ³salaqa ‘to boil, cook in boiling water’ is based on CSem *šlḳ ‘to cook, broil, boil’, akin to (and extension from?) WSem *c̣ly (*-c̣lay-) ‘to roast’ [> Ar ↗ṣalà (yaṣlī, ṣaly) ‘to roast, broil, fry’, ṣaliya (yaṣlà, ṣalan/ à, ṣulīy, ṣalāʔ) ‘to burn (intr.), be exposed to the blaze (bi of’)], with cognates also in Berb and Cush, ultimately from a hypothetical Nostr *s̄i˻ʔ˼L˅ ‘to roast, fry, cook’.
    ▪ SLQ_4 ‘to scald (plants; said of excessive heat)’, in ClassAr also said of harsh cold ‘burning’ plants: with all likelihood special use of SLQ_3, perh. in an earlier meaning of ‘to burn’, cf. SLQ_3, above.
    ▪ SLQ_5 ‘to hurt (s.o., bi-lisānih with one’s tongue)’: ClassAr lexicographers interpret this meaning as fig. use of SLQ_13 ‘to pierce (with a spear)’, but it is not inconceivable that both depend on SLQ_1 ‘to lacerate the skin (with a whip)’ (> ‘to hurt’). – Or perh. contamination with, or influenced by, ṣalaqa (with ) ‘to attack (a tribe); to smite s.o. (sun); to strike s.o. (bi with a stick)’? The adj.s mislaq and mislāq ‘eloquent (speaker); sharp (tongue)’ which seem to belong to ‘hurting (tongue)’, both exist in a variant with initial : miṣlaq, miṣlāq (pl. maṣālīqᵘ) ‘eloquent (speaker)’ (Lane1872, Hava1899)… – In contrast, Leslau2006 puts the value together with Gz tasālaqa ‘to joke, scoff at, deride, mock, ridicule, make fun of, make fun of one another’, remarking that Margoliouth (JRAS 1939: 61) derived Ar salaqa in Surah 33:19 from this Gz (ta)sālaqa and that »the root represents a metathesis in relation to Hbr qilles ‘to jeer at’. Zammit2002 shares this view, adding Ug and Aram parallels to the Hbr and Gz forms as alleged ‘cognates’ of Qur’anic Ar salaqa (interpreted as ‘to abuse’).
    ▪ SLQ_6 : As Kogan2015 remarks, the isolated position of Ar ¹tasallaqa ‘to ascend, mount, climb, scale’ (as also of ClassAr salaqa ‘do.’, now obsol.) within Ar »makes one wonder about a possible Aram origin« of these items. If so, ¹tasallaqa may be denom. from sullāq ‘Ascension (of Christ)’, almost certainly borrowed from Aram sūlqā ‘do.’ (so already Fraenkel1886: 277). – Given the Hbr and Aram ‘cognates’, Dolgopolsky2012#300 reconstructs a CSem *√SLḲ ‘to ascend, climb’ (in his view ancestor not only of Ar ¹tasallaqa ‘do.’, but also of SLQ_18 salaqa ‘to run’, but perh. – deglottalization? – even ↗salaka ‘to travel, go along’), to which he juxtaposes IndEur (NaIE) *slenk (~ *sleng ) ‘to creep, crawl, trudge, amble’ (> , e.g., AngSax slincan ‘to creep’ > nEngl ‘to slink’, oHGe slango, nHGe Schlange ‘snake’; oHGe zuo-slingan ‘to slide away’, mHGe slingen ‘to crawl along’, etc.), all ultimately from a hypothetical Nostr *c'oLḲ˅ (~ *c'oLk˅) ‘to advance with effort (to creep, to crawl, to climb etc.)’. – Another view is put forward in BDB1906 where the authors interpret values SLQ_6 ‘to ascend’ and SLQ_4 ‘to scald, burn’ as interdependent, associating Hbr *śālaq ‘to kindle, burn’, (*Š-stem) hissîq ~ hiśśîq ‘to make a fire, burn’ with Aram slaq ‘to ascend’, (*Š-stem) ‘to cause to go up (in flame), offer sacrifice’, Syr sleq, Palm slq , Ar salaqa ‘to ascend’. – In contrast, Kogan2015: 386 #15 points to the scarcity of the Hbr vb. (a hapax in the Bible) and the isolated position of ‘ascending’ within Ar and concludes that both with all likelihood are Aramaisms, i.e., neither the Hbr nor the Ar item can count as genuine cognates, and Aram SLḲ is itself isolated within Sem. Speculating about the obscure origin of protAram *slḳ ‘to go up’ Kogan then »wonders whether a clue to the etymology of this root can be found in its highly peculiar morphological behavior, viz. the unexpected assimilation * sl- > ss- [Ps 139:8 shows a 1sg.impf Hbr ʔässaq instead of *ʔäslaq], probably betraying the secondary origin of l . It is, therefore, tempting to follow P. Haupt (1910: 712‒713) who compared protAram *slḳ with Akk šaḳu ‘to grow high, rise, ascend’ and Ar ↗šqy ‘to grow’, šāqiⁿ ‘high, inaccessible’. If valid, this comparison would imply that the lateral *ś was split into the combination s-l at some early stage of the linguistic history of Aramaic.411 – ProtAram *slḳ has replaced protSem *ʕly/*ʕlw ‘to go up’ [> Ar ↗ʕalā], which is only marginally preserved in Aram.«
    ▪ SLQ_7 ‘a variety of chard’: EgAr salq, also salqāyaẗ (BadawiHinds1986), ClassAr silq looks as if it could be identical with SLQ_21 ¹silq ‘red garden-beet’ (now obsolete) (see below). – The remark, made in ar.wiki, that the plant, popular all over the Mediterranean, originally came from Sicily, makes it tempting to assume a relation to this island, although the Ar name of Sicily most often shows initial (Ṣiqilliyaẗ, Ṣiqilliyyaẗ) rather than s (Siqilliyyaẗ) (both from Grk Σικελία) and q ll instead of l q (result of metathesis?); moreover, one would have to explain the faʕl/fiʕl pattern that would be rather unusual if ‘chard’ originally was *‘the Sicilian (vegetable)’. – Any relation to ²salīq ‘what falls off from trees (leaves, etc.)’ (SLQ_27), salīq ‘pot herbs’ (SLQ_29), or to sallaqa ‘to collect herbs’ (SLQ_19, prob. denom.)? – The specifications silq al-barrRumex, sour-dock’ and silq al-māʔPotamogeton, pond-weed’ certainly belong here.
    ▪ SLQ_8 : In today’s SyrAr, ¹salīqaẗ is known as the name for a ‘dish made of grain cooked with sugar, cinnamon and fennel’. Originally, the word is a pseudo-PP from SLQ_3 ‘to boil, cook in boiling water’ and thus simply meant ‘boiled food; what is cooked with hot water (herbs, leguminous plants, and the like’. However, also more specific usage is attested already in ClassAr; e.g., in addition to the general meaning, Lane1872 also mentions ‘millet bruised and dressed by being cooked with milk; a preparation of dried curd with which are mixed certain plants’, and Wahrmund1887 has ¹salīq ‘geschälte Gerste u. Speise daraus’.
    ▪ SLQ_9 : There is no self-evident semantic connection betw. ²salīqaẗ ‘inborn disposition, instinct’ and any of the other values represented in the root. However, given that, morphologically, salīqaẗ is (the f. form of) a quasi-PP, one may think of ‘inborn disposition, instinct, natural trait’ as fig. use of either SLQ_1 ‘to lacerate, skin’ or SLQ_2 ‘to remove (hair, etc.) with boiling water / through boiling in water’ (< SLQ_3 ‘to boil, cook in boiling water’), implying that it is what remains, or comes out, after ‘skinning’ or ‘peeling off’ the outer layers concealing/covering the inner nature of s.th.; cf. also SLQ_14, below, with the pl. salāʔiqᵘ ‘marks made by the feet of men and by the hoofs of horses or the like on the road (or marks made by thongs upon the belly of a camel etc.)’, from salaqa ‘to leave prints (on the soil; foot, hoof)’ , which is akin to SLQ_1 ‘to lacerate, flay, skin’ (and thereby leave marks on the body).
    ▪ SLQ_10 ‘red lead, minium’: Ar salaqūn is found also as saliqūn or sariqūn and in EgAr also as salaq͗ōn and zalaq͗ōn. Given the variability of R₁ (s/z) and R₂ (l/r), a relation to Ar ↗zarqūn ‘bright red’ does not seem unlikely. BadawiHinds1986 thinks the EgAr words may be from Tu sülüğen/süleğen ‘do.’, but the reverse is prob. the case, i.e., the Tu words are from Ar (or both from Pers zargūn ‘gold-coloured’). In contrast, Nişanyan_1Jul2017 (s.v. Tu süleğen) would not exclude an origin in Grk συρικόν syrikón, which would suggest an interpretation of minium as ‘the Syrian (mineral), the (red) substance from Syria’, an idea that could be corroborated by the Ru Ukr name for minium, súrik. But Nişanyan adds himself that such an etymology is rather uncertain. (The mineral is first mentioned in Tu sources in the anon. Câmiʕü'l-Fürs, 1501, as sülegen.)
    ▪ SLQ_11 : The term ¹salūqī for a specific kind of greyhound or hunting dog, as ‘saluki’, derives from the place name Salūq, a town located by ClassAr lexicographers either in Yemen or Armenia. But there are also other places that may be identified with this Salūq; ultimately, there may be a connection to the Seleucia and the Seleucid Empire. For details see s.v.
    SLQ_12 : salaqa, u (salq) ‘to prostrate s.o. on the back of his neck, throw s.o. down; to push, repell’ is the first value mentioned in BadawiAbdelHaleem2008 as well as in Lane1872, as though it was a/the primary one. It can, however, not be related to any of the other values, nor does it seem to have cognates in Sem or outside. A clue to its etymology may be the fact that the verb appears with this meaning not only in the form salaqa, but also with the variant salqà (vn. silqāʔ). This latter may be the reflex of an archaic *Š-stem, a causative from ↗√LQY, giving more or less the same meaning as the common vb. IV, ʔalqà (vn. ʔilqāʔ), see ↗laqiya. Cf. also the corresponding intr. vb.s, as rare and unusual as salqà itself: ClassAr ĭslanqà (pattern ĭFʕanLà) ‘to lie, or sleep prostrate on one’s back’, with the var. ĭstalqà, which latter can be analysed as a t-stem of both salqà and ʔalqà (<*šalqà).
    SLQ_13 : The value ‘to pierce (with a spear)’ of salaqa (u, salq) may be a specialized development from dependent on SLQ_1 ‘to lacerate the skin (with a whip)’ (> ‘to hurt’). Or should we assume contamination from, or influence of, ṣalaqa (with ) ‘to attack (a tribe); to smite s.o. (sun); to strike s.o. (bi with a stick)’? – In its turn, ‘to pierce (with a spear)’ seems to have given rise to value SLQ_5 ‘to hurt (with one’s tongue)’, still in use in MSA, prob. due to its Qur’anic origin (see above).
    SLQ_14 : ‘to leave prints (on the soil: foot)’: salaqa, u (salq); cf. also salāʔiqᵘ (pl., from sg. ³salīqaẗ) ‘marks made by the feet of men and by the hoofs of horses or the like on the road’. The pseudo-PP FaʕīLaẗ pattern of ³salīqaẗ suggests an interpretation of those ‘marks’ as *‘the scratched ones’ so that the value can be related to SLQ_1 ‘to lacerate, skin, peel off’. One detailed explanation of the meaning of SLQ_1 also connects the latter with ‘traces’: ‘to peel off (flesh from the bone), remove its hair or fur (with hot water, leaving the traces thereof remaining [!])’ (Lane iv 1872). The old n. salq ‘mark\scar (of a gall), sore, on the back of a camel, when it has healed, and the place thereof has become white; mark made by the [plaited thong called] nisʕ upon the side of the camel, or upon its belly, from which the fur becomes worn off’ (Lane1872) matches very well here, too. ClassAr lexicographers would explain the latter as secondary, an extension from ‘marks left on the road’, but the reverse is more likely to be the case. – DaṯAr slq ‘semer; to cultivate, plough, till’ is prob. based on *‘to make furrows in the soil’ (< * ‘to “scratch” the earch’); note, however, that ‘furrow’ in DaṯAr is sāliq (PA, i.e., ‘the carving\scratching one’), not *salīq (quasi-PP). – See also below, SLQ_22 ‘wolf’ and SLQ_25 ‘even plain’.
    SLQ_15 ‘to oil, grease (a leathern water-skin, etc.), to smear (a camel all over with tar)’: etymology obscure. A misreading for salafa (u, salaf) ‘to grease (a skin)’? Or akin to, or dependent on, SLQ_25 salaq ‘even plain, smooth, even tract, of good soil, etc.’? The latter also exists in a variant with initial : ṣalaq, pl. ʔaṣlāq, ʔaṣālīqᵘ, ‘even plain’; cf. also ṣalīq, ‘even, smooth’. – Or should one consider Hbr ²šālaq ‘to make smooth, trim’ (Klein1987) as a cognate? According to Klein1987, the item is of uncertain origin, perh. a šiphʕel formation from ḥālaq ‘to be smooth’.
    SLQ_16 ‘(al-ǧuwāliqᵃ) to insert one of the two loops of the sack called ǧ. into the other’; ‘(al-ʕūd fī ’l-ʕurwaẗ) to insert the stick into the loop [of the ǧ.]’: etymology obscure.
    SLQ_17 : As in SLQ_15, the value that ClassAr lexicography often gives as the secondary one – ‘to slap and scratch one’s face (mourning woman)’ – may in fact be the primary one from which the other meaning – ‘to call out, cry out, shout vehemently (esp. after the death of a person or at a calamity)’, which tends to be given first – is derived. – Cf. also ¹silqaẗ (pl. sulqān, silqān, silq) and sāliqaẗ (pl. sawāliqᵘ) ‘weeping loudly (woman), slapping her face; long-tongued and vehemently clamorous, foul, evil, lewd’ (whence [SLQ_22 ] ²silqaẗ ‘she-wolf’, m. ²silq ‘wolf’?). With the latter notion, SLQ_17 comes close to SLQ_5 ‘to hurt (with one’s tongue)’. – Influenced by ṣalaq, pl. ʔaṣlāq, ‘shriek of distress’ (> denom. taṣallaqa ‘to scream in child-birth’) and ṣalaqa (i, ṣalq), vb. I, ‘to call out, cry out, shout vehemently; to raise one’s his voice on the occasion of a calamity, and of a death’ (Lane1872)̀?
    SLQ_18 ‘to run’ (¹²salaqa), ‘quick, swift (she-camel)’ (saylaq): etymology obscure. – Barth1902 is convinced that the value »certainly« has to be seen together with tasallaqa ‘to climb’ (i.e., SLQ_6), interpreting saylaq as, properly, *‘the climbing one’ (»‘stark laufende (eigentl. ‘steigende Kamelin’«), but this is little convincing.
    SLQ_19 : sallaqa, vb. II, in the sense of ‘to collect herbs’ is prob. denominative from ²salīq ‘what falls off from trees (leaves, etc.)’ (SLQ_27) or salīq ‘pot herbs’ (SLQ_29), both of which are of obscure etymology (perh. *‘peeled, scratched off’, from SLQ_1?). – OrelStolbova1994#380, finding ‘cognates’ of Ar slq ‘to gather’ in Eg sꜣḳ (*-l > -ꜣ ) ‘do.’, and CCh caḳal (metathesis) ‘to gather, collect’, dare to assume Sem *s˅l˅ḳ ‘to gather’ and even reconstruct AfrAs *calaḳ ‘to gather’. But the basis for such reconstruction seems too weak.
    SLQ_20 : The value ‘to be(come) restless, agitated, in a state of commotion, fret (from grief, anxiety, pain)’ of the form V vb. ²tasallaqa is perh. due to confusion with taṣallaqa (with ) ‘do.’, unless the reverse is the case (taṣallaqa seems to be denom. from ṣalaq, pl. ʔaṣlāq, ‘shriek of distress’; but this item, too, is without proper etymology).
    SLQ_21 : According to Fraenkel (1886: 143), the Ar term ¹silq (pl. sulqān) for ‘red garden-beet’ is from Aram Syr silqā ‘do.’, in itself of unknown origin. The word looks as if it could be identical with the term, still in use, EgAr salq or salqāyaẗ and ClassAr MSA silq for ‘a variety of chard’ (see SLQ_7, above). For Aram Syr silqā, some have argued that it might be a borrowing (with metathesis) from Grk sikelós ‘Sicilian’ – see, e.g., Fraenkel, as also Dozy, s.v., where the author remarks that already »Théopraste dit que la variété blanche de la Beta vulgaris s’appelle sicilienne«. – On another note, there are also Ar salǧam ‘turnip’, EgAr ‘rape’, Tu şalgam, Arm šoġkam ‘do.’, which, accord. to Nişanyan_13Apr2015, all go back to Pers šalġam ‘turnip, rape’ – could also Ar salq~silq be akin to, or even derive, from this Pers word?
    SLQ_22 : The term ²silq (pl. sulqān, silqān) for ‘wolf’ and ²silqaẗ for ‘she-wolf’ looks as if it was a very basic word. However, the common Sem term for ‘wolf’ is protSem *ḏiʔb (> Ar ↗ḏiʔb), so that ²silq, f. ²silqaẗ prob. is fig. use pointing to a characteristic feature of the animal. From among the value spectrum covered by √SLQ , two values could be promising candidates: a ‘wolf’ may either be *‘the mangy one’, from SLQ_1 ‘to lacerate the skin’ (see also salq ‘mark\scar, sore, on the back of a camel, when it has healed; mark left on the skin by a thong making the fur looking worn off’, cf. SLQ_14), or *‘the howling one’, akin to SLQ_17 ‘to call out, cry out, shout vehemently’. The latter seems to be more likely, as ClassAr has the proverbial expr. ʔaslaṭᵘ min silqaẗ ‘more clamorous than a she-wolf’ where ‘shouting, howling’ is regarded as a characteristic, ‘proverbial’ feature; moreover, some ClassAr lexicographers would even regard silqaẗ in the sense of ‘clamorous (woman), shouting vehemently, long-tongued, foul, evil, lewd’ as dependent on ‘she-wolf’ (Lane1872: »she-wolf… hence[!], a woman…«). – However, if none of these options should be valid and ²silq be of foreign origin nevertheless, the only non-Sem candidate for the place of the etymon seems to be Grk λύκος lúkos ‘wolf’. Unprovable, but also unfalsifiable. If valid, one would have to assume a metathesis *(lks >) lḳs > slq.
    SLQ_23 ‘female lizard; female locust, when she has laid her eggs’: ³silqaẗ. – Of obscure etymology. Should one consider Eg snḥm (> Copt sanneḥ) ‘locust’, itself borrowed from Sem (cf. Hbr sālʕām ‘kind of locust’, hapax in the Bible; slʕm ‘to swallow, consume, devour’, Aram salʕem ‘to swallow, destroy’ – ErmanGrapow1921: 147, Klein1987)?
    SLQ_24 ‘water-course, channel in which water flows, between two tracts of elevated, or elevated and rugged, ground’: silqaẗ. – Etymology obscure. Perhaps *‘furrow carved in the earth\soil by flowing water’, thus perh. related to SLQ_14 ‘to leave prints (on the soil\road: foot, hoof)’ (< SLQ_1 ‘to lacerate, scratch’). Any relation to SLQ_18 ‘to run (¹²salaqa); quick, swift (she-camel)’ (saylaq) or SLQ_25 ‘even plain, low tract that produces herbage, meadow’ (salaq)?
    SLQ_25 : The value ‘even plain, smooth, even tract of good soil, in which are no trees; low tract, depressed land that produces herbage, meadow’ (Lane1872) is represented in ClassAr by both salaq (pl. ʔaslāq, sulqān) and a form with initial : ṣalaq (pl. ʔaṣlāq, pl.pl. ʔaṣālīqᵘ) (Hava1899); for the latter, cf. also ṣalīq ‘even, smooth’ and the n.f. (nominalized adj.?) ṣalīqaẗ (pl. ṣalāʔiqᵘ) ‘thin bread; slice of roasted meat’ (Hava1899). Thus, we can think of salaq either as a contamination of ṣalaq (which in itself is of obscure etymology) or as akin to SLQ_1 ‘to lacerate the skin’ and SLQ_14 ‘to leave (foot\hoof) prints (on the soil)’, as well as the old n. salq ‘mark\scar, sore, on the back of a camel, mark made by a thong upon the skin where the fur becomes worn off’. If such a ‘kinship’ is valid, the ‘even plain’ would originally be *‘tract of land from which most vegetation on the surface has been “scraped off”, “lacerated” region’.
    SLQ_26 : For ClassAr sulāq we find several descriptions, the most comprehensive perh. in BK1860: ‘1 tumeur qui se forme sur les bords des paupières et fait tomber les cils (tumor that forms on the edges of the eyelids and causes the eyelashes to fall out; Hava1899: lippitude of the eyelids); 2 déchaussement des dents, maladie des gencives, qui fait que les dents n’étant plus retenues par les gencives tombent (loosening of teeth, gum disease, which causes teeth no longer held by the gums to fall out: Wahrmund1887: Lösung d Zahnfleischs); 3 tubercule à la racine de la langue (tubercle at the root of the tongue; Lane1872, Hava1899: pimples, pustules that come forth upon the root \ on the tip of the tongue); 4 enflure (swelling)’; cf. also al-ʔasāliq ‘what is next to the lahawāt [pl. used as sg., meaning the ‘uvula’] of the mouth, internally, or the upper parts of the interior of the mouth, those to which the tongue rises’ (Lane1872). – The basic notion here is prob. the ‘falling out’ or ‘loosening’ of s.th. (eyelashes, teeth) due to a disease, an idea that is similar to the ‘falling off (of leaves, etc.) from trees’ (SLQ_27) and which seems to be akin to SLQ_1 ‘to lacerate the skin, peel off, etc.’.
    SLQ_27 : Morphologically a quasi-PP, ²salīq ‘what falls off from trees (leaves, etc.)’ may well be *‘what has been scratched off (from a tree) (and left it bare, like lacerated skin)’. If this is true, the value, like also the preceding, SLQ_26, developed from SLQ_1 ‘to lacerate the skin, (Ehret1989: to loosen the flesh from the bones)’.
    SLQ_28 ³salīq ‘honey which the bees build up along the length of their hive, or habitation’: etymology obscure.
    SLQ_29 salīq ‘pot herbs | Kücherkräuter’: etymology obscure. Identical with SLQ_27 ‘what falls off from trees (leaves, etc.)’? Or akin to SLQ_7 ‘a variety of chard’? Or, properly meaning *‘what is going to be cooked in hot water’ (from SLQ_3 ‘to boil, cook in boiling water’)?
    SLQ_30 salīq ‘side of a road’: etymology obscure. – Perh. properly *‘the bare (slopes) along a road’? Or should one see it together with salaq ‘even plain, low tract, depressed land, meadow’ ( SLQ_25)?
    SLQ_31 : Like ¹salūqī ‘greyhound, hunting dog, saluki’ (SLQ_11), also ²salūqī, a term for ‘(a sort of) coat of mail’, seems to be related to Salūq, the name of a town of uncertain location (Yemen, Armenia, …?). For Fraenkel1886: 242 it is clear that this is ancient Seleukia (as already assumed by Yāqūt). – Cf., however, Hbr (*Š-stem) hislîq ‘to hide (arms) in a cache’ and modHbr sᵊlîq ‘arms cache’, which Klein1987 would regard as belonging to Hbr √SLQ ‘to go up, ascend’ (< Aram slaq ‘to come up’), Ar ¹tasallaqa ‘to ascend, mount, climb’ (SLQ_6).
    SLQ_32 : One could be tempted to connect ‘sitting-place of the rubbān [or captain] of a ship, sitting-place of a pilot’ to SLQ_1, as *‘place left free (< “scraped off”) for the captain\pilot)’, but the form of salūqiyyaẗ – obviously a f. nisba formation from salūq – does not seem to allow such an interpretation. Thus it looks as if salūqiyyaẗ is based on the same town name salūq from which ¹salūqī ‘greyhound, hunting dog, saluki’ (SLQ_11) and ²salūqī ‘(a sort of) coat of mail’ (SLQ_31) prob. are derived. Further details obscure.
    SLQ_33 (DaṯAr) ‘natte de folioles de palmier’: perh. < *‘leaves falling off (or taken from) the trees’ (SLQ_27), thus based on SLQ_1.
    SLQ_34 ‘ruines’ (DaṯAr mislāq): obscure.
    SLQ_35 (kalām) salīqī ‘natural, untaught, uninflected (speech)’: borrowed from Grk σολοικισμός soloikismós ‘incorrectness in the use of language, solecism’, in analogy to ↗ʔiʕrāb (prob. calqued on Grk hellēnismós) ‘use of desinential inflection, thereby producing correct, clear, sound Arabic’; (nominalisation:) salīqiyyaẗ ‘dialect in which the speaker thereof proceeds loosely, or freely, according to his nature, without paying much attention to desinential syntax, and without avoiding incorrectness’ (Lane1872)
    SLQ_ ‘…’:
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ (ad #35): From the same source as salīqī is Engl solecism ‘gross grammatical error’; loosely ‘a small blunder in speech; any absurdity or incongruity, a violation of the conventional rules of society’, 1570s, from Fr solécisme (C16), from Lat soloecismus ‘mistake in speaking or writing’, from Grk soloikismós ‘a speaking (Greek) incorrectly’, from soloikos ‘speaking incorrectly, using provincialisms’, also ‘awkward or rude in manners’, said to have meant originally ‘speaking like the people of Soloi’, a Grk colony in Cilicia (modern Mezitli in Turkey), whose dialect the Athenians considered barbarous -- EtymOnline (as of 26Sept2022). 
    – 
    ¹salaq‑ سَلَق , u (salq
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 17Jan2022, last update 27Sep2022
    √SLQ 
    vb., I 
    1 to lacerate the skin (‑h of s.o.; with a whip); 2 ↗²salaqa; 3 ↗³salaqa; 4 ↗⁴salaqa; 5 ↗⁵salaqa – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ The meaning ‘to lacerate the skin (with a whip)’ seems to go back to an original sense of ‘to loosen\peel off the flesh from the bones’, well attested in ClassAr.
    ▪ Accord. to Ehret1989 #21, ¹salaqa ‘to loosen the flesh from the bones’ may be analyzed as an extension in * (»intensive (effect)«) from pre-protSem *√SL75 ‘to draw out or off’; so also ↗salaḫa (< *SL + »extendative fortative« *) ‘to skin, flay, throw off the slough’.
    ▪ Leslau2006 thinks that Ar ¹salaqa ‘to peel off (flesh) from (the bone)’ has cognates in Akk (šalāqu ‘to cut open, split’) and EthSem (e.g., Gz śalaqa~salaqa ‘to grind fine, crush, peel, husk’); if this is valid, one may reconstruct protSem *ŠLḲ ‘to cut, crush, peel off’, which, however, would be homonymous with protSem *ŠLḲ ‘to boil, cook’, rather reliably reconstructed on the basis of wider attestation (Kogan2011) (cf. ↗³salaqa) – rather unlikely, esp. so in light of the semantic distance between ‘cutting, splitting’ and ‘scraping, peeling’. Therefore, it would probably make more sense to see the Akk and EthSem items together with Ar ↗šalaqa (u, šalq) ‘to split lengthwise’ (< protSem *ŚLḲ?) rather than with ¹salaqa ‘to lacerate, flay, etc.’.
    ▪ Or is ‘to lacerate the skin’ a development from ‘to remove (hair, etc.) with boiling water’ (↗²salaqa), in its turn perh. the result of semantic extension from ‘to boil, cook in boiling water’ (↗³salaqa), perh. under the influence of ↗salaḫa ‘to skin, flay, etc.’?
    ▪ The basic meanings attached to ¹salaqa, i.e., ‘to loosen\peel off (the flesh from the bones)’, ‘to lacerate, skin, scrape off’ etc., seem to have given rise to a number of semantic extensions building on them either literally or figuratively – see below, section DISC.
    ▪ …
     
    ʔaslaqa, vb. IV, ‘1 (said of a man) his camel’s back became white after the healing of galls; 2 to hunt, snare, trap, a she-wolf (silqaẗ), to hunt wolves’ – Lane iv 1872, Hava1899 (and Wahrmund1887).
     
    ▪ Ar SLQ: 1 From pre-protSem *SL ‘to draw out or off’ (> Ar ↗salla ‘to draw out slowly’) + * Ḳ (Ehret1989 #21)? If valid, cognate extensions could be ↗salaʔa ‘to purify butter, press sesame oil’, ↗salaba ‘to take from with violence, rob, plunder, steal’, ↗salata ‘to draw one thing from another’, ↗salaḥa ‘to drop excrement’, ↗salaḫa ‘to skin, flay, throw off the slough; undress’, ↗saliʕa ‘to split, cleave’, ↗salafa ‘to harrow, level, plane, make even, prepare for sowing (land)’; perh. partial overlapping/merger with salaḫa. – Or akin to #2 (<#3?), perh. influenced by salaḫa ‘to skin, flay, etc.’. – ?Cf. also Leslau2006: Akk šalāqu ‘to cut’ (CAD: ‘to cut open, split’), Ar ¹salaqa ‘to peel off (flesh) from (the bone)’, Gz śalaqa (var. salaqa) ‘to grind fine, crush, peel, husk’, Tña säläqä, Amh sälläqä, Gur säläqä ‘to grind fine’, Amh šäläqqäqä ‘husk, shell, hull’, etc. – ?2 ‘to remove (hair, etc.) with boiling water’ ↗²salaqa. – ?3 ‘to boil, cook in boiling water’ ↗³salaqa. – 433 […].
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Ehret1989 #21 suggests to analyse ¹salaqa ‘to loosen the flesh from the bones’ as an extension in »intensive (effect)« *-Ḳ from a pre-protSem 2-rad. basis *SL412 ‘to draw out or off’ (preserved in Ar ↗salla ‘to draw out slowly’). Semantic proximity to other such assumed extensions, like ↗salaḫa (from *SL + »extendative fortative« *) ‘to skin, flay, throw off the slough; to undress’, is indeed striking.
    ▪ Cf., however, Leslau2006 who thinks that one may have to compare Ar ¹salaqa ‘to peel off (flesh) from (the bone)’ to Akk šalāqu ‘to cut’ (CAD: ‘to cut open, split’), Gz śalaqa (var. salaqa) ‘to grind fine, crush, peel, husk’, Tña säläqä, Amh sälläqä, Gur säläqä ‘to grind fine’, Amh šäläqqäqä ‘husk, shell, hull’, etc. It is tempting to reconstruct from these forms a protSem root *ŠLḲ ‘to cut, crush, peel off’, which, however, would be homonymous with protSem *ŠLḲ ‘to boil, cook’ (see SLQ_3), rather reliably reconstructed on the basis of fairly wide attestation in Sem (cf. ↗³salaqa). Leslau’s etymology would not contradict Ehret (see above) if we assume pre-protSem *√ŠL instead of Ehret’s *√SL as the 2-rad. basis from which protSem *ŠLḲ would be an extension in *. But Leslau’s hypothesis is perh. not valid, as Akk šalāqu ‘to cut open, split’ rather belongs to Ar ↗šalaqa ‘to split lengthwise’ than to ¹salaqa ‘to loosen the flesh from the bones’; taking together Akk šalāquand Ar šalaqa with Gz śalaqa ‘to grind fine, crush, […]’, one may reconstruct protSem *ŚLQ ‘to cut, crush, split’ and keep this notion apart from that of ‘loosening\peeling off the flesh, etc.’ (? ▪ Apart from the ‘relatives’ that may be due to a shared 2-rad. nucleus from which they all may be extensions (Ehret1989), Ar ¹salaqa does not seem to have genuine cognates in Sem. Its isolated position can possibly be taken as an indicator of the notion of ‘loosening\peeling off the skin’ being a secondary value. But should one go as far as to assume a development from ↗³salaqa ‘to boil, cook by boiling’, via ↗²salaqa ‘to remove (hair, etc.) with boiling water’? At least, the value ‘to boil, cooking by boiling’ is rather widely attested in Sem. A counter-argument against a development from ‘to boil, cook by boiling’ is the large number of SLQ-values that with all probability are based on ‘to loosen\peel, strip off, etc.’ rather than on ‘to boil’. Together with the fact that, in many cases, the semantic distance between these items and ‘to loosen\peel, strip off, etc.’ is quite great, we can assume a deep temporal horizon and, thus, a very old age of the notion of ‘to loosen\peel, strip off, etc.’.
    ▪ Among the values that may be explained as stemming from an original ‘to loosen\peel, strip off, etc.’ we find not only the idea of ‘lacerating (the skin, esp. by whipping), skinning’, but also several others that are similar to it, either with regard to the action itself or to its results. Thus, the meaning, now obsol., of ‘to pierce (with a spear)’ (salaqa) may be a specialisation, as also DaṯAr salaq ‘to cultivate, plough, till’ (<*‘to lacerate the soil, make furrows in it’; cf. also DaṯAr sāliq ‘furrow’, silāqaẗ ‘cultivation, tillage’ – LandbergZetterstein1942); similarly, salaqa ‘to leave prints (on the soil/road; foot, or hoofs)’ is prob. the result of likening the soil, or road, to a skin on which a whip left its traces. The meaning ‘to call out, cry out, shout vehemently (esp. after the death of a person or at a calamity)’ (¹¹salaqa) is with all likelihood secondary to its parallel value, ‘to slap and scratch one’s face (mourning woman)’, which seems to be from *‘to leave traces/furrows on one’s face by slapping and scratching it (out of grief etc.)’. From the secondary ‘to weep, cry out’, a vehemently mourning woman was called a ¹silqaẗ or sāliqaẗ, a value that could also be used in a generalized sense of ‘long-tongued and vehemently clamorous, foul, evil, lewd’. From here, or directly from ¹salaqa, has prob. sprung the idea of ↗⁵salaqa ‘to hurt (with one’s tongue)’ (see also ↗salāqaẗ ‘vicious tongue, violent language, violence of language’ and the ClassAr ints-formations sallāq, mislaq and mislāq, all meaning ‘eloquent (speaker); sharp’). (Cf., however, Leslau2006, who has a different view on that matter; see s.v. ↗⁵salaqa.)
    ▪ Moreover, several items belonging to the root √SLQ can be explained rather plausibly as quasi-PP-s formed on the pattern FaʕīL, f. FaʕīLaẗ (pl. FaʕāʔiLᵘ), thus orig. meaning *‘peeled off, scraped off’, e.g., ¹salīq ‘skinned barley and dish prepared from it’, ²salīq ‘what falls off from trees (leaves, etc.)’, salīq ‘side of a road’, (SyrAr) ↗¹salīqaẗ ‘dish made of grain cooked with sugar, cinnamon and fennel’ (≈ ¹salīq), ↗²salīqaẗ ‘inborn disposition, instinct’ (perh. < *‘what is left after peeling off skin and flesh, kernel’; salāʔiqᵘ (pl., from *sg. ³salīqaẗ) ‘marks made by feet\hoofs on the road; marks made by the plaited thongs upon the belly of the camel’. (NB: salīqī ‘natural, or untaught (speech)’ and salīqiyyaẗ ‘dialect’ can look as if belonging here too; most likely, however, they are borrowed from Grk σολοικισμός soloikismós ‘incorrectness in the use of language, solecism’).
    ▪ Developed from, or at least akin to, ¹salaqa ‘to loosen\peel off (flesh from the bones), lacerate, whip’ are prob. also salaq ‘even plain, smooth, even, tract, of good soil, depressed, even plain in which are no trees; low tract, or portion, of land, that produces herbage, meadow’ as well as sulāq, a ClassAr term for a disease that causes teeth or eyelids to fall out and, hence, leave behind a “lacerated” mouth, or eye. – DaṯAr salqaẗ ‘natte de folioles de palmier’ (LandbergZetterstein1942) is possibly *‘mat made of palm-leaves that have fallen out’.
    ▪ Perh. even ²silq ‘wolf’ (f. ²silqaẗ ‘she-wolf’) and silqaẗ ‘water-course, channel in which water flows, between two tracts of elevated, or elevated and rugged, ground’ are akin to ¹salaqa ‘to loosen\peel off (flesh from the bones), lacerate, whip’, the former perh. being *‘the mangy (<*lacerated) one’, the latter the *‘furrows’ left behind in a landscape by a creek etc.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    For other values of the root, cf. ↗²salaqa, ↗³salaqa, ↗⁴salaqa, ↗⁵salaqa, ↗tasallaqa, ↗sullāq, ↗salq, ↗¹salīqaẗ, ↗²salīqaẗ, ↗salaqūn and ↗salūqī as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√SLQ. 
    ²salaq‑ سَلَق , u (salq
    ID... • Sw – • BP ... • APD … • © SG | 17Jan2022, last update 25Feb2022
    √SLQ 
    vb., I 
    1 ↗¹salaqa; 2 to remove with boiling water (s.th.); 3 ³salaqa; 4 ↗⁴salaqa; 5 ↗⁵salaqa – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ ²salaqa combines in its semantics two major ideas connected to the root √SLQ, namely (a) ‘removing, peeling, scraping off’ and (b) ‘boiling, cooking in boiling water’, which may have different etymologies, see ↗¹salaqa and ↗³salaqa, respectively. Historically, the meaning of ²salaqa seems to be the result of a merger of the two primary values.
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ See ↗¹salaqa and ↗³salaqa.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ For the etymologies of the two values that have merged into ²salaqa, see ↗¹salaqa (extension in * from pre-protSem *√SL ‘to draw out or off’ – Ehret1989) and ↗³salaqa [< protSem (Dolgopolsky2012: »CSem«) *ŠLḲ ‘to boil, cook’, accord. to Dolgopolsky akin to (and extension from?) WSem *C̣LY (*-c̣lay-) ‘to roast’ (> Ar ↗ṣalà ‘to roast, broil, fry’, ṣaliya ‘to burn, be exposed to the blaze of s.th.’)].
    ▪ A similar overlapping of the two primary values can be found in ↗¹salīqaẗ ‘dish made of grain cooked with sugar, cinnamon and fennel (SyrAr)’, historically attested also as n.m., ¹salīq ‘geschälte Gerste u. Speise daraus’ (Wahrmund1887). Both can be interpreted as quasi-PPs formed from ²salaqa, so that the dish orig. was *‘the cooked and peeled one (grain, barley)’.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    salīqaẗ, pl. salāʔiqᵘ, n.f., 1 dish made of grain cooked with sugar, cinnamon and fennel (SyrAr); — 2 ↗²salīqaẗ

    For other values of the root, cf. ↗¹salaqa, ↗³salaqa, ↗⁴salaqa, ↗⁵salaqa, ↗tasallaqa, ↗sullāq, ↗salq, ↗²salīqaẗ, ↗salaqūn and ↗salūqī as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√SLQ. 
    ³salaq‑ سَلَق , u (salq
    ID... • Sw – • BP ... • APD … • © SG | 17Jan2022, last update 25Feb2022
    √SLQ 
    vb., I 
    1 ↗¹salaqa; 2 ↗²salaqa; 3 to boil, cook in boiling water; 4 ↗⁴salaqa; 5 ↗⁵salaqa – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ From protSem *ŠLḲ ‘to boil, cook’ (widely attested in Sem; Dolgopolsky2012: »CSem«).
    ▪ Accord. to Dolgopolsky2012#2053, CSem *ŠLḲ ‘to cook, broil, boil’ is akin to (and an extension from?) WSem *C̣LY (*-c̣lay-) ‘to roast’ (> Ar ↗ṣalà ‘to roast, broil, fry’, ṣaliya ‘to burn, be exposed to the blaze of s.th.’), with cognates also in Berb and Cush, ultimately from a hypothetical Nostr *s̄i˻ʔ˼L˅ ‘to roast, fry, cook’. But this hypothesis seems doubtful for phonological reasons, as the difference betw. initial and s (<*š) remains without convincing explanation; Dolgopolsky’s assumption of a primary * from which both may have developed is not supported in any other sources.
    ▪ Among the derivatives of ³salaqa, we find ↗¹salīqaẗ (hist. also ¹salīq) ‘dish made of grain cooked with sugar, cinnamon and fennel’ (perh. more properly a quasi-PP from ↗²salaqa ‘to remove [hair, etc.] with boiling water’) and prob. also salīq ‘pot herbs’ (perh. < *‘what is cooked, or going to be cooked, in hot water’. ²salaqa ‘to remove (hair, etc.) with boiling water’ seems to be the result of a merger of ↗¹salaqa ‘to lacerate (skin), flay, remove the skin from the bones’ and ³salaqa, ‘to boil, cook in boiling water’.
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
    3 Akk salāḳu, JudAram (> postBiblHbr) Syr šlḳ, Ar ³salaqa ‘to boil, cook in boiling water’, DaṯAr slq ‘griller de façon que la viande ne soit ni crue ni à point, mais entre les deux; donner au pain une caisson légère’; prob. also Tña šäläḳä ‘to be burned; to simmer’ (Kogan2011).
    ▪ ?Cf. also (Dolgopolsky2012#2053), (without extension in ?) BiblHbr c̣ālā (√C̣LY), JudPalAram, JEA c̣əlā (√C̣LW|Y) ‘to roast (meat)’, SamAram √ṢLY ‘to roast’, Ar ṣalà ‘to roast, broil, fry’, ṣaliya ‘to burn (intr.), be exposed to the blaze (bi of’), Gz √ṢLW ‘to broil, roast’; outside Sem: [Berb] Kab əsli ‘cuire rapidement’; [ECush] Brj sal- ‘to cook by boiling, bake’, Kmb šol-, Hd sar ‘id.; to fry, roast’; Sa sōl- ‘braten, rösten auf dem brennenden Feuer’, sōˈlā ‘Fleisch auf heißen Steinen gebraten; Feuerbrand’, Af sola ‘campfire for roasting meat’, Som sol- ‘to grill, toast, roast’; Som šīl- ‘to fry’, Or sil-awu ‘affumigarsi, arruginirsi, ossidarsi’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ The value ‘to boil, cook in boiling water’ is attested in major branches of Sem (Akk, Aram, Ar, ?EthSem), which makes the reconstruction of protSem *ŠLḲ ‘to boil, cook’ (Kogan2011) rather reliable.
    ▪ For Dolgopolsky’s view, see above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    salīqaẗ, pl. salāʔiqᵘ, n.f., 1 dish made of grain cooked with sugar, cinnamon and fennel (SyrAr); — 2 ↗²salīqaẗ
    maslūq, adj., cooked, boiled (meat, egg, vegetable): PP I

    maslūqaẗ, pl. masālīqᵘ, n.f., bouillon, broth: PP I f., *‘the cooked one’

    For other values of the root, cf. ↗¹salaqa, ↗²salaqa, ↗⁴salaqa, ↗⁵salaqa, ↗tasallaqa, ↗sullāq, ↗salq, ↗¹salīqaẗ, ↗²salīqaẗ, ↗salaqūn and ↗salūqī as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√SLQ. 
    salaq‑ سَلَق , u (salq
    ID... • Sw – • BP ... • APD … • © SG | 17Jan2022, last update 25Feb2022
    √SLQ 
    vb., I 
    1 ↗¹salaqa; 2 ↗²salaqa; 3 ³salaqa; 4 to scald (plants; said of excessive heat); 5 ↗⁵salaqa – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ ⁴salaqa ‘to scald (plants)’ is not only said of excessive heat (as WehrCowan1976 has it), but (historically, at least) also of strong cold, as in salaqa ’l-bardᵘ ’l-nabātᵃ ‘the cold nipped, shrunk, shrivelled, or blasted, the herbage’ (Lane iv 1872). The meaning seems to be fig. use of ↗³salaqa ‘to boil, cook in boiling water’.
    ▪ But does it perh. also reflect a relation to ‘frying, roasting’, as Dolgopolsky’s hypothesis for the etymology of ³salaqa proposes? See below, section DISC.
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ ↗³salaqa.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Accord. to Dolgopolsky2012#2053, CSem *ŠLḲ ‘to cook, broil, boil’ is akin to (and extension from?) WSem *C̣LY (*-c̣lay-) ‘to roast’ (> Ar ↗ṣalà ‘to roast, broil, fry’, ṣaliya ‘to burn, be exposed to the blaze of s.th.’), with cognates also in Berb and Cush, ultimately from a hypothetical Nostr *s̄i˻ʔ˼L˅ ‘to roast, fry, cook’. But this suggestion is doubtful, due to phonological reasons, as initial * rarely transforms into *š (*s) and Dolgopolsky stands alone with his assumption of a WSem * as the basis for later sound shifts.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    For other values of the root, cf. ↗¹salaqa, ↗²salaqa, ↗³salaqa, ↗⁵salaqa, ↗tasallaqa, ↗sullāq, ↗salq, ↗¹salīqaẗ, ↗²salīqaẗ, ↗salaqūn and ↗salūqī as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√SLQ. 
    salaq‑ سَلَق , u (salq
    ID... • Sw – • BP ... • APD … • © SG | 17Jan2022, last update 25Feb2022
    √SLQ 
    vb., I 
    1 ↗¹salaqa; 2 ↗²salaqa; 3 ³salaqa; 4 ↗⁴salaqa; 5 to hurt (s.o., bi-lisānihī, with one’s tongue, i.e., give s.o. a tongue-lashing) – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ Several etymologies have been suggested for ↗⁵salaqa ‘to hurt (with one’s tongue)’ (and related items such as ↗salāqaẗ ‘vicious tongue, violent language, violence of language’ and sallāq, mislaq, mislāq ‘eloquent (speaker); sharp’):
    ▪ ClassAr lexicographers maintain that it is fig. use of salaqa ‘to pierce (with a spear)’ (SLQ_13 in root entry ↗√SLQ) (> *‘to hurt’), which is based either on ↗¹salaqa ‘to lacerate the skin (with a whip)’ or on salaqa ‘to prostrate s.o. on the back of his neck, throw s.o. down; to push, repell’ (= SLQ_12). But why not directly from ¹salaqa ‘to lacerate’ (> *‘to hurt’)?
    ▪ However, parallels with initial instead of s may point to a contamination with, or influence from, ṣalaqa ‘to attack (a tribe); to smite s.o. (sun); to strike’. The adj.s mislaq and mislāq ‘eloquent (speaker); sharp (tongue)’ which seem to belong to ‘hurting (tongue)’, both exist in a variant with initial : miṣlaq, miṣlāq (pl. maṣālīqᵘ) ‘eloquent (speaker)’ (Lane1872, Hava1899)…
    ▪ In contrast, Leslau2006 remarks that Margoliouth (JRAS 1939: 61) derived Ar salaqa in Surah 33:19 from Gz (ta)sālaqa ‘to joke, scoff at, deride, mock, ridicule, etc.’ and that »the root represents a metathesis in relation to Hbr qilles ‘to jeer at’«. Zammit2002 shares this view, adding Ug and Aram parallels to the Hbr and Gz forms as alleged ‘cognates’ of Qur’anic Ar salaqa (interpreted as ‘to abuse’).
    ▪ …
     
    eC7 (Q 33:19) fa-ʔiḏā ḏahaba ’l-ḫawfu salaqūkum bi-ʔalsinaẗin ḥidādin ʔašiḥḥaẗan ʕalà ’l-ḫayri ‘Then, when the fear departeth, they scald you with sharp tongues in their greed for wealth (from the spoil) | But when fear has passed, they lash at you with sharp tongues.’
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Cf. prob. salaqa ‘to pierce (with a spear)’ (= SLQ_13 in root entry ↗√SLQ), which is either from ↗¹salaqa ‘to lacerate the skin (with a whip)’ or from salaqa ‘to prostrate s.o. on the back of his neck, throw s.o. down; to push, repell’ (= SLQ_12).
    ▪ ?Contamination with, or influence of, ṣalaqa (with ) ‘to attack (a tribe); to smite s.o. (sun); to strike s.o. (bi with a stick)’.
    ▪ Cf. also Zammit2002, Leslau2006: Ug qlṣ ‘verhöhnen’, Aram qallāsā ‘shouting, derision’, Hbr qilles ‘to jeer at’, (with metathesis) Gz tasālaqa ‘to joke, scoff at, deride, mock, ridicule, make fun of, make fun of one another’ (> QurAr ⁵salaqa ‘to abuse, insult’). – For Gz, Leslau2006 also gives səllāq ‘derision, cause of derision, ridicule, laughingstock, mockery, mocking (n), raillery, play’; səllāqe (Gr) ‘derision’, adding that these may have a cognate in Akk tašliqtu ‘eine Kampfrede’ (von Soden 1339). – Leslau2006 further quotes Denizeau’s entries SyrAr (Damascus) t-maqlaṣ, t-maqlaz, t-maqlas ‘to mock’ (denom. from a noun with m-; 501). Moreover, accord. to Leslau, also Tña (tä)saläqä ‘to mock’, Amh (tä)salläqä and Gur q'anäsä (for q'alläqä) have »the structure of Hbr Syr qls
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    salāqaẗ n.f., vicious tongue, violent language

    For other values of the root, cf. ↗¹salaqa, ↗²salaqa, ↗³salaqa, ↗⁴salaqa, ↗tasallaqa, ↗sullāq, ↗salq, ↗¹salīqaẗ, ↗²salīqaẗ, ↗salaqūn and ↗salūqī as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√SLQ. 
    ¹tasallaq‑ تَسَلَّقـ (tasalluq
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 13Feb2022
    √SLQ 
    vb., V 
    1a to ascend, mount, climb, scale (s.th.); b to climb up (plant) – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Either denom. from ↗sullāq ‘Ascension of Christ (Chr.)’ (a loan from Aram), or directly from Aram SLQ ‘to ascend’. For the latter, several etymologies have been proposed. The most plausible (in our view), put forward by Kogan2015, assumes -sl- in some forms to be the result of a dissociation from earlier *-ś-, so that the Aram forms (and the Hbr and Ar ones borrowed from them) ultimately should be seen together with Ar ↗ŠQY ‘to grow’, šāqiⁿ ‘high, inaccessible’, etc. – For details see ↗sullāq.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ First attestation (as vn. tasalluq ) pre-791 in Ḫalīl b. ʔAḥmad’s Kitāb al-ʕAyn.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ ↗sullāq.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ ↗sullāq.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    tasalluq, n., climbing; ascent: vn V.
    mutasalliq, adj.: al-nabātāt al-matasalliqaẗ, climbing plants, creepers: PA V.

    For other values of the root, cf. ↗¹salaqa, ↗²salaqa, ↗³salaqa, ↗⁴salaqa, ↗⁵salaqa, ↗sullāq, ↗salq, ↗¹salīqaẗ, ↗²salīqaẗ, ↗salaqūn and ↗salūqī as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√SLQ. 
    sullāq سُلَّاق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 13Feb2022
    √SLQ 
    n. 
    Ascension of Christ (Chr.) – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ Given the isolation of sullāq ‘Ascension (of Christ)’ (and the prob. denom. ↗¹tasallaqa ‘to ascend, mount, climb, scale’) within the root √SLQ, it is very likely that these items are borrowed from Aram sūlqā ‘do.’, slaq ‘to ascend’ (so already Fraenkel1886: 277). For the latter, several etymologies have been proposed (see below, section DISC). Of these, the one with the highest probability seems to be Kogan’s (2015: 386 #15) explanation of protAram *SLḲ as the result of a splitting of an original lateral *Ś- into the combination S-L at an early stage, so that the Aram forms (on which the Hbr and Ar ones are based) should be seen together with Akk šaḳu ‘to grow high, rise, ascend’ and Ar ↗ŠQY ‘to grow’, šāqiⁿ ‘high, inaccessible’ etc.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Accord. to DHDA first attested pre-813 CE in a verse by ʔAbū Nuwās.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Aram slaq, Palm slq, Syr sleq ‘to ascend’, sūlqā ‘Ascension (of Christ)’ > Ar sullāq ‘id.’ (> ¹tasallaqa ‘to ascend, climb’) (Fraenkel1886: 277 and others after him). – Cf. also Hbr *sālaq, attested as a hapax legomenon in Ps 139:8 (1sg.impf ʔässaq ‘I ascend’) which, however, »is an obvious Aramaism« (Kogan2015: 386 #15, following Wagner 1966:87).
    ▪ (For the theory put forward in BDB1906): ↗³salaqa ‘to boil, cook in boiling water’
    ▪ (For the hypothesis developed in Kogan2015: 386 #15): Ar < Aram < protAram *slḳ ‘to go up’ < (dissociation sl- < ś- ) *ŚḲ, cognate to Akk šaḳu ‘to grow high, rise, ascend’, Ar ↗ŠQY ‘to grow’, šāqiⁿ ‘high, inaccessible’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ As Kogan2015 remarks, the isolated position of Ar ¹tasallaqa ‘to ascend, mount, climb, scale’ (as also of ClassAr salaqa ‘do.’, now obsol.) within Ar »makes one wonder about a possible Aram origin« of these items. If so, ¹tasallaqa and salaqa (as well as sullāq from which the vb. V may be denom.) almost certainly are borrowed from Aram sūlqā ‘Ascension’ (so already Fraenkel1886: 277).
    ▪ Given the Hbr and Aram ‘cognates’, Dolgopolsky2012#300 would reconstruct a CSem *√SLḲ ‘to ascend, climb’ (in his view ancestor not only of Ar ¹tasallaqa ‘do.’, but also of SLQ_18 salaqa ‘to run’413 and perh. – deglottalization? – even ↗salaka ‘to travel, go along’), to which he juxtaposes IndEur (NaIE) *slenk (~ *sleng ) ‘to creep, crawl, trudge, amble’ (> , e.g., AngSax slincan ‘to creep’ > nEngl ‘to slink’, oHGe slango, nHGe Schlange ‘snake’; oHGe zuo slingan ‘to slide away’, mHGe slingen ‘to crawl along|sich schlängelnd winden, kriechen, schleichen’, etc.414 ), all ultimately from a hypothetical Nostr *c'oLḲ˅ (~ *c'oLk˅) ‘to advance with effort (to creep, crawl, climb, etc.)’.
    ▪ Another view is put forward in BDB1906 where the authors interpret values ‘to ascend’ and ‘to scald, burn’ (↗⁴salaqa) as interdependent, associating Hbr *śālaq ‘to kindle, burn’, (*Š-stem) hissîq ~ hiśśîq ‘to make a fire, burn’ with Aram slaq ‘to ascend’, (*Š-stem) ‘to cause to go up (in flame), offer sacrifice’, Syr sleq, Palm slq , Ar salaqa ‘to ascend’.
    ▪ In contrast, Kogan2015: 386 #15 points to the scarcity of the Hbr vb. (1sg.impf ʔässaq ‘I ascend’ is a hapax in the Bible) and the isolated position of ‘ascending’ within Ar and concludes (convincingly, as we think) that both with all likelihood are Aramaisms, i.e., neither the Hbr nor the Ar items can count as genuine cognates, so that Aram SLḲ is in itself isolated within Sem. Speculating about the obscure origin of protAram *SLḲ ‘to go up’ Kogan then »wonders whether a clue to the etymology of this root can be found in its highly peculiar morphological behavior, viz. the unexpected assimilation * sl- > ss- [the Hbr 1sg.impf in Ps 139:8 shows ʔässaq instead of *ʔäslaq ‘I ascend’], probably betraying the secondary origin of l . It is, therefore, tempting to follow P. Haupt (1910: 712-3) who compared protAram *slḳ with Akk šaḳu ‘to grow high, rise, ascend’ and Ar ↗ŠQY ‘to grow’, šāqiⁿ ‘high, inaccessible’. If valid, this comparison would imply that the lateral *Ś was split into the combination S L at some early stage of the linguistic history of Aramaic.415 – ProtAram *SLḲ has replaced protSem *ʕLY/W ‘to go up’ [> Ar ↗ʕalā], which is only marginally preserved in Aram.«
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    tasallaqa, vb. V, 1a to ascend, mount, climb, scale (s.th.); b to climb up (plant): perh. denom.; cf. ↗s.v.
    tasalluq n., climbing; ascent: vn. V, perh. denom.
    mutasalliq adj.: al-nabātāt al-matasalliqaẗ, climbing plants, creepers: PA V.

    For other values of the root, cf. ↗¹salaqa, ↗²salaqa, ↗³salaqa, ↗⁴salaqa, ↗⁵salaqa, ↗tasallaqa, ↗salq, ↗¹salīqaẗ, ↗²salīqaẗ, ↗salaqūn and ↗salūqī as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√SLQ. 
    EgAr salq سَلْق /salq͗/, (MSA) silq 
    ID... • Sw – • BP ... • APD … • © SG | 17Jan2022, updated 12Feb2022
    √SLQ 
    n. 
    a variety of chard, the leaves of which are prepared as a salad or vegetable dish – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ Ultimately perh. identical with ¹silq ‘red garden-beet’ (SLQ_21 in root entry ↗√SLQ), as, botanically spoken, chard, the red garden-beet and other forms of beets all are varieties of the same plant, Beta vulgaris. Their name may go back (via Aram?) to Grk Σικελία ‘Sicily’ (with metathesis q-l > l-q), thus *‘the Sicilian (vegetable)’. But this is rather uncertain and not unproblematic (see DISC).
    ▪ Or should one assume a relation to Ar salǧam ‘turnip’, EgAr ‘rape’ (via Tu? from Pers šalġam ‘turnip, rape’)?
    ▪ A connection to one of the main values of √SLQ, ‘to lacerate, skin, peel off’, would be difficult to establish (*‘vegetable with wrinkles, like skin after whipping’?) and seems rather unlikely.
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (If truely identical with ¹silq ‘red garden-beet’:) prob. borrowed from Aram Syr silqā ‘red garden-beet’, ultimately perh. (with metathesis) from Grk sikelós ‘Sicilian’, < Grk Σικελία ‘Sicily’ (Fraenkel1886, Dozy, et al.).
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ The remark, made in ar.wiki, that the plant, popular all over the Mediterranean, originally came from Sicily, makes it tempting to assume a relation to this island, although the Ar name of Sicily most often shows initial (Ṣiqilliyaẗ, Ṣiqilliyyaẗ) rather than s (Siqilliyyaẗ) (both from Grk Σικελία) and q-ll instead of l-q (result of metathesis?); moreover, one would have to explain the faʕl/fiʕl pattern that would be rather unusual if ‘chard’ originally was *‘the Sicilian (vegetable)’.
    ▪ For ¹silq ‘red garden-beet’ which, botanically, is almost identical with chard, Fraenkel (1886: 143) assumes an Aram provenience (cf. Syr silqā ‘garden-beet’) and a possible background (with metathesis) in Grk sikelós ‘Sicilian’ – see, e.g., Fraenkel1886, as also Dozy, s.v., where the author remarks that already »Théopraste dit que la variété blanche de la Beta vulgaris s’appelle sicilienne«.
    ▪ There are, however, also Ar salǧam ‘turnip’, EgAr ‘rape’, Tu şalgam, Arm šoġkam ‘do.’, which, accord. to Nişanyan_13Apr2015, all go back to Pers šalġam ‘turnip, rape’. Could also Ar salq~silq be akin to, or even derive, from this Pers word? Pers /ġ/ is often interpreted as /q/, and Ar /q/ frequently becomes /g/ in many dialects. WehrCowan1976, for instance, registers EgAr salǧ /salg/ as a variant of salq.
    ▪ Prob. unrelated to any of the otherwise main\basic values expressed by √SLQ, esp. ‘to lacerate the skin (with a whip), to loosen the flesh from the bones, (hence also: *lay bare)’ (↗¹salaqa) and ‘to boil, cook in boiling water’ (↗³salaqa).
    sallaqa ‘to collect herbs’ (SLQ_19 in root entry ↗√SLQ) is prob. unrelated; it rather belongs to (?is denom. from) ²salīq ‘what falls off from trees (leaves, etc.)’ (SLQ_27, quasi-PP of ↗¹salaqa ‘to lacerate, skin, loosen the flesh from the bones, *lay bare’).
    ▪ The specifications silq al-barrRumex, sour-dock’ and silq al-māʔPotamogeton, pond-weed’ certainly belong here.
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    For other values of the root, cf. ↗¹salaqa, ↗²salaqa, ↗³salaqa, ↗⁴salaqa, ↗⁵salaqa, ↗tasallaqa, ↗sullāq, ↗¹salīqaẗ, ↗²salīqaẗ, ↗salaqūn and ↗salūqī as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√SLQ. 
    ¹salīqaẗ سَليقة , pl. salāʔiqᵘ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 17Jan2022, updated 8Feb2022
    √SLQ 
    n.f. 
    1 dish made of grain cooked with sugar, cinnamon and fennel (SyrAr); — 2 ↗²salīqaẗ – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ The term ¹salīqaẗ, accord. to WehrCowan1976 mainly used in SyrAr, for a sweet dish made of cooked grain flavoured with cinnamon and fennel, is found in the m. form ¹salīq already in Wahrmund1886 (‘geschälte Gerste u. Speise daraus’, i.e., peeled barley and dish made from it). The word is a quasi-PP from the vb. I, salaqa, combining in its semantics the ‘peeling’ (< ‘lacerating, skinning’) of ↗¹salaqa as well as the ‘boiling, cooking in boiling water’ of ↗³salaqa (which may have distinct etymologies, see s.v.); thus, it is originally *‘the cooked and peeled (grain, barley)’.
    ▪ Cf. a similar combination in ↗²salaqa ‘to remove (hair, etc.) with boiling water’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Cf. ¹salīq ‘geschälte Gerste u. Speise daraus’ – Wahrmund1886.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See ↗¹salaqa ‘to lacerate, skin’ and ↗³salaqa ‘to boil, cook in boiling water’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ With its relation to ↗¹salaqa ‘to lacerate the skin (with a whip)’, ¹salīqaẗ is akin to other items from √SLQ that build on this notion, like ↗⁵salaqa ‘to hurt (with one’s tongue)’, ↗salāqaẗ ‘vicious tongue, violent language, violence of language’, or on the result of ‘lacerating, peeling, skinning’, namely *‘leaving traces, leaving bare’, like salaqa ‘to leave prints (on the soil: feet, hoofs)’, salāʔiqᵘ ‘marks made by feet\hoofs on the road, or by thongs upon the skin of a camel’, prob. also DaṯAr sāliq ‘furrow (in the soil, containing seeds)’ and ClassAs also silqaẗ ‘water-course, channel in which water flows between two tracts of elevated ground’, salaq ‘even plain, smooth, even tract of good soil, bare of trees’, sulāq ‘a disease that causes eyelids or teeth to fall out’, ²salīq ‘what falls off from trees (leaves, etc.)’, perh. also salīq ‘side of a road’, and others. Cf. prob. also the homonymous ↗²salīqaẗ ‘inborn disposition, instinct’ (< * ‘carved in, trace, mark’?).
    ▪ With its relation to ↗³salaqa ‘to boil, cook in boiling water’, ¹salīqaẗ is prob. also akin to salīq ‘pot herbs’ (perh. *‘what is going to be cooked in hot water’).
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    For other values of the root, cf. ↗¹salaqa, ↗²salaqa, ↗³salaqa, ↗⁴salaqa, ↗⁵salaqa, ↗tasallaqa, ↗sullāq, ↗salq, ↗²salīqaẗ, ↗salaqūn and ↗salūqī as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√SLQ. 
    ²salīqaẗ سَليقة , pl. salāʔiqᵘ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP ... • APD … • © SG | 17Jan2022
    √SLQ 
    n.f. 
    1 ↗¹salīqaẗ; — 2 inborn disposition, instinct – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ Being a quasi-PP I (pattern Faʕīl-aẗ-), the original meaning of ²salīqaẗ ‘inborn disposition, instinct’ may have been *‘what is left after taking off the outer layers, the “skin” of s.o., the bare nature’, or *‘what is carved into s.o. like the traces left behind by feet\hoofs on a road, or the marks made on the skin by a thong, or by whipping, etc.’; cf. also DaṯAr sāliq ‘furrow (made in the soil to receive the seed)’ and salaq, vb. I, ‘to cultivate, plough, till’ (LandbergZetterstein1942). If this interpretation is valid, ²salīqaẗ is derived from ↗¹salaqa ‘to lacerate the skin (with a whip), skin, peel off’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ↗¹salaqa.
    ▪ Cf. also nHbr salqāʰ ‘natural (music)’?
    ▪ … 
    ▪ If ²salīqaẗ is based on ↗¹salaqa ‘to lacerate the skin (with a whip), skin, peel off, strip’ it is akin to other items of √SLQ that build on the same notion, like ↗⁵salaqa ‘to hurt (with one’s tongue)’, ↗salāqaẗ ‘vicious tongue, violent language, violence of language’, or on the result of ‘lacerating, peeling, skinning’, namely *‘leaving traces, leaving bare’, like salaqa ‘to leave prints (on the soil: feet, hoofs)’, salāʔiqᵘ ‘marks made by feet\hoofs on the road, or by thongs upon the skin of a camel’, prob. also ClassAs silqaẗ ‘water-course, channel in which water flows between two tracts of elevated ground’, salaq ‘even plain, smooth, even tract of good soil, bare of trees’, sulāq ‘a disease that causes eyelids or teeth to fall out’, ²salīq ‘what falls off from trees (leaves, etc.)’, perh. also salīq ‘side of a road’, or even ²silq ‘wolf’ (< * ‘the mangy one, with lacerated skin’?). Cf. prob. also the homonymous (SyrAr) ¹salīqaẗ ‘dish made of grain cooked with sugar, cinnamon and fennel’ which prob. orig. is *‘cooked and peeled (grain, barley)’, where ↗¹salaqa ‘to lacerate, skin, peel off’ overlaps with ↗³salaqa ‘to boil, cook in boiling water’.
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    For other values of the root, cf. ↗¹salaqa, ↗²salaqa, ↗³salaqa, ↗⁴salaqa, ↗⁵salaqa, ↗tasallaqa, ↗sullāq, ↗salq, ↗¹salīqaẗ, ↗salaqūn and ↗salūqī as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√SLQ. 
    salaqūn سَلَقون , var. salāqūn 
    ID... • Sw – • BP ... • APD … • © SG | 17Jan2022, updated 7Feb2022
    √SLQ 
    n. 
    red lead, minium – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ The term salaqūn ~ salāqūn for ‘red lead, minium’ is prob. akin to ↗zarqūn ‘bright red’.
    ▪ Cf., however, Nişanyan (1Jul2017) who suggests an interpretation as *‘the Syrian (mineral), the (red) substance from Syria’, from Grk συρικόν syrikón ‘Syrian’.
    ▪ Etymological kinship with other items from the same root, whose broad semantic value spectrum, accord. to BAH2008, spans from the main values ‘to throw on the back’ over ‘to flay with a whip’, ‘to insult’, ‘to scald’, ‘to lacerate the skin’ and ‘boiling, cooking lightly by boiling’ to ‘intrinsic nature’, can prob. be excluded.
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Ar salaqūn ‘red lead, minium’, also saliqūn , sariqūn , EgAr salaq͗ōn, zalaq͗ōn: prob. akin to Ar zarqūn ‘bright red’ (? < Pers zargūn ‘gold-coloured’ or Grk συρικόν syrikón, i.e., *‘Syrian’ mineral, red substance *‘from Syria’).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Ar salaqūn is found also as saliqūn or sariqūn and in EgAr also as salaq͗ōn and zalaq͗ōn. Given the variability of R₁ (s/z) and R₂ (l/r), a relation to Ar ↗zarqūn ‘bright red’ does not seem unlikely. BadawiHinds1986 thinks the EgAr words may be from Tu sülüğen/süleğen ‘do.’, but the reverse is prob. the case, i.e., the Tu words are from Ar (or both from Pers zargūn ‘gold-coloured’). In contrast, Nişanyan_1Jul2017 (s.v. Tu süleğen) would not exclude an origin in Grk συρικόν syrikón, which would suggest an interpretation of minium as ‘the Syrian (mineral), the (red) substance from Syria’, an idea that could be corroborated by the Ru Ukr name for minium, súrik. But Nişanyan adds himself that such an etymology is rather uncertain. (The mineral is first mentioned in Tu sources in the anon. Câmiʕü'l-Fürs, 1501, as sülegen.)
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Prob. not from Ar salaqūn (or ↗zarqūn ), but perh. from the same (Grk? Pers?) source may be Ru Ukr súrik ‘red lead, minium’.
    ▪ …
     
    For other values of the root, cf. ↗¹salaqa, ↗²salaqa, ↗³salaqa, ↗⁴salaqa, ↗⁵salaqa, ↗tasallaqa, ↗sullāq, ↗salq, ↗¹salīqaẗ, ↗²salīqaẗ, and ↗salūqī as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√SLQ. 
    ¹salūqī سَلوقيّ , var. salaqī 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 17Jan2022, updated 7Feb2022
    √SLQ 
    n. (nominalized adj.) 
    saluki, greyhound, hunting dog – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ The term ¹salūqī ~ salaqī for a breed of dogs that seems to originate from the Middle East is a nominalized nsb-formation, prob. relating to the place name Salūq, which is of uncertain identity and location (Yemen, Armenia, Iran, …?); ultimately, it may go back to “Seleucia” or the Seleucids (for details, see below, section DISC).
    ▪ Etymological kinship with other items from the same root, whose broad semantic value spectrum, accord. to BAH2008, spans from the main values ‘to throw on the back’ over ‘to flay with a whip’, ‘to insult’, ‘to scald’, ‘to lacerate the skin’ and ‘boiling, cooking lightly by boiling’ to ‘intrinsic nature’, can prob. be excluded.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ –
    ▪ … 
    ▪ The description given in the English Wikipedia (as of 6Feb2022) seems to be rather reliable: »The Saluki is a standardised breed developed from sighthounds – dogs that hunt primarily by sight rather than scent – that was once used by nomadic tribes to run down game animals. The dog was originally bred in the Fertile Crescent. / The origins of the name of the breed is not clear. The Saluki has also been called the gazelle hound, Arabian hound, and the Persian greyhound. [… Report about one hypothesis suggesting Sumerian origin; but highly speculative and little convincing. …] The name used for the modern breed could be derived from Salūqiyyaẗ (Arabic for ‘Seleucia’, a city now in Iraq), appearing in pre-Islamic Arabic poetry. However, this is disputed. […] the Arabic word salūqī indicates ‘person or thing from a place named Salūq’. Arab tradition states that Salūq was an ancient town in Yemen not far from modern Taʕizz, and the Arabs associate this town with the origin of the breed. However, the word salūqī might have been derived from reference to several other places: Salūq in Armenia, and three towns called Salūqiyyaẗ. One has become modern Silifke, Turkey; another is near Antioch (modern Antakya), Turkey; and third is located near Baghdad, Iraq. Baghdad eclipsed Ctesiphon, the capital of the Persian Empire, which was located some 30 km (20 mi) to the southeast. Ctesiphon itself had replaced and absorbed Seleucia, the first capital of the Seleucid Empire (312 BC – 65 AD).«
    ▪ Like ¹salūqī ~ salaqī ‘greyhound, hunting dog, saluki’, also ²salūqī ‘(a sort of) coat of mail’ appears to be *‘the Salūqian, the one from Salūq’, but it is unclear whether the ‘hometown’ of the saluki is identical with that of the coat of mail or whether we are dealing with two separate locations. Accord. to Lane iv 1872, ClassAr lexicography held that “Salūq” was »a town in El-Yemen, or a town or district in the border of Armenia called (al-)Lān; or both (dog and coat of mail) are so called in relation to Salaqiyyaẗ, a town in the Greek Empire, said by al-Masʕūdī to have been on the shore of [the province of] Antioch, remains of which still exist; and if so, it is a rel.n. altered from its proper form«. Cf. also BK1860: »Salouk, Salouka, nom d’une ville dans Ie Yémen ou d’une ville d’Arménie d’où les lévriers et une sorte particulière de cuirasses ont tiré leur nom.«
    ▪ The rare and obsol. salūqiyyaẗ ‘sitting-place of the captain\pilot’ is obviously a nisba from salūq, too. But details remain obscure.
    ▪ A relation betw. ¹salūqī ~ salaqī ‘saluki’ and the old term ²silq (f. ²silqaẗ) for ‘wolf’ is unlikely. For ²silq and possible etymologies, cf. SLQ_22 in root entry ↗√SLQ. ▪ …
     
    … 
    For other values of the root, cf. ↗¹salaqa, ↗²salaqa, ↗³salaqa, ↗⁴salaqa, ↗⁵salaqa, ↗tasallaqa, ↗sullāq, ↗salq, ↗¹salīqaẗ, ↗²salīqaẗ and ↗salaqūn as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√SLQ. 
    SLK سلك 
    ID. • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SLK 
    “root” 
    ▪ SLK_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ SLK_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ SLK_ ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to go along, to pursue a course of action; to enter into, to infiltrate, to insinuate, to cause to be absorbed; to thread a needle; thread; passage’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    silk سِلْك 
    ID 410 • Sw – • BP 5644 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SLK 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    SLM سلم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SLM 
    “root” 
    ▪ SLM_1 ‘(to be/come/remain) safe and sound, unharmed, unimpaired, intact, safe, secure; to escape (a danger); to preserve’ ↗salima, ↗salām, ↗salāmaẗ, ↗salīm
    ▪ SLM_2 ‘(to be/come) free (from failure), flawless’ ↗salima, ↗salāmaẗ, ↗salīm
    ▪ SLM_3 ‘to hand over, deliver (sallama, vb. II); to receive, have s.th. handed over or delivered (tasallama, vb. V)’ ↗salima
    ▪ SLM_4 ‘to approve, consent, accept’ (sallama, vb. II) ↗salima
    ▪ SLM_5 ‘peace; to keep/make peace; to reconcile (sālama, vb. III); to make peace, become reconciled with one another (tasālama, vb. VI) ↗salām, ↗silm, ↗salm
    ▪ SLM_6 ‘to greet, salute’ (sallama, vb. II) ↗salām
    ▪ SLM_7 ‘to leave, give up, abandon; to surrender, commit o.s., resign o.s. (esp. to the will of God, i.e., become a Muslim, embrace Islam) ↗ʔaslama
    ▪ SLM_8 ‘to surrender, capitulate; to give way, submit, yield, abandon o.s.’ ↗ĭstaslama (vb. X)
    ▪ SLM_9 ‘forward buying, payment in advance (Isl. Law)’ ↗salam_1
    ▪ SLM_10 ‘a variety of acacia’ ↗salam_2
    ▪ SLM_11 ‘reception room, sitting room, parlor’ ↗salāmlik, ↗salām
    ▪ SLM_12 ‘phalanx, digital bone (of the hand or foot)’ ↗sulāmà, ↗sulāmiyyaẗ
    ▪ SLM_13 ‘Solomon (n.prop.); salmon’ ↗Sulaymān
    ▪ SLM_14 ‘mercury chloride’ ↗sulaymānī
    ▪ SLM_15 ‘Istanbul’ ↗ʔislāmbūl
    ▪ SLM_16 ‘ladder; stairs, staircase; scale’ ↗sullam
    ▪ SLM_17 ‘salmon’ ↗salmūn

    SLM_18 ‘prisoner; to make s.o. a captive; captivity’: salam, salama i [? also salima a (salam), used transitively]
    SLM_19 ‘to bite (s.o.; said of a snake): salama u (salm)
    SLM_20 ‘mimosa flava, used as tan’: salam, ?= salmà, a certain plant which becomes green in the [season called] ṣayf [app. here meaning ‘spring’], ?= salamaẗ (or salmaẗ ?) pl. ʔaslām, spiny/thorny plant (Wahrmund). – Does also salama i (salm) ‘to tan (o.’s skin)’ belong here? – And perhaps also (ʔarḍ) maslūmāʔᵘ ‘(land) abounding with the tree called salam ’?
    SLM_21 ‘a bitter tree’ silām and salām . – From this also the ints.adj. (ʔarḍ) maslūmāʔᵘ, (a land) abounding with the tree called salam (Lane)?
    SLM_22 ‘a kind of tree (resembling the myrtle, grows in the sands and the deserts): salāmān
    SLM_23 ‘leathern bucket with a handle’: salm (pl. silām, ʔaslum)
    SLM_24 ‘to finish (making a leathern bucket, dalw, [Wahrmund:] from the bark of a tree called salam)’: salama i (salm) [Lane, Wahrmund], sallama (Hava1899)
    SLM_25 ‘(hard) stone(s)’: salim (n.u. -aẗ), also silām ; ‘to wipe, or strike, the salimaẗ, i. e. the stone (the Black Stone of the Kaʕbah)’: ĭstalama
    SLM_26 ‘tender in the fingers (woman)’: salimaẗ ; ‘(man) soft, or tender, in his feet’: mustalam al-qadamayn
    SLM_27 ‘south(ern) wind called ǧanūb ’: sulāmà
    SLM_28 ‘leaves of the Theban palm (dawm)’: ʔaslam
    SLM_29 ‘vena salvatella (a certain vein in the hand, between the little finger and the finger next to this)’: al-ʔusaylim

    ▪ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘1 peace, safety, tranquillity (cf. SLM_1, 5, 6). – 2 completeness (cf. SLM_24). – 3 being free from obstacles (cf. SLM_2). – 4 to submit to, become resigned to (cf. SLM_7, 8). – 5 to hand over (cf. SLM_3). – 6 ladder, staircase (cf. SLM_16). – 7 to receive (cf. SLM_3), to stroke (cf. SLM_25), finger bones (cf. SLM_12)’ 
    ▪ The striking semantic variety within the root SLM, not only in ClassAr but still today, is the result of a long history of differentiation of an old Sem root, overlapping with inner-Sem loans and, in certain cases, borrowing from non-Sem languages. The many values can be reduced, however, to one major complex plus a number of other items, whose etymological belonging often is obscure.
    ▪ The major complex can be traced back to Sem *ŠLM ‘to be whole, sound (Huehnergard2011), to be completed, be/remain whole, intact, sound and safe’ (Dolgopolksi2012), which is perhaps an extension in *‑m from a bi-consonantal theme AfrAs *ŠLW ‘to be untroubled/safe, be at ease; to stay quietly, be at rest’76 (cf. Ar ↗salā ‘to forget, think no more’, salwaẗ ‘consolation, comfort, distraction’).77 The idea of ‘being, or remaining, whole, intact’ is still preserved in MSA, together with the meaning of ‘safety’ (= to remain sound, intact) and ‘escape (sc. into safety, unharmed)’ (cf. SLM_1). From this are derived many other values, esp. ‘freedom (from failure, vice, defect), flawlessness’ (SLM_2) and ‘peace, reconciliation’ (SLM_5) (hence ‘to wish peace upon s.o.’ = SLM_6 ‘to greet, salute’ > SLM_11 ‘selamlik, reception room’). The fighter who ‘surrenders’ (SLM_8) and seeks, or is taken into, ‘captivity’ (SLM_18) belongs here, too, because capitulation implies escaping ‘unharmed, safe, intact’ from a battle and entering in a state of ‘safety’ (which is also the original meaning of Ar salām, now mainly used to denote ‘peace’). Long before the advent of Islam already, this kind of submission also had taken on a religious meaning (‘committing, or resigning, o.s. to the will of God ’, SLM_7), which under the prophet Muhammad soon developed the specific meaning of ‘becoming a Muslim, embracing Islam’. The value ‘to approve of s.th., consent to, accept’, expressed by the D-stem (sallama, vb. II) is probably properly a declarative *‘to find sound, intact, whole (salīm)’ (SLM_4), while another value of the same D-stem, ‘to hand over, deliver’ (SLM_3), either seems to have developed from the idea, just mentioned, of submitting, and thus ‘delivering’, o.s. to s.o. else, or it is denominative from salam_1 ‘forward buying, payment in advance’ (SLM_9), a value the like of which is to be found attached to derivations from the root Sem *ŠLM not only in Ar but in a number of other Sem langs too; the original meaning seems to have been a present, given to kings, officials, or gods, to obtain benevolence and a kind of ‘safety guarantee’ or ‘ensurance’; cf. however Kerr2014 who holds that »[i]n Ar, the IInd form has undergone the development ‘to make healthy, unharmed’ > ‘to protect from damage’ > ‘to deliver safely’ > ‘to deliver’ (compare to the Fr sur-rendre), in the sense of dedito «.
    ▪ A number of obsolete values may either belong to the same group that goes back to Sem *ŠLM ‘to be whole, sound’ or stem from a distinct, though homonymous root. Such a case is the meaning ‘to bite (s.o.; said of a snake)’ (SLM_19). Here, Nöldeke assumes that this value has grown from a kind of apotropaic use, or is a euphemism: a person who is bitten by a snake, or anyone deadly wounded, is called salīm ‘safe and sound, healthy’ hoping or wishing that s/he will survive. The word salm ‘leathern bucket with a handle’ (SLM_23) at first sight looks at if it was an independent value in its own right; but the meaning ‘to finish (making a leathern bucket, dalw)’ (SLM_24) connects the leathern bucket to the notion of ‘completion, wholeness, etc.’ so that the bucket could be an individual specialization. Other sources, however, say that we are dealing with the completion of a bucket made from the bark of a tree called salam (SLM_10, SLM_20, SLM_21, SLM_22).
    ▪ As for borrowings from non-Sem languages, the easiest to recognize is of course the MSA word for ‘salmon’, sal(a)mūn, which is from Lat (cf. SLM_17). A less obvious borrowing from Lat is however also sulaymānī ‘mercury chloride’; it goes back to Lat sublimatum ‘id.’ (SLM_14).
    ▪ An inner-Sem borrowing is the n.prop. Sulaymān ‘Solomon’ (SLM_13, from Syr < Hbr), in itself of course related to the complex Sem *ŠLM ‘to be whole, sound’ and thus, ultimately, still akin to Ar salima etc. Another inner-Sem borrowing (< Aram or Akk) is probably also sullam ‘ladder, stairs’ (SLM_16); but it may also be a comSem word and go back directly to a pSem ancestor.
    ▪ Of obscure etymology are still several plant names (cf. SLM_10, SLM_20, SLM_21, SLM_22), the term for ‘phalanx, digital bone (of hand or foot)’ (SLM_12) and a number of words that have become obsolete in MSA (cf. SLM_25, SLM_26, SLM_27, SLM_28, SLM_29). A number of these may be fig. use of others, though the tertium comparationis is less than obvious. The form ʔusaylim, e.g., is clearly a diminutive; but is it from sulāmà ‘digital bone’ or from some other item? 
    – 
    See references given above. 
    To what is said in the CONCISE section above, it may be added:

    ▪ SLM_3 ‘to receive’: Interestingly enough, BAH2008 group this value together with ‘finger bones’ (SLM_12) and ‘to stroke’ (cf. SLM_25).
    ▪ SLM_9: The meaning ‘forward buying, payment in advance’, esp. as a technical term in Islamic law, used synonymously with ↗salaf, seems to be a development that is specific of Ar salam_1. In other Sem languages, the original value of a present, given to kings, officials, or gods, to obtain benevolence and a kind of ‘safety guarantee’ or ‘ensurance’, is still better preserved, cf. esp. Hbr šäläm ‘sacrifice for alliance or friendship, “peace offering”’.
    ▪ SLM_11: salāmlik ‘reception room, sitting room, parlor’ is a reimport from Tu selamlık.
    ▪ SLM_12 ‘phalanx, digital bone (of the hand or foot)’: BAH2008 group this value together with ‘to receive’ (SLM_3) and ‘to stroke’ (cf. SLM_25).
    ▪ SLM_13: The value ‘salmon’ is generated in the ʔiḍāfaẗ ḥūt Sulaymān, lit. the ‘fish of Solomon’. Perhaps a late folk etymology?
    ▪ SLM_15: ʔislāmbūl is obviously a pious name for ‘Istanbul’, in an attempt to make the Ottoman capital a distinctly Islamic city.
    ▪ SLM_16: The Sem root of Ar sullam ‘ladder, stairs’ is not ŠLM but Sem *SLM.
    ▪ SLM_17: Contrary to what one may expect, salmūn ‘salmon’ is not a modern borrowing from Engl or Fr, but already attested as early as C13.

    ▪ SLM_25 salim (n.u. ‑aẗ) ‘(hard) stone(s)’: the meaning ‘to wipe, or strike’ of the Gt-stem ĭstalama is usually derived from salimaẗ in the specific meaning of ‘the Black Stone (of the Kaʕbah)’; BAH2008 however group the value ‘to stroke’ together with ‘to receive’ (SLM_3) and ‘finger bone’ (SLM_12).
    ▪ SLM_26 salimaẗ ‘tender in the fingers (woman)’ seems to be a specific use connected to stroking (SLM_25); the same holds for mustalam al-qadamayn ‘soft, or tender, in his feet (man)’.
    ▪ SLM_27 sulāmà ‘south(ern) wind called ǧanūb ’: the form of the word which is identical with the one signifying ‘phalanx, finger bones’ (SLM_12) would suggest that this value is figurative use, perhaps *‘a wind touching one (as tenderly as) a finger’ (?).
     
    ▪ For Engl shalom, shalom aleichem, n.prop. Absalom, Solomon, Salome, perh. also schlemiel cf. ↗salām.
    ▪ For Islam, Muslim, Mussulmanʔaslama
    – 
    salim‑ سَلِمَ , a (salāmaẗ , salām
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SLM 
    vb., I 
    to be safe and sound, unharmed, unimpaired, intact, safe, secure; to be unobjectionable, blameless, faultless; to be certain, established, clearly proven (fact); to be free (from); to escape (min a danger) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ From Sem *ŠLM ‘to be whole, sound’. The vb. may be from the adj. Sem *šalim‑ (Ar ↗salīm).
    ▪ The whole complex of Sem *ŠLM (> Ar ↗SLM) is believed by some to be a development from a biconsonantal Sem *√ŠL(W) ‘to be untroubled, safe, be at ease; to stay quietly, be at rest’ (cf. Ar ↗SLW). 
    ▪ (sālim: safe and sound, not threatened) ▪ eC7 Q 63:43 wa-qad kānū yudʕawna ʔilà ’l-suǧūdi wa-hum sālimūna ‘they were invited to prostrate themselves when they were safe [but refused]’ 
    ▪ Fronzaroli#4.10a: Akk šalmu ‘sound, intact’ (CAD: šalmu, f. šalimtu, ‘1 healthy, sound, in good condition, whole, intact, entire, correct, proper, safe, reliable, truthfull, favorable, propitious; 2 solvent, financially sound’), Ug šlm ‘to be intact’, Hbr šālēm, Syr šalmā, Ar salīm ‘sound, intact’, salima, SAr slm ‘to be sound, intact’.
    ▪ Zammit2002 / CAD: Akk šalāmu (vb.) ‘1 to stay well; 2 to be in a good condition, intact, arrive safely, become safe, go safely through the river ordeal; 3 to be favourable, propitious; 4 to be successful, prosper, succeed; 5 to be completed, be completely carried out, reach completion; 6 to obtain financial satisfaction, receive full payment’, Ug šlm ‘to be intact’, Phn šlm ‘well-being; completion’, Hbr šālēm ‘to be complete, sound’, Aram šᵉlēm ‘to be perfect, complete’, Syr šalem ‘to be complete’, šᵉlāmā ‘safety, health’, SAr stlm (t-stem) ‘to gain security (with a deity)’, Gz salām ‘incolumitas, salus’, Ar salām ‘safety’, sālim ‘one who is safe’.
    ▪ Tropper2008: Ug ŠLM G ‘vollständig, heil sein; in Frieden sein’, D ‘vollständig machen, Ersatz leisten, zurückzahlen, vergelten; Heil schenken; in heilem Zustand erhalten; mit jdm Frieden schließen’, Š ‘Ersatz (Fronarbeit) leisten’, N ‘(vollständig) erhalten bleiben’.
    ▪ Dolgopolsky2012#2046: Akk ŠLM ‘to be completed; to stay well; to be in good condition, intact’, BiblHbr šālēm ‘to remain whole, unscathed, be(come) completed, keep quiet’, Ug ŠLM ‘estar/ir bien, estar en paz’, EmpAram ŠLM ‘to be (re)paid’, BiblAram ŠLM ‘to be finished’, Ar SLM ‘to be(come) safe’ (> ‘to be free from vice/defect’), Min ŠLM ‘être indemne’; DERIV (Sem *šalim‑ >) Akk šalmu ‘whole, intact, entire, healthy, sound’, BiblHbr šālēm, JA šᵊlēm ‘complete, unmolested, peaceful’, Ar salima ‘to be safe’; (Sem *šalām‑ ‘unharmed state’ >) Akk šalāmu ‘health, (physical) well-being; welfare (of a country or city), safe course or completion of a journey’, Ug šlm ‘paz, salud, bienestar’, BiblHbr šālôm ‘unharmed state, well-being, peace’ (> a greeting), Phn šlm ‘peace, prosperity’, Palm šlm ‘peace’, BiblAram šᵊlām ‘peace, prosperity’ (as well as a greeting), EmpAram šlm ‘welfare, well-being, health’, JEA šᵊlām, šᵊlāmā ‘id.; soundness, health’, Ar salām‑ ‘safety, security’ (> ‘immunity, freedom from faults or vices’ > ‘obedience to God’, a greeting), Sab Min šlm ‘peace’ (> šlm ‘to sue for peace’), Gz salām ‘peace, safety’ (and a salutation), hence D-stem *√ŠLːM > Pun slːm ‘to accomplish’, BiblHbr Phn Palm Akk √ŠLːM ‘to (re)pay, give restitution for’, Ug šlːm ‘to pay, deliver’. – For possible cognates outside Sem, cf. SLM_1 s.v. ↗SLM. 
    ▪ Huehnergard2011 reconstructs Sem *ŠLM ‘to be whole, sound’ and the ComSem n. *šalām‑ ‘well-being, welfare, peace’.
    ▪ The proper etymon is perhaps the adj. ↗salīm (or, rather, its Sem ancestor, *šalim‑ ‘sound, intact’) rather than the vb. salima, which in this case would be a secondary formation from salīm. This is what Fronzaroli#4.10a seems to believe when he groups the Ar vb. under Sem *šalim‑.
    ▪ Klein1987 suggests that the Hbr base ŠLM that is cognate to Ar SLM, probably developed from the base Hbr ŠLH/W ‘to be quiet, tranquil, at ease’416 through the medium of šālôm, which he thinks stands to Hbr ŠLH in the same way as Hbr ʕērôm ‘naked’ stands to Hbr ʕRH ‘to lay bare’ (cf. Ar ↗ʕRY).
    ▪ In a similar vein Dolgopolsky2012#2046 derives Sem *ŠLM ‘to be completed, remain whole, be intact, sound and safe’ (with its derivatives Sem *šalim‑ ‘complete, whole, intact, entire, healthy, sound’ and Sem *šalām‑ ‘unharmed state’) as an extension in *‑m from Sem *ŠLW ‘to be untroubled, safe, be at ease; to stay quietly, be at rest’. In addition, he connects the latter to an IE *sōlo‑, *solwo‑ ‘entire’417 If this is tenable, then Ar salima is a distant relative of Engl whole and health, Fr salut and Ge heil, Heil. Dolgopolsky assumes Nostr *s̄alû (or *s̄Eʔalû) ‘intact (> entire), in good condition, healthy’ to be the common ancestor of the Sem and IE words. 
    ▪ Cf. ↗salām, ↗ʔislām, ↗muslim, ↗Sulaymān
    BP#294sallama, vb. II, to preserve, keep from injury, protect from harm, save; to hand over intact; to hand over, turn over, surrender; to deliver; to lay down (arms); to surrender, give o.s. up; to submit, resign o.s.; to greet, salute; to grant salvation (God to the Prophet); to admit, concede, grant (bi‑ s.th.); to consent (bi‑ to s.th.) approve of, accept, sanction, condone: caus. of I, or denom. from ↗salm, ↗silm, ↗salam_1, ↗salām or the adj. ↗salīm. Kerr2014 holds that »[i]n Ar, the IInd form has undergone the development ‘to make healthy, unharmed’ > ‘to protect from damage’ > ‘to deliver safely’ > ‘to deliver’ (compare to the Fr sur-rendre), in the sense of dedito «. – For another value, now obsolete, cf. SLM_24 s.v. ↗SLM.
    sālama, vb. III to keep the peace, make one’s peace, make up (with s.o.): denom. from ↗salām.
    BP#4820ʔaslama, vb. IV, to forsake, leave, desert, give up, betray; to let sink, drop; to hand over, turn over; to leave, abandon; to deliver up, surrender, expose; to commit o.s., resign o.s. (li-llāh to the will of God): …; (ʔaslama alone:) to declare o.s. committed to the will of God, become a Muslim, embrace Islam: … See also s.v..
    BP#2887tasallama, vb. V, to get, obtain; to receive s.th.; to have s.th. handed over or delivered; to take over, assume (the management of s.th.). :
    tasālama, vb. VI, to become reconciled with one another, make peace with one another: denom. from silm, salm, or ↗salām.
    ĭstalama, vb. VIII, 1 to touch, graze; 2 to receive, get, obtain; 3 to take over, take possession of:…. 4 – For another value, now obsolete, cf. SLM_25 s.v. ↗SLM.
    ĭstaslama, vb. X, to surrender, capitulate; to give way, submit, yield, abandon o.s.; to give o.s. over; to lend o.s., be a party; to succumb: Št-stem, originally probably requestative (*‘to ask for protection, safety, salām ’).

    salm, n., peace: … – For other values, now obsolete, cf. SLM_23 s.v. ↗SLM.
    BP#2310silm, n.m./f., peace; the religion of Islam: … | ḥubb al-~, n., pacifism.
    BP#1983silmī, adj., peaceful; pacifist: nsb-adj., from silm.
    salam, n., forward buying (Isl. Law): originally probably a gift presented to a ruler etc. to ensure good relations and safe interaction or patronage, and/or a “peace offering” made to some deity in expectation of protection, cf. ↗salam_1; from here the notions of ‘delivering’ and ‘presenting’ s.th. (cf. sallama above) and of ‘prepayment’ are derived; the value ‘financial satisfaction, full payment’ is already attested in Akk. – For another value cf. ↗salam_2.
    C BP#188salām, n., 1 soundness, unimpairedness, intactness, well-being; 2 safety, security: vn. I; 3 peace, peacefulness: lit. *state of unharmedness, safety ↗salām; 4 — (pl. ‑āt) greeting, salutation; salute; military salute; national anthem: originally a wish of peace for s.o.; from ‘salutation’, the other specialized values are derived.
    salāmlik, n., selamlik, reception room, sitting room, parlor: from Tu selamlık, composed of Ar ↗salām and Tu n. suffix ‑lık.
    BP#855salāmaẗ, n.f., blamelessness, flawlessness; unimpaired state, soundness, integrity, intactness; well-being, welfare; safety, security; smooth progress; success: vn. I.
    BP#1533salīm, pl. sulamāʔᵘ, adj., correct, sound; flawless; safe: perhaps the etymon proper, rather than salima.
    ʔaslamᵘ, adj., safer; freer; sounder; healthier: elat.
    Sulaymānᵘ, n.prop., Solomon: related to salima via Syr < Hbr, cf. s.v.
    BP#1991taslīm, n., handing over; turning over; presentation; extradition; surrender (of s.th.); delivery (comm.; of mail); submission, surrender, capitulation; salutation; greeting; concession, admission; assent, consent (bi‑ to), acceptance, approval, condonation, unquestioning recognition (bi‑ of) : vn. II.
    musālamaẗ, n.f., conciliation, pacification: vn. III.
    C BP#365ʔislām, n., submission, resignation, reconciliation (to the will of God); – al-~, n., the religion of Islam; the era of Islam; the Muslims: originally a vn. from ↗ʔaslama, vb. IV. See also ↗ʔislām.
    BP#184ʔislāmī, pl. ‑ūn, adj., Islamic; n., Islamist: nsb-adj., from ↗ʔislām.
    ʔislāmiyyaẗ, n.f., the idea of Islam, Islamism; status or capacity of a Muslim: abstr. formation in ‑iyyaẗ from ↗ʔislām.
    ʔislāmbūlī, adj., of Istanbul: nsb-adj., from ʔislāmbūl, pious interpretation of the name of the capital of the Ottoman Empire, Istanbul (ʔistānbūl, ʔisṭānbūl, pron. ʔisṭāmbūl).
    tasallum, n., receipt; taking over, assumption; reception: vn. V.
    BP#4637ĭstilām, n., receipt; acceptance; taking over, assumption: vn. VIII | ʔifādaẗ al-~, n., acknowledgment of receipt.
    BP#4250ĭstislām, n., surrender, capitulation; submission, resignation, self-surrender: vn. X.
    BP#4736sālim, adj., safe, secure; free (min from); unimpaired, unblemished, faultless, flawless, undamaged, unhurt, intact, safe and sound, safe; sound, healthy; whole, perfect, complete, integral; regular (verb): PA I (but originally a genuine adj.?) | ǧamʕ ~, n., sound (= external) plural (gram.).
    musallam, adj., unimpaired, intact, unblemished, flawless; (also musallam bi-hī) accepted, uncontested, incontestable, indisputable, incontrovertible: PP II.
    musālim, adj., peaceable, peaceful, peaceloving; mild-tempered, lenient, gentle: PA III.
    C BP#229muslim, pl. ‑ūn, adj./n., Muslim: orig. a PA IV, ↗ʔislām.
    mustalim, n., recipient; consignee: PA VIII.

    For other values, cf. ↗SLM in general, as well as individual entries ↗salam_2, ↗sulāmà, ↗sulāmiyyaẗ, ↗Sulaymān, ↗sulaymānī, ↗sullam
    sallam‑ سَلَّمَ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 294 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SLM 
    vb., II 
    1 to preserve, keep from injury, protect from harm, save. – 2 to hand over intact; hence also to hand over, turn over, surrender; to deliver (in general) . – 3 to lay down (arms); to surrender, give o.s. up; to submit, resign o.s.. – 4 to greet, salute. – 5 to grant salvation (God to the Prophet). – 6 to admit, concede, grant (bi‑ s.th.); to consent (bi‑ to s.th.) approve of, accept, sanction, condone – WehrCowan1979. – 7 (only in Hava1899) to finish (making a leathern bucket, dalw). 
    The D-stem (vb. II) of the verbal root SLM has a large spectrum of meanings, all derived from more basic items.

    ▪ [v1] ‘to preserve, keep from injury, protect from harm, save: caus. of ↗salima or denom. from ↗salīm; in both cases the lit. meaning is *‘to make that s.th. stays intact, unharmed’.
    ▪ [v2] ‘to hand over intact; hence also to hand over, turn over, surrender; to deliver (in general) ’: either a development from the idea, just mentioned, of preserving and keeping intact, and thus first a specialisation (‘keeping intact’ also means ‘delivering safely, intact’), then a generalisation (‘to deliver safely’ > ‘to deliver, hand over’),78 or it is denominative from salam_1, now a technical term in Isl. Law (‘forward buying, payment in advance’), but originally probably a present, an offering, or a sacrifice made to a deity or a ruler in expectation of protection (safety, salām); from the use as a technical term (attested already in Akk, whence it seems to have passed into Hbr and Aram, and from Aram probably into Ar) of ‘peace offering; (>) prepayment’ may have sprung the general meaning of handing over s.th. – Whether from salima / salīm or from salam_1, in both cases the corresponding tD-stem (vb. V), tasallama, has autobenefactive meaning (‘to receive’ = *‘to have s.th. handed over or delivered for o.s. ’).
    ▪ [v3] ‘to lay down (arms); to surrender, give o.s. up; to submit, resign o.s.’: most likely a specialization of [v2].
    ▪ [v4] ‘to greet, salute’: denom., from ↗salām.
    ▪ [v5] ‘to grant salvation (God to the Prophet)’: a specialization that is the result of a transfer of the primary meaning of ‘keeping intact, unharmed’ to the religious sphere; can also be interpreted as denom. from ↗salām in the original sense of ‘unharmed state, safety’. In MSA, the vb. II is no longer used with this meaning, except in the Islamic formula (eulogy) that always should follow a mentioning of the prophet Muḥammad’s name: ṣallà ’ḷḷāhu ʕalay-hi wa-sallama ‘may God bless him and grant him salvation!’
    ▪ [v6] ‘to admit, concede, grant (bi‑ s.th.); to consent (bi‑ to s.th.) approve of, accept, sanction, condone’: probably declarative from ↗salīm, thus lit. *‘to find sound, intact, whole’.
    [v7] ‘to finish (making a leathern bucket, dalw)’: acc. to Wahrmund, vb. I (which accord. to Lane and Wahrmund denotes the same as the vb. II given by Hava1899), the bucket is made from the bark of a tree called salam (↗salam_2); the vb. would thus be denominative. 
    ▪ … 
    See ↗salima, ↗salīm, ↗salam_1, ↗salam_2
    See section CONCISE, above, and entries ↗salima, ↗ salīm, ↗salam_1, ↗salam_2
    – 
    BP#2887tasallama, vb. V, to get, obtain; to receive s.th.; to have s.th. handed over or delivered; to take over, assume (the management of s.th.): t-stem, refl./autofct.
    BP#1991taslīm, n., handing over; turning over; presentation; extradition; surrender (of s.th.); delivery (comm.; of mail); submission, surrender, capitulation; salutation; greeting; concession, admission; assent, consent (bi‑ to), acceptance, approval, condonation, unquestioning recognition (bi‑ of) : vn. II.
    tasallum, n., receipt; taking over, assumption; reception: vn. V.
    musallam, adj., unimpaired, intact, unblemished, flawless; (also musallam bi-hī) accepted, uncontested, incontestable, indisputable, incontrovertible: PP II.
     
    ʔaslam‑ أَسْلَمَ 
    ID 412 • Sw – • BP 4820 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SLM 
    vb., IV 
    1 to forsake, leave, desert, give up, betray. – 2 to let sink, drop. – 3 to hand over, turn over. – 4 to leave, abandon. – 5 to deliver up, surrender, expose. – 6 to commit o.s., resign o.s. (li‑llāh to the will of God). – 7 (alone:) to declare o.s. committed to the will of God, become a Muslim, embrace Islam – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Lidzbarski1922 would derive ʔaslama from salām, as meaning ‘to enter in the state of [Grk] sōtēría ’ (as ʔaḥrama means ‘to enter in the state of ↗ḥarām ’). But most scholars think the original meaning was ‘to submit o.s., devote o.s. [to a new religion]’. Jeffery suggested that the use as a religious technical term was borrowed from the Christian-Jewish environment and that the vb. itself was a loan from Syr ʔašlem (with exactly this meaning). The word was used in this sense also when the new religion propagated by the prophet Muhammad emerged, and it soon came to denote specifically the submission under the God of Islam, i.e., ‘to become a Muslim’.
    ▪ The view that ʔaslama is an »example of a genuine Ar root which took on a secondary Christian technical meaning« (Kerr) should, however, probably be modified, given that the religious connotation was a common good in pre-Islamic Arabia of Late Antiquity.
    ▪ However that may be, the Ar as well as the Syr roots to which the respective vb.s belong, both go back to Sem *ŠLM ‘to be whole, sound, remain unharmed’. For the wider context, cf. ↗SLM. 
    ʔislām : ▪ eC7 1 (total surrender) Q 3:19 ʔinna ’l-dīna ʕinda ’ḷḷāhi ’l-ʔislāmu ‘True Religion, in God’s eyes, it total surrender [to Him]’. – 2 (the religion of Islam) Q 5:3 al-yawma ʔakmaltu la-kum dīna-kum wa-ʔatmamtu ʕalay-kum niʕmat-ī wa-raḍītu la-kumu ’l-ʔislāma dīnan ‘today I have perfected your religion for you, completed My blessing upon you, and santioned for you Islam [the total submission to God] as religion’. – 3 (act of surrendering, submitting) Q 9:74 wa-la-qad qālū kalimata ’l-kufri wa-kafarū baʕda ʔislāmi-him ‘but they certainly did speak the word of disbelief and became disbelievers after having submitted’.
    muslim : ▪ eC7 1 (one who submits [to God]) Q 2:133 naʕbudu ʔilāha-ka wa-ʔilāha ʔābāʔi-ka ʔibrāhīma wa-ʔismāʕīla wa-ʔisḥāqa ʔilāhan wāḥidan wa-naḥnu la-hū muslimūna ‘we will worship your God and the God of your fathers, Abraham, Ishmael and Isaac, one single God—we submit ourselves to Him’. – 2 (one who professes the faith of Islam) Q 22:78 huwa sammā-kumu ’l-muslimīna min qablu wa-fī hāḏā ‘He has called you Muslims—both in the past and in this [Book]’. – 3 (one showing obedience) Q 27:38 ʔayyu-kum yaʔtī-nī bi-ʕarši-hā qabla ʔan yaʔtū-nī muslimīna ‘which of you can bring me her throne before they come to me in obedience [to my bidding]?’ 
    ▪ See DISC below. 
    ▪ The wider context is of course Ar ↗SLM, from Sem *ŠLM ‘to be whole, sound’.
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »The vb. ↗salima is genuine Ar, corresponding with Hbr šālēm, Phoen šlm ‘to be complete, sound’: Aram šlēm, Syr šlēm ‘to be complete, safe’, Akk šalāmu ‘to be complete, unharmed’. This primitive vb., however, does not occur in the Qurʔān. Form II, sallama, is fairly common, but this is a denominative from ↗salām, and salām we shall see is a borrowed word.418 – As used in the Qurʔān ʔaslama is a technical religious term,419 and there is even some development traceable in Muḥammad’s use of it.420 Such a phrase as man yuslim waǧhahū ʔilā ’llāhi in 31:22,421 seems to give the word in its simplest and original sense, and then ʔSLM li-rabbi ’l-ʕālamīn (40:66; 6:71; 2:131), and ʔSLM li-llāh or ʔSLM lahū (27:45; ii, 127; iii, 77; 39:54), are a development from this. Later, however, the word comes practically to mean ‘to profess Islam’, i.e. to accept the religion which Muḥammad is preaching, cf. xlviii, 16; xlix, 14, 17, etc. Now in pre-Islamic times ʔaslama is used in the primitive sense of ‘hand over’, noted above. For instance, in a verse of Abū ʕAzza in Ibn Hišām, 556, we read lā tuslimūnī lā yaḥillu ʔislām ‘hand me not over for such betrayal is not lawful’.422 The Qurʔānic use is an intelligible development from this sense, but the question remains whether this was a development within Ar itself or an importation from without. – Margoliouth in JRAS, 1903, p. 467 ff., would favour a development within Ar itself, perhaps started by Musailama; but as Lyall pointed out in the same Journal (p. 771 ff.), there are historical difficulties in the way of this. Lidzbarski, ZS, i, 86, would make it a denominative from salām which he takes as a translation of [Grk] sōtēría, but Horovitz, KU, 55, rightly objects. – The truth seems to be that it was borrowed as a technical religious term from the older religions. Already in the oAram inscriptions we find that šlm as used in proper names has acquired this technical religious significance,423 as e.g. šlmlt, etc. The same sense is found in the Rabbinic writings (Horovitz, KU, 55), but it is particularly in Syr that we find ʔslm used precisely as in the Qurʔān, e.g. ʔašlem nap̄š-eh lᵊ-ʔalāhā w-lᵊ-ʕZT-h ‘he devoted himself to God and His Church’, or ʔšlmw lh npš-hwn,424 and one feels confident in looking here for the origin of the Ar word. – muslim, of course, is a formation from this,425 and was in use in pre-Islamic Arabia. al-ʔislām, however, would seem to have been formed by Muḥammad himself after he began to use the word.«
    ▪ Retsö (“Aramaic/Syriac Loanwords”, in EALL), Kerr2014, and others follow Jeffrey. Given the fact, however, that the root Sem ŠLM is attested with religious connotations already in Akk, one should not so easily discard Lidzbarski’s view that ʔaslama originally means ‘to enter in the state of salām (= Grk sōtēría)’ and refers to a practice that was a common good in pre-Islamic Arabia, namely ‘deliver o.s. in the protection (= safety, salām) of a deity’. Ar ↗salam_1 ‘prepayment’ is originally (in other Sem langs, like Akk, Ug or Hbr) a present given to s.o., or an offering made to a deity, to ensure benevolence, protection, safety, and the same word is also attested with the meaning of ‘captive’ (= who submits himself, without resisting, peacefully) and ‘captivity’ in Ar. Before declaring ʔaslama to be an originally Christian idea, one will have to check whether it has not perhaps had a religious sense already in pre-Islamic times and therefore can count as part of a shared heritage in Late Antiquity Arabia. 
    ▪ From the vn. IV Ar ʔislām ‘submission’ is of course Engl Islam (first attested in 1818), and Engl Muslim (1610s as a n., 1777 as adj.) is taken from the corresponding PA IV. The older form Engl Mussulman (1560s) has entered the lang. via Tu muslimān, vulg. musulmān (nTu müsliman, müsülman), which in turn is from the Pers form musulmān (with adj. suffix ‑ān). The old Ge form Muselman(n) (C17), with secondary likening to Mann ‘man’, came in via Ital musulmano, nFr musulman (< Tu < Pers, like the Engl term). 
    ĭstaslama, vb. X, to surrender, capitulate; to give way, submit, yield, abandon o.s.; to give o.s. over; to lend o.s., be a party; to succumb: originally probably requestative (*‘to ask for protection, safety, salām’).

    C BP#365ʔislām, n., submission, resignation, reconciliation (to the will of God); – al-~, n., the religion of Islam; the era of Islam; the Muslims: originally a vn. from ↗ʔaslama, vb. IV. See also ↗ʔislām.
    BP#184ʔislāmī, pl. ‑ūn, adj., Islamic; n., Islamist: nsb-adj., from ↗ʔislām.
    ʔislāmiyyaẗ, n.f., the idea of Islam, Islamism; status or capacity of a Muslim: abstr. formation in ‑iyyaẗ from ↗ʔislām.
    ʔislāmbūlī, adj.: nsb-adj., from ʔislāmbūl, pious interpretation of the name of the capital of the Ottoman Empire, Istanbul (ʔisṭānbūl, pron. ʔisṭāmbūl).
    BP#4250ĭstislām, n., surrender, capitulation; submission, resignation, self-surrender: vn. X.
    C BP#229muslim, pl. ‑ūn, adj./n., Muslim: orig. a PA IV; see also ↗ʔislām.
     
    ĭstaslam‑ اِسْتَسْلَمَ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SLM 
    vb., X 
    to surrender, capitulate; to give way, submit, yield, abandon o.s.; to give o.s. over; to lend o.s., be a party; to succumb – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Like also the corresponding Š-stem ↗ʔaslama (without T-infix), the vb. is formed from the root ↗SLM, which goes back to Sem *ŠLM ‘to be whole, sound’. The original meaning is probably requestative (*‘to ask for ↗salām or ↗silm, i.e., protection, safety’). 
    ▪ … 
    See ↗SLM, ↗salām, ↗silm
    See ↗SLM, ↗salām, ↗silm
    – 
    BP#4250ĭstislām, n., surrender, capitulation; submission, resignation, self-surrender: vn.
     
    salm سَلْم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SLM 
    n. 
    1 peace – WehrCowan1979. – 2 For other values, now obsolete, cf. ↗SLM_22.
     
    ▪ It is clear that the word ultimately belongs to the same Sem root *ŠLM ‘to be whole, sound, remain unharmed’ (Ar ↗SLM) as also Ar↗salima ‘to be/remain unharmed’. Most probably, it is, originally, a vn. of this vb., but then developed a sense similar to that of ↗salām
    ▪ eC7 Q 8:61 (peace) wa-ʔin ǧanaḥū li-l-salmi fa-’ǧnaḥ la-hā ‘but if they lean towards peace, then lean towards it [as well]’ 
    ▪ See ↗SLM, ↗salima
    ▪ See ↗SLM, ↗salima
    – 
    … 
    silm سِلْم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 2310 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SLM 
    n.m./f. 
    1 peace. – 2 the religion of Islam – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ It is clear that the word ultimately belongs to the same Sem root *ŠLM ‘to be whole, sound, remain unharmed’ (Ar ↗SLM) as also Ar↗salima ‘to be/remain unharmed’. Most probably, it is, originally, a vn. of this vb., but then developed a sense similar to that of ↗salām
    ▪ eC7 Q 2:208 (peace; self-surrender—a large number of commentators, however, interpret this word as meaning ‘the religion of Islam’ in spite of contextual incompatibility) yā-ʔayyu-hā ’llaḏīna ʔāmanū ’dḫulū fī ’l-silmi kāffatan ‘you who believe, enter wholeheartedly into complete submission to God’ 
    … 
    ▪ See ↗SLM, ↗salima
    ▪ See ↗SLM, ↗salima
    ḥubb al-silm, n., pacifism.

    … 
    salam (disamb.) سَلَم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SLM 
    n. 
    ▪ salam_1 ‘forward buying (Isl. Law)’ ↗salam_1
    ▪ salam_2 ‘a variety of acacia’ ↗salam_2

    Other values, now obsolete, include:
    • salam_3 ‘peace, end of hostility’
    • salam_4 ‘wholly devoted to, wholly belonging’
    • salam_5 ‘surrender, submission; captivity, prisoner’
     
    ▪ [v1] is based on the idea of ‘being/remaining on the safe side, gaining security’, i.e. a guarantee, by paying in advance. In other Sem langs, words that seem to be akin to salam_1 often mean a kind of present, offering, or sacrifice made with the aim to obtain (in advance) a ruler’s or a deity’s alliance, friendship, benevolence. With the notion of ‘safety, security, guarantee’ dominant in them, all these *‘peace offerings’ go back to Sem *ŠLM ‘to be whole, sound, remain unharmed’, cf. ↗SLM, ↗salima, ↗salām, ↗salāmaẗ.
    ▪ The values [v3]-[v5] are clearly akin to the same complex as [v1]. The idea of ‘sacrificing, devoting o.s.’ (in order to please a ruler, a deity, [v4]), of ‘surrendering’ (in order to emerge unharmed from a conflict, [v5]) and thus achieving ‘peace’ [v3], is also close to that of committing o.s. to a new religion, cf. ↗ʔaslama, ↗ʔislām.
    ▪ [v2] : of unclear etymology. 
    salam_3 ▪ eC7 (peace, end of hostility) Q 4:90 fa-ʔin-i ’ʕtazalū-kum fa-lam yuqātilū-kum wa-ʔalqaw ʔilay-kum-u ’l-salama fa-mā ǧaʕala ’ḷḷāhu la-kum ʕalay-him sabīlan ‘so if they leave you alone and do not fight you, and offer you peace, then God gives you no way against them’.
    salam_4 ▪ eC7 (quasi-PP: wholly devoted to, wholly belonging) Q 39:29 ḍaraba ’ḷḷāhu maṯalan raǧulan fī-hi šurakāʔu mutašākisūna wa-raǧulan salaman li-raǧulin ‘God sets forth a parable—of a man belonging to partners who are at odds with one another, and a man belonging wholly to one man’.
    ▪ It seems that [v3]-[v5] have become obsolete due to overlapping with ↗salām, ↗ʔaslama (with ʔislām), and ↗ĭstaslama. Only the special meaning as a legal term in Isl. Law made [v1] survive into MSA. 
    ▪ For salam_1 cf. ↗s.v. and, for the wider context as well as [v3]-[v5], ↗salima.
    ▪ For [v2] cf. ↗salam_2
    ▪ Cf. above as well as ↗salam_1 and ↗salam_2
    – 
    salam_1, ↗salam_2
    ¹salam سَلَم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SLM 
    n. 
    forward buying (Isl. Law) – WehrCowan1979. – For other values cf. ↗salam_2 and ↗salam (disambig.). 
    The word belongs to the larger semantic complex of ↗salima (< Sem √ŠLM ‘to be whole, sound, remain unharmed’). Morpho-phonologically it is very close to Hbr šäläm which signifies a ‘sacrifice for alliance or friendship, “peace offering”’, given to a ruler or deity in order to obtain their benevolence. In Ar, it acquired the specific meaning of ‘advance payment’ (as a technical term in Islamic law), i.e., a payment made to ‘pacify’ the seller and give him a guarantee, but also to obtain a guarantee from the seller to deliver the paid product in due time. 
    ▪ It seems that earlier values of salam (see ↗salam_disambig.), such as ‘peace, end of hostility’, ‘wholly devoted to, wholly belonging’, and ‘surrender, submission; captivity, prisoner’ have become obsolete due to overlapping with ↗salām, ↗ʔaslama (with ʔislām), and ↗ĭstaslama. Only the special meaning as a legal term in Isl. Law made salam_1 survive into MSA. 
    ▪ The closest cognates are well Ug šlm ‘tributes, presents’ and Hbr šäläm ‘sacrifice for alliance or friendship, “peace offering”’. Semantically closely related are, however, also Akk šulmānu (var. šullumānu) (CAD:) ‘1 well-being, health; 2 present, gift (exchanged between kings of equal ranks; sent by vassals or clients to patrons and high officials; offered to Gods); 3 retaining fee, gratuity (presented to official to ensure their patronage)’, šulmānūtu ‘gift, present’, Ug šlm (*šillūmu, *šullūmu) (vn. of D-stem) ‘retribution, requital, recompense’, Hbr šillûm ‘requittal, retribution; reward, bribe’.
     
    ▪ The idea of making a payment (though not in advance but ex post) is also already present, as a special meaning among other more general ones, in the Akk G-stem šalāmu ‘[…];426 6. to obtain financial satisfaction, receive full payment’ and in the corresponding D-stem šullumu ‘[…] 12. to pay in full, repay, compensate, to deliver in full, make good, make restitution, make up a loss, repair a damage right a wrong’.
    ▪ According to Zimmern1914, this Akk šullumu was taken, with identical meaning as a technical term, into Hbr as šillēm, Aram šallem (and Ar ↗sallama, probably from the Aram form).
     
    – 
    – 
    ²salam سَلَم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SLM 
    n. 
    a variety of acacia – WehrCowan1979. – For another value cf. ↗salam_1 
    Of obscure etymology. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2182 / StarLing: no cognates in Sem, but outside: sòlmò, sólmó ‘kind of tree (very hard)’ in 2 ECh langs.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2182 / StarLing find what they think to be cognates of Ar salām (not salam !) in 2 ECh langs and reconstruct, on this evidence, Sem *šalām‑ ‘kind of tree’ and ECh *s[a]l˅m‑ ‘id. (very hard)’, both from AfrAs *salam‑ ‘tree’. – Ar salām, a var. of silām ‘a bitter tree’ (Lane) (see SLM_21 s.v. ↗SLM). Lane says that the ints.adj. maslūmāʔᵘ, as in ʔarḍ maslūmāʔᵘ ‘a land abounding with the tree called salam, is from salam_2; but it may, of course, also be from silām / salām. – Cf. also, with a similar value, salāmān ‘a kind of tree (resembling the myrtle, grows in the sands and the deserts)’ (= SLM_22 s.v. ↗SLM).
    ▪ Should one also compare Akk silammu ‘(a grass); plant list’, which has been identified with ‘darnel’, a grass-like weed – CAD ? If so, then also a number of similar items should be considered (all in Lane): salam ‘mimosa flava, used as tan’ (=SLM_20 s.v. ↗SLM), ?= salmà, a certain plant which becomes green in the [season called] ṣayf [app. here meaning ‘spring’], ?= salamaẗ (or salmaẗ ?) pl. ʔaslām, spiny/thorny plant (Wahrmund). – Does also the vb. salama i (salm) ‘to tan (o.’s skin)’ belong here?
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    sullam سُلَّم , pl. salālimᵘ , salālīmᵘ 
    ID 414 • Sw – • BP 3270 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SLM 
    n. 
    ladder; (flight of) stairs, staircase; stair, step, running board; (mus.) scale; means, instrument, tool (fig.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 (ladder) Q 52:38 ʔam la-hum sullamu yastamiʕūna fī-hi ‘or do they have a ladder from which they [are able to] eavesdrop’ 
    ▪ Pennacchio2011: Akk simmiltu ‘ladder, stair; rack’, Ug slm ‘stairs’, Hbr sullām, Aram swlmʔ, Ar sullam , Syr sebbeltā, nSyr sīmeltā ‘ladder’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Jeffery1938, 177: »The word is clearly an Aram borrowing, for it has no root in Ar and can only be explained from Aram סולםא, as Schwally has noticed (ZDMG, liii, 197). The word does not occur in Syr, but its currency in NArabia is evidenced by a Palm inscription - ועבד בסלםא דנה עםודין שבעא ‘and he has made along with this stairway seven columns’ (De Vogue, No. 11, line 3). 427 It would probably have been a fairly early borrowing, and as the word seems to be originally Akk,428 one cannot lose sight of the possibility of the Ar word having been an early borrowing from Mesopotamia.«
    ▪ Pennacchio2011, 7: »Some of Jeffery’s demonstrations are incomplete, as it is the case for sullam ‘ladder’. The scholar devotes only a few lines to it and fails to connect this word to Jacob’s ladder, which must have a common origin with the Qur’ānic verse in which the word appears. Jeffery doesn’t mention Zuhayr’s Muʕallaqa or the Akk sources either. Nowhere does he highlight the phonological variations of the word: sullām in Hbr, sullam in Ar, and swlmʔ in Aram, on the one hand; and simmiltu in Akk, sebbeltā in Syr, and sīmeltā in Neo-Syr on the other hand. Jeffery believes that the Ar word was either borrowed from the Aram sulamaʔ or was an older borrowing from Akk. Phonologically, the latter hypothesis seems unlikely. The Ar word sullam may be a common Sem word; the existence of the Ug word slm ‘stairs’ could prove this proposition.«
    ▪ Klein1987: Hbr sullām ‘ladder’ (hapax leg. in the Bible) is formed from √SLL ‘to lift up’. Syr säbbaltā and sämmaltā are borrowed from Hbr.
    ▪ Obviously not connected to other items of ↗√SLM.
     
    – 
    sullam mutaḥarrik, n., escalator.

    sullamaẗ, n.f., step, stair: n.un. (?).
     
    salām سَلام 
    ID 413 • Sw – • BP 188 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SLM 
    n. 
    1 soundness, unimpairedness, intactness, well-being. – 2 peace, peacefulness. – 3 safety, security. – 4 — (pl. ‑āt) greeting, salutation. – 5 salute; military salute. – 6 national anthem – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ While Jeffery1938 still thought that Ar salām had taken its specific meaning of ‘peace’ from Aram, there is actually no need to assume such a borrowing. Together with its many Sem cognates, the word goes back to Sem *šalām‑ , originally meaning ‘unharmed state (Dolgopolsky), health (Fronzaroli), well-being, welfare (Huehnergard)’, perhaps also already ‘peace’ (Huehnergard). The primary sense (‘[v3] safety, security, immunity; [v1] freedom from faults, defects, vices, evils’), which is similar to that of the corresponding n.f. ↗salāmaẗ, is still preserved in MSA as one of the values salām can take besides ‘peace’. The latter must be seen as a secondary development along the line ‘unharmed state > safety, security > well-being, welfare > peace’.
    ▪ From the custom to wish someone ‘peace’ developed the general meaning [v4] ‘greeting, salutation’, which in a military context became [v5] ‘military salute’ and—given the typical use of the latter on official occasions of national relevance—also specifically [v6] ‘national anthem’ (mostly al-salām al-waṭanī, with the specifying adj.).
    ▪ From early times, the word had both a worldly (peace in this world, tranquillity) and a spiritual, religious meaning (peace in the next world, i.e., salvation). As a religious concept, it became particularly associated with Islam, so that the greeting ‘peace be upon you’ soon acquired a specifically Muslim connotation. As such, it spread all over the Muslim world, serving as a greeting from Morocco to Indonesia and as a favorite second component in place names, as Dār al-salām, Madīnat al-salām, Wāḥat al-salām, etc.
     
    ▪ eC7 1 (to be clear, or quit, of) Q 25:63 wa-ʔiḏā ḫāṭaba-hum-u ’l-ǧāhilūna qālū salāman ‘and when the ignorant speak to them they say: “We have nothing to do with you [lit. are quit of you]” (or, they say “in Peace”)’. – 2 (peace) Q 5:16 yahdī bi-hī ’ḷḷāhu man-i ’ttabaʕa riḍwāna-hū subula ’l-salāmi ‘with which God guides those who follow what pleases Him to the paths of peace’. – 3 (safety, security) Q 21:69 qulnā yā nāru kūnī bardan wa-salāman ʕalā ʔibrāhīma ‘[but] We said, “Fire, be coolness and safety for Abraham”’. – 4 (greeting of peace) Q 56:91 fa-salāmun la-ka min ʔaṣḥābi ’l-yamīni ‘and so “Peace be on you” [will be said to you] by the companions on the Right’.
    ▪ The word that, according to Lewis1988: 78-79, is »the commonest Ar word for peace, [is] also widely known in many other languages [▪ … and] figures prominently in everyday conversation« virtually everywhere in the Muslim world. »Its associations are, however, overwhelmingly nonpolitical. In Muslim usage, salām denotes ‘peace’ both in this world, i.e., tranquillity, and in the next, i.e., salvation. It figures in the commonest of all Muslim greetings, salām ʕalaykum, ‘peace be upon you,’ and its connotation is most clearly indicated by its frequent association, in such greetings, with God’s mercy and blessing. [▪ …] At an early date, [▪ …] the principle came to be universally accepted that the salutation salām should only be used between Muslims [▪ …]. – While the connotation of salām is primarily religious—indeed, the word ↗ʔislām itself is derived from the same root—it does sometimes have the sense of more mundane ‘safety’ or ‘security,’ i.e., the lack of trouble or danger. It was not, however, normally used, in classical political or legal contexts, to denote the ending of war. For this, Ar usage preferred, and in some contexts continues to prefer, the term ↗ṣulḥ, in spite of its earlier connotation of a truce of limited duration. [▪ … – ] In the last century or so [i.e., lC19-lC20], the use of ṣulḥ and salām in Ar has undergone a considerable change. In classical usage ṣulḥ alone was used for ‘peace’ as opposed to war. In early modAr ṣulḥ was confined increasingly to the sense of ‘transition from war to peace’—i.e., the process or ratification of peacemaking—while the previously nonpolitical salām acquired the broader and more general sense of ‘a state of peace,’ as opposed to a state of war. More recently, Ar usage has begun to approximate more closely to common international practice, with salām as the accepted term for a state of peace between nations.« 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘salvation’) Akk šalāmu, Hbr šālōm, Syr šlāmā, Gz salā́m.
    ▪ NB: Only the cognates in a narrower sense are given here. For the wider context, cf. ↗salima and ↗SLM.
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928, Jeffery1938, Fronzaroli#4.10b: Akk šalāmu (n.) ‘1 health, (physical) wellbeing; 2 welfare of a country, a city; 3 safe course, safe completion of a journey; 4 (negated:) untruth, incorrect behaviour’ (CAD), Ug šlm 131 , Hbr šālōm ‘soundness; peace’ (Jeffery), Aram Syr šᵊlāmā ʻsecurity; peace’132 , Ar salām ‘peace’, salāmaẗ ‘soundness, intactness, health’, Gz salām ‘health’.
    ▪ Zammit2002 (and CAD): Akk šalāmu (vb.) (CAD:) ‘1 to stay well; 2 to be in a good condition, intact, arrive safely, become safe, og safely through the river ordeal; 3 to be favourable, propitious; 4 to be successful, prosper, succeed; 5 to be completed, be completely carried out, reach completion; 6 to obtain financial satisfaction, receive full payment’, Ug šlm ‘to be intact’, Phn šlm ‘well-being; completion’, Hbr šālēm ‘to be complete, sound’, Aram šᵉlēm ‘to be perfect, complete’, Syr šalem ‘to be complete’, šᵉlāmā ‘safety, health’, SAr stlm (t-stem) ‘to gain security (with a deity)’, Gz salām ‘incolumitas, salus’, Ar salām ‘safety’, sālim ‘one who is safe’.
    ▪ Dolgopolsky2012#2046: Akk šalāmu ‘health, (physical) well-being; welfare (of a country or city), safe course or completion of a journey’, Ug šlm ‘paz, salud, bienestar’, BiblHbr šālôm ‘unharmed state, well-being, peace’ (> a greeting), Phn šlm ‘peace, prosperity’, Palm šlm ‘peace’, BiblAram šᵊlām ‘peace, prosperity’ (as well as a greeting), EmpAram šlm ‘welfare, well-being, health’, JEA šᵊlām, šᵊlāmā ‘id.; soundness, health’, Ar salām‑ ‘safety, security’ (> ‘immunity, freedom from faults or vices’ > ‘obedience to God’, a greeting), Sab Min šlm ‘peace’ (> šlm ‘to sue for peace’), Gz salām ‘peace, safety’ (and a salutation);133 hence D-stem *√ŠLːM > Pun slːm ‘to accomplish’, BiblHbr Phn Palm Akk √ŠLːM ‘to (re)pay, give restitution for’, Ug šlːm ‘to pay, deliver’. ¬– For possible IE cognates and a Nostr dimension cf. SLM_1 s.v. ↗SLM. and DISC s.v. ↗salima
    ▪ Jeffery1938, 175-76: »The denom. vb.s sallama and ʔaslama with their deriv.s are also used not uncommonly in the Qurʔān, though the primitive vb. ↗salima does not occur therein. – The root is comSem, and is widely used in all the Sem tongues. The sense of ‘peace’, however, seems to be a development peculiar to Hbr and Aram and from thence to have passed into the SSem languages. Hbr šālôm is ‘soundness’, then ‘peace’;429 Aram šᵊlāmā ‘security’, Syr šᵊlāmā ʻsecurity; peace’. The Eth [Gz] tasālama, however, is denominative,430 so that salām doubtless came from the older religions. Similarly [SAr] slm 431 is to be taken as due to Northern influence, the s like Eth [Gz] s (instead of [SAr] ś / s2 and [Gz] ś), being parallel with the slm of the Saf inscriptions. – In the Aram area the word was widely used as a term of salutation, and in this sense we very frequently find šlm in the Nab and Sinaitic,432 and slm in the Saf inscriptions.433 From this area it doubtless came into Ar434 being used long before Islam, as Goldziher has shown (ZDMG, xlvi, 22 ff.). There can be little doubt that sallama ʻto greet’, etc., is denominative from this, though Torrey, Foundation, would take the whole development as purely Ar.«
    ▪ Lane: The primary acceptation of salām is synonymous with salāmaẗ, as is also salam, ‘safety, security, immnunity, or freedom, from faults, defects, in perfections, blemishes, or vices, and from evils of any kind: (TA:) or [simply] safety, security, immunity, or freedom’.
    ▪ van Arendonk/Gimaret:435 vn. from salima ‘to be safe, uninjured’, used as subst. in the meaning of ‘safety, salvation’, thence ‘peace’ (in the sense of ‘quietness’), thence ‘salutation, greeting’ (cf. Fr salut).
    ▪ Fronzaroli#4.10b, Huehnergard2011, Dolgopolsky2012#2046: From Sem *šalām‑ ‘unharmed state (Dolgopolsky), health (Fronzaroli), well-being, welfare, peace (Huehnergard)’, from Sem *ŠLM ‘to be whole, sound’.
    ▪ Klein1987 thinks that the Hbr cognate of Ar salām, Hbr šālôm, stands to Hbr ŠLH/W as Hbr ʕērôm ‘naked’ stands to Hbr ʕRH ‘to lay bare’. Accordingly, he assumes a development of the base Hbr ŠLM from the base ŠLH/W ‘to be quiet, tranquil, at ease’436 through the medium of šālôm. Should one try to translate this idea into a general Sem frame? Dolgopolsky2012#2046, at least, also thinks that Sem *ŠLM perhaps is an extension in *-m from a bi-consonantal theme AfrAs *ŠLW ‘to be untroubled/safe, be at ease; to stay quietly, be at rest’.
    ▪ For a possible IE connection (cf., e.g., Lat salus etc.) and a Nostr dimension as assumed by Dolgopolsky2012#2046, cf. ↗SLM and ↗salima
    ▪ Directly from Ar salām is only Engl salaam, the short form of the Muslim greeting (al-)salāmu ʕalaykum ‘peace be upon you’ that entered the Engl lang by the 1610 s – EtymOnline.
    ▪ Huehnergard2011: Not directly from Ar salām, but from the latter’s Hbr cognate, šālôm ‘well-being, peace’, are the Jewish greeting shalom and its full form, shalom aleichem, as well as the names Absalom (Hbr ʔaḇšālôm, short form of ʔᵃḇī-šālôm ‘my father15 (is) peace’, Solomon (Hbr šᵊlōmōh ‘his [God’s] peace’, from šᵊlōm, bound form of šālôm, + personal suff. 3sg.m), and Salome (from a Hbr n.prop. akin to the biblical name šᵊlōmîṯ ‘Shelomit’, from šālôm). Also the word schlemiel, attested in Engl since 1868 with the sense of ‘awkward, clumsy person’, goes perhaps back to Hbr šālôm, though only indirectly: it entered Engl via Yiddish shlemiel ‘bungler’, which is taken from the main character in Adalbert von Chamisso’s German fable The Wonderful History of Peter Schlemihl (1813). The name is probably based on the Biblical personal name šᵊlūmīʔēl ‘my well-being (is) God’ (from šᵊlūm ‘well-being’, variant bound form of šālôm, and ʔēl ‘God’, cf. Ar ↗allāh): In Num. i:6, this is the name of a chief of the tribe of Simeon, identified with the Simeonite prince Zimri ben Salu, who was killed while committing adultery – EtymOnline.
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl schlemiel, perh. from the Hbr personal name šᵊlūmîʔēl ‘my well-being (is) God’, from šᵊlūm ‘well-being’, variant bound form of šālôm (see above; ʔēl ‘God’, cf. Ar ↗ʔilāh, ↗allāh); Solomon, from Hbr šᵊlōmōh ‘his (God’s) peace’, from šᵊlōm, bound form of šālôm (see above); Salome, from a Hbr personal name akin to šᵊlōmît ‘Shelomith’ (biblical name), from šālôm (see above). 
    al-salām al-ʕāmm, n., general welfare, commonweal.
    dār al-salām, n., Paradise; an epithet of Baghdad; Dar es Salaam (seaport and capital of Tanganyika).
    madīnaẗ al-salām, n., (the City of Peace =) Baghdad.
    nahr al-salām, n., the Tigris.
    al-salāmu ʕalay-kum, peace be with you! (a Muslim salutation).
    ʕalay-hi ’l-salāmu, upon him be peace (used parenthetically after the names of angels and of pre-Mohammedan prophets).
    yā salām, interj., exclamation of dismay, esp. after s.th. calamitous has happened: good Lord! good heavens! oh dear!
    yā salām ʕalà, interj., exclamation of amazement or grief about s.th.: there goes (go)…! what a pity for…! how nice is (are)…!
    balliġ salām-ī ʔilà, give him my kind regards! remember me to him; wa’l-salām (and) that’s all, and let it be done with that.
    ʕalà… al-salām, it’s all over with….

    BP#294sallama, vb. II, to greet, salute: denom. – For other meanings, cf. ↗salima and, for a value that now is obsolete, SLM_24 s.v. ↗SLM.
    sālama, vb. III to keep the peace, make one’s peace, make up (with s.o.): denom.
    tasālama, vb. VI, to become reconciled with one another, make peace with one another: denom. from silm, salm, or ↗salām.
    ĭstaslama, vb. X, to surrender, capitulate; to give way, submit, yield, abandon o.s.; to give o.s. over; to lend o.s., be a party; to succumb: originally probably requestative (*‘to ask for salām, i.e., protection, safety’).

    salāmlik, n., selamlik, reception room, sitting room, parlor: from Tu selamlık, composed of Ar salām + Tu suffix ‑lık.
    BP#1991taslīm, n., salutation; greeting: vn. II, denom.; for other values cf. ↗salima.
    musālamaẗ, n.f., conciliation, pacification: vn. III, denom.
    BP#4250ĭstislām, n., surrender, capitulation; submission, resignation, self-surrender: vn. X.
    musālim, adj., peaceable, peaceful, peaceloving; mild-tempered, lenient, gentle: PA III, denom.
     
    salāmlik سَلامْلِك 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SLM 
    n. 
    selamlik, reception room, sitting room, parlor – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ From Tu selamlık, composed of selam (= Ar ↗salām) and Tu n. suffix ‑lık.
     
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ Against what is said in the CONCISE section above, Rolland2014 holds that the word derives from the common greeting, Ar salām ʕalay-k ‘peace be upon you’. However, given that similar formations in ‑lık (var. ‑lik, ‑luk, ‑lük) are a very common phenomenon in Tu (cf., e.g., gece ‘night’ => gece-lik ‘nightdress’, göz ‘eye’ => göz-lük ‘glasses’, söz ‘word’ => söz-lük ‘dictionary’), it seems more likely.
    ▪ In OttTu, selāmlıḳ is not only used for the ‘part of a large Muslim house reserved for males’, but also as the term for the ‘public procession of the Sultan to a mosque at noon on Fridays’ – Redhouse. 
    – 
    – 
    salāmaẗ سَلامَة 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 855 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SLM 
    n. 
    blamelessness, flawlessness; unimpaired state, soundness, integrity, intactness; well-being, welfare; safety, security; smooth progress; success – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ a vn. of ↗salima, which is ultimately from Sem *ŠLM ‘to be whole, sound’.
    ▪ While ↗salām has developed more in the sense of ‘peace’, salāmaẗ has preserved the original meaning of *‘unharmed state’ better than its m. counterpart. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ See ↗SLM, ↗salima, ↗salām
    ▪ See ↗SLM, ↗salima, ↗salām
    – 
    al-salāmaẗ al-ĭǧtimāʕiyyaẗ, n.f., collective security.
    salāmaẗ al-ḏawq, n., good taste.
    salāmaẗ (ʔamlāk) al-balad, n., the integrity of the country.
    salāmaẗ al-niyaẗ, n.f., sincerity, guilelessness.
    bi-salāmaẗ al-niyaẗ, adv., in good faith, bona fide.
    salāmaẗ-ak!, interj., a speedy recovery!
    maʕa ’l-salāmaẗ, interj., greeting of farewell, said by the person remaining behind) approx.: good-by! farewell!
    al-ḥamdu lillāh ʕalà ’l-salāmaẗ, interj., praised be God for your well-being! (said to the traveler returning from a journey).

    For derivations from the vb. of which salāmaẗ is the vn., cf. ↗salima
    salīm سَليم , pl. sulamāʔᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 1533 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SLM 
    adj. 
    correct, sound; flawless; safe – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Perhaps the etymon proper of the whole ‘unharmed, safety, peace’ complex in Ar, rather than the vb. ↗salima (which somehow looks denom.; but cf. also ↗salm, ↗silm, ↗salam_1, ↗salām, from which salīm could be formed as an ints.adj.).
    ▪ From Sem *šalim‑ ‘sound, intact’ (Fronzaroli, Dolgopolsky), from Sem *ŠLM ‘to be whole, sound, remain unharmed’. 
    ▪ eC7 1 (pure, wholesome, sound, free of evil) Q 26:89 89 ʔillā man ʔatà ’ḷḷāha bi-qalbin salīmin ‘except for the one who comes before God with a pure heart’. – ? 2 (sick, heavy, troubled – in one interpretation of the verse) Q 37:84 ʔiḏ ǧāʔa rabba-hū bi-qalbin salīmin ‘when he came to his Lord with a troubled (or: a pure) heart’ 
    ▪ Fronzaroli#4.10a: Akk šalmu ‘sound, intact’,134 Ug šlm ‘to be intact’, Hbr šālēm, Syr šalmā, Ar salīm ‘sound, intact’, salima, SAr slm ‘to be sound, intact’.
    ▪ Dolgopolsky2012#2046: DERIV Sem *šalim‑ > Akk šalmu ‘whole, intact, entire, healthy, sound’, BiblHbr šālēm, JA šᵊlēm ‘complete, unmolested, peaceful’, Ar salima ‘to be safe’.
    ▪ Is also Ug šlm (*šalimu ?) ‘(completely) paid, settled’ directly related? 
    ▪ Huehnergard2011: Sem ŠLM ‘to be whole, sound’.
    ▪ Fronzaroli#4.10a: From Sem *šalim‑ ‘sound, intact’.
    ▪ Dolgopolsky2012#2046: From Sem *šalim‑, from Sem ŠLM ‘to be whole, sound, remain unharmed’ (cf. ↗salima). 
    – 
    No direct derivatives from the adj. For derivatives from items that are akin to salīm, cf. ↗salima, ↗silm, ↗ʔaslama / ↗ʔislām, ↗salām, etc. 
    sulāmà سُلامَى , pl. sulāmayāt 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SLM 
    n. 
    1 phalanx, digital bone (of the hand or foot) – WehrCowan1979. – 2 For another meaning, now obsolete, cf. SLM_27 s.v. ↗SLM. 
    ▪ Given that a semantic relation between the main values that are known in Sem for the root ↗SLM can hardly be found, the etymology of sulāmà remains obscure so far.
    ▪ Interestingly enough, BAH2008 group this value (SLM_12 s.v. ↗SLM) together with SLM_3 ‘to receive’ and ‘to stroke’ (cf. SLM_25). This does not seem to be very likely, but should it be correct then ‘to receive’ and ‘to stroke’ would probably have to be thought as denominative from sulāmà. Such derivations, however, do not contribute to solve the etymology of sulāmà itself.
    ▪ Should one consider a transfer of meaning from ↗salam_2 ‘(kind of) acacia’ to the digital bones that look like small twigs of a tree? Perhaps also the other obsolete terms of plants mentioned s.v. salam_2 have to be studied as possible origin. 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    sulāmiyyaẗ سُلامِيّة , pl. ‑āt 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SLM 
    n.f. 
    phalanx, digital bone (of the hand or foot) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ The word seems to be a f. nsb-adj. derived from a *sulām, which however does not exist, nor does the word seem to have any cognates in Sem. Given that a semantic relation between the main values that are known in Sem for the root ↗SLM can hardly be found, the etymology of sulāmiyyaẗ, like that of its ‘sister’ with identical meaning, ↗sulāmà, remains obscure so far.
    ▪ Should one consider a transfer of meaning from ↗salam_2 ‘(kind of) acacia’ to the digital bones that look like small twigs of a tree? Perhaps also the other obsolete terms of plants mentioned s.v. salam_2 have to be studied as possible origin. 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    Sulaymānᵘ سُلَيْمانُ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SLM 
    n.prop. 
    Salomon – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ From Syr Šlīmōn ‘Solomon’, belonging to the root *ŠLM ‘to be whole, sound’.
    ▪ BAH2008: »The Qur’an relates how Solomon was endowed with wise judgement (21:78); how God gave him command of the wind and the jinn (21:81) and enabled him to understand the speech of birds and insects (27:16); and how God tested him by placing a body on his throne and how he repented as a result (38:34). His death was noted only as a result of his body collapsing after the insects of the earth had gnawed the staff upon which he had been leaning (34:14). Stories about Solomon appear in Suras 27 and 34.« 
    ▪ eC7 (the Prophet Solomon, 1 Kings XI:1-10) Q 27:16 wa-wariṯa Sulaymānu Dāwūda ‘and Solomon succeeded David’ 
    … 
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »All these references [in the Q] are to the Biblical Solomon, though the information about him in the Qurʔān is mostly derived from late legend. The name was early recognized as a foreign borrowing into Ar and is given as such by al-Jawālīqī, Muʕarrab, 85, though some were inclined to take it as genuine Ar and a diminutive of salmān from a root SLM (cf. LA, xv, 192). Lagarde, Übersicht, 86, thought the philologers were right in taking it as a diminutive from salmān, quoting as parallel zuʕayfirān from zaʕfarān, and Lidzbarski, Johannesbuch, 74, n. 1, agrees. The truth, however, seems to be that it is the Syr Šlīmōn as Nöldeke has argued.437 al-Jawālīqī, op. cit., said it was Hbr, but Grk Salṓmōn, Syr Šlīmōn, Eth [Gz] Salōmōn, beside Hbr Šᵊlōmōh, are conclusive proof of Christian origin. – The name was well-known in the pre-Islamic period, both as the name of Israel’s king, and as a personal name,438 so it would have been quite familiar to Muḥammad’s contemporaries.« 
    ▪ Not from Ar Sulaymān, but from Hbr šᵊlōmōh ‘his (God’s) peace’ is the Engl form of the name, Solomon. The Hbr word is composed of šᵊlōm, bound form of šālôm ‘safety, peace’ + 3sg.m suff.pron. – Huehnergard2011. Hbr šālôm is or course akin to Ar ↗salām
    sulaymānī سُلَيْمانِيّ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SLM 
    n. 
    mercury chloride – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    Rolland2014: From mLat sublimatum ‘mercury chloride’, from Lat sublimis ‘volatile’. »Le mot a clairement subi l’attraction paronymique de ↗Sulaymān ‘Salomon’, d’origine sémitique.« 
    – 
    – 
    ʔislām إِسْلام 
    ID 411 • Sw – • BP 365 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SLM 
    n. 
    submission, resignation, reconciliation (to the will of God); — al-~ the religion of Islam; the era of Islam; the Muslims – WehrCowan1979. 
    Originally a vn. from the vb. IV ↗ʔaslama, meaning ‘total surrender, submission (to a deity)’, then specialized in the sense of ‘adherence to (< submission to) the religion taught by the prophet Muḥammad’. 
    ▪ eC7 1 (total surrender) Q 3:19 ʔinna ’l-dīna ʕinda ’ḷḷāhi ’l-ʔislāmu ‘True Religion, in God’s eyes, it total surrender [to Him]’. – 2 (the religion of Islam) Q 5:3 al-yawma ʔakmaltu la-kum dīna-kum wa-ʔatmamtu ʕalay-kum niʕmat-ī wa-raḍītu la-kumu ’l-ʔislāma dīnan ‘today I have perfected your religion for you, completed My blessing upon you, and santioned for you Islam [the total submission to God] as religion’. – 3 (act of surrendering, submitting) Q 9:74 wa-la-qad qālū kalimata ’l-kufri wa-kafarū baʕda ʔislāmi-him ‘but they certainly did speak the word of disbelief and became disbelievers after having submitted’ 
    ▪ See ↗ʔaslama, ↗salima, ↗salām, ↗SLM. 
    ▪ See ↗ʔaslama, ↗salima, ↗salām, ↗SLM. 
    ▪ From Ar ʔislām ‘submission’ is of course Engl Islam (first attested in 1818), and Engl Muslim (1610 s as a n., 1777 as adj.) is taken from the corresponding PA IV. The older form Engl Mussulman (1560 s) has entered the lang. via Tu muslimān, vulg. musulmān (nTu müsliman, müsülman), which in turn is from the Pers form musulmān (with adj. suffix ‑ān). The old Ge form Muselman(n) (C17), with secondary likening to Mann ‘man’, came in via Ital musulmano, nFr musulman (< Tu < Pers, like the Engl term). 
    ĭstaslama, vb. X, to surrender, capitulate; to give way, submit, yield, abandon o.s.; to give o.s. over; to lend o.s., be a party; to succumb: Št-stem, originally probably requestative (*‘to ask for protection, safety, salām).

    BP#184ʔislāmī, pl. ‑ūn, adj., Islamic; n., Islamist: nsb-adj., from ↗ʔislām.
    ʔislāmiyyaẗ, n.f., the idea of Islam, Islamism; status or capacity of a Muslim: abstr. formation in ‑iyyaẗ from ↗ʔislām.
    ʔislāmbūlī, adj.: nsb-adj., from ʔislāmbūl, pious interpretation of the name of the capital of the Ottoman Empire, Istanbul (ʔisṭānbūl, pron. ʔisṭāmbūl).
    BP#4250ĭstislām, n., surrender, capitulation; submission, resignation, self-surrender: vn. X.
    C BP#229muslim, pl. ‑ūn, adj./n., Muslim: orig. a PA IV, ↗ʔislām.
     
    muslim مُسْلِم , pl. ‑ūn 
    ID 415 • Sw – • BP 229 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SLM 
    ¹adj.; ²n. 
    Muslim – WehrCowan1979. 
    Originally a PA from the vb. IV ↗ʔaslama, then specialized in the sense of ‘following (> follower of) the religion of Islam’. 
    ▪ eC7 1 (one who submits [to God]) Q 2:133 naʕbudu ʔilāha-ka wa-ʔilāha ʔābāʔi-ka ʔibrāhīma wa-ʔismāʕīla wa-ʔisḥāqa ʔilāhan wāḥidan wa-naḥnu la-hū muslimūna ‘we will worship your God and the God of your fathers, Abraham, Ishmael and Isaac, one single God—we submit ourselves to Him’. – 2 (one who professes the faith of Islam) Q 22:78 huwa sammā-kumu ’l-muslimīna min qablu wa-fī hāḏā ‘He has called you Muslims—both in the past and in this [Book]’. – 3 (one showing obedience) Q 27:38 ʔayyu-kum yaʔtī-nī bi-ʕarši-hā qabla ʔan yaʔtū-nī muslimīna ‘which of you can bring me her throne before they come to me in obedience [to my bidding]?’ 
    ʔaslama, ↗salima, ↗salām, ↗SLM. 
    ʔaslama, ↗salima, ↗salām, ↗SLM. 
    ▪ From Ar muslim is of course Engl Muslim (first attested in 1610 s as a n., in 1777 as adj.). The older form Engl Mussulman (1560 s) has entered the lang. via Tu muslimān, vulg. musulmān (nTu müsliman, müsülman), which in turn is from the Pers form musulmān (with adj. suffix ‑ān). The corresponding early nGe form Muselman(n) (C17), with secondary likening to Mann ‘man’, came in via Ital musulmano, nFr musulman (< Tu < Pers, like the Engl term). 
     
    salmūn سَلْمون , var. salamūn 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SLM, SLMN, SLMWN 
    n. 
    salmon – WehrCowan1979. 
    From Lat salmō (gen. salmōnis) ‘salmon’. 
    ▪ Contrary to what one may expect, salmūn ‘salmon’ is not a modern borrowing from Engl or Fr, but (accord. to Dozy) already attested as early as C13.13
     
    – 
    ▪ From Lat salmō (gen. salmōnis) ‘salmon’, »probably originally ‘leaper’, from Lat salire ‘to leap’ […], though some dismiss this as folk etymology. Another theory traces it to Celtic439 « – etymonline.com. In Engl where the word entered via oFr salmun, it replaced oEngl læx (< PIE *lax), the more usual word for the fish (ibid.).
    ▪ MSA has yet another expression for ‘salmon’: ḥūt Sulaymān, lit., ‘Solomon’s (big) fish’ – a popular reinterpretation of sal(a)mūn ? For Sulaymān cf. ↗s.v.
    – 
    – 
    SLW سلو 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 29Mar2023
    √SLW 
    “root” 
    ▪ SLW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SLW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SLW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘consolation, solace’. 
    ▪ The philologists derive salwà ‘quail’ from this root, but it has also been suggested that the word is a borrowing from Aram – BAH2008.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    – 
    SMː (SMM) سمّ/سمم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 29Mar2023
    √ SM: (SMM) 
    “root” 
    ▪ SM: (SMM)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SM: (SMM)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SM: (SMM)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘poison, venom; pore of the body, very small hole, eye of a needle; hot, dust-carrying wind; people close to the self’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    samm سَمّ 
    ID 416 • Sw – • BP 3087 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SMː (SMM) 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    SMD سمد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 29Mar2023
    √SMD 
    “root” 
    ▪ SMD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SMD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SMD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be elevated, raise the head and thrust out the chest in pride; to be heedless; to be playful; to be careless’ 
    ▪ [v1] …
    ▪ [v2] From ESem *√SMD ‘to grind (groats)’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl semolina, simnel, from Lat simila, ultimately (perh. via Grk semidālis ‘fine wheaten flour’) from a Sem source akin to Aram sᵊmidā ‘fine flour’, Ar ↗samīd ‘semolina’, both prob. from Akk samīdu ‘(a type of) groats’, from samādu ‘to grind into groats’. 
    – 
    SMR سمر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SMR 
    “root” 
    ▪ SMR_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ SMR_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘the colour brown, colour of dusk; moonlight, nightly chats (i.e. chats conducted in the moonlight), socialising by night’. – The philologists derive sāmirī from al-Sāmiraẗ, a tribe of the Children of Israel, which in turn they regard as a derivative. 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ʔasmarᵘ أَسْمَر 
    ID 417 • Sw – • BP 4452 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SMR 
    adj. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    SMSM سمسم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SMSM 
    “root” 
    ▪ SMSM_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ SMSM_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl sesame, sesamoidsimsim, ↗samn). 
    – 
    simsim سِمْسِم 
    ID 418 • Sw – • BP??? • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SMSM 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl sesame, sesamoid, from Grk sēsamē, sēsamon, from a Sem source akin to Ug ššmn, Phoen ššmn, Aram šumšᵊmā, Ar simsim, all prob. from Akk šamaššammū ‘sesame’, back-formation from *šaman šammammī ‘oil of plants’, from šammī, gen.pl. of šammu ‘plant’ (šaman, bound form of šamnu ‘oil’; cf. Ar ↗samn). It is possible that the Akk form represents a folk etymology for an original form šamšamu, from a root *šmšm
     
    SMʕ سمع 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SMʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ SMʕ_1 ‘to hear’ ↗samiʕa
    ▪ SMʕ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to hear, to listen; fame’ 
    ▪ SMʕ_1 : (Kogan2015 Sw#39:) from protSem *šmʕ ‘to hear’ (CDG 501). Passim throughout Sem.
    ▪ SMʕ_2 : …
    ▪ SMʕ_3 : …
     
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    samiʕ‑ سَمِعَ 
    ID 419 • Sw 58/69 • BP 154 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SMʕ 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2015 (Sw#39): from protSem *šmʕ ‘to hear’ (CDG 501). Passim throughout Sem.
    ▪ …
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘to hear’) Akk išmē, Hbr šmʕ e (a), Syr šmʕ a (a), Gz smʕ – (a).
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    SMQ سمق 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 19Mar2023
    √SMQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ SMQ_1 ‘(to be) very high, towering, tall’ ↗samaqa
    ▪ SMQ_2 ‘sumac (Rhus; bot.)’ ↗summāq

    Other values, now obsolete, include (BK1860, Hava1899):

    SMQ_3 ‘pure, mere | pur, franc, sans mélange’: sumāq (esp. fig., kiḏb sumāq ‘mere lie’)
    SMQ_4 ‘yoke | pièce de bois qui forme le joug des bœufs’: samīqāni (du.)
    SMQ_ ‘...’: ...
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ [v1] …
    ▪ [v2] : from Aram sūmaq, summāq, Syr sûmāqā ‘blood-red, dark red, reddish, ruddy; red lentil, red pottage; red\purple dye, rouge, metaph. disguise; red ink, minium; ruby, sard; rhus coraria, sumach’, smaq ‘to be red, turn red’ (PayneSmith1903). – Lokotsch1927 #1946 also considers internal dependence on [v1], i.e., the sumac tree as the *‘high, beautifully-grown tree’.
    [v3] …
    [v4] …
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ▪ [v1] ...
    ▪ [v2] – (prob. loanword)
    [v3] ...
    [v4] ...
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ [v2] Engl sumac, var. sumach, Fr sumac, etc. ↗summāq
    ▪ ...
     
    – 
    samaq‑ سَمَقَ , u (sumūq
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 19Mar2023
    √SMQ 
    vb., I 
    to be high, tall, lofty, tower up – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ ...
     
    – 
    samūq, adj., very high, towering; tall and lanky
    sāmiq, adj., very high, lofty, towering

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗summāq as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗SMQ.
     
    summāq سُمّاق 
    ID 420 • Sw – • BP??? • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 19Mar2023
    √SMQ 
    n. 
    1a sumac (Rhus; bot.); b its highly acid seeds which, after being dried and ground, serve, together with thyme, as a condiment – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ From Aram sūmaq, summāq, Syr sûmāqā ‘blood-red, dark red, reddish, ruddy; red lentil, red pottage; red\purple dye, rouge, metaph. disguise; red ink, minium; ruby, sard; rhus coraria, sumach’, smaq ‘to be red, turn red’ (PayneSmith1903). – Lokotsch1927 #1946 would also consider internal dependence on [v1], i.e., the sumac tree as the *‘high, beautifully-grown tree’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ – (loanword)
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
     
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl sumac, from Ar summāq ‘sumac’, from Aram summāq ‘dark red’, from sᵊmeq ‘to be(come) red’.
    ▪ Engl sumac, also sumach (c. 1300), »preparation of dried, chopped leaves of a plant of the genus Rhus (used in tanning and dyeing and as an astringent), from oFr sumac (C13), from mLat sumach, from Ar summāq, from Syr summāqā ‘red’. Of the tree itself from 1540s; later applied to a NAmer plant species« – EtymOnline. – Fr sumac, (1256 somac, lC13 sumac), borrowing, perh. via Sp zumaque (attested from C10 in Lat texts), from Ar summāq ‘sumac’ – CNRTL-TLFi. – The word is found also in many other Eur languages, cf. It sommaco, Span zumaque, Port summagre, Rum sumac, Russ sumaḫ, Du smak, Ge Schmack, Sumach (Lokotsch1927), as well as in Tu sumak (1410, NişanyanSözlüğü_27Sept2022).
    ▪ ...
     
    summāqī: ḥaǧar summāqī, n., porphyry

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗samaqa as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗SMQ. 
    SMK سمك 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SMK 
    “root” 
    ▪ SMK_1 ‘fish’ ↗samak
    ▪ SMK_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘height, loftiness; building, support, roofing; fish’ 
    ▪ [v1] : Etymology obscure. No general term for ‘fish’ can be reconstructed for protSem – Kogan2011.
    ▪ [v2] From protSem *√SMK ‘to support’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    samak سَمَك 
    ID 421 • Sw 19/49 • BP 1916 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SMK 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: No general term for ‘fish’ can be reconstructed for protSem. The respective terms of particular Sem languages are either etymologically obscure (like samak), or borrowed from non-Sem languages. No designations of concrete species of fish can be traced back to protSem , but cf. perh. ↗luḫm ‘shark’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    SMN سمن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SMN 
    “root” 
    ▪ SMN_1 ‘clarified butter, cooking butter’ ↗samn
    ▪ SMN_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be fat, to fatten; melted purified butter’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl sesame, sesamoidsimsim, ↗samn). 
    – 
    samn سَمْن , pl. sumūn 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SMN 
    n. 
    clarified butter, cooking butter – WehrCowan 1979 
    ▪ Ar samn ‘melted purified butter’ seems to be a specialisation from a protSem *šamn‑ that denoted ‘oil, fat (as foodstuff)’ in general. Derivatives show the original wider meaning.
    ▪ TB2007 reconstructs Sem *šam(-an)‑ ‘fat, oil’, from AfrAs *sim-an‑ ~ *sin-am‑ ‘oil, fat, (fat) milk’. 
    lC6 ʕUrwa b. al-Ward 23,2: wa-faḍlati samnatin ḏahabat ʔilay-hi ‘and the rest of a piece of butter/fat [n.un.] that went to him’ (Polosin 1995)
    ▪ eC7 samn itself is not in Q, but we find the vb. IV ʔasmana ‘to fatten, to benefit, to nourish’ and the adj. (pseudo-PA) samīn ‘fat, well-fed’: Q 88:6-7 laysa la-hum ṭaʕāmun ʔillā min ḍarīʕin lā yusminu wa-lā yuġnī min ǧūʕin ‘with no food for them except bitter dry thorns that neither nourish nor satisfy hunger’; 12:43 ʔinnī ʔarà sabʕa baqarātin simān in yaʔkulu-hunna sabʕun ʕiǧāfun ‘I see [in my dreams] seven fat cows being eaten by seven lean ones’ 
    ▪ Kogan2011: Akk šamnu, Ug šmn, šmt, Hbr šämän (mostly) ‘vegetable oil’, (rarely also) ‘animal fat or cream’, Aram *šumnā (mostly) ‘(animal) fat, fatness’, Ar samn‑ ‘(clarified) butter’, Jib šẽn ‘fat, fatness (?)’.
    ▪ For outside Sem, TB2007 gives (Berber) Ghat isim ‘graisse (de tout animal)’, Tahaggart ésim ‘graisse fondu’, Tawllemmet ē-šim ‘liquid fat; broth’, Taqbaylit (Ayt Mangellat) ţa-ssǝm-ţ ‘graisse animal’, Canarian achemen ‘milk’; OEg smy (med.) ‘fat milk, cream’; (WChad) šivena, sinama, sin; (EChad) swāń, swānī, sòn-gò, súwāné, sùwánè, séwén, séwèn, súnu ‘oil’, sùwǝ̀n-gǝ̀, sɔn, síwín ‘oil, fat’, sṓane ‘melted butter/oil’, sɛ́wɛ́ŋ ‘fat’ (n.), súnē ‘fat’ (adj.); (Warazi/Dullay) šiinán-ko, pl. šiinam-aane ‘butter’, šiinan-ko, pl. šinam-aane ‘fat’; perhaps also CChad) s’ǝmǝn ‘thick’, but this is said to be semantically problematic. 
    ▪ Huehnergard 2011: Sem *šamn‑ ‘oil, fat’.
    ▪ Kogan2011: »The main PS term for ‘fat’ as a foodstuff seems to be *šamn‑, although exact semantics of its reflexes are rather diverse […]. The meaning ‘(clarified) butter’ is typical of Ar […], whereas [the Akk, Ug and Hbr terms] mostly denote ‘vegetable oil’ and are only rarely applied to animal fat or cream. ComAram *šumnā mostly denotes ‘(animal) fat, fatness’ […]. The exact meaning of Jib […] remains to be ascertained.«
    ▪ Alongside with Sem *šamn‑ ‘fat’ (n.), Fronzaroli#2.35 also reconstructs Sem *šamin‑ ‘fat’ (adj.).
    ▪ TB2007 reconstruct Sem *šam(-an)‑ ‘fat, oil’, Berb *‑sim(-an)‑ ‘(liquid) fat, milk’, OEg smy (med.) ‘fat milk, cream’, WChad *sin(-am)‑ ‘oil’, ? CChad *s˅m˅n‑ (?) ‘thick’, EChad *siwan‑ (< *siman‑ ?) ‘oil; melted butter/oil; fat (n.); fat (adj.)’, Warazi (Dullay) *šinam‑ ‘butter; fat’. All from AfrAs *sim-an‑ ~ *sin-am‑ ‘oil, fat, (fat) milk’. 
    ▪ Although Ar samn is not the origin of Engl sesame, both are relatives nevertheless: According to Huehnergard 2011, the Engl word is »from Grk sēsamē sēsamon ‘sesame’, from a Sem source akin to Ug ššmn, Phoen ššmn, Aram šumšəmā, Ar simsim ‘sesame’, all probably from Akk šamaššammū ‘sesame’, back-formation from *šaman šammī ‘oil of plants’, from šaman, bound form of šamnu ‘oil’ (šammī, gen.pl. of šammu ‘plant’, Sem śmm). It is possible that the Akk form represents a folk etymology for an original form šamšamu, from a root *šmšm.« 
    samina a (siman, samānaẗ), vb. I, to be or become fat, corpulent, obese, stout, plump, fleshy, put on weight: denom.
    sammana, vb. II, and ʔasmana, vb. IV, to make fat or plump, fatten: denom.caus.
    siman, n., and BP#4632simnaẗ, n.f., fatness, plumpness, fleshiness, stoutness, corpulence; obesity: vn. I and abstr. in ‑aẗ, respectively.
    summun, n.coll. (n.un. aẗ), pl. samāminᵘ, quail (zool.): *‘the fat one (bird)’ ?.
    samīn, pl. simān, adj., fat; corpulent, plump, fleshy, stout, obese: quasi-PA (or -PP).
    summān, n.coll. (n.un. aẗ), quail (zool.): *the fat one (bird) ?.
    sammān, n., butter merchant: n.prof.
    samānaẗ: ~ al-rijl, n., calf of the leg:.
    sumānà, n.coll. (n.un. sumānāẗ, pl. sumānayāt), quail (zool.): *‘the fat one (bird)’?.
    musamman, adj., fat: PP II.
     
    SMW سمو 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SMW 
    “root” 
    ▪ SMW_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ SMW_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘loftiness, height; skies; high station, nobility, honour; mark; to name; name, naming’ 
    ▪ … 
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    ▪ …
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    ▪ …
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    – 
    – 
    samāʔ سَماء 
    ID 422 • Sw –/139 • BP 728 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SMW 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *šamā̆y‑ (often in the pl.) ‘heaven’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘sky’) Akk šamū, Hbr šāmáyim, Syr šmayyā, Gz samā́y.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    SMY سمي 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SMY 
    “root” 
    ▪ SMY_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ SMY_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ SMY_3 ‘…’ ↗ 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    … 
    ĭsm اِسْم 
    ID … • Sw … • BP 89 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SM, SMW/Y 
    n. 
    name 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘name’) Akk šumu, Hbr šēm, Syr šmā, Gz sem.
     
    … 
    … 
    … 
    basmalaẗ بَسْمَلَة 
    ID 423 • Sw – • cf. BP3300 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SM, SMW/Y, BSML 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
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    – 
     
    SN سن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SN 
    “root” 
    ▪ SN_1 ‘year’ ↗sanaẗ

    Not from √SN but often easily confused with it because of similarity in rasm and/or non-visibility of weak radicals:
    ▪ SN_2 ‘sleep, slumber’ (sinaẗ) ↗wasina (√WSN)
    ▪ SN_3 ‘tooth; to sharpen, whet’ ↗sinaẗ (√SNː/SNN)
    ▪ SN_4 ‘custom, habit, (Prophetic) tradition’ ↗sunnaẗ (√SNː/SNN)

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘tooth, teething; age, year; blade, sharpening; handsome face; legislating; method of doing things; precedent’. – There is a degree of overlapping between this root and roots SNH and SNW. 
    ▪ … 
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    ▪ …
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    – 
    SNː (SNN) سنّ / سنن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SNː (SNN) 
    “root” 
    ▪ SNː (SNN)_1 ‘tooth; to sharpen’ ↗sinn (1)
    ▪ SNː (SNN)_2 ‘age’ ↗sinn (2)
    ▪ SNː (SNN)_3 ‘to prescribe; old custom, norm; Sunna’ ↗sunnaẗ

    ClassAr shows many more values (cf. Lane):
    SNː (SNN)_4 ‘spearhead, iron head, to pierce with a spear’ (sinn, sinān)4
    SNː (SNN)_5 ‘ploughshare, iron thing with which the ground is ploughed up’ (sinnaẗ)5
    SNː (SNN)_6 ‘alike, equal, matching, in age’ (sinn)6
    SNː (SNN)_7 ‘to tend well, pasture, render fat (camels, cattle); to send to the pasturage, make run quickly’ (sanna, vb. I) 7
    SNː (SNN)_8 ‘to pour (e.g., water on s.o.)’ (sanna, vb. I; ĭstanna, vb. VIII, ‘to pour forth’, e.g., with tears, etc.)
    SNː (SNN)_9 ‘to throw down on the face’ (sanna, vb. I) 8
    SNː (SNN)_10 ‘to form, fashion, shape, make long; to plaster (pottery with clay)’ (sanna, vb. I) 9
    SNː (SNN)_11 ‘to become altered for the worse, or stinking’ (sunna, vb. I, pass.)
    SNː (SNN)_12 ‘nature, natural disposition, temper’ (sunnaẗ)
    SNː (SNN)_13 ‘(handsome long) face’ (sunnaẗ) 10
    SNː (SNN)_14 ‘black line, or streak, on the back of the ass’ (sunnaẗ)
    SNː (SNN)_15 ‘sort of Medinan dates’ (sunnaẗ, sinnaẗ)
    SNː (SNN)_16 ‘(middle part of) way, road’ (sanan)
    SNː (SNN)_17 ‘camels lifting the front legs simultaneously, leaping, springing, or bounding, in their running’ (sanan ; cf. also ĭstanna, vb. VIII, ‘to frisk, be brisk, lively, sprightly, to run (in such a fashion)’11
    SNː (SNN)_18 ‘elevated sands, shaped like a rope’ (sanīnaẗ)
    SNː (SNN)_19 ‘(gentle) wind’ (sanīnaẗ)
    SNː (SNN)_20 ‘wild bull’ (sinn)
    SNː (SNN)_21 ‘she-bear, she-lynx’ (sannaẗ, sinnaẗ)
    SNː (SNN)_22 ‘swallow’ (sunn)
    SNː (SNN)_23 ‘flies’ (sinān)
     

    4. Probably from sinn [v1] ‘tooth; sharp,edge; to sharpen’. But cf. Calice1936 #84 who puts Ar sinān ‘spearhead’ together with Eg sn ‘Zweizack’ (two-pronged spear) and Berb asennan ‘thorny’.  5. Probably from sinn [v1] ‘tooth; to sharpen’. But cf. Corriente2008: 86 who mentions the word, for EgAr, in the ʔiḍāfa sinn il-muḥrāt ‘ploughshare’ as a possible borrowing from Copt: »contributed by Behnstedt 1981:91, who considers likely a derivation from Copt sine of the same meaning (Crum 343), in spite of the phonetic likeness to Ar sinn ‘tooth; point’, possibly contributing to maintain the Copt item in use. In their unp[ublished] article, however, Behnstedt & Woidich concede the same likelihood to both possibilities.«  6. From sinn in the sense of [v2] ‘age’?  7. From sinn in the fig. meaning of ‘[portion of] herbage upon which camels pasture’, i.e. which they can “polish, smoothen, make even” with their teeth?  8. from ‘tooth’: cf. sānna ’l-nāqaẗa, vb. III, ‘he (the stallion-camel) bit the she-camel with the fore-part of the mouth’.  9. from [v1] ‘tooth, sharpening, whetting’, cf. sannana, vb. II, ‘to polish, make smooth, make beautiful’.  10. Cf. sannana, vb. II, ‘to polish, make smooth, make beautiful’, from [v1] ‘tooth, sharpening, whetting’.  11. Explained as »from sanna as signifying ‘he poured forth’ water, and as signifying ‘he sharpened’ iron upon a whetstone« in ClassAr dictionaries – Lane. 
    ▪ According to ClassAr dictionaires, all three values that are still to be found in MSA are connected, with [v2] ‘age’ and [v3] ‘to prescribe; old custom, norm; Sunna’ being based on [v1] ‘tooth; to sharpen’ as the primary value (for details, see “Discussion” below).
    ▪ Within SNː (SNN)_1, we assume (with Huehnergard) the vb. ‘to sharpen’ to be denominative from ‘tooth’, as the main etymon of the semantic field. (BDB1906 thought ‘tooth’ was deverbal, from ‘to whet, sharpen’.)
    ▪ SNː (SNN)_1 and, if dependent on this, also the other two, go back to Sem *šinn‑ ‘tooth’, ultimately probably from AfrAs *šin‑ ‘tooth’.
    ▪ Not to be confused with ↗sanaẗ ‘year’ (√SN(W)) or ↗sinaẗ ‘slumber, doze’ (√WSN). 
    – 
    sinn, ↗sunnaẗ
    ▪ The semantic variety within the “root” in ClassAr is confusing, not the least because there seems to be much overlapping with ↗SNH and ↗SNW (and perhaps also ↗ṮNY ?). Badawi2008, who also mentions this overlapping, reduces the values to »tooth, teething; age, year; blade, sharpening; handsome face; legislating; method of doing things; precedent«. Within this list, ‘blade, sharpening’ belongs to the sub-field of ‘tooth’ (as ‘sharp edge’), ‘age, year’ and ‘handsome face’ each form a sub-field in their own right, while the last three all belong to the idea of ‘(setting, establishing, following) a norm’. Rearranged according to the groups that are still to be found in MSA, as listed in the disambiguation section above, we get: [v1] ‘tooth, teething; blade, sharpening’, [v2] ‘age, year’, [v3] ‘legislating; method of doing things; precedent’, and [v13] ‘handsome face’. The latter is explained as derived from the idea of ‘polish, smoothness, evenness’ by the ClassAr lexicographers and thus made dependent on ‘tooth, sharpening, whetting’.
    ▪ According to ClassAr lexicographers, [v2] ‘age’ depends on [v1] ‘tooth’ as a metaphor, »for the teeth vary with the length of life« so that they came to mean ‘measure, or extent, of life; age attained’.
    ▪ Also from the same etymon, according the dictionaries, is the semantic complex ‘to prescribe; old custom, norm; Sunna’ treated under ↗sunnaẗ. Nişanyan (31Mar2013) explains the latter as going back to the pre-Islamic custom, practised by Arab tribes, of whetting/filing young boys’ teeth at a certain age in order to sharpen them. In the same way as this explanation links ‘custom, habit, norm, prescription’ to the ‘teeth’, it also connects ‘teeth’ with ‘age’ and could therefore serve as another hypothesis about the relation between [v2] and [v1].
    ▪ Since the vocabulary pertains to the whole SNː (SNN) complex will be arranged separately, corresponding to [v1] to [v3], in the more specific entries on ↗sinn and sunnaẗ and in this way items that, ultimately, may belong together will be torn apart, the “DERIVATIVES” section below lists them all as given in WehrCowan1979, in order to make the internal coherence visible once, before going into details in the more specialized entries. 
    ▪ Engl shinsinn.
    ▪ Engl Sunna, Sunnisunnaẗ
    For grouping according to internal coherence within narrower semantic sub-fields cf. ↗sinn (with sinn_1 ‘tooth’ and sinn_2 ‘age’) and ↗sunnaẗ.

    sanna, u (sann), vb. I, 1 to sharpen, whet, hone, grind; 2 to mold, shape, form; 3 to prescribe, introduce, enact, establish (a law, a custom) | ~ qānūnan, vb., to enact, or pass, a law
    sannana, vb. II, 1 to sharpen, whet, hone, grind; 2 to indent, jag, notch
    ʔasanna, vb. IV, 1 to grow teeth, cut o.’s teeth, teethe; 2 to grow old, to age; to be advanced in years
    ĭstanna, vb. VIII, 1 to clean and polish o.’s teeth with the siwāk; 2 a to take, follow (a course or way); 2 b to prescribe, introduce, enact, establish (a law, a custom) | ~ sunnata Muḥammad, vb., to follow the Sunna of Mohammed

    sann, n., prescription, introduction, enactment, issuance (of laws)
    BP#2441sinn, pl. ʔasnān, ʔasinnaẗ, ʔasunn, n.f., 1 tooth (also, e.g., of a comb; of a saw blade); jag; cog, sprocket, prong; tusk (of an elephant, of a boar, etc.); fang (of a snake, etc.); point, tip (of a nail), nib (of a pen) | ~ al-fīl, n., ivory. — 2 BP#1083 (pl. ʔasnān) age (of a person) | ~ al-rušd, n., legal age, majority; ~ al-murāhaqaẗ, n., age of puberty; ~ al-ṭufūlaẗ, n., early childhood; ṣaġīr al ~, adj., young; kabīr al ~, adj., old; ṭaʕana fī ’l-~, vb., to be advanced in years, be aged; taqaddamat bihī al ~, vb., to grow older, to age; to be advanced in years. — 3 (eg.) coarse flour, seconds
    ʔasnānī, adj., dental (phon.)
    BP#1725C sunnaẗ, pl. sunan, n., habitual practice, customary procedure or action, norm, usage sanctioned by tradition; al-~, or ~ al-nabiyy, n., the Sunna of the Prophet, i.e., his sayings and doings, later established as legally binding precedents (in addition to the Law established by the Koran) | ʔahl al ~, n., the Sunnites, the orthodox Muslims; ~ al-ṭabīʕaẗ, n., law of nature
    BP#1811sunnī, adj., Sunnitic; (pl. ‑ūn), n., Sunnite, Sunni
    sanan, n., customary practice, usage, habit, rule
    sinān, pl. ʔasinnaẗ, n., spearhead
    sanūn, n., tooth powder
    sannān, pl. ‑ūn, n., grinder, sharpener (of knives, shears)
    ʔasannᵘ, adj., older, farther advanced in years
    misann, pl. ‑āt, masānnᵘ, n., whetstone, grindstone; razor strop
    tasnīn, n., clothing of teeth (children), teething
    masnūn, adj., 1 prescribed (as Sunna), sanctioned by law and custom; 2 sharpened, whetted, honed; tapered; pointed (e.g., mustache, features); 3 stinking, fetid (mire)
    musannan, adj., 1 toothed, serrated, dentate, denticulate, indented, jagged; 2 pointed, sharp; sharp-featured (countenance); ʕaǧalaẗ ~aẗ, n., cogwheel; ~ al-ʔaṭrāf, adj., deckle-edged (paper)
    musannanaẗ, pl. ‑āt, cogwheel
    musinn, pl. ‑ūn, masānnᵘ, adj., old, aged, advanced in years; dār al-~īn, n.f., home for the aged, old folks home 

    sinn سِنّ , pl. ʔasnān , ʔasinnaẗ , ʔasunn 
    ID 424 • Sw 43/173 • BP 2441, 1083 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SNː (SNN) 
    n. 
    Two main semantic subfields can be distinguished:

    BP#2441[v1] (pl. ʔasnān, ʔasinnaẗ, ʔasunn) n.f., tooth (also, e.g., of a comb; of a saw blade); jag; cog, sprocket, prong; tusk (of an elephant, of a boar, etc.); fang (of a snake, etc.); point, tip (of a nail), nib (of a pen) – WehrCowan1979.

    BP#1083[v2] (pl. ʔasnān) n., 1 age (of a person). — (belonging here?) 2 (EgAr) coarse flour, seconds – WehrCowan1979. 

    ▪ Kogan2015 (Sw#89): from protSem *šinn‑ ‘tooth’ (SED I #249). Passim except Te, Amh and most of modSAr.
    ▪ Ultimately perh. from AfrAs *sin‑ ‘id’.
    ▪ According to ClassAr dictionaires, [v2] ‘age’ depends on [v1] ‘tooth’ as a metaphor, »for the teeth vary with the length of life« so that they came to mean ‘measure, or extent, of life; age attained’ (Lane, s.v. sinn).
    ▪ Also from the same etymon, according the dictionaries, is the semantic complex ‘to prescribe; old custom, norm; Sunna’ treated under ↗sunnaẗ. Nişanyan (31Mar2013) explains the latter as going back to the pre-Islamic custom, practised by Arab tribes, of whetting/filing young boys’ teeth at a certain age in order to sharpen them. In the same way as this explanation links sunnaẗ ‘custom, habit, norm, prescription’ to sinn ‘tooth’, it also connects ‘tooth; sharpening, whetting’ with ‘age’ and could therefore serve as another hypothesis about the relation between [v2] and [v1].
    ▪ [v2]-2, a value attested only in EgAr, does perhaps not belong here and should be treated separately. More research needed. 
    [v1]
    ▪ Badawi2008: ▪ eC7 Q 5:45 wa’l-sinna bi’l-sinni ‘and a tooth for a tooth’ 
    [v1]
    ▪ Zammit2002: Akk šinnu, Ug šnt ‘tooth/teeth’, Hbr šēn ‘tooth; ivory’, BiblAram šēn ‘tooth’, Syr šennā ‘tooth, tusk’, Gz senn ‘tooth’.
    ▪ Militarev&Kogan SED-I #249: Akk šinnu, Ebl si-nu-u[m], si-na-tum /šinnum/, /šinnātum/, Ug šn, Hbr šēn, BiblAram šinnayin (du.), JA šinnā, šn, det. šännā, Syr šennā, Mand šina, Gz sənn, Tña šənni, Arg sən, Gaf sənä, Ar sən, sin; Sel isn, Wol əsən, Zwy sən, Cha sən, Eža Muh Msq Gog Sod sənn, Enn End Gye šən, Jib šnin ‘tooth’.
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2250: Akk šinnu, Ug šn, Hbr šēn, Syr šennō, Gz sənn, Tña sənni, Arg Har Gur sən, Gaf sənä ‘tooth’. – Outside Sem: (Berb) Ahg esin; (WCh) šin, šiŋ, šan, šen in several langs; (CCh) ŝena, ŝene, ŝana, šəŋ, ŝine, ŝəini, ŝənɛ, ŝeŋ, sliŋ, ŝɛnnɛ, sina; (ECh) san-dē, hiin, han, k-song, ga-sena, saaŋo, sa:nu, saŋo, seenō, siŋaŋu, sən; (Rift) siḥino in 3 idoms.

    [v2]
    ▪ Apprently no direct cognates in other Sem langs.
    ▪ Any connection to the notion of ‘change’ lying at the basis of ↗sanaẗ ‘year’ ? 

    [v1]
    ▪ BDB1906 considers Hbr šēn ‘tooth’ as deverbal, from Hbr šānan ‘to whet, sharpen’.
    ▪ Militarev&Kogan SED-I #249: Sem * šinn‑ ≈ *sinn‑ ‘tooth’.
    ▪ Huehnergard2011 reconstructs a ComSem n. *šinn ‘tooth’ and says that the vb.s for ‘to sharpen’ are denominative from this *šinn.
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2250 reconstruct Sem *šinn‑ ‘tooth’, Berb *sin‑, WCh *sin‑, CCh *ŝin‑ (< *ḥa-sin‑), ECh *siHan‑ (< *Ha-sin), Rift *siḥin‑ (from *ḥ˅-sin‑; metathesis), all from AfrAs *sin‑ ‘tooth’.
    ▪ In ClassAr, a number of additional values are attested for sinn and related items. Those that with all likelihood depend on [v1] ‘tooth; to sharpen’ are: ‘spearhead, iron head, to pierce with a spear’;440sinnaẗ ‘ploughshare, iron thing with which the ground is ploughed up’;441sanna, vb. I, ‘to tend well, pasture, render fat (camels, cattle); to send to the pasturage, make run quickly’ (from sinn in the fig. meaning of ‘[portion of] herbage upon which camels pasture’, i.e. which they can “polish, smoothen, make even” with their teeth?); ▪ sanna, vb. I, ‘to throw down on the face’ (dependence on ‘tooth’ is more evident in the corresponding vb. III, as in sānna ’l-nāqaẗa ‘he [the stallion-camel] bit the she-camel with the fore-part of the mouth’); ▪ sanna, vb. I, ‘to form, fashion, shape, make long; to plaster (pottery with clay)’ (extended meaning, based ‘to sharpen, whet’, hence ‘to give a form, shape’; cf. also sannana, vb. II, ‘to polish, make smooth, make beautiful’); ▪ sunnaẗ ‘(handsome long) face’ (explained in ClassAr dictionaries as ‘the polished, smoothened one’, a face that looks as if it was beautifully polished). — For more values and the whole picture, cf. disambiguation entry ↗SNː (SNN).

    [v2]
    ▪ The explanation, put forward by ClassAr lexicographers (see above, section “CONCISE”), of [v2] ‘age’ depending on [v1] ‘tooth’ because the length of the teeth indicates the age does not sound very convincing. Compared to this etymology, the idea, quoted in Nişanyan’s Sözlük, of sunnaẗ ‘custom, habit’ going back to the Arab tribes’ custom/habit of sharpening young boys’ teeth at a certain age, looks as if there could be some truth to it. If so, it can serve as a semantic link not only between ‘custom, habit’ and ‘tooth’, but also between ‘age’ and ‘tooth’. — Further research needed.
    ▪ The value given as ‘coarse flower, seconds’ by WehrCowan1979 and listed as [v2]-2 above, is given as ‘bran’ in BadawiHinds1986 and listed as a completely separate item, distinguished from all other values (‘tooth’, ‘age’, ‘custom, habit; sunna’). It is not clear whether it belongs to the notion of ‘(advanced) age’ (coarse flower = old flower?; cf. also ʕēš il-sinn ‘bran bread (prescribed for diabetics)’: = bread for people of advanced age?) or has an etymology and semantic history in its own right. 

    ▪ Not the Ar word sinn but Hbr šîn is the name for the letter shin of the Hbr alphabet. The Hbr name goes back to Phoen *šinn ‘tooth’, which is the twenty-first letter of the Phoen alphabet. It is called ‘tooth’ as a result of folk etymology »based on the shape of the letter, which resembles a row of pointed teeth. The letter originally depicted a composite bow, a powerful kind of bow that is made of layers of different materials such as horn and wood and usually has the tips curving away from the archer when unstrung. The earlier name of the letter was *šann < *ṯann ‘composite bow’.« – Huehnergard2011. 
    For the sake of clarity, [v1] and [v2] are separated here although they may be related (among each other, as well as to ↗sunnaẗ). For an overview of all items, cf. ↗SNː (SNN).

    [v1] ‘tooth; to sharpen’
    sinn al-fīl, n., ivory.
    sanna, u (sann), vb. I, to sharpen, whet, hone, grind; to mold, shape, form: denom. from sinn ‘tooth’. – For other meanings see ↗sunnaẗ.
    sannana, vb. II, to sharpen, whet, hone, grind; to indent, jag, notch: caus. denom. (to make sharp like teetch, make look like teeth).
    ʔasanna, vb. IV, to grow teeth, cut o.’s teeth, teethe: denom. – For other meanings see below, [v2].
    ĭstanna, vb. VIII, to clean and polish o.’s teeth with the siwāk : denom., autobenef. – For other meanings see ↗sunnaẗ.

    ʔasnānī, adj., dental (phon.): nsb-adj, from ʔasnān, pl. of sinn ‘tooth’.
    sinān, pl. ʔasinnaẗ, n., spearhead: cf. notes to section “DETAILS” above.
    sanūn, n., tooth powder.
    sannān, pl. ‑ūn, n., grinder, sharpener (of knives, shears): n.prof.
    misann, pl. ‑āt, masānnᵘ, n., whetstone, grindstone; razor strop: n.instr.
    tasnīn, n., clothing of teeth (children), teething: vn. II, used as techn.term.
    masnūn, adj., 1 sharpened, whetted, honed; tapered; pointed (e.g., mustache, features): PP I. — (belonging here?) 2 stinking, fetid (mire): lit., *‘sharp, biting’ odour? — For other meanings see ↗sunnaẗ.
    musannan, adj., toothed, serrated, dentate, denticulate, indented, jagged; pointed, sharp; sharp-featured (countenance): PP II. | ʕaǧalaẗ ~aẗ, n., cogwheel; ~ al-ʔaṭrāf, adj., deckle-edged (paper).
    musannanaẗ, pl. ‑āt, cogwheel: PP II f., used as term.techn. in mechanics.

    [v2] ‘age, to grow older’
    sinn al-rušd, n., legal age, majority.
    sinn al-murāhaqaẗ, n., age of puberty.
    sinn al-ṭufūlaẗ, n., early childhood.
    ṣaġīr al sinn, adj., young.
    kabīr al sinn, adj., old.
    ṭaʕana fī ’l-sinn, vb. I, to be advanced in years, be aged.
    taqaddamat bihī al sinn, vb. V, to grow older, to age; to be advanced in years.

    ʔasanna, vb. IV, to grow old, to age; to be advanced in years: denom. from sinn ‘(old, advanced) age)’. – For other meanings see above, [v1].
    ʔasannᵘ, adj., older, farther advanced in years: elat. formation.
    musinn, pl. ‑ūn, masānnᵘ, adj., old, aged, advanced in years: PA IV. | dār al-~īn, n.f., home for the aged, old folks home. 

    sunnaẗ سُنَّة , pl. sunan 
    ID 425 • Sw – • BP 1725 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SNː (SNN) 
    n.f. 
    habitual practice, customary procedure or action, norm, usage sanctioned by tradition; al-sunnaẗ, or sunnaẗ al-nabiyy, the Sunna of the Prophet, i.e., his sayings and doings, later established as legally binding precedents (in addition to the Law established by the Koran) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Deverbative from sanna ‘to sharpen, whet, grind’, hence also ‘to polish’ and ‘to shape, give a form’, from ↗sinn ‘tooth’. The proper meaning of sunnaẗ is thus probably ‘s.th. that has been given a shape, a form, a frame’, understood as the customary rules and norms, established through tradition, that give life a shape and uphold public order.
    ▪ Nişanyan (02Feb2014) gives the same etymology (sunnaẗ < sanna ‘to sharpen, whet’ < sinn ‘tooth’) but has a specific explanation as to how the new meaning derived from the older ones: »The ultimate source of the Ar word is the old Arab tribes’ habit of filing the teeth of male children who had reached a certain age, in order to sharpen them«. From that specific custom, then, would have emerged the meaning ‘custom, habit’ in general. This explanation provides also a link between the two main values of sinn, namely ‘tooth’ and ‘age’ (cf. ↗sinn).
    sunnaẗ is not to be confused with words that have the same rasm, سنة, such as ↗sanaẗ ‘year’ (√SN(W)) or ↗sinaẗ ‘slumber, doze’ (√WSN) and some other ClassAr words. 
    ▪ eC7 Q (modes or manners or customs of life and living, norms, established practices) 3:137 qad ḫalat min qabli-kum sunanun ‘systems have passed away before you’. ▪ (practice, law, way) 33:62 wa-lan taǧida li-sunnaẗi ’ḷḷāhi tabdīlan ‘thou wilt not find for the way of Allah aught of power to change’ – (Badawi2008)
    ▪ The specific use of sunnaẗ in the sense of ‘the Prophet (Muḥammad)’s tradition’ is attested from early Islamic times. [attestation needed] 
    ▪ Zammit2002: (for sunnaẗ ‘law; conduct; punishment’): SAr snt ‘rule, code, customary law’, Gz tasnān ‘judicium’.
    ▪ No immediate cognates in other Sem langs other than those listed by Zammit. But since the word with all probability depends on sanna ‘to sharpen, shape’, which is from sinn ‘tooth’, cf. the cognates given in the entry on ↗sinn
    ▪ Huehnergard2011 #snn states that sunnaẗ is (deverb.) from < sanna ‘to sharpen, shape; to prescribe’, which is (denom.) from sinn ‘tooth’ < ComSem *šinn ‘tooth’.
    ▪ Nişanyan (02Feb2014): sunnaẗ is from Ar sanna ‘1. to bite, nibble, gnaw; to sharpen, whet, grind; 2. to set up a rule or norm’, from Ar sinn ‘tooth’. »The ultimate source of the Ar word is the old Arab tribes’ habit of filing the teeth of male children who had reached a certain age, in order to sharpen them«.442 .
    ▪ In ClassAr, a number of additional values are attested for sunnaẗ and related items. Those that with all likelihood belong to the same semantic group are: ▪ sanna, vb. I, ‘to form, fashion, shape, make long; to plaster (pottery with clay)’ (having the idea of ‘shaping, form-giving, fashioning’ in common with sunnaẗ in the sense of ‘norm’); ▪ sunnaẗ ‘nature, natural disposition, temper’ (lit., *o.’s habit?); ▪ sunnaẗ ‘(handsome long) face’ (lit., *the well-formed, beautifully shaped one?). – More doubtful: ▪ sunnaẗ ‘black line, or streak, on the back of the ass’; ▪ sunnaẗ, sinnaẗ ‘sort of Medinan dates’; ▪ sanan ‘(middle part of) way, road’.
    ▪ In ClassAr, there are not only sanaẗ ‘year’ and sinaẗ ‘slumber, doze’ that have the same rasm سنة as sunnaẗ, but also sannaẗ ‘she-bear’ and sinnaẗ ‘double-edged axe; ploughshare; coin, money’ (values given as in Steingass1884 / Wahrmund1887).
     
    ▪ Engl Sunna, n., from Ar sunnaẗ; Sunni, n., 1620 s, from Ar sunnī ‘adherent of the Sunnah; Muslim who accepts the orthodox tradition as well as the Quran,’ from sunnaẗ ‘traditional teachings of Muhammad,’ lit. ‘way, custom, course, tradition, usage,’ from sanna ‘to sharpen, shape, prescribe’. – Related: Sunnite. – EtymOnline / Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ Tu sünnet ‘circumcision’ (Muḳaddimetü’l-ʔEdeb, <1300), from Ar sunnaẗ – Nişanyan (02Feb2014). 
    ʔahl al sunnaẗ, n., the Sunnites, the orthodox Muslims.
    sunnaẗ al-ṭabīʕaẗ, n., law of nature.

    sanna, u (sann), vb. I, to prescribe, introduce, enact, establish (a law, a custom): denom. from sunnaẗ, or is the latter deverb. from sanna ? | ~ qānūnan, vb., to enact, or pass, a law. – For other meanings see ↗sinn [v1].
    ĭstanna, vb. VIII, to take, follow (a course or way); to prescribe, introduce, enact, establish (a law, a custom): t-stem of I, denom. from sann or sunnaẗ. | ~ sunnaẗa Muḥammad, vb., to follow the Sunna of Mohammed. – For other meanings see ↗sinn [v1].

    sann, n., prescription, introduction, enactment, issuance (of laws): vn. I.
    BP#1811sunnī, adj., Sunnitic; (pl. ‑ūn), n., Sunnite, Sunni: nsb-adj, from sunnaẗ.
    sanan, n., customary practice, usage, habit, rule.
    masnūn, adj., prescribed (as Sunna), sanctioned by law and custom: PP I. – For other meanings see ↗sinn [v1]. 

    sunnī سُنِّيّ 
    ID 426 • Sw – • BP 1811 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SNː (SNN) 
    ¹adj.; ²n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Sunni, from Ar sunnī ‘Sunni’, from ↗sunnaẗ ‘customary practice, tradition’, from sanna ‘to sharpen, shape, prescribe’. 
     
    SNBL سنبل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SNBL 
    “root” 
    ▪ SNBL_1 ‘ears (of cereals)’ ↗sunbul
    ▪ SNBL_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): Some philologists derive the word sunbulatun, ear of corn, from SBL (to elongate, to lengthen), but others derive it from SNBL which is also associated with lengthening and elongating. A foreign origin has also been suggested for it, possibly Aram. 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    sunbul سُنْبُل (n.un. ‑aẗ), pl. ‑āt , sanābilᵘ 
    ID 427 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SNBL 
    n.coll.; n.un. ‑aẗ 
    ear, spike (of grain); al-~ Virgo (astron.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Given that the cultivation of cerials was not very common among pre-Islamic Arabs (while an old practice in the Fertile Crescent), the word sunbulaẗ is quite likely to be a borrowing, probably from Aram (as already suggested by Jeffery and recently confirmed by Pennacchio). In Sem outside Ar, there are forms showing ‑n‑ as well as others that don’t. Kogan2011 therefore reconstructs protSem *šu(n)bul‑at‑ ‘ear of corn’.
    ▪ Cf. also ↗sabal ‘ears (of cereals)’.
    ▪… 
    ▪ eC7 Q 2:261 (ear of corn) maṯalu ’llaḏīna yunfiqūna ʔamwāla-hum fī sabīli ’ḷḷāhi ka-maṯali ḥabbatin ʔanbatat sabʕa sanābila fī kulli sunbulatin miʔatu ḥabbatin ‘the likeness of those who spend their wealth in God’s cause is as the likeness of a grain which produces seven ears, each bearing a hundred grains’ 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘ear of corn’) Akk šubultu, Hbr šibbóleṯ, Syr šebbeltā, Gz (sabl).
    ▪ Fronzaroli #6.33: Akk šūbultu, Ug šbl, Hbr šibbōlet, Syr šebbᵉlā, šebbaltā, Gz sabl, sanbel, Soq sebóleh ‘ear, (of corn)’
    ▪ Kogan2011: Akk šubultu, Ug šblt, Hbr šibbōlät, Syr šeblā, Ar sabalaẗ, sunbulaẗ, Sab sblt, Gz sabl, Mhr səbəlēt, Soq seboléh 
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »The double pl. sanābil and sunbulāt suggests foreign borrowing. – The usual theory is that it is derived from ↗√SBL (Rāghib, Mufradāt, 222, and the Lexicons), it not being realized that the vb. ʔasbala ‘to put out ears’ is itself a denominative from sabalaẗ, subūlaẗ, sabūlaẗ, which parallel Hbr šibbōlǟṯ, Akk šubultu, Aram šiḇləṯā, Syr šebbultā (cf. Eth [Gz] sabl). – As a matter of fact sunbul, sunbulaẗ is an independent borrowing from the Aram and may be compared with the Mand šûmbîltā (Nöldeke, Mand. Gram., 19). The inserted n is not uncommon in loan-words in Ar, as Geyer points out.443 Cf. [Ar] ↗manǧal from [Aram] maggāl, Syr MGLā, or [Ar] KNF from [Syr] KPā, or [Ar] ↗qunfuḏ from [Aram] QPWD, Syr QWPDā, or [Ar] ↗ḫinzīr from [Aram] ḥzīr, Syr ḥzīrā, etc.«
    ▪ Fronzaroli #6.33: Sem *šubbul(at)‑ ‘ear’
    ▪ Kogan2011: Sem *šu(n)bul-at‑ ‘ear of corn’.
    ▪ Pennacchio2014, 95-6: »La reconstruction de la forme est difficile car Ug šblt et Ebl šabaltum ‘épi’ (su-PA.SIKIL), qui présentent la forme primitive, correspondent444 à Akk šubultu, šubiltu. Souvent, l’Akk procède à des transformations phonologiques, mais là, nous n’en avons aucune trace. D’un autre côté, certaines formes ont conservé les marques ďune probable assimilation *nb > bb : en Syr šebbelā, pl. šebbelê, le dagesh dans le /b/ en Hbr šibbōleṯ, JA šibbōleṯ, šibbōltāʔ, tandis que Ar sunbulaẗ, sunbul, sunbulāt et sanābil, de même que le mandéen šwmbyltʔ semblent avoir conservé une forme avec /n/ pour l’un et /m/ pour l’autre. Hbr šibbōleṯ n’a pas été vu comme un emprunt. Al-Suyūṭī n’a pas relevé sunbulaẗ dans ses emprunts. / Qu’en est-il de l’histoire de l’objet? À lire I. Guidi, les premiers Arabes ne savaient pas faire le pain et les différentes façons de désigner un four le prouve: tous les mots sont étrangers: ↗furn, ↗ʔatun, ↗tannūr. De plus, ils sont vus dans les sources comme détestant l’agriculture. ↗laḥm l’atteste, en arabe il correspond à de la ‘viande’, tandis qu’en Hbr leḥem correspond à du ‘pain’. En Ug lḥm a les deux sens.445 Selon H. Lammens, même à l’époque du Prophète, la culture des céréales était rare dans les oasis du Ḥiǧāz.446 Pourtant, la culture du blé est ancienne au Proche-Orient. Selon les études de George Willcox en archéobotanique,447 la domestication du blé au Proche-Orient aurait commencé vers le VIIᵉ millénaire avant notre ère. La désignation du ‘blé’ est donc très ancienne dans le monde sémitique et surtout dans la région du Croissant fertile, comme l’atteste Ug, Ebl et Akk qui reproduisent vraisemblablement la forme proto-Sem. Aram et Hbr ont conservé les marques ďune forme assimilée probablement issue de la précédente. La langue arabe a probablement emprunté sunbulaẗ a une source Aram ou JA avec un /n/.« 
    ▪ Not from Ar sunbulaẗ, but going back to the same Sem etymon is Engl shibboleth (lC14). The latter is from Hbr šibbōleṯ, meaning ‘flood, stream’, also ‘ear of corn’ in Judges xii:4-6. »It was the password used by the Gileadites to distinguish their own men from fleeing Ephraimites, because Ephraimites could not pronounce the š sound. Hence the figurative sense of ‘watchword’ (first recorded 1630 s), which evolved by 1862 to ‘outmoded slogan still adhered to’ – EtymOnline
    al-sunbul al-rūmī, n., Celtic spikenard (Nardus celtica; bot.)
    al-sunbul al-hindī, n., Indian spikenard (Nardostachys jatamansi; bot.)

    sunbulī, adj., spiciform, spicate, shaped like a spike or ear (bot.
    SND سند 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 29Mar2023
    √SND 
    “root” 
    ▪ SND_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SND_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SND_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to support, prop up, to recline’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    mustanadāt مُسْتَنَدات 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 5Jun2023
    √SND 
    non-hum.pl. 
    documents, supporting evidence 
    ▪ PP VIII, pl. 
    SNDS سندس 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Jul2021
    √SNDS 
    “root” 
    ▪ SNDS_1 ‘silk brocade, sarcenet’ ↗sundus

     
    ▪ Jeffery1938 presents two alternative suggestions (for details, see ↗sundus, section DISC): (a) via Pers sandūqus from Grk sánduks ‘bright red colour; (hence also:) transparent, flesh-coloured women’s garments (dyed with this colour)’, a word used among the Lydians; (b) from Grk sindṓn ‘garment used in the Bacchic mysteries’, Akk sudinnu, sadinnu.
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    sundus سُنْدُس 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Jul2021, last updated 11Apr2023
    √SNDS 
    n. 
    silk brocade, sarcenet – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Jeffery1938 presents 2 alternative suggestions (for details, see below, section DISC): (a) via Pers sandūqus from Grk sánduks ‘bright red colour; (hence also:) transparent, flesh-coloured women’s garments (dyed with this colour)’, a word used among the Lydians; (b) from Grk sindṓn ‘garment used in the Bacchic mysteries’, from Akk saddinnu, šaddinnu.
    ▪ Cheung2017rev: prob. a direct borrowing from Parth/mPers sndws. For details, see below, section DISC.
    ▪ … 
    eC7 (‘fine silk’) Q 18:31 wa-yalbasūna ṯiyāban ḫuḍran min sundusin ‘they will be wearing garments of fine green silk’; see also 44:53; 76:21.
     
    ▪ var. (a) : Syr sāndūks
    ▪ var. (b) : Akk sudinnu, sa(d)din(n)u, šaddinnu ‘piece of cloth, (a tunic/garment) multicoloured of linen’ (> Hbr sādîn, Aram sdynʔ > Syr sedūnā ‘piece of cloth’), Gz səndun, səndon, sandon, sondon, sondun ‘fine linen, fine garment, linen cloth, gown’ – Leslau2006.
     
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »It occurs only in combination with ↗istabraq in describing the elegant clothing of the inhabitants of Paradise, and thus may be suspected at once of being an Iranian word. / It was early recognized as a foreign borrowing, and is given as Pers by al-Kindī, Risāla, 85; al-Thaʕlabī, Fiqh, 317; al-Jawālīqī, Muʕarrab, 79; al-Khafājī, 104; as-Suyūṭī, Itq, 322. Others, however, took it as Ar, as the Muḥīṭ notes, and some, as we learn from TA, iv, 168, thought it was one of the cases where the two languages used the same word. / Freytag in his Lexicon gave it as e persica lingua, though Fraenkel, Vocab, 4, raised a doubt, for no such form as sundus occurs in Pers, ancient or modern.448 Dvořák, Fremdw, 72, suggests that it is a corruption of the Pers sandūqus, which like Syr sāndūks is derived from Grk sánduks,449 a word used among the Lydians, so Strabo XI, xiv, 9, says, for fine, transparent, flesh-coloured women’s garments of linen. / Fraenkel, Fremdw, 41, compares with the Grk sindṓn, the garment used in the Bacchic mysteries, and with this Vollers, ZDMG, 51:298, is inclined to agree, as also Zimmern, Akkad. Fremdw, 37. sindṓn itself is derived from Akk sudinnu, sadinnu, whence came the Hbr sādîn, Aram sdynā. In any case it was an early borrowing as it occurs in the early poetry, e.g. in Mutalammis, xiv, 3, etc.«
     
    – 
    sundusī, adj., (made) of silk brocade or sarcenet: nisba formation.
     
    SNR سنر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Jul2021
    √SNR 
    “root” 
    ▪ SNR_1 ‘fishing tackle, fishhook; crochet needle’ ↗sinnāraẗ
    ▪ SNR_2 ‘cat’ ↗¹sinnawr

    Other values, now obsolete, include (Lane iv 1872, Hava1899):

    SNR_3 ‘prince, lord, master, chief, chief of a tribe’: ²sinnawr
    SNR_4 ‘vertebra of the upper part of the neck (of a camel); root of the tail’: ↗³sinnawr
    SNR_5 ‘armour, coat made of thongs, worn in war, like a coat of mail, any weapon (of iron) or arms’: sanawwar
    SNR_6 ‘to be(come) illnatured, very perverse, cross, narrow in disposition’: ↗sanira, a (sanar).
    ▪ …

     
    ▪ [v1] sinnāraẗ ‘fishing tackle, fishhook; crochet needle’: from Aram, or Grk? See variant spelling ↗ṣinnāraẗ, with initial // instead of /s/.
    ▪ [v2] ¹sinnawr ‘cat’: unless an Akkadism (Akk > Aram > Ar), one may posit protSem *šu/in(n)ār-, *šurān- ~ *su/in(n)ār-, *surān- ‘cat’; but ComSem status remains doubtful – MilitarevKogan2005 SED II #206. Like Fraenkel1886: 43, also LandbergZetterstein1942 regard ¹sinnawr as a dimin. in FiʕʕawL, from the more basic forms sunnār, sunār, which also are historically attested. – Accord. to Lane iv 1872, the word is »rare in the language of the Arabs, ↗hirr and ḍaywan are more common«; some Ar lexicographers think ¹sinnawr ‘cat’ is from [v6] sanira (a, sanar) ‘to be(come) illnatured, very perverse, cross, narrow in disposition’, but that also »the reverse may be the case«.
    [v3] ²sinnawr ‘prince, lord, master, chief, chief of a tribe’: a var. of sanbar ‘experienced, knowledgeable, expert’? Of obscure etymology. – DHDA registers an attestation of (the phonologically close) sanbar in the sense of ‘experienced, knowledgeable, expert’, which could be the basis of ‘prince, lord, master, chief’. Other phonologically close words like ṣanbar, ṣunbūr ‘mean, ignoble’ ([v3] in root entry ↗ṢNBR) or ṣinnawr ‘niggardly man, of evil disposition’ and ṣinnāraẗ ‘homme qui, malgré sa bonne naissance, n’est ni lettré ni bien élevé; rustre’ (= [v5] in root entry ↗ṢNR) do not fit in semantically.
    [v4] ³sinnawr ‘vertebra of the upper part of the neck (of a camel); root of the tail’: of obscure etymology.
    [v5] sanawwar ‘armour, coat made of thongs, worn in war, like a coat of mail, any weapon (of iron) or arms’: Ḍinnāwī2004 assumes an origin in Syr sanūrā ~ sanwartā ‘crown of the head; head-covering, headband, cap, helmet’ (PayneSmith1903). Hebbo1970 thinks (with Sachau) that the Syr word is in turn from mPers, cf. Pers serbār~servār ‘burden carried on the head, headload’, Av sara-bāra ‘head cover’ (Horn1893). – Cf. also ṣinnāraẗ ‘leathern handle; handle, kind of shieldʼ (↗√ṢNR).
    [v6] sanira (a, sanar) ‘to be(come) illnatured, very perverse, cross, narrow in disposition’: some Class Ar lexicographers thought the item was denom. from [v2] sinnawr ‘cat’, but were far from sure about that: »perhaps the reverse may be the case« – Lane iv 1872.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ [v1] : See ↗ṣinnāraẗ.
    ▪ [v2] : 605DHDA. – Lane iv 1872: also sunnār, sunār.
    [v3] : (? – akin to ²sinnawr?) 641 sanbar ‘experienced, knowledgeable, expert’ – DHDA.
    [v4] : 626 sinawwar ‘vertebra of the cattle’s neck’ – DHDA.
    [v5] : 540 sanawwar ‘weapon worn in war’ – DHDA.
    [v6] : …
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ [v1] : See variant spelling ↗ṣinnāraẗ (with initial // rather than /s/).
    ▪ [v2] : MilitarevKogan2005 (SED II) #206: Akk šurānu ‘cat’,135 oAram šrn ‘wild cat’, JudAram šunnārā, šūnārā, šūrānā ‘cat’, šīnurtā ‘she-cat’, Syr šūrᵊnā ‘felis; mustela, animal quod vorat gallinas’, šūnārā ‘felis’, šᵊnārᵊtā, šānūrā ‘felis, felicula’, sannūrā, sannūrᵊtā ‘felis’, Mnd šunara ‘cat’, šinarta (f. of šunara) ‘she-cat’, Ar sunnār, sinnawr, šūnārā,136 Mhr sənnáwrət, sennôret, Ḥrs sennōreh, Jib sínórt, sinúrt ‘cat’.
    [v3] : (?) sanbar ‘experienced, knowledgeable, expert’ (see section HIST)? – Similar words with initial // like ṣanbar, ṣunbūr ‘mean, ignoble’, ṣinnawr ‘niggardly man, of evil disposition’ and ṣinnāraẗ ‘homme qui, malgré sa bonne naissance, n’est ni lettré ni bien élevé; rustre’ can hardly be cognate as they do not match semantically.
    [v4] : ?
    [v5] (Prob. borrowed from) Syr sanūrā ~ sanwartā ‘crown of the head; head-covering, headband, cap, helmet’ (PayneSmith1903). – Cf. also ṣinnāraẗ ‘leathern handle; handle, kind of shieldʼ (↗√ṢNR).
    [v6] : ?
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ [v1] : See above, section CONC, and/or directly s.v. ↗ṣinnāraẗ.
    ▪ [v2] : MilitarevKogan2005 SED II #206: »Since a chain of borrowings (Akk > Aram > Ar > modSAr) is not unlikely, the ComSem status of the term is doubtful. An Akkadism in Aram is cautiously suggested in Kaufman1974: 154 whereas the Ar term is regarded as an Aramaism in Hommel1879: 314. Hommel’s interpretation of the Aram forms as borrowed from Grk saínouros ‘Schwanzwedler’ is definitively impossible in view of the Akk evidence (critical observations on this suggestion see already in Nöldeke1879: 1269). – Possible AfrAs parallels display a highly complicated picture.«
    [v3]-[v6]: ?
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    sinnāraẗ سِنّارة , pl. sanānīrᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Jul2021
    √SNR 
    n.f. 
    fishing tackle, fishhook; crochet needle – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ From Aram, or Grk? See variant spelling ↗ṣinnāraẗ, with initial // instead of /s/.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See ↗ṣinnāraẗ.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See variant spelling ↗ṣinnāraẗ (with initial // rather than /s/).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC, and/or directly s.v. ↗ṣinnāraẗ.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    ¹sinnawr سِنَّوْر , pl. sanānīrᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Jul2021
    √SNR 
    n. 
    cat – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Unless an Akkadism (Akk > Aram > Ar, see COGN), one may posit protSem *šu/in(n)ār-, *šurān- ~ *su/in(n)ār-, *surān- ‘cat’; but ComSem status remains doubtful – MilitarevKogan2005 (SED II) #206.
    ▪ LandbergZetterstein1942 regard ¹sinnawr as a dimin. in FiʕʕawL, from the more basic forms sunnār, sunār, which also are historically attested.
    ▪ Accord. to Lane iv 1872, the word is »rare in the language of the Arabs, ↗hirr and ḍaywan are more common«; some Ar lexicographers think ¹sinnawr ‘cat’ is from sanira (a, sanar) ‘to be(come) illnatured, very perverse, cross, narrow in disposition’, but also »the reverse may be the case«.
    ▪ Puzzling homonyms: ²sinnawr ‘prince, lord, master, chief, chief of a tribe’ and ³sinnawr ‘vertebra of the upper part of the neck (of a camel); root of the tail’. Phonologically close are also sanawwar ‘armour, coat made of thongs, worn in war, like a coat of mail, any weapon (of iron) or arms’ as well as lexemes with initial /ṣ/ like ṣinnawr ‘niggardly man, of evil disposition’ (↗√ṢNR) or ṣinnabr ‘cold clouds, cold wind (with mist or clouds)’ (↗√ṢNBR).
    ▪ …
     
    605DHDA. – Lane iv 1872: also sunnār, sunār.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ MilitarevKogan2005 (SED II) #206: Akk šurānu ‘cat’,137 oAram šrn ‘wild cat’, JudAram šunnārā, šūnārā, šūrānā ‘cat’, šīnurtā ‘she-cat’, Syr šūrᵊnā ‘felis; mustela, animal quod vorat gallinas’, šūnārā ‘felis’, šᵊnārᵊtā, šānūrā ‘felis, felicula’, sannūrā, sannūrᵊtā ‘felis’, Mnd šunara ‘cat’, šinarta (f. of šunara) ‘she-cat’, Ar sunnār, sinnawr, šūnārā,138 Mhr sənnáwrət, sennôret, Ḥrs sennōreh, Jib sínórt, sinúrt ‘cat’.
    ▪ …
     
    DISC ▪ MilitarevKogan2005 SED II #206: »Since a chain of borrowings (Akk > Aram > Ar > modSAr) is not unlikely, the ComSem status of the term is doubtful. An Akkadism in Aram is cautiously suggested in Kaufman1974: 154 whereas the Ar term is regarded as an Aramaism in Hommel1879: 314. Hommel’s interpretation of the Aram forms as borrowed from Grk saínouros ‘Schwanzwedler’ is definitively impossible in view of the Akk evidence (critical observations on this suggestion see already in Nöldeke1879: 1269). – Possible AfrAs parallels display a highly complicated picture.«
    ▪ Neither homonymous ²sinnawr ‘prince, lord, master, chief, chief of a tribe’ (↗SNR_3) and ³sinnawr ‘vertebra of the upper part of the neck (of a camel); root of the tail’ (↗SNR_4) nor phonologically close items like sanawwar ‘armour, weapon’ (↗SNR_5) or ṣinnawr (initial //!) ‘niggardly man, of evil disposition’ can with all likelihood be cognate as these do not match semantically.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    SNṬ سنط 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SNṬ 
    “root” 
    ▪ SNṬ_1 ‘sant tree, an acacia’ ↗sanṭ
    ▪ SNṬ_2 ‘wart’ ↗sanṭaẗ (EgAr)
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    sanṭ سَنْط 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SNṬ 
    n. 
    a variety of sant tree (Acacia nilotica; bot.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    Probably a loan word in WSem from Copt šonte, šonti ‘acacia tree’, or Dem šnt (from Eg šnd, also f. šnḏ.t ‘id.’). Erman, however, would not exclude that the Eg item is loaned from Sem. 
    ▪ … 
    Hbr šiṭṭāh. – Outside Sem: Eg šnǧ, šnǧ.t (Dem šnt), Copt šonte (BohCopt šonti) ‘acacia tree’
     
    ▪ Youssef2003: from Eg šnǧ.t, Copt šonte ‘acacia tree’
    ▪ Rolland2014: from SahCopt šonte or BohCopt šonti ‘acacia tree’, or Dem šnt, from (mEmp) Eg šnd ‘id.’
    ▪ Erman1892 would not exclude that the Eg item is loaned from Sem, whereas
    ▪ Calice1936 takes the in Hbr šiṭṭāh as an indication of the Hbr item being a borrowing. 
    – 
    – 
    SNM سنم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 29Mar2023, last updated 4Jun2023
    √SNM 
    “root” 
    ▪ SNM_1 ‘Tasnim (name of a fountain in Paradise)’ ↗tasnīm
    ▪ SNM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SNM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be high, rise, be the top part, camel hump’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    tasnīm تَسْنِيم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 2Jun2023
    √SNM, TSNM
     
    n.prop.loc. 
    Tasnim, name of a fountain in Paradise – Jeffery1938 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q lxxxiii, 27 – Jeffery1938.
     
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »The exegetes derive the word from sannama ‘to raise’, form II of sanima ‘to be high’, and the fountain is said to be called tasnīm because the water is carried from it to the highest apartment of the Pavilion, cf. Zam. on the passage, and Ṭab. quoting Muǧāhid and Al-Kalbī; also LA, xv, 199. It is obvious, however, that this is merely an attempt to explain a word that was strange to the exegetes, and which lent itself to explanation as a form tafʕīl from sanima. There is no occurrence of the word earlier than the Qurʔān, and apparently nothing in the literature of the surrounding peoples from which we can derive it, so Nöldeke is doubtless right when in his Sketches, 38, he takes the word to be an invention of Muḥammad himself.«
     
    – 
    – 
    SNW سنو 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SNW 
    “root” 
    ▪ SNW_1 ‘year’ ↗sanaẗ (also grouped under √SN)
    ▪ SNW_2 ‘to gleam, shine, radiate’ ↗sanā (vb.)
    ▪ SNW_3 ‘senna (tree)’ ↗sanā (n.)

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘shining, glittering, lightning; high rank, climbing; irrigation, watering’. – sanaẗ, year, may be a derivative. 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    sanaẗ سَنَة , pl. sinūn , sanawāt 
    ID 428 • Sw –/199 • BP 69 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SN, SNW 
    n.f. 
    year – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *šan‑at‑ ‘year’. – Cf. also ↗ʕām.
    ▪ Perhaps related to the notion of ‘changing, becoming different’ or that of ‘repeating, returning’ (see “DISC” below).

    ▪ Of the same rasm سنة but not to be confused with sanaẗ ‘year’: ↗sunnaẗ ‘custom, habit; (the Prophet’s) tradition’ (√SNː/SNN), sinaẗ ‘slumber, doze’ (↗wasina, √WSN), as well as some items in ClassAr.
    ▪ … 

    ▪ eC7 Q 46:15 wa-balaġa ʔarbaʕīna sanaẗan ‘and [if] he reaches fourty years’ 
    ▪ Zammit2002: (SNW): Akk šattu, Ug šnt, Phn šnt, št, Hbr šānā, Aram šᵉnā, Syr šᵉnā, šattā ‘year’, ? SAr snt
    ▪ BDB1906: as in Zammit2002, plus oAram Nab Palm šntʔ, šnt, št, šnn
    ▪ Huehnergard2011 gives Sem *ŠN as the underlying root and reconstructs a ComSem n. *šan(a)t‑ ‘year’.
    ▪ Badawi2008: 460 mentions that sanaẗ may be a derivative of √SNW »if its third radical is considered to be و (w). There is a degree of uncertainty about and overlapping between the roots √SNN and √SNH.«
    ▪ Nişanyan(02Feb2014) sees a connection between Ar sanaẗ and Hbr šānâ / Aram šᵉnā ‘to repeat, return, come again’. If this could be substantiated, one would have to consider a relation between sanaẗ and ↗ṯanà ‘to bend, fold, double’ (cf. also ↗iṯnān ‘two’).
    ▪ BDB1906 considers the possibility that Hbr šānâ ‘year’ may be related to Hbr šānâ ‘to change’ (cf. also Akk šanû ‘to become different, strange, change (intr.)’, Syr šᵉnā ‘to change, esp. mentally = grow insane’), so that ‘year’ would be, originally, a term for ‘changing’ seasons.

    ▪ Of the same rasm سنة but not to be confused with sanaẗ ‘year’: ↗sunnaẗ ‘custom, habit; (the Prophet’s) tradition’ (√SNː/SNN), sinaẗ ‘slumber, doze’ (↗wasina, √WSN); in ClassAr also sannaẗ ‘she-bear; she-lynx’ and sinnaẗ ‘double-edged axe; ploughshare; coin, money’ (both √SNː/SNN; values given as in Steingass1884 / Wahrmund1887). 

    ▪ Not from Ar sanaẗ but from its Hbr cognate, šānâ ‘year’ (going back to ComSem n. *šan(a)t‑ ‘year’), is Rosh Hashanah (first attested in Engl in 1846), the name for the Jewish new year. The expression is a construct composed of rôš (Ar ↗raʔs) ‘head; beginning’ and haš-šānâ ‘the year’, and thus literally means ‘head of the year’. (Huehnergard2011 / EtymOnline).
    ▪ In Ge, the same expression is, according to one theory, the origin of the New Year’s wish Einen guten Rutsch!, lit., ‘Have a smooth glide-over (sc. into the next year)’.
    ▪ Tu sene ‘year’: 1492 (Neşrī, Kitāb-ı Cihānnümā) – Nişanyan(02Feb2014). 
    sanaẗ muḥammadiyyaẗ, n., Mohammedan year.
    sanaẗ ḍawʔiyyaẗ, n., light year.
    sanaẗ kabīsaẗ, n., leap year.
    sanaẗ masīḥiyyaẗ, n., year of the Christian era, A.D..
    sanaẗ hiǧriyyaẗ, n., year of the Muslim era (after the hegira), A.H..
    sanaẗ mīlādiyyaẗ, n., year of the Christian era, A.D.
    al-sannata, adv., this year.

    sanawī, adj., annual, yearly; sanawiyyan, adj., annually, yearly, in one year, per year, per annum: nsb-adj.
    musānahatan, adv., annually, yearly: acc.adv. of PP III, from ↗√SNH, with additional H

    sanawī سَنَوِيّ 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 1192 • APD … • © SG | created 5Jun2023
    √SNW 
    adj. 
    ▪ nsb-formation 
    SNWNW سنونو 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Jul2021
    √SNWNW 
    “root” 
    ▪ SNWNW_1 ‘swallow’ ↗sunūnuw
     
    ▪ [v1] : (MilitarevKogan2005 SED II #197:) Accord. to Zimmern, the word is an Akkadism, but as long as that is not proven one may assume that it is from protSem *su/inun(˅w/y)-at- / *cu/inūn(˅w/y)-at- ‘swallow’.
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ [v1] : Akk sinuntu (sinundu, ṣinundu, sinūnu) ‘swallow’ (OB on), šinūnūtu (šinūntu, šunūnūtu) ‘a bird | eine große Schwalbe’ (both forms only in literary texts and lexical lists), Ug snnt ‘swallow’ (? – meaning conjectural since the word is attested only as a divine designation), postBiblHbr sənūnīt, JudAram Syr sənūnītā, Tur snunīṯo ʻswallow’, SamAram snwny ‘a bird’, Ar sunūnuw (n.un. sunūnuwaẗ, sunūniyaẗ), SyrAr sənänaw ‘martinet’.
     
    ▪ [v1] : »All WSem forms are considered Akkadisms in Zimmern1917: 51 which remains to be proved« – MilitarevKogan2005 SED II #197.
     
    – 
    – 
    sunūnuw سُنونو 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Jul2021
    √SNWNW 
    n. (coll.) 
    swallow – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ MilitarevKogan2005 (SED II) #197: Accord. to Zimmern, the word is an Akkadism, but as long as that is not proven one may assume that it is from protSem *su/inun(˅w/y)-at- / *cu/inūn(˅w/y)-at- ‘swallow’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Akk sinuntu (sinundu, ṣinundu, sinūnu) ‘swallow’ (OB on), šinūnūtu (šinūntu, šunūnūtu) ‘a bird | eine große Schwalbe’ (both forms only in literary texts and lexical lists), Ug snnt ‘swallow’ (? – meaning conjectural since the word is attested only as a divine designation), postBiblHbr sənūnīt, JudAram Syr sənūnītā, Tur snunīṯo ʻswallow’, SamAram snwny ‘a bird’, Ar sunūnuw (n.un. sunūnuwaẗ, sunūniyaẗ), SyrAr sənänaw ‘martinet’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ »All WSem forms are considered Akkadisms in Zimmern1917: 51 which remains to be proved« – MilitarevKogan2005 SED II #197.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    SHR سهر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last update 4Jun2023
    √SHR 
    “root” 
    ▪ SHR_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ SHR_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ SHR_3 ‘sāhiraẗ (a name of Hell? seat of the Last Judgment?, surface of the earth? – Q 79:14)’ ↗sāhiraẗ

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘staying up at night, insomnia; the earth’s surface, the Earth, desert’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    sahraẗ سَهْرَة 
    ID 429 • Sw – • BP 3336 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SHR 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
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    sāhiraẗ ساهِرة 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Jun2023
    √SHR
     
    n.f. 
    a name of Hell? a place in Syria, seat of the Last Judgment?, surface of the earth? (Q 79:14) 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q 79:14 – Jeffery1938
     
    Jeffery1938: »The passage is an early one referring to the Last Day – ‘Lo there will be but a single blast, and behold they are bi’l-sāhiraẗ’ – where the Commentators are divided in opinion as to whether Sāhiraẗ is one of the names of Hell (ĭsm ǧahannami) or a place in Syria which is to be the seat of the Last Judgment, or means the surface of the earth (waǧh al-ʔarḍ), see Ṭab., Baiḍ. and Bagh. on the verse. Sprenger, Leben, ii, 514, notes that ‘aus dem Arabischen lässt es sich nicht erklären’, and suggests that it is derived from the [Hbr] bēt has-sṓhar which as used in Gen. xxxix and xl means ‘prison’. There seems, however, to be no evidence that this sōhar was ever connected with the abode of the wicked, and Schulthess, Umayyaẗ, 118, commenting on the verse of Umayyaẗʕinda-nā ṣaydu baḥrin wa-ṣaydu sāhiraẗin ‘we are permitted hunting on sea and on dry land,’ would explain it from the Aram sḥrtā = Syr sḥartā.450 meaning ‘environs’. He points out that Ar h = Hbr/Aram is not unknown in words that have come through Nabataean channels.451 It is not impossible, however, to take it as an ordinary Arabic word meaning ‘awake’.«
     
    – 
    – 
    SHL سهل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 29Mar2023
    √SHL 
    “root” 
    ▪ SHL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SHL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SHL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be level, smooth, easy, convenient; amiable’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
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    SHM سهم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 29Mar2023
    √SHM 
    “root” 
    ▪ SHM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SHM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SHM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘share, luck; arrow; area of land, drawing lots, haggardness of face’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    SHW سهو 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 29Mar2023
    √SHW 
    “root” 
    ▪ SHW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SHW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SHW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be inattentive, absent-minded, distracted; well-disposed’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
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    SWʔ سوء 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 26Mar2023
    √SWʔ 
    “root” 
    ▪ SWʔ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SWʔ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SWʔ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be(come) bad, evil, wicked; to deteriorate; to afflict, hurt, vex, torment, trouble, make sorry’ 
    ▪ From CSem *√ŠWʔ ‘to be(come) evil, devastated, empty’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Shoah, from Hbr šôʔâ ‘devastation, calamity’, akin to Ar ↗sūʔ
    – 
    SWḤ سوح 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 26Mar2023
    √SWḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ SWḤ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SWḤ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SWḤ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘courtyard, open square’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
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    SWD سود 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SWD 
    “root” 
    ▪ SWD_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ SWD_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘blackness, black, to blacken; dark, darkness; master/lady, being a master/lady’ 
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    ▪ ?Engl sodaʔaswad
    – 
    ʔaswadᵘ أَسْوَدُ 
    ID 430 • Sw 91/14 • BP 682 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SWD 
    adj. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: of unknown etymology. Replaced the original Sem term for ‘black’, protSem protSem *ṯ̣lm (> Ar ↗ẒLM ‘to be dark’).
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    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl soda, perh. from Ar suwayd ‘soda, soda-plant’, or suwaydaẗ ‘a type of saltwort’, perh. akin to ʔaswad ‘black’. 
     
    SWR سور 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SWR 
    “root” 
    ▪ SWR_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ SWR_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘circle, fence, fencing; an enclosure; to scale, to go over a fence; to be high in stature or in spirits’. – ʔaswiraẗ is a borrowing from Pers. 
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    ▪ Engl surasūraẗ
    – 
    sūraẗ سُورَة 
    ID 431 • Sw – • BP 2238 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SWR 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl sura, from Ar sūraẗ ‘sura’, from Aram šurā, abs. form of šurᵊtā ‘line, row’.↗ 
     
    Sūriyyaẗ سُوريّة 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 578 • APD … • © SG | created 5Jun2023
    √SŪR 
    n.f. 
    Syria 
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    SWS سوس 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SWS 
    “root” 
    ▪ SWS_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ SWS_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ …
    ▪ …
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *sā/ūs‑ ‘moth’. – Cf. also ↗ʕuṯṯaẗ (< protSem *ʕ˅ṯ(˅)ṯ‑) ‘dto.’.
    ▪ …… 
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    siyāsaẗ سِياسَة 
    ID 432 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 370 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SWS 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
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    – 
     
    SWṬ سوط 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last update 26Mar2023
    √SWṬ 
    “root” 
    ▪ SWṬ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SWṬ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SWṬ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘mixing things together, a mixture, whipping, whisking; punishment; confusion; type, share, portion’ 
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    sawṭ سَوْط 
    ID 433 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SWṬ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
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    SWʕ سوع 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SWʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ SWʕ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ SWʕ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to spread out, (of animals) to go grazing; to give room to, to leave alone; a portion, a period or an expanse of time, a time-section of the day’ 
    ▪ … 
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    sāʕaẗ ساعَة 
    ID 434 • Sw – • BP 185 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SWʕ 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    SWĠ سوغ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 26Mar2023
    √SWĠ 
    “root” 
    ▪ SWĠ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SWĠ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SWĠ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to swallow easily, go down the throat pleasantly, be easy and agreeable to swallow; to travel at large; to follow one another in birth’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    SWF سوف 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 26Mar2023
    √SWF 
    “root” 
    ▪ SWF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SWF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SWF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘delaying, putting off, retarding, procrastinating’ 
    ▪ All these meanings and forms seem to have been derived from the form and function of the particle sawfa.
    ▪ …
    – 
    – 
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    SWQ سوق 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SWQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ SWQ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ SWQ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to herd, to drive, market place (being the location to which animals and goods are driven), a sequence; leg, tree trunk’. – Some have suggested a foreign origin for sūq, market. 
    ▪ … 
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    ▪ …
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    ▪ Engl souksūq
    – 
    sūq سُوق 
    ID 435 • Sw – • BP 295 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SWQ 
    n.m./f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
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    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl souk, from Ar sūq ‘market’, from Aram šuqā ‘street, market’, from Akk sūqu ‘street’, from sâqu ‘to be(come) narrow, tight’. 
     
    siyāq سِياق 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 1589 • APD … • © SG | created 5Jun2023
    √SWQ 
    n. 
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    SWL سول 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Apr2022
    √SWL 
    “root” 
    ▪ SWL_1 ‘to talk s.o. into s.th. evil or fateful, to entice, seduce (said of the Devil)’ ↗sawwala
    ▪ SWL_2 ‘to beg’ ↗tasawwala
    ▪ SWL_3 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (accord. to BAH2008): ‘tempting, talking someone into, enticing; wishing, quest’. 
    ▪ BAH2008: »There seems to be a degree of overlapping in the philologists’ treatment of this root and the root ↗SʔL.«
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    sawwal- سَوَّلَ (taswīl
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Apr2022
    √SWL 
    vb., II 
    1a to talk or argue s.o. (li‑) into s.th. evil or fateful (-h); b to entice, seduce (li‑ s.o., said of the Devil) – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Perh. influenced by ↗saʔala.
    ▪ … 
    eC7 sawwala (‘to beguile, talk into bad ideas’) Q 12:18 wa-ǧāʔū ʕalà qamīṣihī bi-damin kāḏibin qāla bal sawwalat la-kum ʔanfusukum ʔamran ‘and they came with false blood on his shirt. He cried, “No!, your souls have beguiled you into [doing] something.”’
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    – 
    sawwalat lahū nafsuhū, expr., he let himself be seduced (‑h to)

     
    tasawwal- تَسَوَّلَ (tasawwul
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Apr2022
    √SWL 
    vb., V 
    to beg – WehrCowan1976.
     
    ▪ Usually regarded as a var. of tasaʔʔala, but prob. influenced by ↗sawwala.
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    – 
    tasawwul, n., begging, beggary: vn. V.
    mutasawwil, pl. -ūn, beggar: PA V.
     
    SWM سوم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 26Mar2023
    √SWM 
    “root” 
    ▪ SWM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SWM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SWM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to offer goods for sale, estimate the value of goods; to push along; to graze; to hover, circle around; to brand’ ▪ The philologist’s deriving of sīmā ‘mark’ from this root in connection with wasama ‘to brand’ has been contested. Instead a foreign origin, Grk through Pers, has been suggested for it.
    ▪ ... 
    ▪ … 
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    SWY سوي 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SWY 
    “root” 
    ▪ SWY_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ SWY_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be equal, to be level with, to straighten, to smooth out, to be together, to stand’ 
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    musāwāẗ مُساواة 
    ID 436 • Sw – • BP 2601 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SWY 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    SYB سيب 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 26Mar2023
    √SYB 
    “root” 
    ▪ SYB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SYB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SYB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to flow, run freely, be free, be freed, to set free (of animals); to donate, donation; slaves’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    SYḤ سيح 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 26Mar2023
    √SYḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ SYḤ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SYḤ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ SYḤ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘water flowing above ground, people travelling freely from one place to another; devoting o.s. to the worship of God; particularly through fasting’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
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    SYR سير 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SYR 
    “root” 
    ▪ SYR_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ SYR_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to march, to walk, to travel, to journey, to sail, caravan; common; manner of ruling other people; biographies; straps’ 
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    sār‑ / sir‑ سارَ / سِرْـ 
    ID 437 • Sw – • BP 819 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SYR 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
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    – 
     
    sīraẗ سِيرَة 
    ID 439 • Sw – • BP 2079 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SYR 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    sayyāraẗ سَيّارَة 
    ID 438 • Sw – • BP 251 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SYR 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    SYṬR سيطر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SYṬR 
    “root” 
    ▪ SYṬR_1 ‘to command, dominate, control, be master, reign; power, authority’ ↗sayṭara
    ▪ SYṬR_2 ‘…’ ↗…
     
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    sayṭar‑ سَيْطَرَ (sayṭaraẗ
    ID … • Sw – • BP 2259 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √SYṬR 
    vb., I 
    1a to command, dominate, control (ʕalà s.th.); 1b to be master or lord (ʕalà over s.th.), reign, gain power (ʕalà over); 1c to seize, take hold of (ʕalà) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
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    – 
    tasayṭara, vb. II, = I: t-stem.

    BP#1288sayṭaraẗ, n.f., rule, dominion, domination, command, supremacy, power, authority (ʕalà over); decisive influence (ʕalà on); control (ʕalà over): vn. I.
    musayṭir, n., ruler, sovereign, overlord: PA I.
     
    sayṭaraẗ سَيْطَرَة 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 1288 • APD … • © SG | created 5Jun2023
    √SYṬR 
    n.f. 
    ▪ vn., I 
    SYL سيل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 16Apr2022
    √SYL 
    “root” 
    ▪ SYL_1 ‘to flow, stream’ ↗sāla
    ▪ SYL_2 ‘pocket set into the side seam(s) of a galabiya’ (EgAr) ↗sayyālaẗ
    ▪ SYL_3 ‘garnet (precious stone)’ ↗sīlān
    ▪ SYL_4 ‘Ceylon’ ↗sīlānᵘ
    ▪ SYL_5 ‘…’ ↗syl

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (accord. to BAH2008): ‘to flow, torrent, flooding, flowing, inundation, to melt’. 
    –… 
    – 
    –… 
    –… 
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    – 
    sāl- / sil- سالَ/سِلْـــ , i (sayl, sayalān
    ID – • Sw – • BP 3025 • APD … • © SG | 16Apr2022
    √SYL 
    vb., I 
    1 to flow, stream; 2a to be or become liquid; b to melt – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ …
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    eC7 sāla (vb.intrans., ‘(of water) to flow, (of the ground) to run with water’) Q 13:17 ʔanzala min-a ’l-samāʔi māʔan fa-sālat ʔawdiyatun bi-qadari-hā ‘He sends from the sky water, so valleys flow, each according to its capacity’
    eC7 sayl (‘torrent, inundation; an inundation which caused the bursting of the dyke and destruction of the city of Maʔrib, Saba, in the first or second century A.D.) Q 34:16 fa-ʔaʕraḍū fa-ʔarsalnā ʕalay-him sayla ’l-ʕarimi ‘but they turned away, so We let loose on them a flooding of the ʕiram dam’
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    – 
    sāla luʕābuhū ʕalà, his mouth watered for

    sayyala, vb. II, to make flow, cause to stream, liquefy, melt, dissolve (s.th.)
    ʔasāla, vb. IV, = II

    BP#3712sayl, pl. suyūl, 1a flood, inundation; b torrent, torrential stream: vn. or perh. the etymon proper | sayl ʕurām, huge mass, flood, stream; balaġa l-saylᵘ l-zubà, the matter has reached its climax, has come to a head
    saylaẗ, n.f., stream: n.un.
    BP#4579suyūlaẗ, n.f., liquid state, liquidity, flow(ing)
    sayyāl, 1 adj., a streaming, pouring, torrential; b fluid, liquid; 2 n. a a liquid; b stream; c a fluid: ints. formation | qalam sayyāl, facile pen, fluent style
    sayyālaẗ, n.f., 1 rivulet: f. of preceding; 2 see ↗s.v.
    sayalān, n., 1a flowing, flow; b running; 2 deliquescence, liquefaction; 3 gonorrhea (med.): vn.
    masīl, pl. masāyilᵘ, n., river bed, rivulet: n.loc.
    BP#3269sāʔil, 1 adj., fluid, liquid; 2 (pl. sawāʔilᵘ), n., a liquid, a fluid: PA I. | ʕilm al-sawāʔil, hydraulics
    sāʔiliyyaẗ, n.f., fluidity, liquid state of aggregation (phys.): abstr. formation in iyyaẗ.

    For other meanings attached to the root, cf. ↗sayyālaẗ (EgAr), ↗sīlān and ↗sīlānᵘ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√SYL. 
    EgAr sayyālaẗ سَيّالة , pl. āt, sayā̆yīl 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 16Apr2022
    √SYL 
    n.f. 
    pocket set into the side seam(s) of a galabiya – BadawiHinds1986 
    ▪ …
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    – 
    – . For other meanings attached to the root, cf. ↗sāla, ↗sīlān and ↗sīlānᵘ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√SYL. 
    sīlān سيلان , pl. sayālīnᵘ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 16Apr2022
    √SYL 
    n. 
    1 garnet (precious stone); 2 for another meaning, see ↗sīlānᵘ (diptote) – WehrCowan1976.
     
    ▪ Accord. to Rolland2014 an abbreviation for ḥaǧar Sīlān ‘stone from Ceylon, see ↗sīlānᵘ.
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    – 
    – . For other meanings attached to the root, cf. ↗sāla, ↗sayyālaẗ (EgAr), and ↗sīlānᵘ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√SYL. 
    sīlānᵘ سيلانُ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 16Apr2022
    √SYL 
    n.geogr. 
    1 Ceylon; 2 (tript.) garnet (precious stone) – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Accord. to Rolland2014 from Fr Ceylan < Port Ceilão, alteration of (Sinhala) Śrī Laṅkā [ʃriː laŋkaː].
    ▪ From ‘Ceylon’ is also the ḥaǧar Sīlān *‘stone from Ceylon’, i.e., the ‘garnet’, see ↗sīlān.
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    ▪ Akin to Engl Ceylon.
    ▪ … 
    – . For other meanings attached to the root, cf. ↗sāla and ↗sayyālaẗ (EgAr), as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√SYL. 
    SYN سين 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 26Mar2023
    √SAYNĀʔ 
    “root” 
    ▪ SYN_1 ‘the letter s’ ↗sīn
    ▪ SYN_2 ‘Mount Sinai’ ↗sīnā
     
    ▪ [v2] : acc. to BAH2008 a borrowing from Nab of Syr.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    – 
    sīn سِين 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 26Mar2023
    √SYN 
    n. 
    name of the letter س – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ...
     
    – 
    al-ʔašiʕʕaẗ al-sīniyyaẗ, nonhum.pl., S rays 
    sīnā سينا, var. sīnāʔᵘ, ClassAr saynāʔᵘ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 26Mar2023
    √SYN 
    n.pr.topogr. 
    Sinai – WehrCowan1976

    ▪ BAH2008: ‘kind of stone; Mount Sinai, Sinai’, a borrowing from Nab or Syr, occurring once in the Qur’an.
     

     

     
    ▪ Engl Sinai
     
    – 
    SīNMā سينما 
    Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | created 5Jun2023
    √SīNMā 
    “root” 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    sīnamā سِينَما 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 1730 • APD … • © SG | created 5Jun2023
    √SīNMā 
    n. 
    cinema 
    ▪ loanword 
    – 
    šīn شين 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ 
    R₁ 
    The letter š of the Arabic alphabet. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl shin, from Hbr šîn, from Phoen *šinn ‘tooth, twenty-first letter of the Phoen alphabet’, akin to Hbr šēn, Ar ↗sinn ‘tooth’. (The use of the word for ‘tooth’ for this letter is the result of folk etymology and is based on the shape of the letter, which resembles a row of pointed teeth. The letter originally depicted a composite bow, a powerful kind of bow that is made of layers of different materials such as horn and wood and usually has the tips curving away from the archer when unstrung. The earlier name of the letter was *šann < *ṯann ‘composite bow’). 
     
    ŠʔM شأم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 30Mar2023
    √ŠʔM 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠʔM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠʔM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠʔM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘the left-hand side, wrong side, bad omen’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ŠʔN شأن 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 30Mar2023
    √ŠʔN 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠʔN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠʔN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠʔN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘tear ducts; watercourses branching over the face of a mountain; affair, situation, concern’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    šaʔn شأن , pl. šuʔūn 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 265 • APD … • © SG | created 7Jun2023
    √ŠʔN 
    n. 
    pl. šuʔūn as Nahḍa concept 
    šāy شاي 
    ID 440 • Sw – • BP 2070 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠĀY 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ŠBː (ŠBB) شبّ / شبب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠBː (ŠBB) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠBː (ŠBB)_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ŠBː (ŠBB)_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    šabb شَبّ 
    ID 441 • Sw – • BP 264 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠBː (ŠBB) 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ŠBK شبك 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠBK 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠBK_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ŠBK_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl sambuca: cf. ↗šabakaẗ). 
    – 
    šabakaẗ شَبَكَة 
    ID 443 • Sw – • BP 762 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠBK 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl sambuca, from Aram sabbᵊkā ‘sambuca’, from sᵊbak ‘to fasten, cling’, cf. Ar ↗šabaka
     
    šubbāk شُبّاك 
    ID 442 • Sw – • BP 4148 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠBK 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ŠBH شبه 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 30Mar2023
    √ŠBH 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠBH_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠBH_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠBH_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘likeness or similarity between two objects, to resemble, be(come) like, be assimilated, to compare; confusion’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    tašābuh تَشابُه 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 7Jun2023
    √ŠBH 
    n. 
    ▪ vn., VI 
    ŠTː (ŠTT) شتّ/شتت 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 30Mar2023
    √ ŠTː (ŠTT) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠTː (ŠTT)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠTː (ŠTT)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠTː (ŠTT)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to disperse, separate, scatter; types, sorts, sundry; disunion’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ŠTW شتو 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠTW 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠTW_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ŠTW_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘winter, to spend the winter, to enter the winter season, to be or become cold, a place where one spends the winter; to experience drought’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    šitāʔ شِتاء 
    ID 444 • Sw – • BP 1722 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠTW 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ŠǦR شجر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠǦR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠǦR_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ŠǦR_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘trees, plants in general; stock, origin; to branch off, to intertwine, to become knit together; to raise, to fall into dispute, to contend’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
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    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    šaǧar شَجَر 
    ID 445 • Sw 23/174 • BP 1001 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠǦR 
    n.coll. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: replaces protSem *ʕiṣ́‑ ‘tree’ (of which only Ar ʕiḍḍ, ʕiḍḍ, ʕiḍāh ‘thorny trees’ have remained as reflexes).
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ŠḤː (ŠḤḤ) شح/شحح 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 30Mar2023
    √ ŠḤː (ŠḤḤ) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠḤː (ŠḤḤ)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠḤː (ŠḤḤ)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠḤː (ŠḤḤ)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be niggardly, stingy; to be tenacious; to contend over; paucity, scarcity’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ŠḤM شحم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 30Mar2023
    √ŠḤM 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠḤM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠḤM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠḤM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘fat, to be(come) fat, to feed; ear lobe; inner part, essence’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ŠḤN شحن 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 30Mar2023
    √ŠḤN 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠḤN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠḤN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠḤN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to fill, to equip; to drive, drive away; to bear rancour, quarrel; garrison’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ŠḪṢ شخص 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠḪṢ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠḪṢ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ŠḪṢ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘the body of a being, prominently elevated entity; to materialise; (of eyes) to be transfixed, to be fixedly open (in terror); to raise; to go forth’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
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    – 
    – 
    šaḫṣ شَخْص 
    ID 446 • Sw 18/111 • BP 241 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠḪṢ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    šaḫṣiyyaẗ شَخْصِيّة 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 709 • APD … • © SG | created 7Jun2023
    √ŠḪṢ 
    n.f. 
    personality 
    ▪ abstr. formation in -iyyaẗ
    ŠDː (ŠDD) شدّ/شدد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 31Mar2023
    √ ŠDː (ŠDD) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠDː (ŠDD)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠDː (ŠDD)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠDː (ŠDD)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to harden, become tough, strength, vigour; to intensify; to be tenacious’ 
    ▪ From protSem *√ŠDD ‘to draw, pull, plug, obstruct, despoil’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ŠḎː (ŠḎḎ) شذّ / شذذ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠḎː (ŠḎḎ) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠḎː (ŠḎḎ)_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ŠḎː (ŠḎḎ)_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
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    ▪ …
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    – 
    – 
    šāḏḏ شاذّ 
    ID 447 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠḎː (ŠḎḎ) 
    adj. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ŠRː (ŠRR) شرّ/شرر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 31Mar2023
    √ ŠRː (ŠRR) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠRː (ŠRR)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠRː (ŠRR)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠRː (ŠRR)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘sparks of fire; evil, to be(come) evil, be depraved, be wicked; to slander; to cleave, split, sharpen’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ŠRʔB شرأب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠRʔB 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠRʔB_1 ‘to stretch/crane one’s neck’ ↗ĭšraʔabba
    ▪ ŠRʔB_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ ŠRʔB_1
    • Usually derived from ↗šariba ‘to drink’, but sometimes also seem as a root in its own right.
    • For a hypothetical connection to ↗rabb ‘lord, master’ (√RBB ‘to be high, elevated’) see DISC s.v. ↗ĭšraʔabba.
    • If a connection to RBB can be established and corroborated, then also ↗šārib ‘moustache’ and ↗šarrābaẗ ‘tassel’, which usually are derived from ↗šariba ‘to drink’, should be checked.
     
    – 
    ▪ …
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    – 
    – 
    ĭšraʔabb‑ اشْرَأَبَّ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠRʔB 
    vb., IV 
    1 to stretch one’s neck in order to see (li‑ or ʔilà s.th.), crane one’s neck (li‑ or ʔilà for). – 2 to carry one’s head high (out of vanity); to leer (ʔilà at) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ In dictionaries of ClassAr often interpreted as a var. of form XI, ĭšrābba, of ↗šariba and therefore connected to the notion of ‘drinking’; cf., e.g., Lane iv (1872): ‘to raise one’s head like the camel that has satisffied his thirst on the occasion of drinking, stretch forth one’s neck to look, in preparing to drink water’. Lane thinks it is »not improbabl[e]« that the vb. derives from šariba.
    ▪ Freytag1830 would not exclude that it is a form IV of a 4-rad. root ŠRʔB (with id. meaning).
    ▪ Perhaps, however, ĭšraʔabba ~ ĭšrābba is neither from ŠRB nor from ŠRʔB, but (ultimately) from RBB, cf. Aram šarbēḇ, lHbr širbēḇ ‘to stretch out, prolong’. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Klein1987 does not mention Ar ĭšraʔabba, but the postBiblHbr širbēḇ1 to stretch out, prolong, enlarge; 2 to draw down, let down’ is conspicuously close in meaning. – Cognates of Hbr širbēḇ, as given by Klein1987: Aram šarbēḇ ‘to prolong, let hang down, let down’ and Akk šurbubu ‘to lower, make low, to humble’139  
    ▪ According to Klein1987, postBiblHbr širbēḇ1 to stretch out, prolong, enlarge; 2 to draw down, let down’452 is from a root ŠRBB ‘to stretch out, prolong, let hang down, let down’ that is borrowed from Aram šarbēḇ ‘to prolong, let hang down, let down’), a šap̄ʕēl (archaic Š-stem) of √RBB, »yet not in the sense ‘to grow, be great’, but in the meaning ‘to be low’, which occurs only in Akk šurbub ‘to lower, make low, to humble’«.453 Should Ar ĭšraʔabba ~ ĭšrābba be akin to these items rather than to šariba ‘to drink’? In this case, its closest relatives in Ar would be ↗rabb ‘lord, master’ and ↗rabā (√RBW) ‘to grow, increase’.
    ▪ The theme of ‘hanging down’ or ‘letting hang down’ (= [v2] of Š-RBB in Aram and lHbr, present also in Akk šurbubu) returns also in two other words that are usually derived from to šariba ‘to drink’, namely ↗šārib ‘moustache’ and šarrābaẗ ‘tassel’. Are these, literally, *‘the hanging ones’ rather than *‘the drinkers’? 
    – 
    – 
    ŠRB شرب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠRB 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠRB_1 ‘to drink, inhale, absorb; (caus.) to irrigate’ ↗šariba
    ▪ ŠRB_2 ‘to raise the head’ ↗ĭšraʔabba
    ▪ ŠRB_3 ‘moustache’ ↗šārib
    ▪ ŠRB_4 ‘tassel, tuft, bob’ ↗šarrābaẗ
    ▪ ŠRB_5 ‘(oriel window with) turned wooden latticework’ ↗mašrabiyyaẗ
    ▪ ŠRB_6 ‘soup’ ↗šūrbaẗ
    ▪ ŠRB_7 ‘stocking, sock’ ↗šurrāb

    Other values, now obsolete or dialectal only:
    • ŠRB_8 ‘doe, hind’: širbaẗ (Dozy)
    • ŠRB_9 ‘palm-tree that grows from the date stone’: šarbaẗ (pl. ‑āt, šarāʔibᵘ, šarābībᵘ) (Lane)
    • ŠRB_10 ‘people, or party, dwelling upon the side of a river, and to whom belongs the water thereof’: šāribaẗ (Lane)
    • ŠRB_11 ‘soft, plain land, in which is always herbage’: mašrabaẗ ; ‘id.; side of a valley’ ↗šarabbaẗ (Lane)
    • ŠRB_12 ‘way, mode, or manner of being, or acting etc.’: šarabbaẗ (Lane)
    • ŠRB_13 ‘tangled and dense, one part above another (herbage)’ (adj.): šurbub (Freytag), šurbubb (Lane)
    • ŠRB_14 ‘(EgAr, rur) dried mud’: širb
    • ŠRB_15 ‘(EgAr, carp) to plane (wood)’: šarrab
    • ŠRB_16 ‘to understand, apprehend (a discourse): šaraba, u (šarb).

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘1a to drink, imbibe, absorb; to inhale (= ŠRB_1); 1b to irrigate (caus. of ŠRB_1). – 2 to raise the head’ (=ŠRB_2)’. 
    ▪ ŠRB_1 šariba ‘to drink, inhale, absorb’: from Sem *śrb (or *śrṗ) ‘to sip, absorb, drink’
    ▪ ŠRB_2 ĭšraʔabba ‘to raise the head’, usually seen as derived from ŠRB_1 ‘to drink’ and explained as *‘to crane o.’s neck, reach out to obtain s.th. to drink’ or ‘to raise the head in order to swallow (of birds, animals, etc.)’; may however also be from a 4-cons. √ŠRʔB, or from an archaic Š-stem of RBB with the value ‘to stretch out, prolong; to let down’.
    ▪ ŠRB_3 šārib (mostly du.det.: al-šāribān) ‘moustache’: usually regarded as derivation from ŠRB_1 ‘to drink’ in the sense of *‘the (co-)drinker(s), the two hairy parts through which water etc. is imbibed’ or (Gabal2012:) *‘hair that flows down into the mouth’; but cf. ŠRB_2, ŠRB_4 and ŠRB_13.
    ▪ ŠRB_4 šarrābaẗ ‘tassel, tuft, bob’: related to ŠRB_2 ‘to raise the head’ and ŠRB_3 ‘moustache’? Cf. also ŠRB_13.
    ▪ ŠRB_5 mašrabiyyaẗ ‘(oriel window with) turned wooden latticework’: probably from n.loc. (ŠRB_1) mašrab ‘drinking place, esp. room in an upper floor’; such rooms often had oriels overlooking the street or garden (hence probably influence of mašraf ‘elevated site’, ↗ŠRF) with niches, often made from turned wooden latticework, in which earthen jars (also called mašrabiyyaẗ ‘[vessel] from which to drink’) were put in order to cool. Semantic development thus probably: ‘drinking place’ > ‘oriel (of a drinking place)’ > ‘wooden lattice work (of oriels of drinking rooms)’. – Cf. however ŠRB_15, an EgAr vb. II for ‘to plane (wood)’!
    ▪ ŠRB_6 šūrbaẗ ‘soup’: (via Tu çorba?) from Pers šōrbā ‘meat stock, soup’.
    ▪ ŠRB_7 šurrāb ‘stocking, sock’: from Tu çorap ‘id.’ (< Pers ǧorāb ‘id.’ ?).
    ŠRB_8 širbaẗ, pl. širab, n., ‘doe, hind’: etymology obscure.
    ŠRB_9 šarbaẗ, pl. ‑āt, šarāʔibᵘ, šarābībᵘ, n., ‘palm-tree that grows from the date stone’: probably akin to ‘water’ and ‘drinking’, thus to ŠRB_1, lit. *‘plant that drinks much’ (?).
    ŠRB_10 šāribaẗ, n., ‘people, or party, dwelling upon the side of a river, and to whom belongs the water thereof’: morphologically a PA I f. (ŠRB_1), lit., *‘the drinking (side)’.
    ŠRB_11 mašrabaẗ, n., ‘soft, plain land, in which is always herbage’: lit., *‘place/land that absorbs (much water)’; šarabbaẗ , with very rare morphological structure, is said to have the same meaning, more generally also ‘side of a valley’; for yet another meaning see next item.
    ŠRB_12 šarabbaẗ, n., ‘way, mode, or manner of being, or acting etc.’: ?
    ŠRB_13 šurbub(b), adj., ‘tangled and dense, one part above another (herbage)’: usually seen as derived from ŠRB_1; but cf. ŠRB_2, ŠRB_3 and ŠRB_4.
    ▪ ŠRB_14 (EgAr, rur) širb, n., ‘dried mud (BadawiHinds), lumps of soil left after ploughing (Corriente2008)’: from Copt čalp ‘mass, lump’ (Crum1939) – Corriente2008 (following Behnstedt 1981:92).
    ▪ ŠRB_15 (EgAr, carp) šarrab, vb. II, ‘to plane (wood)’: denom. from mašrabiyyaẗ (ŠRB_5)? Or should one assume that mašrabiyyaẗ, contrary to common belief, has nothing to do, etymologically, with ‘to drink’ (ŠRB_1) but with carpentry and planing wood?
    ŠRB_16 šaraba, u (šarb), vb. I, ‘to understand, apprehend (a discourse) (still mentioned in Hava1899): fig. use of ŠRB_1 ‘to drink’, i.e., lit., *‘to absorb an idea’? 
    – 
    See references given in section CONCISE above. 
    See references given in section CONCISE above. 
    ▪ Engl sherbet, shrub, sorbet, syrup, (and also serpent ?) : see Ar ↗šariba
    – 
    šarib‑ شَرِبَ , a (šurb , mašrab
    ID 449 • Sw 54/31 • BP 2081 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠRB 
    vb., I 
    to drink; to sip – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *śrb ‘to sip, absorb’. – The basic verb for ‘drinking’ in protSem, *šty, has left no trace in Ar.
    ▪ … protSem *śrb (or *śrṗ) ‘to sip, absorb, drink’. 
    ▪ eC7 šariba Q 56:68 ʔa-fa-raʔaytum-u ’l-māʔa ’llaḏī tašrabūna ‘do you see the water that you drink?’. – šarāb (drink) Q 16:69 yaḫruǧu min buṭūni-hā šarābun muḫtalifun ʔalwānu-hū fī-hi šifāʔun lil-nāsi ‘from their bellies comes a drink of diverse hues, wherein is healing for mankind’; (the act of drinking) 35:12 hāḏā ʕaḏbun furātun sāʔiġun šarābu-hū ‘this [body of water] is sweet, agreeable for drinking’. – mašrab (drinking place) Q 7:160 qad ʕalima kullu ʔunāsin mašraba-hum ‘each tribe knew their drinking-place’, (drinking place; source of drinking, drinks) 36:73 wa-la-hum fī-hā manāfiʕu wa-mašāribu ‘in them there are benefits for them and (diverse) drinks (or, source of drinking)’ 
    ▪ Zammit2002, Kogan2011: Akk sarāpu, pBiblHbr śrp, Syr srp, Gz śrb ‘to sip, absorb, swallow’, Ar šrb ‘to drink’.
    ▪ Militarev&Kogan SED-I, cxiii:140 Akk sarāpu ‘to suck, imbibe’ (with s‑ instead of š‑), pBiblHbr śrp ‘to absorb, quaff, sip, suck’, JudAram srp id., Syr srp ‘suxit, sorbsit’, Mand srp ‘to swallow; gulp down’ ~ Ar šrb ‘to drink’, Gz śaraba, saraba ‘to drink, drink up, absorb, sip’, saraṗa ‘to celebrate Mass, bless an object, sip’ (»the sipping of the blessed wine being a part of the Mass«), Te šärbä ‘to devour, suck up’, Amh särräbä ‘to draw up, to suck up water’.
    ▪ Dolgopolsky2012#2223: mHbr √śrp (= √srp) ‘to suck, imbibe, drink’, JudAram √śrp (= √srp) ‘einschlürfen, Flüssigkeit an sich ziehen’, JudEAram √śrp (= √srp) ‘to gulp down, consume, quaff’, Syr √srp ‘to sup up, swallow up, absorb’, sarbā ‘syrop’, Mand √srp ‘to swallow, gulp down’, Ar √šrb ‘to drink, suck’, Gz √śrb ‘to drink, absorb, sip’; cf. also Ar (< Aram) √srf ‘donner trop de lait à son enfant, le nourrir de lait à l’excès’, Akk (< Aram) sarāpu ‘to sip’. – Outside Sem: [IE] (in addition to Arm and Alb forms) Grk 1sg rhoph-éō, rhyph-éō ‘to sup greedily, gulp down’; oChSl inf. srъbati, Ru inf. serbat’, Cz inf. střebati, Pol inf. sarbać, serbać ‘to sup’; mHG sür(p)feln, Swed sörpla ‘to sip’, as well as nHG schlürfen ‘to sip; to eat/drink noisily’, Engl slurp ‘to eat greedily, noisily’141 .)
    ▪ While most sources juxtapose NSem *ŚRP and Ar ŠRB, Klein1987 thinks that the Ar root corresponding to Hbr *ŚRP is (with metathesis) Ar RŠF ‘to suck, sip, drink’ (↗rašafa). 
    ▪ Huehnergard2011, Kogan2011: from Sem *śrb ‘to sip, to absorb’.
    ▪ Militarev&Kogan SED-I, cxiii:454 From Sem *śrṗ ‘to sip, absorb, drink’.
    ▪ Ehret1989: Ar šariba ‘to drink’ is an extension in extendative *‑b from a 2-consonantal pre-pSem root *ɬr ‘to take a bite, take a sip’. For other extensions from the same base, cf. ↗šarisa ‘to be vicious, malicious, etc.’ (Ehret: *šaras, vn., ‘to devour’), ↗šariqa ‘to swallow the wrong way’, ↗šariha ‘to be greedy for food or drink, eat or drink greedily’.
    ▪ Dolgopolsky2012#2223: Sem *śrb ‘to drink’ (and, among others, IE *serbʰ‑ / *sorbʰ‑ /*sr̥bʰ‑ ‘to sip, sup, drink’), from Nostr *ś˹o˺rub˅ ‘to drink, gulp, sup, suck’. – The devoicing *b > p in Aram (> mHbr, Akk, Ar) (just as other cases of the variation *b ~*p in Sem) is still to be explained.
    ▪ Klein1987 points to the fact that NSem *ŚRP has its counterpart in (with metathesis) Ar RŠF ‘to suck, sip, drink’ (↗rašafa), with regular Sem *p > Ar f. So it is not (as Dolgopolsky has it) a devoicing of Sem *b > Aram p that has to be explained, but rather the ‑b in Ar √šrb from Sem *‑p in *√śrp. (This is the reason why some, as Militarev&Kogan, above, assume Sem *śrṗ rather than *śrb).
     
    ▪ Engl sherbet, c1600, zerbet, ‘drink made from diluted fruit juice and sugar’, and cooled with fresh snow when possible, from Tu şerbet,16 from Pers šarbat, from Ar šarbaẗ ‘a drink’ – EtymOnline.
    ▪ Engl shrub, from Ar šurb ‘a drinking, drink’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ Engl sorbet, 1580 s, ‘cooling drink of fruit juice and water’, from Fr sorbet (C16), probably from Ital sorbetto, from Tu şerbet, etc. (see sherbet, above). Perhaps influenced in form by Ital sorbire ‘to sip’. Meaning ‘semi-liquid water ice as a dessert’ first recorded 1864EtymOnline.
    ▪ Engl syrup (formerly also sirup, sirop), lC14, ‘thick, sweet liquid’, from oFr sirop ‘sugared drink’ (C13), and perhaps from Ital siroppo, both from Ar šarāb ‘beverage, wine’. Span jarabe, jarope, and oProv eissarop are directly from Ar; Ital sciroppo is via mLat sirupusEtymOnline.
    ▪ Klein1987 connects Engl serpent ‘limbless reptile’ (c1300), the tempter in Gen. iii:1-5, to the lHbr śārap̄ that is usually seen as cognate to Ar šariba. In other etymological dictionaries of Engl, however, incl. Klein’s own CEDEL, this connection is not mentioned. Rather, serpent is traced back, via oFr serpent, serpant, to Lat serpēns, lit. ‘creeping’, from Lat serpere ‘to creep’, cognate to Grk hérpein ‘to creep’, herpetón ‘serpent’ (cf. Engl herpes), oInd sárpati ‘he creeps’, sarpáḥ ‘serpent’, from IE *serp‑ ‘to crawl, creep’ – EtymOnline.
     
    šariba ’l-duḫān, vb., to smoke.
    šariba sīgāraẗ etc., to smoke a cigarette etc.

    šarraba, vb. II, to give to drink, make or let drink; to drench, soak, saturate, impregnate; to inculcate, imbue: D-stem, caus.
    šāraba, vb. III, to drink in s.o.’s company, have a drink with s.o.: L-stem, associative.
    ʔašraba, vb. IV, to give to drink, make or let drink; to drench, soak, saturate, impregnate; to inculcate, imbue; ʔušriba, vb. pass., to be or become full, be filled, imbued, infused, be dominated, permeated: Š-stem, caus.
    tašarraba, vb. V, to soak up, absorb, imbibe; to be permeated, imbued, infused (bi with s.th.); to be full, be filled, replete (bi with): tD-stem, intr.
    ĭšraʔabba, 1 to stretch one’s neck in order to see (li‑ or ʔilà s.th.), crane one’s neck (li‑ or ʔilà for); 2 to carry one’s head high (out of vanity); to leer (ʔilà at): sometimes interpreted as a var. of form XI, ĭšrābba, and therefore connected to šariba; cf., however, ↗s.v.

    BP#2369šurb, n., drinking, drink; absorption: vn. I.
    šarbaẗ, n.f., 1 drink; sip, draught, swallow: n.vic. – 2 dose, potion (of a medicine); 3 laxative, purgative, aperient: specialisations of [v1].
    šurbaẗ, n.f., 1 drink; sip, draught, swallow: n.vic. – 2 dose, potion (of a medicine): specialisation of [v1]. – 3 see ↗šūrbaẗ.
    BP#3442šarāb, pl. ʔašribaẗ, n., 1 beverage, drink; 2 wine; 3 fruit juice, fruit syrup, sherbet: quasi-PP I.
    šarrāb, n., drunkard, heavy drinker: ints. formation.
    šarīb, adj., drinkable, potable: quasi-PP I.
    šarrābaẗ, var. šurrābaẗ, pl. šarārībᵘ, n., tassel, tuft, bob: similar idea (‘to hang down’) as in ↗šārib ‘moustache’, which may also be related to ↗ĭšraʔabba (ŠRB_2 and ŠRB_3, respectively, both s.v. ↗ŠRB); cf. also adj. šurbub(b) ‘tangled and dense, one part above another (herbage)’ (ŠRB_13 s.v. ↗ŠRB). | ~ al-rāʕī, n., (European) holly (Ilex aquifolium; bot.).
    širrīb, n., drunkard, heavy drinker: ints. formation.
    mašrab, n., 1 drink (as opposed to food): vn., meaning transfer from action to object of drinking. – 2 (pl. mašāribᵘ) drinking place, water hole, drinking trough, drinking fountain; restaurant, bar: n.loc. – 3 inclination, taste; movement, school (e.g., in philosophy): fig. use (similar to ↗maḏhab; cf. also šarabbaẗ, n., way, mode, or manner of being, or acting etc., = ŠRB_12 s.v. ↗ŠRB).
    mašrabaẗ, pl. mašāribᵘ, n., 1 drinking place, water hole, drinking trough, drinking fountain: n.loc. – 2 = mašrabiyyaẗ, [v1] (see below).
    mašrabiyyaẗ, var. mušrabiyyaẗ, n., 1 moucharaby, projecting oriel window with a wooden latticework enclosure; wooden oriel; attic room: nisba formation, lit. most probably *‘(the oriel) pertaining to the mašrab(aẗ), i.e., to the drinking place, more specifically, the room on an upper floor where drinks are served’; perhaps contaminated, or overlapping, with mašrafiyyaẗ (from mašraf ‘elevated site’, ↗ŠRF, ↗šurfaẗ ‘balcony’ ); or from the earthen jars, likewise called mašrabiyyaẗ (see [v2]), that were put on an small external platforms projecting from the oriels in order to cool; or perhaps from a tech. term used in carpentry for ‘to plane (wood)’ (EgAr šarrab, vb. II, cf. ŠRB_15 s.v. ↗ŠRB), after the turned wooden latticework that is a characteristic arch. feature of the oriels; but the EgAr vb. may also be denom., called after the latticework used in the decoration of oriels. – 2 a kind of drinking vessel: nominalized nsb-adj., lit., ‘the one from which to drink, pertaining to drinking’; vase, pot for flowers: extended meaning of the former.
    tašrīb, n., absorption, soaking up, imbibing: vn. II.
    šārib, pl. -ūn, šarb, šurūb, n., 1 drinking; drinker: PA I. – 2 (pl. šawāribᵘ) mustache, frequently dual: šāribān : usually regarded as derivation from šariba ‘to drink’ in the sense of *‘the (co-)drinker(s), the two hairy parts through which water etc. is imbibed’ or (Gabal2012:) *‘hair that flows down into the mouth’; given the old value, mentioned by Dozy, of ‘lip, upper lip’ (lit., the drinking one), the value ‘moustache’ may also be the result of a transfer of meaning from the lip to the hair on it; there is, however, also some semantic affinity with šarrābaẗ (see above), a moustache hanging down from the lip like a ‘tassel, tuft, bob’ (which may be related to ↗ĭšraʔabba = ŠRB_2 in disambiguation entry ↗ŠRB); cf. also the obsol. adj. šurbub(b) ‘tangled and dense, one part above another (herbage)’ (ŠRB_13 s.v. ↗ŠRB).
    BP#4894mašrūb, pl. ‑āt, drink, beverage: nominalized PP I. | ~āt rūḥiyyaẗ, n.pl., alcoholic beverages, liquors. 
    šarāb شَراب , pl. ʔašribaẗ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 3442 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠRB 
    n. 
    1 beverage, drink. – 2 wine. – 3 fruit juice, fruit syrup, sherbet – WehrCowan1979. 
    Quasi-PP I, from ↗šariba ‘to drink’. [v2] and [v3] are specialisations, perh. under the influence of the meanings the word took when it was loaned into Pers and Tu. 
    ▪ eC7 (drink) Q 16:69 yaḫruǧu min buṭūni-hā šarābun muḫtalifun ʔalwānu-hū fī-hi šifāʔun lil-nāsi ‘from their bellies comes a drink of diverse hues, wherein is healing for mankind’; (the act of drinking) 35:12 hāḏā ʕaḏbun furātun sāʔiġun šarābu-hū ‘this [body of water] is sweet, agreeable for drinking’. 
    šariba
    See ↗šariba
    ▪ Engl syrup (formerly also sirup, sirop), lC14, ‘thick, sweet liquid’, from oFr sirop ‘sugared drink’ (C13) and perhaps Ital siroppo, both from Ar šarāb ‘beverage, wine’. Span jarabe, jarope, and oProv eissarop are directly from Ar; Ital sciroppo is via mLat sirupusEtymOnline.
     
    – 
    šurrāb شُرّاب , pl. ‑āt (EgAr šurāb , šarāb – BadawiHinds1986) 
    ID 448 • Sw – • BP 7582 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠRB 
    n. 
    stocking, sock – WehrCowan1979. 
    šurrāb seems to be borrowed into MSA (probably via EgAr or LevAr) from Tu çorap, OttTu ǧūrāb ‘stocking, sock’, which most probably is from Pers ǧorāb, Ar ǧūrāb ~ ǧurāb ‘id.’ 
    Nişanyan (13Nov2014) s.v. Tu çorap : OttTu cūrāb ‘stocking’, first attested in Meninski’s Thesaurus (1680). 
    See ↗ǧurāb; but cf. also ↗ǧawrab and ↗ǧirāb
    ▪ Phonology and semantics of ǧurāb are almost impossible to disentangle because of mutual influence, and also interference from, and overlapping with, ↗ǧawrab (also meaning ‘socks, stockings’, but having a short ‑a‑ in the second syllable) and ↗ǧirāb ‘traveling bag, knapsack’. 
    – 
    – 
    šarrābaẗ شَرّابة , var. šurrābaẗ , pl. šarārībᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠRB 
    n.f. 
    tassel, tuft, bob – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Like also ↗šārib ‘moustache’, šarrābaẗ (vocalised šurrābaẗ and said to be »probably post-classical« by in Lane iv 1872), is usually regarded as deriving from ↗šariba ‘to drink’. The semantic relation however is nowhere explained in detail and remains rather doubtful.
    ▪ Therefore, instead of trying to link šārib and šarrābaẗ to ↗šariba, is it not possible that we are dealing with reflexions of another etymon here? I suggest to put šārib and šarrābaẗ together with ↗ĭšraʔabba ~ ĭšrābba ‘to stretch/crane one’s neck’, which seems to be cognate to lHbr širbēḇ1 to stretch out, prolong, enlarge; 2 to draw down, let down’, Aram šarbēḇ ‘to prolong, let hang down, let down’, Š-stems belonging to the complex of Sem *rabb‑ ‘big’ (cf. Ar ↗rabb ‘lord, master’). šārib ‘moustache’ as well as šarrābaẗ ‘tassel’ could then be explained as *‘hanging down’. The unusual phonology—the regular correspondance would be (Sem *š >) Hbr š, Aram š ~ Ar s, and (Sem *ś >) Hbr ś, Aram s, Ar š —could be explained as the result of a late development. – Should it be possible to corroborate this hypothetic etymology, then also ↗mašrabiyyaẗ may have to be reconsidered, see s.v. 
    According to Lane the word is postClassAr. 
    No direct cognates, but perh. akin to the complex treated s.v. ↗ĭšraʔabba and ↗šārib (partly also ↗mašrabiyyaẗ). 
    See section CONCISE above, as well as ↗ŠRB, ↗šariba, ↗ĭšraʔabba, ↗šārib, ↗mašrabiyyaẗ
    – 
    šarrābaẗ al-rāʕī, n., (European) holly (Ilex aquifolium; bot.)  
    mašrabiyyaẗ مَشْرَبِيّة , var. mušrabiyyaẗ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠRB 
    n.f. 
    1 moucharaby, projecting oriel window with a wooden latticework enclosure; wooden oriel; attic room. – 2 a kind of drinking vessel; vase, pot for flowers – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Morphologically, mašrabiyyaẗ is a nominalized nsb-adj., formed from mašrab(aẗ), which in MSA is either a ‘drink, s.th. to drink’ or a ‘drinking place’ (n.loc.).
    ▪ [v2] is derived from mašrab in the sense of ‘drink’ and thus literally means *‘belonging to drinking’, hence ‘drinking vessel’, whence also generalised to mean *‘vessel, vase (in the form of a drinking jar)’.
    ▪ The case of [v1] is a bit more complicated, see section DISC below. 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ [v1]: While in WehrCowan the meaning of mašrabiyyaẗ is only that of a place (window, oriel, attic), other sources identify the word with a certain technique of turning wood and a characteristic feature of Middle Eastern, esp. Cairo, architecture. In EI², e.g., we find the following description (and etymology): mašrabiyyaẗ »designates a technique of turned wood used to produce lattice-like panels, like those which were used in the past to adorn the windows in traditional domestic architecture. […] The term derives from Ar šariba ‘to drink’. The connection between the turned wood technique and drinking was established last century by E. W. Lane, who describes the mašrabaẗ as a niche attached to such lattice wooden windows and used to keep the water jars cool and fresh for drinking. This interpretation is confirmed by waqf documents, which since the 10th/16th century refer to such niches as mašrabaẗ and also to the turned wood technique as mašrabiyyaẗ. Muḥammad ʕAlī is said to have prohibited the use of mašrabiyyaẗ windows, in order to replace traditional by European architecture. The mašrabiyyaẗ technique is a speciality of Cairo, where it was used with a multitude of patterns and combinations […]« – D. Behrens-Abouseif, art. “Mashrabiyya”, in EI².
    ▪ Thus, according to the EI² entry, the famous ‘Islamic’ technique of turned wood is called mašrabiyyaẗ after the niches in the windows called mašrabaẗ, these having their name from the drinking jars (= [v2]) that were put into the niches to cool their contents.
    ▪ Other possible etymologies:
    • from mašrab(aẗ), but not in the sense of ‘drinking vessel’ (= [v2]) but in that of ‘drinking place’ (= [v1]), more specifically, ‘room on an upper floor where drinks are served’. The nisba formed from mašrab(aẗ) would then refer to s.th. ‘pertaining to the drinking room, mašrab(aẗ) ’, particularly the oriel projecting from this room to the garden or street. Signifying ‘oriel’, mašrabiyyaẗ overlaps, and may have been influenced by, mašrafiyyaẗ, the proper term for ‘projecting balcony enclosed by lattice-like wooden screens’ (BadawiHinds1986), from mašraf ‘elevated site’, cf. ↗ŠRF, ↗šurfaẗ ‘balcony’;
    • the fact that an oriel is ‘stretching out, projecting, overhanging’ from a fassade relates it semantically to other items of ŠRB such as ↗šārib ‘moustache’ (properly only ‘what overhangs from a moustache into the mouth’), ↗šarrābaẗ ‘tassel’ (hanging down from the roof etc.), and ↗ĭšraʔabba ~ ĭšrābba ‘to stretch/crane one’s neck’. Traditionally, these items too are believed to derive from to ↗šariba ‘to drink’, but it is perhaps more appropriate to link them, and also mašrabiyyaẗ as *‘(niche in) the overhanging one’ to lHbr širbēḇ1 to stretch out, prolong, enlarge; 2 to draw down, let down’ and Aram šarbēḇ ‘to prolong, let hang down, let down’, archaic Š-stems (šap̄ʕel forms) belonging to the complex of Sem *rabb‑ ‘big’ (cf. Ar ↗rabb ‘lord, master’). The unusual phonology—the regular correspondence would be (Sem *š >) Hbr š, Aram š ~ Ar s, and (Sem *ś >) Hbr ś, Aram s, Ar š —could be explained as the result of a late development;
    • the EgAr vb. II, šarrab ‘to plane (wood)’ (BadawiHinds1986) can also suggest that mašrabiyyaẗ is derived from a tech. term in carpentry for turning wood in a specific way. In this case, the meaning ‘(niche in an) oriel’ would be secondary, taken from the wooden latticework with which the oriels often were ornated. EgAr šarrab may however be denom. itself, from the latticework used. The modern use as documented in WehrCowan does not give any hint here: even in its most specific technical meaning, as ‘to impregnate’, vb. II šarraba is clearly a causative (*‘to make drink, absorb’), from vb. I, šariba ‘to drink’. Hava1899 gives, in addition to ‘to impregnate, saturate’, also ‘to purify (a new skin)’, a meaning however that seems to belong to tanning rather than carpentry;
    • EgAr širbaẗ ‘breeze, fresh air’ (BadawiHinds1986) is probably not an original value attached to ŠRB either.
     
    ▪ Engl mashrabiya, arch. moucharaby, from Ar mašrabiyyaẗ
    – 
    šārib شارِب , pl. šawāribᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠRB 
    n. 
    1 (pl. ‑ūn, šarb, šurūb) ↗šariba . – 2 (pl. šawāribᵘ) moustache, frequently dual: šāribān – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Like also (post-classical) ↗šarrābaẗ ~ šurrābaẗ ‘tassel’, šārib ‘moustache’ is usually regarded as derivation from ↗šariba ‘to drink’. The semantic relation however is nowhere explained convincingly in detail and remains rather doubtful.
    ▪ Therefore, instead of trying to link šārib and šarrābaẗ to ↗šariba, is it not possible (and also more likely) that we are dealing with reflexions of another etymon here? I suggest to put both together with ↗ĭšraʔabba ~ ĭšrābba ‘to stretch/crane one’s neck’, which seems to be cognate to lHbr širbēḇ1 to stretch out, prolong, enlarge; 2 to draw down, let down’, Aram šarbēḇ ‘to prolong, let hang down, let down’, Š-stems belonging to the complex of Sem *rabb‑ ‘big’ (cf. Ar ↗rabb ‘lord, master’). šārib ‘moustache’ as well as šarrābaẗ ‘tassel’ could then be explained as *‘hanging down, projecting, overhanging’. The unusual phonology—the regular correspondence would be (Sem *š >) Hbr š, Aram š ~ Ar s, and (Sem *ś >) Hbr ś, Aram s, Ar š —could be explained as the result of a late development. – Should it be possible to corroborate this hypothetic etymology, then also ↗mašrabiyyaẗ may have to be reconsidered, see s.v. 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ The fact that ClassAr dictionaries often explain šārib as ‘long portions [of hair] on the two sides of the sabalaẗ [moustache]’ (Lane iv 1872) could corroborate the idea that šārib originally did not signify the moustache itself but only what was ‘overhanging’ from it. Morphologically a PA I, šārib could be seen as derived from a vb. *šar˅b‑ ‘to overhang’.
    ▪ See section CONCISE above, as well as ↗ŠRB, ↗šariba, ↗ĭšraʔabba, ↗šarrābaẗ, ↗mašrabiyyaẗ
    – 
    – 
    ŠRḤ شرح 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠRḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠRḤ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ŠRḤ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to slice, to cut into thin pieces; to dilate; to expound; to manifest, to reveal, to lay open, to display’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
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    – 
    šaraḥ‑ شَرَحَ 
    ID 450 • Sw – • BP 2703 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠRḤ 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    tašrīḥ تَشْريح 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 7Jun2023
    √ŠRḤ 
    n. 
    ▪ vn., II 
    ŠRD شرد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 31Mar2023
    √ŠRD 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠRD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠRD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠRD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to bolt, break loose; to roam, go astray; to disperse, scatter; to be absent-minded’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ŠRṬ شرط 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠRṬ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠRṬ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ŠRṬ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to slit the ear of a camel; sign, token, mark; condition, to stipulate; to perform well’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
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    – 
    – 
    šurṭaẗ شُرْطَة 
    ID 451 • Sw – • BP 618 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠRṬ 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
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    – 
     
    šurṭī شُرْطِيّ 
    ID 452 • Sw – • BP 3389 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠRṬ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
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    – 
     
    ŠRʕ شرع 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠRʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠRʕ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ŠRʕ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to enter into, to begin to do, (of cattle) to come to water to drink, paths leading to drinking spots, to drink with the hand; (of houses) to have the door open; to make plain or manifest, to strip off; to be similar, to be equal; to reach for; ways; law’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ Engl shari'ašarīʕaẗ
    – 
    šarʕ شَرْع 
    ID 454 • Sw – • BP 2922 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠRʕ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    šarʕī شَرْعِيّ 
    ID 455 • Sw – • BP 1308 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠRʕ 
    adj. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    šarīʕaẗ شَرِيعَة 
    ID 456 • Sw – • BP 2317 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠRʕ 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl shari'a, from Ar šarīʕaẗ ‘law’, from šaraʕa, vb. I, ‘to ordain, prescribe’.↗ 
     
    šāriʕ شارِع 
    ID 453 • Sw – • BP 467 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠRʕ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    – 
     
    ĭštirāʕ اِشْتِراع 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 7Jun2023
    √ŠRʕ 
    n. 
    ▪ vn., VIII 
    tašrīʕī تَشْريعيّ 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 1913 • APD … • © SG | created 7Jun2023
    √ŠRʕ 
    adj. 
    ▪ nsb-formation from vn. II 
    ŠRF شرف 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠRF 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠRF_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ŠRF_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl sherifšaraf
    – 
    šaraf شَرَف 
    ID 457 • Sw – • BP 1484 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠRF 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl sherif, from Ar šarīf ‘noble, highborn’, from šarufa, vb. I, ‘to be noble, highborn’. 
     
    ŠRQ شرق 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠRQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠRQ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ŠRQ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to slit the ear of a goat; sunrise, (of the sun) to rise or to give light, to take an easterly direction, (of meat) to dry in the sun; to choke’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Saracen, sarsen, sirocco, from Ar ↗šarq ‘east, sunrise’, from ↗šaraqa, vb. I, ‘to rise, shine’. 
    – 
    ĭstišrāq اسْتِشْراق 
    ID 458 • Sw – • BP??? • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠRQ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    ▪ …
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    – 
     
    mustašriq مُسْتشْرِق 
    ID 459 • Sw – • BP??? • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠRQ 
    ¹adj.; ²n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    – 
     
    ŠRK شرك 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 7Jun2023
    √ŠRK 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠRK_1 ‘to share, be(come) partner\associate, participate, subscribe to’ ↗šarika, ‘(to give God a partner >) polytheism, idolatry’ ↗širk, ‘company, firm, business’ ↗širkaẗ, ‘socialist’ ↗ĭštirākī, ‘socialism’ ↗ĭštirākiyyaẗ
    ▪ ŠRK_2 ‘net, snare, trap’ ↗šarak
    ▪ ŠRK_3 ‘spurious, unsound, phony, false’ ↗šuruk
    ▪ ŠRK_4 ‘shoelace’ ↗širāk
    ▪ ŠRK_5 ‘sesame cake (EgAr)’ ↗šurayk

    Other values, now obsolete, include (Hava1899):

    ŠRK_6 ‘swift (walk); repeated (slap)’: šur(r)akī
    ŠRK_7 ‘musical tune’: LevAr šārikaẗ
    ŠRK_ ...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘snare; thongs of sandals; side road, to branch off; to share, to become a partner, to make as partner, or associate, partnership’ 
    ▪ [v1] : Ar ↗šarika ‘to share, etc.’ has cognates in Ug, Aram Syr, and Gz and thus seems to be traceable back to at least WSem layers. Perh. also Hbr śārak ‘to twist’ belongs here, and, if so, may represent the original value: *‘to twist = to make (twigs etc.) adhere to each other > to associate, make into\be partner > to share’. If this connection is valid, then perh. also [v2] ‘net, snare, trap’ (*< ‘twisted twigs, etc.’?) and [v4] ‘shoelace’ (*< ‘sandal-thong = what holds things together’) are related to [v1] and have preserved aspects of the primary notion ‘to twist’. – From the (secondary?) base *‘to share’, several new values are derived. In the religious field, on the one hand, the idea of *‘giving God a partner’ has produced the meaning ‘polytheism, idolatry’ (↗širk), while in Christian contexts the f. form, ↗širkaẗ, was use in the more positive sense of ‘communion’; in MSA, and prob. as a calque from Fr companie, associaton, širkaẗ became used for ‘company, firm, business’. The self-referential Gt-stem (VIII), ĭštaraka ‘to share, participate’ is at the basis of calques like ↗ĭštirākī ‘socialist’ and ↗ĭštirākiyyaẗ ‘socialism’.
    ▪ [v2] : šarak ‘net, snare, trap’ looks rather old, but does not seem to have obvious cognates in Sem. Perhaps akin to Hbr śārak ‘to twist’? Cf. also [v4].
    ▪ [v3] : Ar šuruk ‘spurious, unsound, phony, false’ is borrowed from Tu çürük ‘rotten’.
    ▪ [v4] : Perhaps, širāk ‘shoelace’ and [v2] šarak ‘net, snare, trap’ go back to the notion of *‘twisting, plaiting’ that is nowhere else preserved in Ar, but well attested in Hbr śārak ‘to twist’. Ar širāk seems to have a rather close relative in Hbr śᵊrôk ‘(sandal-) thong’.
    ▪ [v5] : The EgAr term šurēk (šurayk) for a ‘sesame cake, type of bun’ is from Tu çörek ‘bun, muffin’, orig. ‘nigella’, a seed used as spice or condiment on that type of pastry.
    [v6] : The obsol. adj. šur(r)akī used to qualify a ‘swift’ walk or a ‘repeated’ slap is of obscure etymology; perh. from the onomatopoetic Tu şark şark şark ‘sound of slapping’ (Tietze2019 vii: 562)?
    [v7] : The obsol. LevAr term šārikaẗ /šārke/ for a ‘musical tune’ looks like a reimport from Tu şarkı ‘musical tune, melody, song’, which, accord. to Tietze2019, goes back to Ar ↗šarqī and thus signifies, originally, s.th. ‘Eastern’. The same Tu word is also applied to a string instrument. Nişanyan doubts this theory; see DISC below.
     
    – 
    ▪ [v1] Zammit2002: Ug šrk ‘to team up with, join’, Hbr śārak ‘to twist’, Aram srak ‘to clutch, hold fast, hang to’, Syr srek ‘to adhere, stick’, (Pa) ‘to cohere’, SAr šrk ‘to share out, apportion; to make a crop-sharing agreement (?)’, Ar šāraka ‘to share with’
    ▪ [v1] BDB1906: TalmAram sārak ‘to adhere’, cf. Syr srak, srek; Ar šaraka ‘to share, participate’; cf. perh. also Hbr śārak ‘to twist’, Hbr śᵊrôk ‘(sandal-) thong’ (< śārak ‘to twist’, as *‘crossed and twisted (over the foot)’?), Ar širāk ‘sandal-thong’, Ar šarak ‘snare’.
    ▪ [v2] : Cf. perhaps akin to Hbr śārak ‘to twist’? See also [v4].
    ▪ [v3] : – borrowed from Tu.
    ▪ [v4] : Hbr śᵊrôk ‘(sandal-) thong’, perh. from Hbr śārak ‘to twist’. Both perh. akin to šarak ‘net, snare, trap’ [v2], and possibly even to [v1].
    ▪ [v5] : – borrowed from Tu.
    [v6] : ?
    [v7] : If re-imported, see ↗šarq.
    ▪ … 
    [v7] : Assuming Tu şarkı as the origin of LevAr šārikaẗ /šārkeʰ/ ‘musical tune’ is one thing (and a pure hypothesis). The other is the etymology of the Tu term şarkı itself. The common opinion (e.g., E.G. Ambros in EI², Tietze2019) would derive it from Ar šarqī, thus *‘the eastern, oriental (tune)’. Nişanyan_16Sep2022, however, doubts this etymology. Given that şarkı means ‘song belonging to art music’ is opposed, in a way, to türkü ‘folk tune’, he thinks that şarkı possibly is adapted from a word meaning ‘urban’ in the dialects of Anatolia, corresponding to türkī as the ‘native, from the countryside’, a hypothesis that the author sees supported by a note in Evliyā Çelebī where the traveler says that, in the Türkmen language, şarık-dı (sic!) meant ‘it was urban’. Nişanyan therefore speculates – with a due caveat – that şarkı perhaps originates from Tu çağırgı ‘invocation’ (< çağır-mak ‘to call’). In Arm, šark‘ means a ‘maqam’, and šarakan is ‘a kind of maqam-based ilahi (religious song)’, meanings that would support the ‘urban’ (i.e., art music) hypothesis. Cf., however, the fact that in a textual attestation from the 2nd half of C17, ʕAlī ʔUfḳî Bey’s Mecmūʿa-i Sāz u Söz from 1665, şarkı is defined as a türküye benzer bir müzik formu, i.e., ‘a musical genre resembling the türkü’. – At the end of the day, both Nişanyan and Tietze may be right: the şarkı is indeed associated with an urban, ‘civilised’ (art music) tradition, while the türkü is the ‘folk tune’; however, the urban “high brow” tradition of the şarkı may have been labelled *‘Oriental’ by the Anatolian Turks who would localize non-Turkish tradition in the countries east of Anatolia.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ For Tu şirk (müşrik), şirket, şerik (şürekâ), teşrik, iştirak (müşterek) see s.v. ↗šarika, širk, and širkat ~ šarikaẗ
    ▪ … 
    – 
    šarik‑ شَرِكَ , a (širk, širkaẗ, šarikaẗ)
     
    Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 7Jun2023
    √ŠRK 
    vb., I 
    to share (-h with s.o., s.th.), participate ( in), be or become partner, participant, associate – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ Ar šarika ‘to share, etc.’ has cognates in Ug, Aram Syr, and Gz and thus seems to be traceable back to at least WSem layers. Perh. also Hbr śārak ‘to twist’ belongs here, and, if so, may represent the original value: *‘to twist = to make (twigs etc.) adhere to each other > to associate, make into\be partner > to share’. If this connection is valid, then perh. also ↗šarak ‘net, snare, trap’ (*< ‘twisted twigs, etc.’?) and ↗širāk ‘shoelace’ (*< ‘sandal-thong = what holds things together’) are related to šarika and have preserved aspects of the primary notion ‘to twist’.
    ▪ From *‘sharing, associating, etc.’ several new values are derived. In the religious field, the idea of *‘giving God a partner’ has produced the meaning ‘polytheism, idolatry’ (↗širk), a prominent concept in the Qur’ān, while in Christian contexts the f. form of the vn. I, ↗širkaẗ, was used in the more positive sense of ‘communion’; in MSA, and prob. as a calque from Fr companie, associaton, širkaẗ became used for ‘company, firm, business, commercial enterprise’. The self-referential Gt-stem (VIII), ĭštaraka ‘to share, participate’, is at the basis of calques like ↗ĭštirākī ‘socialist’ and ↗ĭštirākiyyaẗ ‘socialism’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Zammit2002: Ug šrk ‘to team up with, join’, Hbr śārak ‘to twist’, Aram srak ‘to clutch, hold fast, hang to’, Syr srek ‘to adhere, stick’, (Pa) ‘to cohere’, SAr šrk ‘to share out, apportion; to make a crop-sharing agreement (?)’, Ar šāraka ‘to share with’. – (BDB1906:) Cf. perh. also TalmAram sārak, Syr srak, srek ‘to adhere’; Ar šaraka ‘to share, participate’; cf. perh. also Hbr śārak ‘to twist’, Hbr śᵊrôk ‘(sandal-) thong’ (< śārak ‘to twist’, as *‘crossed and twisted (over the foot)’?), Ar širāk ‘sandal-thong’, Ar šarak ‘snare’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Tu şirk: [ʿĀşıḳ Paşa, Ġarīb-nāme, 1330] seçdi dīnden küfr ü şirk ü şekleri – Nişanyan_21Apr2015. – müşrik: [ʿĀşıḳ Paşa, Ġarīb-nāme, 1330] seçdi dīnden küfr ü şirk ü şekleri / virdi destūr kırmağa müşrikleri – Nişanyan_3Jul2021. – şirket: [ʿĀşıḳ Paşa, Ġarīb-nāme, 1330] bağ u çift ü şirket ü bazār / ögi ussı durmadın anı düzer [‘...are related, are associates, are companions’] – Nişanyan_21Apr2015. – şerik: [ʿĀşıḳ Paşa, Ġarīb-nāme, 1330] nī şerīk ü nī vezīr ü nī nedīm – Nişanyan_27Apr2015. – şürekâ: [Meninski, Thesaurus, 1680] şürekā: ortaklar – Nişanyan_3Jul2021. – iştirak [Düsturnâme-i Enveri, 1465] şeh ferīdūn ḳıldı ẓaḥḥāki helāk / kāvelige ḳıldı ḳılmaz iştirāk– Nişanyan_24Sep2022. – teşrik: [Meninski, Thesaurus, 1680] teşrīk: associare, consortem aut participem facere – Nişanyan_11Aug2014. –müşterek: [anon., Muḳaddimetü'l-Edeb terc., c1300] muştarak lafıẓnı bir maʕnaga ḫāṣṣ ḳıldı [ortak sözcüğü tek anlama özgüledi] – Nişanyan_23Sep2014.
    ▪ … 
    BP#672šāraka, vb. III, 1a to share (‑h with s.o., ‑h or s.th.), participate, be or become partner, participant, associate; b to associate o.s. (‑h with s.o.), enter into partnership (‑h with s.o.), form a partnerhip, join, combine; c to sympathize (‑h with s.o.) | šāraka-hū raʔya-hū, to share s.o.’s opinion: L-stem, assoc.
    ʔašraka, vb. IV, 1a to make (‑h s.o.) a partner, participant, associate ( in), give a share, have (‑h s.o.) share ( in); b to tie s.th. closely (bi‑ to s.th.), associate (‑h s.th. bi‑ with s.th.): *Š-stem, caus. | ʔašraka-hū bi-’llāh, to make s.o. the associate or partner of God (in His creation and rule); ʔašraka-hū bi-’llāh, to set up or attribute associates to God, i.e., to be a polytheist, an idolator
    tašāraka, vb. VI, 1a to enter into partnership (maʕa with s.o.); b to participate together ( in), share with one another: tL-stem, recipr.
    BP#2874ĭštaraka, vb. VIII, 1a to enter into partnership, to cooperate (maʕa with s.o.); b to participate (maʕa with s.o., in), share, collaborate, take part ( in), contribute ( to); 2 to subscribe ( to); 3 to partake of the Lord’s Supper, communicate (Copt.-Chr.): Gt-stem, self-ref.
    širk, n., polytheism, idolatry | ʔahl al-širk, the polytheists, the idolators: vn. I
    BP#118širkaẗ, šarikaẗ, n.f., 1 partnership; 2 communion (Chr.); 3a (pl. šarikāt) association, companionship; b company, corporation (com.); c commercial enterprise (Isl. Law); d establishment, firm, business: ¹vn. I and ²³concretisations | š. al-taʔmīn, insurance company; š. tiǧāriyyaẗ, trading company, firm; š. al-ʔiḏāʕaẗ, broadcasting corporation; š. al-musāhamaẗ, joint-stock company, corporation; š. sihāmiyyaẗ, do.; š. al-šarikāt, trust (com.)
    BP#1599šarīk, n., pl. šurakāʔᵘ, ʔašrāk, 1a sharer, participant, partner, co-partner; b associate, companion, confederate, ally; c co-owner, coproprietor (Isl. Law); d accomplice, accessory (in a crime): quasi-PP I | šarīk mūṣiⁿ, silent partner (com.)
    šarīkaẗ, n.f., pl. šarāʔikᵘ, woman partner, woman participant, etc. (see šarīk): f. of šarīk
    BP#2646širākaẗ, n.f., partnership [BuckwalterParkinson2011]: quasi-vn. I or III
    tašrīk, n.: siyāsaẗ al-tašrīk, policy of alliances: vn. II
    BP#339mušārakaẗ, n.f., 1a partnership, co-partnership, participation ( in); b cooperation, collaboration; 2 communion (Chr.); 3 complicity, accessoriness (jur.): vn. III
    BP#2970ĭštirāk, n., 1a partnership, copartnership, coparcenary; b participation, sharing, joining, co-operation, collaboration ( in); c jointness, community; 2 communion (Chr.); 3 interference ( in); 4a subscription ( to); b (pl. ‑āt) subscription rate; c participation fee: ¹vn. VIII and ²³⁴extensions | bi’l-ĭštirāk, jointly, in concurrence, together (maʕa with); ĭštirāk šahrī, monthly subscription; monthly fee or contribution
    BP#3149ĭštirākī, 1a adj. socialist, socialistic; b n. (pl. ‑ūn) a socialist: neolog., nsb-formation from preceding
    ĭštirākiyyaẗ, n.f., socialism: neolog., abstr. formation in ‑iyyaẗ, based on preceding
    BP#1076mušārik, 1 n., participant; 2 adj., participating [BuckwalterParkinson2011]: PA III
    mušrik, n., pl. -ūn, polytheist: PA IV
    BP#1351muštarik, n., pl. -ūn, 1 participant; 2 subscriber: PA VIII
    BP#823muštarak, adj., common, joint, combined, concurrent, collective, co-: PP VIII | al-ʔamn al-muštarak, collective security; balāġ muštarak, joint communique; al-sūq al-muštarak, the Common Market; al-šuʕūr al-muštarak, community spirit, communality, solidarity; al-ḍamān al-muštarak, collective security

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗šarak, ↗šuruk, ↗širāk, (EgAr) ↗šurayk.
     
    širk شِرْك 
    ID 462 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 7Jun2023
    √ŠRK 
    n. 
    to associate anyone with God, to give God a partner – Jeffery1938
    polytheism, idolatry – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ The original meaning of the term širk, which is an important religious concept in the Qur’ān, is that of a vn. of ↗šarika, viz., ‘giving a partner, a companion.’ As a religious term, this ‘giving a partner’ developed the specific meaning of ‘venerating other gods alongside with (the one) God’, i.e., ‘polytheism, idolatry’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ eC7 Q Used very frequently in the Q, cf. xxxv, 38; xxxi, 12 – Jeffery1938
    ▪ … 
    ▪ ↗šarika
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »In the Qurʔān the word has a technical sense with reference to what is opposed to Muḥammad’s conception of monotheism. Thus we find ʔašraka ‘to give partners to God’, i.e., to be a polytheist, mušrik ‘one who gives God a partner’, i.e. a polytheist, šurakāʔ ‘those to whom the polytheists render honour as partners with God’, terms which, we may note, are not found in the earliest Sūras. / The root √ŠRK is ‘to have the shoe strings broken’, so širāk means ‘sandal straps’, and ʔašraka is ‘to put leather thongs in sandals’, with which we may compare Hbr śārak ‘to lay cross wise, interweave’, Syr srak ‘to braid’. From this the words [Ar] šarak ‘net’ and šarikaẗ ‘partnership’, i.e. the interweaving of interests, are easily derived. In the technical sense of ‘associating partners with God’, however, the word seems to be a borrowing from SArabia. In an inscription published by Mordtmann and Müller in WZKM, x, 287, there occurs the line w-bn šrk l-mrʔm mbʔsm w-mrḍym ‘and avoid giving a partner to a Lord who both bringeth disaster, and is the author of well being’. Here šrk is used in the technical Qurʔānic sense of širk,455 and there can be little doubt that the word came to Muḥammad, whether directly or indirectly, from some SAr source.«
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Tu şirk: [ʿĀşıḳ Paşa, Ġarīb-nāme, 1330] seçdi dīnden küfr ü şirk ü şekleri – Nişanyan_21Apr2015. – müşrik: [ʿĀşıḳ Paşa, Ġarīb-nāme, 1330] seçdi dīnden küfr ü şirk ü şekkleri / virdi destūr kırmağa müşrikleri – Nişanyan_3Jul2021. – şerik: [ʿĀşıḳ Paşa, Ġarīb-nāme, 1330] nī şerīk ü nī vezīr ü nī nedīm – Nişanyan_27Apr2015
     
    ʔahl al-širk, the polytheists, the idolators

    ʔašraka, vb. IV, 1a to make (‑h s.o.) a partner, participant, associate ( in), give a share, have (‑h s.o.) share ( in); b to tie s.th. closely (bi‑ to s.th.), associate (‑h s.th. bi‑ with s.th.): *Š-stem, caus. | ʔašraka-hū bi-’llāh, to make s.o. the associate or partner of God (in His creation and rule); ʔašraka-hū bi-’llāh, to set up or attribute associates to God, i.e., to be a polytheist, an idolator

    mušrik, n., pl. -ūn, polytheist: PA IV

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗šarika, ↗širkaẗ~šarikaẗ, ↗ĭštirākī, ↗ĭštirākiyyaẗ, ↗šarak, ↗šuruk, ↗širāk, (EgAr) ↗šurayk.
     
    šarak شَرَك , pl. šuruk, ʔašrāk, širāk
     
    Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 7Jun2023
    √ŠRK 
    n. 
    1a net, snare, gin; b trap – WehrCowan1976
     
    šarak ‘net, snare; trap’ looks rather old, but does not seem to have obvious cognates in Sem. Perhaps the item, like also ↗širāk ‘shoelace’, is akin to Hbr śārak ‘to twist’? The latter may be related, in one way or other, to Ar ↗šarika ‘to share, etc.’
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ...
     
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    – 
    naṣaba la-hū šarakᵃⁿ, to lay a trap for s.o., trap s.o.

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗šarika, ↗širk, ↗širkaẗ ~ šarikaẗ, ↗ĭštirākī, ↗ĭštirākiyyaẗ, ↗šuruk, ↗širāk, (EgAr) ↗šurayk.
     
    šuruk شُرُك 
    Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 7Jun2023
    √ŠRK 
    adj. (invar.) 
    ▪ spurious, unsound, phony, false – WehrCowan1976
    ▪ unfit, unsound (particularly with respect to military service)’ – BadawiHinds1986
     
    ▪ from Tu çürük ‘rotten’ – Hava1899, BadawiHinds1986, Rolland2014. – Attestation in Hava1899 suggests that the word was in use (in the Levant) mostly in connection with false money, as opposed to ‘sound’ (ṣāġ < Tu sağ) coins. Usage in modEgAr covers ‘unfitness’ with regard to military service, but also ‘counterfeit’ money and ‘unsound’ cars.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Hava1899: SyrAr šuruk ‘of a bad (opp. to ṣāġ) standard, deficient (coin)’
    ▪ ...
     
    – (loanword)
     
    ▪ The obsol. vb. I šarika (a, šarak) ‘to have the strings of the shoes broken’ (Hava1899) does prob. not represent an original value but is most likely denom. back-formation, either from šuruk or from ↗širāk ‘shoelace, leather thongs’.
    ▪ ...
     
    – 
    (all examples of usage in modEgAr, accord. to BadawiHinds1986):
    EgAr ʕarabiyyaẗ šuruk, unsound car;
    EgAr filūs šuruk, counterfeit money;

    EgAr šarrak, vb. II, 1 to render unsound or useless; 2 to reject as medically unfit for military service: D-stem, caus./declarative

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗šarika, ↗širk, ↗širkaẗ~šarikaẗ, ↗ĭštirākī, ↗ĭštirākiyyaẗ, ↗šarak, ↗širāk, (EgAr) ↗šurayk.
     
    širkaẗ ~ šarikaẗ شِرْكة / شَرِكة
     
    Sw – • BP 118 • APD … • © SG | 7Jun2023
    √ŠRK 
    n.f. 
    1 partnership; 2 communion (Chr.); 3a (pl. šarikāt) association, companionship; b company, corporation (com.); c commercial enterprise (Isl. Law); d establishment, firm, business – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ The basic meaning of the f. form of the vn. of vb. I ↗šarika ‘to share, associate, participate in’ etc. is [v1] ‘partnership’. In Christian contexts, this ‘partnership’ was used in the sense of ‘communion’ [v2]. In MSA, and prob. as the result of a calque from Fr companie, associaton, širkaẗ also became used for [v3] ‘company, firm, business, commercial enterprise’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ↗šarika 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Tu şirket: [ʿĀşıḳ Paşa, Ġarīb-nāme, 1330] bağ u çift ü şirket ü bazār / ögi ussı durmadın anı düzer [‘...are related, are associates, are companions’] – Nişanyan_21Apr2015. – For şerik (şürekâ), teşrik, iştirak (müşterek), see ↗šarika.
     
    širkaẗ al-taʔmīn, insurance company;
    širkaẗ tiǧāriyyaẗ, trading company, firm;
    širkaẗ al-ʔiḏāʕaẗ, broadcasting corporation;
    širkaẗ al-musāhamaẗ, joint-stock company, corporation;
    širkaẗ sihāmiyyaẗ, do.;
    širkaẗ al-šarikāt, trust (com.)

    For values related to ‘sharing, participation, etc.’ in general, see ↗šarika.
    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗širk, ↗ĭštirākī, ↗ĭštirākiyyaẗ, ↗šarak, ↗šuruk, ↗širāk, (EgAr) ↗šurayk.
     
    širāk شِراك , pl. šuruk, ʔašruk, ʔašrāk
     
    Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 7Jun2023
    √ŠRK 
    n. 
    shoelace – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ Perhaps, širāk ‘shoelace’ – and also ↗šarak ‘net, snare, trap’? – go back to the notion of *‘twisting, plaiting’ that is nowhere else preserved in Ar, but well attested in Hbr śārak ‘to twist’ (which, in its turn, may be related to ↗šarika ‘to share, participate’ etc.). Ar širāk seems to have a rather close relative in Hbr śᵊrôk ‘(sandal-) thong’.
     
    ▪ Hava1899: šarraka (II) ‘to put leather thongs to sandals’, D-stem, denom. – See also below, section DISC.
     
    ▪ Klein1987 (et al.): Ar širāk ‘shoelace’, Hbr śᵊrôk ‘(sandal-) thong’, prob. Hbr śārak ‘to twist, plait’.
     
    ▪ The obsol. vb. I šarika (a, šarak) ‘to have the strings of the shoes broken’ (Hava1899) does prob. not represent an original value but is most likely denom., either from širāk or, more probably, from ↗šuruk ‘broken, rotten, unsound’ (< Tu çürük), having “fused” with širāk.
     
    – 

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗šarika, ↗širk, ↗širkaẗ~šarikaẗ, ↗ĭštirākī, ↗ĭštirākiyyaẗ, ↗šarak, ↗šuruk, (EgAr) ↗šurayk.
     
    EgAr šurayk شُرَيْك
     
    Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 7Jun2023
    √ŠRK 
    n. 
    sesame cake – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ EgAr šurēk (šurayk) ‘sesame cake, type of bun’ is from Tu çörek ‘bun, muffin’, orig. ‘nigella’, a seed used as spice or condiment on that type of pastry – BadawiHinds1986.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ...
     
    – (loanword)
     
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ ...
     
    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗šarika, ↗širk, ↗širkaẗ~šarikaẗ, ↗ĭštirākī, ↗ĭštirākiyyaẗ, ↗šarak, ↗šuruk, ↗širāk.
     
    ĭštirākī اِشْتِراكيّ 
    ID 460 • Sw – • BP 3149 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠRK 
    ¹adj.; ²n. 
    1 adj. socialist, socialistic; 2 n. (pl. ‑ūn) a socialist – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ neologism, nsb-formation based on ĭštarāk, vn. of ĭštaraka (VIII) ‘to share, participate’, Gt-stem with self-referential notions, from ↗šarika ‘to share, etc.’ Thus, a ‘socialist’ is *‘s.o. adhering to (the principle) of sharing’
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ ↗šarika 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ĭštirākiyyaẗ, n.f., socialism: neolog., abstr. formation in ‑iyyaẗ.

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗šarika, ↗širk, ↗širkaẗ~šarikaẗ, ↗šarak, ↗šuruk, ↗širāk, (EgAr) ↗šurayk.
     
    ĭštirākiyyaẗ اِشْتِراكِيّة 
    ID 461 • Sw – • NahḍConBP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠRK 
    n.f. 
    socialism – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ neologism (C19), abstract formation in -iyyaẗ, based on ĭštarāk, vn. of ĭštaraka (VIII) ‘to share, participate’, Gt-stem with self-referential notions, from ↗šarika ‘to share, etc.’ Thus, ‘socialism’ is *‘the idea/ideology of sharing’
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ ↗šarika 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗šarika, ↗širk, ↗širkaẗ~šarikaẗ, ↗šarak, ↗šuruk, ↗širāk, (EgAr) ↗šurayk.
     
    ŠRY شري 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 31Mar2023
    √ŠRY 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠRY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠRY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠRY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to sell, buy, give for a price, to barter; to speed up; to spread, creep, scatter, increase; arteries’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ŠṬː (ŠṬṬ) شطّ/شطط 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 31Mar2023
    √ ŠṬː (ŠṬṬ) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠṬː (ŠṬṬ)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠṬː (ŠṬṬ)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠṬː (ŠṬṬ)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be remote, far off, or beyond the acceptable limits; to act unjustly; side of a camel’s hump; bank or side of a river’ 
    ▪ From protSem *√ŚṬṬ ‘to tear apart, split’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl chott, from Ar ↗šaṭṭ ‘bank, coast, strand’, from ↗šaṭṭa, vb. I, ‘to exceed, deviate’. 
    – 
    ŠṬʔ شطأ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 31Mar2023
    √ŠṬʔ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠṬʔ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠṬʔ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠṬʔ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to slice lengthwise; to overfill with water; side or bank of a river; to overburden; to put forth shoots, sprout, put out branches’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ŠṬR شطر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 31Mar2023
    √ŠṬR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠṬR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠṬR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠṬR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to split or divide in halves, a half; to squint at; (of a house) to be distant, distance o.s.; direction’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ŠṬRNǦ شطرنج 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠṬRNǦ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠṬRNǦ_1 ‘chess’ ↗šaṭranǧ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ See šaṭranǧ
    – 
    šaṭranǧ , var. šiṭranǧ شَطْرَنْج 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠṬRNǦ 
    n. 
    chess – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ Rolland2014: from Phlv čatrang ‘chess’, from Skr caturaŋga ‘the four army corps’, lit. ‘the four members’, from IE *kʷetwer‑ ‘four’ + *ank‑ ‘courbe, recourbé’
    ▪ Nişanyan_03Apr2015: (Tu satranç, from) Ar šaṭranǧ, from mPers čatrang, from Skr चतुर्ङ्ग cáturaṅga ‘four wings/columns (of an army)’, the army consisting of four elements, composed of Skr cátur ‘four’ + Skr aṅgam ‘arm, member’ 
    ▪ Earliest attestation in HDAL 660 AD (ʕAlī b. ʔAbī Ṭālib, in Sunan al-Bayhaqī
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Tu 1069 [Kutadgu Bilig] nard u šaṭranǧ bilir erse ‘if he knew tavla and chess’, 1680 [Meninski, Thesaurus] šaṭrenǧ vul. šatranǧ 
    lawḥaẗ al-šaṭranǧ, n.f., chessboard 
    ŠṬN 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 29Mar2023
    √ŠṬN 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠṬN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠṬN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠṬN_3 ‘Satan’ ↗šayṭān (arranged s.r. ↗ŠYṬN)

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘fastening tightly; being exceedingly, or audaciously, proud, corrupt, rebellious or insolent’ – 
    ▪ [v1] From NWSem *√ŚṬN ‘to be(come) hostile, accuse’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ [v2] …
    ▪ [v3] : (BAH2008:) Philologists derive the word ↗šayṭān either from the root ŠṬN […] or from the root ↗ŠYṬ (‘singeing, scorching, burning’). 
    – 
    ▪ Engl Satan, shaitanšayṭān (arranged s.r. ↗ŠYṬN). 
    – 
    ŠʕB شعب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠʕB 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠʕB_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ŠʕB_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to unite, to gather together; to disperse, scatter, separate, divide; to branch out; a mountain road; tribe, race’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    šaʕb شَعْب 
    ID 463 • Sw – • BP 122 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠʕB 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ŠʕR شعر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠʕR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠʕR_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ŠʕR_2 ‘…’ ↗
    Several themes with the same root can be found in MSA:

    ▪ ŠʕR_1 ‘hair’ ↗šaʕr
    ▪ ŠʕR_2 ‘to feel, know intuitively; (compose) poetry’ ↗šiʕr
    ▪ ŠʕR_3 ‘scrub country’ ↗šaʕrà
    ▪ ŠʕR_4 ‘Sirius, Dog Star’ ↗al-šiʕrà
    ▪ ŠʕR_5 ‘password, slogan, motto’ ↗šiʕār
    ▪ ŠʕR_6 ‘barley’ ↗šaʕīr
    ▪ ŠʕR_7 ‘rite, cultic practice’ ↗šaʕīraẗ
    ▪ ŠʕR_8 ‘goats’ ↗šaʕārà
    ▪ ŠʕR_9 ‘male dancer in female roles’ ↗šaʕʕār
    ▪ ŠʕR_10 ‘attacks, diatribes’ (pl) ↗šawāʕirᵘ
    ▪ ŠʕR_11 ‘split; mad, crazy’ ↗mašʕūr

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to know, to be cognisant of, to perceive by means of any of the senses; poetry, to write poetry; hair, wool, fur, to be covered in hair; innermost garment; sign, rites’. – al-šiʕrà is said to be a corrupted borrowing from Grk. 
    ▪ The main items in this root are ŠʕR_1 ‘hair’ and ŠʕR_2 ‘to perceive; to feel, know intuitively’.
    ▪ Does the latter depend on the former?
    ▪ Many of the other values derive probably from ŠʕR_1 and ŠʕR_2, but ŠʕR_4 ‘Sirius, Dog Star’ may be from Grk.
    ▪ ŠʕR_1 : (Kogan2015 Sw#36:) from protSem *śaʕr‑ ‘hair’ (SED I #260). Passim except modEthSem and modSAr.
    ▪ ŠʕR_2 …
    ▪ ŠʕR_3 …
    ▪ ŠʕR_4 …
    ▪ ŠʕR_5 …
    ▪ ŠʕR_6 …
    ▪ ŠʕR_7 …
    ▪ ŠʕR_8 …
    ▪ ŠʕR_9 …
    ▪ ŠʕR_10 …
    ▪ ŠʕR_11 …
     
    – 
    ▪ BDB1906 #ŚʕR–1 Akk šārtu ‘hairskin’, Hbr śēʕār ‘hair’, Aram seʕrā, Syr saʕrā, sʕartā, Ar šaʕ(a)r ‘hair’, šaʕira ‘to be hairy’, Gz śəʕərt ‘hair’; Hbr (denom.) śāʕar ‘to bristle (with horror)’, śāʕîr ‘he-goat, buck’, śāʕîr ‘satyr, demon (with he-goat’s form, or feet)’, śəʕōrāh ‘barley’, śəʕōrîm ‘priests [the bearded ones?]’ 142 ; perhaps also n.pr. Śēʕîr (designating either the land of Edom, a specif. mountain, or the Edomites), seen by some together with Hbr śāʕîr ‘goat’, others compare ClassAr al-ʔašʕar ‘the hairy’, i.e. “well-wooded”, cf. šaʕār ‘trees’. – –2 Hbr *śāʕar perh. ‘to be acquainted with’, Ar šaʕara ‘to perceive’, Aram Syr sʕar ‘to visit, inspect’ 
    ▪ From ŠʕR_1 ‘hair’ seem to be derived many of the other values: ŠʕR_3 ‘scrub country’ seems to be the *‘country with the hairy bushes’ (ClassAr has also šaʕrān with the same meaning). ŠʕR_6 ‘barley’ is obviously *‘bearded grain’ (but the word is old, having PSem, perhaps even AfrAs ancestors, see s.v.). ŠʕR_8 ‘goats’ is probably properly *‘the hairy animal’ (cf. ClassAr šaʕiraẗ ‘[sheep or goat] having hair growing between the two halves of its hoof, which in consequence bleed’ – Lane iv 1872).
    ▪ Also ŠʕR_2 ‘to perceive, know (in minute detail), to feel, know intuitively’ may originally be *‘to have knowledge about, or be sensitive for, things so thin/fine as a hair’, and from this is the value ‘(to compose) poetry’, a poet being endowed with deeper insight, a special sensibility for the nuances of life, as fine as a hair.
    ▪ ŠʕR_4 ‘Sirius, Dog Star’ is perhaps of Grk origin (see s.v.), but it may also be another derivation from ŠʕR_2 ‘to feel, know intuitively’ or directly from ŠʕR_1 ‘hair’.
    ▪ ŠʕR_5 ‘password, slogan, motto’ is originally *‘sign by means of which one can know, or make known, s.th. or s.o., marker’, i.e., it is derived from ŠʕR_2 ‘to (get to) know’. The same holds for ŠʕR_7 ‘rite, cultic practice’, which seems to be *‘(practice of things that can be accepted as) signs/markers of obedience to God/a deity)’.
    ▪ ŠʕR_9 ‘male dancer in female roles’, ŠʕR_10 ‘attacks, diatribes’ (pl), and ŠʕR_11 ‘split; mad, crazy’ are more difficult to connect to any fo the values mentioned so far and must, for the moment, remain unexplained. 
    – 
    – 
    šaʕar‑ شَعَرَ , u (šuʕūr , šiʕr
    ID … • Sw – • BP 508 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠʕR 
    vb., I 
    to learn or understand intuitively (bi‑ s.th., ʔanna that), to realize, notice (bi‑ s.th., ʔanna that); to perceive, feel, sense, be conscious, be aware (bi‑ of s.th.) — (šiʕr) to make or compose poetry, poetize, versify – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Originally probably *‘to possess intuitive insight, to perceive (of) s.th. intuitively’, the vb. came to mean ‘to feel, notice, understand, etc.’. The notion of being endowed with a deeper insight is more present today in the n. šāʕir ‘poet’ (originally, a PA I meaning ‘knowing, the one with a special “antenna” to the world, the universe) than in the vb. itself, which as a rule means ‘to understand intuitively, realize’.
    ▪ In the Q, the šāʕir ‘poet, seer’ is a rather negative person, associated with pagan practice.
    ▪ Depending on ↗šaʕr ‘hair’? 
    ▪ eC7 Q 16:26 wa-ʔatā-humu ’l-ʕaḏāba min ḥayṯu lā yašʕurūna ‘punishment came upon them from directions that they had not perceived/expected’, 2:9 yuḫādiʕūna ’ḷḷāha wa-'llaḏīna ʔāmanū wa-mā yaḫdaʕūna ʔillā ʔanfusa-hum wa-mā yašʕurūna ‘they seek to deceive God and the believers but they only deceive themselves, though they do not realise’ 
    BDB1906 #ŚʕR-3: Hbr *śāʕar perh. ‘to be acquainted with’, Aram sʕar ‘to visit, examine’, Syr sʕar ‘to visit, inspect, look after’, Ar šaʕara ‘to perceive’, (Zammit2002:) SAr šʕr ‘to know, be aware/conscious of’ 
    BDB1906 and Zammit2002 separate the values ‘hair’ (↗šaʕr) and ‘to perceive, feel intuitively’ from each other. Is the latter dependent on the former nevertheless? ‘To perceive, know (in minute detail), to feel, know intuitively’ may originally be *‘to have knowledge about, or be sensitive for, things so thin/fine as a hair’… 
    – 
    ʔašʕara, vb. IV, to make feel, let notice; to notify, inform (bi‑ about): caus.
    ĭstašʕara, vb. X, to feel, sense, notice, perceive, realize, be conscious, be aware (of); to be filled (*with a feeling):…
    BP#568šiʕr, n., poetry; versification; pl. ʔašʕār, n.pl., poems; poetic works: specialisation of vn. I; Q 36:69 | ~ manṯūr, n., prose poetry, free verse; layta ~ī, I wish I knew…!, would that I knew…!
    BP#1932šiʕrī, adj., poetic(al): nsb-adj of šiʕr.
    BP#1329šiʕār, pl. ‑āt, ʔašʕiraẗ, n., password, watchword; slogan; catchword, catchphrase (pol.); motto, device; coat of arms; symbol; distinguishing mark or feature; emblem, badge:… | ~ tiǧārī, n., trade mark; ~ al-dawlaẗ, n., official stamp, state emblem; taḥta ~ (+ gen.), adv., under the motto…
    šaʕīraẗ, pl. šaʕāʔirᵘ, n., religious ceremony, rite, cultic practice; pl. also: places of worship, cultic shrines: pseudo-PP, f., *‘place which can give a proof of the worshippers obeying the rules’ or ‘the marked one, place marked for worshippers’; Q 2:158.
    BP#1111šuʕūr, n., knowledge, cognizance; consciousness, awareness; perception, discernment; perceptive faculty; sensation; sentiment; feeling; perceptiveness, sensitivity, sensibility; mood: vn. I, partly with semantic extension | al-~ bi’l-nafs/ḏāt, n., self-oonsciousness; diqqaẗ al-šuʕūr, n., sensitivity, sensibility; al-~ al-muštarak, n., community spirit, communality, solidarity; ʕadīm al-~, adj., unfeeling, insensitive; al-lā-~, n., the unconscious (psych.).
    šuʕūrī, adj., conscious; emotional: nsb-adj of šuʕūr | lā-~, adj., unconscious, subconscious.
    šuʕrūr, n., poetaster, versiner, rhymester: pejor., dimin.
    šuwayʕir, n., poetaster, versifler, rhymester: dimin.
    BP#1104mašʕar, pl. mašāʕirᵘ, n., ritual site, esp. in and near Mecca, involved in the religious rites of the hadj; sensory organ: n.loc., *‘place where the presence of deity is intuitively felt, where one becomes aware of the deity’s presence’ (?); pl., senses, feelings, sensations; religious rites, customs, ceremonies: n.loc., *‘places where man receives impressions from the world, feels it’; Q 2:198 | al-~ al-ḥarām, n., the hadj station of Muzdalifa east of Mecca.
    ʔišʕār, pl. ‑āt, notification, information (bi‑ of, about), notice: vn. IV.
    BP#636šāʕir, knowing (by instinctive perception), endowed with deeper insight, with intuition; (pl. šuʕarāʔᵘ) poet; (common designation for) popular storyteller, narrator: PA I; Q 69:41
    šāʕiraẗ, pl. ‑āt, šawāʕirᵘ, n., poetess: PA I, f.
    šāʕirī, adj., poetic(al) : nsb-adj, from šiʕr.
    šāʕiriyyaẗ, pl. ‑āt, poetic power or capacity; the realm of creative poetry; poetic character: n.abstr. in iyyaẗ.

    For other items of the root, see ↗ŠʕR. 
    šaʕr شَعْر , var. šaʕar , n.un. ‑aẗ , pl. šuʕūr 
    ID 464 • Sw 37/65 • BP 947 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠʕR 
    n.coll. (n.un. ‑aẗ
    hair; bristles; fur, pelt; cracks, haircracks (e.g., in a vase) (obs.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *śaʕr‑ ‘hair’, (Orel&Stolbova1994:) prob. from AfrAs *ĉaʕar‑ ‘id.’.
    ▪ From the protSem ancestor may be derived notions like ‘to perceive, feel intuitively, know minute details’, ‘sheep, goats’, ‘barley’, and others; see ↗ŠʕR. 
    ▪ eC7 Q 16:60 wa-min ʔaṣwāfi-hā wa-ʔawbāri-hā wa-ʔašʕāri-hā ʔaṯāṯan wa-matāʕan ʔilà ḥīnin ‘and of their wool, their fur, and of their hairs, [He made for you] furnishings and comfort for a while’. 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: Akk šārtu, Hbr śēʕār, Aram saʕrā, Gz śəʕərt ‘hair’.
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#528: Akk šārtu, Hbr śēʕār, śaʕarā, Syr šaʕrō, Gz śeʕert, Soq ṣaʕihor ‘hair’)143 . – Outside Sem: WCh *ĉaHar‑ ‘hair on the chest of a ram; hair’, Omot *šaHar‑ ‘hair’.
    ▪ Elmedlaoui 2012: Berb a-zzar ‘hair’. 
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#528: from Sem *śaʕr‑ ‘hair’ (so also Kogan2011), from AfrAs *ĉaʕar‑ ‘hair’, which is the ancestor also of non-Sem cognates such as WCh *ĉaHar‑ ‘hair on the chest of a ram; hair’ and Omot *šaHar‑ ‘hair’.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    šaʕar-, a, vb. I, to be hairy: denom.

    šaʕrī, adj., hairy, hirsute; hair (in compounds); capillary: nsb-adj.
    šaʕriyyaẗ, n.f., wire grill, wire netting, lattice work; capillarity: nominalized nsb-adj.
    šiʕriyyaẗ (Eg.), šaʕriyyaẗ (ir.), n.f., vermicelli; spaghetti: nominalized nsb-adj.
    šaʕrānī, adj., hairy, hirsute, shaggy: intns.adj.
    šuʕayraẗ, n.un., little hair: dimin.
    šaʕīriyyaẗ, n.f., vermicelli: nominalized nsb-adj.
    ʔašʕarᵘ, adj., hairy, hirsute, long-haired, shaggy: denom.
    mušʕarānī, adj., hairy, hirsute, shaggy:…

    For other items of the root cf. ↗ŠʕR. 
    šiʕr شِعْر , pl. ʔašʕār 
    ID 465 • Sw – • BP 568 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠʕR 
    n. 
    poetry; versification; pl. ʔašʕār, n.pl., poems; poetic works – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Vn. of ↗šaʕara ‘to perceive, feel (intuitively)’.
    ▪ Etymologically perhaps connected to ↗šaʕr ‘hair’. 
    ▪ eC7 Q 36:69 wa-mā ʕallamnā-hū ’l-šiʕra wa-lā yanbaġī la-hū ‘We have not taught him [the Prophet] the art of poetry, nor is it fitting for him (or: nor does it fall within his ability) to be a poet’ 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ See ↗šaʕara.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    šiʕr manṯūr, n., prose poetry, free verse.
    layta šiʕrī, exclam., I wish I knew…!, would that I knew…!

    BP#1932šiʕrī, adj., poetic(al): nsb-adj, from šiʕr.
    šuʕrūr, n., poetaster, versiner, rhymester: pejor./dimin.
    šuwayʕir, n., poetaster, versifler, rhymester: dimin.
    BP#636šāʕir, knowing (by instinctive perception), endowed with deeper insight, with intuition; (pl. šuʕarāʔᵘ) poet; (common designation for) popular storyteller, narrator: PA I.
    šāʕiraẗ, pl. ‑āt, šawāʕirᵘ, n., poetess: PA I, f.
    šāʕirī, adj., poetic(al): nsb-adj from šāʕir.
    šāʕiriyyaẗ, pl. ‑āt, poetic power or capacity; the realm of creative poetry; poetic character: n.abstr. in iyyaẗ.

    For other items of the root, see ↗ŠʕR. 
    al-šiʕrà الشِعْرَى 
    ID 466 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠʕR 
    n. 
    Sirius, Dog Star (astron.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    Unless just another of the many derivations of ↗šaʕara ‘to know in detail, feel, perveive’ or directly from ↗šaʕr ‘hair’, the name of the Dog Star, widely worshipped in pre-Islamic Arabia, may go back to its Grk counterpart, Seírios. Until recently, this has been a common assumption. But it has been contested by the theory that it is the other way round and the Grk name is a borrowing from the East. 
    ▪ eC7 Q 53:49 wa-ʔanna-hū huwa rabbu ’l-šiʕrà ‘and that He it is Who is the Lord of Sirius’ 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Rolland2014: »Peut-être du Grk Seírios, à moins que ce ne soit l’inverse.« 456
    ▪ Jeffery1939: »The common explanation of the philologers is that it is from √ŠʕR and means ‘the hairy one’, but there can be little doubt that it is derived from the Grk Seírios,457 whose r, as Hess shows, is regularly rendered by Arab ʕ. The word occurs in the old poetry458 and was doubtless known to the Arabs long before Islam.« 
    ▪ Perhaps the Ar name is not loaned from Grk, but Grk Seírios is from an eastern source, perhaps Ar šiʕrà
    – 
    šaʕīr شعير 
    ID 467 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠʕR 
    n.coll. (n.un. ‑aẗ
    barley; (n.un. -aẗ) barleycorn – WehrCowan1979. 
    A lexical item of particular importance for the history of agriculture in the Middle East. The word goes back to Sem *śaʕār‑ or/and *śaʕīr‑ (▪ Kogan2011: protCSem *ś˅ʕ˅r‑) ‘barley’ (from AfrAs *ĉar‑ /*ĉaʕ˅r‑ ‘dto.’), which probably is akin to ‘hair’, cf. ↗šaʕr (*‘the hairy, bearded grain’). 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#544: Ug šʕr, Hbr śeʕorā, Syr sǝʕārǝtā, Sab śʕr. – Outside Sem: Eg šr.t ‘barley’ (MK).
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#544 reconstructs Sem *śaʕār‑ or/and (with derivative vocalism) *śaʕīr‑ ‘barley’ < AfrAs *ĉar‑ /*ĉaʕ˅r‑ ‘barley’. Given a form without Sem ‑ʕ‑ in Eg, one could think of Sem *śaʕār‑ /*śaʕīr‑ as being secondary formations, stemming from an original AfrAs *śar‑ which became influenced by or contaminated with Sem *śaʕar‑ ‘be hairy’ (↗šaʕr). If this was the case, the variant AfrAs *ĉaʕ˅r‑ will have to be completely dismissed in favour of *ĉar‑.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ŠʕL شعل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 31Mar2023
    √ŠʕL 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠʕL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠʕL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠʕL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to set on fire, inflame, kindle, blaze, burn brightly’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ŠĠF شغف 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 2Apr2023
    √ŠĠF 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠĠF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠĠF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠĠF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘the membrane enclosing the heart (the pericardium); the centre; to smite, pierce; to infatuate, be smitten with love, ardent love, passion’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ŠĠL شغل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠĠL 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠĠL_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ŠĠL_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to occupy, to employ, to make busy, engagement, toil, occupation, concern; to divert; to occupy (a place)’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    mašġūl مَشْغُول 
    ID 468 • Sw – • BP 2494 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠĠL 
    adj. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ŠFʕ شفع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 2Apr2023
    √ŠFʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠFʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠFʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠFʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘pair, double, two things; to make a single thing into a pair, or one of a pair, be coupled with; to add a deed to another; to aid another against; to intercede’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ŠFQ شفق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 2Apr2023
    √ŠFQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠFQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠFQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠFQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be niggardly or covetous; to be afraid, be concerned, be worried; to be affectionate, be tender-hearted; to be weary; kindness; worry; redness on the horizon after sunset’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ŠFH شفه 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠFH 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠFH_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ŠFH_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘lip; to speak face to face; (of food and water) to be craved; (of property) to be sought after; to consume’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    šafaẗ شَفَة 
    ID 469 • Sw – • BP 2089 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠFH 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *śap‑at‑ ‘lip’ (best preserved in Akk and CSem).
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ŠFW شفو 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 2Apr2023
    √ŠFW 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠFW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠFW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠFW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be near, appear from a distance, to approach; to recover, restore (to good health); to be on the brink, extreme edge, brink, rim’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ŠFY شفي 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠFY 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠFY_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ŠFY_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to restore to good health, to cure; to satisfy one’s curiosity, to reassure o.s.’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    mustašfà مُسْتَشْفىً 
    ID 470 • Sw – • BP 711 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠFY 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ŠQː (ŠQQ) شقّ/شقق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 2Apr2023
    √ ŠQː (ŠQQ) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠQː (ŠQQ)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠQː (ŠQQ)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠQː (ŠQQ)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to split, cleave, slit, rent, rip; fissure, crack; to come forth; to effect disunion, act contrarily, dispute; hardship, difficulty, distress, to burden’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ŠQR شقر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠQR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠQR_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ŠQR_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ʔašqar أشْقرُ 
    ID 471 • Sw – • BP 7571 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠQR 
    adj. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ŠQW/Y شقو/ي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 2Apr2023
    √ŠQW/Y 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠQW/Y_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠQW/Y_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠQW/Y_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be(come,) in a state of distress, adversity, straits, difficulty, misery; to struggle, or labour, alongside; wretchedness, misery’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ŠKː (ŠKK) شكّ/شكك 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 2Apr2023
    √ ŠKː(ŠKK) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠKː(ŠKK)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠKː(ŠKK)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠKː(ŠKK)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to pierce, to puncture; to limp; to stick out; to doubt, to be confused, to be dubious, to waver in opinion; to attire o.s. completely with arms and weapons’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ŠKR شكر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠKR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠKR_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ŠKR_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to become bountiful, (of camels) to be fattened on good pasture; to thank, to praise, to commend, gratitude, acknowledgement of favours; shoots growing on the base of a tree, to put forth branches’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    šakar‑ شَكَرَ 
    ID 472 • Sw – • BP 920 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠKR 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ŠKS شكس 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 2Apr2023
    √ŠKS 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠKS_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠKS_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠKS_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be stubborn in disputing, be perverse, ill-natured, cross and quarrelsome’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ŠKL شكل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 2Apr2023
    √ŠKL 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠKL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠKL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠKL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to bind; to shape, fashion, sculpt; to be similar, be homogeneous, likeness, resemblance, similitude’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ĭstaškala اِسْتَشْكَلَ 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 7Jun2023
    √ŠKL 
    vb., X 
    ▪ *Št-stem, declarative 
    ŠKW شكو 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠKW 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠKW_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ŠKW_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to grieve, to show, or reveal, one’s grief or sorrow, to complain’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    šakā / šakaw‑ شَكا / شَكَوْـ 
    ID 473 • Sw – • BP 3172 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠKW 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ŠLB شلب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠLB 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠLB_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ŠLB_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    šalabī شَلَبِيّ 
    ID 474 • Sw – • BP??? • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠLB 
    ¹adj.; ²n. 
    dandyish, foppish; dandy, fop; (pal.) nice, handsome, beautiful – WehrCowan1979. 
    Although »contacts between Arabs and speakers of Turkic languages go back to the first half of the 9th century, when the Abbasid caliphs began recruiting Turks from Central Asia as Praetorian guards«, and although Arabic was influenced by a Turkic dialect during the Mamluk period too (C13-C16), most loans from Turkish stem from the Ottoman period, esp. C18-C19. Ar šalabī is an example of these loans, the majority of which fall into the domains of »administration and government, army and war, crafts and tools, house and household, dress, and food and dishes. The influence of Turkish on Arabic in these particular categories is obviously the consequence of the presence of the Ottoman bureaucracy and army in the Arab world in particular, and of the influence of centuries-long relations on everyday life in general.«79
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    EALL (S. Procházka, »Turkish Loanwords«): from Tu çelebi ‘gentleman, prince; citoyen’.
    ▪ Derived from šalabī is the concept of ↗šalbana, lit. the ‘šalabī -dom’.
    ▪ Did the meaning ‘dandyish, foppish’ which the word took on in Ar after having been loaned from Tu, arise when the çelebi s began to imitate European dress and lifestyle and thus became a ‘Europeanizers’ (mutafarniǧ, ↗tafarnuǧ)? 
    – 
     
    ŠMʔZ شمأز 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 2Apr2023
    √ŠMʔZ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠMʔZ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠMʔZ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠMʔZ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): see š-m-z 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ŠMT شمت 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 2Apr2023
    √ŠMT 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠMT_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠMT_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠMT_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘gloating, rejoicing over the misfortune of s.o., particularly an adversary; to disappoint’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ŠMḪ شمخ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 2Apr2023
    √ŠMḪ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠMḪ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠMḪ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠMḪ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘(of a mountain) to be high; to be lofty, tower over; to behave proudly’ 
    ▪ From protSem *√ŚMḪ ‘to be(come) proud, lofty, joyful’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ŠMZ شمز 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 2Apr2023
    √ŠMZ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠMZ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠMZ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠMZ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to contract and shrink in aversion, be disdainful, be disgusted, abhor’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ŠMS شمس 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠMS 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠMS_1 ‘sun’ ↗šams
    ▪ ŠMS_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘the sun, intense heat, glaring light, to become sunny; (of a horse) to disobey and refuse to be mounted’ 
    ▪ ŠMS_1 : (Kogan2015 Sw#82:) from protSem *śamš‑ ‘sun’ (HALOT 1589). Passim except EthSem and, likely, modSAr.
    ▪ ŠMS_2 : …
    ▪ ŠMS_3 : …
     
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    šams شَمْس 
    ID 475 • Sw 72/157 • BP 686 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠMS 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2015 (Sw#82): from protSem *śamš‑ ‘sun’ (HALOT 1589). Passim except EthSem and, likely, modSAr.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘sun’) Akk šamšu, Hbr šémeš, Syr šemšā, SAr šmś.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ŠML شمل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Apr2023
    √ŠML 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠML_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠML_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠML_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘the left hand, left-hand side; bad omens, affliction; to contain, include, possess, containment’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ŠNː (ŠNN) شنّ/شنن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Jul2021
    √ŠNː (ŠNN) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠNː (ŠNN)_1 ‘to make a raid, attack’ ↗šanna (ġāraẗan)
    ▪ ŠNː (ŠNN)_2 ‘(water)skin’ ↗šann
    ▪ ŠNː (ŠNN)_3 ‘basket without handles’ ↗mišannaẗ
    ▪ ŠNː (ŠNN)_4 ‘potash; saltwort (Salsola kali; bot.)’ ↗ʔušnān (s.r. √ʔŠN)

    ▪ ŠNː (ŠNN)_5 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ [v1] šanna (ġāraẗan) ‘to make a raid, attack’ : …
    ▪ [v2] šann ‘(water)skin’ : …
    ▪ [v3] mišannaẗ ‘basket without handles’ : (?) cf. ↗ṣann ‘basket’ (perh. < Aram ṣinnâ ‘basket’, perh. orig. *‘basket made of thorns’, cf. Hbr ṣēn ‘thorn’, perh. also Hbr ṣinnāʰ ‘fishing hook’ (hapax in the Bible, perh. akin to Ar ↗ṣinnāraẗ ‘fishing hook; head-piece of the spindle’, postBiblHbr ²ṣinnôrāʰ ‘knitting needle; hook’) – Klein1987.
    ▪ [v4] ʔušnān ‘potash; saltwort (Salsola kali; bot.)’ : prob. from Pers, see ↗√ʔŠN
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    šann‑ / šanan‑ شَنّ/شَنَنْـ , u (šann
    ID … • Sw – • BP 3625 • APD … • © SG | 15Jul2021
    √ŠNː (ŠNN) 
    vb., I 
    šanna ġāraẗan: 1a to make a raid, an invasion; b to make an attack, launch an attack (ʕalà against, on) – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ʔašanna, vb. IV, = I

    For other values attached to the “root”, cf. ↗šann, ↗mišannaẗ, and ↗ʔušnān as well as, for the overall picture, “root” entry ↗√ŠNː(ŠNN).
     
    šann شَنّ , pl. šunūn 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Jul2021
    √ŠNː (ŠNN) 
    n. 
    (water)skin – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    For other values attached to the “root”, cf. ↗šanna, ↗mišannaẗ, and ↗ʔušnān, as well as, for the overall picture, “root” entry ↗√ŠNː(ŠNN).
     
    mišannaẗ مِشَنّة 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Jul2021
    √ŠNː (ŠNN) 
    n.f. 
    basket without handles – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ (?) Cf. ↗ṣann ‘basket’ (perh. < Aram ṣinnâ ‘basket’, perh. orig. *‘basket made of thorns’, cf. Hbr ṣēn ‘thorn’, perh. also Hbr ṣinnāʰ ‘fishing hook’, hapax in the Bible) – Klein1987.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    For other values attached to the “root”, cf. ↗šanna, ↗šann, and ↗ʔušnān, as well as, for the overall picture, “root” entry ↗√ŠNː(ŠNN).
     
    ŠNʔ شنأ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Apr2023
    √ŠNʔ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠNʔ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠNʔ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠNʔ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to hate, abhor, stay aloof from unclean things; hatred; ugliness; evil-doers; to give s.o. what is due to him; to disclose’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ŠNR شنر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠNR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠNR_1 ‘disgrace, ignominy’ ↗šanār
    ▪ ŠNR_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ [v1] : (?) From Pers šanār ‘disgrace, infamy; any shameful transaction’?
    ▪ [v2] : …
     
    ▪ [v1] 554DHDA.
    ▪ [v2] : …
     
    – 
    ▪ [v1] : Rolland2014a thinks the word is borrowed from Pers šinār ʻaffront, déshonneur, ignominie, honte’. In contrast, Pers šanār ‘disgrace, infamy; any shameful transaction’ is marked as an Arabism in Steingass1892. – Cf. also ṣanbar, ṣunbūr ‘mean, ignoble’ (= [v3] in root entry ↗ṢNBR) and/or ṣinnawr ‘niggardly man, of evil disposition’ (= [v5] in root entry ↗ṢNR). Could ṣinnawr or ṣanbar be based on a (non-attested) Pers *šanār-bar ‘bearer\carrier of disgrace’?
    ▪ [v2] : …
     
    – 
    – 
    šanār شَنار 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠNR 
    n. 
    disgrace, ignominy – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ From Pers šanār ‘disgrace, infamy; any shameful transaction’?
    ▪ …
     
    554DHDA
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ▪ Rolland2014a thinks the word is borrowed from Pers šinār ʻaffront, déshonneur, ignominie, honte’. In contrast, Pers šanār ‘disgrace, infamy; any shameful transaction’ is marked as an Arabism in Steingass1892.
    ▪ Cf. also ṣanbar, ṣunbūr ‘mean, ignoble’ (= [v3] in root entry ↗ṢNBR) and/or ṣinnawr ‘niggardly man, of evil disposition’ (= [v5] in root entry ↗ṢNR). Could ṣinnawr or ṣanbar be based on a (non-attested) Pers *šanār-bar ‘bearer\carrier of disgrace’?
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    šannara, vb. II, to blame, censure, revile, slander, abuse (ʕalà s.o.): D-stem, denom.
     
    ŠHB شهب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠHB 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠHB_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ŠHB_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘the encroachment of white into black, or light into dark, or vice versa; (of cold) to change the colour of trees; to be of ashen hues; barren land; to be difficult; a shooting star’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    šihāb شِهاب 
    ID 476 • Sw – • BP 7410 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠHB 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ŠHD شهد 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠHD 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠHD_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ŠHD_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘landmark; presence, to witness, to testify to what one has witnessed, seen or beheld with one’s own eyes; to be or become a martyr’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ĭstašhad‑ اِسْتَشْهَدَ 
    ID 477 • Sw – • BP 3476 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠHD 
    vb., X 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    šahādaẗ شَهادَة 
    ID 478 • Sw – • BP 956 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠHD 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    šahīd شَهِيد 
    ID 479 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠHD 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ĭstišhād اِسْتِشْهاد 
    ID 480 • Sw – • BP 3609 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠHD 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ŠHR شهر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠHR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠHR_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ŠHR_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘new moon, lunar month; to make manifest or public; fame, famous, to make famous; to make notorious’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    šahr شَهْر 
    ID 481 • Sw – • BP 158 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠHR 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: lit., ‘crescent’, from protWSem *śahr‑ ‘crescent’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ŠHQ شهق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Apr2023
    √ŠHQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠHQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠHQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠHQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘final part of braying of a donkey; inhaling, breathing in; (of a mountain) to rise high’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ŠHW شهو 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Apr2023
    √ŠHW 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠHW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠHW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠHW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to desire, long for, lust after; to resemble’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ŠWB شوب 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Apr2023
    √ŠWB 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠWB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠWB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠWB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘(of drinks) to mix, mingle, adulterate; a trace; to avoid, stay away from; insincerity, guile, deceit’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ŠWR شور 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠWR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠWR_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ŠWR_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to gather, or extract, honey from hives or combs; to exhibit, to expose, to point out, to point to; to gather opinions, to consult, consultation’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl shurašūrà
    – 
    šūrà شُورَى 
    ID 482 • Sw – • BP 2929 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠWR 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl shura, from Ar šūrà ‘consultation’, from šāwara, vb. III, ‘to consult’.↗ 
     
    šūrbaẗ شُورْبَة , var. šurbaẗ شُرْبَة (eg.), šorbaẗ , šōrabaẗ (syr.), pl. ‑āt 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠRB 
    n.f. 
    soup – WehrCowan1979. 
    Etymologically not related to (though often considered to be derived from) ↗šariba ‘to drink’, but either directly, or indirectly via Tu çorba ‘soup’, from Pers šorbā ‘meat stock, soup’, itself composed of šor ‘salt, salty’ and suffix ‑bā , indicating how s.th. (a meal) is prepared. 
    ▪ The Tu word is first attested as šorbā in Muḳaddimetü ’l-ʔEdeb (<1300). As çorba first in Filippo Argenti, Regola del Parlare Turco (1533) – Nişanyan. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    EALL (S. Procházka, »Turkish Loanwords«): from Tu çorba ‘soup’.
    ▪ Nişanyan: modTu çorba < OttTu şorbā < Pers šōrbā, composed of šōr1 salt, salty, 2 turbid, dim, mixed, troubled, confounded’ + (v. for bād), a kind of gruel or other species of spoon-meat; kind of soup.
    ▪ Rolland2014: From Pers šorbā ‘meat stock, soup’. 
    – 
    – 
    ŠWẒ شوظ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Apr2023
    √ŠWẒ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠWẒ_1 ‘smokeless fire, a tongue of pure fire’ ↗šuwāẓ
    ▪ ŠWẒ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠWẒ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘(this word, which occurs once in the Qur’an, has no verbal root) smokeless fire, a tongue of pure fire (55:35), a tongue of fire and copper will be released upon you’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ŠWK شوك 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠWK 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠWK_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ŠWK_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘thorn, spike, point, to pierce, to prick; arms, armoury, power, force’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    šawk شَوْك 
    ID 483 • Sw – • BP 4336 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠWK 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ŠWY شوي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Apr2023
    √ŠWY 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠWY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠWY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠWY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to roast, scald, fry (meat), boil water; exterior of the scalp, or of skin in general, limbs, extremities’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ŠYʔ شيأ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 31Mar2023
    √ŠYʔ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠYʔ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠYʔ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠYʔ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to will, wish, desire, willing, wanting; thing, s.th., anything’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ŠYB شيب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠYB 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠYB_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ŠYB_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ŠYB_3 ‘…’ ↗

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to become white-haired, greyness or whiteness of hair’ 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    … 
    šayb شَيْب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠYB 
    n. 
    grey hair 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘grey hair’) Akk šību, Hbr śēḇ, Syr saybāṯā, Gz šībát.
     
    … 
    … 
    … 
    ŠYḪ شيخ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 31Mar2023
    √ŠYḪ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠYḪ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠYḪ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠYḪ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to become old, advance in years, an old or elderly man’ 
    ▪ From protSem *√ŚYḪ ‘to grow, grow up, grow old’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl sheikh, from Ar ↗šayḫ ‘old man, chief’, from šāḫa ‘to grow old’; sheikha, from Ar šayḫaẗ, f. of šayḫ
    – 
    ŠYD شيد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 31Mar2023
    √ŠYD 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠYD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠYD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠYD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘plaster, gypsum, to plaster (a wall) with gypsum or the like; to erect a building, or raise a building, high, tall constructions; to strengthen, acclaim, proclaim’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ŠYŠ شيش 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠYŠ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠYŠ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ŠYŠ_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
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    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    šīšaẗ شيشة 
    ID 484 • Sw – • BP 6637 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠYŠ 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
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    ▪ …
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    … 
     
    ŠYṬ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 29Mar2023
    √ŠYṬ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠYṬ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠYṬ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ŠYṬ_3 ‘Satan’ ↗šayṭān (arranged s.r. ↗ŠYṬN)

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘singeing, scorching, burning’ 
    ▪ [v1] ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ [v2] ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ [v3] : (BAH2008:) Philologists derive the word ↗šayṭān either from the root ↗ŠṬN ‘fastening tightly; being exceedingly, or audaciously, proud, corrupt, rebellious or insolent’ or from ŠYṬ […]«. 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ŠYṬN 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠYṬN 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠYṬN_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ŠYṬN_2 ‘…’ ↗

    ▪ BAH2008: see also ŠṬN. 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl Satan, shaitanšayṭān
    – 
    šayṭān شَيْطان , pl. šayāṭīnᵘ 
    ID 485 • Sw – • BP 1580 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠYṬN 
    n. 
    Shaitan, Satan, devil, fiend – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Jeffery1938 (summary): »[…] it is from the Eth [Gz] śayṭān […] that many scholars have sought to derive the Ar šayṭān. Whether this is so it is now perhaps impossible to determine, but we may take it as certain that the word was in use long before Muḥammad’s day, and he in his use of it was undoubtedly influenced by Christian, probably Abyssinian Christian, usage.«
    ▪ BAH2008: »Philologists derive the word either from the root √ŠṬN, associated with the basic concepts of ‘fastening tightly; being exceedingly, or audaciously, proud, corrupt, rebellious or insolent’ or from the root √ŠYṬ associated with the basic concepts of ‘singeing, scorching, burning’. Because the word existed in Ar, Syr, Aram and Eth [Gz] long before the advent of Islam, it has been suggested that it is the source of various other derivations.«
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Of frequent occurrence in the Q, cf., e.g., 2:36,168,208,268,275, 4:83, etc. – It occurs (a) as a personal name for the Evil One—[Grk] ho Satanâs, cf. 2:36, 4:38, etc., (b) in the pl. šayāṭīn for the hosts of evil, cf. 2:102, 6:121, etc.; (c) metaphorically of evil leaders among men, cf. 2:14, 3:175, 6:112, etc.; (d) perhaps sometimes merely for mischievous spirits, cf. 6:71; 21:82, 23:97.
    ▪ eC7 1 (devil, demon) Q 4:117 ʔin yadʕūna min dūnihī ʔillā ʔināṯan wa‑ʔin yadʕūna ʔillā šayṭānan marīdan ‘they only invoke a rebellious devil’; 2 (devilish, evil impulse or company) Q 43:36 wa‑man yaʕšu ʕan ḏikri ’l‑raḥmāni nuqayyiḍ lahū šayṭānan fa‑huwa lahū qarīnun ‘whoever is blind to the remembrance of the Merciful, We assign to him a devil and then he becomes his comrade for him’; 3 (jinn, powerful spirits) Q 21:82 wa‑min‑a ’l‑šayāṭīni man yaġūṣūna lahū ‘and of the devils some dive for him’; 4 (devilish beings, fiends, evil forces) Q 6:112 wa‑ka‑ḏālika ǧaʕalnā li‑kulli nabiyyin ʕaduwwan šayāṭīna ’l‑ʔinsi wa’l‑ǧinni ‘in the same way We assigned to each prophet an enemy, the evil humans and the evil jinn’; 5 (with def.art.: the Devil, Satan, Iblis) Q 19:44 yā‑ʔabat‑i lā taʕbud‑i ’l‑šayṭāna ʔinna ’l‑šayṭāna kāna lil‑raḥmāni ʕaṣiyyan ‘father, do not worship Satan – Satan is a rebel against the Merciful’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Jeffery1938, 187-90: »The Muslim authorities were uncertain whether to derive the word from šaṭana ‘to be far from’, or from šāṭa ‘to burn with anger’ (cf. Rāġib, Mufradāt, 261, and LA, xvii, 104; TA, ix, 253). The form FayʕāL, however, is rather difficult. It is true, as the philologers state, that we do get forms like ḥayrān ‘perplexed’, but this is from √ḤYR where the n is no part of the root, and, like the haymān, ġaymān quoted as parallels in LA, is really a form FaʕLān not FayʕāL, and is a diptote whereas šayṭān is a triptote. The real analogy would be with such forms as hayḏār ‘babbler’, hayṣār ‘mangled’, hayḏām ‘courageous’, quoted by Brockelmann, Grundriss, i, 344, but these are all rare adjectival forms and hardly parallel the Qurʔānic šayṭān. / Now we learn from the Lexicons that šayṭān has the meaning of ‘snake’ (ḥayyaẗ lahū ʕurf) (LA, xvii, 104, 105), and we find this meaning in the old poets, e.g., in a Rejez poet […] and in a verse of Ṭarafaẗ […]. / Moreover, we find Šayṭān used as a personal name in ancient Arabia.459 The Aġānī, xv, 53, mentions al-Šayṭān b. Bakr b. ʕAwf among the ancestors of ʕAlqamaẗ, and Ibn Durayd mentions a ʕĀhān b. al-Šayṭān (240, 1.4) and a Šayṭān b. al-Ḥāriṯ (243, 1.3).460 As a tribal name we find a sub-tribe of the Banū Kindaẗ called in Banū Šayṭān in Aġānī, xx, 97, and in Yāqūt, Muʕǧam, iii, 356, we have mention of a branch of the Banū Tamīm of the same name. This use is probably totemistic in origin, for we find several totem clans among the ancient Arabs, such as the Banū Ḥayyaẗ who in the early years of Islam were the ruling caste of the Ṭayyiʔ (Aġānī, xvi, 50, 1.7), the Banū ʔAfʕà (Hamdānī, 91, 1.16), the Banū Ḥanaš, a sub-tribe of ʔAws (Ibn Durayd, 260, 2), etc.461 The serpent was apparently an old Sem totem,462 and as a tribal name associated with one of the many branches of the Snake totem. Van Vloten and Goldziher take šayṭān to be an old Ar word.463 / That the Arabs believed serpents to have some connection with supernatural powers, was pointed out by Nöldeke in the Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie, i, 412 ff., and van Vloten has shown that they were connected with demons and evil,464 so that the use of the name šayṭān for the Evil One could be taken as a development from this. The use of šayṭān in the Qurʔān in the sense of mischievous spirits, where it is practically equivalent to ↗ǧinn, can be paralleled from the old poetry, and would fit this early serpent connection, but the theological connotations of Šayṭān as leader of the hosts of evil is obviously derived from Muḥammad’s Jewish or Christian environments. In the Rabbinic writings [Hbr] Śāṭān is used in this sense, as are the Grk Satân and the Syr sāṭānā.465 From the Syr come the Arm satanay,466 and also the Phlv ideogram ???? (PPGl, 209), the Šidān of the Paikuli fragment,467 iii,2, but it is from the Eth [Gz] śayṭān which occurs beside sayṭān for [Grk] ho diábolos, that many scholars have sought to derive the Ar šayṭān.468 Whether this is so it is now perhaps impossible to determine, but we may take it as certain that the word was in use long before Muḥammad’s day,469 and he in his use of it was undoubtedly influenced by Christian, probably Abyssinian Christian, usage. (Fischer, Glossar, 165, thinks that the word is from [Hbr] śāṭān but influenced by the genuine Ar šayṭān meaning ‘demon’.)«
    ▪ … 
    459. Vide Goldziher, ZDMG, xlv, 685, and Abhandlungen, i, 106; van Vloten in Feestbundel aan de Goeje, 37 ff.; Horovitz, KU, 120.  460. So we find a Šayṭān b. MDLJ of the tribe of Ǧušām (TA, iv, 29 ) and in ʔUsd al-Ġābaẗ, i, 343, we find a man Farwaẗ b. al-Šayṭān, while in the Dīwān of Ṭufayl (ed. Krenkow, iii, 37), there is mention of a certain Šayṭān b. al-Ḥakam.  461. Vide the discussion in Robertson Smith, Kinship, 229 ff.  462. Vide Robertson Smith in Journal of Philology, ix, 99 ff.; G. B. Gray, Hebrew Proper Names, 91, and Baudissin, Studien zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte, i, 257-292.  463. Goldziher, Abhandlungen, i, 10; van Vloten, Feestebundel aan de Goeje, 38 ff. Also Sprenger, Leben, ii, 242, n. 2. Wellhausen, however, Reste, 157, n., thinks that this has been substituted for some earlier name and is not itself an old Ar name.  464. Vide his essay “Dämonen, Geister und Zauber bei den alten Arabern” in WZKM, vii, particularly pp. 174-8, and see Goldziher, Abhandlungen, i, 6 ff.  465. SṬNā is the form on the incantation bowls, cf. Montgomery, Aramaic Incantation Texts, Glossary, 296.  466. Hübschmann, Arm. Gramm, i, 316.  467. Herzfeld, Paikuli, Glossary, p. 243. Of the same origin is also the Soghdian s’t’nh (Henning, Manichäisches Beitbuch, 1937, p. 142).  468. Nöldeke, Neue Beiträge, 47; Pautz, Offenbarung, 48; Ahrens, Muhammed, 92; Rudolph, Abhängigkeit, 34; Margoliouth, ERE, x, 540. Praetorius, ZDMG, lxi, 619-620, thinks the Eth [Gz] is derived from the Ar, but see Nöldeke, op. cit., against him.  469. Wellhausen, Reste, 157, and see Horovitz, KU, 121. 
    ▪ Engl Satan, proper name of the supreme evil spirit in Christianity, oEngl Satan, from lLat Satan (in Vulgate in OT only), from Grk Satanâs, from Hbr śāṭān ‘adversary, one who plots against another’, from śāṭan ‘to show enmity to, oppose, plot against’, from root ś-ṭ-n ‘one who opposes, obstructs, or acts as an adversary’. / In Septuagint (Grk) usually translated as diábolos ‘slanderer’, literally ‘one who throws (something) across’ the path of another (see devil), though epíboulos ‘plotter’ is used once – EtymOnline.
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Satan, from Hbr śāṭān ‘adversary, Satan’, from śāṭan ‘to accuse, act as adversary’; shaitan, from Ar šayṭān ‘Satan’, from Gz śayṭān, from Aram sāṭānā, from Hbr śāṭān (see above). 
    tašayṭana, vb. II, to behave like a devil: t-stem, denom.

    šayṭānī, adj., satanic, devilish, fiendish; demonic, demoniac, hellish, infernal: nisba formation.
    šayṭanaẗ, n.f., devilry, villainy, dirty trick: vn., denom. from *šayṭana, vb. I. 
    ŠYʕ شيع 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠYʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ŠYʕ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ŠYʕ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to spread, to scatter, to disperse; to become widely known; to make one thing follow another, to follow a guest to bid him farewell; to approximate, in number/quantity, to another; to go along with the ideas of another, to be of the same persuasion; bias, partisan, sect, sectarianism’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl Shia, Shiitešīʕaẗ
    – 
    šīʕaẗ شِيعَة 
    ID 486 • Sw – • BP 1713 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠYʕ 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Shia, Shiite, from Ar šīʕaẗ ‘followers, disciples, faction’ (meaning influenced by Aram siʕā, abs. form of siʕtā ‘troop, company’), from Ar šāʕa, vb. I, ‘to spread, become known.↗’ 
     
    šīʕī شِيعِيّ 
    ID 487 • Sw – • BP 1872 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠYʕ 
    ¹adj.; ²n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Shiitešīʕaẗ
     
    šuyūʕī شُيُوعِيّ 
    ID 488 • Sw – • BP 3328 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ŠYʕ 
    ¹adj.; ²n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    šuyūʕiyyaẗ شُيُوعيّة 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 7Jun2023
    √ŠYʕ 
    n.f. 
    communism 
    ▪ …abstr. formation in -iyyaẗ 
    ṣād صاد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ 
    R₁ 
    The letter of the Arabic alphabet. 
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    ṢBː (ṢBB) صبّ/صبب 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 4Apr2023
    √ṢBː (ṢBB) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢBː (ṢBB)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢBː (ṢBB)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢBː (ṢBB)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to pour out; remnant; a group; love, to be in love’ 
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    ṢBʔ صبأ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 4Apr2023
    √ṢBʔ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢBʔ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢBʔ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢBʔ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to emerge, to well out, (of the stars) to spring forth, to appear; to renege one’s faith for another faith’ 
    ▪ BAH2008: »Arab philologists derive the form al-ṣābiʔūn (which occurs three times in the Qur’an) from this root or from the root ↗ṢBW ‘to incline’. Some western scholars attribute it to a borrowing from Aram, Gz or SAr. Hughes attributes the word to »the Hbr word tsābā ‘a host’ (Gen. ii.1, i.e., ‘Those who worship the hosts of heaven’)«.
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    ṢBḤ صبح 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢBḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢBḤ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ṢBḤ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘morning, dawn, daylight, to reach morning time, (of the morning) to arrive; (of a woman) comely; lantern’ 
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    ṣubḥ صُبْح 
    ID 490 • Sw – • BP 1967 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢBḤ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    ṣabāḥ صَباح 
    ID 489 • Sw – • BP 449 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢBḤ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    ṢBR صبر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢBR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢBR_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ṢBR_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘confinement, restraint, killing by detention; patience, endurance’ 
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    ṣabr صَبْر 
    ID 491 • Sw – • BP 1163 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢBR 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    ṢBʕ صبع 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢBʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢBʕ_1 ‘finger; toe’ ↗ʔiṣbaʕ
    ▪ ṢBʕ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘finger, toe, to point to; good influence’ 
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    ʔiṣbaʕ إِصْبَع , pl. ʔaṣābiʕᵘ 
    ID 492 • Sw – • BP 2619 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢBʕ 
    n. 
    1 finger; 2 toe (also ~ al-qadam); 3 a linear measure (Eg. ; = 3.125 cm); 4 key (of a piano); 5 popsicle; 6 lollipop – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: prot(W)Sem *ʔiṣbaʕ‑ ‘finger’.
    ▪ From Sem *ṣ˅bʕ(-at)-, *ʔ˅-ṣbaʕ- ‘finger’ (from AfrAs *c̣ib˅ʕ- ‘id.’), often also meaning ‘toe’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q 71:7 wa-ʔinnī kulla-mā daʕawtu-hum li-taġfira la-hum ǧaʕalū ʔaṣābiʕa-hum fī ʔāḏāni-him ‘and every time I call them, so that You may forgive them, they put their fingers in their ears’ 
    ▪ SED/StarLing: Akk neṣbettu,144 ; Ebl iš-ba-um; Ug u͗ṣbʕ (Tropper2008: /ʔuṣbaʕu/ < *ṣ˅baʕu); Hbr ʔäṣbaʕ; EmpAram ʔṣbʕ, BiblAram ʔäṣbəʕān (pl.f.), JudAram ṣibʕā, ʔäṣbaʕ, Syr ṣebʕā, Mand ṣibita, ʕṣba, ṣbata, ṣbita; Ar ʔaṣbaʕ, ʔiṣbaʕ, ʔaṣbiʕ, ʔaṣbuʕ, ʔiṣbiʕ, ʔiṣbuʕ, ʔuṣbuʕ, ʔuṣbiʕ, ʔuṣbūʕ, YemAr ṣabiʕ, ṣbūʕ, ṣābiʕ; Mhr ṣ̌əbáʔ, Ḥrs ḥaṣ̌báʔ, Jib ʔiṣbaʕ, Soq ʔéṣbaḥ, ṣóbeḥ; Gz ʔaṣbāʕ(ə)t, Te č̣əbʕət, Tña ʔaṣabəʕti (pl.), Amh ṭat (< *ṣ˅bʕ-at-), Arg ṭad, Har aṭābiñña.
    ▪ Outside Sem (as in StarLing): Eg ḏbʕ (Copt tēēbe) ‘finger’, [Omot] WMao (Hozo) zaba, (Sezo) zaabi, Nao zaba ‘finger’, perh. also [LEC] Som ʕeḍib-, Rend ḍábḍáb ‘heel’ 
    ▪ SED #256 reconstructs Sem *ṣ˅bʕ(-at)-, *ʔ˅-ṣbaʕ- | *c̣˅bʕ(-at)-, *?˅-c̣baʕ- ‘finger’. The underlying protoforms are presumably *ṣibʕ(-at)-, *ʔa-ṣibʕ . – Often also with the meaning ‘toe’.
    ▪ StarLing: Sem *ṣibʕ-(at-), *ʔa-ṣibaʕ- ‘finger’, Eg ḏbʕ ‘finger’ (pyr), Omot *ʒaHab- ‘finger’, (?) Berb *ḍabH- ‘fingerring’, (?) LEC *ʕeḍib- ‘heel’, all from AfrAs *c̣ib˅ʕ- ‘finger’.
    ▪ Cf. also ↗ṭābaʕ ‘signet-ring, seal’. 
    – 
    ʔiṣbaʕ min al-baṭāṭis, n., French fried potatoes
    ʔiṣbaʕ al-ʔaḥmar, n., lipstick
    ʔaṣābiʕ al-suǧuq, n.pl., frankfurters
    baṣmaẗ al-ʔaṣābiʕ, n.f., fingerprint
    ṭābaʕ al-ʔaṣābiʕ, n., fingerprint
    la-hū ʔiṣbaʕ fī hāḏā ’l-ʔamr, expr., he has a hand in this matter

    ṣabaʕa, a (ṣabʕ), vb. I, 1 to point with the finger (ʕalà, bi‑ at); 2 to insert one’s finger (DO into the hen, so as to ascertain whether she is going to lay an egg): with all likelihood denom.

    ṣubāʕ (eg.), n., 1 finger; 2 toe (also ~ al-qadam): var. of ʔiṣbaʕ
    ʔuṣbūʕ, pl. ʔaṣābīʕᵘ, n., 1 finger; 2 toe: var. of ʔiṣbaʕ
    muṣabbaʕ, n., gridiron, grill: PP/n.loc. II, lit. *‘the fingered thing’
     
    ṢBĠ صبغ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Apr2023
    √ṢBĠ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢBĠ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢBĠ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢBĠ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘dye; to colour; to dip one’s hand in water, dip a bit of bread in relish such as oil and the like; relish, a dip such as sauce and olive oil; to become oriented towards s.th.’ 
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    ṢBW صبو 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Apr2023
    √ṢBW 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢBW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢBW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢBW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘youth, youthfulness, youthful propensity’ 
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    ṢḤː (ṢḤḤ) صحّ / صحح 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢḤː (ṢḤḤ) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢḤː (ṢḤḤ)_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ṢḤː (ṢḤḤ)_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
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    ṣiḥḥaẗ صِحَّة 
    ID 493 • Sw – • BP 458 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢḤː (ṢḤḤ) 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    ṣaḥīḥ صَحِيح 
    ID 494 • Sw –/117 • BP 364 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢḤː (ṢḤḤ) 
    adj. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    ṢḤB صحب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢḤB 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢḤB_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ṢḤB_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to keep company, associate with, consort with, to be a comrade, companion or fellow to; to defend, to guard; companionship, fellowship; belonging, ownership’ 
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    ṣaḥābaẗ صَحابَة 
    ID 495 • Sw – • BP 3898 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢḤB 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    ṢḤF صحف 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢḤF 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢḤF_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ṢḤF_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘flat dish or a like object, such as the side of a scroll’ 
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    ṣaḥīfaẗ صحيفة 
    ID 499 • Sw – • BP 486 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢḤF 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    ṣuḥufī صُحُفِيّ , var. ṣaḥafī 
    ID 498 • Sw – • BP 939 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢḤF 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    ṣaḥāfaẗ صَحافَة , var. ṣiḥāfaẗ 
    ID 496 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 1418 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢḤF 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    ṣaḥāfī صَحافِيّ 
    ID 497 • Sw – • BP 1751 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢḤF 
    ¹adj.; ²n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    muṣḥaf مُصْحَف , var. maṣḥaf 
    ID 500 • Sw – • BP 4975 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢḤF 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    ṢḪː (ṢḪḪ) صخّ/صخخ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Apr2023
    √ ṢḪː (ṢḪḪ) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢḪː (ṢḪḪ)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢḪː (ṢḪḪ)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢḪː (ṢḪḪ)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘deafening sound, a cry that deafens by its vehemence; to pierce; calamity’ 
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    ṢḪR صخر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Apr2023
    √ṢḪR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢḪR _1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢḪR _2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢḪR _3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘(no verbal root) [generic noun occurring once] rock, rocks’ 
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    ṢDː (ṢDD) صدّ/صدد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 4Apr2023
    √ ṢDː (ṢDD) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢDː (ṢDD)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢDː (ṢDD)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢDː (ṢDD)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘(of a road) to take a side turn; to turn away from, to shun, to be averse to; to cause s.o. to turn away from, to go back, to reject; blockage, hindrance, aversion’. 
    ▪ BAH2008: The form taṣdiyaẗ ‘clapping with the hands’ is classified under this root and also under the root ↗ṢDY.
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    ṢDR صدر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢDR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢDR_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ṢDR_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘breast, front piece, that which fronts or faces one; initial part; to place in the front or on the highest place; to return, or go back; to issue forth, to proceed’ 
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    ṣadr صَدْر 
    ID 501 • Sw – • BP 786 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢDR 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    ṢDʕ صدع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 4Apr2023
    √ṢDʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢDʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢDʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢDʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to cleave, split; to cause a headache; to disperse, scatter; to traverse, cross from one side to the other, to journey; crack, fissure, cleavage; scattering, standing out; to comply with, attain to’ 
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    ṢDF صدف 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 4Apr2023
    √ṢDF 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢDF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢDF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢDF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘side of a mountain, two mountains meeting together; one side of an oyster shell; to find to be equal; to lean to one side, to turn away, to shun; to encounter, to come upon’ 
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    ṢDQ صدق 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢDQ 
    “root” 
    Ultimately, all items in this “root” go back to the same Sem etymon. But some are probably inner-Sem loans.

    ▪ ṢDQ_1 ‘to speak the truth’ ↗ṣadaqa
    ▪ ṢDQ_2 ‘(voluntarily given) alms’ ↗ṣadaqaẗ
    ▪ ṢDQ_3 ‘strictly veracious, upright’ ↗ṣiddīq .
    ▪ ṢDQ_4 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to say, tell, utter, speak the truth; to fulfil one’s promise; (of the morning) to shine clearly; to be true to (principles or friends); the truth; steadfastness; to befriend, friendship; charity, alms, to give alms to the poor; dowry’ 
    ▪ The root does not seem to be attested in ESem and therefore has to be regarded as a WSem innovation. Huehnergard 2011 reconstructs WSem *ṣdq ‘to be(come) just, righteous’.
    ▪ While [v1] in Ar is directly from the Sem, [v2] and [v3] are used in specific contexts, which is why they are likely to be inner-Sem borrowings. 
    – 
    See ↗ṣadaqa, ↗ṣadaqaẗ, ↗ṣiddīq
    See ↗ṣadaqa, ↗ṣadaqaẗ, ↗ṣiddīq
    – 
    – 
    ṣadaq‑ صَدَقَ , u (ṣadq , ṣidq
    ID 502 • Sw – • BP 2301 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢDQ 
    vb., I 
    to speak the truth, be sincere; to tell (DO s.o.) the truth (ʕan about); to prove to be true, turn out to be correct, come true; to be right; to fit exactly (ʕalà s.o. or s.th.), apply (to), hold true (of) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ The root does not seem to be attested in ESem and therefore has to be regarded as a WSem innovation. Huehnergard 2011 reconstructs WSem *ṣdq ‘to be(come) just, righteous’. 
    – 
    BDB1906: Hbr ṣādēq ‘to be righteous, just’, ṣädäq ‘rightness, righteousness; justice’, ṣaddīq ‘just, righteous’, etc.; Phn ṣdq ‘just, right’; oAram ṣdq ‘righteousness, loyalty’, Nab ʔṣdq ‘authorized’, Palm zdqtʔ renders Grk ‘eusebḗs’, Syr zāḏeq ‘it is right’, zadīqā ‘righteous’, zadīqūṯā ‘righteousness’; Sab145 ṣdq ‘to get o.’s right; to justify, make right; to fulfil (a duty); to favour, endow, grant’, ṣdq ‘right, justice, righteousness; right (adj.)’; Gz ṣadəqa ‘to be just, righteous’. — Outside Sem: Saho sadaq ‘to be true, clear’. 
    ▪ Badawi2008 gives as the major values of the root in ClassAr: ‘to say, tell, utter, speak the truth; to fulfil o.’s promise; (of the morning) to shine clearly; to be true to (principles or friends); the truth; steadfastness; to befriend, friendship; charity, alms, to give alms to the poor; dowry’ 
    ▪ Huehnergard2011/EtymOnline: Engl Sadducee is not from Ar but, via lLat sadducaei (pl.) < Grk zaddoukaios, from Mishnaic Hbr ṣədûqî ‘Sadducee’, which is from the same WSem root *ṣdq ‘to be(come) just, righteous’ to which also Ar ṣadaqa goes back. Hbr ṣədûqî is formed after ṣādôq ‘Zadoq/Tzadhoq, just, righteous’, a high priest in the time of David and Solomon, whose name is based on the vb. Hbr ṣādaq ‘to be(come) just, righteous’. From Zadoq the priesthood of the captivity claimed descent. »According to Josephus, the sect denied the resurrection of the dead and the existence of angels and spirits; but later historians regard them as more the political party of the priestly class than a sect per se« – EtymOnline. – Cf. also other names known from the Bible, such as Melchizedek and Zedekiah. 
    ṣadaqa waʕdahū or ~ fī waʕdih, vb., to keep, or fulfill, one’s promise

    BP#989ṣaddaqa, vb. II, to deem (s.o., s.th.) credible, accept (s.th.) as true, give credence (DO to s.o., to s.th.), believe, trust; to consider or pronounce s.th. to be true, right, correct or credible; to believe (bi‑ in); to give one’s consent, to consent, assent, agree (ʕalà to s.th.), approve (of s.th.), grant, license, sanction, certify, confirm, substantiate, attest, ratify; (officially) to certify (ʕalà the correctness of a translation, signature, or copy):.
    ṣādaqa, vb. III, to treat as a friend; to maintain one’s friendship (DO with s.o.); to be or become friends (with), befriend (s.o.): associative, denom. from ṣadīq; to give one’s consent, to consent, assent, agree (ʕalà to s.th.), approve (of), grant, license, sanction, certify, confirm, substantiate; (officially) to certify (ʕalà see II):.
    ʔaṣdaqa, vb. IV, to fix a (bridal) dower (‑hā for a woman): denom. from ṣadāq ?
    taṣaddaqa, vb. V, ↗ṣaqadaẗ ‘alms’.

    BP#1637ṣidq, n., truth, trueness, truthfulness; sincerity, candor; veracity, correctness (of an allegation); efficiency: vn. I.
    ṣadaqaẗ, n.: ↗s.v..
    ṣadāq, ṣidāq, pl. ṣuduq, ʔaṣdiqaẗ, n., (bridal) dower; – (pl. ʔaṣdiqaẗ) marriage contract (tun.):.
    BP#2206ṣadāqaẗ, pl. ‑āt , n., friendship: n.abstr., from ṣadīq.
    BP#398ṣadīq, pl. ʔaṣdiqāʔᵘ, ṣudaqāʔᵘ, ṣudqān, n., friend; adj., friendly, connected by bonds of friendship: pseudo-PA / ints.
    ṣadūq, adj., veracious, truthful, honest, sincere: ints.
    ṣiddīq, adj., strictly veracious, honest, righteous, upright; al-~, epithet of the first Caliph, Abū Bakr: ints., but see also ↗s.v..
    BP#4628ʔaṣdaqᵘ, adj., truer, sincerer; more reliable; more truthful: elat.
    miṣdāq, n., confirmation, corroboration, substantiation; touchstone, criterion: n.instr. (?).
    BP#3519miṣdāqiyyaẗ, n.f., credibility: abstr. in iyyaẗ, from miṣdāq.
    taṣdīq, n., belief, faith (bi‑ in); consent, assent, agreement (ʕalà to), approval, sanctioning, licensing, certification, confirmation, attestation, ratification; (official) certification: vn. II.
    muṣādaqaẗ, consent, assent, agreement, concurrence (ʕalà in); approval, sanctioning, certification, confirmation, attestation, ratification; (official) certification: vn. III.
    taṣāduq, n., legalization, authentication (ʕalà of a document): vn. VI.
    BP#1392ṣādiq, adj., true, truthful, veracious, sincere, candid; reliable; accurate, true, genuine, faithful, authentic: PA I.
    muṣaddiqaẗ, certificate, certification, attestation: lexicalized PA II.f.
    muṣaddaq, credible, believable, reliable, trustworthy: lexicalized PP II. 

    ṣadaqaẗ صَدَقَة , pl. ‑āt 
    ID 503 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢDQ 
    n.f. 
    alms, charitable gift; almsgiving, charity, voluntary contribution of alms, freewill offering; legally prescribed alms tax (Isl. Law) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ As a religious technical term, the word is taken from Hbr ṣdāqāh ‘law, right behaviour, alms’. Sem ṢDQ to which the Hbr etymon belongs, has however successors also in Ar, cf. ↗ṣadaqa and derivatives.
    ▪ It seems that the word was borrowed in early Islamic times to provide an Islamic counterpart to old Arabian charity as practised by clan/tribe chiefs through individual acts of generosity. Through ṣadaqa, the old ideal/norm could be integrated into Islam in a modified, ‘milder’, less excessive and self-destructive form while at the same time a new notion of collective charity (↗zakāt) could be introduced and was given priority over individual charity. The old Arabian ideals however continued into Islamic times not only as ṣadaqa (↗jūd, ↗karam, ↗saḫāʔ). 
    ▪ eC7 Q 2:196,263, 4:114, 9:103, 58:12 ‘alms, tithes’. Derivatives: (taṣaddaqa) 2:280; 5:45; 12:88, ( ʔaṣṣaddaqa) 4:92; 9:75; 63:10, (muṣaddiq, mutaṣaddiq) e.g. 2:41; 33:35. 
    ▪ BDB1906: Hbr ṣədāqâh ‘righteousness(also ethically); righteous acts’, TellAm ṣaduq ‘innocent’, Syr zedqṯā ‘alms’. 
    ▪ Jeffery1938, 194: The Qur’anic »[p]assages are all late, and the word is used only as a technical religious term, just like Hbr ṣᵊdāqâh, Phoen ṣdq, Syr zdqā. – The Muslim authorities derive the word from ṣadaqa ‘to be sincere’ and say that alms are so called because they prove the sincerity of one’s faith. The connection of the [word] with √ṢDQ is sound enough, but as a technical word for ‘alms’ there can be no doubt that it came from a Jewish or Christian source. Hirschfeld, Beiträge, 89, argues for a Jewish origin,470 which is very possible. The Syr zdqā with z for would seem fatal to a derivation from a Christian source, but in the Christian-Palestinian dialect we find ṣdqā translating [Grk] eleēmosýnē in common use in several forms,471 which makes it at least possible that the source of the Ar word is to be found there.«
    ▪ Pennacchio2014, 168: the word seems to be a borrowing from Hbr ṣᵊdāqâh, »concept spécifique au judaïsme. Il es fréquent dans le texte biblique mais il n’a pas seulement le sens de ‘charité, aumône’. […] C’est dans la littérature rabbinique que ṣədāqā ‘pureté, vertu, équité’ a le sens d’‘aumône’.«472
    ▪ Kerr2014: »The ‘voluntary donation’ ṣadaqaẗ has a specific meaning and thus is certainly of foreign origin. In Amor, Ug, (older) Hbr, Sab, Gz, etc. this semantic domain encompasses ‘justice, to be righteous, to be documented as true’ (compare the Tzaddik; Sadducee)—from which the classical commentators derived the Ar term. The development of ‘to be righteous’ > ‘that which is right(eous)’ > ‘that which is proper (to give)’ > ‘to give charitably’ > ‘to give a portion, toll’ was completed in Aram. Syr which renders here the /ṣ/ with {z} is less relevant here. However, here we do find a similar semantic development: zadūṯā (<√ZDQ !) ‘beneficium, eleemosyne’, for example, as in Matthew 6:2, where this word expresses the Greek eleēmosýnē […]. The unaltered root √ṢDQ found in WAram is, however, in all likelihood the source of the Ar borrowing. So for example ChrPal ṣdqʔ as well as the Hbr word borrowed by Jewish dialects ṣəḏāqāʰ ‘liberality, especially almsgiving’. Although the exact Aram source of this word is not clear, it is most likely the same one which lent this word into ClassEth [Gz] ṣadəqāt (pl.; sg. ṣadəq). In any case, the particular semantic development of the root √ṢDQ here, from ‘righteousness’ to ‘alms(giving)’ is somewhat convoluted so as to preclude the same semantic development having occurred twice independently. The precedence of this development in Aram certainly shows that it was borrowed by Ar. The fact that it […] seems to have been borrowed from a Jewish WAram dialect could indicate that it is an Islamic continuation of an originally Jewish custom, possibly a relic of Islam’s Jud-Chr origins.« 
    – 
    ṣadaqat al-fiṭr, n., almsgiving at the end of Ramadan (Isl. Law)

    taṣaddaqa, vb. V, to give alms (ʕalà to s.o.); to give as alms, donate (bi‑ s.th., ʕalà to s.o.): denom. 

    ṣiddīq صِدِّيق 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢDQ 
    adj. 
    strictly veracious, honest, righteous, upright; al-~, epithet of the first Caliph, Abū Bakr – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Jeffery thinks this word, which is a standard epithet of the first caliph, is a borrowing from JudAram ṣaddîqāh ‘pious’, while Paret makes Hbr ṣaddīq ‘pious’ the etymon proper. Sem ṢDQ to which the Aram and Hbr words belong, has however successors also in Ar, cf. ↗ṢDQ, ↗ṣadaqa and derivatives.
    ▪ In the Qur’an, the sg. is an epithet of prominent figures like Abraham, Idris and Joseph. In the pl., the word denotes a rank of pious and holy people. 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    Jeffery1938, 194-5: »Obviously it may be taken as a genuine Ar formation from ṣadaqa on the measure fiʕʕīl, though this form is not very common. — As used in the Qurʔān, however, it seems to have a technical sense, being used in the sg. only of Biblical characters, and in the pl. as ‘the righteous’, and for this reason it has been thought that we can detect the influence of the Hbr-Aram ṣaddīq. Thus Fleischer, Kleinere Schriften, ii, 594, says: “Das Wort ist dem Hbr-Aram ṣaddîq entlehnt, mit Verwandlung des Vocals der ersten Silbe in i nach dem bekannten reinarabischen اتباع.” – In the OT [Hbr] ṣaddîq means ‘just, righteous’, and is generally rendered by [Grk] díkaios in the LXX. In the Rabbinic ṣaddîqâ the sense of ‘piety’ becomes even more prominent and it is used in a technical sense for ‘the pious’, as in Succa, 45, b. It is precisely in this sense that Joseph, Abraham, and Idris are called ṣiddīq and the Virgin Mary ṣiddīqaẗ in the Qurʔān, and there can be little doubt that both the Ar and the Eth [Gz] ṣādəq are of this Aram origin.«473  
    – 
    — 
    ṢDY صدي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 4Apr2023
    √ṢDY 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢDY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢDY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢDY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘intense thirst, to become thirsty; clapping of the hands, echo; to soothe, to coax; to endeavour; human corpse, skull’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṢRː (ṢRR) صرّ/صرر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 4Apr2023
    √ ṢRː (ṢRR) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢRː (ṢRR)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢRː (ṢRR)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢRː (ṢRR)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘freezing cold, frost; (sound) screeching, grating, creaking; (of a buzzard) to cry; to tie up, to purse, to constrict; to persist’ 
    ▪ From CSem *√ṢRR ‘to be(come) narrow, restricted, distressed, to bind, tie’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṢRḤ صرح 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 4Apr2023
    √ṢRḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢRḤ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢRḤ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢRḤ_3 ‘tower’ ↗ṣarḥ

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be, or become, pure, sheer, clear, unmixed; purity; tower, high building; a court or an open area, in a house’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṣarḥ صَرْح 
    ID – • Sw – • BP 4652 • APD … • © SG | 3Jun2023
    √ṢRḤ
     
    n. 
    tower – Jeffery1938
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q xxvii, 44; xxviii, 38; xl, 38 – Jeffery1938.
     
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »The Lexicographers were not very sure of its meaning. They generally take it to mean ‘palace, magnificent building’ (Ǧawharī), or the name of a castle (TA, ii, 179), while some say it means ‘glass tiles’, balāṭ min qawārīr. All these explanations, however, seem to be drawn from the Qurʔānic material, and they do not explain how the word can be derived from √ṢRḤ. / Nöldeke, Neue Beiträge, 51, pointed out that in all probability the word is from Eth [Gz] ṣərḥ ‘room’, sometimes used for ‘templum’, sometimes for ‘palatium’, but as Dillmann, Lex, 1273, notes, always for aedes altiores conspicuae. This is a much likelier origin than the Aram ṣryḥ, which, though in the Targum to Jud. ix, 49, it means ‘citadel, fortified place’, usually means a ‘deep cavity in a rock’, and is the equivalent of Arab ḍarīḥ, not of ṣarḥ.474 It is doubtful if the word occurs in the genuine old poetry, but it is found in the SAr inscriptions, where ṣrḥt = ‘aedificium elatum’ (Rossini, Glossarium, 225).«
     
    – 
    – 
    taṣrīḥī تَصْريحيّ 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 7Jun2023
    √ṢRḤ 
    adj. 
    ▪ nsb-formation from taṣrīḥ, vn. II 
    ṢRḪ صرخ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢRḪ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢRḪ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ṢRḪ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to scream, shriek, to call for help, yell, loud cry’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ṣārūḫ صارُوخ 
    ID 504 • Sw – • BP 1489 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢRḪ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
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    – 
     
    ṣaraḫ‑ صَرَخَ 
    ID 505 • Sw – • BP 1894 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢRḪ 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘to cry, shout’) Akk ṣrḫ (u), Hbr ṣrḥ, Syr (caus. ṣrḥ), Gz ṣrḫ – (ā).
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ṢRṢR صرصر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 4Apr2023
    √ṢRṢR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢRṢR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢRṢR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢRṢR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘screeching, or creaking, sound of a cricket, cricket; to be vehemently noisy; to be extremely frosty’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṢRṬ صرط 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢRṬ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢRṬ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ṢRṬ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): sirāṭ is recognised as a borrowing from ancient Grk through Lat. 
    ▪ … 
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    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ṣirāṭ صِراط 
    ID 506 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢRṬ 
    n.m./f. 
    way, path, road – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ According to Gutas (EALL, »Greek Loanwords«), the word is one of the few cases where Grk acted as intermediary for the transmission of a Lat loanword.
    EI² (C. Rabin, »ʕArabiyya«) ṣirāṭ might belong to a group of »some military terms« that »may have come directly from Latin.« 
    ▪ eC7 Occurs some forty-five times in the Q, e.g. 1:6,7, 2:142,213, etc. ‘a way’
    ▪ eC7 1 (road, highway, pathway) Q 7:86 wa‑lā taqʕudū bi‑kulli ṣirāṭin tūʕidūna ‘and do not sit in every pathway, threatening [wayfarers]’; *Q 1:6 (ĭ)hdi‑nā ’l‑ṣirāṭa ’l‑mustaqīma ‘guide us to the straight path [also interpreted as: the true religion, the way of the righteous, the religion of Islam]’; 2 (an undertaking, promise) Q 15:41 qāla hāḏā ṣirāṭun ʕalayya mustaqīmun ‘He said: This is a promise from Me [that will be kept]’; 3 (with def.art.: the Path, the bridge spanning Hell which all humankind would have to cross on the Day of Judgement – in 1 interpretation of) Q 33:66 wa‑law našāʔu la‑ṭamasnā ʕalā ʔaʕyunihim fa‑’stabaqū ’l‑ṣirāṭa fa‑ʔannā yubṣirūna ‘had We willed, We would obliterate their eyes, then they would race to get to the Path, but how could they see [it]?’
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    EI² (C. Rabin, »ʕArabiyya«): ṣirāṭ might belong to a group of »some military terms« that »may have come directly from Latin.«
    ▪ Gutas (EALL, »Greek Loanwords«) specifies: < Aram ĭsṭrātiyā < Grk στράτα < Lat strata.
    ▪ Jeffery1938, 195-96: »The word is used only in a religious sense, usually with the adj. mustaqīm, and though frequently used by Muḥammad to indicate his own preaching, it is also used of the teaching of Moses (37:118) and Jesus (3:51), and sometimes means the religious way of life in general (cf. 7:16). / The early Muslim authorities knew not what to make of the word. They were not sure whether it was to be spelled ṣirāṭ, sirāṭ, or zirāṭ475 and they were equally uncertain as to its gender, al-Akhfash propounding a theory that in the dialect of Hijaz it was fem. and in the dialect of Tamīm masc. Many of the early philologers recognized it as a foreign word, as we learn from as-Suyūṭī, Itq, 322, Muzhir, i, 130, Mutaw 50. They said it was Grk, and are right in so far as it was from the Hellenized form of the Lat strata that the word passed into Aram and thence into Ar. / The word was doubtless first introduced by the Roman administration into Syria and the surrounding territory, so that [Lat] strata became [Grk] stráta (cf. Procopius, ii, 1), and thence Aram ʔsṭrṭyʔ, ʔsṭrṭyʔ, ʔysrṭyʔ, srṭyʔ,476 Syr ĭstrāṭā.477 From Aram it was an early borrowing into Ar, being found in the early poetry.478
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Cf. Engl street, oEngl stret (Mercian, Kentish), stræt (West Saxon) ‘street, high road’, from lLat strata, used elliptically for via strata ‘paved road’, from fem. PP of Lat sternere ‘to lay down, spread out, pave’, from protIE *stre-to‑ ‘to stretch, extend’, from root *stere‑ ‘to spread, extend, stretch out’, from nasalized form of protIE root *stere‑ ‘to spread’. / One of the few words in use in England continuously from Roman times. An early and widespread Germ borrowing (oFris strete, oSax strata, mDu strate, Du straat, oHGe straza, Ge Straße, Sw stråt, Da sträde ‘street’). The Lat is also the source of Span estrada, oFr estrée, It stradaEtymOnline
     
    ṢRʕ صرع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 4Apr2023
    √ṢRʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢRʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢRʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢRʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to knock down, to wrestle; epilepsy’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṢRF صرف 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢRF 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢRF_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ṢRF_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to divert the direction, to avert, to repel; to cause to turn, or to shift, from one state to another, to dissuade; to dismiss; to creak, to grate; to exchange’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl silver, prob. ultimately from Akk ṣarpu ‘refined, silver’, vb.adj. of ṣarāpu ‘to refine’. 
    – 
    ṣirf صِرْف 
    ID 507 • Sw – • BP??? • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢRF 
    adj. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ṢRM صرم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 4Apr2023
    √ṢRM 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢRM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢRM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢRM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to cut off, to sever, to separate, plucking off; to forsake; to pass away; the first and last parts of the night, the night; sharp, decisive’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṢʕD صعد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 4Apr2023
    √ṢʕD 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢʕD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢʕD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢʕD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to climb up, to ascend, to surface; high land, the upper crust of the earth, clean soil; (of breath) to labour, to undergo difficulty, distress’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṢʕR صعر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 4Apr2023
    √ṢʕR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢʕR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢʕR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢʕR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘(in camels) a disease that causes a distortion and twisting of the neck to one side; to turn away one’s check from people out of contempt arising from pride’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṢʕQ صعق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 4Apr2023
    √ṢʕQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢʕQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢʕQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢʕQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘thunderbolt, to smite with a thunderbolt, be thunderstruck; to fall down unconscious, to stupefy’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṢĠR صغر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢĠR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢĠR_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ṢĠR_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘youth, being youthful; small, to be small, little, slight, to shrink; to be small in the eyes of others; to be base, contemptible’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
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    – 
    – 
    ṣaġīr صَغِير 
    ID 508 • Sw 15/140 • BP 230 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢĠR 
    adj. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
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    ▪ …
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    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ṢĠW صغو 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 4Apr2023
    √ṢĠW 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢĠW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢĠW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢĠW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘inclination, or twisting, of the mouth; to incline, to swerve’ 
    ▪ … 
    ṢFː (ṢFF) صفّ/صفف 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 4Apr2023
    √ ṢFː (ṢFF) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢFː (ṢFF)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢFː (ṢFF)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢFː (ṢFF)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to arrange in ranks, lines, or rows, to set side by side, to arrange in a straight line; to stand in ranks, line up’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl sofa, from Ar ↗ṣuffaẗ ‘sofa’, from Aram ṣippā, abs. form of ṣippᵊtā, a mat, perh. akin to ṣippā, ṣuppā ‘carded wool’, cf. Ar ↗ṣūf.
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Sufi, from Ar ↗ṣūfī, ‘(man) of wool’, from ↗ṣūf ‘wool’, perh. from Aram ṣippā, ṣuppā ‘carded wool’; both perh. from Akk ṣuppu ‘solid, massive, compacted (textile)’, vb.adj. of ṣuppu ‘to press down, rub down a horse’, derived stem of *ṣâpu, cf. ↗ṢFː (ṢFF). 
    – 
    ṢFḤ صفح 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Apr2023
    √ṢFḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢFḤ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢFḤ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢFḤ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘width or broad side of a mountain; the side, or lateral, or outward part, face, or surface, flatness or wide smooth expanse; to turn away from s.o.’s crime, to forgive, to let off, to set free; to take s.o.’s hand in salute’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṢFD صفد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Apr2023
    √ṢFD 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢFD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢFD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢFD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘shackles, fetters, thongs, chains; to bind; to give freely’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṢFR صفر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢFR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢFR_1 ‘to whistle; bird’ ↗
    ▪ ṢFR_2 ‘yellow’ ↗ʔaṣfar

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘whistle, to whistle, to utter a whistle-like sound; to become empty, void or vacant; to become yellow, (of plants) to wither away to the point of becoming yellow’ 
    ▪ [v1] Kogan2011: Ar ṣāfir ‘(birds other than birds of prey)’ can be traced back untio protWSem *ṣ˅p(p)˅r‑ ‘bird’ (but Akk ṣibāru ‘sparrow’).
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl cipher, zero, decipher, from Ar ṣifr ‘empty’ (loan translation of Skr śūnyam ‘cipher, dot’), from ṣafira ‘to be(come) empty, vacant’; Safar, from Ar ṣafar ‘Safar’, prob. from ṣafira (see above).↗ 
    – 
    ʔaṣfarᵘ أَصْفَرُ 
    ID 509 • Sw 89/200 • BP 2099 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢFR 
    adj. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
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    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ṢFṢF صفصف 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Apr2023
    √ṢFṢF 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢFṢF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢFṢF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢFṢF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be empty, deserted or vacant; a level tract of land with no herbage or water’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṢFN صفن 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Apr2023
    √ṢFN 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢFN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢFN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢFN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘(of horses) to stand on three legs with the edge of one of the front hoofs just touching the ground (a sign of a thoroughbred), to set the feet side by side, to stand confronting a party of people; to compact dry herbage into a nest; nest, waterskin’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṢFW صفو 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Apr2023
    √ṢFW 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢFW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢFW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢFW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to purify, purity, pure; to choose, to select above others, the choice, the elite, the select; hard smooth rock’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    *ṢQ‑ (*ṢḲ‑) 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢQ- 
    cons. “root nucleus” 
    Basic meaning *‘to beat’ – Ehret1995. 
    According to Ehret1995#902, *ṢḲ- is a pre-pSem 2-consonantal base with the meaning ‘to beat’ from which several 3-radical roots are formed by extension, see section DERIV below. 
    – 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    + “extendative” *‑b = ṣaqb ‘to beat with the fist’, cf. (?) ↗ṣāqaba ‘to approach, go/come near, be neighbours, adjacent’.
    + “diffusive” *‑r = ṣaqr ‘to beat; break stones’, cf. ↗ṢQR. Cf. also (though not related) ↗ṣaqr ‘falcon, hawk’, and ↗ṣāqūr ‘stone axe’.
    + “partive” *‑ʕ = ṣaqʕ ‘to beat’ (earlier: ‘to break by beating’?), cf. (?) ↗ṣaqʕaẗ ‘frost, ice, hoarfrost’.
    + “noun suffix?” *‑l = ṣaql ‘to beat’ (earlier n. ‘beating’?), cf. (?) ↗ṣaqala ‘to smooth, polish, burnish, cut’.
     
    ṢQR صقر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢQR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢQR_1 ‘saker, falcon, hawk’ ↗ṣaqr
    ▪ ṢQR_2 ‘stone axe’ ↗ṣāqūr

    Other values, now obsolete, include:
    • ṢQR_3 ‘to strike, break stones’: ṣaqara
    • ṢQR_4 ‘to light (a fire)’: ṣaqara, ṣaqqara
    • ṢQR_5 ‘to scorch, be scorching (sun)’: ṣaqara, ʔaṣqara
    • ṢQR_6 ‘very sour milk’: ṣaqr
    • ṢQR_7 ‘sharp-sighted’: ṣāqir
    • ṢQR_8 ‘treacle of dates, grapes’: ṣaq(a)r
    • ṢQR_9 ‘blasphemer, unbeliever’: ṣaqqār
    • ṢQR_10 ‘lies’: in the expression ǧāʔa bi’l-ṣuqar wa’l-buqar or bi’l-ṣuqārà wa’l-buqārà ‘he came with lies’
     
    For 2 out of the 10 values listed above, foreign etymologies have been suggested (ṣaqr ‘falcon’ < Pers šikara ‘birds of prey trained to hunt’, perh. also oTu suŋkur ‘id.’; ṣāqūr ‘stone axe’ < Lat secūris ‘axe, hatchet, cleaver’). But there may be overlapping with ṢQR_3 ‘to beat, strike, (hence?) break stones’. There is large diversity also among the other 8 values (all become obsolete in MSA). Although far from obvious, some of these may be related to each other (figurative use?). The diversity may, however, also be due to convergence of earlier SQR with ṢQR, initial s having become emphatic through influence from following q
    – 
    See DISC below. 
    ▪ Although foreign etymologies have been suggested for both ṢQR_1 ‘falcon, hawk’ and ṢQR_2 ‘stone axe’ (see below), the evidence of the ClassAr vb. I ṣaqara (u, ṣaqr) ‘to strike (bi- with a stick), break stones (bi- with a hammer etc.)’ (ṢQR_3) as well as the attribute ṣāqir ‘sharp-sighted’ (ṢQR_7) in ṣaqr ṣāqir ‘sharp-sighted falcon’ may suggest that the ‘stone axe’, ṣāqūr, could be akin to ṣaqara ‘to break stones’ and also the ‘falcon’, ṣaqr, might be related to this vb. (perh. *‘the striking one’). Folk etymology may have overshadowed true origins.
    ▪ Ehret1995#902 gives both ‘to beat’ and (hence?) ‘to break stones’ as the two values of the vb. ṣaqara, which according to him is an extension in “diffusive” *-r from a bi-consonantal “pre-Proto-Semitic” (pPS, i.e. preSem) root *ṣḳ- ‘to beat’, from AfrAs *-tl’ok’- ‘to beat’. – For other extensions from the same preSem root cf. ↗*ṢQ- (*ṢḲ-), ↗ṣāqaba ‘to approach, go/come near, be neighbours, adjacent’, ↗ṣaqʕaẗ ‘frost, ice, hoarfrost’, and ↗ṣaqala ‘to smooth, polish, burnish, cut’.
    ▪ Furthermore, if one assumes for ṢQR a basic value of ‘to beat, strike’, then not only ṢQR_1 ‘falcon, hawk’ and ṢQR_2 ‘stone axe’ can be seen as developments from this value (*‘the striking one’ and *‘instrument for breaking stone by striking it’), but also most of the others that are listed as distinct values above: ṢQR_4 ‘to light (a fire)’ (by ‘striking’ firestones against each other?), ṢQR_5 ‘to be scorching (sun)’ (i.e., *‘beating, striking’?), ṢQR_6 ‘sour (milk)’ (i.e., of a *‘striking, biting taste’?), and ṢQR_7 ‘sharp-sighted’ (i.e., being endowed with a *‘striking’ sight). Only ṢQR_8-10 would be difficult to connect to an original *‘beating’ or *‘striking’. But given the fact that there seems to be some overlapping with, or contamination by, other roots (see below), all this is highly speculative.
    ▪ ṢQR_1: cf. also the old denom. vb. V, taṣaqqara ‘to hunt with a hawk’. – Perhaps under the influence of ṣaqara ‘to beat, strike’ from Pers šekara ‘rapacious birds trained to hunt’ (or/from oTu suŋkur ‘id.’?) (rather than from Lat sacer ‘falcon, harrier’, as suggested by Fraenkel1886, or from Eg zkr ‘Sokar(is)’, a falcon-headed deity, as mentioned, though at the same time doubted, by Calice1936#788). For details see ↗ṣaqr.
    ▪ ṢQR_2: Unless akin to ṣaqara ‘to beat, strike, (?hence also:) break stones’, the ‘stone axe’, ṣāqūr, (*‘stone-breaker’?) is perhaps (Fraenkel1886: »without doubt«), mediated by Aram sqūriyā, (Brockelmann1895:) Syr sīqūrā ‘id.’, from Lat secūris ‘axe, hatchet, cleaver’ (which is also the source of Engl saw, etc.), with Lat [z] > Syr [s] > Ar [ṣ] (as perhaps in ṢQR_1). The ‘un-Arabic’ fāʕūl pattern supports the assumption of a foreign etymology. The meaning ‘to break stones’ of ṢQR_3 ṣaqara may then be denominative from ṣāqūr.
    ▪ ṢQR_3: If the obsol. vb. I ṣaqara (u, ṣaqr) ‘to strike (bi- with a stick), break stones (bi- with a hammer etc.)’ represents the major basic value, then many others in this root may be derived from it (see discussion above). For the second value, ‘to break stones’, one could, however, also assume a denom. formation from ṣāqūr (see preceding paragraph, ṢQR_2). – The obsol. n.f. ṣāqiraẗ ‘misfortune, calamity’, actually a PA of vb. I, is with all probability fig. use (misfortune = *‘the striking one’).
    ▪ ṢQR_4: The obsol. value ‘to light (a fire)’ (I ṣaqara, II ṣaqqara) is probably a special use of ṢQR_3 ‘to strike, beat’ (sc. fire-stones to produce sparks). – Cf. also ĭṣṭaqara, vb. VIII, ‘to be lighted (fire)’. – But cf. also ṢQR_5.
    ▪ ṢQR_5: Likewise, the obsol. value ‘to scorch, be scorching (sun)’ of ṣaqara u (ṣaqr, ṣaqraẗ) and ʔaṣqara, vb. IV, seem to be fig. use of ṢQR_3 ‘to strike, beat’. Cf., however, also ↗saqar (with non-emphatic s) ‘heat of the sun, sunburn, sunstroke; Hell-fire’, of which ṢQR_5 may be just a phonetic var. if we assume emphatic < non-emphatic s due to following q (partial assimilation).
    ▪ ṢQR_6: Is also the value ‘very sour milk’ of ṣaqr (pl. ṣuqūr, ṣiqār) such a metaphorical use of ṢQR_3 ‘to strike, beat’ (the sour taste being experienced as *‘striking’)? The meaning ‘undeserved curse’ seems to be fig. use of ‘sour milk’, while the vb. ‘to be very sour’ (I ṣaqara, IV ʔaṣqara) obviously is denominative.
    ▪ ṢQR_7: The adj. ṣāqir ‘sharp-sighted’, grammatically a PA of an obsol. vb. I *‘to be sharp-sighted’ and preserved only in the phraseme ṣaqr ṣāqir ‘sharp-sighted saker, falcon’, is interesting because one may perhaps have to compare (in spite of s instead of ) Syr sqūriyā ‘the evil eye, looking askance’, sqūrātiyā ‘one looking with the evil eye’, and the corresponding vb. Syr sqar, nesqūr (PA: sāqar, sāqrā) ‘to look awry, askance, look with the evil eye, envy, grudge, spite’ (PayneSmith1903), although Brockelmann1895 gives Ar SQR (cf. ↗saqar ‘hell’), not ṢQR as cognate of Syr sqar. The oscillation between s and can be observed also in ṢQR_5 ‘to scorch (sun)’, which also appears as saqara (u, saqr), ṢQR_8 (ṣaqir ‘sweet’ vs. ʔasqara ‘to bear sweet dates (palmtree)’) and ṢQR_9 (ṣaqqār ~ saqqār ‘blasphemer’). ‒ Thus, it is possible that we are dealing with a primary SQR here whose initial S, under the influence of neighbouring Q, has undergone partial assimilation, resulting in emphatic Ṣ.
    ▪ ṢQR_8: Besides ṣaqr, var. ṣaqar, pl. ṣuqūr, ṣiqār, n., ‘treacle of dates, grapes’, cf. also ṣaqir, adj., ‘sweet (grape, date)’, ṣaqqār, n., ‘seller of treacle’, muṣaqqar, adj., ‘preserved in treacle’. ‒ Like for ṢQR_7, Hava1899 here, too, lists a corresponding item with s instead of : ʔasqara, vb. IV, ‘to bear sweet dates (palm-tree)’. Are the forms of ṢQR_8 the result of assimilation/emphatisation, developed from primary SQR?
    ▪ ṢQR_9: Like the preceding items, also ṣaqqār ‘blasphemer, unbeliever’ has a variant saqqār ‘impious; blasphemer’ with initial s rather than (Hava1899). ‒ Any relation to (or figurative use of) some of the items ṢQR_1 through ṢQR_8?
    ▪ ṢQR_10: The element ṣuqar or ṣuqārà in the phraseme meaning ‘to come with lies’ seems to be a Syriansim, cf. (with š, not ) Syr šûqrâ ‘lie’, šaqārâ ‘lying, false, perfidious’ (Sem ŠQR ‘deceive’, Akk šugguru ‘to cheat, lie’, tašgirtu ‘deceit, treachery’, Hbr šäqär ‘deception, disappointment, falsehood’, denom. vb. šāqar ‘to do/deal falsely’). 
    ▪ ↗ṣaqr
    – 
    ṣaqr صَقْر , pl. ṣuqūr , ʔaṣqur , ṣuqūraẗ , ṣiqār 
    ID 510 • Sw – • BP 6283 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢQR 
    n. 
    saker, falcon, hawk – WehrCowan1979. 
    Fraenkel1886 suggested Lat sacer ‘falcon, harrier’ as the etymon of Ar ṣaqr; but it is more likely that the word is of Pers origin (related to the idea of Pers šekār ‘hunting’). Perhaps also oTu suŋkur should be considered as a possible source. 
    ▪ … 
    See DISC below. 
    ▪ Fraenkel1886 rightly states that, given a conspicuous lack of cognates in other Sem languages, ṣaqr with all likelihood is a foreign word. (For genuine Sem bird names, cf., e.g., ↗nasr, ↗ġurāb, ↗ǧawzal).
    ▪ Calice1936#788 mentions Eg zkr ‘Sokar(is)’, the name of a falcon-shaped god of the dead in Memphis, often written with a falcon determinative, as a possible parallel (if not origin) of Ar ṣaqr, not without adding, however, that this juxtaposition is “lautlich nicht einwandfrei” (phonologically problematic, not sound). – For both phonological and geographical reasons, this etymology is indeed rather weak.
    ▪ Fraenkel1886 thinks ṣaqr is the oldest example of Ar borrowing of bird names from outside Sem. He suggests (late) Lat sacer ‘falcon, harrier’ as the etymon. According to the author, the var. zaqr, mentioned by Ibn Durayd, certainly is the more original form (still preserving the voicedness of initial Lat {s}), which then developed into ṣaqr. See however following paragraph. – The meaning ‘falcon’ of the Lat word is secondary, transferred to the bird on account of its ‘holiness’. Lat here shows the same transfer (sacer ‘holy’, then also ‘the sacred one’), and for the same reason, as Grk hiérax ‘falcon, hawk’, which is from hierós ‘holy’.
    ▪ Given the fact that most of the Ar terminology of falconry (bayzaraẗ) is clearly borrowed from Pers (cf. Ar ↗bāz, ↗bāšaq, ↗zurayq, ↗šāhīn), a Pers origin of ṣaqr, too, is more probable than a Lat one. Palmer1882 suggests a Pers šakrah [sic!] ‘falcon’ as the etymon, which I was unable to find in the dictionaries at hand; but Steingass1884 has, e.g., Pers šikara ‘rapacious birds trained to hunt’ – S.G. If this etymology is correct, then Ar ṣaqr ‘falcon’ is related to the idea of ‘prey, game; chase, hunting; plunder, booty [etc.]’ of Pers šikār.479
    ▪ Perhaps, however, also Tu sungur ‘falcon, hawk’ (oTu suŋkur480 ) should be considered as a possible source. 
    ▪ Lokotsch1927#1799: Ar ṣaqr ‘falcon (used in hawking), Falco sacer’ gave mLat sacer ‘id.’, mGrk sákre, Cat Span Port sacre, Fr sacre, It sacro, sagro, Port çafaro ‘falcon, hawk’; Ge Sacker(-falk), Engl saker, sacre (< mFr sacre); Ru sokol, Ukr Pol sokoł, Cz sokol, Serb soko, Bulg sokol ‘falcon’. According to Bertau201417 , folk-etymology identified m/lLat sacer ‘falcon’ with Lat sacer ‘holy sacred’ (perh. in analogy to Grk híerax ‘falcon, hawk’ < hierós ‘holy, sacred’). 
    al-ṣuqūr, n.pl., the hawks (pol.) 
    ṣāqūr صاقُور 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢQR 
    n. 
    stone axe – WehrCowan1979. 
    With all probability via Aram/Syr from Lat secūr-is ‘axe, hatchet, cleaver’ (cf. oEngl seax ‘knife’, No saks ‘scissors’, Ge Säge ‘saw’). 
    ▪ … 
    See DISC. 
    ▪ It seems to be safe to follow Fraenkel1886 who has no doubts that Ar ṣāqūr goes back, via Aram sqūriyā [Brockelmann1895: Syr sîqûrâ ] to Lat secūr-is ‘axe, hatchet, cleaver (battle axe, tomahawk, etc.)’, from sec-āre ‘to cut, amputate’, from IE (W/Eur) *sek- ‘to cut’ (pGerm *sago ‘a cutting tool’ > oHGe sega, saga > Ge Säge ‘saw’; oEngl sagu > Engl saw; cf. also oEngl seax ‘knife’, No saks ‘scissors’). »Auffallend kann nur das Eine sein, dass das aramäische s durch transcribiert wurde, was sonst nicht leicht vorkommt« (the only thing that may raise some doubt is that Aram s has been made into , which does not happen easily); however, taking into consideration some other evidence, it is safe to assume that this does not affect the correctness of the etymology. 
    ▪ Ar ṣāqūr is not in itself the source of, but derived from the same Lat etymon as Eur words for ‘saw’, ‘knife’, or ‘scissors’, cf. DISC above. 
    – 
    ṢQLB صقلب
     
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 26Feb2023
    √ṢQLB 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢQLB_1 ‘Slav’ ↗ṣaqlab

    Other values, now obsolete, include (BK1860):

    ṢQLB_2 ‘hard; strong, robust, eating much (camel); hard and strong (head, skull)’: ¹ṣiqlāb
    ṢQLB_3 ‘white’: ²ṣiqlāb
    ṢQLB_4 ‘red’: ³ṣiqlāb
     
    ▪ [v1] : ? With partly retrograde assimilation (ṣ‑ < s under the influence of following q), from ↗saqlab(ī) ‘Slav’?
    ▪ [v2] : ? Cf. ↗ṣulb ? Meaning first attested eC8. – Any relation to [v1] ‘Slav’ (sometimes also ‘slave’)?
    ▪ [v3] : etymology obscure. – Any relation to the fact that the Slavs (who often served as slaves) were of white complexion? In contrast, ‘Ethiopians’ could be termed ṣaqālibaẗ al-zanǧ ‘the negro\black Slavs (= slaves?)’.
    ▪ [v4] : etymology obscure. – Like [v3] ‘white’, also ‘red’ may have emerged as an attribute of Slavic slaves.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ [v2] : first attestation in the expression bayna maqaḏḏay raʔsihī l-ṣiqlābi, by Ǧandal b. Muṯannà al-Ṭuhawī (dated 709 in DHDA).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ [v1] Not from Ar ṣaqlab but from the same source are Eur words for the ‘Slavs’; see ↗saqlabī.
    ▪ ...
     

     
    ṣaqlab صَقْلَب , pl. ṣaqālibaẗ
     
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 26Feb2023
    √ṢQLB 
    n.
     
    Slav – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ ? With partly retrograde assimilation (ṣ‑ < s under the influence of following q), from ↗saqlab(ī) ‘Slav’?
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ BK1860: ṣiqlāb and ṣaqālibaẗ ‘Slaves (peuple : nom générique donné par les Arabes aux peuples du nord-est de l’Europe)’; ṣaqālibaẗ al-zanǧ ‘Éthiopiens’
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ – (loanword), see ↗saqlabī.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ Not from Ar ṣaqlabī but from the same source are Eur words for ‘Slavs’, see ↗saqlabī.
    ▪ ...
     
    – . For the overall picture, see root entry ↗ṢQLB. – Cf. also ↗saqlabī.
     
    ṢKː (ṢKK) صكّ/صكك 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Apr2023
    √ ṢKː (ṢKK) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢKː (ṢKK)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢKː (ṢKK)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢKː (ṢKK)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to slap with the hand, violent strike with a ringing sound; to shut, close’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṢLB صلب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢLB 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢLB_1 ‘hard, solid, stiff; steel’ ↗ṣulb
    ▪ ṢLB_2 ‘cross; to crucify’ ↗ṣalīb
    ▪ ṢLB_3 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘the backbone, the spine; the loins; to become hard, rigid, firm, solid, tough, stiff; to become strong; to place two pieces of wood cross-wise, to crucify’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ṣalab‑ صَلَبَ , i (ṣalb
    ID 511 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢLB 
    vb., I 
    to crucify – WehrCowan1979. 
    Jeffery1938 holds that »the verb is denominative from ↗ṣalīb [‘cross’].« 
    ▪ eC7 Q 4:157, 5:37, 7:124, 12:41, 20:71, 26:49 ‘to crucify’. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    Jeffery1938: »The [Qurʔānic] passages are all relatively late. Once it refers to the crucifixion of our Lord (iv, 156), once to the crucifixion of Joseph’s prison companion (xii, 41), and in all the other passages to a form of punishment which Muḥammad seems to have considered was a favourite pastime of Pharaoh, but which in v, 37, he holds out as a threat against those who reject his mission. – The word cannot be explained from Ar, as the verb is denominative from ↗ṣalīb. […]« 
    – 
    ṣallaba, vb. II, to crucify; to make the sign of the cross; to cross o.s.; to cross, fold (one’s arms): rather denominative from ṣalīb than intensive of ṣalaba.
    ṣalb, n., crucifixion: vn.
    BP#4955ṣalībīṣalīb
    ṣalībiyyaẗṣalīb
    ṣalbūt, n., (representation of the) crucifixion, crucifix:.
    muṣallab, n., crossing, interjunction (of roads): n.loc. II. 
    ṣulb صُلْب ; – (pl. ʔaṣlub , ʔaṣlāb
    ID 512 • Sw – • BP 2323 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢLB 
    ¹adj.; ²n. 
    I adj., hard, firm, solid, stiff, rigid; II n., 1 steel; – 2 (pl.) a spinal column, backbone; b loins – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ ? Cf. also ↗ṢQLB_2 ?
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ṣaliba, a, and ṣaluba, u (ṣalābaẗ), vb. I, to be or become hard, firm, solid, stiff, or rigid, solidify, harden, set, stiffen: denominative.
    ṣallaba, vb. II, to make hard, firm, solid, stiff, or rigid, harden, solidify, stiffen, indurate; to support, prop, shore up; to harden (the heart): caus. from I, or denominative, directly from ṣulb.
    taṣallaba, vb. V, = I; to show o.s. hard or severe: denominative.
    ṣulbaẗ, n.: ṣ. al-ʕayn sclera (anat.):.
    ṣalīb, adj., hard, firm, solid, stiff, rigid: adj.intens. – For another meaning (from the homonymous root) ↗ṣalīb.
    ṣalābaẗ, n.f., hardness, callousness; hardening, induration; firmness, solidity, stiffness, rigidity; stubbornness, obstinacy, unyieldingness; intolerance: vn. I.
    taṣallub, n., hardness, callousness, hardening: vn. V. | t. al-šarāyīn, t. širyānī arteriosclerosis.
    mutaṣallib, adj., unyielding, inflexible, relentless, hard: PA V. 
    ṣalīb صَلِيب , pl. ṣulbān , ṣulub 
    ID 513 • Sw – • BP 3826 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢLB 
    n. 
    cross – WehrCowan1979. 
    From Aram ṣlībā, Syr ṣlīḇā ‘cross’, probably from an Iranian source, cf. Pers čalīpā
    lC6 al-Nābiġaẗ, ʕAdiyy b. Zayd (cf. Jeffery’s references in "DISC" below).
    ▪ eC7 Q 4:157 wa-qawlihim ʔinnā qatalnā ’l-masīḥa ʕīsā bna maryama rasūla ’ḷḷāhi wa-mā qatalū-hu wa-mā ṣalabū-hu walākin šubbiha lahum ‘As for their saying: We slew the Messiah, Jesus son of Mary, Allah’s messenger - they slew him not nor crucified him, but it appeared so unto them’ 
    Cf. ↗ṢLB. 
    Jeffery1938: »[…] ṣalīb occurs in the old poetry, e.g. al-Nābiġa, ii, 10 (Ahlwardt, Divans, p. 4), and ʕAdī b. Zayd (Aġānī, ii, 24), etc., and is doubtless derived from Aram ṣlībā; Syr ṣlīḇā, as Fraenkel, Fremdw, 276, claims. The word is not original in Aram, however, and perhaps came originally from some Iranian source from a root represented by the Pers čalīpā (Vollers, ZDMG, 1, 614). Mingana, Syriac Influence, 86, claims that it was from Syr rather than from JudAram that the word came to Ar, and as the Eth [Gz] taṣalləba seems to be of this origin,481 it may be so.482 « 
    – 
    al-ṣalīb al-ǧanūbī, n., the Southern Cross (astron.).
    al-ṣ. al-ʔaḥmar, n., the Red Cross.
    ṣalīb maʕqūf, n., swastika.

    ṣalaba, i (ṣalb), vb. I, to crucify: denominative from ṣalīb.
    ṣallaba, vb. II, to crucify; to make the sign of the cross; to cross o.s.; to cross, fold (one’s arms): denominative from ṣalīb.

    ṣalb, n., crucifixion: vn. I.
    BP#4955ṣalībī, adj., in al-ḥurūb al-ṣalībiyyaẗ the crusades: nsb-adj from ṣalīb; al-ṣalībiyyūn the crusaders: nominalized nsb-adj.
    ṣalībiyyaẗ, n.f., pl. ‑āt crusade: n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ from ṣalīb.
    ṣalbūt, n., (representation of the) crucifixion, crucifix:.
    muṣallab, n., crossing, interjunction (of roads): n.loc. II. 

    ṢLḤ صلح 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢLḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢLḤ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ṢLḤ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be or become, good, uncorrupt, right, just, virtuous, righteous, honest; to be in a good, healthy or proper state; to be fit, or, suitable for; to senle differences amicably; reconciliation; peace’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl garam masalamaṣlaḥaẗ
    – 
    maṣlaḥaẗ مَصْلَحَة 
    ID 515 • Sw – • BP 484 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢLḤ 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    See ṣalaba
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl garam masala, from Ar maṣāliḥ, pl. of maṣlaḥaẗ ‘benefit, good’, from ṣalaḥa ‘to be(come) good, useful’, in derived stem ʔaṣlaḥa, vb. IV, ‘to improve, make suitable’. 
     
    ʔiṣlāḥ إِصْلاح 
    ID 514 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 945 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢLḤ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ṢLD صلد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Apr2023
    √ṢLD 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢLD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢLD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢLD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘hard, smooth, thick rock, to be hard and smooth; to be niggardly’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṢLṢL صلصل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Apr2023
    √ṢLṢL 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢLṢL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢLṢL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢLṢL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘noisy ass; the sound of a bell; dry clay on the ground that makes a ringing sound when it is struck’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṢLW صلو 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢLW 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢLW_1 ‘to pray’ ↗ṣallà, ‘places of worship’ ↗ṣalawāt
    ▪ ṢLW_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘the small of the back; the two bones surrounding the root of the tail of an animal, to hit a camel on that part; to come at the rear of; to bend, to bend in supplication, to pray, to perform prayers; to adhere to’ 
    ▪ Philologists classify ṣalāẗ with the meaning ‘synagogue’, which is a form borrowed from Hbr, under this root – BAH2008 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ṣallà / ṣallay‑ صَلَّى / صَلَّيْـ 
    ID 517 • Sw – • BP 470 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last update 3Jun2023
    √ṢLW 
    vb., II 
    ▪ to pray – Jeffery1938
    ▪ … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Of very frequent occurrence in the Q – Jeffery1938.
     
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »Besides the verb we find in the Qurʔān ṣalāẗ ‘prayer’, muṣalliⁿ ‘one who prays’, and muṣallàⁿ ‘place of prayer’. ṣallà, however, is denominative from ṣalāẗ, as Sprenger, Leben, iii, 527, n. 2, had noted,483 and ṣalāẗ itself seems to have been borrowed from an Aram source (Nöldeke, GdQ, 255, 281).
    The origin, of course, is from [Aram] ṣlwtʔ = [Syr] ṣlōṯā, as has been generally recognized,484 for the Eth [Gz] ṣalōt is from the same source (Nöldeke, Neue Beiträge, 36). It may have been from JudAram but more probably from Syr,485 for the common phrase [Ar] ʔaqāma ’l-ṣalāẗ, as Wensinck, Joden, 105, notes, is good Syr. It was an early borrowing (Horovitz, JPN, 185), used in the early poets and thus quite familiar in pre-Islamic days,486 and the substantive [SAr] ṣlw ‘preces’ is found in the SAr inscriptions (Rossini, Glossarium, 224).«
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ṣalāẗ صَلاة 
    ID 516 • Sw – • BP 635 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢLW 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ṣalawāt صَلَوات 
    ID – • Sw – • BP (635) • APD … • © SG | 3Jun2023
    √ṢLW
     
    n. (non-hum.pl.) 
    places of worship – Jeffery1938
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q xxii, 41 – Jeffery1938.
     
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »Though the Commentators are not unanimous as to its meaning they are in general agreed that it means the synagogue of the Jews, and as such many of them admit that it is a borrowing from Hbr (Bayḍ. and Zam. on the passage:487 al-Ǧawālīqī, Muʕarrab, 95; al-Suyūṭī, Itq, 322; al-Ḫafāǧī, 123; al-Siǧistānī, 201). This idea that it is Hbr is derived, of course, from the notion that the word means synagogues. ṣlwtʔ which means ‘prayer’, but the theory of Ibn Ǧinnī in his Muḥtasab, quoted by al-Suyūṭī, Mutaw, 55, that it is Syr, is much more likely,488 for though ṣlwtʔ means ‘prayer’, the commonly used byt ṣlwtʔ means a ‘place of prayer’, i.e. proseuχḗ, which Rudolph, Abhängigkeit, 7, n.,489 would take as the reference in the Qurʔānic passage. As we find [SAr] ṣlwt = ‘chapel’ in a SAr inscription,490 however, it is possible that the word first passed into SAr and thence into the northern language.«
     
    – 
    – 
    ṢLY صلي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Apr2023
    √ṢLY 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢLY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢLY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢLY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to roast, broil, fry (meat, flesh), burn; to cause to suffer; to slander; to delude; to warm o.s. before a fire; suffering, hardship’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṢMː (ṢMM) صمّ/صمم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Apr2023
    √ ṢMː (ṢMM) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢMː (ṢMM)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢMː (ṢMM)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢMː (ṢMM)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be solid, compact, dense; to close, seal; to be deaf; to be determined’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṢMT صمت 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢMT 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢMT_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ṢMT_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be silent, to be speechless; to be rugged; silence’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ṣāmit صامِت 
    ID 518 • Sw – • BP 2437 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢMT 
    adj. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ṢMD صمد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Apr2023
    √ṢMD 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢMD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢMD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢMD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘hard, rugged, elevated ground; to be solid; support, a source of strength; to make for, to direct o.s. towards, to aim at; to endeavour to reach or attain; to seek power from’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṢMʕ صمع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Apr2023
    √ṢMʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢMʕ_1 ‘monk’ cell, hermitage; silo (for grain storage); (MorAr) minaret’ ↗ṣawmaʕaẗ
    ▪ ṢMʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢMʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘high tapering building; to be of small ears, be sharp and tapering at the end; to be courageous’. 
    ṣawmaʕaẗ is classified by the philologists under this root, but it could be a borrowing from Gz.
     
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṢNː (ṢNN) صنّ/صنن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Jul2021
    √ṢNː (ṢNN) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢNː (ṢNN)_1 ‘basket’ ↗ṣann
    ▪ ṢNː (ṢNN)_2 ‘odor emanating from the armpit’ ↗ṣunān
    ▪ ṢNː (ṢNN)_ ‘…’ ↗ 
    ▪ [v1] : Accord. to Klein1987 from Aram ṣinnâ ‘basket’. – (?) Cf. also Ar ↗mišannaẗ (√ŠNː(ŠNN)) ‘basket without handles’?
    ▪ [v2] : (?) Cf. postBiblHbr ṣᵊnûn ‘radish’? Accord. to Klein1987 prob. so called because of its bad odor and related to Ar ṣunān ‘bad odor’.
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ [v1] : Aram ṣinnâ, postBiblHbr ṣēnâ ‘basket’, (?) Ar ↗mišannaẗ ‘basket without handles’.
    ▪ [v2] : (?) postBiblHbr ṣᵊnûn ‘radish’.
    ▪ [v3] : …
     
    ▪ [v1] : Aram ṣinnâ ‘basket’, which accord. to Klein1987 is the etymon of Ar ṣann, is believed by some to be orig. a *‘basket made of thorns’, cf. Hbr ṣēn ‘thorn’ (perh. related to NewSyr ṣurṣīnā ‘thistle’491 ).
    ▪ [v2] : see above, section CONC. – Any relation with ṣanbaraẗ ‘ground that has become rough by reason of urine and of dung, of oxen or sheep, and the like’ (Lane iv 1872)?
    ▪ [v3] : …
     
    – 
    – 
    ṣann صَنّ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Jul2021
    √ṢNː (ṢNN) 
    n. 
    basket – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Accord. to Klein1987 from Aram ṣinnâ ‘basket’.
    ▪ (?) Cf. also Ar ↗mišannaẗ (√ŠNː(ŠNN)) ‘basket without handles’?
    ▪ …
     
    791 ṣann ‘container made to carry food, resembling a covered basket’: Ḫalīl b. ʔAḥmad al-Farāhīdī, K. al-ʕAynDHDA.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Aram ṣinnâ, postBiblHbr ṣēnâ ‘basket’. – (?) Ar ↗mišannaẗ ‘basket without handles’?
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Aram ṣinnâ ‘basket’, which accord. to Klein1987 is the etymon of Ar ṣann, is believed by some to be orig. a *‘basket made of thorns’, cf. Hbr ṣēn ‘thorn’ (perh. related to NewSyr ṣurṣīnā ‘thistle’492 ).
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    ṣunān صُنان 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Jul2021
    √ṢNː (ṢNN) 
    n. 
    odor emanating from the armpit – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ (?) Cf. postBiblHbr ṣᵊnûn ‘radish’? Accord. to Klein1987 prob. so called because of its bad odor and related to Ar ṣunān ‘stink, stench’.
    ▪ …
     
    694 ṣunān ‘stink, stench’ – DHDA. – 715 ṣinn ‘urine of the wabr (very fetid)’: al-Farazdaq – DHDA.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ (?) postBiblHbr ṣᵊnûn ‘radish’?
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ Any relation with ṣanbaraẗ (↗√ṢNBR) ‘ground that has become rough by reason of urine and of dung, of oxen or sheep, and the like’ (Lane iv 1872)?
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ṣinnaẗ, n.f., odor emanating from the armpit
     
    ṢNBR صنبر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Jul2021
    √ṢNBR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢNBR_1 ‘(water) faucet, tap’ ↗ṣunbūr
    ▪ ṢNBR_2 ‘stone pine’ ↗ṣanawbar

    Other values, now obsolete, include (BK1860, Lane iv 1872, Hava1899):

    ṢNBR_3 ‘solitary (palm-tree), slender in its lower part; (hence) lonely, solitary, without offspring or other assistance; (hence) young, little, child, weak; (hence?) mean, ignoble’: ṣanbar, ṣunbūr
    ṢNBR_4 ‘ground that has become rough’: ṣanbaraẗ
    ṢNBR_5 ‘cold wind’: ṣinnabr, pl. ṣanābirᵘ
    ṢNBR_ ‘…’:

     
    ▪ [v1] : Fraenkel1886: 88-89 speculates that Ar ṣunbūr ‘(water) faucet, tap’, which is hardly connected to any of the other values, may have developed from an earlier *ṣannūr which could be related to Hbr ¹ṣinnôr ‘spout, waterjet; (postBiblHbr) conduit, canal; pipe’. Accord. to the author, the dissimilation of *‑nn- > -nb‑ could be the result of the influence of ↗ʔanbūb.
    ▪ [v2] : WehrCowan1976 seems to be reluctant to treat ṣanawbar ‘stone pine’ as deriving from √ṢNBR and rather asks the user to look up the word alphabetically, under ṢNWBR. But why shouldn’t it be an intensive formation corresponding to FawʕaL (cf. Barth1894: 169 §116.2), coined from [v3] ṣanbar through the insertion of -w-? If this is correct, the ‘pine tree’ is originally the *‘(very) slender one’ or the *‘solitary one’ (often standing alone). – Or is there a Pers suffix *-bar ‘bearing, carrying’ hidden in the second part of ṣanawbar? If so, what could be the first part? ↗ṣinw ‘one of two, twin brother’ seems highly unlikely.
    [v3] : ‘solitary, slender in its lower part (palm-tree)’ is the value that has produced most fig. meanings and derivations, among these perh. also [v2] ‘pine-tree’. – Of unknown etymology. The value ‘weak, mean, ignoble’ may be unrelated, perh. akin to ↗šanār ‘disgrace, infamy; any shameful transaction’ (which in turn is prob. of Pers origin).
    [v4] : In ClassAr dictionaries, the meaning of ṣanbaraẗ is specified as ‘ground that has become rough by reason of urine and of dung, of oxen or sheep, and the like’ – Lane iv 1872. Etymology obscure. – Any relation to ṣinn ‘urine of the wabr’, ↗ṣunān ‘stink, stench of the armpit’?
    [v5] : For ṣinnabr ‘cold wind’, which has no obvious etymology, should one (with Klein1987) perh. connect Hbr ṣinnāʰ ‘coolness, cold’ (hapax in the Bible), mHbr ṣānûn ‘cool, cold’ (PP of *ṣānan), ṣinnûn ‘cooling, cold’ (vn. of ṣinnēn, D-stem, ‘to cool, cool off’) < Aram ṣnan ‘to be(come) cold’, all from *ṢNN? – There is also the conspicuously similar ṣinnawr ‘niggardly man, of evil disposition’ (↗ṢNR) – but what would be the semantic relation between ‘cold wind’ and ‘niggardly’? A relation with ↗sinnawr ‘cat’ (initial s, then w!) can prob. be excluded as well.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ [v1] ṣunbūr ‘the tube, pipe, that is in the [kind of leathern vessel, or bag, for water, called] ʔidāwaẗ, of iron, lead, or brass, or of other material, from which one drinks. – [aperture called] maṯʕab of a watering-trough or tank [from which the water runs out; hole\ perforation thereof, from which the water issues when it is washed; pipe (of copper or brass) by which the water runs from one tank to another in a bath; mouth of a water-pipe’ – Lane iv 1872.
    ▪ [v2] ṣanawbar 540 ‘pine tree’ – DHDA.
    ▪ [v3] ṣunbūr 620 ‘weak, vile’ (man), 791 ‘slender in its lower part, and scanty in its fruit’ (palm tree) – DHDA. – For ClassAr, cf. Lane iv 1872: ṣanbara, vb. I, ‘to become solitary, apart from others (palm-tree); to become slender in its lower part, and bared of the stumps of its branches, and scanty in its fruit’, ṣanbar or ṣunbūr (both probably correct) ‘anything slender and weak (animals, trees etc.)’; (pl.) ṣanābirᵘ ‘slender arrows’; ṣunbūr ‘solitary palm-tree, apart from others; the lower part of which becomes slender, stripped of the external parts [or the stumps of the branches]; palm-tree slender in its lower part, and bared of the stumps of it branches, scanty in its fruit; also ṣunbūraẗ, a palm-tree that comes forth from the root, or lower part, of another palm-tree, without being planted; little palm-tree that does not grow from its mother-tree; (hence, applied to a man) solitary; lonely; without offspring or brother; weak, vile, ignominious, having no family nor offspring nor assistant; mean, ignoble; young, little, weak, boy, child’. (It was applied as an epithet to Moḥammad, by the unbelievers, as also [its dimin.] ṣunaybīr, or they called him ṣunbūr meaning that he had no offspring nor brother, so that, when he should die, his name would be lost; likening him to a [solitary] palm-tree, of which the lower part had become slender, and the branches few, and which had become dry […]’.
    ▪ [v4] : Lane iv 1872 registers also fig. use: ṣanbaraẗ ‘ground that has become rough by reason of urine and of dung, of oxen or sheep, and the like’; ʔaḫaḏtu ’l-šayʔ bi-ṣanbaratih~ṣanbūratih ‘I took the thing altogether’.
    ▪ [v5] : 539 ṣinnabr ‘cold clouds, cold wind (with mist or clouds)’, 694 ‘second of the days called ʔayyām al-ʕaǧūz (towards the end of winter)’ – DHDA. – Lane iv 1872, summarizing ClassAr dictionaries: ṣinnabr, originally ṣinabr, as also ṣinnibr and ṣinnabir: also ‘intense cold (of winter); hot\cold’; ṣunbūr ‘cold wind; hot wind; (hence also:) calamity, misfortune’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ [v1] : (?) Cf. Hbr ¹ṣinnôr ‘spout, waterjet; (postBiblHbr) conduit, canal; pipe’ – Fraenkel1886: 88-89. Ug ṣnr ‘Wasserrinne, ‑leitung (aus Stein)’ – Tropper2008. – Cf. also Ar ↗šann ‘(water)skin’?
    ▪ [v2] : prob. ↗[v3].
    ▪ [v3] : ?
    ▪ [v4] : ?
    ▪ [v5] ṣinnabr ‘cold wind’: should one connect Hbr ṣinnāʰ ‘coolness, cold’ (hapax in the Bible), mHbr ṣānûn ‘cool, cold’ (adj.), ṣinnûn ‘cooling, cold’ (vn. Dt-stem) (ṣnan ‘to be\come cold’), all from *√ṢNN? – Or perh. also ṣinnawr ‘niggardly man, of evil disposition’ (↗√ṢNR) or even ↗sinnawr ‘cat’ (√SNR)?
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ [v1] : Accord. to Klein1987, the BiblHbr ¹ṣinnôr ‘spout, waterjet’ occurs only Sam.II 5:8 and Ps. 42:8 and its meaning in these passages is much disputed. Of uncertain origin. Aram ṣinnōrā is prob. a Hbr loan word, cp. postBiblHbr ¹ṣinnôrāʰ ‘waterjet’, and BiblHbr ṣantêr ‘pipe, tube’ (hapax in the Bible, Zech. 4:12), perh. derived from ¹ṣinnôr ‘spout, waterjet’ through the insertion of a ‑t‑, cf. ṣanṭᵊrâʰ. BDB1906 lists the pl. ṣanṭᵊrôt ‘pipes feeding lamps with oil’ s.r. √ṢNR. – Should one also consider influence of, or relation with, Ar ↗šann ‘(water)skin’?
    [v2] : See above, section CONC. – Any influence from ṣinār, ṣinnār(aẗ) (< Pers čanār, Tu çınar) ‘plane-tree, platanus’ (↗ṢNR)? – Also, could the last part of the word, -bar, be an originally Pers component meaning *‘bearing, bearer of…’?
    ▪ [v3] : Cf. also ṣinnawr ‘niggardly man, of evil disposition’ (> OttTu ṣinnevr ‘morose and niggardly’ – Redhouse1890) (↗ṢNR)?
    ▪ [v4] : See above, section CONC.
    ▪ [v5] : See above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    ṣunbūr صُنْبور , pl. ṣanābīrᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Jul2021
    √ṢNBR 
    n. 
    (water) faucet, tap – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Fraenkel1886: 88-89 speculates that Ar ṣunbūr ‘(water) faucet, tap’, which is hardly connected to any of the other values found in the root ↗√ṢNBR, may have developed from an earlier *ṣannūr which could be related to Hbr ¹ṣinnôr ‘spout, waterjet; (postBibl) conduit, canal; pipe’. Accord. to the author, the dissimilation of *‑nn- > -nb‑ could be the result of the influence of ↗ʔanbūb.
    ▪ Should one also consider influence of Ar ↗šann ‘(water)skin’?
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Lane iv 1872 gives the values as in ClassAr dictionaries: ṣunbūr ‘the tube, pipe, that is in the [kind of leathern vessel, or bag, for water, called] ʔidāwaẗ, of iron, lead, or brass, or of other material, from which one drinks. – [aperture called] maṯʕab of a watering-trough or tank [from which the water runs out; hole\ perforation thereof, from which the water issues when it is washed; pipe (of copper or brass) by which the water runs from one tank to another in a bath; mouth of a water-pipe’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ (?) Hbr ¹ṣinnôr ‘spout, waterjet; (postBibl) conduit, canal; pipe’ – Fraenkel1886: 88-89. – Ug ṣnr ‘Wasserrinne, ‑leitung (aus Stein)’ – Tropper2008.
    ▪ (?) (Influence of?) Ar ↗šann ‘(water)skin’?
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Accord. to Klein1987, the possible cognate BiblHbr ¹ṣinnôr ‘spout, waterjet’ occurs only in Sam.II 5:8 and Ps. 42:8 and its meaning in these passages is much disputed. Of uncertain origin. Aram ṣinnōrā is prob. a Hbr loan word. – Cf. also postBiblHbr ¹ṣinnôrāʰ ‘waterjet’, as well as perh. BiblHbr ṣantêr ‘pipe, tube’ (hapax in the Bible, Zech. 4:12), perh. derived from ¹ṣinnôr ‘spout, waterjet’ through the insertion of a ‑t‑, cf. ṣanṭᵊrâʰ. BDB1906 lists the pl. ṣanṭᵊrôt ‘pipes feeding lamps with oil’ s.r. √ṢNR.
    ▪ Ar ↗šann ‘(water)skin’ is close in meaning but prob. too far from ṣunbūr to have had any influence.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    For other values attached to the “root”, see ↗ṣanawbar and, for the whole picture, “root” entry ↗√ṢNBR.
     
    ṣanawbar صَنَوْبَر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Jul2021
    √ṢNBR 
    n. 
    stone pine (Pinus pinea; bot.) – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ WehrCowan1976 seems to be reluctant to treat ṣanawbar ‘stone pine’ as deriving from √ṢNBR and rather asks the user to look up the word alphabetically, under √ṢNWBR. But why shouldn’t it be an intensive formation corresponding to the 3-rad. FawʕaL (cf. Barth1894: 169 §116.2), coined from ṣanbar ‘solitary, slender in its lower part (palm-tree)’ (↗√ṢNBR) through the insertion of -w-? If this is correct, the ‘pine tree’ is originally the *‘(very) slender one’ or the *‘solitary one’ (often standing alone).
    ▪ Any influence from ṣinār, ṣinnār(aẗ) (< Pers čanār, Tu çınar) ‘plane-tree (platanus)’ (↗ṢNR)?
    ▪ Also, could the last part of ṣanawbar be an originally Pers component -bar *‘bearing, bearer of…’? If so, what could be the first component?
    ▪ …
     
    584 ‘pine tree’ in a verse by a pre-Islamic poet – DHDA.
    ▪ Lane explains in detail: ṣanawbar ‘pine tree, certain kind of tree from (the roots of) which ↗zift [i.e., pitch] is obtained, green in winter and summer, the fruit of which is like small ↗lawz […]; fruit [i.e., the cone] of that tree […]’. Cf. also al-ẓill al-ṣanawbarī ‘the cone-shaped shade of the earth, on entering which the moon becomes eclipsed’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Probably akin to ↗ṣanbar, ṣunbūr in the sense of ‘solitary (palm-tree), slender in its lower part; (hence also) lonely, solitary, without offspring or other assistance; (hence) young, little, child, weak; (hence?) mean, ignoble’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Unrelated to Engl cinnabar, Fr cinabre, Ge Zinnober, etc., which are akin to Ar ↗zinǧafr.
    ▪ …
     
    ḥabb al-ṣanawbar, n., pine nut, piñon

    ṣanawbarī, adj., pine (adj.), piny, pinelike; pineal | al-ġuddaẗ al-ṣanawbariyyaẗ, n.f., pineal gland

    For other values attached to the “root”, see ↗ṣunbūr and, for the whole picture, “root” entry ↗√ṢNBR.
     
    ṢNDQ صندق 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Jul2021
    √ṢNDQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢNDQ_1 ‘box, chest, trunk’ ↗ṣundūq
    ▪ ṢNDQ_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ [v1] : While Lokotsch1927 thought the word may come from an ultimately Ind source, Rolland2014 and Nişanyan2019_06Sept2019 posit a Grk origin.
    ▪ [v2] : …

     
    ▪ [v1] ↗ṣundūq
    ▪ [v2] ↗
     
    ▪ [v1] : Aram ṣəndūḳā (Nişanyan_06Sept2019)
    ▪ [v2] : …
     
    ▪ [v1] : Lokotsch1927 #1826 assumes a prob. Ind origin but does not give further details. – Rolland2014a thinks the etymon is Grk sundókos ‘recipient, container’, from prefix sun‑ ‘together’ + déχ-omai ‘to receive, take, accept’, from IE *dek‑ ‘dto.’ (cf. also ↗funduq < Grk pan-doχeîon); reimported into Grk as sánduks ‘case, suitcase’ (classified by Beekes2010 simply as »Pre-Greek«). Instead of sun‑ + déχ-omai, Nişanyan_06Sept2019 posits Grk συνθήκη sunthḗkē, from sun‑ + tíθ-emi, θe- ‘to put’.
    ▪ [v2] : …
     
    ▪ Tu sandık ‘chest’, Tu sanduka ‘coffin’ ↗ṣundūq
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ṣundūq صُنْدوق , var. ṣandūq, pl. ṣanādīqᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 1069 • APD … • © SG | 15Jul2021
    √ṢNDQ 
    n. 
    1a crate, box; b chest; c trunk, suitcase; d case, cabinet; e money box, till, coffer; 2a pay office, treasurer’s office; b any public institution where funds are deposited and disbursed for a special purpose (e.g., sock fund, health insurance, etc.) – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ [v1] : While Lokotsch1927 thought the word may come from an ultimately Ind source, Rolland2014 and Nişanyan2019_06Sept2019 posit a Grk origin (< syn- ‘together’ + déχomai ‘to receive, take, accept’ or tíθemi, θe- ‘to put’, respectively).
    ▪ [v2] : = modern fig. meanings.
     
    660 ṣundūq ‘wooden container’ in a saying by ʕAlī b. ʔAbī Ṭālib – DHDA.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Aram ṣəndūḳā (Nişanyan_06Sept2019)
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Lokotsch1927 #1826 assumes a prob. Ind origin but does not give further details. Rolland2014a thinks the etymon is Grk sundókos ‘recipient, container’, from prefix sun‑ ‘together’ + déχ-omai ‘to receive, take, accept’, from IE *dek‑ ‘dto.’ (cf. also ↗funduq < Grk pan-doχ-eîon); reimported into Grk as sánduks ‘case, suitcase’ (classified by Beekes2010 simply as »Pre-Greek«).
    ▪ Instead of sun‑ + déχ-omai, Nişanyan_06Sept2019 posits Grk συνθήκη synthḗkē, from sun‑ + tíθemi, θe- ‘to put’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Tu sandık ‘chest’: <1250? Edīb Aḥmed, ʕAtebet-ül Ḥaḳāyıḳ: kalur munda kiḏiŋ säpäd ṣandūḳuŋ; 1303 Codex Cumanicus: capsia = Pers sanduk = Tu sinduk – Nişanyan_06Sept2019.
    ▪ Tu sanduka ‘coffin, sarcophagus’: 1665 Evliyā Çelebī, Seyāḥatnāme: türbe-i pür-envārdan bir el ẓāhır olup bu şeyχi dāmeninden çeküp sandūka yanıŋda oturdup. In Tu, sandık is usually ‘chest’, while sanduka mainly renders ‘coffin’ – Nişanyan_15Sept2014.
    ▪ Lokotsch1927 #1826: [?oInd >] Ar ṣanduq > Tu sandık > several Slav langs
    ▪ Believed to have been re-imported into Grk as sánduks ‘case, suitcase’ by Rolland2014a, but Beekes2010 (who also registers a var. sendoúkē, dimin. sendoúkion) has »Pre-Greek«.
    ▪ …
     
    ṣundūq al-barīd, n., post-offixe box
    ṣundūq al-makātīb, n., mailbox
    ṣundūq al-naqd al-duwalī, n., International Monetary Fund
    ṣundūq al-tawfīr, n., savings bank
    ʔabū ṣundūq, n., (fig.) hunchback
    ʔamīn al-ṣundūq, n., treasurer
    daftar al-ṣundūq, n., cashbook

     
    ṢNDL صندل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Jul2021
    √ṢNDL 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢNDL_1 ‘sandalwood’ ↗¹ṣandal
    ▪ ṢNDL_2 ‘sandals’ ↗²ṣandal
    ▪ ṢNDL_3 ‘(freight) barge, lighter; (EgAr) pontoon’ ↗³ṣandal

    Other values, now obsolete, include (Lane iv 1872, Hava1899, LandbergZetterstein1942):

    ṢNDL_4 ‘big-headed (ass, camel): ṣandal, ṣunādil
    ṢNDL_5 ‘a thing resembling the boot, in the sole of which are nails’: ṣandal
    ṢNDL_6 ‘skiff, rowboat’: ṣandal
    ▪ ṢNDL_7 ‘homme brave et courageux’: DaṯAr ṣandīl (LZ1942)
    ṢNDL_8 ‘chemistry, pharmacy’: ṣandalaẗ
    ṢNDL_9 ‘…’:

     
    ▪ [v1] : ultimately from Skr čandana-m ‘the sandalwood tree’.
    ▪ [v2] : BadawiHinds1986: from Engl sandal(s), from Lat, from Grk sándalon ‘sandal’ (which, accord. to most sources, is of Pers origin – but see DISC below).
    ▪ [v3] : BadawiHinds1986 marks ³ṣandal ‘(freight) barge, lighter; (EgAr) pontoon’ as »Grk Pers Tu It« without giving any details, and words of this meaning do not seem to exist in the languages indicated. – Prob. identical with [v6] ‘skiff, rowboat’.
    [v4] ṣandal, ṣunādil ‘big-headed (ass, camel)’: accord. to Rolland2014a « probablement d’origine sémitique ». No details given.
    [v5] ṣandal ‘a thing resembling the boot, in the sole of which are nails’: accord. to Ar lexicographers (as summarized in Lane iv 1872), the word is from a Pers sandal. – Prob. identical with [v2] ‘sandal(s)’.
    [v6] ṣandal ‘skiff, rowboat’: Rolland2014a thinks this is metaphorical use of [v2] (or [v5]?), the small boat (and also the name of a flat fish) being likened to a shoe (boot). « Le […] sens […] relève d’une dérivation métaphorique habituelle entre les noms de poissons, de chaussures et d’embarcations ; une datation des occurrences devrait permettre de vérifier quels rôles ont joués le grec et le turc dans le sémantisme de l’arabe. » – See also below, section DISC.
    ▪ [v7] DaṯAr ṣandīl ‘homme brave et courageux’ (LandbergZetterstein1942): akin to [v4]?
    [v8] : ṣandalaẗ for ‘chemistry, pharmacy’ is a var. of the now more common ↗ṣaydalaẗ. But ṣaydalī < ṣandalī ‘pharmacist, seller of drugs’ (which still can take the pl. ṣanādilaẗ instead of ṣayādilaẗ!) is perh. originally a *‘seller of sandal powder’ (used in medicine, etc.) – Rolland2014a.
    [v9] ‘…’:
     
    ▪ [v1] : 626 ṣandal ‘tree with fine-smelling wood’ (ʔUmayyaẗ b. ʔAbī l-Ṣalt) – DHDA.
    ▪ [v4] : 595 ṣandal ‘big-headed’ (ass, camel), 762 ṣunādil ‘id.’ (Ruʔbaẗ b. al-ʕAǧǧāǧ) – DHDA.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ [v1]-[v8] : see above, section CONC.
    ▪ [v2] ‘sandal(s)’: Rolland2014a thinks that Grk sándalon on which the Engl is based is orig. a *‘sandale de bois fixée par des courroies passant sur le pied; nom d’un poisson plat’ and may therefore be based on [v1] ‘sandalwood’: « Les sandales originelles ont dû être fabriquées avec du bois de santal. » (For the name of the flat fish, see below, [v6].) LiddellScott1901, too, give ‘wooden sole, firmly bound on by straps round the instep and ankle’ as the meaning of Grk sándalon. Rolland, however, goes a step farther, assuming that the word therefore is based on ‘sandal wood’. Is that likely? Etymologists of Grk (Chantraine, Beekes) usually think that Grk sándalon is from a non-Grk source, but they do not identify this source with a word meaning ‘sandal wood’. Accord. to Jastrow1904 (reprod. also by Nişanyan_23Mar2018), the Grk sándalon is attested as early as -C7, and in TargAram (sandal) from C1 onwards, both with the meaning ‘sole with straps, shoe’ and (hence also) ‘flat fish like the sole or turbot’, and both are poss. from a common Pers source, specified by Jastrow as Pers sandal and translated as ‘calceus’.493 If the sole really was wooden, could there be an influence of Grk sanís (Gen -ídos) ‘board, plank, wooden scaffold, etc.’ (cf. also nGrk sanidénios ‘wooden, plank‑…’)?
    ▪ [v6] : Accord. to Nişanyan_23Mar2018, the meaning ‘skiff, rowboat’ (tabanı düz kayık ‘boat with flat deck’) of Tu sandal is metaphorical use of [v2], i.e., *‘flat like a sandal’. – But isn’t there also Grk sanís (Gen -ídos) ‘board, plank, wooden scaffold, etc.; also: deck (of a ship)[!]’, dimin. sanídion ‘small plank, board’, nGrk sanídi ‘plank’, sanidénios ‘wooden, plank‑…’? Cf. also Tu sandalî ‘throne’ and sandalya~sandalye ‘chair’ which are hardly from ‘sandal(s)’ (but perh. from ‘sandal wood’ – see below, NB in section WEST).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ [v1] : Engl sandalwood (1510s), earlier sandell (c1400), saundres (eC14), from oFr sandale, from mLat sandalum, from lGrk santalon, ultimately from Skr čandana-m ‘the sandalwood tree’, perh. lit. ‘wood for burning incense’, related to candrah ‘shining, glowing’ and cognate with Lat candere ‘to shine, glow’ (cf. Engl candle) – etymonline. || Ge Sandelholz (C15), from It sandalo, from Ar ṣandal, from Pers čandal, from oInd čandana-m ‘the sandalwood tree’, of unclear Drav origin – Kluge2002 / Lokotsch1927 #1825. || from Ital santalo, mLat santalum, from Grk sántalon, Ar ṣandal, from Skr čandanaDWDS. || Tu sandal (<1421?): sandal ve akakyā ve kızıl gül ve inebü’s-saleb (Yadigâr-ı İbni Şerif), from Skr čandana – Nişanyan_19Sept2017.
    ▪ [v2] : Engl sandal ‘type of shoe’ (lC14), from oFr sandale, from Lat sandalium ‘a slipper, sandal’, from Grk sandálion, dimin. of sándalon ‘sandal’, of unknown origin, perh. from Pers – etymonline. || Ge Sandale, enGe Sandaly (pl., c1500), from Lat sandalia, pl. of Lat sandalium ‘strap shoe’, from Grk sandálion, dimin. of Grk sándalon, of unknown (Pers? Eg?) origin – DWDS. || Fr sandale (c1160 sandaires, c1170 sçandales): from mLat sandalium ‘sandal’, from Grk sandálion, dimin. of sándalon ‘sandale de bois, fixée par des courroies passant sur le pied’ – CNRTL. || Tu sandal ‘sandal (shoe)’ (Redhouse1968): 1680 Meninski, Thesaurus: »sendel vulg. sandal: Başmak. Calceamenti genus« – Nişanyan_23Mar2018; Tu sandalet ‘small sandal, open shoe’: 1941 Cumhuriyet (newspaper): »bilumum yalın kat ayakkabı, sandalet, ağaç çivili kadın ve erkek ayakkabı satanlar...« < Fr sandalette, dimin. of Fr sandale etc., see above – Nişanyan_19Sept2017.
    ▪ [v3] : ³ṣandal ‘(freight) barge, lighter; (EgAr) pontoon’: accord. to BadawiHinds1986 also in »Grk Pers Tu It«, but no details given; prob. same as [v6], below.
    [v5] ṣandal ‘a thing resembling the boot, in the sole of which are nails’: accord. to Ar lexicographers (as summarized in Lane iv 1872), the word is from a Pers sandal. – Prob., however, it is identical with [v2] ‘sandal(s)’.
    [v6] Ar ṣandal ‘skiff’ ≈ Tu (Redhouse1968) sandal ‘rowboat’, sandalcı ‘boatman’: 1354 Görir bindi birkaç kişi ṣandala / deŋizden çıkup mīşeye girdiler – Mesʿūd b. Aḥmed, Süheyl ü Nevbahār terc. (Nişanyan_23Mar2018).
    [v8] : ṣandalaẗ ‘chemistry, pharmacy’.

    ▪ NB: Tu ³sandal ‘a kind of silk or satin cloth, brocade, sendal’ does not seem to have anything to do with [v1]-[v8]; rather, it is from Fr cendal (c1150), from mLat cendalum, prob. of Ital origin, prob. from Lat sindon, -onis ‘light, fin tissue, musselin’ – CNRTL. – Cf. Ar ↗sundus.
    ▪ NB: Is Tu sandalî ‘throne’ (Redhouse1890) originally a nisba-adj. coined from [v1] and thus meaning ‘made of sandalwood’? And shouldn’t one also put Tu sandalya, sandalye ‘chair’ here? (Earliest attestations: <1377 Erzurumlu Darir, Ḳıṣṣa-i Yūsuf terc.: »sandaluŋ üstinde Yūsuf oturur / bir münādi geldi gavgā getürür«; Ḳıṣṣa-i Yūsuf terc.: »kodılar bir ṣandalī hem ʕūd-ı ḫām / kim otura üzerinde ol ʔimām«; 1574 Hoca Saʕdeddīn Ef., Tācü't-Tevārīḫ: »bir muraṣṣaʕ sandali koydiler« – Nişanyan_26Sept2017, Nişanyan_23Mar2018.) If so one will also have to compare sandalya in the meaning of ‘office, post’ (e.g., sandalya kavgası ‘struggle for a post or position’).
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ¹ṣandal صَنْدَل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Jul2021
    √ṢNDL 
    n. 
    1 sandalwood; 2 ↗²ṣandal; 3 ↗³ṣandal – WehrCowan1976.
     
    ▪ (Via Pers čandal?) ultimately from Skr čandana-m ‘the sandalwood tree’.
    ▪ (Rolland2014a:) ¹ṣandal ‘sandal wood’ is likely to be the source of ↗ṣaydalī < ṣandalī ‘pharmacist, druggist, apothecary’, orig. prob. *‘seller of sandal powder’ (used for medical and other purposes), cf. OttTu ṣandalānī ‘dealer in sandal wood, druggist and perfumer’ (Redhouse1890).
    ▪ Some scholars believe that also ↗²ṣandal ‘type of shoe, sandal(s)’ and ↗³ṣandal ‘(freight) barge, lighter; (EgAr) pontoon’ as well as other (now obsolete) values like ‘skiff, rowboat’ ultimately derive from ‘sandal wood’.
    ▪ …
     
    626 ʔUmayyaẗ b. ʔAbī l-Ṣalt: ṣandal ‘tree with fine-smelling wood’ – DHDA.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Engl sandalwood (1510s), earlier sandell (c1400), saundres (eC14), from oFr sandale, from mLat sandalum, from lGrk sántalon, ultimately from Skr čandana-m ‘the sandalwood tree’, perh. lit. *‘wood for burning incense’, related to candrah ‘shining, glowing’ and cognate with Lat candere ‘to shine, glow’ (cf. Engl candle) – etymonline.
    ▪ Ge Sandelholz ‘sandal wood’ (C15), from It sandalo, from Ar ṣandal, from Pers čandal, from Skr čandana-m ‘the sandalwood tree’, of unclear Drav origin – Kluge2002 / Lokotsch1927 #1825. || from Ital santalo, mLat santalum, from Grk sántalon, Ar ṣandal, from Skr čandanaDWDS.
    ▪ Tu sandal ‘sandal wood’: (<1421?) Yadigâr-ı İbni Şerif: »sandal ve akakyā ve kızıl gül ve inebü’s-saleb«, from Skr čandana – Nişanyan_19Sept2017.
    ▪ Is Tu sandalî ‘throne’ (Redhouse1890) originally a nisba-adj. coined from Ar ¹ṣandal and thus meaning ‘made of sandalwood’? And should one also put Tu sandalya, sandalye ‘chair’ here? (Earliest attestations: <1377 Erzurumlu Darir, Ḳıṣṣa-i Yūsuf terc.: »sandaluŋ üstinde Yūsuf oturur / bir münādi geldi gavgā getürür«; Ḳıṣṣa-i Yūsuf terc.: »kodılar bir ṣandalī hem ʕūd-ı ḫām / kim otura üzerinde ol ʔimām«; 1574 Hoca Saʕdeddīn Ef., Tācü't-Tevārīḫ: »bir muraṣṣaʕ sandali koydiler« – Nişanyan_26Sept2017, _23Mar2018.) If so one will also have to compare sandalya in the meaning of ‘office, post’ (e.g., sandalya kavgası ‘struggle for a post or position’).

    ▪ NB: Tu sandal ‘a kind of silk or satin cloth, brocade, sendal’ does not seem to have anything to do with ¹ṣandal ‘sandalwood’; rather, it is from Fr cendal (c1150), from mLat cendalum, prob. (via Ital?) from Lat sindon, ‑onis ‘light, fin tissue, musselin’ – CNRTL. – Cf. Ar ↗sundus.
    ▪ …
     
    For other values attached to the root, see ↗²ṣandal and ↗³ṣandal as well as, for the overall picture, “root” entry ↗√ṢNDL.
     
    ²ṣandal صَنْدَل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Jul2021
    √ṢNDL 
    n. 
    1 ↗¹ṣandal; 2 sandals; 3 ↗³ṣandal – WehrCowan1976.
     
    ▪ (BadawiHinds1986:) From Engl sandal(s), via Lat from Grk sándalon ‘sandal’ (which, accord. to most sources, is of Pers origin – see DISC below).
    ▪ Rolland2014a thinks that Grk sándalon ‘sandal’ on which the Engl sandal is based is orig. a *‘sandale de bois fixée par des courroies passant sur le pied’ and may therefore be based on ‘sandalwood’ (↗¹ṣandal): « Les sandales originelles ont dû être fabriquées avec du bois de santal. » – But why should shoes be made from sandal wood in particular? Unlikely. See below, section DISC.
    ▪ Grk sándalon may be the etymon of ↗³ṣandal ‘(freight) barge, lighter; (EgAr) pontoon’ and the perh. identical ṣandal ‘skiff, rowboat’ (↗√ṢNDL), see below, section DISC.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Is Grk sándalon ‘sandal(s)’ related to ‘sandal wood’ (↗¹ṣandal)? Rolland thinks that the Grk ‘sandals’ orig. were a *‘wooden sole, firmly bound on by straps round the instep and ankle’ (LiddellScott1901) and that the word therefore is based on ‘sandal wood’. But is that likely? Etymologists of Grk (Chantraine, Beekes) usually think that Grk sándalon is from a non-Grk source, but they do not identify this source with a word meaning ‘sandal wood’. Accord. to Jastrow1904 (reprod. also by Nişanyan_23Mar2018), the Grk sándalon is attested as early as -C7, and in TargAram (sandal) from C1 onwards, both with the meaning ‘sole with straps, shoe’ and (hence also) ‘flat fish like the sole or turbot’, and both are poss. from a common Pers source, specified by Jastrow as Pers sandal and translated as ‘calceus’.494 If the sole really was wooden, could there be an influence of Grk sanís (Gen -ídos) ‘board, plank, wooden scaffold, etc.’ (cf. also nGrk sanidénios ‘wooden, plank‑…’)?
    ▪ A relation, likewise assumed by Rolland2014a, between Grk sándalon ‘sandals’ and ↗³ṣandal ‘(freight) barge, lighter; (EgAr) pontoon’/ṣandal ‘skiff, rowboat’ seems to be more likely than a dependence of ‘sandal(s)’ on ‘sandal wood’, as the small boat (and also the name of a flat fish) are easily conceivable as metaphorical use of ‘sandals’, as all are flat and open. « Le […] sens […] relève d’une dérivation métaphorique habituelle entre les noms de poissons, de chaussures et d’embarcations ; une datation des occurrences devrait permettre de vérifier quels rôles ont joués le grec et le turc dans le sémantisme de l’arabe. » – Cf., however, further discussion s.v. ↗³ṣandal.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ NB: The items given below are not from Ar ²ṣandal. Rather, they are registered with the aim of giving an overview of the etymologies, suggested in various sources, of the European words from which Ar ²ṣandal was borrowed.

    ▪ Engl sandal ‘type of shoe’ (lC14), from oFr sandale, from Lat sandalium ‘a slipper, sandal’, from Grk sandálion, dimin. of sándalon ‘sandal’, of unknown origin, perh. from Pers – etymonline.
    ▪ Ge Sandale, enGe Sandaly (pl., c1500), from Lat sandalia, pl. of Lat sandalium ‘strap shoe’, from Grk sandálion, dimin. of Grk sándalon, of unknown (Pers? Eg?) origin – DWDS.
    ▪ Fr sandale (c1160 sandaires, c1170 sçandales): from mLat sandalium ‘sandal’, from Grk sandálion, dimin. of sándalon ‘sandale de bois, fixée par des courroies passant sur le pied’ – CNRTL.
    ▪ Tu sandal ‘sandal (shoe)’: 1680 Meninski, Thesaurus: »sendel vulg. sandal: Başmak. Calceamenti genus« – Nişanyan_23Mar2018; Tu sandalet ‘small sandal, open shoe’: 1941 Cumhuriyet (newspaper): »bilumum yalın kat ayakkabı, sandalet, ağaç çivili kadın ve erkek ayakkabı satanlar...« < Fr sandalette, dimin. of Fr sandale etc., see above – Nişanyan_19Sept2017.
    ▪ …
     
    For other values attached to the root, see ↗¹ṣandal and ↗³ṣandal as well as, for the overall picture, “root” entry ↗√ṢNDL.
     
    ³ṣandal صَنْدَل , pl. ṣanādilᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Jul2021
    √ṢNDL 
    n. 
    1 ↗¹ṣandal; 2 ↗²ṣandal; 3 (freight) barge; lighter, barge – WehrCowan1976.
     
    ▪ BadawiHinds1986 marks ³ṣandal ‘(freight) barge, lighter; (EgAr) pontoon’ as »Grk Pers Tu It« without giving any details, and words of this meaning do not seem to exist in the languages indicated. Prob., the item is identical with ṣandal (↗√ṢNDL) ‘skiff, rowboat’ which, accord. to Rolland2014a, is metaphorical use of the etymon of ↗²ṣandal ‘sandal(s)’, namely Grk sándalon ‘sandal(s)’, the small boat being likened to a shoe (boot). Accord. to Jastrow1904 (reprod. also by Nişanyan_23Mar2018), the Grk sándalon is attested as early as -C7, and in TargAram (sandal) from C1 onwards, both with the meaning ‘sole with straps, shoe; hence also: flat fish like the sole or turbot’, and both are poss. from a common Pers source, specified by Jastrow as Pers sandal ‘calceus’.80 Accord. to Rolland2014a, the likening of (flat-soled) sandals, flat fish and flat boats seems to stem from habitual association: « Le […] sens […] relève d’une dérivation métaphorique habituelle entre les noms de poissons, de chaussures et d’embarcations ; une datation des occurrences devrait permettre de vérifier quels rôles ont joués le grec et le turc dans le sémantisme de l’arabe. »
    ▪ Rolland2014a further assumes a dependence of Grk sándalon on ‘sandalwood’ (↗¹ṣandal) – an assumption we find hard to follow; see discussion s.v. ↗¹ṣandal and ↗²ṣandal.
    ▪ However, we should perh. not exclude poss. influence of Grk sanís (Gen -ídos) ‘board, plank, wooden scaffold, etc.; also: deck (of a ship)[!]’, dimin. sanídion ‘small plank, board’ (> nGrk sanídi ‘plank’, sanidénios ‘wooden, plank‑…’) on the development of ³ṣandal.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Ar ṣandal ‘skiff’ ≈ Tu (Redhouse1968) sandal ‘rowboat’, sandalcı ‘boatman’: 1354 Mesʿūd b. Aḥmed, Süheyl ü Nevbahār terc.: »Görir bindi birkaç kişi ṣandala / deŋizden çıkup mīşeye girdiler« – Nişanyan_23Mar2018.
    ▪ …
     
    For other values attached to the root, see ↗¹ṣandal and ↗²ṣandal as well as, for the overall picture, “root” entry ↗√ṢNDL.
     
    ṢNR صنر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Jul2021
    √ṢNR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢNR_1 ‘hook, fishhook’ ↗ṣinnāraẗ

    Other values, now obsolete, include (BK1860, Lane iv 1872, Steingass1884, Hava1899):

    ṢNR_2 ‘plane-tree, platanus’: ṣin(n)ār
    ṢNR_3 ‘leathern handle, kind of shield | ganse de cuir à l’aide de laquelle on tient ou l’on accroche le fouet’: ²ṣinnāraẗ
    ṢNR_4 ‘ear | oreille’: ³ṣinnāraẗ
    ṢNR_5 ‘niggardly, of evil disposition’:ṣinnawr

     
    ▪ [v1] : Hist. also ‘head-piece of the spindle’. – Prob. borrowed from Syr ṣenārtā, ṣenār, ṣennūrtā ‘fishing hook, fishing line’, Aram ṣinnōrā, TargAram ṣînnôrâ ‘hook’ (related to Hbr ²ṣinnôr ‘hole [for the door], door socket, hinge-socket; [postBibl also:] fork’, postBiblHbr ²ṣinnôrāʰ ‘knitting needle; hook’?), which are of unknown provenience. – Cf. perh. also ṣinnāʰ (√ṢNN!) ‘fishing hook’ (hapax in the Bible; of uncertain origin, perh. orig. meaning ‘large basket’ and related to Aram ṣinnâ ‘basket’, Ar ↗ṣann81 – Klein1987). See below, section DISC. – There is also a var. spelling ↗sinnāraẗ (with /s/, not /ṣ/), of the same meaning.
    [v2] : From Pers čanār ‘platanus’ – Rolland2014a. – Accord. to Nişanyan, Tu çınar is from Pers čanār~čanāl < mPers čnār, which, accord. to the author, is in turn from Chin »ç’un« (= ?; a modChin word for plane-tree is xuánlíngmù, i.e., *‘tree of the hanging bells’, where the first component, xuán, signifies the notion of ‘hanging’; phonologically, it could be the background of Pers čanār, but see DISC below). – May have influenced, or been influenced by, ↗ṣanawbar ‘pine tree’.
    [v3] : ? = sanawwar (with /s/) ‘coat made of thongs, worn in war, like a coat of mail, any weapon (of iron) or arms’ (Lane iv 1872)? For the latter, Ḍinnāwī2004 assumes an origin in Syr sanūrā ~ sanwartā ‘crown of the head; head-covering, headband, cap, helmet’ (PayneSmith1903). – Or rather related to Hbr ṣinnāʰ ‘large shield (covering the whole body); protective wall; (nHbr) barrel shield of a revolver’, thus from Hbr √ṢNN which prob. means *‘to preserve, keep’, poss. related to Ar ↗ṣāna (√ṢWN) – so Klein1987’s suggestion for ṣinnāʰ
    [v4] ³ṣinnāraẗ ‘ear | oreille’ : ?
    [v5] : Cf. also BK1860 ṣinnāraẗ (pl. ṣanānīrᵘ) ‘homme qui, malgré sa bonne naissance, n’est ni lettré ni bien élevé; rustre’. Similar/identical values are attested not only for ṣinnawr and ṣinnāraẗ (√ṢNR), but also for ṣanbar and ṣunbūr (↗√ṢNBR). – Any relation to ↗šanār (< Pers?) ‘disgrace, ignominy’? Is ṣinnawr perh. Pers *šanār-bar (not attested)?
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ [v1] : 609 ‘iron spindle head’ – DHDA.
    [v2] : 709 ‘kind of tree with large and broad leaves, also called dulb’ – DHDA.
    [v3] : (?) 540 sanawwar [initial s!] ‘weapon worn in war’ – DHDA.
    [v4] : …
    [v5] : …
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ [v1] : Cf. prob. Aram ṣinnôrâ, TargAram ṣînnôrâ ‘hook’, Syr ṣennūrtā, postBiblHbr ²ṣinnôr ‘door socket; fork’, ²ṣinnôrāʰ ‘knitting needle; hook’, modHbr ṣinnôrît ‘knitting needle’ (perh. also Hbr ²ṣinnôr ‘hole [for the door], door socket, hinge-socket) – Fraenkel1886, Klein1987. – (?) Cf. also Hbr ṣinnāʰ ‘fishing hook’ (hapax in the Bible) – Klein1987?
    [v2] : borrowed from mPers.
    [v3] : (?) perh. Syr sanūrā ~ sanwartā ‘crown of the head; head-covering, headband, cap, helmet’; see sanawwar (initial /s/!) ‘coat made of thongs, worn in war, like a coat of mail, any weapon (of iron) or arms’ in ↗√SNR. – Cf. perh. also Hbr ṣinnāʰ ‘large shield (covering the whole body); protective wall’ (Hbr √ṢNN), see above, section CONC.
    [v4] : ?
    [v5] : perh. borrowed, or related to a borrowing, from Pers, see above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ [v1] : Accord. to Fraenkel1886, the Aram items listed above are perh. of Pers origin (no details given though). – The word exists also as ↗sinnāraẗ, with initial /s/ instead of //. – BadawiHinds1986 mark EgAr ṣunnāraẗ~ṣinnāraẗ ‘fishhook’ as a borrowing from a Tu sinare ‘fishhook’, but the latter is hardly genuine Tu. Redhouse1968 thinks OttTu sināraʰ~sināreʰ (with /s/, and also written /sī…/) is of Grk origin,495 but there is only modGrk tsiggáli ‘hook’ which comes phonologically close (and does not look original Grk either). Could there be a relation to Tu sinarit~sinağrit ‘(a species of) fish, dentex dentex’, which is from modGrk συναγρίδα sinagrída < oGrk συναγρίς synagrís ‘dentex’ (Nişanyan_02Dec2014)? A metonymical transfer from the fish to the hook with which it is caught is actually not less likely than the other alternatives discussed above; and there is also the variant spelling with /s/, not /ṣ/ (↗sinnāraẗ), likewise meaning ‘fishhook’.
    [v2] : « Du persan čanār ‘platane’. L’accommodation du [Pers] č par [Ar] exceptionnelle, pourrait signifier que l’emprunt s’est plutôt fait du pehlevi [mPers] » – Rolland2014a. – Accord. to Nişanyan, the mPers čnār is in turn from Chin »ç’un« (= xuán ‘hanging, suspended’ in a modChin word for ‘plane-tree’, xuánlíngmù, lit. *‘tree of the hanging bells’?) – a rather unlikely assumption (though phonologically perh. possible), as the plane-tree does not seem to be native to China. The Oriental plane (Platanus orientalis, Old World sycamore)’s distribution ranged from the Mediterranean to Iran, perh. Kashmir, but not farther to the east.
    [v3]-[v5] : see above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    ṣinnāraẗ صِنّارة 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Jul2021
    √ṢNR 
    n.f. 
    hook, fishhook – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Hist. also ‘head-piece of the spindle’. – Prob. borrowed from Syr ṣenārtā, ṣenār, ṣennūrtā ‘fishing hook, fishing line’, Aram ṣinnōrā, TargAram ṣînnôrâ ‘hook’ (related to Hbr ²ṣinnôr ‘hole [for the door], door socket, hinge-socket; [postBibl also:] fork’, postBiblHbr ²ṣinnôrāʰ ‘knitting needle; hook’?), which are of unknown provenience. – Cf. perh. also Hbr ṣinnāʰ (√ṢNN!) ‘fishing hook’ (hapax in the Bible; of uncertain origin, perh. orig. meaning ‘large basket’ and related to Aram ṣinnâ ‘basket’, Ar ↗ṣann82 – Klein1987). See below, section DISC.
    ▪ There is also ↗sinnāraẗ (with /s/, not /ṣ/), of the same meaning.
    ▪ …
     
    609 ‘iron spindle-head’ – DHDA.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Cf. prob. Aram ṣinnôrâ, TargAram ṣînnôrâ ‘hook’, Syr ṣennūrtā, postBiblHbr ²ṣinnôr ‘door socket; fork’, ²ṣinnôrāʰ ‘knitting needle; hook’, modHbr ṣinnôrît ‘knitting needle’ (perh. also Hbr ²ṣinnôr ‘hole [for the door], door socket, hinge-socket’) – Fraenkel1886, Klein1987.
    ▪ Cf. also Hbr ṣinnāʰ ‘fishing hook’ (hapax in the Bible) (Klein1987)?
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Accord. to Fraenkel1886, the Aram items listed above are perh. of Pers origin (no details given though).
    ▪ The word exists also as ↗sinnāraẗ, with initial /s/ instead of //.
    ▪ BadawiHinds1986 mark EgAr ṣunnāraẗ~ṣinnāraẗ ‘fishhook’ as a borrowing from a Tu sinare ‘fishhook’, but the latter is hardly genuine Tu. Redhouse1968 thinks OttTu sināraʰ~sināreʰ (with /s/, and also written /sī…/) is of Grk origin,496 but there is only modGrk tsiggáli ‘hook’ which comes phonologically close (and does not look original Grk either). Could there be a relation to Tu sinarit~sinağrit ‘(a species of) fish, dentex dentex’, which is from modGrk συναγρίδα sinagrída < oGrk συναγρίς synagrís ‘dentex’ (Nişanyan_02Dec2014)? A metonymical transfer from the fish to the hook with which it is caught is actually not less likely than the other alternatives discussed above; and there is also the variant spelling with /s/, not /ṣ/ (↗sinnāraẗ), likewise meaning ‘fishhook’.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    ṢNʕ صنع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Apr2023
    √ṢNʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢNʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢNʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢNʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to look after, to groom, to do, commit; to make, fashion, build, produce, manufacture; to be dextrous; to take for o.s.; place where rainwater gathers’ 
    ▪ From WSem *√ṢNʕ ‘to be(come) strong, do (something) skillfully, build, produce, make’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl arsenal, from Ar al-ṣināʕaẗ ‘the manufacture, industry’, or from dār al-ṣināʕaẗ ‘place of manufacture’, from ↗ṣināʕaẗ ‘manufacture, industry’, from ↗ṣanaʕa, vb. I, ‘to make, produce’. 
    – 
    ṢNM صنم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢNM 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢNM_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ṢNM_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘idol, to shape or form or picture an idol for worship’. – The philologists, however, are inclined to regard ṣanam as a borrowing from Hbr (also said to be from Pers). 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ṣanam صَنَم 
    ID 519 • Sw – • BP??? • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢNM 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    taṣnīm تَصْنِيم 
    ID 520 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢNM 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ṢNW صنو 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢNW 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢNW_1 ‘one of two, twin brother’ ↗ṣinw

    Other values, now obsolete, include (BK1860, Hava 1899):

    ṢNW_2 ‘ashes’: ṣanan (det. ṣanā), ṣanāʔ; cf. also the denom. vb.s ʔaṣnà (IV) and taṣannà (V) ‘to be stained with ashes (ṣanan) (cook) (se dit d’un homme qui fait la cuisine et se frotte contre la marmite)’

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘peer, equal, similar to; a full brother; two saplings growing together from the root of one tree’. 
    ▪ [v1] : Related to √ṮNY (↗ʔiṯnān ‘two’)? – Historically, several values are attested which evidently are related to [v1], all sharing the basic idea of *‘forming a group of two (or more: trees, mountains, people, …), resembling each other, belonging together, not standing alone’; for details see ↗ṣinw.
    ▪ [v2] : ṣanan~ṣanāʔ ‘ashes’ does not seem to have cognates in Sem. Any relation with ↗ʔušnān ‘potash; saltwort’? There is the vb. V, taṣannà ‘to be stained with ashes (ṣanan) (said of a cook who touches the cooking-pot)’, and there is taʔaššana, vb. V, ‘to wash one’s hands with ʔušnān’…
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    ṣinw صِنْو , pl. ṣinwān, ʔaṣnāʔ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢNW 
    n. 
    one of two, twin brother – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Historically, several values are attested which evidently are related to the modern meaning of ṣinw which seems to be reduced to ‘one of two, twin brother’. The older values share with the modern one the basic idea of *‘forming a group of two (or more: trees, mountains, people, …), resembling each other, belonging together, not standing alone’; for details see below, section HIST.
    ▪ Related to √ṮNY (↗ʔiṯnān ‘two’)?
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ The older values mentioned above in section CONC include: ṣinw~ṣunw (du. ṣanwāni~ṣinwāni~ṣunwāni, ṣanyāni~ṣinyāni~ṣunyāni) ‘semblable, pareil; qui n’est pas isolé, mais qui forme un groupe, une grappe ou une touffe (arbre, plante, fruit, etc., p.ex. rakiyyatāni ṣinwāni, deux puits voisins alimentés par la même source); groupe, bouquet d’arbres; pl. ṣinwān, ʔaṣnāʔ, qui forme un groupe avec un autre | one of a pair or of more than two (p.ex., naḫīl ṣinwān wa-ġayr ṣinwān, palmiers formant des groupes et des palmiers isolés); (hence also term for family members such as:) brother; son; cousin; uncle; nephew’, ṣinwaẗ ‘f. of ṣinw; sister; daughter; aunt’, ṣanw (pl. ṣunuww) ‘intertwisted trees | arbres touffus dont les branches s’entrelacent dans un ravin entre deux montagnes; water | petite quantité d’eau qui coule entre deux montagnes; stones between two mountains (so also dimin. ṣunayy)’, ṣināyaẗ ‘the whole | totalité, le tout (ʔaḫaḏahū bi-ṣināyatih, expr., il a pris la chose tout entière)’.
    eC7 (two palm trees growing out of a common root, clustering, growing in pairs) Q 13:4 wa-ǧannātun min ʔaʕnābin wa-zarʕun wa-naḫīlun ṣinwānun wa-ġayru ṣinwānin ‘and gardens of vineyards, plantations, and palm trees, both those growing, two from a single root, and those which are not’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    For other values attached to the “root”, see ↗√ṢNW.
     
    ṢHR صهر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Apr2023
    √ṢHR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢHR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢHR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢHR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to melt down, heat up, roast; to bring near; to marry into (a family), in-laws’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṢHYN صهين 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢHYN 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢHYN_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ṢHYN_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ṣahyūniyyaẗ صَهْيُونِيَّة 
    ID 521 • Sw – • BP 4473 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢHYN 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ṢWB صوب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢWB 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢWB_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ṢWB_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘(of rain) to pour down, torrential rain; to strike, to hit; to aim; to afflict, to befall; to do correctly, to be right, to be true’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ʔiṣābaẗ إِصابَة 
    ID 522 • Sw – • BP 816 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢWB 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ṢWT صوت 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Apr2023
    √ṢWT 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢWT_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢWT_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢWT_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘sound, voice, noise; to emit a sound; to cause to make a sound; fame, renown’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṢWR صور 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢWR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢWR_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ṢWR_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to cause to incline or lean towards, to incline to; to shape, form, fashion, to represent; sculpture, picture; to imagine, conceive; to cut into pieces; to disperse; to prepare; trumpet’. – ṣur-hunna is classified under this root, although some philologists and commentators derive it from the root ṢYR and still others derive it from ṢRY. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ …
    ▪ Kogan2011: (ṣawr ‘side of the neck; bank of a river’) an alternative term for ‘neck’ for which protSem *ṣawar‑ can be reconstructed. The basic Sem term for ‘neck’, protSem *kišād‑, does not seem to have left reflexes in Ar. – Cf. also ↗ʕunq, √ʕNQ.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ …
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    – 
    – 
    ṣūraẗ صُورَة 
    ID 523 • Sw – • BP 120 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢWR 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    muṣawwir مُصَوِّر 
    ID 524 • Sw – • BP 4265 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢWR 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ṢWʕ صوع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Apr2023
    √ṢWʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢWʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢWʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢWʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to gather together, collect; to measure, estimate, a dry measure; to drive; to prepare; to dry up; to disperse’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṢWF صوف 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Apr2023
    √ṢWF 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢWF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢWF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢWF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘wool, to grow wool; to swerve, to avert; to dry up’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl sofa, from Ar ↗ṣuffaẗ ‘sofa’, from Aram ṣippā, abs. form of ṣippᵊtā, a mat, perh. akin to ṣippā, ṣuppā ‘carded wool’, cf. Ar ↗ṣūf.
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Sufi, from Ar ↗ṣūfī, ‘(man) of wool’, from ↗ṣūf ‘wool’, perh. from Aram ṣippā, ṣuppā ‘carded wool’; both perh. from Akk ṣuppu ‘solid, massive, compacted (textile)’, vb.adj. of ṣuppu ‘to press down, rub down a horse’, derived stem of *ṣâpu, cf. ↗ṢFː (ṢFF). 
    – 
    ṢWM صوم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢWM 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢWM_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ṢWM_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to abstain, to observe a particular kind of abstinence, particularly taking food or drink, to fast; (of certain birds and animals) to empty the belly’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ṣawm صَوْم 
    ID 525 • Sw – • BP 4223 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢWM 
    n. 
    abstention, abstinence, abstemiousness; ‎fasting, fast; al-ṣ. ‏fasting during the month of Ramadan, one of the five principal duties of the ‎Muslim – WehrCowan1979. 
    Most probably a loan from Syr ṣawmā ‘fasting’ (as Retsö, “Aramaic/Syriac Loanwords”, in EALL holds83 ), rather than from Hbr ṣōm ‘fasting’ (as Schall1982 assumed). 
    ▪ eC7 Q 2:178, 2:183-185, 2:187, 2:196, 4:92, 5:89, 5:95, 19:26, 58:4. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Jeffery 1938: »The verb occurs in ii, 180, 181, and the participle in xxxiii, 35, [the vb.] ṣāma being obviously denominative from ṣawm. – It will be noticed that the passages are all late, and that the word is a technical religious term, which was doubtless borrowed from some outside source. That there were Jewish influences on the Qur’ānic teaching about fasting has been pointed out by Wensinck, Joden, 120 ff.,497 while Sprenger, Leben, iii, 55 ff., has emphasized the Christian influence thereon. In Nöldeke-Schwally, i, 179-180, attention is drawn to the similarity of the Qur’ānic teaching with fasting as practised among the Manichaeans, and Margoliouth, Early Development, 149, thinks its origin is to be sought in some system other than the Jewish or Christian, though doubtless influenced by both, so it is not easy to determine the origin of the word till we have ascertained the origin of the custom. – Fraenkel, Vocab, 20, would derive it from the Hbr ṣōm,498 but it is more likely to have come from Aram ṢWM, Syr ṣawmā, which is also the source of the Eth [Gz] ṣōma (Nöldeke, Neue Beiträge, 36), and the Arm com.499 The Syr form is the nearer phonologically to the Ar and may thus be the immediate source, as Mingana, Syriac Influence, 86, urges. The word would seem to have been in use in Arabia before Muḥammad’s day,500 but whether fasting was known in other Arab communities than those of the Jews and Christians is uncertain.501 « 
    – 
    ṣāma, ṣum-, ū (ṣawm, ṣiyām), vb. I, to abstain (ʕan from s.th.); to abstain from food, drink, and sexual intercourse; to fast: denominative
    BP#3470ṣiyām, n., fasting, fast: vn. I
    ṣiyāmī, adj., Lenten fare: nsb-formation, from prededing vn.
    ṣāʔim pl. ‑ūn, ṣuwwam, ṣuyyam, ṣiyām, adj., fasting: PA I; n., faster, one who fasts: nominalized adj. 
    ṢWMʕ صومع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Jun2023
    √ṢWMʕ
     
    "root" 
    ▪ ṢWMʕ_1 ‘cloister’ ↗ṣawmaʕaẗ
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṣawmaʕaẗ صَوْمَعة , pl. ṣawāmiʕᵘ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Jun2023
    √ṢMʕ, ṢWMʕ
     
    n.f. 
    cloister – Jeffery1938
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q xxii, 41 – Jeffery1938.
     
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »The Commentators differ among themselves as to whether it stands for a Jewish, a Christian, or a Sabian place of worship. They agree, however, in deriving it from ṣamaʕa (cf. Ibn Durayd, 166), and Fraenkel agrees,502 thinking that originally it must have meant a high tapering building.503 The difficulty of deriving it from ṣamaʕa, however, is obvious, and al-Ḫafāǧī, 123, lists it as a borrowed word. / Its origin is apparently to be sought in SArabia, from the word that is behind the Eth [Gz] ṣomāʕt ‘a hermit’s cell’ (Nöldeke, Beiträge, 52),504 though we have as yet no SAr word with which to compare it.«
     
    – 
    – 
    ṢWN صون 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢWN 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢWN_1 ‘to preserve, keep, protect, save, defend’ ↗ṣāna; ‘cupboard, case’ ↗ṣiwān
    ▪ ṢWN_2 ‘flint; granite’ ↗ṣawwān
    ▪ ṢWN_ ‘…’ ↗ṣwn

     
    ▪ [v1] : Scarcely attested in Sem. Huehnergard2011 nevertheless reconstructs WSem *√ṢWN ‘to protect’. – (?)Any relation with ²ṣinnāraẗ ‘leathern handle, kind of shield | ganse de cuir à l’aide de laquelle on tient ou l’on accroche le fouet’ (↗√ṢNR), sanawwar ‘coat made of thongs, worn in war, like a coat of mail, any weapon (of iron) or arms’ (< Syr sanūrā ~ sanwartā ‘crown of the head; head-covering, headband, cap, helmet’) (↗√SNR), and/or Hbr ṣinnāʰ ‘shield’ (↗√ṢNː(ṢNN))?
    ▪ [v2] : Based on Ar and an alleged Hs cognate, OrelStolbova1994 reconstruct AfrAs *c̣awan‑ ‘flint, stone’.
     
    ▪ [v1] : …
    ▪ [v2] : …
     
    ▪ [v1] : ḤaḍrAr taṣawwana ‘to take shelter’, YemAr ṣawān ‘guarantor, surety’, Gz ṣawwana, ḍawwana ‘to protect, defend, preserve, shelter’, ṣawan ‘fortress, castle, stronghold; garrison, fortification; refuge, asylum, shelter, consolation’, Te mäč̣wan ‘black veil’, Amh ṣāwān (< Gz) ‘refuge’; rel. to Hbr ṣinnāʰ ‘shield’ – Leslau2006.
    ▪ [v2] : OrelStolbova1994 suggest (outside Sem:) Hs c̣auni ‘hill, pile’.
     
    ▪ [v1] : …
    ▪ [v2] : Based on only the Ar and Hs evidence, OrelStolbova1994 #428 reconstruct Sem *ṣawān‑ ‘flint, quartz’ and WCh *c̣aw(˅)n‑ ‘hill, pile’, both from a hypothetical AfrAs *c̣awan‑ ‘flint, stone’.
     
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Zion, see Ar ↗ṣāna
    – 
    ṣān‑ / ṣun‑ صان/صُنْـ , ū (ṣawn, ṣiyānaẗ
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢWN 
    vb., I 
    1a to preserve, conserve, keep, retain, maintain, sustain, uphold; b to maintain (e.g., a machine, an automobile); 2a to protect, guard, safeguard, keep, save (s.o., s.th., ʕan from); b to defend (s.o., s.th., ʕan against) – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Scarcely attested in Sem. Huehnergard2011 nevertheless reconstructs WSem *√ṢWN ‘to protect’. – (?)Any relation with ²ṣinnāraẗ ‘leathern handle, kind of shield | ganse de cuir à l’aide de laquelle on tient ou l’on accroche le fouet’ (↗√ṢNR), sanawwar ‘coat made of thongs, worn in war, like a coat of mail, any weapon (of iron) or arms’ (< Syr sanūrā ~ sanwartā ‘crown of the head; head-covering, headband, cap, helmet’) (↗√SNR), and/or Hbr ṣinnāʰ ‘shield’ (↗√ṢNː(ṢNN))?
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ḤaḍrAr taṣawwana ‘to take shelter’, YemAr ṣawān ‘guarantor, surety’, Gz ṣawwana, ḍawwana ‘to protect, defend, preserve, shelter’, ṣawan ‘fortress, castle, stronghold; garrison, fortification; refuge, asylum, shelter, consolation’, Te mäč̣wan ‘black veil’, Amh ṣāwān (< Gz) ‘refuge’; rel. to Hbr ṣinnāʰ ‘shield’ – Leslau2006.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Zion, from Hbr ṣiyyôn, prob. originally meaning ‘stronghold, fortress’, derived from a root akin to Ar ṣāna ‘to protect’. 
    taṣawwana, vb. V, 1 to uphold one’s honour, live chastely, virtuously (woman); 2a to shut o.s. off; b to seclude o.s., protect o.s.: Dt-stem, self-ref.

    ṣawn, n., 1a preservation, conservation, guarding, keeping; b susten(ta)tion, upholding; c maintenance, upkeep, care; d protection, safeguard(ing), securing, defense; 2 chastity, respectability: vn. I | ṣāḥibaẗ al-ṣawn, n.f., hononary title of ladies of high social standing.
    ṣiwān, ṣuwān, pl. ʔaṣwinaẗ, n., cupboard, case.
    ṣiyānaẗ = ṣawn; BP#2557maintenance vn. I | malak al-ṣiyānaẗ, n., guardian angel (Chr.).
    ṣāʔin, n., 1 preserver, sustainer, maintainer, keeper, guardian, protector; 2 adj., protective: PA I.
    maṣūn, adj., 1 well-protected, well-kept, well-guarded, sheltered; 2a chaste, virtuous (woman); b also an epithet for women: PP I.

    For other values attached to the “root”, see ↗ṣawwān as well as, for the overall picture, “root” entry ↗√ṢWN.
     
    ṣiwān صِوان , var. ṣuwān, pl. ʔaṣwinaẗ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢWN 
    n. 
    cupboard, case – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ ↗ṣāna
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ↗ṣāna
     
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    For other values attached to the “root”, cf. ↗ṣāna and ↗ṣawwān as well as, for the overall picture, “root” entry ↗√ṢWN.
     
    ṣawwān صَوّان 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢWN 
    n.coll.; n.un. ة 
    flint; granite – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Based on Ar and an alleged Hs cognate, OrelStolbova1994 reconstruct AfrAs *c̣awan‑ ‘flint, stone’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ OrelStolbova1994 suggest (outside Sem:) Hs c̣auni ‘hill, pile’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Based on only the Ar and Hs evidence, OrelStolbova1994 #428 reconstruct Sem *ṣawān‑ ‘flint, quartz’ and WCh *c̣aw(˅)n‑ ‘hill, pile’, both from a hypothetical AfrAs *c̣awan‑ ‘flint, stone’.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ṣawwānī: ʔadawāt ṣawwāniyyaẗ, nonhum.pl., flint implements.

    For other values attached to the “root”, cf. ↗ṣāna and ↗ṣiwān as well as, for the overall picture, “root” entry ↗√ṢWN.
     
    ṢYḤ صيح 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢYḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢYḤ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ṢYḤ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to yell, to shout, to cry out, to hail; to dry up, (of grains) to ripen’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ṣāḥ‑ / ṣiḥ‑ صاحَ / صِحْـ 
    ID 526 • Sw – • BP 2823 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṢYḤ 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ṢYD صيد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Apr2023
    √ṢYD 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢYD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢYD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢYD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘hunting, fishing, game, catch of all kinds’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṢYDL صيدل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021 | last update 15Jul2021
    √ṢYDL 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢYDL_1 ‘pharmacist, druggist, apothecary’ ↗ṣaydalī
    ▪ ṢYDL_2 ‘…’ ↗

     
    ▪ [v1] Today, ṣaydalī is more common thanṣandalī for ‘chemist, pharmacist’. But ṣaydalī (which still can take the pl. ṣanādilaẗ!) is originally a *‘seller of sandal powder’ (used in medicine) – Rolland2014a. (A variant of ṣandalī, ṣandalānī, is attested, for instance, in Wahrmund1887 or, for OttTu, in Redhouse1890 with the meaning ‘dealer in sandal wood, druggist and perfumer’.) Thus, ṣaydalī is based on ↗ṣandal ‘sandal wood’ (which is of ultimately Ind origin).
    ▪ [v2] …
     
    – 
    ▪ [v1] ↗ṣandal.
    ▪ [v2] …
     
    ▪ [v1] ↗ṣandal.
    ▪ [v2] …
     
    – 
    – 
    ṣaydalī صَيْدَليّ , pl. ṣayādilaẗ 
    ID 527 • Sw – • BP 6852 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021 | latest update 15Jul2021
    √ṢYDL 
    n. 
    pharmacist, druggist, apothecary – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Today, ṣaydalī is more common thanṣandalī for ‘chemist, pharmacist’. But ṣaydalī (which still can take the pl. ṣanādilaẗ!) is originally a *‘seller of sandal powder’ (used in medicine) – Rolland2014a. (A variant of ṣandalī, ṣandalānī, is attested, for instance, in Wahrmund1887 or, for OttTu, in Redhouse1890 with the meaning ‘dealer in sandal wood, druggist and perfumer’.) Thus, ṣaydalī is based on ↗ṣandal ‘sandal wood’ (which is of ultimately Ind origin).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ ↗ṣandal.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ↗ṣandal.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ṣaydalaẗ, n.f., apothecary’s trade; pharmacy, pharmacology
    ṣaydalānī, n., pharmacist, druggist, apothecary
    ṣaydaliyyaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., pharmacy; drugstore
    ṣaydaliyyāt, non-hum.pl., drugs, pharmaceutics
     
    ṢYR صير 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Apr2023
    √ṢYR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢYR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢYR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢYR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to become, to change from one condition to another, reach a state; to return to; to go to; conclusion, destiny; to ripen, dry up’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṢYṢ صيص 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Apr2023
    √ṢYṢ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢYṢ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢYṢ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢYṢ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘long sharp cow-horn; spearhead; fortress, stronghold’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṢYF صيف 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Apr2023
    √ṢYF 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṢYF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢYF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṢYF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘summer, summertime, to spend the summer, the heat of day; to veer, to turn away from’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḍād ضاد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ 
    R₁ 
    The letter of the Arabic alphabet. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ḌʔN ضأن 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Mar2023
    √ḌʔN 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḌʔN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḌʔN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḌʔN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘sheep, to have plenty of sheep; weak, spineless male’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḌBḤ ضبح 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Mar2023
    √ḌBḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḌBḤ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḌBḤ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḌBḤ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘cinder, ashes, lightly roasted meat, to scorch; calls of foxes, owls and rabbits, panting of horses as they run’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḌǦʕ ضجع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Mar2023
    √ḌǦʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḌǦʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḌǦʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḌǦʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘place where one sleeps; to lie on one’s side, to recline; to neglect one’s duties’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḌḤK ضحك 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Mar2023
    √ḌḤK 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḌḤK_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḌḤK_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḌḤK_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘laughing matter, object of scorn; to laugh, ridicule, jeer; (of the earth) to bring forth plants and flowers’ 
    ▪ With (partly) dissimilation (*-Q > Ar -K) from protSem *√Ṣ́ḤQ or *√ṢḤQ ‘to laugh’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḌḤW ضحو 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Mar2023
    √ḌḤW 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḌḤW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḌḤW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḌḤW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘the breaking of day, daylight, the brief time of mid-morning, to enter at the time of mid-morning, to expose o.s. to the sun; to appear, to appear conspicuously; suburb and surroundings; sacrificial animal, to sacrifice’ 
    ▪ From WSem *√Ṣ́ḤW, also *√ṢḤW, *√ṢḤY, *√ṢḤḤ, ‘to be(come) bright, dazzling’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḌDː (ḌDD) ضدّ/ضدد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Mar2023
    √ḌDː (ḌDD) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḌDː (ḌDD)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḌDː (ḌDD)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḌDː (ḌDD)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘opposition, adversary, to oppose; peer; to meet one’s match; to fill up’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḌRː (ḌRR) ضرّ / ضرر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḌRː (ḌRR) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḌR: (ḌRR)_1 ‘to do harm, damage, hurt, cause a loss, bring pressure to bear’ ↗ḍarra
    ▪ ḌR: (ḌRR)_2 ‘to force, compel; necessity, need, constraint’ ↗ḍarūraẗ
    ▪ ḌR: (ḌRR)_3 ‘second wife’ ↗¹ḍarraẗ
    ▪ ḌR: (ḌRR)_4 ‘udder’ ↗²ḍarrat
    ▪ ḌR: (ḌRR)_5 ‘blind’ ↗ḍarīr

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘affliction, shortage of money, having no children; blindness; to harm, to impair, to disadvantage; to compel; to afflict one’s wife by marrying another’ 
    ▪ ḌR: (ḌRR)_1,3,5 : The primary value seems to be ‘hostility, rivalry’ and ‘causing harm’ ([v1]), hence also [v3] the ‘rival-wife’ and [v5] ‘blind’ (< *‘harmed, injured, suffering a loss of eye-sight’).
    ▪ ḌR: (ḌRR)_2 : It is tempting to derive also the theme of ‘being compelled’ from [v1], interpreting it as the result of imminent aggression or danger represented by an enemy, causing a feeling of ‘being forced’ into a situation of ‘emergency’, hence also ‘necessity, constraint’ in general. Etymologically, however, [v2] may be a distinct value, dependent on the notion of *‘to bind, tie up, restrict’ (see below, section COGN).
    ▪ ḌR: (ḌRR)_4 : No obvious relation between ‘udder’ and the other items in the root. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ ḌR: (ḌRR)_1 : (BDB1906, Leslau2006) Akk ṣarāru ‘to be hostile’, ṣarru ‘foe’, Ug *ṣrr ‘to hurt, afflict’, ṣr-t ‘enemy’, Hbr ṣārar ‘to shew hostility toward, vex’, Hbr nHbr ṣar ‘adversary, foe’, Aram ʕār ‘enemy’, Soq ḍer(r) ‘to strike’, SAr ḍrr ‘to wage war’, Sab ḍr ‘war; foe’, m-ṣr ‘Feldzug’ (Müller2010), Gz ʔaḍrara ‘to become an enemy, be hostile, stir up trouble, start a fight\war’, Te (tə)ṣarära, Tña (tə)ṣarärä ‘to be hostile’, Amh (tä)ṭarrärä ‘to quarrel, be enemiesḍrr, Tña ṣär, Amh ṭäro ‘enemy’.146 . – Cf. also ḌR: (ḌRR)_3 for the related n.f., ‘rival-wife’.
    ▪ ḌR: (ḌRR)_2 : (Unless depending on ḌRː/ḌRR_2) (BDB1906) Hbr ṣārar ‘to bind, tie up, be restricted, narrow, scant, cramped’, Aram ṣrar, Syr ṣar ‘to bind, tie up’, Hbr ṣar ‘(adj.) narrow, tight; (n.) straits, distress’, ṣᵊrûr ‘bundle, parcel, pouch, bag’ (< *s.th. bound up).
    ▪ ḌR: (ḌRR)_3 : (BDB1906) Akk ṣerretu, Hbr ṣārāʰ ‘vexer, rival-wife’, ṣārar ‘to make [a woman] a rival-wife’, Phoen ṣrt, Syr ʕarrᵊṯā ‘rival-wife’. – Cf. also ḌR: (ḌRR)_1 for the overarching notion of ‘hostility, rivalry, etc.’.
    ▪ ḌR: (ḌRR)_4 : ?
    ▪ ḌR: (ḌRR)_5 : no direct correspondances in ‘blindness’; cf., however, ḌR: (ḌRR)_1&3 for the overarching notion of ‘hostility, rivalry, causing harm, injury’. 
    See above, section CONC. 
    … 
    … 
    ḍarr‑ / ḍarar‑ ضَرّ / ضَرَرْـ , u (ḍarr)
     
    ID … • Sw – • BP 3253 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḌRː (ḌRR) 
    vb., I 
    to harm, impair, prejudice, damage, hurt, injure, do harm, be harmful, noxious or injurious – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ A root revolving around the thematic complex of *‘hostility, rivalry’ and ‘causing harm’ is well-attested throughout Sem, see section CONC.
    ▪ From this root, another widespread item is derived: the ‘rival-wife’ (↗ḍarraẗ).
    ▪ Another derivation (in Ar only) is the adj. ‘blind’, lit. *‘harmed, injured, suffering a loss of eye-sight’ (↗ḍarīr).
    ▪ It is tempting to derive also the theme of ‘being compelled’ (↗ḍarūraẗ) from a primary *‘hostility, rivalry’, interpreting it as the result of imminent aggression or danger represented by an enemy, causing a feeling of ‘being forced’ into a situation of ‘emergency’, hence also ‘necessity, constraint’ in general. Etymologically, however, ‘to be compelled’ may be a distinct value (see (↗ḍarūraẗ), dependent on the notion of *‘to bind, tie up, restrict’ (see below, section COGN).
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ ḌR: (ḌRR)_1 : (BDB1906, Leslau2006) Akk ṣarāru ‘to be hostile’, ṣarru ‘foe’, Ug *ṣrr ‘to hurt, afflict’, ṣr-t ‘enemy’, Hbr ṣārar ‘to shew hostility toward, vex’, Hbr nHbr ṣar ‘adversary, foe’, Aram ʕār ‘enemy’, Soq ḍer(r) ‘to strike’, SAr ḍrr ‘to wage war’, Sab ḍr ‘war; foe’, m-ṣr ‘Feldzug’ (Müller2010), Gz ʔaḍrara ‘to become an enemy, be hostile, stir up trouble, start a fight\war’, Te (tə)ṣarära, Tña (tə)ṣarärä ‘to be hostile’, Amh (tä)ṭarrärä ‘to quarrel, be enemiesḍrr, Tña ṣär, Amh ṭäro ‘enemy’.147 .
    ▪ Cf. also s.v. ↗ḍarraẗ for the related ‘rival-wife’.
    ▪ … 
    See above, section CONC. 
    … 
    ḍarrara, vb. II, to damage, harm, prejudice: D‑stem, ints.
    ḍārra, vb. III, = I.
    ʔaḍarra, vb. IV, 1 = I. – (Perh. rather related to ↗ḍarūraẗ: 2a to force, compel, coerce, oblige; 2b to do violence, bring pressure to bear: *Š-stem, caus.). – 3ḍarraẗ.
    taḍarrara, vb. V, 1a to be damaged, harmed, impaired, prejudiced, hurt, or injured; 1b to suffer damage or loss; 2 to complain.
    ĭnḍarra, vb. VII, to be damaged, harmed, impaired, prejudiced, hurt, or injured; to suffer damage or loss.

    ḍurr, ḍarr, n., 1adamage, harm, impairment, prejudice, detriment, injury, hurt; 1b loss, disadvantage.
    ḍirr, ḍurr, n., ↗¹ḍarraẗ.
    ḍarraẗ, pl. ‑āt, ḍarāʔirᵘ, n.f., ↗¹ḍarraṭ; 2 ↗²ḍarraṭ.
    BP#1724ḍarar, pl. ʔaḍrār, n., 1 harm, damage, detriment; 2 loss, disadvantage | mā ’l-ḍarar?, what does it matter! what’s the harm of it?; ʔaḫaff al-ḍararayn, n., the lesser of the two evils.
    ḍarrāʔᵘ, n., distress, adversity | fī ’ṣ-ṣarrāʔ wa’l-ḍarrāʔ, adv., in good and bad days, for better or for worse.
    ḍarīr, adj., blind: quasi-PP, ↗s.v..
    maḍarraẗ, pl. ‑āt, maḍārr, n.f., harm, damage, detriment, loss, disadvantage (ʕalà for).
    ʔiḍrār, n., harm, injury, detriment (jur.): vn. IV.
    ḍārr, adj., harmful, injurious, detrimental, noxious, disadvantageous: PA I.
    muḍirr, adj., harmful, injurious, detrimental, noxious, disadvantageous (bi to, for): PA IV.
    BP#3783mutaḍarrir, 1 adj., a damaged; b injured; 2 n., victim: PA V.

    For other items of the root, cf. ↗ḍarūraẗ, ↗¹ḍarraẗ, ↗²ḍarrat, ↗ḍarīr, as well as, for the overall picture, ↗√ḌRː(ḌRR) 
    ¹ḍarraẗ ضَرّة , pl. ‑āt, ḍarāʔirᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḌRː (ḌRR) 
    n.f. 
    1 wife other than the first of a plural marriage; 2 ↗²ḍarraṭ – WehrCowan1976.
     
    ▪ In the meaning ‘wife other than the first of a plural marriage’ (for another value, cf. ↗²ḍarraṭ), the word ḍarraṭ is related to the semantic complex treated s.v. ↗ḍarra ‘to harm, impair, damage, hurt, injure, be noxious’ etc. The basic theme in Sem seems to be *‘hostility’, so that ¹ḍarraẗ not only signifies a second wife but also carries the notion of ‘vexing, rivalry, causing stress’. The word is very old and has cognates with the same meaning in several Sem langs. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ BDB1906: Akk ṣerretu, Hbr ṣārāʰ ‘vexer, rival-wife’, ṣārar ‘to make [a woman] a rival-wife’, Phoen ṣrt, Syr ʕarrᵊṯā ‘rival-wife’.
    ▪ For the overarching *‘hostility, rivalry’, cf. the cognates given s.v. ↗ḍarra.
    ▪ …
     
    See above, section CONC. 
    … 
    ʔaḍarra, vb. IV, 1ḍarra; 2ḍarūraẗ; 3 to add a second wife to one’s household: *Š-stem, denom., from ḍarraẗ.

    ḍirr, ḍurr, n., addition of a second wife to one’s household..

    For other items of the root, cf. ↗ḍarra, ↗ḍarūraẗ, ↗²ḍarrat, ↗ḍarīr, as well as, for the overall picture, ↗√ḌRː(ḌRR) 
    ²ḍarrat ضَرّة , pl. ‑āt, ḍarāʔirᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḌRː (ḌRR) 
    n.f. 
    1 ↗¹ḍarraṭ; 2 udder – WehrCowan1976.
     
    ▪ While the most common meaning of the n.f. ḍarraṭ is ‘rival-wife, wife other than the first of a plural marriage’ (↗¹ḍarraṭ), it can also signify ‘udder’. Etymology obscure.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    See above, section CONC. 
    … 
    For other items of the root, cf. ↗ḍarra, ↗ḍarūraẗ, ↗¹ḍarraẗ, ↗ḍarīr, as well as, for the overall picture, ↗√ḌRː(ḌRR). 
    ḍarūraẗ ضَرورة , pl. ‑āt 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 555 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḌRː (ḌRR) 
    n.f. 
    1a necessity, stress, constraint, need; 1b distress, plight, emergency, want, austerity – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ It is tempting to derive the theme of ‘being compelled’ from the notion of *‘hostility, rivalry’ (treated s.v. ↗ḍarra), widely attested throughout Sem, interpreting it as the result of imminent aggression or danger represented by an enemy, causing a feeling of ‘being forced’ into a situation of ‘emergency’, hence also ‘necessity, stress, constraint’ in general. Etymologically, however, ‘to be compelled’ may be a distinct value, dependent on the idea of *‘binding, tying up, restricting’ (see below, section COGN).
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ ? Cf. Hbr ṣārar ‘to bind, tie up, be restricted, narrow, scant, cramped’, Aram ṣrar, Syr ṣar ‘to bind, tie up’, Hbr ṣar ‘(adj.) narrow, tight; (n.) straits, distress’, ṣᵊrûr ‘bundle, parcel, pouch, bag’ (< *s.th. bound up) – BDB1906.
    ▪ Cf. perh. also ↗ḍarra
    See above, section CONC. 
    … 
    ḍarūraẗan, adv., necessararily
    bi’l-ḍarūraẗ, adv., necessarily
    ʕind al-ḍarūraẗ, adv., in case of need, if need be, when necessary
    lil-ḍarūraẗ al-quṣwà, adv., in case of dire necessity, if worst comes to worst
    lil-ḍarūraẗ ʔaḥkām and al-ḍarūraẗ tubīḥ al-maḥẓūrāt, expr., necessity knows no laws.

    ʔaḍarra, vb. IV, 1 = I (↗ḍarra); 2a to force, compel, coerce, oblige; 2b to do violence, bring pressure to bear: *Š-stem, caus.; – 3ḍarraẗ.
    BP#2700 ĭḍṭarra, vb. VIII, 1 to force, compel, coerce, oblige; – pass. uḍṭurra 1a to be forced, compelled, obliged; 1b to be in an emergency or predicament, be hard pressed; 2 to be in need, need, want: Gt-stem.
    ḍarrāʔᵘ, n., distress, adversity | fī ’ṣ-ṣarrāʔ wa’l-ḍarrāʔ, adv., in good and bad days, for better or for worse.
    BP#1214ḍarūrī, necessary, imperative, requisite, indispensable, inevitable; pl. ḍarūriyyāt, necessaries, necessities: nisba formation from ḍarūraẗ | kāna min al-ḍarūrī, vb.impers., to be necessary; ḍarūriyyāt al-ḥayāẗ, n.nonhum.pl., necessities of life; ḍarūriyyāt al-ʔaḥwāl, exigencies, requirement of the situation.
    ĭḍṭirār, n., 1a compulsion, coercion; b necessity, exigency, requirement; c plight, predicament, emergency: vn. VIII | ʕind al-ĭḍṭirār , adv., in case of emergency.
    ĭḍṭirārī, adj., coercive, compulsory, inevitable, necessary, obligatory: nisba formation from ĭḍṭirār.
    BP#4451muḍṭarr, adj., 1 forced, compelled, obliged (ʔilà to); 2a poor, destitute; 2b wanting (ʔilà s.th.), in need (ʔilà of s.th.) : PP VIII.

    For other items of the root, cf. ↗ḍarra, ↗¹ḍarraẗ, ↗²ḍarrat, ↗ḍarīr, as well as, for the overall picture, ↗√ḌRː(ḌRR). 
    ḍarīr ضَرير 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḌRː (ḌRR) 
    adj. 
    blind – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ The adj. ḍarīr is a quasi-PP (FaʕīL) from the vb. ↗ḍarra ‘to harm, impair, prejudice, damage, hurt, injure, do harm, be harmful, noxious or injurious’ and thus means, lit., ‘harmed, injured’ or ‘having suffered a loss (sc., of eye-sight)’, cf. also the nouns ḍurr, ḍarr, ḍarar ‘damage, harm, impairment, prejudice, detriment, injury, hurt; loss, disadvantage’, or the vb.s taḍarrara (V) and ĭnḍarra (VII) ‘to be damaged, harmed, impaired, prejudiced, hurt, or injured; to suffer damage or loss’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    Cf. ↗ḍarra
    See above, section CONC. 
    … 
    For other items of the root, cf. ↗ḍarra, ↗ḍarūraẗ, ↗¹ḍarraẗ, ↗²ḍarrat, as well as, for the overall picture, ↗√ḌRː (ḌRR). 
    ḌRB 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḌRB 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḌRB_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ḌRB_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘beating, striking, to battle, to sting; to travel, to go fast; to appear; type; white honey; head, a muscular person, to sire’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ḍarab‑ ضَرَبَ 
    ID … • Sw –/73 • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḌRB 
    vb., I 
    … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    … 
    ḍarībaẗ ضَرِيبَة 
    ID 529 • Sw – • BP 1900 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḌRB 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ʔiḍrāb إضْراب 
    ID 528 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḌRB 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ḌRʕ ضرع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Mar2023
    √ḌRʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḌRʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḌRʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḌRʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘udder, teat, stream of milk from an udder; to worship, humble o.s., call for help; similarity, to be similar, to approach; the present time’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    muḍāraʕaẗ مُضارَعة 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 7Jun2023
    √ḌRʕ 
    n.f. 
    ▪ vn., III 
    muḍāriʕ مُضارِع 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 7Jun2023
    √ḌRʕ 
    adj. 
    ▪ PA, III 
    ḌʕF 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḌʕF 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḌʕF_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ḌʕF_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘equal; double, several times the amount of s.th., folds, to increase by several times; to weaken; to test’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ḍaʕīf ضَعِيف 
    ID 530 • Sw – • BP 1285 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḌʕF 
    adj. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ḌĠṮ ضغث 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Mar2023
    √ḌĠṮ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḌĠṮ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḌĠṮ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḌĠṮ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a bundle, unravelling of hair; a camel suspected to be suffering from an afflicted hump; confusion, mixture, hallucination’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḌĠN ضغن 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Mar2023
    √ḌĠN 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḌĠN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḌĠN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḌĠN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘hatred, enmity; homesickness; horse that will not cooperate unless it is hit; inclination’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḌFDʕ ضفدع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Mar2023
    √ḌFDʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḌFDʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḌFDʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḌFDʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘frog, to be frog infested; to crease’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḌLː (ḌLL) ضلّ/ضلل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Mar2023
    √ ḌLː (ḌLL) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḌLː (ḌLL)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḌLː (ḌLL)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḌLː (ḌLL)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘deviation, loss, to deviate from the right way or course, to lose the way; to miss s.th., to be unable to locate s.th., to become untraceable’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḌMː (ḌMM) ضمّ/ضمم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Mar2023
    √ ḌMː (ḌMM) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḌMː (ḌMM)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḌMː (ḌMM)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḌMː (ḌMM)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘group of people of different lineage, to draw together, hug, draw close to o.s., combine, gather, join; devious; glutton’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḌMR ضمر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Mar2023
    √ḌMR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḌMR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḌMR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḌMR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘race course, slimming down of horses in preparation for a race or battle, (of the body) to be slender, be emaciated, to weaken; hidden secrets; to conceal’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḌNː (ḌNN) ضنّ/ضنن 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Mar2023
    √ḌNː (ḌNN) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḌNː (ḌNN)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḌNː (ḌNN)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḌNː (ḌNN)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘treasure, to treasure, to be sparing, to keep back, to begrudge s.th.’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḌNK ضنك 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Mar2023
    √ḌNK 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḌNK_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḌNK_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḌNK_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be straitened, be confined, have a wretched life; to be physically strong’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḌHʔ ضهأ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Mar2023
    √ḌHʔ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḌHʔ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḌHʔ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḌHʔ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be kind, to treat gently; to be similar, to resemble, to imitate’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḌWʔ ضوء 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Mar2023
    √ḌWʔ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḌWʔ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḌWʔ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḌWʔ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘intensive light, to light up, shine, illuminate, beam, enlighten’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḌYR ضير 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Mar2023
    √ḌYR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḌYR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḌYR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḌYR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to harm, injure; to inconvenience’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḌYZ ضيز 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Mar2023
    √ḌYZ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḌYZ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḌYZ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḌYZ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘deviation, to be twisted, to be crooked; unfairness, to be unjust’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ḌYʕ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḌYʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḌYʕ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ḌYʕ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a profession; property, estate; to go to waste, to neglect, to squander’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ …
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    – 
    – 
    ḍāʔiʕ ضائِع 
    ID 531 • Sw – • BP 3507 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḌYʕ 
    adj. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ḌYF ضيف 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḌYF 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḌYF_1 ‘guest, hospitality’ ↗ḍayf
    ▪ ḌYF_2 ‘to add’ ↗ḍayf

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘the sides of a valley or a mountain; to add s.th. to s.th. else; (of the sun) to be near the time of setting; to host, to seek s.o.’s hospitality; to fear, to be cautious’ 
    »From the basic meaning ‘to incline towards, to set (of the sun), swerve, glance off (of an arrow)’, the verbal root comes to mean ‘to turn aside (from one’s road)’ and ‘to halt, on a visit to someone’, whence for the noun the sense of ‘guest’ […]« – J. Lecerf, art. “Ḍayf”, in EI²
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    Although at first sight the two values do not seem to have much in common, they are probably related. Both are treated under the main lemma ↗ḍayf ‘guest’, assuming that v2 is secondary, a semantic extension of v1: *‘the one who is taken in as a guest’ > ‘to take in (in general), add’. But it could be the other way round as well: *‘to take in, add’ > ‘person who comes as addition, is taken in (as a guest)’. In ClassAr, also the values ‘to incline, approach, draw near’ and ‘to fear’ occur. Of these, ‘to incline, turn away’ could be the original value (cf. ḍīf ‘side’), while ‘to fear’ could be explained as a limitation in meaning: *‘to turn away (from fear)’ > ‘to fear’. Should this be correct, a ḍayf ‘guest’ may originally have been either *‘s.o. who has turned away (in fear?) (and is now seeking refuge)’ or ‘s.o. who has turned away (from his path) (and is now approaching, drawing near)’. Cf. Lecerf’s suggestion in EI² quoted in the “Nutshell” section. 
    – 
    – 
    ḍayf ضَيْف , pl. ḍuyūf , ʔaḍyāf , ḍīfān 
    ID 532 • Sw – • BP 1454 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ḌYF 
    n. 
    guest; visitor – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ »From the basic meaning ‘to incline towards, to set (of the sun), swerve, glance off (of an arrow)’, the verbal root comes to mean ‘to turn aside (from one’s road)’ and ‘to halt, on a visit to someone’, whence for the noun the sense of ‘guest’ […]« – J. Lecerf, art. “Ḍayf”, in EI².
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#584 derive the word from a reconstructed Sem *ṣ̂ayp‑ ‘guest’ < ? AfrAs *ć̣ay˅p‑ ‘stranger, guest’.
    ▪ For the concept of ḍiyāfaẗ see s.v.
    ▪ … 
    Militarev/Stolbova 2007: Qat ḍyf ‘to ask to make a trading journey’, Mhr źayf / źīfon ‘guest, wedding guest’, Jib eźéf ‘to give hospitality’, Ḥrs źayf ‘guest’, Soq ḍef ‘recevoir qq’un comme hôte’. The forms in the modSAr languages may be an Arabisms. – Outside Sem: ŝapa, nzàfè ‘friend’ in 2 WCh languages; me-zep, mos, me-dap ‘stranger’ in 3 WCh idioms; mì-zèp, mɨ̀-zèp, mɨ̀-zìp, miz̃iva ‘guest’ in 4 WCh idioms; m̀-zèp, mǝ̀-zǝ̀p ‘stranger; guest’ in 2 WCh idioms; mɨ̀-s̃ɨbì, mí-híbí, mɨ̀-s̃ɨpì, mi-šibi, mɨ̀-s̃ɨpì in 4 CCh languages; and ĉap‑ ‘to pay bridewealth’ 1 SCush language. 
    Orel&Stolbova1994 and TB2007: From Sem *ṣ̂ayp‑ ‘guest’. Because of the WCh (*ĉ̣ay(˅)p‑ or *ĉ̣ay(˅)f‑ ‘friend; stranger; guest’), CCh (*mi-ŝip‑ or *mi-ŝipi ‘guest’) and SCush (*ĉap‑ ‘pay bridewealth’) cognates, a common AfrAs origin can be assumed, the most probable reconstruction for which is *ć̣ay˅p‑ ‘stranger, guest’. The authors assume also a denominative vb. Sem *ṣ̂˅y˅p as ancestor of Ar ḍāfa i ‘to be a guest’ and Jib eḍef ‘to give hospitality’. 
    – 
    ḍāfa, i (ḍiyāfaẗ), vb. I, to stop or stay as a guest: denominative (?).
    ḍayyafa, vb. II, to take in as a guest, receive hospitably, entertain: caus., denom.
    BP#291ʔaḍāfa, vb. IV, = II: caus., denom.; to add, subjoin, annex, attach; to admix; to connect, bring in relation (ʔilà with); to ascribe, attribute, assign (ʔilà to s.o.): metaph. use (?).
    ĭnḍāfa, vb. VII, to be added, be annexed, be subjoined, be attached (ʔilà to): pass. of I, metaph. use (?).
    BP#3942ĭstaḍāfa, vb. X, to invite s.o. to be one’s guest: denom.

    ḍiyāfaẗ, n.f., hospitable reception, entertainment as guest, accomodation; hospitality:.
    miḍyāf, adj., hospitable; n., hospitable host :.
    maḍāfaẗ, n.f., hostel, guesthouse, inn: n.loc.
    maḍyafaẗ, n.f., guest room; guesthouse: n.loc.
    BP#382ʔiḍāfaẗ, n.f., addition, apposition; subjunction, annexation, appending, attachment, augmentation, supplementation; assignment, allocation; ascription, attribution (ʔilà to): vn. IV, metaph. use; genitive construction (gram.): specialised meaning | ʔ. ʔilà ʔaǧal limitation (of a legal transaction; Isl. Law):.
    BP#2419ʔiḍāfī, adj., additional, supplementary, auxiliary, contributory, extra; secondary, subsidiary, tributary, accessory, incidental, side-, by (in compounds); relative (philos.): nsb-adj from ʔiḍāfaẗ.
    ʔiḍāfiyyaẗ, n.f., relativity (philos.): n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ from ʔiḍāfaẗ.
    BP#1956muḍīf, n., host: lexicalized PA IV.
    muḍīfaẗ, n.f., hostess; air hostess, stewardess: lexicalized PA IV, f.
    muḍāf, adj., added, subjoined, adjoined, apposed: PP IV; construct state (gram.): nominalized PP IV.
     

    ḌYQ ضيق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Mar2023
    √ḌYQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ḌYQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḌYQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ḌYQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be narrow, cramped, confined, straitened, be anguished, poverty; to be in poverty’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṭāʔ طاء 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ 
    R₁ 
    The letter of the Arabic alphabet. 
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    ṬāĠūt طاغوت 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Apr2023
    √ṬāĠūt, ṬĠY 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṬāĠūt_1 ‘...’ ↗ṭāġūt
     
    ▪ BAH2008: see ↗ṬĠY
     
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṬāLūt طالوت 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Apr2023
    √ṬāLūt 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṬāLūt_1 ‘...’ ↗ṭālūt 
    ▪ Acc. to BAH2008, »the non-Arabic origin of this word is recognised by the sources which describe it as being of foreign or Hbr origin.« 
    – 
    – 
    ṭālūt طالوت 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 8Apr2023
    √ṬāLūt, ṬWL 
    n.prop. 
    the Arabic name for Saul, King of Israel (cf. l Sam. X.23) – BAH2008 
    ▪ BAH2008: »the non-Arabic origin of this word is recognised by the sources which describe it as being of foreign or Hbr origin« 
    ▪ eC7qāla la-hum nabiyyu-hum ʔinna ’llāha qad baʕaṯa la-kum Ṭālūta malikan ‘their prophet said to them, “God has sent Saul to you as king”’ 
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »Some of the early authorities know that it was a foreign word. Bayḍ. tells us thatit is ĭsm ʕibrī, and al-Jawālīqī, Muʕarrab, 103; al-Ḫafāǧī, 128, give it as non-Arabic. / The Hbr word is Šāʔûl505 and none of the Christian forms derived therefrom give us any parallel to ṭālūt. The philologers derive his name from ṭāla ‘to be tall’, evidently influenced by the Biblical story, as we see from Bagh. on ii, 248. Geiger, 182, suggested that ṭālūt was a rhyming formation from ṭāla to parallel ǧālūt. The word is not known earlier than the Qurʔān,506 and would seem to be a formation of Muḥammad himself from Šāʔûl, a name which he may not have heard or remembered correctly, and formed probably under the influence of ṭāla to rhyme with ǧālūt.507
     
    ▪ Engl Saul : not from Ar, but from the same source 
    – 
    ṬBː (ṬBB) طبّ / طبب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬBː (ṬBB) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṬBː (ṬBB)_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ṬBː (ṬBB)_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    DRS 10 (2012)#ṬBB-1 Syr ṭab ‘apprendre, savoir; s’informer de’, ṭebbā ‘nouvelle rumeur, bruit qui court’, Ar ṭabba ‘traiter avec douceur; être habile, savant; exercer la médicine’, ṭabb ‘habile, savant’, ṭibb ‘habileté, intelligence, médecine; magie’, ṭabīb ‘habile, savant; médecin’, Sab ṭbb ‘enseigner, proclamer’, ṭbyt ‘information, avis’, Soq ṭeb ‘croire, savoir’, Gz ṭabba, ṭababa ‘être sage, prudent, habile’, Tña ṭababä ‘etre sage’, Te ṭäbbä, Amh ṭabbäbä ‘inventer un nouveau procédé’, Amh Gur Har ṭəbäb ‘sagesse’, Amh ṭäbib ‘sage, artisan, forgeron’, Gur ṭibbe ‘magie’. -2 Ar ṭibbaẗ ‘longue bande d’étoffe ou de terre’, MġrAr ṭabba ‘tache, plaque noire sur une partie du corps; pièce mise à un vêtement’, Sab ṭbt ‘bande de terrain cultivé’, Gur ṭäbbä, ṭäpa, ʔäpa ‘plaine, champ, espace ouvert’, ṭəpena ‘rigole pour diriger l’eau’. Leslau signale aussi en Cush: Sid ṭäbo, ṭawo ‘plaine, champ, espace ouvert’. -3 Ar ṭabb ‘(MeccAr:) sauter, faire un bond, (SyrAr:) tomber (sur), (EgAr:) arriver à l’improviste, se jeter sur’. -4 DaṯAr ṭabb ‘taper, palper’. ( -5: not represented in Ar.) 
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    ṭabb‑ / ṭabab‑ طَبَّ / طَبَبْـ , u i (ṭabb , ṭibb , ṭubb
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬBː (ṬBB) 
    vb., I 
    to treat medically, give medical treatment; to seek to remedy, tackle – WehrCowan1979. 
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    ṭabbaba, vb. II, to treat medically, give medical treatment: applicative, denom. from ṭibb.
    taṭabbaba, vb. V, 1 to receive, or undergo, medical treatment, submit to medical treatment; 2 to practice medicine, engage in the medical field: tD-stem, self-referential (v1), denom. from ṭibb or ṭabīb (v2).
    ĭstaṭabba, vb. X, to seek medical advice (DO from s.o.), consult (a doctor): denom. from ṭibb or ṭabīb, requestative.

    BP#1529ṭibb, n., medical treatment; medicine, medical science: quasi-vn. I. | ṭibb al-ʔasnān, n., dentistry, dental science; ṭibb bayṭarī, n., veterinary science; ṭibb šarʕī, n., forensic medicine; ṭibb nafsānī, n., psychiatry; ʕilm al-ṭibb, n., medical science, medicine; kulliyyaẗ al-ṭibb, n.f., medical school, medical college, (chiefly GB:) faculty of medicine.
    BP#865ṭibbī, adj., medical, pertaining to the medical profession or science: nsb-adj., from ṭibb. | lāʔiq ṭibbiyyan, adj., physically fit (e.g., for military service).
    BP#644ṭabīb, pl. ʔaṭibbāʔᵘ, ʔaṭibbaẗ, n., physician, doctor: originally a quasi-PP I, *‘knowledgeable, skilful’, nominalized specialisation | ~ bayṭarī, veterinarian; ~ ḫāṣṣ, physician in ordinary, private physician (e.g., of a king); ~ sāḥir, medicine man, shaman; ~ al-ʔasnān, dental surgeon, dentist; ~ šarʕī, medical examiner (jur.); ~ al-ʔamrāḍ al-ǧildiyyaẗ, dermatologist; ~ al-ḥukūmaẗ, public health officer; ~ ĭmtiyāz, medical assistant, intern (employed in a hospital); raʔīs al-ʔaṭibbāʔ, head physician; kabīr al-ʔaṭibbāʔ, senior physician.
    ṭabībaẗ, n.f., female doctor, doctress: f. of ṭabīb.
    ṭibābaẗ, n.f., 1 medical treatment. – 2 medical profession: quasi-vn. I.
    taṭbīb, n., healing art, medical practice, medical profession: vn. II.
    mutaṭabbib, n., quack, quacksalver: nominalized PA V, denom. from ṭabīb
    ṭibb طِبّ 
    ID 533 • Sw – • BP 1529 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬBː (ṬBB) 
    n. 
    1 medical treatment. – 2 medicine, medical science – WehrCowan1979. 
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    ṭibb al-ʔasnān, n., dentistry, dental science.
    ṭibb bayṭarī, n., veterinary science.
    ṭibb šarʕī, n., forensic medicine.
    ṭibb nafsānī, n., psychiatry.
    ʕilm al-ṭibb, n., medical science, medicine.
    kulliyyaẗ al-ṭibb, n.f., medical school, medical college, (chiefly GB:) faculty of medicine.
     
    ṭabbaẗ طَبَّة , pl. ‑āt 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬBː (ṬBB) 
    n.f. 
    (EgAr) 1 cushion, pad; 2 plug, stopper, stopple; bung – WehrCowan1979. 
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    ṭabīb طَبِيب , pl. ʔaṭibbāʔᵘ , ʔaṭibbaẗ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 644 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬBː (ṬBB) 
    n. 
    physician, doctor – WehrCowan1979. 
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    ṭabīb bayṭarī, n., veterinarian.
    ṭabīb ḫāṣṣ, n., physician in ordinary, private physician (e.g., of a king).
    ṭabīb sāḥir, n., medicine man, shaman.
    ṭabīb al-ʔasnān, n., dental surgeon, dentist.
    ṭabīb šarʕī, n., medical examiner (jur.).
    ṭabīb al-ʔamrāḍ al-ǧildiyyaẗ, n.f., dermatologist.
    ṭabīb al-ḥukūmaẗ, n.f., public health officer.
    ṭabīb ĭmtiyāz, n., medical assistant, intern (employed in a hospital).
    raʔīs al-ʔaṭibbāʔ, n., head physician.
    kabīr al-ʔaṭibbāʔ, n., senior physician.

     
    maṭabb مَطَبّ , pl. ‑āt 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬBː (ṬBB) 
    n. 
    pothole; (also ~ hawāʔī) air pocket, down gust (aviation) – WehrCowan1979. 
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    ṬBḪ طبخ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬBḪ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṬBḪ_1 ‘to cook’ ↗ṭabaḫa
    ▪ ṬBḪ_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ṬBḪ_3 ‘…’ ↗ 
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    ṭabaḫ‑ طَبَخَ , u, a (ṭabḫ
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬBḪ 
    vb., I 
    to cook – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘to slaughter’) Akk ṭbḫ (u), Hbr ṭbḥ a (o), Syr ṭbḥ a (a), Gz (ṭbḥ – (ā)).
     
    … 
    … 
    ĭnṭabaḫa, vb. VII, to be or get cooked: N‑stem, passive.

    BP#4669ṭabḫ, n., 1 cooking, cookery; 2 cooked food; 3 celluloid: vn. I and semant.ext.s.
    ṭabḫaẗ, n.f., (article of cooked) food, meal, dish, course: n.un. of ṭabḫ [v2].
    ṭabbāḫ, n., cook: FaʕʕāL formation for professions.
    ṭabīḫ, n., cooked food, fare: quasi‑PP I.
    ṭibāḫaẗ, n.f., culinary art, cookery, cuisine.
    BP#2999maṭbaḫ, pl. maṭābiḫᵘ, n., 1 kitchen; 2 cookshop, eating house, lucheonette: n.loc.
    miṭbaḫ, pl. maṭābiḫᵘ, n., any cooking apparatus (also, e.g., a hot plate), cooking stove, kitchen range, portable range: n.instr.
     
    ṬBʕ طبع 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬBʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṬBʕ_1 ‘seal, stamp; to (leave an) imprint, impress’ ↗ṭābaʕ

    Other values, now obsolete:
    • ṬBʕ_2 ‘(to be) dirty, rusted’: ṭabiʕa (a, ṭabaʕ); cf. also II ṭabbaʕa ‘to stain, soil’, ṭabaʕ (pl. ʔaṭbāʕ) ‘rust, dirtiness’, ṭabiʕ ‘dirty, rusty; vicious’, ʔaṭbaʕᵘ ‘filthy, greasy’ – Hava1899

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘1 to slap the back of the neck with the whole palm; 2 to impress shapes in the mud, fashion articles out of mud or iron, etc.; 3 to seal’ 
    ▪ The primary meaning of the root ṬBʕ in Sem is ‘to sink’ (DRS #ṬBʕ-1), whence the obsol. value ṬBʕ_2 ‘(to be) dirty, rusted’. DRS holds this value apart from #ṬBʕ-2 (≙ ṬBʕ_1) ‘to (leave an) imprint, seal, mould’, although it is not clear why this should not be a development from the former. There are, however, also theories tracing TBʕ_1 back, either directly or indirectly, to Eg ḏbʕ.t ‘signet ring, seal’.
    ▪ Irrespective of these theories, all MSA values seem to be based exclusively on ṭābaʕ
    – 
    DRS 10 (2012)#ṬBʕ-1 Akk ṭebū, Hbr ṭābaʕ, Aram ṭᵉbaʕ ‘s’enfoncer dans’, MġrAr ṭabbaʕ ‘avancer, pousser, bourrer’, ? Ar ṭabiʕa ‘être sale’, ṭabiʕ ‘crasseux’, MġrAr ṭabʕa ‘boue’. ? Gz Gur ṭäba, ṭäwä ‘boue’, ṭäbañäd, äṭäbiyä, ṭäwamä ‘sale’; ?Har č̣ibā ‘boue’. -2 Syr ṭebaʕ, Ar ṭabaʕa ‘faire une empreinte, imprimer; forger, fabriquer’ Phoen ṭbʕ ‘monnayage’, Hbr ṭabbaʕat, Syr ṭabʕā, Ar ṭabʕ, ṭābaʕ, ṭābiʕ ‘cachet, empreinte; forme, façon, moule’, ṭabbāʕat ‘bague à cachet, anneau’, ṭabʕ ‘naturel, caractère’, ṭabīʕat ‘caractère, habitude, coutume’; Soq ṭabeḥ ‘marque au fer rouge’; Mhr ṭāba, Jib ṭobʕ ‘manières’, Gz ṭabāyəʕ, Te ṭäbiʕat, Har ṭabīʕa, Tña Amh ṭäbay ‘nature, essence’. -3 ṭəbʕot ‘brique’. -4 Mhr ṭawba, Jib ṭēʕ ‘boire à la source, boire trop’. -5 Gz ṭabʕa ‘être prêt, résolu, déterminé, dur’, Te ṭäbʕa ‘être fier’, Gur ṭäwe ‘cruel’. -6?Te ṭəbäʕ ‘multicolore, bigarré’. 
    ▪ ṬBʕ_1: Huehnergard2011 reconstructs Sem ṬBʕ ‘to sink’.
    ▪ ṬBʕ_2: Pennacchio2014 reports that, according to Fraenkel, Ar ṭābaʕ ‘signet-ring, seal’ is from Syr ṭabʕā. There is also an Akk ṭimbuʔ(t)u ‘signet-ring’, showing -m- before -b-, and the corresponding Hbr ṭabbaʕaṯ has -bb-, which may or may not be from *-mb-. Ellenbogen, however, thinks that both the Akk and Hbr forms are from Eg ḏbʕ(.t) ‘signet ring, seal’508 (Copt təbbe; cf. also Eg ḏbʕ, Copt tōōbe ‘to seal’), and F. Bron assumes that the Ar word is directly from there. The Eg word itself seems to be taken from Eg ḏbʕ (Copt tēēbe) ‘finger’ (the signet-ring being worn on the finger), which is akin to Ar ↗ʔiṣbaʕ ‘finger’. Therefore, if Ar ṭābaʕ really goes back to Eg ḏbʕ(.t) ‘signet ring, seal’, then it is also related, though indirectly, to ʔiṣbaʕ
    ▪ Huehnergard2011: Engl tevet is not from Ar, but from Hbr ṭēbēt, a month name, from Akk tebētu, name of a month corresponding to parts of December and January, perhaps akin to ṭebū ‘to sink’. 
    – 
    ṭābaʕ طابَع , var. ṭābiʕ , pl. ṭawābiʕᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 2133 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬBʕ 
    n. 
    1 seal, signet; 2 stamp; 3 imprint, print, impress, impression; 4 (postage, etc.) stamp; 5 tablet, pill – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ All values attached to the root ṬBʕ in MSA seem to be derived from ṭābaʕ , which with all likelihood is a foreign word.
    ▪ Fraenkel traced Ar ṭābaʕ back to Syr ṭabbəʕâ ‘seal’, from the Sem root ṬBʕ ‘to sink’. But there are also theories that find the origin of both in Eg ḏbʕ.t ‘signet ring, seal’. 
    ▪ eC7 (to seal, seal up) Q 7:100 wa-naṭbaʕu ʕalà qulūbi-him fa-hum lā yasmaʕūn ‘and We seal up their hearts so tht they do not hear’ 
    DRS 10 (2012)#ṬBʕ-2: Syr ṭebaʕ, Ar ṭabaʕa ‘faire une empreinte, imprimer; forger, fabriquer’ Phoen ṭbʕ ‘monnayage’, Hbr ṭabbaʕat, Syr ṭabʕā, Ar ṭabʕ, ṭābaʕ, ṭābiʕ ‘cachet, empreinte; forme, façon, moule’, ṭabbāʕat ‘bague à cachet, anneau’, ṭabʕ ‘naturel, caractère’, ṭabīʕat ‘caractère, habitude, coutume’; Soq ṭabeḥ ‘marque au fer rouge’; Mhr ṭāba, Jib ṭobʕ ‘manières’, Gz ṭabāyəʕ, Te ṭäbiʕat, Har ṭabīʕa, Tña Amh ṭäbay ‘nature, essence’. 
    ▪ Jeffery1938: ṭabaʕa ‘to seal’ is »[o]nly found in late Meccan and Madinan passages, and always in the technical religious sense of God ‘sealing up the hearts’ of unbelievers. / The primitive meaning of the Sem root seems to be ‘to sink in’, cf. Akk ṭēbū ‘to sink in’, ṭabbīʔu ‘diver’, Hbr ṭbʕ, Aram ṭbaʕ, Syr ṭbaʕ ‘to sink’, Eth [Gz] ṭaməʕa ‘to dip, to immerse’.509 From this came the more technical use for a die, e.g. Phoen ṭbʕ ‘coin’,510 Akk ṭimbuʔu ‘signet-ring’, Hbr ṭabbaʕat ‘signet’, Syr ṭabbəʕâ ‘seal’ (Grk sphragís) and ‘coin’ (Grk nómisma). / Fraenkel, Fremdw, 193, pointed out that in this sense of sealing the Ar vb. is denominative from ṭābaʕ which is derived from the Syr ṭabbəʕâ.511 We actually find ṭbʕ used in the sense of ‘obstupefecit’ in Eph.Syr, ed. Overbeck, 95, 1 […], and [Aram] ṭbʕ occurs in the incantation texts (Montgomery, Aramaic Incantation Texts, Glossary, p. 105).«
    ▪ Pennacchio2014 reports that, according to Fraenkel, Ar ṭābaʕ ‘signet-ring, seal’ is from Syr ṬBʕā. There is however also an Akk ṭimbuʔ(t)u ‘signet-ring’, showing -m- before b , and the corresponding Hbr ṭabbaʕaṯ has -bb-, which may (by assimilation) or may not be from * mb . Ellenbogen, however, thinks that both the Akk and Hbr forms are from Eg ḏbʕ(.t) ‘signet ring, seal’512 (Copt təbbe; cf. also Eg ḏbʕ, Copt tōōbe ‘to seal’), and F. Bron assumes that the Ar word is directly from there. The Eg word itself seems to be taken from Eg ḏbʕ (Copt tēēbe) ‘finger’ (the signet-ring being worn on the finger), which is akin to Ar ↗ʔiṣbaʕ ‘finger’. Therefore, if Ar ṭābaʕ really goes back to Eg ḏbʕ(.t) ‘signet ring, seal’, then it is also related, though indirectly, to ʔiṣbaʕ
    – 
    ṭābaʕ al-barīd and ṭābaʕ barīdī, n., postage stamp
    ṭābaʕ al-ḫatm, n., impression of a seal or stamp
    ṭābaʕ taḏkārī, n., commemorative stamp
    ṭābaʕ al-ʔaṣābiʕ, n., fingerprint
    ṭābaʕ mālī, n., fiscal stamp, duty stamp
    ḏū ṭābaʕ ʔiqlīmī, adj., having a regional flavour or character; ṣāḥib al-ṭābaʕ, n., keeper of the seal
    ṭabaʕa-hū bi-ṭābaʕi-hī, expr., to place, set, or leave, one’s stamp, mark, or impress on s.o. or s.th., impart one’s own character to s.o. or s.th.

    ṭabaʕa, a (ṭabʕ), vb. I, 1 to provide with an imprint, impress or impression (s.th. or ʕalà s.th.); 2 to impress with a stamp, seal or signet (s.th. or ʕalà s.th.), leave or set one’s stamp, seal, mark, or impress (s.th. or ʕalà, on s.o., on s. th,); 3 to stamp, imprint, impress (ʕalà s.th. on); 4 to mint, coin (money); 5 to print (s.th.); 6 pass. ṭubiʕa to have a natural aptitude or disposition, have propensity, be disposed by nature (ʕalà for) : all prob. denom. from ṭābaʕ | ~ bi-ṭābiʕi-hī, expr., to place, set, or leave one’s stamp, mark, or impress on s.o. or s.th., impart one’s own character to s.o. or s.th.; ~ ʕalay-hi, expr., to be innate, inherent in s.o., be native, natural to s.o.
    ṭabbaʕa, vb. II, to tame, domesticate, break in, train (an animal): extended, specialised meaning of denom. *‘to brand an animal, set one’s stamp on it’.
    taṭabbaʕa, vb. V, ~ bi-ṭibāʕi-hī, expr., to take on, assume, or receive s.o.’s peculiar character, bear s.o.’s stamp or impress: tD-stem, pass./refl..
    ĭnṭabaʕa, vb. VII, 1 to be stamped, be printed, be imprinted, be impressed; 2 to leave an imprint or impression ( on): quasi-pass.; 3 to be disposed by nature (ʕalà for): denom., from ṭabīʕaẗ.

    BP#340ṭabʕ, n., 1 printing (of a book), print; 2 (pl. ṭibāʕ) impress, impression, stamp, hallmark, peculiarity, characteristic, nature, character, temper, (natural) disposition: vn. I | ~ al-ḥaǧar, n., lithography; ~ al-ḥurūf, n., typography; taḥt al-~, adv., in the press, at press (typ.); ʔiʕādaẗ al-~, n.f., reprinting, reprint; ṭabʕan or bi’l-ṭabʕ, expr., 1 by nature, by natural disposition; 2 naturally! of course! certainly! to be sure!; sayyiʔ al-~, adj., ill-disposed, ill-natured, evil by nature; šāḏḏ al-~, adj., eccentric, extravagant.
    ṭabʕaẗ, pl. -āt, n.f., 1 printing, print; 2 edition, issue, impression: n.vic..
    ṭabbāʕ, n., printer: n.prof. in ints. faʕʕāl.
    ṭibāʕaẗ, n.f., art of printing: quasi-vn. I | ʔālaẗ al-~, n., printing press.
    ṭibāʕī, adj., typographic(al): nsb-adj., from ṭibāʕaẗ.
    BP#902ṭabīʕaẗ, pl. ṭabāʔiʕᵘ, n.f., 1 nature; 2 natural disposition, constitution; 3 peculiarity, individuality, character; 4 regular, normal manner; 5 physics; 6 natural science: nominalized quasi-PP I, f. lit. *‘(the) printed (one) | bi-~ al-ḥāl, expr., by the very nature of the case, as is (was) only natural, ipso facto, naturally, as a matter of course; ʕālim ~, n., 1 physicist; 2 natural scientist; ʕilm al-~, n., 1 physics; 2 natural science; falsafaẗ mā warāʔa (baʕda) al-~ , n.f., metaphysics; ~ fawq al-~, adj., supernatural; ṭabāʔɨʕ al-ʔašyāʔ, n.pl., the nature of things, state of affairs.
    BP#574ṭabīʕī, adj., n., 1 nature’s, of nature, nature- (in compounds), natural; 2 inborn, innate, inherent, native; normal, ordinary, usual, regular; 3 physical: nsb-adj., from ṭabīʕaẗ; 4 physicist; 5 natural scientist; 6 naturalist: n.prof., nominalization of [v1-3] | ʕālim ~, n., 1 physicist; 2 natural scientist; al-ṭabīʕiyyāẗ, n.pl., 1 physics; 2 natural science; al-maḏhab al-~, naturalism; ~ ʔanna, expr., it is natural that…, naturally it is….
    ṭabīʕiyyaẗ, n.f., naturalism: n.abstr. in -iyyaẗ.
    maṭbaʕ, n., print shop, printing office, printing house, press: n.loc.
    maṭbaʕaẗ, pl. maṭābiʕᵘ, n.f., print shop, printing office, printing house, press: n.loc.f. | ḥurriyyaẗ al-~, n.f., freedom of the press.
    maṭbaʕī, adj., printing, printer’s (in compounds), typographic(al): nsb-adj., from maṭbaʕ(aẗ) | ḫaṭaʔ ~, n., and ġalṭaẗ ~aẗ, n.f., typographical error, misprint, erratum.
    maṭbaʕǧī (Eg.), n., printer: composted of n.loc. maṭbaʕ(aẗ) + Tu suffix ǧī (for n.prof.).
    miṭbaʕaẗ, pl. maṭābiʕᵘ, n.f., printing machine, printing press: n.instr.f.
    ĭnṭibāʕ, pl. -āt, n., (received) impression (of s.th.): neolog., lexicalized vn. VII.
    ĭnṭibāʕī, adj., impressionistic: nsb-adj., from ĭnṭibāʕ.
    ĭnṭibāʕiyyaẗ, n.f., impressionism: n.abstr. in -iyyaẗ, neolog., coined from ĭnṭibāʕ, vn. VII.
    ṭābiʕ, n., 1 printer; 2 stamp, character: PA I, lit. *‘(the) printing (one)’.
    BP#4952maṭbūʕ, adj., 1 printed, imprinted; 2 stereotyped: PP I; 3 pl. -āt, n.pl., printed materials, prints; 4 printed matter: specialisation of [v1]| ~ bi-ṭābaʕi-hī, expr., bearing the stamp, mark or impress of s.o. or s.th., being characterized by; ~ ʕalà, do., being by its very nature…, having the innate property of…; ~ dawrī, n., a periodical; qānūn al-~āt, n., press law.
    maṭbūʕaẗ, n.f., (Tun.) form, blank: PP I f., from ṭabaʕa, lit. *‘(the) printed (one)’.
     
    ṭabīʕaẗ طَبِيعَة , pl. ṭabāʔiʕᵘ 
    ID 534 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 902 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬBʕ 
    n.f. 
    1 nature; 2 natural disposition, constitution; 3 peculiarity, individuality, character; 4 regular, normal manner; 5 physics; 6 natural science – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Morphologically a nominalized quasi-PP I, f., lit. *‘(the) printed, moulded (one)’. The word can be regarded as formed from the vb. I ṭabaʕa ‘to impress with a stamp, seal or signet, leave or set one’s stamp, seal, mark, or impress’, which in the pass. voice, ṭubiʕa, takes the more specific meaning ‘to have a natural aptitude or disposition, have propensity, be disposed by nature (ʕalà for)’. Like all other values to be found in MSA in the root ṬBʕ, the vb. ṭabaʕa, and hence also ṭabīʕaẗ, belong to the group of derivations from the loanword ↗ṭābaʕ ‘signet-ring, seal’, which ultimately goes back either to a Sem *ṬBʕ ‘to sink’ or to Eg ḏbʕ(.t) ‘signet-ring’. 
    ▪ … 
    See 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    bi-ṭabīʕaẗ al-ḥāl, expr., by the very nature of the case, as is (was) only natural, ipso facto, naturally, as a matter of course
    ʕālim ṭabīʕaẗ, n., 1 physicist; 2 natural scientist
    ʕilm al-ṭabīʕaẗ, n., 1 physics; 2 natural science
    falsafaẗ mā warāʔa/baʕda ’l-ṭabīʕaẗ , n.f., metaphysics
    ṭabīʕaẗ fawq al-ṭabīʕaẗ, adj., supernatural
    ṭabāʔiʕ al-ʔašyāʔ, n.pl., the nature of things, state of affairs.

    BP#574ṭabīʕī, adj., n., 1 nature’s, of nature, nature- (in compounds), natural; 2 inborn, innate, inherent, native; normal, ordinary, usual, regular; 3 physical: nsb-adj.; 4 physicist; 5 natural scientist; 6 naturalist: n.prof., nominalization of [v1-3] | ʕālim ~, n., 1 physicist; 2 natural scientist; al-ṭabīʕiyyāẗ, n.pl., 1 physics; 2 natural science; al-maḏhab al-~, naturalism; ~ ʔanna, expr., it is natural that…, naturally it is….
    ṭabīʕiyyaẗ, n.f., naturalism: n.abstr. in -iyyaẗ.

    For other items of the root, see ↗ṭābaʕ and ↗ṬBʕ. 
    maṭbaʕaẗ مَطْبَعَة 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 7Jun2023
    √ṬBʕ 
    n.f. 
    ▪ n.loc.f 
    ṬBQ طبق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Apr2023
    √ṬBQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṬBQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṬBQ_2 ‘stage, degree’ ↗ṭabaq
    ▪ ṬBQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘layer, cover, to cover up, to encompass; to be congruent; argumentation; swarms of locusts; stage’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṭabaq طَبَق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP 1750 (ṭabaqaẗ) • APD … • © SG | 3Jun2023
    √ṬBQ
     
    n. 
    stage, degree – Jeffery1938
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q lxvii, 3; lxxi, 14; lxxxiv, 19 – Jeffery1938.
     
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »The form ṭibāq used in lxvii, 3; lxxi, 14, is really the pl. of ṭabaqaẗ. It is used only of the stages of the heavens, both in a physical and a spiritual sense, and for this reason, Zimmern, Akkad. Fremdw, 46, derives it directly from Mesopotamia, the Akk tubuqtu, pl. tubuqāti, meaning ‘Welträume’ (wohl in 7 Stufen übereinander gedacht).«
     
    – 
    – 
    ṬḤN طحن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬḤN 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṬḤN_1 ‘to grind, mill’ ↗ṭaḥana
    ▪ ṬḤN_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ṬḤN_3 ‘…’ ↗ 
    ▪ ṬḤN_1 : (Orel&Stolbova1994#2455:) from protSem *ṭ˅ḥan‑ ‘to grind corn, pound’ < AfrAs *ṭaḥan‑ ‘to grind, forge’.
    ▪ ṬḤN_2 : …
    ▪ ṬḤN_3 : … . 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl tahiniṭaḥana
    … 
    ṭaḥan‑ طَحَنَ , a (ṭaḥn
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬḤN 
    vb., I 
    1 to grind, mill, bray, pulverize s.th. (esp. grain); 2 to crush, ruin, destroy; 3 to wear out, wear down, exact a heavy toll (of s.o.; age, years) – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2455: from protSem *ṭ˅ḥan‑ ‘to grind corn, pound’ < AfrAs *ṭaḥan‑ ‘to grind, forge’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘to grind’) Akk iṭēn, Hbr ṭḥn a (a), Syr ṭḥn e (a), Gz (ṭeḥn ‘Gerstenmahl’).
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2455: Hbr ṭḥn, Jib ṭaḥan, Soq ṭaḥan, Ḥrs ṭeḥān, Mhr ṭeḥān, Šḥr ṭḥān ). – Outside Sem: verbs ten ‘to press down’ and toni ‘to forge’ in some WCh languages.
     
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2455: protSem *ṭ˅ḥan‑ ‘to grind corn, pound’, protWCh *ṭaHan‑ ‘to press down, forge’, both from hypothetical AfrAs *ṭaḥan‑ ‘to grind, forge’.
     
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl tahini, from Ar ṭaḥīnaẗ ‘tahini’, from ṭaḥīn ‘flour’, from ṭaḥana ‘to grind’. 
    taṭāḥana, vb. VI, to quarrel, wrangle, be antagonistic, be in conflict, to conflict: Lt-stem, recipr.

    ṭiḥn, n., flour, meal
    ṭaḥīn, n., flour, meal: quasi‑PP
    ṭaḥīnī, adj., mealy, farinaceous: nisba formation from ṭaḥīn.
    EgAr ṭaḥīniyyaẗ, n.f., a sweet made of sesam‑seed meal and sugar
    EgAr, SyrAr ṭaḥīnaẗ, n.f., a thick sauce made of sesame oil, and served with salads, vegetables, etc.: f. formation from ṭaḥīn to signify a certain product.
    ṭaḥḥān, n., miller: ints., n.prof.
    ṭāḥūn, n., and ṭāḥūnaẗ, pl. ṭawāḥīnᵘ, n.f., mill, grinder | ṭāḥūnaẗ al‑hawà, n.f., windmill
    miṭḥanaẗ, pl. maṭāḥinᵘ, n.f., grinder: n.instr.
    maṭḥanaẗ, pl. maṭāḥinᵘ, n.f., mill; flour mill: n.loc.
    ṭāḥin, n., and ṭāḥinaẗ, pl. ṭawāḥinᵘ, n.f., molar tooth, grinder: can be interpreted as PA I, ‘the grinding one’. However, given WCh forms like təγn‑, tin, tiyim, udini, dīne, ṭīno, dīna, all meaning ‘tooth’, Orel&Stolbova1994 (no. 2456) reconstruct WCh *ṭ˅ḥin‑ and parallel it with Sem *ṭāḥin‑ ‘molar’ (based on only the Ar evidence). From the Sem and WCh parallels they deduce AfrAs *ṭaḥin‑ ‘tooth’, adding that this separate item is connected with #2455 AfrAs *ṭaḥan‑ ‘to grind, forge’.
     
    TḤW/Y طحو/ي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Apr2023
    √TḤW/Y 
    “root” 
    ▪ TḤW/Y_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ TḤW/Y_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ TḤW/Y_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘wide, expansive, level land, to stretch out, expand, spread out’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    *ṬR‑ طرـ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬR‑ 
    2-cons. "root nucleus" 
    Basic meanings:
    A *‘to be dirty’ – Ehret1995
    B *‘to send’ – Ehret1989 
    According to Ehret1989 and Ehret1995, *ṬR- is a 2-consonantal pre-protoSem base from which several 3-radical roots are derived. See section DERIV below. 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    According to Ehret, extensions in third consonants include:

    A *ṬR- ‘to be dirty’
    • + “concisive (or adj. suffix?)” *‑ʔ + adj. suff. *‑n => ṭurʔān ‘bad’ ↗ ṭurʔānī ‘of unknown origin, wild’
    • + “iterative” *‑ḥ => ṭarḥ ‘mud in the water’
    • + “iterative” *‑f + “non-finitive” (?) *‑š => ṭarfas ‘to be muddy’
    • + “intensive (effect)” *‑k’ => ṭarq ‘to befoul the water; befouled water’

    B *ṬR- ‘to send’
    • + Ø => ṭarr ‘to urge on violently, drive together in one place’, Hava1899: ‘to collect and drive (cattle)’
    • + “concisive” *‑ʔ => ṭarʔṭaraʔa ‘to fall upon unexpectedly, happen, occur’
    • + “extendative” *‑b => ṭarb ‘to wander (from the road)’
    • + “iterative (> durative)” *‑ḥ => ṭarḥṭaraḥa ‘to remove, turn from, avert, throw far away’, Hava1899: ‘to fling, cast away s.th.’
    • + “durative” *‑d => ṭardṭarada ‘to push away, drive away, repel, expel, pursue, chase, drive together’, Hava1899: ‘to persecute, drive back etc.; to collect (scattered flocks)’
    • + “intensive (manner)” *‑f => ṭarf ‘to turn off, repel’ ↗ṬRF, ↗ṭaraf
     
    ṬRB طرب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last update 01Nov2021
    √ṬRB 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṬRB_1 ‘(intense) emotion of joy or sadness; music, entertainment’ ↗ṭarab

    Other values, now obsolete, include:
    • ṬRB_2 ‘path, narrow road’ : maṭrab, pl. maṭāribᵘ, ‘by-road, narrow road; (pI.) roads branching off’ – Hava1899.
    • ṬRB_3 ‘…’ : ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    DRS 10 (2012)#ṬRB–1: Ar ṭarraba ‘exciter qn à la joie ou à la tristesse; chanter ou faire de la musique’, Jib ṭorob ‘être ému par la musique’; Mand ṭrb ‘jouer d’un instrument de musique’. –2 Ar maṭrab ‘sentier, chemin étroit’. [–3 no represented in Ar]. 
    ▪ ṬRB_1 is only very scarcely attested in Sem (Ar and Jib; the Mand ‘cognate’ is probably an Arabism). Reconstruction difficult, etymology obscure. Any relation to ↗ḌRB ?
    ▪ ṬRB_2: According to some ClassAr dictionaries, there is no vb. corresponding to the n. maṭrab. Zabīdī, TA (as in Lane), however, mentions the expression ṭaribtu (or: ṭuribtu ?) ʕan al-ṭarīq ‘I deviated from the road, or way’. It seems natural to interpret this as *‘I was carried away (by a strong emotion)…’, in which case maṭrab could easily be seen as a n.loc. derived from ṬRB_1. – DRS nevertheless sets maṭrab apart as a value in its own right. If this should be justified, then maṭrab and ‘to deviate from one’s path’ are perhaps a reflexion of the vb. ‘to wander (from the road)’, vn. ṭarb, that Ehret1989 considers to be an extension in »extendative *‑b «, from a 2-consonantal pre-protoSem base *ṬR- with the basic meaning of *‘to send’. For other such extensions, cf. ↗*ṬR-, ↗ṭaraʔa ‘to fall upon unexpectedly, happen, occur’, ↗ṭaraḥa ‘to remove, turn from, avert, throw far away’, ↗ṭarada ‘to push away, drive away, repel, expel, pursue, chase, drive together’. 
    ▪ ṬRB_1 : Fr troubadour, perh. influenced by ↗ṭarab.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ṭarab طَرَب , pl. ʔaṭrāb 
    ID 535 • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last update 01Nov2021
    √ṬRB 
    n., C 
    1 joy, pleasure, delight, rapture. – 2 amusement, entertainment (with music and the like). – 3 music – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Nöldeke, Aḍdād, 86: ṭarab is among the words that can express emotions of contrasting quality. The basic meaning is *‘(intense) emotion’, irrespective whether joy or grief.
    ▪ A definition worth quoting at some length is given by J. Lambert: »a term denoting poetic and musical emotion, evoking a broad spectrum of sentiments, from the most private to the most violent: pleasure, enjoyment, emotional trauma, exaltation […] and even a trance capable of resulting in death. Located in the centre of a conceptual net with multiple connections, ṭarab makes it possible to sketch the contours of an aesthetic. / The etymology of the word could derive from the agitation of camels, quickening their pace when returning to the encampment (ṭirāb). At a very early stage, ṭarab is associated with natural audible phenomena such as the song of birds (Imruʔ al-Qays, quoted in LA) or the effect of the singing of camel-riders, singing which would itself originally have been a cry of anguish […]. / In the classical period, the word ṭarab implies the notion of a more or less regular agitation: the ʕIqd al-farīd describes the caliph Muʕāwiya dancing ecstatically on hearing fine verses chanted (Ibn ʕAbd Rabbih, 18); the prophet Dāwūd is shown to be feverish and emotionally aroused when singing the Psalms (al-Ibšīhī, 176); Ibn al-Ǧawzī denounces ṭarab because “it excites the human being and induces him to lean to right and left” (quoted by Molé, 148). These phenomena of trance (described by numerous accounts in the K. al-ʔAġānī) suggest a connection with the root ↗ḌRB, as when al-Ġazālī describes an uncontrolled trance as ĭḍṭirāb (343). / These connotations extend to the aesthetic sphere, with the more precise sense of “vibration”: “Her words are moving (yuṭrib) […] /She makes me vibrate (tuhizzu-nī) as javelins vibrate” (Muḥ. Šaraf al-Dīn, Yemeni poet of the 10th/16th century). Furthermore, bees are reputed to be the creatures most responsive to song […]. This association with the buzzing of the insect (as well as with the song of birds) suggests that, in its most extreme manifestations, ṭarab is a living metaphor—dramatised and ritualised—for the vibratory processes so characteristic of Ar vocal art […], such as trills, leaps in vocal register and vibrations of other kinds. This applies equally to instrumental techniques: “When the plectra (of the lute) are beating, persons susceptible to ṭarab feel light [at heart]” (ʔiḏā ḫafaqat al-maḍārib, ḫaffat al-maṭārib, see TA, s.v.). More generally, it seems that ṭarab responds to a voluntarily unified and total aesthetic of poetic and musical expression. / Ṭarab was the object of numerous denunciations on the part of the religious authorities. […] Following controversies over musical emotion, ṭarab came ultimately to denote music, in particular the music of entertainment, with a negative nuance which has gradually diminished (ʕAbd al-Karīm ʕAllāf, al-Ṭarab ʕind al-qarab, Baġdād 1963), but has never disappeared completely. […] / A polysemantic concept, ṭarab is a symbol of cultural kinship (“He who is not moved, is not numbered among the Arabs”, allaḏī lā yaṭrab laysa min al-ʕarab) […]. / Although generally secular, ṭarab can be taken as related to its mystical equivalent, ↗waǧd, the emotion codified by Ṣūfī practice, of which the psychological mechanisms are similar. Like waǧd, ṭarab emanates from a conception of experience and existence (wuǧūd) which relates to transcendence (al-Ġazālī, 371-2). It is sudden awareness of an existential rending (Rouget, 409), provoked by a fortuitous encounter or an unexpected discovery (waǧd) of a personal sense, in the intensity of the present moment; for Ḥuǧwīrī, “ṭarab does not come on demand (ṭalab)” (Nicholson, 413). […]. / Thus ṭarab constitutes a sensual rather than an intellectual aesthetic. By so doing, it seems to draw a separating line between on the one hand music, poetry and dance, and on the other, the plastic and decorative arts, often governed by more hieratical conceptions [see ↗fann ]. In offering mediation between symbolically fundamental opposites such as emotion and reason, profane and sacred, nature and culture, the concept of ṭarab offers an essential clue to the understanding of Arabo-Islamic civilisation« – J. Lambert, art. “Ṭarab”, in EI².
    ▪ The word seems to have a genuine cognate only in Jib; etymology thus rather obscure; any relation to ↗ḌRB?
    ▪ … 
    lC6 ʕAntarah b. Šaddād 137,1: yā ṭāʔira ’l-bāni qad hayyaǧta ʔašǧān-ī wa-zidta-nī ṭaraban ‘▪ … you stirred my grief and increased the level of my sadness’ (Polosin1995).
    1874 ‘emotion, lively emotion, excitement, agitation, unsteadiness (of the heart or mind) by reason of (intense) joy or grief, or (intense) fear or joy’ (Lane v)
    1899: ‘1 emotion of joy or sadness; 2 delight’ (Hava).
    ▪ … 
    DRS 10 (2012)#ṬRB-1: Ar ṭarraba ‘exciter qn à la joie ou à la tristesse; chanter ou faire de la musique’, Jib ṭorob ‘être ému par la musique’; Mand ṭrb ‘jouer d’un instrument de musique’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Only very scarcely attested in Sem (Ar and Jib; the Mand ‘cognate’ is probably an Arabism). Reconstruction difficult, etymology obscure. Any relation to ↗ḌRB ?
    ▪ For the semantic development from ‘(intense) emotion’ to the modern use predominantly as ‘music, entertainment’, cf. J. Lambert’s account, quoted in section CONCISE above.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Lokotsch1927 #2127 held that in the same way as the Ar lute, al-ʕūd, has reached us from the Islamic East, as the main instrument accompanying love songs, so probably also medieval Minnesang itself may be of Oriental provenance.18 In a similar vein, historians, experts on medieval literature as well as musicologists have considered a possible Ar origin of the art of the troubadours. In 1928, the Span Arabist J. Ribera y Tarragó suggested to derive Span trobar, esp. in the sense of ‘to compose verses, sing, etc.’, from Ar ṭarab (‘to arouse emotions, excite; to make music, to distract by singing’), via Andalusia, then Catalan and Occitan (perh. influenced by ↗ḍaraba ‘to beat; hence also to make a sound, hit a key’ and ‘to play a musical instrument’). Indeed, there are many similarities between Ar love poetry and medieval European troubadour songs and Minnesang. However, given that the Romance words have a pre-history where they simply indicate the ‘discovering, meeting by chance, encountering’ of s.th. or s.o. [C10] or the ‘finding s.o./s.th. one was looking for’ [C11], and given also that the sense of ‘composing poetry, finding suitable rhymes’ appears only later, from C12 onwards, it is prob. that an existing Rom word was influenced by Ar “invader”, and a word like ṭarab prob. triggered the semantic extension. – Cf. Richard Lemay, « À propos de l’origine arabe de l’art des troubadour », Annales : Economies, sociétés, civilisations, 21.5 (1966): 990-1011.
    ▪ … 
    ʔālat al-ṭarab, n., musical instrument.

    ṭariba a (ṭarab), vb. I, 1 to be moved (with joy or grief): probably denom., preserving the original ambivalence (joy or grief) inherent in pre-modern usage of the n. ṭarab; 2 to be delighted, be overjoyed, be transported with joy: one-sided specialisation of [v1].
    ṭarraba, vb. II, 1 to delight, fill with delight, enrapture, phase, gratify: denom., caus.; 2 to sing, vocalize, chant: specialization of v1
    ʔaṭraba, vb. IV, 1 to delight, fill with delight, enrapture, please, gratify: denom., caus.; 2 to make music; to sing, vocalize, chant; to play music (DO for s.o.), sing (DO to s.o.): specialisations of v1
    ṭarib, pl. ṭirāb, adj., 1 moved (with joy or grief), touched, affected: has preserved the original ambivalence; 2 delighted, enraptured, transported, pleased, charmed: specialized use.
    ṭarūb, adj., gay, merry, lively: ints. adj.
    ʔaṭrabᵘ, adj., 1 more delightful; 2 making better music, being a better musician; 3 more melodious: elat.
    ʔiṭrāb, n., delight, delectation, diversion: vn. IV.
    BP#3484muṭrib, adj., delightful, ravishing, charming, amusing, entertaining; melodious: PA IV; n., musician; singer, vocalist, chansonnier: nominalized PA IV.
    muṭribaẗ, n.f., singer, songstress, vocalist, chanteuse: nominalized PA IV, f.
     
    ṬRḤ طرح 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Apr2023
    √ṬRḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṬRḤ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṬRḤ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṬRḤ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘thrown out, to throw away, cast out, cast off, discard, banish; forlorn’ 
    ▪ From protSem *√ṬRḤ ‘to insert, throw, burden, toil’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl matelassé, mattress, from Ar ↗maṭraḥ ‘place where something is thrown’;tare, from Ar ↗ṭarḥ ‘rejection, subtraction, deduction’; both from Ar ↗ṭaraḥa ‘to throw, throw away’. 
    – 
    ṬRḪN طرخن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬRḪN 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṬRḪN_1 ‘tarragon’ ↗ṭarḫūn
    ▪ ṬRḪN_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ ↗ṭarḫūn 
    – 
    ṭarḫūn طَرْخُون 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬRḪ, ṬRḪN 
    n. 
    tarragon (Artemisia dracunculus; bot.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    Probably from Grk drákōn ‘dragon’ (though with unclear semantics—perhaps lit. ‘dragon wort’, because of the leaves that are spotted like a dragon’s skin, or because, allegedly, it protected from a dragon’s dangerous glance?). The Ar word seems to have been the origin of the European words for ‘tarragon’. The herb probably came to Europe during the time of the Crusades; it was unknown in European antiquity. 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ Lokotsch1927, Kluge2002, Rolland2014a: probably via Grk drakóntion ‘dragonwort’ from Grk drákōn ‘dragon’, from vb. dérkesthai ‘to stare at, look, gaze at’, IE *derk- ‘to look, see’. Cf. below Engl Fr dragon .
    ▪ Asbaghi1988 holds that ṭarḫūn (and var. tarḫān, tarḫūn) is the mPers tarak ‘(kind of) vegetable (dracunculus, dragon wort, tarragon)’. – Little probable (how to explain final -ūn ?)
    ▪ Another Pers etymology is mentioned in en.wiki (as of 20Sept2015), without however giving any sources: from Pers tare ‘chives’ + suffix -gūn ‘like’. Even less probable than the preceding—there is no Pers tare-gūn for ‘tarragon’, and why should Arabs create a Pers word with a Pers suffix? 
    ▪ According to one group of sources (Lokotsch1927, Kluge2002), Ar ṭarḫūn is the origin, via ByzGrk tarkhon > mLat tragonia, of most European words for ‘tarragon’, like It targone, mFr targon, Fr targon, estragon (with unetymological prefix), Prov draguneto, estargon, Span taragona, taracontea, Port estragão, Rum tarhon; Engl dragoon, tarragon, Ge Dragun, Esdragon (< Fr); Ru dragun, estragon, Bulg estragon, Chech dragón, estragon, Pol estragon, draganek. – According to Kluge2002, older Ge forms like Dragon, dial. Drachant, Trachant, are from lLat and Romance adaptations of the Grk word. – In any case, following this theory, ṭarḫūn ‘tarragon’ is akin to Engl dragon and its Eur equivalents (Fr dragon, Ge Drache(n), mHGe tracke, trache, drache, dracke, oHGe trahho), which go back to Lat draco (gen. -ōnis) ‘huge serpent, dragon’, from Grk drákōn ‘dragon, serpent, giant seafish’, apparently from Grk drak-, strong aorist stem of dérkesthai ‘to see clearly’, from IE *derk- ‘to see’. Perhaps the literal sense is ‘the one with the (deadly) glance’ –EtymOnline
    – 
    ṬRD طرد 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬRD 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṬRD_1 ‘to drive away, chase away’ ↗ṭarada
    ▪ ṬRD_2 ‘to procede, continue, progress’ ↗ṭarada X: ĭstaṭrada
    ▪ ṬRD_3 ‘swarm (of bees)’ ↗ṭard, ↗ṭarada
    ▪ ṬRD_4 ‘parcel, package’ ↗ṭard, ↗ṭarada

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘[ṬRD_1] ‘fugitive, outcast, chased game; to banish, expel, drive away’ 
    DRS distinguishes 2 values (probably on account of Akk ṭarādu ‘to name, call’). In Ar, however, all values can easily be seen as derivations from one basic meaning, namely ‘to drive away, chase away’. 
    – 
    DRS 10 (2012)#ṬRD-1 Akk ṭarādu ‘envoyer, chasser, expédier’, Ug ṭrd ‘chasser’, Hbr ṭārad, BiblSyr ṭᵉrad, Mand ṭrd, Ar ṭarada, Saf ṭrd, Sab ṭrd, Mhr tərūd, Jib ṭerod, Soq ṭeyred ‘envoyer, expédier, chasser, mener le bétail, poursuivre’, Ar ṭard ‘paquet, colis postal’. – Akk ṭarīd- ‘déplacé, expulsé’, ḎatAr ṭarad ‘courir après quelqu’un pour le rejoindre’, ṭārad ‘attaquer’, muṭrad ‘poursuite’; Sab mṭrd ‘chasse rituelle’, Soq miṭrid ‘fugitif’. -2 Akk ṭarādu ‘nommer, appeler’. Hbr ṭōrēd ‘qui pleut continuellement’, Ar ĭṭṭarada ‘être continu, couler sans arrêt’; YemAr ṭarūd ‘long passage bordé de pierres, etc.’. 
    ▪ According to Ehret1989, ṬRD is an extension in durative *-d from a 2-consonantal pre-protoSem base *ṬR- with the basic meaning ‘to send’. Other extensions from the same base: ṭarra ‘to urge on violently, drive together in one place, (Hava1899:) to collect and drive (cattle)’ (cf. ↗ṬRː(ṬRR) ); ↗ṭaraʔa ‘to fall upon unexpectedly, happen, occur’: ṭaraba ‘to wander (from the road)’ (cf. ↗ṬRB); ↗ṭaraḥa ‘to remove, turn from, avert, throw far away, (Hava1899:) ‘to fling, cast away s.th.’; ↗ṭarada ‘to push away, drive away, repel, expel, pursue, chase, drive together, (Hava1899:) to persecute, drive back etc.; to collect (scattered flocks)’; ṭarafa ‘to turn off, repel’ (cf. ↗ṬRF).
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ṭarad‑ طَرَدَ , u (ṭard
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬRD 
    vb., I 
    to drive away, chase away, push away, shove away, reject, repel, banish, exile, dismiss, drive out, expel, evict (min from); to compel to leave the country; to expel, bar from a game; to chase, hunt, hound – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 ṭarada (to drive away, drive out, dismiss) Q 6:52 wa-lā taṭrud-i ’llaḏīna yadʕūna rabba-hum bi’l-ġadāẗi wa’l-ʕašiyyi yurīdūna waǧha-hū ‘do not drive away (or: distance yourself from) those who call upon their Lord morning and evening, seeking [nothing but] His face’. – ṭārid (one who chases away, drives out, expels) Q 11:29 wa-mā ʔanā bi-ṭāridi ’llaḏīna ʔāmanū ‘I will not be one who drives away those who believe’ 
    DRS 10 (2012)#ṬRD-1 Akk ṭarādu ‘envoyer, chasser, expédier’, Ug ṭrd ‘chasser’, Hbr ṭārad, BiblSyr ṭᵉrad, Mand ṭrd, Ar ṭarada, Saf ṭrd, Sab ṭrd, Mhr tərūd, Jib ṭerod, Soq ṭeyred ‘envoyer, expédier, chasser, mener le bétail, poursuivre’, Ar ṭard ‘paquet, colis postal’. – Akk ṭarīd- ‘déplacé, expulsé’, ḎatAr ṭarad ‘courir après quelqu’un pour le rejoindre’, ṭārad ‘attaquer’, muṭrad ‘poursuite’; Sab mṭrd ‘chasse rituelle’, Soq miṭrid ‘fugitif’. -2 Akk ṭarādu ‘nommer, appeler’. Hbr ṭōrēd ‘qui pleut continuellement’, Ar ĭṭṭarada ‘être continu, couler sans arrêt’; YemAr ṭarūd ‘long passage bordé de pierres, etc.’. 
    DRS distinguishes two values, probably mainly on account of Akk ṭarādu ‘to name, call’ (CAD: ṭarādu B). But the semantics of the Hbr and Ar cognates given DRS #ṬRD-2 would easily allow to be interpreted as depending on #ṬRD-1.
    ▪ According to Ehret1989, ṬRD is an extension in durative *-d from a 2-consonantal pre-protoSem base *ṬR- with the basic meaning ‘to send’. Other extensions from the same base: ṭarra ‘to urge on violently, drive together in one place, (Hava1899:) to collect and drive (cattle)’ (cf. ↗ṬRː(ṬRR) ); ↗ṭaraʔa ‘to fall upon unexpectedly, happen, occur’: ṭaraba ‘to wander (from the road)’ (cf. ↗ṬRB); ↗ṭaraḥa ‘to remove, turn from, avert, throw far away, (Hava1899:) ‘to fling, cast away s.th.’; ↗ṭarada ‘to push away, drive away, repel, expel, pursue, chase, drive together, (Hava1899:) to persecute, drive back etc.; to collect (scattered flocks)’; ṭarafa ‘to turn off, repel’ (cf. ↗ṬRF). 
    – 
    ṭarrada, vb. II, to chase away: D-stem, ints.
    ṭārada, vb. III, 1 to chase after, hunt (a game, s.o.); 2 to pursue, follow, run after s.o. or s.th., give chase to: L-stem, assoc.
    ĭṭṭarada, vb. VIII, 1 to drive away as booty (animals); 2 to be consecutive, be continuous, form an uninterrupted sequence, succeed one another continuously; to flow uninterruptedly, carry water perennially (river); 3 to progress or get on at a rapid pace, make good headway (undertaking): tG-stem, selfrefl.; DRS distinguishes this as a value in its own right, different from ‘to chase’, but this is not convincing.
    ĭstaṭrada, vb. X, 1 to proceed (in one’s speech), go on to say, continue (e.g., one’s speech); 2 to change, pass on (in speech) (min from, li‑ to); 3 to digress (in speaking), make an excursus: tŠ-stem; for meaning cf. ĭṭṭarada (preceding item).

    BP#3504ṭard, n., 1 driving away, chasing away, repulsion, expulsion, eviction, dismissal, banishment, expatriation; pursuit, chase, hunt: vn. I and lexicalizations; 2 swarm (of bees): fig. use (?), lit. *‘(group of bees) the chasing ones’; 3 (pl. ṭurūd) parcel, package: neol. | baḥaṯa masʔalatan ṭardan wa-ʕaksan, vb., to study a problem from all sides, in all its aspects.
    ṭardī, adj., parcel-, package (in compounds), like a parcel or package: nsb-adj. of ṭard (3).
    ṭardaẗ, n.f., a driving away, chasing away, repulsion, expulsion, eviction, banishment: n.vic.
    ṭarīd, adj., 1 expelled, evicted, ousted, outcast, outlawed, banished, exiled, expatriate(d); fugitive, fleeing, on the run; expellee; outcast, outlaw; 2 one of two brothers born immediately one after the other (= being in dispute over precedence); 3 du. al-ṭarīdān, n., night and day : quasi-PP I.
    ṭarīdaẗ, pl. ṭarāʔidᵘ, n.f., 1 game animal, game beast; game; 2 one of two sisters born immediately one after the other.
    ṭarrād, n., 1 cruiser (warship): neol., lit. *‘chaser’, ints.; 2 (eg.) dike, embankment, dam, levee (esp. of the Nile): ? – meaning not verifiable in BadawiHinds1986; there, the second value is given as ‘(agric.) attachment (usually of wood) which can be mounted above a ploughshare in order to widen the furrow’.
    ṭarrādaẗ, n.f., cruiser (warship): neol.
    ṭirād, n., pursuit, chase: vn. III.
    muṭāradaẗ, n.f., repulsion, expulsion, banishment; pursuit, chase; hunt: vn. III | ṭāʔiraẗ al-~, n.f., fighter plane, pursuit plane, interceptor.
    ĭṭṭirād, n., uninterrupted or regular sequence, continuity; uniformity; regularity (also gram.): vn. VIII.
    ĭstiṭrād, pl. ‑āt, digression, divagation; excursus: vn. X.
    muṭārid, pursuer; hunter: PA III | ṭāʔiraẗ muṭāridaẗ, n.f., fighter plane, pursuit plane, interceptor.
    muṭṭarid, incessant, uninterrupted, continuous, continual, unvarying, steady, constant; general; regular (also gram.), without exception: PA VIII | qāʕidaẗ muṭṭaridaẗ, n., general rule; ~ al-nasq, adj., uniform; ~ al-naġm, adj., monotonous (song).
     
    ṬRŠ طرش 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬRŠ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṬRŠ_1 ‘(to be/come) deaf; deafness’ ↗ṭaraš
    ▪ ṬRŠ_2 ‘to vomit’ ↗ṭarraša
    ▪ ṬRŠ_3 ‘whitewashing’ ↗ṭarš_1
    ▪ ṬRŠ_4 (syr .) ‘herd, flock’ ↗ṭarš_2
    ▪ ṬRŠ_5 ‘mixed pickles’ ↗ṭuršī

    Other values, now obsolete or dialectal only, include:
    • ṬRŠ_6 ‘to stand and sit (said of one who is convalescent), become convalescent, nearly recovered, and arise and walk’: taṭarraša (Lane)
    • ṬRŠ_7 ‘to knock down’: EgAr ṭaraš (BadawiHinds)
    • ṬRŠ_8 ‘recherche de la richesse; habileté à la conquérir; gain au jeu’: YemAr ṭarš (DRS)
    • ṬRŠ_9 ‘semelle, chaussure’: YemAr ṭarrāš (DRS)
    • ṬRŠ_10 ‘nouveau-né’: YemAr ṭwēreš (DRS)
    • ṬRŠ_11 ‘to send’: YemAr ṭarraš ; cf. also ṭāriš ‘messenger’ (DRS)
    • ṬRŠ_12 ‘torch, flashlight’: EgAr ṭurš (BadawiHinds)
    • ṬRŠ_13 ‘horned viper’: EgAr ṭirēšaẗ, ṭurēšaẗ (BadawiHinds)
    BAH2008: Ø 
    See DISC. 
    – 
    DRS 10 (2012)#ṬRŚ-1 Syr ṭᵉrūšā ‘muet’, Mand ṭruša ‘sourd-muet, sourd’, Ar ʔaṭraš, ʔuṭrūš ‘sourd’. -2 Syr ṭᵉraš ‘asperger’, ṭūrāšā ‘souillure, aliments interdits’, Ar ṭarraša ‘répandre çà et là; vomir’, EgAr SudAr ṭaraš ‘vomir’, YemAr ṭarš ‘balayage’, maṭrašah ‘balai’, DaṯAr ṭaraš ‘asperger (d’eau), éclabousser’; Jib ṭeroś ‘emporter (inondation)’. -3 EgAr SudAr ‘donner un coup, mettre à bas’. -4 YemAr ṭarš ‘recherche de la richesse; habileté à la conquérir; gain au jeu’. -5 ṭarrāš ‘semelle, chaussure’. -6 EAr ṭarš, ṭrīš ‘bétail’. -7 YemAr ṭwēreš ‘nouveau-né’. -8 ṭarraš ‘envoyer’, ṭāriš ‘messager’.
    DRS 10 (2012)#ṬRŠ: EgAr SudAr PalAr MġrAr ṭurši ‘petits morceaux de légumes assaisonnés de ou confits au vinaigre’. 
    ▪ ṬRŠ_1 : According to Nöldeke, quoted in DRS, the Aram forms are from Ar. Ar ʔaṭraš, ʔuṭrūš ‘deaf’, ṭaraš ‘deafness’, etc. thus stand alone as Ar idiosyncrasies within Sem where the words designing ‘deaf (and dumb)’ usually are taken from roots like *ṬMM ‘to be deaf and mute’, (WSem) *ṢMM ‘to be deaf, to have a damaged ear’ (preserved in Ar as such, ↗ṣamam), (CSem) *ḪRS ‘to be deaf and dumb’ (> Ar ↗ḫaras ‘dumbness, muteness’) – Kogan2011 (with references to SED, verbal roots 75, 64, and 32, respectively). In contrast to ṣamam, ṭaraš seems to denote a lighter form of deafness only, i.e., ‘hardness of hearing, amblyocousia’, cf. Kazimirski1860 ‘être un peu sourd, avoir l’oreille dure’. – Youssef2003 thinks the adj. ʔaṭrašᵘ is perhaps from Eg i͗wty (a neg. pronoun) + rwš ‘to care’, an opinion that is hardly tenable.
    ▪ ṬRŠ_2 : As in ṬRŠ_1, the Aram forms seem to be from Ar (DRS) and can therefore possibly not count as real cognates. But the situation is a bit different from that in ṬRŠ_1 since ṬRŠ_2 also appears in Jib and in many Ar dialects, with often other meanings than the MSA value ‘to vomit’. The original value seems to have been ‘to spread’ (cf. D-stem ClassAr ṭarraša Freytag1830: ‘sparsit’, Wahrmund1887: ‘ausstreuen’), perhaps (if not reversedly) denom. from ṬRŠ_3 ‘whitewashing, a certain kind of white earth, lime, chalk’, in the sense of *‘to spread white material (over a wall), besprinkle’, cf. the obsol. vb. I, ṭaraša (u, ṭarš) ‘eine Mauer mit der weißen Erde ṭarš weißen; kratzen u. sprützen (Feder)’ (Wahrmund1887). The value ‘to spread, besprinkle’ is preserved in Syr ṭᵉraš, ClassAr ṭarraša and DaṯAr ṭaraš, while the sense has developed into resultative ‘blot, stain’ in Syr ṭūrāšā, ‘to vomit’ in MSA ṭaraša and EgAr SudAr ṭaraš, or the more general ‘to sweep away’ in YemAr ṭraš, and ‘to carry off, sweep away’ (said of an inundation) in Jib. – Any relation with the notion of *‘sending away, throwing, casting’ and/or *‘coming suddenly, surprisingly’ that perh. is at the basis of ṬRŠ_7, ṬRŠ_10, and ṬRŠ_11?
    ▪ ṬRŠ_3 ṭarš ‘whitewashing’ : not mentioned as an original value in DRS (and thus thought to be dependent on ṬRŠ_2 *‘to besprinkle’?). Dozy gives the item as ‘lait de chaux, blanc de chaux’, Wahrmund1887 as ‘eine weiße Erde zum Weißen der Wände’. While it could be taken from the vb. with the original meaning of *‘to spread’ (ṬRŠ_2), one could also imagine that the word is itself the etymon, generating (in Ar) a development *‘lime, chalk’ > ‘to besprinkle (a wall, etc.) with lime, to whiten’ > ‘to besprinkle, spread’ > ‘to vomit’.
    ▪ ṬRŠ_4 ṭarš (syr.) ‘herd, flock’ : fig. use of ṬRŠ_2 *‘to spread, besprinkle’, a herd of cattle or flock of sheep looking like ‘sprinkles’ on the pasture? WehrCowan1979 registers the value as MSA, but used particularly in SyrMSA, and DRS too marks it as an EAr phenomenon.
    ▪ ṬRŠ_5 ṭuršī ‘mixed pickles’ : from Pers toroš, torš ‘sour’, mPers turuš (or from Grk táriχon ‘salted fish eggs’?). If from the former, then the word goes back, ultimately, to IE *ters- ‘to become dry’ and is related to Lat terra ‘earth, land’, lit. *‘dry land’.
    ▪ ṬRŠ_6 taṭarraša ‘to stand and sit (said of one who is convalescent), become convalescent, nearly recovered, and arise and walk’ (Freytag, Lane) : etymology obscure.
    ▪ ṬRŠ_7 EgAr ṭaraš ‘to knock down’ : etymology obscure. Any relation to other roots with initial ↗*ṬR- designating a sudden, often also violent movement away from the speaker (Ehret1989: *ṬR- ‘to send’)? (Cf. ↗ṭaraʔa ‘to fall upon unexpectedly, happen, occur’, ↗ṭaraḥa ‘to remove, turn from, avert, throw far away, fling, cast away’, ↗ṭarada ‘to push away, drive away, repel, expel, pursue, chase, drive together’?) – Cf. also ṬRŠ_2, ṬRŠ_10 and ṬRŠ_11.
    ▪ ṬRŠ_8 YemAr ṭarš ‘recherche de la richesse; habileté à la conquérir; gain au jeu’ : etymology obscure.
    ▪ ṬRŠ_9 YemAr ṭarrāš ‘semelle, chaussure’ : ?
    ▪ ṬRŠ_10 YemAr ṭwēreš ‘nouveau-né’ : obviously a diminuitive (from a PA *ṭāriš ?). Any relation to other items of the root denoting a sudden movement, a ‘sending out’ or ‘casting away’, as in ṬRŠ_2, ṬRŠ_7 and ṬRŠ_11?
    ▪ ṬRŠ_11 YemAr ṭarraš : With the meaning ‘to send’, the item comes closest to the ‘sending’ that Ehret1989 identified as one of the basic values of a 2-cons. "root nucleus" ↗*ṬR- from which a number of 3-cons. roots seems to be derived, cf. ṬRŠ_7. – Cf. perh. also ṬRŠ_2 and ṬRŠ_10.
    ▪ ṬRŠ_12 EgAr ṭurš ‘torch, flashlight’ : from Engl torch.
    ▪ ṬRŠ_13 EgAr ṭirēšaẗ, ṭurēšaẗ ‘horned viper’ : ?
     
    – 
    – 
    ṭaraš‑ طَرَشَ , u (ṭarš
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬRŠ 
    vb., I 
    to vomit, throw up, disgorge – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Etymology unclear. A relation with ↗ṭaraš ‘deafness’ seems rather unlikely.
    ▪ The value ‘to vomit’ may be a rather late development from an original ‘to spread, besprinkle’.
    ▪ Unless ↗ṭarš_1 ‘whitewashing’ is itself dependent on a vb. with the original meaning ‘to besprinkle’, this vb. may be denom. from ṭarš_1. If this is the case, the semantic development must have been *‘lime, chalk’ > ‘to besprinkle (a wall, etc.) with lime, to whiten’ > ‘to besprinkle, spread’ > ‘to vomit’.
     
    ▪ … 
    DRS 10 (2012)#ṬRŚ-2 Syr ṭᵉraš ‘asperger’, ṭūrāšā ‘souillure, aliments interdits’, Ar ṭarraša ‘répandre çà et là; vomir’, EgAr SudAr ṭaraš ‘vomir’, YemAr ṭarš ‘balayage’, maṭrašah ‘balai’, DaṯAr ṭaraš ‘asperger (d’eau), éclabousser’; Jib ṭeroś ‘emporter (inondation)’.
     
    ▪ According to DRS, the Aram forms seem to be from Ar and can therefore possibly not count as real cognates. However, the MSA word also appears in many Ar dialects as well as in Jib, with often differing meanings. The original value seems to have been ‘to spread’, cf. ClassAr (D-stem) ṭarraša ‘sparsit’ (Freytag1830), ‘ausstreuen’ (Wahrmund1887). This value is perhaps denom. from ↗ṭarš_1 ‘whitewashing, a certain kind of white earth, lime, chalk’, in the sense of *‘to spread white material (over a wall), besprinkle’, cf. the obsol. vb. I, ṭaraša (u, ṭarš) ‘eine Mauer mit der weißen Erde ṭarš weißen; kratzen u. sprützen (Feder)’ (Wahrmund1887).513 The value ‘to spread, besprinkle’ is preserved in Syr ṭᵉraš, ClassAr ṭarraša and DaṯAr ṭaraš, while the sense has developed into resultative ‘blot, stain’ in Syr ṭūrāšā, ‘to vomit’ in MSA ṭaraša and EgAr SudAr ṭaraš, or the more general ‘to sweep away’ in YemAr ṭraš, and ‘to carry off, sweep away’ (said of an inundation) in Jib.
    ▪ Any relation with the notion of *‘sending away, throwing, casting’ and/or *‘coming suddenly, surprisingly’ that perh. is at the basis of EgAr ṭaraš ‘to knock down’, YemAr ṭwēreš ‘newborn’, YemAr ṭarraš ‘to send’? Cf. ↗ṬRŠ and the 2-cons. "root nucleus" ↗*ṬR-. 
    – 
    muṭarriš, adj., 1 vomitive; 2 emetic: PA II.
    ṭarš, n., 1 whitewashing: perh. the etymon proper? – 2 ↗ṭarš_2.

    For other items of √ṬRŠ, cf. ↗ṭaraš, ↗ṭarš_1, ↗ṭarš_2, ↗ṭuršī, and, for the general picture, ↗ṬRŠ. 
    ṭarš طرش (disambig.) 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬRŠ 
    n. 
    ▪ ṭarš_1 ‘whitewashing’ ↗ṭarš_1
    ▪ ṭarš_2 ‘herd, flock’ ↗ṭarš_2
     
    ṭarš_1, ↗ṭarš_2
    ṭarš_1, ↗ṭarš_2
    ṭarš_1, ↗ṭarš_2
    ṭarš_1, ↗ṭarš_2
    – 
    ṭarš_1, ↗ṭarš_2
    ¹ṭarš طَرْش 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬRŠ 
    n. 
    whitewashing – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Etymology unclear. A relation with ↗ṭaraš ‘deafness’ seems rather unlikely.
    ▪ The value ‘whitewashing’ may be dependent on the vb. I ↗ṭaraša with the original meaning ‘to besprinkle’ (MSA: ‘to vomit’). However, it cannot be excluded that the vb. itself is denom. from ṭarš. If this is the case the semantic development can be described as *ṭarš ‘lime, chalk’ > ṭaraša ‘to besprinkle (a wall, etc.) with lime, to whiten’ > ‘to besprinkle, spread’ > ‘to vomit’.
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (?) DRS 10 (2012)#ṬRŚ-2 Syr ṭᵉraš ‘asperger’, ṭūrāšā ‘souillure, aliments interdits’, Ar ṭarraša ‘répandre çà et là; vomir’, EgAr SudAr ṭaraš ‘vomir’, YemAr ṭarš ‘balayage’, maṭrašah ‘balai’, DaṯAr ṭaraš ‘asperger (d’eau), éclabousser’; Jib ṭeroś ‘emporter (inondation)’.
     
    ▪ Cf. above, section CONC, and ↗ṭaraša
    – 
    For other items of √ṬRŠ, cf. ↗ṭaraš, ↗ṭaraša, ↗ṭarš_2, ↗ṭuršī, and, for the general picture, ↗ṬRŠ. 
    ²ṭarš طَرْش , pl. ṭurūš 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬRŠ 
    n. 
    (syr .) herd (of cattle), flock (of sheep) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Etymology unclear. DRS lists the word as a distinct value, without any obvious cognates.
    ▪ It may, however, be a vn., and if so, used in fig. sense, from the vb. I ↗ṭaraša with the original meaning of ‘to spread, besprinkle’, a herd of cattle or flock of sheep being regarded as ‘sprinkles’ scattered over the pasture.
    ▪ WehrCowan1979 registers the value as SyrAr (though part of the MSA vocabulary), and DRS too marks it as an EAr phenomenon.
     
    ▪ … 
    DRS 10 (2012)#ṬRŚ-6 EAr ṭarš, ṭrīš ‘bétail’.
    ▪ (?) DRS 10 (2012)#ṬRŚ-2 Syr ṭᵉraš ‘asperger’, ṭūrāšā ‘souillure, aliments interdits’, Ar ṭarraša ‘répandre çà et là; vomir’, EgAr SudAr ṭaraš ‘vomir’, YemAr ṭarš ‘balayage’, maṭrašah ‘balai’, DaṯAr ṭaraš ‘asperger (d’eau), éclabousser’; Jib ṭeroś ‘emporter (inondation)’.
     
    ▪ The word may be akin to the vb. ↗ṭaraša. But such an affiliation cannot be counted as secured. 
    – 
    For other items of √ṬRŠ, cf. ↗ṭaraš, ↗ṭaraša, ↗ṭarš_1, ↗ṭuršī, and, for the general picture, ↗ṬRŠ. 
    ṭaraš طَرَش 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬRŠ 
    n. 
    deafness – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Etymology unclear. The item may be without cognates in Sem. An Ar specificity?
    ▪ For Youssef2003’s suggestion to derive the adj. ʔaṭrašᵘ from Eg, see below, section DISC.
    ▪ In contrast to another word for ‘deafness’, ↗ṣamam (with cognates in WSem), Ar ṭaraš seems to denote a lighter form of deafness only, i.e., ‘hardness of hearing, amblyocousia’, cf. Kazimirski1860 ‘être un peu sourd, avoir l’oreille dure’. The need to differentiate between various degrees of deafness may thus have been the reason for the development of the parallelism ṣamam / ṭaraš.
     
    ▪ … 
    DRS 10 (2012)#ṬRŚ-1 Syr ṭᵉrūšā ‘muet’, Mand ṭruša ‘sourd-muet, sourd’, Ar ʔaṭraš, ʔuṭrūš ‘sourd’. 
    ▪ According to Nöldeke, quoted in DRS, the Aram (Syr, Mand) forms are from Ar.
    ▪ Ar ʔaṭraš, ʔuṭrūš ‘deaf’, ṭaraš ‘deafness’, etc. thus may stand alone as an Ar idiosyncrasy within Sem where the words designing ‘deaf (and dumb)’ usually are taken from roots like *ṬMM ‘to be deaf and mute’, (WSem) *ṢMM ‘to be deaf, have a damaged ear’ (preserved in Ar as such, ↗ṣamam), (CSem) *ḪRS ‘to be deaf and dumb’ (> Ar ↗ḫaras ‘dumbness, muteness’) – Kogan2011 (with references to SED, verbal roots 75, 64, and 32, respectively).
    ▪ Youssef2003’s suggestion that the adj. ʔaṭrašᵘ perh. is from Eg i͗wty (a neg. pronoun) + rwš ‘to care’, seems to be hardly tenable.
     
    – 
    ṭariša, a (ṭaraš), vb. I, to be or become deaf: denom.
    ṭarraša, vb. II, to deafen (s.o.): D-stem, denom., caus. – For earlier values, now obsolete, cf. ṬRŠ_2 in ↗ṬRŠ.
    ṭuršaẗ, n.f., deafness: quasi-vn. I.
    ʔaṭrašᵘ, f. ṭaršāʔᵘ, pl. ṭurš, adj., deaf: ʔafʕalᵘ for colours and diseases. | ~ ʔasakkᵘ, adj., stone-deaf

    For other items of √ṬRŠ, cf. ↗ṭaraša, ↗ṭarš_1, ↗ṭarš_2, ↗ṭuršī, and, for the general picture, ↗ṬRŠ. 
    ʔaṭrašᵘ أطْرشُ , f. ṭaršāʔᵘ , pl. ṭurš 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬRŠ 
    adj. 
    deaf – WehrCowan1979. 
    ṭaraš
    ▪ … 
    ▪ ↗ṭaraš 
    ▪ ↗ṭaraš
    ▪ Youssef2003’s suggestion that ʔaṭrašᵘ perh. is from Eg i͗wty (a neg. pronoun) + rwš ‘to care’, seems hardly to be tenable.
     
    – 
    ʔaṭrašᵘ ʔasakkᵘ, adj., stone-deaf

    For other items, cf. ↗ṭaraš
    ṭuršī طُرْشي 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬRŠ, ṬRŠī 
    n. 
    mixed pickles – WehrCowan1979. 
    DRS: From Pers turši. – Rolland2014a: From Pers toroš, torš ‘sour’, mPers turuš ‘strong, sour taste’.
    ▪ Another hypothesis is: from Grk táriχon ‘roe, salted fish eggs’ (cf. ↗baṭraḫ). 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 10 (2012)#ṬRŠ: EgAr SudAr PalAr MġrAr ṭurši ‘petits morceaux de légumes assaisonnés de ou confits au vinaigre’. 
    ▪ Nişanyan_15May2015 (and EtymOnline , for the IE dimension): from Pers turš ‘sour, salty’, akin to Av taršna- ‘to become dry, become thirsty’, from IE *trs- , deriv. of *ters- ‘to become dry’. Cf. Lat terra ‘earth, land’, lit. *‘dry land’ (as opposed to ‘sea’) < *tersa , Engl thirst (oEngl þurst, from protGerm *thurstu- , cf., oSax thurst, Fris torst, Du dorst, oHGe Ge durst), from protGerm vb.al stem *thurs- (Goth thaursjan, oEngl thyrre), from IE root *ters- ‘to dry’ (cf. also Skr tarsayati ‘dries up’, Av tarshu- ‘dry, solid’, Grk terésesthai ‘to be/come dry’, Lat torrere ‘to dry up, parch’, Goth þaursus ‘dry, barren’, oHGe thurri, Ge dürr, oEngl þyrre ‘dry’, oEngl þurstig ‘thirsty’); fig. sense of ‘vehement desire’ is attested from c1200). 
    ▪ From the same source as Ar ṭuršī is Tu turşu: 1429 turş ‘sour’ (ʔAḥmed b. Ḳāḍı-i Manyas, Gülistān tercümesi), <1451 ‘fermented vegetables’ (anon., Ferec baʕd eş-şidde) – Nişanyan15May2015. 
    For other items of √ṬRŠ, cf. ↗ṭaraš, ↗ṭaraša, ↗ṭarš_1, ↗ṭarš_2, and, for the general picture, ↗ṬRŠ. 
    ṬRF طرف 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬRF 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṬRF_1 ‘eye, glance, look, to blink’ ↗ṭarf
    ▪ ṬRF_2 ‘utmost part, edge, extremity’ ↗ṭaraf
    ▪ ṬRF_3 ‘novelty’ ↗ṭurfaẗ
    ▪ ṬRF_4 ‘shawl’ ↗miṭraf
    ▪ ṬRF_5 ‘tamarisk (bot.)’ ↗ṭarfāʔᵘ
    Other values, now obsolete, include:
    • ṬRF_6 ‘to drive away, repel’: ṭarafa i (ṭarf)
    • ṬRF_7 ‘to lose the teeth’: ṭarrafa (Lane, Hava1899)
    • ṬRF_8 ‘to choose s.th.’: ṭarrafa (Lane, Hava1899); cf. also ṭaraf ‘anything chosen, choice’
    • ṬRF_9 ‘leather tent, tent of skin’: ṭirāf, pl. ṭuruf (Lane, Hava1899)
    • ṬRF_10 ‘noble, of high breed; generous’: ṭirf, pl. ṭurūf, ʔaṭrāf (Hava1899), acc. to Lane meaning also ‘generous horse, one that is looked at’; cf. also ṭarf ‘man generous, noble’, ṭaraf, ṭarīf ‘having many ancestors’ (Lane)
    • ṬRF_11 ‘to be numerous, abound with’: ʔaṭrafa (Lane)
    • ṬRF_12 ‘to seize, or carry off by force’: sibāʕ ṭawārifᵘ (sg. ṭārifaẗ) ‘animals that seize, or carry off by force, the objects of the chase’ (Lane)
    • ṬRF_13 ‘flesh, flesh-meat’: ṭaraf (Lane)

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘1 eyesight, blinking, to blink, twinkle; 2 edge, utmost part, extremity, to be the extreme; 3 novelty; 4 group’ 
    ▪ Showing a high degree of semantic complexity, the Ar root ṬRF (Sem *ṬRP) is very difficult to disentangle etymologically.
    ▪ For Sem *ṬRP, DRS suggests to distinguish 9 main values, 7 of which are represented in Ar (thereof 1 dialectal value). In contrast, based on the Qurʔānic evidence, BAH2008 identify only 4 main values for Ar, while Zammit2002, on the same basis, lists even less, namely simply 2. One of Badawi&AbdelHaleem’s values (‘group’) does not figure in the DRS list at all; and Zammit’s first main value unites at least two values that DRS prefers to hold apart from each other.
    ▪ Furthermore, we have only few—and somehow contradictory—hypotheses for a reconstruction in Sem: Huehnergard2011 and Kogan2015 assume a CSem *ṬRP ‘to tear, pluck, seize’ (cf. ṬRF_12 ≙ DRS #ṬRP-1), while Ehret1989 thinks that at least Ar ṭarafa ‘to turn off, repel’ (value ṬRF_6 ≙ DRS #ṬRP-1) goes back to a bi-consonantal pre-protSem root nucleus *ṬR‑ ‘to send’. In contrast, Ar lexicographers hold that it is possible to derive the whole spectrum of meanings from the notion of ‘utmost part, edge, extremity’ (ṬRF_2) or, as Gabal2012 has it, al-nihāyaẗ al-daqīqaẗ lil-šayʔ al-mumtadd, wa-yulzimu ḏālika al-riqqaẗ al-māddiyyaẗ wa’l-maʕnawiyyaẗ ‘the exact/sharp ending of s.th. extended, implying both material and spiritual fineness’. – For details see below, section DISC.
     
    – 
    DRS 10 (2012)# ṬRP-1 Hbr ṭārap, JP ṭᵉrap ‘arracher, déchirer, mettre en pièces, embrouiller’, ṭᵉrēpā ‘animal déchiré par des bêtes sauvages, chair interdite à la consommation comme nourriture’, Syr ṭᵉrap ‘agiter les ailes, frapper’, ṭarfā ‘feuille; lobe’, ṭᵉrāpā ‘heurt, battement, moment’, Mand (a)ṭirpia ‘feuilles’; Syr ṭarep ‘fatiguer, secouer, faire tomber’, ʔetṭarap ‘être agité, accablé, épuisé’; Mand ṭripa ‘mutilé, déchiré, défiguré’. ? Te ṭärfa ‘s’ébrouer (cheval); rejeter de bouillon (l’eau; bouillonner, écumer’, Tña ṭərif bälä ‘être alarmé’, ? Te ṭərif bela ‘être fier de qc (?)’. Ar ṭarafa ‘éloigner qn de qc; repousser’. -2 Ar ṭarufa ‘être d’acquisition récente; être nouveau, neuf, récent, frais’. -3 Ar ‘compter un grand nombre d’ancêtres nobles’. -4 Ar ṭarifa ‘dévorer les bords, les extrémités d’un pré (chameau, etc.)’, ṭaraf ‘extrémité, côté, partie, portion, morceau’, Mhr Ḥrs ṭərēf, Jib ṭerä́f ‘côté’, Soq ṭaraf ‘zone’, Mhr ṭərūf, Jib ṭorof ‘mettre de côté pour une occasion meilleure’. -5 Ar ṭarafa ‘battre des paupières; regarder’, ṭarf ‘(coup d’) œil’, ṭurifa ‘être atteint, blessé à l’œil’. -6 SudAr ṭarfa ‘source renaissante à l’automne’, ? ṭawārif ‘vents froids’. -7 Soq məṭrəf ‘pli du ventre, ride’. -8 Te ṭärafa ‘s’arrêter, séjourner quelque part’. -9 Akk ṭarpaʔ - : sorte de tamaris.
    ▪ Zammit2002: 1 Aram ṭrp ‘wink of an eye’?, Ar ṭarf ‘eye, glance, sight of the eyes’. 2 Hbr ṭārap ‘to tear, rend, pluck’, Aram ṭarpā ‘a piece torn off, fragment’, ṭᵉrap ‘to tear’, Syr ṭarpā (d-ednā) ‘the lobe (of the ear)’, ṭᵉrap ‘to smite’, Ar ṭaraf ‘extremity; border’
    ▪ Klein1987: 1 Hbr ṭārap̄ ‘to tear to pieces, rend; to pluck’, Aram ṭᵊrap̄ ‘to tear, seize’, ṭᵊrêp̄â ‘torn animal, torn flesh’, Ar ṭarafa ‘to graze (said of a camel)’, ṭarufa ‘to be freshly plucked’; Hbr ṭārāp̄ ‘fresh-plucked’, hence also ‘fresh leaf’ and nHbr ‘leaf, blade’, Aram Syr ṭarpâ ‘fresh leaf’. – 2 Hbr ṭāraf ‘to cast, knock; to mix, confuse’, Aram Syr ṭᵊrap̄ ‘to shake, clap, smite’, Ar ṭarafa ‘to strike back’. 
    ▪ ṬRF_1 (≙ DRS #ṬRP-5) ṭarf ‘eye, glance, look, to blink’ : Kogan2015:220,n5 thinks that the ClassAr vb. I ṭarafa ‘to strike one’s eye’ is almost certainly denominative from ṭarf. In contrast, Ar lexicographers usually regard ṭarf as originally a vn. of this ṭarafa, supporting their argument with the fact that ṭarf does not take a pl. – Any relation to ṬRF_2 ‘end, extremity’ (the eye as an “extremity” of the head, or a twinkling interpreted as a look “from a side”)? Or to (C)Sem *ṬRP ‘to tear, pluck, seize’ (cf. ṬRF_12 ≙ DRS #ṬRP-1) as reconstructed by Huehnergard2011 and Kogan2015 (with a shift of meaning from ‘to tear, pluck, seize’ to ‘to strike’, then ‘to strike the eye’ > ‘eye’)? All highly speculative! (Cf. however ṬRF_3, below.) The same holds true for making ṬRF_2 ‘side’ depend on ṬRF_1 ‘eye’, as suggested by Nişanyan (23Oct2014, s.v. Tu taraf), in rendering Ar ṭaraf as ‘bakım, cihet, yan, yön’ and in this way identifying ‘direction, side’ (ṬRF_2) with ‘glance’ (ṬRF_1), tracing it all back to Ar ṭarafa ‘to look, cast an eye on’, from ṭarf ‘eye’. – Whatever the origin of ṭarf and ṭarafa themselves, some believe that ‘to strike the eye’ is the original meaning of value ṬRF_3 ‘novelty’ (*what strikes the eye because it is new).
    ▪ ṬRF_2 (≙ DRS #ṬRP-4) ṭaraf ‘utmost part, edge, extremity’ : This value is without doubt one of the oldest ones; yet, its etymology needs still further research. Nişanyan23Oct2014 (s.v. Tu taraf), in rendering Ar ṭaraf as ‘bakım, cihet, yan, yön’, sees the meaning cihet, yan, yön ‘direction, side’ (ṬRF_2) and bakım ‘glance’ (ṬRF_1) as one unit, tracing it all back to Ar ṭarafa ‘to look, cast an eye on’, from Ar ṭarf ‘eye’. In contrast, DRS finds cognates of Ar ṭaraf only in modSAr, keeping it separate from other values of Sem *ṬRP. Yet another position is taken by Klein1987 and Zammit2002: both see Ar ṭaraf ‘utmost part, edge, extremity’ together with Hbr ṭārap̄ ‘to tear to pieces, rend; to pluck’, Aram ṭᵊrap̄ ‘to tear, seize’ (and derivates), i.e., with the value that lies at the basis also of the obsolete Ar vb. ṭarafa ‘to seize, carry off by force’, preserved in ClassAr sibāʕ ṭawārifᵘ (sg. ṭārifaẗ, f. of *ṭārif, PA I) ‘animals that seize, or carry off by force, the objects of the chase’, which with all likelihood is the “purest”, least “contaminated” descendant of an original CSem *ṬRP ‘to tear, pluck, seize’ (cf. ṬRF_12 in root entry ↗ṬRF). The link between ‘edge, extremity’ and ‘to tear, pluck’ here would be the obsolete vb. Ar ṭarafa ‘to graze, depasture the lateral parts of a pasturage (said of a camel)’. This would give us the semantic chain *‘to tear, pluck, seize > to graze, depasture the lateral parts of a pasturage > utmost part, edge, extremity’. This, however, would contradict Kogan2015’s assumption that the vb. »almost certainly« is denom. from ṭaraf, not the other way round. – However that may be, quite a number of the other values are with some probability derived from ṬRF_2 ‘utmost part, edge, extremity’. One line of semantic development could be: *‘utmost part, edge, extremity > to depasture the lateral parts of a pasturage > to make a choice (for more, better, more delicate food) > to choose, anything chosen, choice’ (ṬRF_8). Another branch (unless dependent on ṬRF_1) seems to identify the preference of the lateral parts of a pasturage with a looking for alternatives, hence: *‘~ > to appreciate a novelty > novelty’ (ṬRF_3). (There is, however, some overlapping with ↗ẒRF here, and another theory derives the value ‘novelty’ from CSem *ṬRP ‘to tear, pluck, seize’—cf. above, ṬRF_1, and below, ṬRF_12/13 —in the sense of ‘fresh-plucked’, cf. ṬRF_5.) – The value ‘to drive away, repel’ (ṬRF_6), too, could be explained—in theory—as a derivation from ‘utmost part, edge, extremity’, the act of repelling being a driving away “to the utmost parts”; cf., however, DRS (and also Klein1987) where Ar ṭarafa ‘éloigner qn de qc; repousser’ is grouped differently on account of the wider Sem evidence. – ṭirāf ‘leather tent, tent of skin’ (ṬRF_9), too, seems to be somehow connected to ṭaraf ‘utmost part, edge, extremity’, but the relation is not really clear. – ṭaraf was, and is still, used in many expressions with a specialized or figurative meaning. The pl. ʔaṭrāf, for instance, can also mean ‘fingers’ (i.e., the extremities of the hand); the construct ʔaṭrāf al-nahār signifies the *‘extremities of a day’, i.e., ‘morning and afternoon, daybreak and sunset’, and the *‘extremities of the people’, ʔaṭrāf al-nās , mean ‘the lower orders of society’. Furthermore, ʔaṭrāf can mean ‘a man’s father and mother and brothers and paternal uncles and any relations whom it is unlawful for him to marry’. – Ar lexicographers also tend to regard ṬRF_10 ‘noble, of high breed; generous’ as a derivation from ṭaraf ‘utmost part, edge, extremity’: ṭaraf, as well as ṭarīf, can mean ‘having many ancestors, up to the greatest (i.e. most remote [= “extreme”]) forefather, of long descent’ (Lane), and ṭarf ‘man generous, noble’ is likewise explained as ‘…in respect of ancestry, up to the greatest [i.e. most remote] forefather’ (ibid.).514 – In addition, with the notion of ‘generosity’ and the plentitude of ancestors we are already in close to value ṬRF_11 ‘to be numerous, abound with’.
    ▪ ṬRF_3 (≙ DRS #ṬRP-2) ṭurfaẗ ‘novelty’ : dependent on ṬRF_1 ‘eye’ (a novelty being s.th. that “strikes the eye”) or on ṬRF_2 ‘utmost part, edge, extremity’ (see preceding paragraph)? Probably neither the former nor the latter, but, as Klein1987 assumes, a derivation from the (C)Sem vb. *ṭrp (see ṬRF_12 below) along the line ‘to tear, pluck, seize > to be freshly plucked > to be fresh, new’. – Cf. also ṬRF_5 ‘tamarisk’? – There is some overlapping also with ↗ẒRF.
    ▪ ṬRF_4 miṭraf ‘shawl’ : The explanation, given by ClassAr lexicographers, that miṭraf is a ‘garment, square or four-sided, having ornamental or coloured or figured borders’ (Lane) connects the word with ṬRF_2 ṭaraf ‘edge, extremity’, which seems plausible.
    ▪ ṬRF_5 (≙ DRS #ṬRP-9) ṭarfāʔᵘ ‘tamarisk (bot.)’: probably related to Akk ṭarpaʔ- ‘sort of tamarisk’, which, however, may in itself be a borrowing from a foreign language. Do we have to compare Hbr ṭārāp̄ ‘fresh-plucked’, hence also ‘fresh leaf’, Aram Syr ṭarpâ ‘id.’? If so then Ar ṭarfāʔᵘ ‘tamarisk’, like a number of other values in this root, is based on (C)Sem *ṬRP ‘to tear, pluck, seize’ (see ṬRF_12/13, below). – In contrast, based on the evidence in Akk and some Aram langs, Militarev&Stolbova2007 reconstruct a Sem *ṭarpaʔ- ‘tamarind [sic!]; leaf’, to which they juxtapose an EChad (Bidiya) tìrìp ‘kind of tree’, all from an hypothetical AfrAs *ṭarip- ‘tree’.
    ▪ ṬRF_6 (≙ DRS #ṬRP-1) ṭarafa i (ṭarf) ‘to drive away, repel’: While semantics may suggest a connection between this vb. and ṬRF_2 ‘utmost part, edge, extremity’, the act of repelling being a *‘driving to the edges’, DRS and others rather see it akin to the notion of ‘tearing (to pieces), plucking, seizing’ (cf. ṬRF_12, below). The idea, put forward by Klein1987, that Hbr ²ṭārap̄ ‘to cast, knock; to mix, confuse’ (which is seen together with Ar ṭarafa ‘to strike back’) »probably« is a »sense enlargement« of Hbr ¹ṭārap̄ ‘to tear to pieces, rend; to pluck’ (< CSem *ṬRP ‘to tear, pluck, seize’, see ṬRF_12/13, below), may help to understand a development that is far from being immediately evident. – Yet another theory is Ehret’s: he suggest to regard Ar ṭarafa ‘to turn off, repel’ as an extension in intensive (manner) * f from a bi-consonantal root nucleus *ṬR- ‘to send’ (Ehret1989); for other extensions from the same nucleus, he refers to ↗ṭaraʔa ‘to fall upon unexpectedly, happen, occur’, ↗ṭaraḥa ‘to remove, turn from, avert, throw far away, (Hava1899:) to fling, cast away s.th.’, ↗ṭarada ‘to push away, drive away, repel, expel, pursue, chase, drive together, (Hava1899:) to persecute, drive back etc.; to collect (scattered flocks)’.
    ▪ ṬRF_7 ṭarrafa ‘to lose the teeth’ : acc. to Lane said of a camel that loses teeth by reason of extreme age. If this explanation is correct, the value is dependent on ṬRF_2 (≙ DRS #ṬRP-4), denom. from ṭaraf ‘utmost part, edge, extremity’.
    ▪ ṬRF_8 ṭarrafa ‘to choose s.th.’: denom. from ṭaraf in the sense (now obsolete) of ‘anything chosen, choice’, which seems to have developed from the word’s basic meaning of ‘utmost part, edge, extremity’ (ṬRF_2 ≙ DRS #ṬRP-4). Animals that depasture the lateral parts of a pasturage ‘make their choice (for better food)’, cf. the meaning given in DRS for the modSAr cognates, Mhr ṭərūf and Jib ṭorof, namely ‘mettre de côté pour une occasion meilleure’.
    ▪ ṬRF_9 ṭirāf ‘leather tent, tent of skin’: probably connected to ṭaraf ‘utmost part, edge, extremity’ (ṬRF_2 ≙ DRS #ṬRP-4)—but this would need further explanation.
    ▪ ṬRF_10 (≙ DRS #ṬRP-3) ṭirf ‘noble, of high breed; generous’: The explanation, given in Lane, for ṭirf in the more specific sense of ‘generous horse, one that is looked at (yuṭrafu) because of its beauty’ would connect this value to ṬRF_1 ‘eye’. Hava1899, however, translates ṭirf as ‘noble from both parents’, suggesting that we have to draw a line to ṬRF_2 ‘utmost part, edge, extremity’ rather than to ṬRF_1 ‘eye’. This would be in line with the var. ṭarf ‘man generous, noble’ which the lexicographers (acc. to Lane) understand as ‘noble in respect of ancestry, up to the greatest (i.e. most remote [!]) forefather’, and ṭaraf ~ ṭarif, ṭarīf ‘having many ancestors, up to the greatest [i.e. most remote] forefather, of long descent’ (Lane).
    ▪ ṬRF_11 ʔaṭrafa ‘to be numerous, abound with’: is probably the same as (or a generalization of) ṬRF_10 (≙ DRS #ṬRP-3), cf. ṭaraf ~ ṭarif, ṭarīf ‘reckoning many ancestors’ (Hava1899), ṭarufa (a, ṭarāfaẗ) ‘to descend from an ancient family (man)’.
    ▪ ṬRF_12 ṭarafa ‘to seize, carry off by force’: Preserved only in ClassAr sibāʕ ṭawārifᵘ (sg. ṭārifaẗ, f. of ṭārif, PA I) ‘animals that seize, or carry off by force, the objects of the chase’, this is with all likelihood the “purest”, least “contaminated” descendant of an original CSem *ṬRP ‘to tear, pluck, seize’. Klein1987 connects the corresponding Hbr ṭārap̄ ‘to tear to pieces, rend; to pluck’ and Aram ṭᵊrap̄ ‘to tear, seize’ with Ar ṭarafa ‘to graze (said of a camel)’ (cf. ṬRF_2 ‘utmost part, edge, extremity’) as well as with ṭarufa ‘to be freshly plucked’ (cf. ṬRF_3 ‘novelty’), which in turn may be akin to ṬRF_5 ‘tamarisk’ (if this is cognate with Hbr ṭārāp̄ ‘fresh-plucked’, hence also ‘fresh leaf’). Furthermore, if Klein1987 is right, then Hbr ṭārap̄ ‘to cast, knock; to mix, confuse’ and Aram Syr ṭᵊrap̄ ‘to shake, clap, smite’ are cognate with Ar ṭarafa ‘to strike back’ (ṬRF_6), and this complex is a secondary development (Klein: »sense enlargement«) from the original CSem ‘to tear, pluck, seize’.
    ▪ ṬRF_13 ṭaraf ‘flesh, flesh-meat’: This value is without doubt derived from the preceding, cf. Hbr ṭᵊrēp̄āʰ ‘animal torn by wild beasts’ (> postBiblHbr ‘animal with organic defect’, mHbr ‘ritually forbidden food’), ärā̈p̄ ‘prey; food’ (»orig. prob. meaning ‘food carried off’«, Klein1987), from Hbr ṭārap̄ ‘to tear to pieces’, from CSem ‘to tear, pluck, seize’. 
    ▪ Huehnergard2011: Not from Ar, but from a Hbr cognate is Engl tref (var. treif, trayf, treyf) ‘any form of non-kosher food’. It goes back to Hbr ṭərēpâ ‘torn flesh’ (= Ar ṬRF_13), from Hbr ṭārap ‘to tear, pluck’, from CSem *ṬRP ‘id.’, which is the ancestor also of Ar ṬRF_12 and, indirectly, many other Ar values. 
    – 
    ṭarf طَرْف , no pl.3  
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬRF 
    n. 
    1 eye; 2 glance, look – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Ar lexicographers (as referred to by Lane) think the word is originally a vn., i.e., [v2] is the more original value, and [v1] is secondary. But this is not necessarily true.
    DRS groups the word together with the obsol. ṭarafa ‘battre des paupières; regarder’ and ṭurifa ‘être atteint, blessé à l’œil’ (DRS #ṬRP-5), but not with Hbr ṭārap̄ ‘to cast, knock’ or Aram Syr ṭᵊrap̄ ‘to shake, clap, smite’ (DRS #ṬRP-1), in spite of the notion of ‘casting/striking’ shared by all. Should there be a relation nevertheless, then the ‘eye’ would have developed from ‘to strike/hit/hurt the eye’, from ‘to strike/hit’, from ‘to cast, smite, knock, clap’, which perh. is a secondary value, evolved from a CSem *ṬRP ‘to tear, pluck, seize’, cf. Ar ṬRF_12 in root entry ↗ṬRF (≙ DRS #ṬRP-1). In contrast, Kogan2015 thinks that ṭarafa ‘to strike one’s eye’ is almost certainly denominative from ṭarf ‘eye’, not the other way round; but he remains silent about the origin of ṭarf itself.
    ▪ Nişanyan23Oct2014 (s.v. Tu taraf) derives also Ar ↗ṭaraf ‘direction, side’ from Ar ṭarafa ‘to look, cast an eye on’, from Ar ṭarf ‘eye’. 
    ▪ eC7 (eyesight, sight, glance) Q 38:52 qāṣirātu ’l-ṭarfi ‘not given to staring, modest, restraining their glances, of modest gaze [lit., women who cast down their gaze/eyes]’, 42:45 yanẓurūna min ṭarfin ḫafiyyin ‘they look furtively [lit., they look with a hidden glance], 14:43 lā yartaddu ʔilay-him ṭarfu-hum ‘not blinking, utterly stupefied, they cannot take in what they see [lit., their glance does not return to them]’, 27:40 qabla ʔan yartadda ʔilay-ka ṭarfu-ka ‘before you bat an eye [lit., before your glance returns to you]’
    ▪ ClassAr ṭarafa (i, ṭarf) (ʕayna-hū) ‘to hit, strike, smit, hurt s.o.’s eye (with a garment, etc.) so that it sheds tears’, ṭarf ‘slapping with the hand upon the extremity of the eye’, hence also ‘striking upon the head’, ṭārifaẗ , pl. ṭawārifᵘ, ‘s.th. that causes a twinkling or winking of the eye’, ṭarfaẗ ‘red spot of blood, in the eye, occasioned by a blow or some other cause’, ṭurfaẗ ‘hurt of the eye, occasioning its shedding tears’ (Lane). 
    DRS 10 (2012)#ṬRP-5 Ar ṭarafa ‘battre des paupières; regarder’, ṭarf ‘(coup d’) œil’, ṭurifa ‘être atteint, blessé à l’œil’.
    ▪ Zammit2002: Aram ṭrp ‘wink of an eye’?, Ar ṭarf ‘eye, glance, sight of the eyes’. 
    ▪ For the main picture, cf. above, section CONC.
    ▪ Any relation to ↗ṭaraf ‘end, extremity’ (the eye as an “extremity” of the head, or a twinkling interpreted as a look “from a side”)?
    ▪ Whatever the origin of ṭarf itself, some believe that ↗ṭurfaẗ ‘novelty’ essentially is *‘what strikes the eye (because it is new)’. (Others, however, would rather derive ‘novelty’ from CSem *ṬRP ‘to pluck’, regarding it as a generalization of ‘freshly plucked’, cf. ṬRF_3 in root entry ↗ṬRF.)
    ▪ In a similar vein, some Ar lexicographers explain Ar ṭirf ‘noble, of high breed; generous’ as stemming from the more specific sense of ‘generous horse, one that is looked at (yuṭrafu) because of its beauty’, in this way connecting ‘nobility, generosity’ with ‘eye’ and ‘looking’. (Others, however, explain ‘nobility, generosity’ as having emerged from the idea of looking back to a long line of noble ancestors, i.e., “extremities”, in this way connecting it to ↗ṭaraf ‘end, extremity’.) 
    – 
    mā ʔašāra bi-ṭarf, expr., he didn’t bat an eye
    min ṭarf ḫafiyy, adv., secretly, furtively, discreetly
    ka-’rtidād al-ṭarf, adv., in the twinkling of an eye, instantly

    ṭarafa, i (ṭarf), vb. I, to blink, twinkle, wink, squint (also bi-ʕaynay-hi): prob. denom.
    ṭarfaẗ, n.f.: quasi-n.vic. of ṭarafa | bi-/fī ~ ʕayn, adv., in the twinkling of an eye, instantly; mā… ~a ʕayn, adv., not one moment 
    ṭaraf طَرَف , pl. ʔaṭrāf 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 371 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬRF 
    n. 
    1 utmost part, outermost point, extremity, end, tip, point, edge, fringe, limit, border; 2 side; 3 region, area, section; 4 ~ min, a part of, a bit of, some; 5 party (as, to a dispute, of a contract, etc.); 6 ~a…, prep., with, at, on the part or side of; 7 pl. ʔaṭrāf, limbs, extremities; 8 (with foll. gen.) sections of, parts of – WehrCowan1979. 
    DRS finds cognates of Ar ṭaraf only in modSAr, keeping it separate from other values of Sem *ṬRP. In contrast, Nişanyan23Oct2014 (s.v. Tu taraf) derives ṭaraf ‘direction, side’ from Ar ṭarafa ‘to look, cast an eye on’, from Ar ↗ṭarf ‘eye’. Yet another etymology is given by Klein1987 and Zammit2002: they see Ar ṭaraf ‘utmost part, edge, extremity’ together with Hbr ṭārap̄ ‘to tear to pieces, rend; to pluck’, Aram ṭᵊrap̄ ‘to tear, seize’ (and derivates), i.e., with the value that lies at the basis also of the obsolete Ar vb. ṭarafa ‘to seize, carry off by force’, preserved in ClassAr sibāʕ ṭawārifᵘ (sg. ṭārifaẗ, f. of *ṭārif, PA I) ‘animals that seize, or carry off by force, the objects of the chase’, which with all likelihood is the “purest”, least “contaminated” descendant of an original CSem *ṬRP ‘to tear, pluck, seize’ (cf. ṬRF_12 in root entry ↗ṬRF). The link between ‘edge, extremity’ and ‘to tear, pluck’ here would be the obsolete vb. Ar ṭarafa ‘to graze, depasture the lateral parts of a pasturage (said of a camel)’. This would give us the semantic chain *‘to tear, pluck, seize > to graze, depasture the lateral parts of a pasturage > utmost part, edge, extremity’—which, however, would contradict Kogan2015’s assumption that the vb. »almost certainly« is denom. from ṭaraf, not the other way round.
    ▪ If the affiliation of Ar ṭaraf ‘utmost part, edge, extremity’ to CSem *ṬRP ‘to tear, pluck, seize’ is correct, then ṭaraf is indeed a relative of many other values of ↗ṬRF, like ‘novelty’ (*freshly plucked, cf. ↗ṭurfaẗ) (cf. Klein1987’s grouping in section COGN below) and perh. also ‘tamarisk’ (↗ṭarfāʔᵘ). There are also theories that ultimately connect CSem *ṬRP ‘to tear, pluck, seize’ with ↗ṭarf ‘eye’; if these can be substantiated then there would also be a relation, however indirect, between ṭarf and ṭaraf. – For the whole picture, cf. root entry ↗ṬRF. 
    ▪ eC7 (edge, border; part; group) Q 3:127 li-yaqṭaʕa ṭarafan min-a ’llaḏīna kafarū ‘and that He might cut off a part of the disbelievers’ [army]’; (dual: two ends) 11:114 ṭarafay-i ’l-nahāri ‘two ends of the day, morning and evening’; [pl. ʔaṭrāf : edges, borders; notables; good things] 13:41 ʔa-wa-lam yaraw ʔannā naʔtī ’l-ʔarḍa nanquṣu-hā min ʔaṭrāfi-hā ‘do they not see how We visit the land, curtailing it from its borders (variously interpreted as: causing districts belonging to the disbelievers to fall one after the other to the Muslims, reducing its vegetation, curtailing it from its learned people’ (‘Scientific interpreters’ of the Q see in this verse reference to the fact that Earth’s sphere looks as if it had been clipped at the edges); 20:130 ʔaṭrāfa ’l-nahāri ‘the [two] ends/extremities of the day [lit., edges of the day]’
    ▪ ClassAr ṭarif, f. ṭarifaẗ, ‘male / she-camel that removes from one pasturage to another, not keeping constantly to one pasturage; that depastures the extremities, or sides, of the pasturage’; ṭarifa a (ṭaraf), vb. I, ‘to depasture the lateral parts of the pasturage’; ṭarrafa, vb. II, ‘to fight around the army (charging upon or assaulting those who form the side or flank or extreme portion of it), drive back, fight (those who formed the side or flank of an army)’; cf. also the description ḫayru ’l-kalāmi mā ṭurrifat maʕānī-hi wa-šurrifat mabānī-hi ‘the best of language is that of which the meanings are pointed, and of which the constructions are crowned with embellishments as though they were adorned with šuraf (pl. of šurfaẗ ‘balcony’)’; cf. also the expression, involving a vb. X, ĭstaṭrafa, used for a woman who does not keep constantly to a husband: tastaṭrifu ’l-riǧāl ‘she takes, or chooses, new ones of the men’, she who does thus being likened to the she-camel termed ṭarifaẗ that depastures the extremities of the pasturage and/or tastes, and does not keep constantly to one pasturage – Lane. 
    DRS 10 (2012)#ṬRP-4 Ar ṭarifa ‘dévorer les bords, les extrémités d’un pré (chameau, etc.)’, ṭaraf ‘extrémité, côté, partie, portion, morceau’, Mhr Ḥrs ṭərēf, Jib ṭerä́f ‘côté’, Soq ṭaraf ‘zone’, Mhr ṭərūf, Jib ṭorof ‘mettre de côté pour une occasion meilleure’.
    ▪ Zammit2002: Hbr ṭārap ‘to tear, rend, pluck’, Aram ṭarpā ‘a piece torn off, fragment’, ṭᵉrap ‘to tear’, Syr ṭarpā (d-ednā) ‘the lobe (of the ear)’, ṭᵉrap ‘to smite’, Ar ṭaraf ‘extremity; border’.
    ▪ Klein1987: Hbr ṭārap̄ ‘to tear to pieces, rend; to pluck’, Aram ṭᵊrap̄ ‘to tear, seize’, ṭᵊrêp̄â ‘torn animal, torn flesh’, Ar ṭarafa ‘to graze (said of a camel)’, ṭarufa ‘to be freshly plucked’; Hbr ṭārāp̄ ‘fresh-plucked’, hence also ‘fresh leaf’ and nHbr ‘leaf, blade’, Aram Syr ṭarpâ ‘fresh leaf’. 
    ▪ For the general traits, see section CONC above.
    ▪ This value of ṬRF is without doubt one of the oldest ones in Ar, and quite a number of the other values may with some probability be derived from it (cf. root entry ↗ṬRF). One line of semantic development seems to be: ‘utmost part, edge, extremity > to depasture the lateral parts of a pasturage > to make a choice (for more, better, more delicate food) > to choose, anything chosen, choice’ (ṬRF_8, now obsol.). Another branch (unless dependent on ṬRF_1 ‘eye’) seems to identify the preference of the lateral parts of a pasturage with a looking for alternatives, hence: ‘…pasturage > to appreciate a novelty > novelty’ (ṬRF_3; however, another theory derives ‘novelty’ from CSem *ṬRP ‘to tear, pluck, seize’ in the sense of ‘fresh-plucked’, cf. also ṬRF_5 ‘tamarisk’.) – The value ‘to drive away, repel’ (ṬRF_6), too, could be explained—in theory—as a derivation from ‘utmost part, edge, extremity’, the act of repelling being a driving away “to the utmost parts”; cf., however, DRS (and also Klein1987) where Ar ṭarafa ‘éloigner qn de qc; repousser’ is grouped differently on account of the wider Sem evidence; but the D-stem may still be denom. from ṭaraf. – In contrast, there is almost no doubt that ↗miṭraf ‘shawl’ (ṬRF_4) depends on ṭaraf ‘edge, side’ because, in ClassAr use, it is a ‘garment […] having ornamental or coloured or figured borders’ (Lane). – ṭirāf ‘leather tent, tent of skin’ (ṬRF_9), too, seems to be somehow connected to ṭaraf ‘utmost part, edge, extremity’, but the relation is not really clear and its exact nature will need further explanation.
    ṭaraf was, and is still, used in many expressions with a specialized or figurative meaning, particularly also in the pl. ʔaṭrāf. For instance, the latter can also mean ‘fingers’ (i.e., the extremities of the hand), if not ‘extremities’ in general. The construct ʔaṭrāf al-nahār signifies the *‘extremities of a day’, i.e., ‘morning and afternoon, daybreak and sunset’. And the *‘extremities of the people’, ʔaṭrāf al-nās , mean ‘the lower orders of society’. Furthermore, ʔaṭrāf can mean (in ClassAr) ‘a man’s father and mother and brothers and paternal uncles and any relations whom it is unlawful for him to marry’.
    ▪ Ar lexicographers also tend to regard ‘noble, of high breed; generous’ as a derivation from ṭaraf : as also ṭarīf, ṭaraf can mean ‘having many ancestors, up to the greatest (i.e. most remote [= “extreme”]) forefather, of long descent’ (Lane), and ṭarf ‘man generous, noble’ is likewise explained as ‘…in respect of ancestry, up to the greatest [i.e. most remote] forefather’ (ibid.). – In addition, with the notion of ‘generosity’ and the plentitude of ancestors we are already in close neighbourhood of the value ‘to be numerous, abound with’ (ṬRF_11).
    ▪ For still other (obsolete) values that may be dependent on, or derived from, ‘utmost part, edge, extremity’, like ‘to lose the teeth’, cf. root entry ↗ṬRF. 
    – 
    ṭaraf al-ġawr, n.prop.loc., Trafalgar (cape, SW Spain). – Cf., however, EtymOnline where Engl Trafalgar (famous sea battle, Oct. 21, 1805!) is said to be from Ar ṭaraf al-ġarb ‘end of the west’, or ṭaraf al-ʔaġar ‘end of the column’ (in reference to the pillars of Hercules).
    ṭaraf al-liḥāf, n., corner or tag of a cover
    ṭaraf al-lisān, n., tip of the tongue
    ṭarafay-i ’l-nahār, adv., in the morning and in the evening, mornings and evenings
    kānū ʕalà ṭarafay naqīḍ, expr., they were at variance, they varied on a feud
    kāna wa-ʔiyyā-hu ʕalà ṭarafay naqīḍ, expr., they held diametrically opposed views or positions
    ʔaṭrāf al-badan, n.pl., the extremities of the body, the limbs
    ʔaṭrāf al-ʔaṣābiʕ, n.pl., fingertips
    ʕalà ʔaṭrāf qadamay-hi, expr., on tiptoe
    ʔaṭrāf al-madīnaẗ, n.pl., the outskirts of the city
    al-ʔaṭrāf al-mutaʕāqidaẗ, n.f., the contracting parties
    ʔaṭrāf al-nizāʕ, n.pl., the contending parties
    bi-ṭaraf…, prep., with, at, on the part or side of
    min ṭaraf…, prep., on the part of
    min ṭaraf ʔilà ṭaraf, adv., from one end to the other
    ʔaḥzāb ṭaraf al-yamīn, n.pl., the right-wing parties
    ǧāḏaba ʔaṭrāfa ’l-ḥadīṯ, vb. I, to talk, converse, have a conversation
    ǧamaʕa ’l-barāʕaẗ min ʔaṭrāfi-hā, vb. I, to be a highly efficient man, be highly qualified
    ǧamaʕa ʔaṭrāf al-šayʔ, vb. I, to give a survey or outline of s.th., summarize, sum up s.th.
    qaṣṣa ʕalay-hi ṭarafan (ʔaṭrāfan) min ḥayāẗi-hī, vb. I, to tell s.o. an episode (episodes) of one’s life
    ʔaṭrāf al-ḥawādiṯ, n.pl., episodic events, experiences at the margin of events
    yanquṣu ’l-ʔarḍ min ʔaṭrāfi-hā, expr., (God) will reduce the country’s boundaries, i.e., will diminish its power

    taṭarrafa, vb. V, to be on the extreme side, hold an extreme viewpoint or position, go to extremes, be radical, bare radical views: tD-stem, denom., in ClassAr still with the more general literal meaning ‘to become pointed, tapering, dender at the extremity’, but also already in the expr. ~ ʕalà ’l-qawm ‘to make a sudden, unexpected attack upon the territory or dwellings of the people’.

    ṭarafī, adj., being at the outermost extremity, standing out, projecting, prominent: nsb-adj.
    BP#2974taṭarruf, n., 1 excess, excessiveness, immoderation, extravagance; 2 extremism, extreme standpoint or position, radical attitude, radicalism: vn. V.
    BP#2713mutaṭarrif, adj., 1 utmost, outmost, farthest outward, located at the outermost point; 2 extreme, extremistic; 3 radical: PA V; 4 n., an extremist, a radical: nominalization of the preceding | ǧihaẗ ~aẗ, n.f., outlying district, outskirt(s) 
    ṭurfaẗ طُرْفة , pl. ṭuraf 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬRF 
    n.f. 
    1 novelty, rarity, curiosity, curio, rare object, choice item; 2 exquisite present; 3 masterpiece, chef-d’œuvre; 4 hit, high light, pièce de résistance – WehrCowan1979. 
    DRS keeps Ar ṭarufa ‘to be newly acquired, be a recent acquisition’ completely separate from other values of Sem *ṬRP. In contrast, in assigning the slightly different (and more original?) meaning ‘to be freshly plucked’ to the same vb., Klein1987 can group it together with Hbr and Aram words for ‘to seize, pluck’, which in turn go back to a CSem *ṬRP ‘to tear, pluck, seize’. For the author of the present entry (SG), this gives a rather plausible chain of semantic development: *‘to tear, pluck, seize > to be freshly plucked > to be fresh, new, novelty’. With this, Ar ṭarufa, ṭurfaẗ, etc. would not only be akin to ↗ṭarfāʔᵘ ‘tamarisk’ but also to other items going back to the same ancestor, particularly those based on ↗ṭaraf ‘utmost part, edge, extremity’ (which is from *< ‘to depasture the lateral parts of a pasturage < to graze < to pluck’).
    ▪ In contrast, traditional Ar lexicography tends to relate ‘novelty’ to ↗ṭarf ‘eye’, as *‘s.th. that strikes the eye’.
    ▪ There seems also to be some overlapping with ↗ẒRF. 
    ▪ ClassAr meanings: ‘newly-acquired property, anything that one has newly acquired, and that pleases, is strange and deemed good’, ‘s.th. newly found, gained, or acquired, hence s.th. strange, extraordinary, approved, deemed good (incl., e.g., information or tidings)’ – Lane. 
    DRS 10 (2012)#ṬRP-2 Ar ṭarufa ‘être d’acquisition récente; être nouveau, neuf, récent, frais’.
    ▪ Klein1987: Hbr ṭārap̄ ‘to tear to pieces, rend; to pluck’, Aram ṭᵊrap̄ ‘to tear, seize’, ṭᵊrêp̄â ‘torn animal, torn flesh’, Ar ṭarafa ‘to graze (said of a camel)’, ṭarufa ‘to be freshly plucked’; Hbr ṭārāp̄ ‘fresh-plucked’, hence also ‘fresh leaf’ and nHbr ‘leaf, blade’, Aram Syr ṭarpâ ‘fresh leaf’. 
    ▪ Cf. section CONC above. 
    – 
    ṭarufa u (ṭarāfaẗ), vb. I, to be newly acquired, be a recent acquisition: denom.?
    ʔaṭrafa, vb. IV, 1 to feature or tell s.th. new or novel, say s.th. new or original, introduce a novel angle or idea; 2 to present (s.o. bi‑ with s.th. new or novel), give (to s.o. bi‑ s.th. new or novel): Š-stem, denom.
    ĭstaṭrafa, vb. X, to value as rare, original, unusual: Št-stem, denom., evaluative.

    ṭarīf, adj., 1 curious, strange, odd; 2 novel, exquisite, singular, rare, uncommon: quasi-PP I.
    ṭarīfaẗ, pl. ṭarāʔifᵘ, n.f., 1 rare, exquisite thing; 2 uncommon object or piece (e.g., of art); 3 pl. ṭarāʔif, curiosities, oddities, uncommon qualities: nominalized f. of ṭarīf
    ṭarāfaẗ, n.f., 1 novelty, uncommonness, peculiarity, oddness, strangeness, curiosity, originality; 2 unusual new manner: vn. I.
    ʔaṭrafᵘ, adj., more curious or peculiar: elat.
    ʔuṭrūfaẗ, n.f., (Syr.) rare, exquisite work of art:… | ~ šiʕriyyaẗ, n.f., a masterpiece of poetry
    ṭārif, adj., newly acquired: quasi-PA I, from ṭarafa in the old (now obsol.) sense of *‘to hit the eye’, see ↗ṭarf.
    mustaṭraf, adj., considered as being unusual, exquisite, unique, prized as a valuable rarity: PP X.
     
    ṭarfāʔᵘ طَرْفاءُ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬRF 
    n.coll. (n.un. ‑aẗ
    tamarisk (bot.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Etymology obscure. Zimmern1914: 53 is probably right in assuming that Ar ṭarfāʔ and Akk ṭarpaʔ‑ (var. ṭarpiʔ‑, kind of tamarisk) are somehow related, but it remains unclear how precisely this would be the case, given that the Akk word may be a borrowing from a foreign language.
    ▪ Militarev&Stolbova2007 see Akk ṭarpaʔu together with Aram words for ‘leaf’. Adding to this juxtaposition that of Klein1987 who relates the Aram ‘leaf’ to the notion of ‘plucking’, one can be tempted to draw a line from CSem *ṬRP ‘to tear, pluck, seize’ to Hbr Aram ṭrp ‘to pluck’, to ‘(freshly plucked) leaf’, to ‘(certain type of tree,) tamarisk’. But the last shift of meaning in this chain would still remain difficult to be made plausible.
    ▪ In contrast, Kogan2011 reconstructs protSem *ṭarpaʔ‑ ‘kind of tree’.
    ▪ Any relation to other items of the root ↗ṬRF, such as ↗ṭarf ‘eye’, ↗ṭaraf ‘extremity, outermost part’, or ↗ṭurfaẗ ‘novelty’? 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 10 (2012) #ṬRP-9: Akk ṭarpaʔ- sorte de tamaris.
    ▪ (?) Klein1987: Hbr ṭārap̄ ‘to tear to pieces, rend; to pluck’, Aram ṭᵊrap̄ ‘to tear, seize’, ṭᵊrêp̄â ‘torn animal, torn flesh’, Ar ṭarafa ‘to graze (said of a camel)’, ṭarufa ‘to be freshly plucked’; Hbr ṭārāp̄ ‘fresh-plucked’, hence also ‘fresh leaf’ and nHbr ‘leaf, blade’, Aram Syr ṭarp̄â ‘fresh leaf’.
    ▪ Militarev&Stolbova2007 (in StarLing, Sem#1507): Akk ṭarpaʔu ‘a variety of tamarisk’, PalAram ṭrp, ṭrb, Syr ṭarp̄ā, UrmAram ṭarp, Mand a-ṭirp ‘leaf’. Outside Sem: (EChad) Bidiya tìrìp ‘kind of tree’. 
    ▪ Militarev&Stolbova2007 (in StarLing, Sem#1507) reconstruct protSem *ṭarpaʔ- ‘tamarind [sic!]; leaf’ and EChad *tirip- ‘kind of tree’, both from a hypothetical AfrAs *ṭarip- ‘tree’.
    ▪ For all other aspects see above, section CONC. 
    – 
    – 
    miṭraf مِطْرَف , var. muṭraf 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬRF 
    n. 
    shawl – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ The explanation, given by ClassAr lexicographers, that miṭraf is a ‘garment, square or four-sided, having ornamental or coloured or figured borders’ (Lane) connects the word with ↗ṭaraf ‘edge, extremity’, which seems plausible.
     
    ▪ Hava1899: ‘a square silk gown, adorned with figures’. 
    ṭaraf
    ṭaraf
    – 
    – 
    taṭarruf تَطَرُّف 
    ID 536 • Sw – • BP 2974 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬRF 
    n. 
    1 excess, excessiveness, immoderation, extravagance; 2 extremism, extreme standpoint or position, radical attitude, radicalism – WehrCowan1979. 
    Morphologically a vn. V, from taṭarrafa, vb. V, ‘to be on the extreme side, hold an extreme viewpoint or position, go to extremes, be radical, bare radical views’, tD-stem, denom., from ↗ṭaraf ‘utmost part, outermost point, extremity, end, tip, point, edge, fringe, limit, border’. 
    ▪ … 
    ṭaraf
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    mutaṭarrif مُتَطَرِّف 
    ID 537 • Sw – • BP 2713 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬRF 
    ¹adj.; ²n. 
    1 utmost, outmost, farthest outward, located at the outermost point; 2 extreme, extremistic; 3 radical; 4 n., an extremist, a radical: nominalization of the preceding – WehrCowan1979. 
    Morphologically a PA V, from taṭarrafa, vb. V, ‘to be on the extreme side, hold an extreme viewpoint or position, go to extremes, be radical, bare radical views’, tD-stem, denom., from ↗ṭaraf ‘utmost part, outermost point, extremity, end, tip, point, edge, fringe, limit, border’. 
    ▪ … 
    ṭaraf
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ǧihaẗ mutaṭarrifaẗ, n.f., outlying district, outskirt(s) 
    ṬRQ طرق 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬRQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṬRQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṬRQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṬRQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘road, way, method; to strike, knock, to divine (by knocking stones or shells together); to arrive at night; to happen; mating of cattle’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ṭarīq طَرِيق 
    ID 538 • Sw 85 • BP 115 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬRQ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ṭarīqaẗ طَرِيقَة 
    ID 539 • Sw – • BP 401 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬRQ 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ṬRW/Y طرو/ي 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 5Feb2023
    √ṬRW/Y 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṬRW/Y_1 ‘to be or become fresh, succulent, moist, tender, soft, mild ↗ṭaruwa / ṭariya
    ▪ ṬRW/Y_2 ‘to praise (highly), extol, laud, lavish praise (on s.o.)’ ↗ʔaṭrà
    ▪ ṬRW/Y_3 ‘vermicelli’ ↗ʔiṭriyaẗ

    Other values, now obsolete, include (BK1860, Lane v 1874, Hava1899):

    ṬRW/Y_4 ‘to come, arrive from afar’: ṭarā (u, ṭurūw); cf. also ṭariya (a, ṭaràⁿ) ‘to run up to; to come, pass near (ʔilà)’
    ṬRW/Y_5 ‘to have the belly swollen, suffer from indigestion’: ĭṭrawrà, vb. XII
    ṬRW/Y_6 ‘être surnaturel | spiritual being; création, créature qui par leur nombre immense échappent le calcul | numberless | the sorts of created things whereof the number cannot be reckoned’: ṭarāⁿ~ṭirāⁿ
    ṬRW/Y_ ‘…’:

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘all that is on the face of the Earth, all of creation; to come from far away; to be soft, tender, fresh, succulent; to praise’
     
    ▪ [v1] : widely attested in WSem, from protWSem *√ṬRY ‘to be fresh, raw’ – Kogan2015: 99 #63.
    ▪ [v2] : The value ‘to praise’ of the *Š-stem, ʔaṭrà, of ṭaruwa/ṭariya ‘to be fresh’, seems to be fig. use in the sense of *‘to freshen up (by seasoning), add spices, etc.’.
    ▪ [v3] : According to Fraenkel1886, Ar ʔiṭriyaẗ ‘vermicelli’ goes back to Aram ʔiṭrīn ‘id.’ (PayneSmith1903), from Grk ʰítria, pl. of ʰítrion ‘in Öl gebackene Pfannekuchen aus Mehl und Honig (Gemoll1965) | name of a cake, made from sesame and honey (usually pl.; Beekes2016)’, itself of unknown etymology, »probably a loanword« (ibid.).
    [v4] : Neither ṭarā (u, ṭurūw) ‘to come, arrive from afar’ nor ṭariya (a, ṭaràⁿ) ‘to run up to; to come, pass near (ʔilà)’ have obvious cognates in Sem or outside. Cf., however, DRS #ṬRY-2 where the authors report (see below, section COGN) that the compiler of a dictionary of SudAr thinks that SudAr ṭira ‘to mention, remind; to remember’ etc. are related to ṭarā (#ṬRW/Y-2) ‘to arrive’. But such a relation is far from obvious and looks rather doubtful.
    [v5] The vb. ĭṭrawrà, coined on the rare verbal pattern XII (ĭFʕawʕaLa) and meaning ‘to have the belly swollen, suffer from indigestion’, is of unknown origin.
    [v6] ṭarāⁿ ~ṭirāⁿ ‘supernatural\spiritual being; innumerable created things’: of obscure etymology.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    DRS #ṬRW/Y-1 Ug ṭry, Hbr ṭārī ‘frais, récent’, Syr ṭarūnā ‘frais, récent’, Ar ṭariya, ṭaruwa ‘être frais, nouveau’, Mhr ṭayri, Jib ṭeriʔ ‘être mouillé, humide, frais’, Mhr ṭəráy, Jib ṭeríʔ, Ḥrs ṭərīʔ ‘frais’, Gz Te ṭəray ‘cru, frais’, Tña ṭərä, Arg Gur ṭəre, Har ṭiri ‘cru’; Amh ṭəre ‘cru, non mûr, graine’ ; tout ce qui est naturel, inaltéré : par exemple ‘grain, viande fraîche’, Har ṭiri, Gur təri ‘cru, frais’. -2 Ar ṭarā ‘venir, arriver’
    ▪ ? DRS #ṬRY-1 TargAram ṭᵊrā ‘donner, négocier’, tᵊrītā ‘don’, Gz ʔaṭraya, Tña ʔaṭräya ‘acquérir, posséder’, Amh ṭärra ‘amasser de l’argent’, Gz Tña ṭərit ‘biens, possessions’.148 -2 SudAr ṭira ‘mentionner, rappeler; se rappeler’, ṭāri ‘fait de mentionner qn, de parler de lui’.149 -3 Amh ṭariya, ṭara, Gur ṭara ‘toit, plafond’

    ▪ [v1] Leslau2008 (CDG), Kogan2015: 99 #63 : Ug ṭry ‘fresh food’, Hbr ṭārī ‘fresh’, Syr ṭarrunā ‘recens’, Ar ṭarīy ‘fresh, juicy, moist’, Gz ṭəre, ṭərāy ‘raw, crude’, Te ṭəray ‘raw, fresh’, Tña Amh Arg Gur ṭəre, Har ṭiri ‘raw’, Mhr ṭáyri ‘to get wet, damp; to be fresh’, Jib ṭériʔ ‘to be damp, fresh’
    ▪ ? Leslau2008 (CDG): Aram ṭᵊrā (ṬRY) ‘to give, negotiate’, ṭᵊrīṯā ‘gift’, Gz ṭar(a)ya, ʔaṭraya ‘to possess, make possession, purchase, obtain, acquire’, Tña ʔaṭräyä ‘to acquire, gain possession’, ṭərit ‘wealth, possession’, Amh ṭärra ‘to amass money’, ṭərit ‘accumulation of property’
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ [v1] Kogan2015: 99 #63 : There is no direct parallel to protWSem *ṭry ‘to be fresh, raw’ in Akk, but cf. perhaps ṭeru ‘to extract, press out liquid; to ooze’.
    ▪ [v1] Should one compare ↗ṯaràⁿ ‘moist earth’ < NWSem *√ṮRY ‘to immerse, soak, steep, etc.; moist earth, moisture’?
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    ṭaruw‑ طَرُوَ , u, and ṭariy‑ طَرِيَ , a (ṭarāwaẗ
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 5Feb2023
    √ṬRW/Y 
    vb., I
     
    to be or become fresh, succulent, moist, tender, soft, mild – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ The Ar vb. belongs to a root that is widely attested in WSem. Kogan2015: 99 #63 reconstructs protWSem *√ṬRY ‘to be fresh, raw’.
    ▪ Should one also compare ↗ṯaràⁿ ‘moist earth’ < NWSem *√ṮRY ‘to immerse, soak, steep, etc.; moist earth, moisture’?
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ BK1860, Lane v 1874, Hava1899: ʔuṭruwān ‘freshness; first beginning of s.th.’
    ▪ …
     
    DRS #ṬRW/Y-1 Ug ṭry, Hbr ṭārī ‘frais, récent’, Syr ṭarūnā ‘frais, récent’, Ar ṭariya, ṭaruwa ‘être frais, nouveau’, Mhr ṭayri, Jib ṭeriʔ ‘être mouillé, humide, frais’, Mhr ṭəráy, Jib ṭeríʔ, Ḥrs ṭərīʔ ‘frais’, Gz Te ṭəray ‘cru, frais’, Tña ṭərä, Arg Gur ṭəre, Har ṭiri ‘cru’; Amh ṭəre ‘cru, non mûr, graine’ ; tout ce qui est naturel, inaltéré : par exemple ‘grain, viande fraîche’, Har ṭiri, Gur təri ‘cru, frais’. -2 […].
    ▪ Leslau2008 (CDG), Kogan2015: 99 #63 : Ug ṭry ‘fresh food’, Hbr ṭārī ‘fresh’, Syr ṭarrunā ‘recens’, Ar ṭarīy ‘fresh, juicy, moist’, Gz ṭəre, ṭərāy ‘raw, crude’, Te ṭəray ‘raw, fresh’, Tña Amh Arg Gur ṭəre, Har ṭiri ‘raw’, Mhr ṭáyri ‘to get wet, damp; to be fresh’, Jib ṭériʔ ‘to be damp, fresh’
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Kogan2015: 99 #63 : There is no direct parallel to protWSem *ṭry ‘to be fresh, raw’ in Akk, but cf. perhaps ṭeru ‘to extract, press out liquid; to ooze’. – ? Cf. also ↗√ṮRY ‘to soak; moisture’ ?
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ṭarrà, vb. II, 1a to make fresh, succulent, moist, tender, soft, mild; b to moisten, wet; 2 to perfume, scent: D-stem, caus.
    ʔaṭrà, vb. IV, to praise (highly), extol, laud, lavish praise (on s.o.): Š-stem, caus., fig. use (< *’to perfume, scent s.o.’)

    ṭarīy, adj., 1a fresh, succulent, new; b moist; c tender, soft, mild: quasi-PP I, adj. formation in FaʕīL
    ṭarāwaẗ, n.f., 1a freshness, succulence, moistness; b tenderness, softness, mildness: vn. I | ṭarāwaẗ al-ḫulq, gentleness; softness of character
    ʔiṭrāʔ, n., (high) commendation, praise, laudation, extolment: vn. IV

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔiṭriyaẗ as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ṬRW/Y.
     
    ʔaṭrà أَطْرَى (ʔiṭrāʔ
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 5Feb2023
    √ṬRW/Y 
    vb., IV
     
    to praise (highly), extol, laud, lavish praise (on s.o.) – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ *Š-stem, caus. of ↗ṭaruwa/ṭariya ‘to be fresh, tender, soft, mild’, prob. fig. use of the lit. meaning, developed along the line *‘to make fresh(er) > to perfume, scent > to describe with flowery, “fragrant” words > to praise, extol’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ↗ṭaruwa/ṭariya.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ʔiṭrāʔ, n., (high) commendation, praise, laudation, extolment: vn. IV

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ṭaruwa / ṭariya and ↗ʔiṭriyaẗ as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ṬRW/Y.
     
    ʔiṭriyaẗ إِطْرِيَة 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 5Feb2023
    √ṬRW/Y 
    n.f.
     
    vermicelli – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ According to Fraenkel1886, Ar ʔiṭriyaẗ ‘vermicelli’ goes back to Aram ʔiṭrīn ‘id.’ (PayneSmith1903), from Grk ʰítria, pl. of ʰítrion ‘in Öl gebackene Pfannekuchen aus Mehl und Honig (Gemoll1965) | name of a cake, made from sesame and honey (usually pl.; Beekes2016)’, itself of unknown origin, »probably a loanword« (ibid.).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ‘espèce de vermicelles cuits dans le jus (BK1860) | certain food (made by the people of Syria), like threads, made of flour or softened starch, called ġazl al-banāt in Egypt, [apparently similar to/identical with] ↗kunāfaẗ (Lane v 1874) | vermicelli, macaroni (Hava1899)’
     
    ▪ – (loanword)
     
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ṭaruwa / ṭariya and ↗ʔaṭrà, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ṬRW/Y. 
    ṬʕM طعم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬʕM 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṬʕM_1 ‘taste, to eat’ ↗ṭaʕima
    ▪ ṬʕM_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ṬʕM_3 ‘…’ ↗

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘food, nourishment; taste, to eat, to eat one’s fill, to taste, to find palatable’ 
    ▪ ṬʕM_1 : (Orel&Stolbova1994#2454:) from protSem *ṭ˅ʕam‑ ‘to taste, eat’ < AfrAs *ṭaʕam‑ ‘to taste, eat’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    … 
    ṭaʕim‑ طَعِمَ , a (ṭaʕm
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬʕM 
    vb., I 
    1 to eat; 2 to taste; 3 to relish, enjoy, savor – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2454: from protSem *ṭ˅ʕam‑ ‘to taste, eat’ < AfrAs *ṭaʕam‑ ‘to taste, eat’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘taste’) Akk ṭēmu ‘reason, intelligence’, Hbr ṭáʕam, Syr ṭaʕmā, Gz ṭāʕm.
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2454: Hbr ṭʕm, Aram ṭʕm, Gz ṭʕm, Jib ṭaʕam, Soq ṭaʕam, Ḥrs ṭām, Mhr ṭām, Šḥr ṭʕam). – Outside Sem: Saho ḍaʕam‑ ‘to taste’, Som ḍaʕan ‘taste’ (n.), Dhl ṯem‑ ‘to try, look at’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2454: protSem *ṭ˅ʕam‑ ‘to taste, eat’, protSA *ḍaʕam‑) ‘to taste’ protLEC *ḍaʕam‑) ‘taste’ (n.), Dhl ṯem‑ ‘to try, look at’, all from hypothetical AfrAs *ṭaʕam‑ ‘to taste, eat’.
    ▪ …
     
    … 
    ṭaʕʕama, vb. II, 1 to graft, engraft; 2 to inoculate, vaccinate; 3 to inlay (e.g., wood with ivory): D‑stem.
    ʔaṭʕama, vb. IV, 1 to feed, give to eat, nourish, serve food or drink to s.o.; 2 to have s.o. taste, relish or enjoy: *Š‑stem, caus.
    taṭaʕʕama, vb. V, 1 to taste; 2 (Eg) to be inoculated or vaccinated: Dt‑stem.
    ĭstaṭʕama, vb. X, 1 to taste; 2 to ask for food: *Št‑stem, desiderative.

    BP#2860ṭaʕm, pl. ṭuʕūm, n., 1a taste, flavor, savor; 1b pleasing flavor, relish.
    ṭaʕmiyyaẗ, n.f., (Eg) a dish made of broad beans pounded to a paste, mixed with garlic, parsley, leeks, etc., and fried as croquettes in boiling oil.
    ṭuʕm, n., 1 graft, cion; 2 bait, lure, decoy; 3 (pl. ṭuʕūm) vaccine | جر ل ǧurʕat al‑ṭuʕm, n.f., oral vaccination (med.).
    ṭaʕim, adj., tasty, savory, delicious.
    ṭuʕmaẗ, pl. ṭuʕam, n.f., 1 food; bait; 2 quarry, catch, bag.
    BP#1051ṭaʕām, pl. ʔaṭʕimaẗ, n., food, nourishment, fare, diet; meal, repast.
    BP#1823maṭʕam, pl. maṭāʕimᵘ, n., 1a eating house, restaurant; 1b dining room; 2 mess, messhall (on a ship): n.loc.; 3 food.
    taṭʕīm, n., 1 inoculation, vaccination; 2 grafting (bot.); 3 rejuvenation, regeneration (by taking in new elements); 4 inlay work: vn. II | لقر taṭʕīm al‑qarniyyaẗ, n., transplantation of the cornea (med.).
    ʔiṭʕām, n., feeding: vn. IV.
    maṭʕūm, adj., 1 tasted; 2 already known: PP I.
     
    ṬĠW/Y طغو/ي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Apr2023
    √ṬĠW/Y 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṬĠW/Y_1 ‘to exceed, be excessive; to be rough, tumultuous, rage (sea); flood, inundation, deluge; tyranny, oppression, repression’ ↗ṭaġā/ṭaġà/ṭaġiya, ‘tyrant, tyrannical’ ↗ṭāġiⁿ
    ▪ ṬĠW/Y_2 ‘an idol, a false god; seducer, tempter (to error)’ ↗ṭāġūt
    ▪ ṬĠW/Y_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘(of a liquid) to overflow, transgress, exceed the limits, be excessive, violate established norms, be tyrannical, tyranny’ 
    ▪ [gnrl][v1] Reliably attested in Aram and Ar, perh. Akk (though not as vb.al root there); from protSem *ṬĠW/Y ‘to exceed, transgress, go astray (?)’
    ▪ [v2] DRS 10 (2012) #ṬĠW/Y: Ar ṭāġūt (and Gz ṭāʕot) < Aram ṭāʕūtā ‘error, idol’. – BAH2008: »The word ṭāġūt, which is classified under this root, is recognised by al-Suyūṭī as a borrowing from Gz, meaning kāhin (‘diviner, priest’), while the majority of Ar philologists, however, consider it to be a genuine Ar word. Western scholars generally regard it as a loan from either Hbr or Aram.«
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ [gnrl] DRS 10 (2012) #ṬĠW/Y: Akk ṭāt ‘don pour corrompre, pot-de-vin’, Hbr hiṭʕāʰ ‘égarer’, nHbr ṭāʕūt, JudPalAram ṭāʕūtā ‘erreur, idole’, Palm ṭʕy ‘commettre une erreur’, ṭʕwn ‘erreur’, Syr ṭᵊʕā ‘se tromper, oublier, être séduit’, ʔaṭʕī ‘séduire, corrompre’, Mnd aṭa ‘séduire’, Ar ṭaġā ‘sortir des bornes, déborder; bouillonner (sang, mer)’, ṭāġiⁿ ‘qui sort des bornes; injuste, orgueilleux’; ṭāġūt ‘idole; démon; sorcier, magicien’, Gz ṭāʕot, Tña ṭaʕot, Te Amh ṭaʔot ‘idole’. | Le radical présente en Hbr une forme parallèle TʕW/Y. – D’après Wagner 61, Hbr < Aram.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ [gnrl] DRS 10 (2012) #ṬĠW/Y: Le radical présente en Hbr une forme parallèle TʕW/Y. – D’après Wagner 61, Hbr < Aram.
    ▪ See also above, section CONC. 
    – 
    – 
    ṭaġā / ṭaġaw- طَغا/طَغَوْــ , u,
    ṭaġà / ṭaġay- طَغَى/طَغَيْــ , a (ṭaġy), and
    ṭaġiya / ṭaġī- طَغِيَ/طَغِيــ , a (ṭaġaⁿ, ṭuġyān
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 12Apr2023
    √ṬĠW/Y 
    vb., I 
    1 to exceed proper bounds, overstep the bounds, be excessive; 2a to be rough, tumultuous, rage (sea); b to overflow, leave its banks (river); c to flood, overflow, inundate, deluge (ʕalà s.th.); 3 to overcome, seize, grip, befall (ʕalà s.o.); 4 to be tyrannical or cruel (ʕalà against s.o.), tyrannize, oppress, terrorize (ʕalà s.o.), ride roughshod (ʕalà over s.o.); 5 ṭaġà, a, to predominate, prevail, preponderate (ʕalà in, at), dominate, outweigh, outbalance (ʕalà s.th.), be preponderant (ʕalà over, in comparison with s.th.) – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ From protSem *ṬĠW/Y ‘to exceed, transgress, go astray’ (?)
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ eC7 ṭaġā 1 ([of water] to overflow, to be tumultuous) Q 69:11 ʔinnā lammā ṭaġà ’l-māʔu ḥamalnā-kum fī ’l-ǧāriyaẗi ‘when the water flooded We carried you in the sailing vessel’; 2 (to violate the established norms of justice) Q 55:8 ʔallā taṭġaw fī ’l-mīzāni ‘so that you do not transgress [the norms of justice] in weighing [judgement]’; 3 (to become tyrannical) Q 20:24 ’ḏhab ʔilà Firʕawna ʔinna-hū ṭaġà ‘go to Pharaoh, for he has truly become tyrannical’; 4 (to veer away, wander off, quit, go off the mark) Q 53:17 mā zāġa ’l-baṣaru wa-mā ṭaġà ‘[his] sight never wavered, nor did it wander’
    ▪ … 
    DRS 10 (2012) #ṬĠW/Y: Akk ṭāt ‘don pour corrompre, pot-de-vin’, Hbr hiṭʕāʰ ‘égarer’, nHbr ṭāʕūt, JudPalAram ṭāʕūtā ‘erreur, idole’, Palm ṭʕy ‘commettre une erreur’, ṭʕwn ‘erreur’, Syr ṭᵊʕā ‘se tromper, oublier, être séduit’, ʔaṭʕī ‘séduire, corrompre’, Mnd aṭa ‘séduire’, Ar ṭaġā ‘sortir des bornes, déborder; bouillonner (sang, mer)’, ṭāġiⁿ ‘qui sort des bornes; injuste, orgueilleux’; ṭāġūt ‘idole; démon; sorcier, magicien’, Gz ṭāʕot, Tña ṭaʕot, Te Amh ṭaʔot ‘idole’. | Le radical présente en Hbr une forme parallèle TʕW/Y. – D’après Wagner 61, Hbr < Aram.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ The Qur’ānic ↗ṭāġūt ‘idol, false god; seducer, tempter (to error)’ has, ultimately, the same Sem background, but must be considered an inner-Sem borrowing, via Aram.
    ▪ …
     
    ṭuġwān, n., flood, inundation, deluge
    ṭuġyān, n., 1 flood, inundation, deluge; 2 tyranny, oppression, suppression, repression, terrorization
    BP#3641ṭāġiⁿ, pl. ṭuġāẗ, n., tyrant, oppressor, despot
    BP#3806ṭāġiyaẗ, n.(m.), 1 tyrant, oppressor, despot; 2 bully, brute, gorilla
     
    ṭāġiⁿ طاغٍ , pl. ṭuġāẗ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP 3641 • APD … • © SG | 12Apr2023
    √ṬĠW/Y 
    n. 
    tyrant, oppressor, despot – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ nominalized PA I, from ↗ṭaġā/ṭaġà 
    ▪ ... 
    ▪ ↗ṭaġā/ṭaġà 
    ▪ See above, section CONC. 
    – 
    BP#3806ṭāġiyaẗ, n.(m.), 1 tyrant, oppressor, despot; 2 bully, brute, gorilla 
    ṭāġūt طاغوت 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 9Apr2023
    √ṬĠW/Y 
    n. 
    1 an idol, a false god; 2 seducer, tempter (to error) – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 (‘idolatry’) Q 2:256, 257; 4:51, 60, 76; 5:60; 16:36; 39:17. – 1 ([generic for] false deity/deities) Q 2:256 fa-man yakfur bi’l-ṭāġūti wa-yuʔmin bi’l-lāhi fa-qad-i ’stamsaka bi’l-ʕurwaẗi ’l-wuṯqà ‘so whoever rejects false gods and believes in God has taken grasp of the firmest link’; 2 ([generic for] evil powers; variously named by the interpreters as: the Devil, diviners, enchanters, any head or leader in error, the idol al-Lāt or Kaʕb b. al-ʔAšraf, a Jewish man who directed hostilities against the new religion) Q 4:60 yurīdūna ʔan yataḥākamū ʔilà ’l-ṭāġūti wa-qad ʔumirū ʔan yakfurū bi-hī ‘they desire to seek the arbitration of false idols (or, leaders of disbelievers) when they have been ordered to reject them?’ 
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »This curious word is used by Muḥammad to indicate an alternative to the worship of Allah, as Rāġib, Mufradāt, 307, recognizes. Men are warned to ‘serve Allah and avoid ṭāġūt’ (16:36, 39:17); those who disbelieve are said to fight in the way of ṭāġūt and have ṭāġūt as their patron (4:76; 2:257); some seek oracles from ṭāġūt (4:60), and the People of the Book are reproached because some of them, though they have a Revelation, yet believe in ṭāġūt (4:51, 5:60). / It is thus clearly a technical religious term, but the Commentators know nothing certain about it. From Ṭab. and Bagh. on ii, 257, we learn that some thought it meant al-šayṭān, others al-sāḥir or al-kāhin, others ʔawṯān or ʔaṣnām, and some thought it a name for al-Lāt and al-ʕUzzà. The general opinion, however, is that it is a genuine Ar word, a form FaʕLūt from ṭaġà ‘to go beyond the limit’ (LA, xix, 232; TA , x, 225, and Rāġib, op. cit.). This is plausible, but hardly satisfactory, and we learn from al-Suyūṭī, Itq, 322; Mutaw, 37, that some of the early authorities recognized it as a loan-word from Abyssinian. / Geiger, 56, sought its origin in the Rabbinic ṭāʕûṯ ‘error’ which is sometimes used for idols, as in the Jerusalem Talmud, Sanh, x, 28d , ʔwy l-km w-l-ṭʕwt-km ‘woe to you and to your idols’, and whose cognate ṭʕwtā is frequently used in the Targums for ‘idolatry’515 a meaning easily developed from the primary verbal meaning of ṭʕā ‘to go astray’ (cf. Hbr ṭāʕāʰ, Syr ṭᵊʕā, Ar ṭaġà). / Geiger has had many followers in this theory of a Jewish origin for ṭāġūt,516 but others have thought a Christian origin more probable. / Schwally, Idioticon, 38, points out that whereas in Edessene Syr the common form is ṭaʕyūtā meaning ‘error’, yet in the ChrPal dialect we find the form ṭᵊʕūtā,517 which gives quite as close an equivalent as the Targumic ṭāʕūṯā. The closest parallel, however, is the Eth [Gz] ṭāʕot from an unused verbal root ṭʕw (the equivalent of [Hbr] ṭāʕāʰ, Ar ṭaġà), which primitively means ‘defection from the true religion’, and then is used to name any superstitious beliefs, and also is a common word for ‘idols’, translating the [Grk] eídōla of both the LXX and N.T. It is probable, as Nöldeke, Neue Beiträge, 35, notes, that this word itself is ultimately derived from Aram, but we can be reasonably certain that al-Suyūṭī’s authorities were right in giving the Ar word an Abyssinian [Gz] origin.518 «
    ▪ ...
    ▪ ... 
    – 
    – 
    ṬFː (ṬFF) طفّ/طفف 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Apr2023
    √ ṬFː (ṬFF) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṬFː (ṬFF)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṬFː (ṬFF)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṬFː (ṬFF)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a small measure, trivial matter; to be deficient; to be miserly; to become near, become due’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṬFʔ طفأ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Apr2023
    √ṬFʔ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṬFʔ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṬFʔ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṬFʔ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘(of fire) to become extinguished’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṬFQ طفق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 6Apr2023
    √ṬFQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṬFQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṬFQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṬFQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to imitate; to commence, continue doing s.th.; to seize’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṬFL طفل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬFL 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṬFL_1 ‘infant, baby, child’ ↗ṭifl
    ▪ ṬFL_2 ‘tender, soft’ ↗ṭafl
    ▪ ṬFL_3 ‘clay, argil, loam’ ↗ṭufāl
    ▪ ṬFL_4 ‘uninvited guest, intruder, sponger, hanger-on, parasite’ ↗ṭufaylī

    Other values, now obsolete, include:
    • ṬFL_5 ‘time before sunset’: ṭafal ; cf. also vb. I ṭafala u (ṭufūl), IV ʔaṭfala ‘to be about to rise or set (sun)’ (Hava1899)

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘1 infant, baby, child, the young of animals in general; 2 to be of a tender age, be tender, soft; 3 to be with child; 4 (of the sun) to be about to rise or set’ 
    ▪ Out of the four main values listed in DRS for √ṬPL in Sem, three are represented in Ar where all of them have survived into MSA.
    ▪ As for relations inside the root, DRS mentions only that the Akk ṭapālu ‘to scorn, treat scornfully, with disrespect’ (DRS #ṬPL-1) may have to be seen together with DRS #ṬPL-2 (≙ ṬFL_3) where the basic notion seems to be that of ‘dirt, soil, mud, dust’. All other values are kept apart in DRS although they are (with the exception of ṬFL_4 ≙ DRS ṬPL#4?) perhaps related etymologically as well. The basic meaning of the root could be that of ‘softness, tenderness, smoothness’ (ṬFL_2 ) which is a quality of both ‘clay, argil, loam’ (ṬFL_3) and ‘infant, baby, child’ (ṬFL_1). However, it is also possible, and perh. even more likely (given the wider Sem evidence), that ‘soil, mud, dust’ is the basic value, whence (fig. use) the Akk ‘to treat scornfully’ (*like dirt), but also (more specifically) ‘clay, argil, loam’ (Ar ṬFL_3). From the latter may have developed the idea of ‘softness, tenderness, smoothness’ and, hence, also ‘infant, baby, child’.
     
    – 
    DRS 10 (2012)#ṬPL-1 Akk ṭapālu ‘insulter, mépriser, traiter sans respect, insulter’. ? -2 Hbr ṭāpal ‘enduire de’, JP ṭᵉpal ‘frotter de’, Syr ṭᵉfal ‘salir’, Ar ṭafila ‘être endommagé par la poussière (plante)’, ṭufāl ‘argile, boue’, Soq meṭfel ‘cavité’. -3 Syr ṭeflā ‘enfants’, Ar ṭifl, Mhr Ḥrs ṭāfəl, Jib ṭäfəl, Soq ṭafel ‘enfants en bas âge’, Te ʔaṭfal (pl.) ‘enfants’. -4 Ar taṭaffala ‘être pique-assiette’, ṭufaylī ‘pique-assiette‘.
     
    ▪ ṬFL_1 ṭifl ‘infant, baby, child’ : lit., *‘the tiny, soft, tender one’.
    ▪ ṬFL_2 ṭafl ‘tender, soft’ : represents perh. either the primary value from which most others are derived, or is in itself the result of a transfer of meaning from ṬFL_3 ṭufāl ‘clay, argil, loam’ (* > ‘the soft thing’ > ‘soft’).
    ▪ ṬFL_3 ṭufāl ‘clay, argil, loam’: cf. also ṭafāl ~ ṭufāl ‘dry mud’, vb. I ṭafila a (ṭafal) ‘to be(come) soiled by dust (herbage, plant)’, ṭafīl ‘turbid water remaining in a watering-trough, in the bottom of a tank’ (Lane, Hava1899). – The value can is perh. a specialisation from a more general *‘soil, mud, dust’ (see above). There may be some overlapping with ↗TFL and/or ↗ṮFL (MSA tufl, tufāl ‘spit, spittle, saliva’, tafil ‘ill-smelling, malodorous’, EgAr tifl ‘fibrous vegetable sediment, dregs’ ≙ MSA ṯufl ‘dregs, lees, sediment’).
    ▪ ṬFL_4 ṭufaylī ‘uninvited guest, parasite’: accord. to ClassAr lexicographers an eponymous nisba formation from the n.prop. Ṭufayl, a person who used to show up invited at weddings. – Should we, however, also compare ṬFL_5 ?
    ▪ ṬFL_5 ṭafal ‘time before sunset or sunrise’: any relation to ṬFL_2 ‘tender, soft’ (*‘period of the soft light’?) or to ṬFL_4 (sharing the notion of *‘intrusion’)? In the ClassAr vb. II ṭaffala both values overlap: ‘1 to intrude at a feast; 2 to come on (night); to be near setting (sun)’ (Hava1899). 
    – 
    – 
    ṭafl طَفْل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬFL 
    adj. 
    1 tender, soft; 2 n., ↗ṭufāl .
     
    ▪ One could imagine that the idea of ‘softness, tenderness, smoothness’ represents a/the basic meaning of the root ↗ṬFL and that from it, both ‘clay, argil, loam’ (↗ṭufāl) and ‘infant, baby, child’ (↗ṭifl) have developed. It is also possible, however, and perh. even more likely (given the wider Sem evidence), that ‘softness, tenderness, smoothness’ derives from *‘soil, mud, dust’, as represented in Syr ṭᵉfal ‘to soil’, Ar ṭafāl ~ ṭufāl ‘dry mud’, vb. I ṭafila a (ṭafal) ‘to be(come) soiled by dust (herbage, plant)’, ṭafīl ‘turbid water remaining in a watering-trough, in the bottom of a tank’ (Lane, Hava1899). 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ ? DRS 10 (2012)#ṬPL-2 Hbr ṭāpal ‘enduire de’, JP ṭᵉpal ‘frotter de’, Syr ṭᵉfal ‘salir’, Ar ṭafila ‘être endommagé par la poussière (plante)’, ṭufāl ‘argile, boue’, Soq meṭfel ‘cavité’. -3 Syr ṭeflā ‘enfants’, Ar ṭifl, Mhr Ḥrs ṭāfəl, Jib ṭäfəl, Soq ṭafel ‘enfants en bas âge’, Te ʔaṭfal (pl.) ‘enfants’. 
    ▪ Is ↗ṭifl ‘infant, baby, child’ dependent on ṭafl as, lit., *‘of tender ager, tiny, soft’.
    ▪ Is ↗ṭufāl ‘clay, argil, loam’ literally *‘the soft (material)’.
    ▪ Is there perh. also a connection to ClassAr ṭafal ‘time before sunset or sunrise’ (perh. *‘period of the soft light’)? 
    – 
    For other items of the root, cf. ↗ṭifl, ↗ṭufāl, ↗ṭufaylī, and, for the general picture, ↗ṬFL. 
    ṭifl, pl. ʔaṭfāl 
    ID 540 • Sw –/20 • BP 174 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬFL 
    n. 
    infant, baby, child – WehrCowan 1979. 
    ▪ Literally prob. *‘the tiny, soft, tender one’, cf. ↗ṭafl ‘tender, soft’.
     
    ▪ eC7 1 (used as a n. of the species: the child population, children, infants) Q 40:67 huwa ’llaḏī ḫalaqa-kum min turābin ṯumma min nuṭfatin ṯumma min ʕalaqatin ṯumma yuḫriǧu-kum ṭiflan ‘He it is who created you from dust, then from a drop of seed, then from a clinging mass, then He brought you forth as infants’. – 2 (child, infant, baby) Q 24:59 wa-ʔiḏā balaġa ’l-ʔaṭfālu min-kum-u ’l-ḥuluma fa-l-yastaʔḏinū ‘and when your children reach puberty, they should ask leave (to enter)’
    ▪ Hava1899: ṭafula, u (ṭufūlaẗ, ṭafālaẗ), vb. I, ‘to be in infancy, delicate’ 
    DRS 10 (2012)#ṬPL-3 Syr ṭeflā ‘enfants’, Ar ṭifl, Mhr Ḥrs ṭāfəl, Jib ṭäfəl, Soq ṭafel ‘enfants en bas âge’, Te ʔaṭfal (pl.) ‘enfants’.
    ▪ Zammit2002: Akk ṭāpalā(tu) ‘Erbin’,150 Hbr ṭap ‘children’, Aram ṭaplā ‘children, family, household’, Syr ṭapālā ‘infant’, Ar ṭifl ‘very young child, infant’, Gz ṭāf ‘infans, parvulus’ (? < Hbr) 
    ▪ See above, section CONC. 
    – 
    ṭiflaẗ, n.f., little girl: f. formation.
    ṭiflī, adj., 1 child (adj.), baby (adj.), children’s, of or pertaining to childhood or infancy; 2 infantile, childlike, childish: nsb-adj. | al-ṭibb al-~, n., pediatrics.
    ṭafal, n., 1 infancy, babyhood, early childhood; 2 childhood, childhood stage: quasi-vn. I.
    ṭafālaẗ, n.f., 1 infancy, babyhood, early childhood; 2 childhood, childhood stage; 3 initial stage, beginnings, dawn, early period: vn. I (of obsol. vb. I, ṭafula ‘to be in infancy’).
    ṭufūlaẗ, n.f., 1 infancy, babyhood, early childhood; 2 childhood, childhood stage: vn. I (of obsol. vb. I, ṭafula ‘to be in infancy’); 3 children: fig. use of [v1-2].
    ṭufūlī, adj., 1 child (adj.), baby (adj.), children’s, of or pertaining to childhood or infancy; 2 infantile, childlike, childish: nsb-adj., from ṭufūlaẗ.
    ṭufūliyyaẗ, n.f., 1 infancy, babyhood, early childhood; 2 childhood, childhood stage: abstr. formation in -iyyaẗ, from ṭufūlaẗ.

    For other items of the root, cf. ↗ṭafl, ↗ṭufāl, ↗ṭufaylī, and, for the general picture, ↗ṬFL. 
    ṭufāl طُفال 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬFL 
    n. 
    1 potter’s clay, argil; 2 clay, loam – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Prob. from *‘soil, mud, dust’ (not attested as such in Sem, but cf. Syr ṭᵉfal ‘to soil’, Ar ṭafila ‘to be covered with/soiled by dust’; a reflex—fig. use—may also be Akk ṭapālu ‘to scorn, treat scornfully, with disrespect’, i.e., *like dirt). 
    ▪ Lane, Hava1899: ṭafāl ~ ṭufāl ‘dry mud’, ṭafīl ‘turbid water remaining in a watering-trough, in the bottom of a tank’, ṭafila a (ṭafal) ‘to be covered with/soiled by dust (plant)’. 
    DRS 10 (2012)#ṬPL-2 Hbr ṭāpal ‘enduire de’, JP ṭᵉpal ‘frotter de’, Syr ṭᵉfal ‘salir’, Ar ṭafila ‘être endommagé par la poussière (plante)’, ṭufāl ‘argile, boue’, Soq meṭfel ‘cavité’. 
    ▪ ‘Clay, argil, loam’ may be one of the oldest values of the root ↗ṬFL (Sem *ṬPL), secondary only to *‘soil, mud, dust’. From here, the meaning of of ‘softness, tenderness, smoothness’ (↗ṭafl) may have developed, and from the latter the word for ‘infant, baby, child’ (↗ṭifl, lit. *‘of tender age’).
    ▪ There may be some overlapping with ↗TFL and/or ↗ṮFL (MSA tufl, tufāl ‘spit, spittle, saliva’, tafil ‘ill-smelling, malodorous’, EgAr tifl ‘fibrous vegetable sediment, dregs’ ≙ MSA ṯufl ‘dregs, lees, sediment’).
    ▪ Neither ↗ṭufaylī ‘uninvited guest, parasite’ nor ṭafal ‘time before sunset or sunrise’ seem to be related in any way. 
    – 
    For other items of the root, cf. ↗ṭafl, ↗ṭifl, ↗ṭufaylī, and, for the general picture, ↗ṬFL. 
    ṭufaylī طُفَيْليّ , pl. ‑ūn 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬFL 
    n. 
    1 uninvited guest, intruder, obtruder, sponger, hanger-on, parasite, sycophant; 2 f.pl. ṭufayliyyāt, parasites (med., biol.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ According to ClassAr lexicographers, the word is a nsb-adj. from the n.prop. Ṭufayl, »the name of a certain man of El-Koofeh [= al-Kūfaẗ;…] who used to intrude at feasts, uninvited, […] and who was called Ṭufayl al-ʔaʕrās and Ṭufayl al-ʕarāʔis [the Ṭufayl of the Weddings]«. 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 10 (2012)#ṬPL-4 Ar taṭaffala ‘être pique-assiette’, ṭufaylī ‘pique-assiette‘. 
    ▪ ClassAr lexicography notwithstanding, should we perh. nevertheless compare the obsol. ṭafal ‘time before sunset or sunrise’? ṭafal and ṭufaylī share the notion of *‘intrusion’… In the ClassAr vb. II ṭaffala both values even overlap: ‘1 to intrude at a feast; 2 to come on (night); to be near setting (sun)’ (Hava1899). 
    – 
    ʕilm al- ṭufayliyyāt, n., parasitology

    ṭaffala, vb. II, 1 to intrude, obtrude, impose o.s. (ʕalà upon); 2 to sponge (ʕalà on s.o., ʕalà māʔidaẗ X at s.o.’s table), live at other people’s expense: D-stem, denom. from ṭufaylī ?
    taṭaffala, vb. V, 1 = vb. II; 2 to arrive uninvited or at an inconvenient time, disturb, intrude; 3 to be obtrusive: tD-stem, denom. from ṭufaylī ?
    mutaṭaffil, adj., n., 1 parasitic(al); 2 parasite, sponger, uninvited guest: PA V.

    For other items of the root, cf. ↗ṭafl, ↗ṭifl, ↗ṭufāl, and, for the general picture, ↗ṬFL. 
    ṬQS طقس 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬQS 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṬQS_1 ‘weather, climate; rite, ritual’ ↗ṭaqs
    ▪ ṬQS_ ‘’ ↗

    BAH2008: Ø 
    From among the two values listed for the root ṬQS in DRS, only one is represented in Ar: ↗ṭaqs
    – 
    DRS 10 (2012)#ṬQS-1 Ar ṭaqs ‘rite, coutume; temps (qu’il fait)’. – 2 Gz ṭaqasa, Tña Har Gur ṭäqäsä, Amh ṭäqqäsä ‘montrer qn du doigt’, Gur ṭäqäsä ‘faire signe, faire un clin d’œil’ 
    ṭaqs
    – 
    – 
    ṭaqs طَقْس , pl. ṭuqūs 
    ID 541 • Sw – • BP 2657 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬQS 
    n. 
    1 weather; 2 climate; 3 pl. ṭuqūs, rite, ritual; 4 religious custom; 5 order of the ministry, clerical rank (Chr.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    DRS 10 (2012)#ṬQS-1: Without doubt via Aram ṭeksā ‘order’, from Grk táxis ‘arrangement, an arranging, the order or disposition of an army, battle array; order, regularity’.
    ▪ The values [v1] ‘weather’ and [v2] ‘climate’ derive from the original ‘order, arrangement’ as short for *‘order of nature’ (Syr ṭeksâ kᵉyānāyâ), while [v3] ‘rite, ritual’ and [v4] ‘religious custom’ are short for *‘arrangement of religious performance, liturgical order’; [v5] is the *‘monastic order’. 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 10 (2012)#ṬQS -1 Ar ṭaqs ‘rite, coutume; temps (qu’il fait)’. 
    ▪ Cf. also Rolland2014a (with the same etymology as in DRS), adding that Grk táxis belongs to the vb. táss-ein ‘to draw up in order of battle, form, array, marshal’, IE *tāg- ‘to set aright, set in order’. 
    ▪ From the same Grk etymon are western words like Engl taxi, taxis, hypo-, para-, chemotaxis, ataxia, taxeme, taxidermy, taximetre, taxonomy, tactics, etc. 
    ṭaqqasa, vb. II, to introduce into one of the orders of the ministry (Chr.): D-stem, denom., from [v5].
    taṭaqqasa, vb. V, to perform a rite, follow a ritual: Dt-stem, denom., from [v3].

    ṭaqsī, 1 adj., liturgical; 2 n., liturgist (Chr.); 3 pl. al-ṭaqsiyyāẗ, n.pl., the liturgical books (Chr.
    ṬLː (ṬLL) طلّ/طلل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 8Apr2023
    √ ṬLː (ṬLL) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṬLː (ṬLL)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṬLː (ṬLL)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṬLː (ṬLL)_3 ‘(King) Saul’ ↗ṭālūt (see alphabetically)

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘drizzle, dew; to moisten, to sprinkle; to come into view, to look down upon; good living; ruins’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṬLB طلب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬLB 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṬLB_1 ‘to look, search for, request, seek, try to obtain, ask, appeal to, order, demand, etc.’ ↗ṭalaba
    ▪ ṬLB_ ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to seek, set out, go after, pursue, request’ 
    ▪ According to DRS, the root ṬLB is attested in Sem with only one basic value. For this, Huehnergard2011 reconstructs (WSem) *ṬLB ‘to seek, request, claim’. 
    – 
    DRS 10 (2012)#ṬLB: Ar ṭalaba ‘chercher, rechercher, demander’, DaṯAr ṭalab, MġrAr ṭlab ‘mendier’, Mhr ṭəlub, Jib ṭolob, Ḥrs ṭēlōb ‘demander, réclamer’, Soq ṭlb ‘mendier’, SudAr ṭulbah ‘impôt (sur les troupeaux de nomades)’, Te ṭälbä ‘appeler; payer des impôts’, Tña ṭäläbä ‘demander, exiger’. 
    ▪ See above, section CONC, as well as ↗ṭalaba
    ▪ ↗ṭālib
    – 
    ṭalab‑ طَلَبَ , u (ṭalab , maṭlab
    ID 543 • Sw – • BP 457 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬLB 
    vb., I 
    1 to look, search (for s.o., for s.th.); 2 to set out (for a place), get one’s way (to), go to see (s.o., s.th.); 3 to request (s.th.), apply (s.o., s.th.); 4 to seek, try to obtain, claim (s.th., min from), ask, beg (min s.o. for); 5 to demand, exact, require (ʔilà of s.o. s.th.); 6 to want, wish (min s.th from; ʔilà s.o. ʔan to do s.th.); 7 to call (ʔilà upon s.o.), appeal (ʔilà to s.o.), invite, request, entreat, beseech (ʔilà s.o.); 8 to order, demand (min s.th. from), call (for s.th., min from), call in (s.th., min from); 9 to be after s.o. or s.th.; 10 to study – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Huehnergard2011: From WSem ṬLB ‘to seek, request, claim’. 
    ▪ eC7 (to pursue, go after) Q 7:54 yuġšī ’l-layla ’l-nahāra yaṭlubu-hū ḥaṯīṯan ‘He makes the night cover the day, pursuing it swiftly’.
    ▪ Cf. also ▪ eC7 ṭalab (searching for, prospecting) Q 18:41 ʔaw yuṣbiḥu māʔu-hā ġawran fa-lan tastaṭīʕu la-hū ṭalaban ‘or its water may sink so deep [into the ground] that you cannot search for it’. – ṭālib (one who pursues, seeks, petitions) and maṭlūb (one who is pursued, sought, petitioned) Q 22:73 wa-ʔin yaslub-hum-u ’l-ḏabābu šayʔan lā yastanqiḏū-hu min-hu ḍaʕufa ’l-ṭālibu wa’l-maṭlūbu ‘and if the flies rob them of something, they would not be able to retrieve it from them. Feeble are the petitioners and feeble are those they petition’. 
    DRS 10 (2012)#ṬLB: Ar ṭalaba ‘chercher, rechercher, demander’, DaṯAr ṭalab, MġrAr ṭlab ‘mendier’, Mhr ṭəlub, Jib ṭolob, Ḥrs ṭēlōb ‘demander, réclamer’, Soq ṭlb ‘mendier’, SudAr ṭulbah ‘impôt (sur les troupeaux de nomades)’, Te ṭälbä ‘appeler; payer des impôts’, Tña ṭäläbä ‘demander, exiger’.
    ▪ Zammit2002: Ug ṭlb ‘verlangen; sought’, Ar ṭalaba ‘to follow up; search for’ 
    ▪ Huehnergard2011: from WSem ṬLB ‘to seek, request, claim’. 
    ▪ Engl Taliban, »Sunni fundamentalist movement begun in Afghanistan«, Pashto pl. of Ar ṭālib ‘seeker, student’, so called because it originated among students in Pakistani religious schools; group formed c. 1993. Often incorrectly treated as sg. in Engl. 
    BP#774ṭālaba, vb. III, 1 to demand back, reclaim (bi‑ or DO, s.th. from s.o., s.th.); 2 call for the return or restitution of s.th. (bi‑ orDO), demand, claim (bi‑ or DO, from s.o., s.th.); 3 to demand, claim (bi‑ s.th): L-stem.
    BP#1572taṭallaba, vb. V, to require, necessitate, make necessary or requisite (s.th.): tD-stem.
    ĭnṭalaba, vb. VII, pass. of I: n-stem.

    BP#575ṭalab, n., 1 fold search, quest, pursuit. – (pl. ‑āt) 2 demand, claim, call (for), invitation (to), solicitation, wish, desire, request, entreaty; 3 application, petition; 4 order, commission; 5 demand (com.); 6 study : vn. I and lexicalisations.| taḥt ~i-hī, expr., at s.o.’s disposal; ʕinda ~ and ladà ~, expr., on demand, by request, if desired, on application; li-ḥīni ’l-~, expr., at sight (com.); al-ʕarḍ wa’l-~, n., supply and demand; ~ al-ʕilm, expr., quest of knowledge, craving for knowledge, studiousness; ~ ʕadam al-ṯiqaẗ, expr., motion of ‘no confidence’.
    ṭalbaẗ, n.f., litany, prayer (Chr.):.
    ṭalibaẗ, var. ṭilbaẗ, n.f., 1 desire, wish, request, demand; 2 application: quasi n.un.
    ṭalabiyyaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., order, commission (com.): abstr. formation in ‑iyyaẗ.
    ṭalāb, n., exacting, persistently claiming or demanding: quasi-vn. I.
    BP#1841maṭlab, n., 1 search, quest, pursuit; 2 pl. maṭālibᵘ, n., demand, call (for); 3 request, wish; 4 claim; 5 problem, issue; 6 pl. maṭālibᵘ, n., (claims of the government), taxes: n.loc.
    BP#2324muṭālabaẗ, n.f., 1 demand; 2 call, appeal (with genit. or bi‑ for); 3 claim (with genit. or bi‑ to): lexicalized vn. III.
    BP#270ṭālib, pl. ṭullāb, var. ṭalabaẗ, n., 1 seeker, pursuer; 2 claimer, claimant; 3 applicant, petitioner; 3 candidate; 4 student, scholar, also ~ al-ʕilm; 5 pupil; 6 a naval rank, approx.: midshipman (Eg. 1939): PA, I. | ~ mumtāz, n., a naval rank, approx.: ensign (Eg. 1939); ṭullāb al-ḥāǧāt, n., petitioners; ~ al-zawāǧ, n., suitor.
    BP#3788ṭālibī and ṭullābī adj., student’s, student- (in compounds), of or pertaining to studies or students: nsb-formation from ṭālib and pl. ṭullāb, respectively.
    BP#802maṭlūb, adj., 1 wanted (in classified ads); 2 due, owed (money); 3 unknown (of a quantity; math.); 4 (pl. maṭālībᵘ), n., wish, desire; 5 (pl. maṭlūbāt), n., liabilities, debts; 6 (pl. maṭālībᵘ), n., claims: PP I.
    BP#2792muṭālib, n., claimer, claimant: PA III.
    muṭālab, n., one of whom s.th. or s.o. is demanded, one accountable (bi‑ for), held answerable (bi‑ for): PP III.
    BP#2559mutaṭallabāt, f.pl., requirements: PP V, f.pl. 
    ṭālib طالِب , pl. ṭullāb , var. ṭalabaẗ 
    ID 542 • Sw – • BP 270 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬLB 
    n. 
    1 seeker, pursuer; 2 claimer, claimant; 3 applicant, petitioner; 3 candidate; 4 student, scholar, also ~ al-ʕilm ; 5 pupil; 6 a naval rank, approx.: midshipman (Eg. 1939)– WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Grammatically a PA I meaning ‘seeking’, from vb. I, ↗ṭalaba ‘to seek, request, claim’, the word is now mostly lexicalized as a noun. 
    ▪ eC7 (one who pursues, seeks, petitions) Q 22:73 wa-ʔin yaslub-hum-u ’l-ḏabābu šayʔan lā yastanqiḏū-hu min-hu ḍaʕufa ’l-ṭālibu wa’l-maṭlūbu ‘and if the flies rob them of something, they would not be able to retrieve it from them. Feeble are the petitioners and feeble are those they petition’. 
    ▪ ↗ṭalaba
    ṭalaba.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl Taliban, »Sunni fundamentalist movement begun in Afghanistan«, Pashto pl. of Ar ṭālib ‘seeker, student’, so called because it originated among students in Pakistani religious schools; group formed c. 1993. Often incorrectly treated as sg. in Engl. 
    ṭālib mumtāz, n., a naval rank, approx.: ensign (Eg. 1939)
    ṭullāb al-ḥāǧāt, n., petitioners; ~ al-zawāǧ, n., suitor.

    BP#3788ṭālibī and ṭullābī adj., student’s, student- (in compounds), of or pertaining to studies or students: nsb-formation from ṭālib and pl. ṭullāb, respectively.
     
    ṬLḤ طلح 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 8Apr2023
    √ṬLḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṬLḤ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṬLḤ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṬLḤ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘acacia plantation or banana tree; to be(come) bad, wicked, evil, depraved; to become tired’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṬLʕ طلع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 8Apr2023
    √ṬLʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṬLʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṬLʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṬLʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘spadix or inflorescence of the palm tree, pollen; to ascend, rise, come up, come into view, emerge, break forth; to become acquainted with, inspect, become aware; to consult’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṬLQ طلق 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬLQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṬLQ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ṬLQ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be free, to free, to let go, to set off, to set out, to bring forth shoots; to be generous; to divorce’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ṭalāq طَلاق 
    ID 544 • Sw – • BP 2616 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬLQ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
     
    ṬMː (ṬMM) طمّ/طمم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9Apr2023
    √ ṬMː (ṬMM) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṬMː (ṬMM)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṬMː (ṬMM)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṬMː (ṬMM)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to overflow, flood, inundate, engulf; the deep sea, the multitude; calamity’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṬMʔN طمأن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬMʔN 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṬMʔN_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ṬMʔN_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008, s.r. ṬMN): ‘lowland; to calm, to soothe, to rest, to be peacefully quiet, tranquillity; to stoop’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    muṭmaʔinn مُطْمَئِنّ 
    ID 545 • Sw – • BP 4076 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬMʔN 
    adj. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ṬMṮ طمث 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9Apr2023
    √ṬMṮ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṬMṮ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṬMṮ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṬMṮ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to place a halter on a horse or camel for the first time, to graze a piece of land for the first time; to deflower; to menstruate’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṬMS طمس 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9Apr2023
    √ṬMS 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṬMS_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṬMS_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṬMS_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be effaced, be obliterated, be blotted out, wiped out; to go far; to reckon’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṬMʕ طمع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9Apr2023
    √ṬMʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṬMʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṬMʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṬMʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to hope, desire, crave; to expect; to covet; greed’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṬHR طهر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9Apr2023
    √ṬHR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṬHR_1 ‘to make clean, make pure’ ↗ṭahara
    ▪ ṬHR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṬHR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be clean, be pure, be ritually cleansed, perform the ritual ablution for prayers, be free of menstruation, purify one’s heart; to circumcise’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṭahara طَهَرَ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Jun2023
    √ṬHR
     
    vb., I 
    to make clean or pure – Jeffery1938 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Occurs very frequently in the Q, e.g. iii, 37; v, 45 – Jeffery1938.
     
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »The root itself is genuine Arabic, and may be compared with Aram ṭhar ‘to be clean’, ṭyhrʔ, Syr ṭyhrā ‘brightness’, Hbr ṭāhar ‘to be clean, pure’; the SAr ṭhr in Hal, 682 (Rossini, Glossarium, 159), and the Ras Shamra ṭhr.
    In its technical sense of ‘to make religiously pure’, however, there can be little doubt that it, like the Eth [Gz] ʔaṭhara and taṭāhara (Nöldeke, Neue Beiträge, 36), has been influenced by Jewish usage. It will be remembered that [Hbr] ṭhr is used frequently in Leviticus for ‘ceremonial cleanness’, and particularly in Ezekiel for ‘moral cleanliness’. Similar is its use in the Rabbinic writings, and in late passages Muḥammad’s use of the word is sometimes strikingly parallel to Rabbinic usage.«
     
    – 
    – 
    ṬWD طود 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9Apr2023
    √ṬWD 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṬWD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṬWD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṬWD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a great mountain; to be firm; to travel far and wide; to strive to earn a living’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṬWR طور 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9Apr2023
    √ṬWR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṬWR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṬWR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṬWR_3 ‘mountains, Mt. Sinai’ ↗ṭūr

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘mountain, rock; boundaries, limitation; state, stage; to parallel; to approach; (of animals and people) to be wild’. 
    ▪ BAH2008: »It has been suggested by some philologists that ṭūr ‘mountains’ is a borrowing from Syr or possibly Nab.«
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṭūr طُور 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Jun2023
    √ṬWR
     
    n.topon. 
    Mt. Sinai – Jeffery1938 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q ii, 60, 87; iv, 153; xix, 53; xx, 82; xxiii, 20; xxviii, 29, 46; lii, 1; xcv, 2 – Jeffery1938.
     
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »Twice it is expressly coupled with sīnāʔ, and except in lii, 1, where it might mean ‘mountain’ in general, it is used only in connection with the experiences of the Israelites at Sinai.519 / It was early recognized by the philologers as a foreign word. al-Ǧawālīqī, Muʕarrab, 100; Ibn Qutayba, Adab al-Kātib, 527; al-Suyūṭī, Muzhir, i, 130; and Bayḍ. on lii, 1, give it as a Syr word, though others, as we learn from al-Suyūṭī, Itq, 322, thought that it was a Nabataean word. / Hbr ṣûr = [Grk] pétra, from meaning a ‘single rock, boulder’, comes to have the sense of ‘cliff’, and Aram ṭwrʔ is a ‘mountain’. So in the Targums ṭwrʔ d-syny is ‘Mt. Sinai’,520 but the ṭūr sīnāʔ of the Qurʔān is obviously the Syr ṭūr sīnāy which occurs beside ṭūrā d-sīnāy.521 «
     
    – 
    – 
    ṬWʕ طوع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9Apr2023
    √ṬWʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṬWʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṬWʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ṬWʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to obey, be amenable, be subservient, submit to, volunteer, be able to do’ 
    ▪ From CSem *√ṬWʕ ‘to obey’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ṬWF طوف 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬWF 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṬWF_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ṬWF_2 ‘the Deluge’ ↗ṭūfān
    ▪ ṬWF_3 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008, s.r. Ṭw/yF): ‘apparition, phantom, spectre; to go about, to walk about, to roam about; to circulate; to encompass, to circuit; to appear in one’s dream; to be touched by the devil; group of people, flood; raft’ 
    ▪ It has been suggested that the derivative ṭūfān is a pre-Islamic borrowing from either Hbr or Syr. The overlap between the derivatives of the root ṬWF and ṬYF is such that it is impractical to attempt to separate what belongs to either – BAH2008 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
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    – 
    – 
    ṭāʔifaẗ طائِفَة 
    ID 546 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 1907 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬWF 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ṭāʔifiyyaẗ طائِفِيَّة 
    ID 547 • Sw – • BP 3980 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬWF 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ṭūfān طُوفان 
    ID 548 • Sw – • BP 5152 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last update 3Jun2023
    √ṬWF 
    n. 
    ▪ the Deluge – Jeffery1938
    ▪ … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q vii, 130; xxix, 13 – Jeffery1938.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »The Commentators did not know what to make of it. Ṭab. tells us that some took it to mean ‘water’, others ‘death’, others ‘a torrent of rain’, others ‘a great storm’,522 and so on, and from Zam. we learn that yet others thought it meant ‘smallpox’, or the ‘rinderpest’ or a ‘plague of boils’. / Fraenkel, Vocab, 22, recognized that it was the Rabbinic ṭwpnʔ which is used, e.g., by Onkelos in Gen. vii, and which occurs in the Talmud in connection with Noah’s story (Sanh. 96a). Fraenkel’s theory has been generally accepted,523 but we find ṭwpʔnyʔ in Mandaean meaning ‘deluge’ in general (Nöldeke, Mand. Gramm., 22, 136, 309),524 and Syr ṭūpānā is used of Noah’s flood in Gen. vi, 17, and translates kataklusmós in the N.T., so that Mingana, Syr Influence, 86, would derive the Arabic word from a Christian source.
    The flood story was known before Muḥammad’s time, and we find the word ṭūfān used in connection therewith in verses of al-ʔAʕshà and ʔUmayya b. ʔAbī ṣ-Ṣalt,525 but it is hardly possible to decide whether it came into Arabic from a Jewish or a Christian source.«
    ▪ …
     
    – 
     
    ṬWQ طوق 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬWQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṬWQ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ṬWQ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘neckband, tore, collar, loop, circle, to encircle, to encompass; ability, power, capacity, to be capable of, to be able, to bear’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl pataca, from Ar ʔabū ṭāqaẗ ‘father of a window’, from Ar ʔabū, bound form of ʔab ‘father’, and ṭāqaẗ ‘window’, from ṭāqa, vb. I, ‘to be able, be capable, sustain’, in D-stem ṭawwaqa, vb. II, ‘to surround, enclose’. The name of the coin, ʔabū ṭāqaẗ ‘father of a window’, derives from a scene on early piasters picturing the columns of Hercules, mistaken for windows. – czardas, from Ar ṭāq ‘arch’.↗ 
    – 
    ṭawq طَوْق 
    ID 549 • Sw – • BP 5090 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬWQ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
     
    ṬWL طول 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬWL 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṬWL_1 ‘(to be) long, length; to extend, reach; (to have) power, ability, means’ ↗ṭāla, ↗ṭūl, ↗ṭawl
    ▪ ṬWL_2 ‘long-legged waterfowl’ ↗ṭuwwal
    ▪ ṬWL_3 ‘vengeance, revenge, retribution, retaliation; enmity, rancour’ ↗ṭāʔilaẗ ▪ ṬWL_4 ‘stable’ ↗ṭuwālaẗ
    ▪ ṬWL_5 ‘table’ ↗ṭāwilaẗ
    Other items, now obsolete, include
    • ṬWL_6 ‘long rope, tether’: ṭiwal(l) ~ ṭiyal

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘length, tallness, to grow long, tall, to lengthen, be elongated; long rope; power, ability, means; to overcome, outdo; to outlast’ 
    ▪ ṬWL_1-3 and ṬWL_6 form one etymological unit, going back to (W)Sem *ṬWL ‘to be long, extend, stretch out’. The value ‘(to have) power, ability, means’ a secondary development (fig. use) and an Ar specificity within Sem.
    ▪ ṬWL_2 ṭuwwal ‘long-legged waterfowl’ : prob. so called because of its long legs, i.e., dependent on ṬWL_1.
    ▪ ṬWL_3 ṭāʔilaẗ ‘vengeance, revenge, retribution, retaliation’, in ClassAr also ‘enmity, rancour’ : a PA f. from ṬWL_1, lit. *‘s.th. that reaches far’. Semantics not satisfactorily clear.
    ▪ ṬWL_4 ṭuwālaẗ ‘stable’ : perh. a confusion of an extended use of ṬWL_6 (*‘rope, tether with which horses are tied together’ > ‘place where such horses are kept’?) and a borrowing (via Grk stávla ?) from Lat stabulum.
    ▪ ṬWL_5 ṭāwilaẗ ‘table’ : from It tavola (< Lat tabula).
    ▪ ṬWL_6 ṭiwal(l) ~ ṭiyal ‘long rope, tether’ : belonging to the complex of ṬWL_1 ‘to be long, extend, stretch out’ 
    – 
    For ṬWL_1-3, (ṬWL_4 ?) and ṬWL_6, cf.
    DRS 10 (2012)#ṬW/YL: Hbr hēṭīl ‘jeter au loin’, Syr ṭayyēl ‘se promener; circuler à cheval’, Ar ṭāla ‘être long; durer longtemps’, ṭawl ‘longueur’, Sab hṭl ‘s’étendre’, ṭl ‘longueur’, EthSar ṭl ‘durer longtemps’, Mhr ṭōl, Jib ṭol, Ḥrs ṭawl ‘longueur’, Mhr ʔaṭwīl, Ḥrs aṭwōl ‘prolonger’, Jib etyél ‘compter sur qc de bon dans le futur’, Te ṭäwwäla ‘allonger’
    ▪ Militarev2006#3042: Hbr ṭwl (hif) ‘to throw far’, SAr (Sab) ṭl ‘length’, Ar ṭwl ‘être long, s’étendre en longueur’, ṭawīl ‘long’, LebAr ṭawil, Mec ṭawiyl, Malt twīl ‘long’, Te ṭawwala ‘to extend’, Mhr ṭǝwīl, Ḥrs ṭewīl ‘long’
    ▪ Zammit2002: Hbr ṭūl (pilp.) ‘to hurl, cast’, (hif.) ‘to cast, cast out (javelin)’, nHbr (pi.) ‘to walk about, be at leisure, enjoy o.s.’, Aram ṭayyēl ‘to walk about; to drive off, send away’, Syr ṭayel ‘to walk to and fro’, SAr ṭwl ‘to extend, lengthen (lifespan)’, Ar ṭāla ‘to be long, last long, be prolonged’
     
    ▪ ṬWL_1-3,6: Militarev2006#3042 reconstructs Sem *ṬWL ‘to be long’. The Mhr and Ḥrs cognates given by Militarev himself are said to be prob. from Ar; but cf. the other forms in these langs given in DRS.
    ▪ ṬWL_1-3,6: Dolgopolsky2012#2382 thinks that Sem *ṬWL has a cognate in Eg dwn (Copt tōoun) ‘(intr.) to be stretched out; (tr.) to stretch out, stretch (bows), straighten (knees)’, and that the AfrAs forms, together with non-AfrAs correspondences, ultimately go back to Nostr *ṭoʔan̄˅ (= * ṭoʔan̄ū ??) ‘to draw, stretch, extend’. If this is correct then Sem *ṬWL may even be akin to Grk teín-ein ‘to stretch (by force), stretch to the uttermost, spannen’ (tetanós ‘stretched, rigid; straightened, smooth’, tétanos ‘convulsive tension, tetanus; erectio penis’), Lat tend-ere ‘to stretch, stretch out, extend, spread’, oNo Þenja ‘ausspannen, ausstrecken’, oHGe dennen ‘to extend, tense, pull’, nHGe dehnen, aus-dehnen ‘to stretch, extend’, from IE *ten- (?), *tenu- ‘to draw, stretch, extend’ (Skr tanōti ‘expands, extends, spreads’, Av ustāna ‘stretched out’).
    ▪ ṬWL_4 : cf. ↗ṭawālaẗ.
    ▪ ṬWL_5 : cf. ↗ṭāwilaẗ
    ▪ ṬWL_5 : cf. ↗ṭāwilaẗ
    – 
    ṭāl‑ طالَ / طُـِلْـ
    • A ṭāl‑ / ṭul‑ , u (ṭūl)
    • B ṭāl‑ / ṭil‑ , a (ṭawl
    ID … • Sw … • BP 1284 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬWL 
    vb., I 
    I 1 to be or become long; 2 to last long; 3 to lengthen, grow longer, extend, be protracted, become drawn out; 4 to surpass, excel (ʕalà or s.o.); 5 to extend (ʔilà to)
    II 1 to reach, catch, get hold of (DO); 2 to have power over (DO) 
    ▪ From (W)Sem *ṬWL ‘to be long, extend, stretch out’. [A] is usually treated as *ṭawula, while [B] is considered to be *ṭawila.
    ▪ [vB2] ‘(to have) power, ability, means’ is a secondary development (fig. use) and an Ar specificity within Sem. 
    ▪ eC7 ṭāla 1 (to become drawn out, be protracted) Q 21:44 bal mattaʕnā hāʔulāʔi wa-ʔābāʔa-hum ḥattà ṭāla ʕalay-him-u ’l-ʕumuru ‘indeed, We have granted these and their forefathers power and longevity so that life has become extended for them’; 2 (to become part of the distant past [experiences, events]; to seem long) Q 20:86 ʔa-fa-ṭāla ʕalay-kum-u ’l-ʕahdu ‘did the time of the Covenant seem too long for you? [also interpreted as: has it been too long since you received God’s assistance, or: since I [Moses] have been among you?]’
    ▪ eC7 taṭāwala (to become too, or very, prolonged, become very extended) Q 28:45 wa-lākin-nā ʔanšaʔnā qurūnan fa-taṭāwala ʕalay-him-u ’l-ʕumuru ‘but We have brought forth generations and time dragged on for them’
    ▪ See also ↗ṭawl, ↗ṭūl, ↗ṭawīl
    DRS 10 (2012)#ṬW/YL: Hbr hēṭīl ‘jeter au loin’, Syr ṭayyēl ‘se promener; circuler à cheval’, Ar ṭāla ‘être long; durer longtemps’, ṭawl ‘longueur’, Sab hṭl ‘s’étendre’, ṭl ‘longueur’, EthSar ṭl ‘durer longtemps’, Mhr ṭōl, Jib ṭol, Ḥrs ṭawl ‘longueur’, Mhr ʔaṭwīl, Ḥrs aṭwōl ‘prolonger’, Jib etyél ‘compter sur qc de bon dans le futur’, Te ṭäwwäla ‘allonger’
    ▪ Militarev2006#3042: Hbr ṭwl (hif) ‘to throw far’, SAr (Sab) ṭl ‘length’, Ar ṭwl ‘être long, s’étendre en longueur’, ṭawīl ‘long’, LebAr ṭawil, Mec ṭawiyl, Malt twīl ‘long’, Te ṭawwala ‘to extend’, Mhr ṭǝwīl, Ḥrs ṭewīl ‘long’
    ▪ Zammit2002: Hbr ṭūl (pilp.) ‘to hurl, cast’, (hif.) ‘to cast, cast out (javelin)’, nHbr (pi.) ‘to walk about, be at leisure, enjoy o.s.’, Aram ṭayyēl ‘to walk about; to drive off, send away’, Syr ṭayel ‘to walk to and fro’, SAr ṭwl ‘to extend, lengthen (lifespan)’, Ar ṭāla ‘to be long, last long, be prolonged’
     
    ▪ Militarev2006#3042 reconstructs Sem *ṬWL ‘to be long’. The Mhr and Ḥrs cognates given by Militarev himself are said to be prob. from Ar; but cf. the other forms in these langs given in DRS.
    ▪ Dolgopolsky2012#2382 thinks that Sem *ṬWL has a cognate in Eg dwn (Copt tōoun) ‘(intr.) to be stretched out; (tr.) to stretch out, stretch (bows), straighten (knees)’, cf. DISC in ↗ṬWL.
    ▪ The vb. should perh. better be treated as denom., in which case we would have two etyma: ↗ṭawl (giving ṭāla B) and ↗ṭūl (giving ṭāla A). 
    – 
    ṭāla bi-hī ’l-zaman ḥattà, expr., it took a long time before he…
    yaṭūlu bī hāḏā, expr., this will (would) take me too long
    ṭāla ’l-zamānu ʔaw qaṣura, expr., sooner or later, before long
    lam yaṭul bi-hī ’l-maqāmu ḥattà, expr., he hadn’t been there very long when…
    lā taṭūlu yad-ī ʔilay-hi, expr., my hand can’t reach that far, i.e., I have no control over it, it isn’t possible for me
    law ṭālat-ka yad-ī, expr., if I could get hold of you

    BP#4073ṭawwala, vb. II, 1 to make long or longer, lengthen, elongate, stretch out, prolong, extend, protract (s.th.): D-stem, caus.; 2 to be very elaborate, very detailed, very exhaustive, longwinded, prolix: D-stem, denom., from ↗ṭawīl; 3 to grant a delay or respite (li‑ to s.o.): D-stem, caus., fig. use (*to extend the deadline for s.o.) | ~ bāla-hū ʕalay-hi, vb., to be patient with.
    ṭāwala, vb. III, 1 to keep putting off (s.o., in or with s.th.); 2 to vie for power, greatness or stature, contend, compete (DO with s.o.), rival, emulate (s.o.): L-stem, assoc. (*‘to compete with s.o. in tallness or in how far one’s influence reaches’).
    ʔaṭāla, vb. IV, 1 to make long or longer, lengthen, elongate, stretch out, extend, prolong, protract, draw out (DO or min s.th.): Š-stem, caus.; 2 to take too long, find no end: Š-stem, denom. from ↗ṭawīl | ~ ʕalay-hi, vb., to keep s.o. waiting a long time; ~ lisāna-hū, to speak in a forward manner, be pert, saucy, insolent in speech; ~ al-naẓar ʔilay-hi, expr., he kept staring at him; ~ al-wuqūf, expr., he stayed a long time; ~ fī ’l-mawḍūʕ, expr., to dwell, expatiate on the subject.
    taṭāwala, vb. VI, 1 to become long, be lengthened, be extended, be prolonged; 2 to stretch up, stretch o.s.; 3 to stretch (ʔilà for), crane one’s neck (ʔilà at): [v1-3] tL-stem, intr., perh. denom. from ↗ṭawīl; 4 to attack (ʕalà s.o.); 5 to become insolent, get fresh (ʕalà with s.o.); 6 to be insolent enough, have the cheek (li‑ to do s.th.); 7 to dare do s.th. (bi‑), presume (bi‑ s.th.), pretend (bi‑ s.th.); 8 to arrogate to o.s. (ʔilà rank): [v4-8] tL-stem, assoc. autoref., fig. use, lit. *‘to compete with s.o. in tallness, claim one’s own “length” (ability, power, etc.) to be bigger than s.o. else’s’ | ~ bi-raʔsi-hī, vb., to bear one’s head high (with pride).
    ĭstaṭāla, vb. X, 1 to be or become long: Št-stem, denom. from ↗ṭawīl; 2 to be or become overbearing, presumptuous, display an arrogant behaviour (ʕalà toward): similar to [v4-8] of taṭāwala (see preceding paragraph).
    BP#1419ṭālamā, var. la-ṭālamā, adv., how often! often, frequently (with foll. verbal clause): lit., *‘there is a long time since’ | ~ ʔanna, conj., while, as, the more so as.
    ṭawl, n., might, power: vn. of ṭāla B, or the latter’s etymon proper. | ṣāḥib al-ḥawl wa’l-~, the Almighty.
    BP#713ṭūl, pl. ʔaṭwāl, n., 1 length; 2 size, height, tallness: vn. of ṭāla A, unless the latter’s etymon proper. | ~ al-ʔanāẗ, n., long-suffering, longanimity, forbearance, patience; ~ al-naẓar, n., farsightedness, hyperopia; ḫaṭṭ al-~, n., geographical longitude, degree of longitude, meridian; bi-~ and ṭūlan, adv., lengthwise, longitudinally; ṭūla, prep., during, throughout,…long, e.g., ṭūla hāḏihī ’l-muddaẗ, adv., during this period, during all this time, ṭūla ’l-nahār, adv., all day (long); ~ mā, conj., as long as; ʕalà ~i…, prep. (with foll. gen.), along, alongside of; ʕalà ~ , adv. (eg.), 1 straight ahead; 2 straightway, directly; 3 at last, finally, after all; fī ~i ’l-bilād wa-ʕarḍi-hā, expr., throughout the country, all over the country; ʔanā fī ~i-ka, expr. (eg.), have mercy on me!; ~ al-bāʕ, n., power; mastery, capability, ability; knowledge; generosity; ~ al-nafas, n., endurance, lasting power, stamina; ~ al-yad, n., power.
    ṭūlī, adj., of length, linear, longitudinal: nsb-adj., from ṭūl. | ḫaṭṭ ~, n., geographical longitude, degree of longitude, meridian.
    ṭuwwal, n., a long-legged waterfowl: see ↗s.v.
    BP#1343ṭiwāla, var. ṭawāla, prep., 1 during, throughout; 2 along, alongside of: lit. an acc. of time [v1] or place [v2], from an obsol. vn. ṭiwāl.
    BP#316ṭawīl, pl. ṭiwāl, adj., 1 long; 2 large, big, tall; 3 high: adj. formation, expressing ints. quality of length, height, etc. in s.th.; 4 al-ṭawīl, n., name of a poetical meter: ?; 5 ṭawīlan, adv., long, a long time: acc. of time | ~ al-ʔaǧal, adj., longterm, long-dated; ~ al-ʔanāẗ, adj., long-suffering, forbearing, patient; ~ al-bāʕ, adj., mighty, powerful; capable, efficient; generous, liberal, openhanded; ~ al-rūḥ, adj., long-suffering, forbearing, patient; ~ al-qāmaẗ, adj., tall; ~ al-lisān, adj., insolent, impertinent, pert, saucy.
    ṭuwāl, adj., long: ?
    ṭuwālaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., stable: etymologically probably not belonging here (see ↗s.v.), but in the course of time interpreted as *‘the long one’.
    BP#2806ṭīlaẗa, prep., during, throughout, … long: acc. of time, from the otherwise obsol. n.f. ṭīlaẗ ‘extension (in time), duration’.
    ṭūlānī, adj., measured lengthwise, longitudinal: adj. formation, from ṭūl.
    BP#2626ʔaṭwalᵘ, adj., 1 longer, larger, bigger, taller; 2 extremely tall, very long: elat. of ↗ṭawīl.
    taṭwīl, n., 1 lengthening, elongation, stretching, extension, prolongation, protraction; 2 elaborateness, exhaustiveness, prolixity, long-windedness: vn. II.
    ʔiṭālaẗ, n.f., 1 lengthening, elongation, stretching, extension, prolongation, protraction; 2 elaborateness, exhaustiveness, prolixity, long-windedness: vn. IV.
    taṭāwul, n., insolence, cheek, arrogance: vn. VI.
    ĭstiṭālaẗ, n.f., overbearing attitude, haughtiness, presumptuousness, arrogance: vn. X.
    ṭāʔil, adj., 1 long; 2 huge, immense, ample, enormous (of funds): PA I; – n., 3 use, avail; 4 might, power, force: fig. use of [v1-2], lit. *‘what reaches far’ | ~ al-ṣawlaẗ, adj., mighty, powerful, forceful; dūn ~ and lā ~a taḥta-hū (fī-hi), adj., of no use, of no avail, useless, unavailing, futile; fī ġayri ṭāʔilin, dto.; mā fāza bi-~, vb., to accomplish nothing, be unsuccessful, fail.
    ṭāʔilaẗ, n.f., 1 might, power, force: same as ṭāʔil (see preceding para); 2 vengeance, revenge, retribution, retaliation: obviously fig. use, but semantics not satisfactorily clear. | waqaʕa taḥt ~ al-qānūn, expr., to be subject to punishment by law; taḥt ~ al-mawt, expr., under penalty of death.
    muṭawwal, adj., 1 elaborate, detailed, exhaustive, circumstantial; 2 extended; 3 comprehensive, thick (book): PP II; 4 length: ?; 5 (pl. ‑āt) thick, detailed handbook: ext. use, nominalization; pl. muṭawwalāt, large volumes; heavy tomes | muʕǧam ~, n., comprehensive, unabridged dictionary.
    mutaṭāwil, adj., 1 long-extended, longstretched, long-protacted, prolonged, lengthy; 2 insolent, cheeky, arrogant: PA VI.
    mustaṭīl, adj., n., 1 long, oblong, elongate(d), long-stretched; 2 protracted, prolonged, long drawn out; 3 a rectangle, an oblong; 4 a saucy, presumptuous person: PA X.
    For other values of the root, cf. ↗ṭāwilaẗ, and (for the general picture) ↗ṬWL. 
    ṭawl طَوْل 
    ID … • Sw … • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬWL 
    n. 
    might, power – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Can be regarded as vn. I, from ↗ṭāla B ‘to reach, catch, get hold of; to have power over’, or as the latter’s etymon proper.
    ▪ In any case, the word is based on (W)Sem *ṬWL ‘to be long, extend, stretch out’. Within Sem, the figurative meaning is specific to Ar and therefore seems to be a secondary development. 
    ▪ eC7 1 (might, power, bounty) Q 40:3 ḏī ’l-ṭawli lā ʔilāha ʔillā huwa ‘infinite in bounty—there is no god but He’; 2 (wealth, sufficiency of means) Q 4:25 wa-man lam yastaṭiʕ min-kum ṭawlan ʔan yankiḥa ’l-muḥṣanāti ’l-muʔmināti ‘those of you who do not have the means to marry chaste, believing, free women’, 9:86 ʔūlū ’l-ṭawli ‘the wealthy, the affluent [lit., the ones with the reach’ 
    ṭāla
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ See also ↗ṭāla
    – 
    ṣāḥib al-ḥawl wa’l-ṭawl, the Almighty

    ṭāla / ṭil‑, a (ṭawl), vb. I, 1 ↗ṭūl; 2 to have power over (DO): denom., or is ṭawl from the vb.? | law ~t-ka yad-ī, expr., if I could get hold of you
    taṭāwala, vb. VI, 1-3ṭūl; 4 to attack (ʕalà s.o.); 5 to become insolent, get fresh (ʕalà with s.o.); 6 to be insolent enough, have the cheek (li‑ to do s.th.); 7 to dare do s.th. (bi‑), presume (bi‑ s.th.), pretend (bi‑ s.th.); 8 to arrogate to o.s. (ʔilà rank): [v4-8] tL-stem, assoc. autoref., fig. use, lit. *‘to compete with s.o. in tallness, claim one’s own “length” (ability, power, etc.) to be bigger than s.o. else’s’ | ~ bi-raʔsi-hī, vb., to bear one’s head high (with pride).
    ĭstaṭāla, vb. X, 1ṭūl; 2 to be or become overbearing, presumptuous, display an arrogant behavior (ʕalà toward): Št-stem, similar to [v4-8] of taṭāwala (see preceding paragraph).

    taṭāwul, n., insolence, cheek, arrogance: vn. VI.
    ĭstiṭālaẗ, n.f., overbearing attitude, haughtiness, presumptuousness, arrogance: vn. X.
    ṭāʔil, adj., 1-3ṭūl; 4 might, power, force: PA I from ↗ṭāla B, fig. use, lit. *‘what reaches far’
    | ~ al-ṣawlaẗ, adj., mighty, powerful, forceful
    ṭāʔilaẗ, n.f., 1 might, power, force: same as ṭāʔil (see preceding para); 2 vengeance, revenge, retribution, retaliation: obviously fig. use, but semantics not satisfactorily clear; prob. a specialisation of [v1]. | waqaʕa taḥt ~ al-qānūn, expr., to be subject to punishment by law; taḥt ~ al-mawt, expr., under penalty of death
    mutaṭāwil, adj., 1ṭūl; 2 insolent, cheeky, arrogant: PA VI.
    mustaṭīl, adj., n., 1-3ṭūl; 4 a saucy, presumptuous person: PA X.

    For other values of the root, cf. ↗ṭāla, ↗ṭūl, ↗ṭuwwal, ↗ṭuwālaẗ, ↗ṭāʔilaẗ, ↗ṭāwilaẗ, and (for the general picture) ↗ṬWL. 
    ṭūl طُول , pl. ʔaṭwāl 
    ID … • Sw … • BP 713 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬWL 
    n. 
    1 length; 2 size, height, tallness – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Can be regarded as vn. I, from ↗ṭāla A ‘to be(come) long’, or as the latter’s etymon proper.
    ▪ In any case, the word is based on (W)Sem *ṬWL ‘to be long, extend, stretch out’. 
    ▪ eC7 ṭūl (length, height) Q 17:37 ʔinna-ka lan taḫriqa ’l-ʔarḍa wa-lan tabluġa ’l-ǧibāla ṭūlan ‘you wil never rend the earth open, nor attain the mountains in height’
    ▪ eC7 ṭawīl (long) Q 76:26 wa-min-a ’l-layli fa-’sǧud la-hū wa-sabbiḥ-hu laylan ṭawīlan ‘and in a portion of the night prostrate yourself before Him, and glorify Him throughout the long nights’ 
    ṭāla
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ See also ↗ṭāla
    – 
    ṭūl al-ʔanāẗ, n., long-suffering, longanimity, forbearance, patience
    ṭūl al-naẓar, n., farsightedness, hyperopia
    ḫaṭṭ al-ṭūl, n., geographical longitude, degree of longitude, meridian
    bi-ṭūl and ṭūlan, adv., lengthwise, longitudinally
    ṭūla, prep., during, throughout,…long, e.g., ṭūla hāḏihī ’l-muddaẗ, adv., during this period, during all this time, ṭūla ’l-nahār, adv., all day (long)
    ṭūla mā, conj., as long as
    ʕalà ṭūli…, prep. (with foll. gen.), along, alongside of
    ʕalà ṭūl, adv. (eg.), 1 straight ahead; 2 straightway, directly; 3 at last, finally, after all
    fī ṭūli ’l-bilād wa-ʕarḍi-hā, expr., throughout the country, all over the country
    ʔanā fī ṭūli-ka, expr. (eg.), have mercy on me!
    ṭūl al-bāʕ, n., power, mastery, capability, ability; knowledge; generosity
    ṭūl al-nafas, n., endurance, lasting power, stamina
    ṭūl al-yad, n., power

    BP#1284ṭāla / ṭul‑, u (ṭūl), vb. I, 1 to be or become long; 2 to last long; 3 to lengthen, grow longer, extend, be protracted, become drawn out; 4 to surpass, excel (ʕalà or s.o.); 5 to extend (ʔilà to): denom., or is ṭūl from the vb.? | ~ bi-hī ’l-zaman ḥattà, expr., it took a long time before he…; yaṭūlu bī hāḏā, expr., this will (would) take me too long; ~ al-zamānu ʔaw qaṣura, expr., sooner or later, before long; lam yaṭul bi-hī ’l-maqāmu ḥattà, expr., he hadn’t been there very long when…; lā taṭūlu yad-ī ʔilay-hi, expr., my hand can’t reach that far, i.e., I have no control over it, it isn’t possible for me; law ~t-ka yad-ī, expr., if I could get hold of you
    BP#4073ṭawwala, vb. II, 1 to make long or longer, lengthen, elongate, stretch out, prolong, extend, protract (s.th.): D-stem, caus.; 2 to be very elaborate, very detailed, very exhaustive, longwinded, prolix: D-stem, denom., from ↗ṭawīl; 3 to grant a delay or respite (li‑ to s.o.): D-stem, caus., fig. use (*to extend the deadline for s.o.) | ~ bāla-hū ʕalay-hi, vb., to be patient with.
    ṭāwala, vb. III, 1 to keep putting off (s.o., in or with s.th.); 2 to vie for power, greatness or stature, contend, compete (DO with s.o.), rival, emulate (s.o.): L-stem, assoc. (*‘to compete with s.o. in tallness or in how far one’s influence reaches’).
    ʔaṭāla, vb. IV, 1 to make long or longer, lengthen, elongate, stretch out, extend, prolong, protract, draw out (DO or min s.th.): Š-stem, caus.; 2 to take too long, find no end: Š-stem, denom. from ↗ṭawīl | ~ ʕalay-hi, vb., to keep s.o. waiting a long time; ~ lisāna-hū, to speak in a forward manner, be pert, saucy, insolent in speech; ~ al-naẓar ʔilay-hi, expr., he kept staring at him; ~ al-wuqūf, expr., he stayed a long time; ~ fī ’l-mawḍūʕ, expr., to dwell, expatiate on the subject.
    taṭāwala, vb. VI, 1 to become long, be lengthened, be extended, be prolonged; 2 to stretch up, stretch o.s.; 3 to stretch (ʔilà for), crane one’s neck (ʔilà at): [v1-3] tL-stem, intr., perh. denom. from ṭūl or ↗ṭawīl; 4 to attack (ʕalà s.o.); 5 to become insolent, get fresh (ʕalà with s.o.); 6 to be insolent enough, have the cheek (li‑ to do s.th.); 7 to dare do s.th. (bi‑), presume (bi‑ s.th.), pretend (bi‑ s.th.); 8 to arrogate to o.s. (ʔilà rank): [v4-8] tL-stem, assoc. autoref., fig. use, lit. *‘to compete with s.o. in tallness, claim one’s own “length” (ability, power, etc.) to be bigger than s.o. else’s’ | ~ bi-raʔsi-hī, vb., to bear one’s head high (with pride).
    ĭstaṭāla, vb. X, 1 to be or become long: Št-stem, denom., from ṭūl or ↗ṭawīl; 2 to be or become overbearing, presumptuous, display an arrogant behaviour (ʕalà toward): similar to [v4-8] of taṭāwala (see preceding paragraph).

    ṭūlī, adj., of length, linear, longitudinal: nsb-adj. | ḫaṭṭ ~, n., geographical longitude, degree of longitude, meridian.
    BP#316ṭawīl, pl. ṭiwāl, adj., 1 long; 2 large, big, tall; 3 high: adj. formation, expressing ints. quality of length, height, etc. in s.th.; 4 al-ṭawīl, n., name of a poetical meter: ?; 5 ṭawīlan, adv., long, a long time: acc. of time | ~ al-ʔaǧal, adj., longterm, long-dated; ~ al-ʔanāẗ, adj., long-suffering, forbearing, patient; ~ al-bāʕ, adj., mighty, powerful; capable, efficient; generous, liberal, openhanded; ~ al-rūḥ, adj., long-suffering, forbearing, patient; ~ al-qāmaẗ, adj., tall; ~ al-lisān, adj., insolent, impertinent, pert, saucy.
    ṭuwāl, adj., long: ?
    ṭuwālaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., stable: etymologically probably not belonging here (see ↗s.v.), but in the course of time interpreted as *‘the long one’.
    ṭūlānī, adj., measured lengthwise, longitudinal: adj. formation, from ṭūl (or *ṭūlān ?).
    taṭwīl, n., 1 lengthening, elongation, stretching, extension, prolongation, protraction; 2 elaborateness, exhaustiveness, prolixity, long-windedness: vn. II.
    ʔiṭālaẗ, n.f., 1 lengthening, elongation, stretching, extension, prolongation, protraction; 2 elaborateness, exhaustiveness, prolixity, long-windedness: vn. IV.
    taṭāwul, n., insolence, cheek, arrogance: vn. VI.
    ĭstiṭālaẗ, n.f., overbearing attitude, haughtiness, presumptuousness, arrogance: vn. X.

    For other values of the root, cf. ↗ṭāla, ↗ṭawl, ↗ṭuwwal, ↗ṭuwālaẗ, ↗ṭāʔilaẗ, ↗ṭāwilaẗ, and (for the general picture) ↗ṬWL. 
    ṭuwwal طُوَّل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬWL 
    n. 
    a long-legged waterfowl – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Probably so called because of its long legs, i.e., etymologically belonging to the idea of ‘(to be) long’, ↗ṭāla, ↗ṭūl
    ▪ … 
    ṭāla, ↗ṭūl
    ṭāla, ↗ṭūl
    – 
    For other values of the root, cf. ↗ṭāla, ↗ṭawl, ↗ṭūl, ↗ṭuwālaẗ, ↗ṭāʔilaẗ, ↗ṭāwilaẗ, and (for the general picture) ↗ṬWL. 
    ṭuwālaẗ طُوالة , pl. ‑āt 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬWL 
    n.f. 
    stable – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Etymologically perh. an overlapping/confusion between the obsol. Ar n. ṭiwal(l) ‘long rope, tether’, belonging to the theme of ‘length’ (↗ṭūl), and a borrowing (via Tu and/or Pers) from Grk stábla, < Lat stabulum, stabula ‘stable’ (cf. also ↗isṭabl ‘stable, barn’). In the course of time, the foreign origin may have been forgotten and the word thought to be akin to ṭiwal(l), as *‘place sheltering the horses that are tied together with a long rope, or: where animals are tied with a tether’, or directly derived from √ṬWL, as *‘the long one’. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ If the word is related to the idea of ‘length’, then one will have to compare the cognates given in entry ↗ṭāla
    ▪ For Tu tavla ‘stable (esp. for the Sultan’s horses)’, Nişanyan_04Dec2013 gives: from Pers ṭawlaʰ ‘stable for horses; set of horses, of six or eight, exactly matched; long rope, tether’, from Grk stávla ‘stable for horses’, from Lat stabulum, stabula ‘place to stay, stop, stable’, from Lat stāre, stāt- ‘to stand, stay, stop’. – Yet, although the semantics of Ar ṭuwālaẗ and Tu tavla seem to be congruent, and although the latter’s etymon, Pers ṭawlaʰ, combines the values ‘stable for horses’ (Ar ṭuwālaẗ) and ‘long rope, tether’ (Ar ṭiwal(l)), a derivation of Ar ṭuwālaẗ from Pers ṭawlaʰ or Tu tavla remains is problematic for phonological reasons: how should one explain the long -ā- ? Phonologically problematic also the derivation from the Grk/Lat words: why should initial st- have been reduced to t- in Pers, and the latter written with طـ ṭ-
    ▪ According to Nişanyan_04Dec2013, we have to conform Engl stable (n., eC13) ‘building or enclosure where horses or cows are kept, building for domestic animals’, which, according to EtymOnline , is from oFr stable, estable ‘stable, stall’ (modFr étable), from Lat stabulum ‘stall, fold, aviary, beehive, lowly cottage, brothel [etc.]’, lit. *‘standing place’, from IE *ste-dhlo-, suffixed form of root *stā- ‘to stand’.19  
    For other values of the root, cf. ↗ṭāla, ↗ṭawl, ↗ṭūl, ↗ṭuwwal, ↗ṭāʔilaẗ, ↗ṭāwilaẗ, and (for the general picture) ↗ṬWL. 
    ṭawīl طَوِيل , pl. ṭiwāl 
    ID 550 • Sw 14/92 • BP 316 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬWL 
    adj. 
    1 long; 2 large, big, tall; 3 high; 4 al-ṭawīl, n., name of a poetical meter – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ [v1-3] : adj. formation, expressing ints. quality of length, height, etc. in s.th., see ↗ṭāla.
    ▪ [v4] : probably the same as [v1-3], but it is not clear why the metre is called ‘the long one’. 
    ▪ eC7 (long) Q 76:26 wa-min-a ’l-layli fa-’sǧud la-hū wa-sabbiḥ-hu laylan ṭawīlan ‘and in a portion of the night prostrate yourself before Him, and glorify Him throughout the long nights’
    ▪ Cf. also ↗ṭūl
    ṭāla
    ṭāla
    – 
    ṭawīlan, adv., long, a long time: acc. of time
    ṭawīl al-ʔaǧal, adj., longterm, long-dated
    ṭawīl al-ʔanāẗ, adj., long-suffering, forbearing, patient
    ṭawīl al-bāʕ, adj., mighty, powerful; capable, efficient; generous, liberal, openhanded
    ṭawīl al-rūḥ, adj., long-suffering, forbearing, patient
    ṭawīl al-qāmaẗ, adj., tall
    ṭawīl al-lisān, adj., insolent, impertinent, pert, saucy.

    BP#4073ṭawwala, vb. II, 1 to make long or longer, lengthen, elongate, stretch out, prolong, extend, protract (s.th.): D-stem, caus.; 2 to be very elaborate, very detailed, very exhaustive, longwinded, prolix: D-stem, denom.; 3 to grant a delay or respite (li‑ to s.o.): D-stem, caus., fig. use (*to extend the deadline for s.o.) | ~ bāla-hū ʕalay-hi, vb., to be patient with.
    ṭāwala, vb. III, 1 to keep putting off (s.o., in or with s.th.); 2 to vie for power, greatness or stature, contend, compete (DO with s.o.), rival, emulate (s.o.): L-stem, assoc. (*‘to compete with s.o. in tallness or in how far one’s influence reaches’).
    ʔaṭāla, vb. IV, 1 to make long or longer, lengthen, elongate, stretch out, extend, prolong, protract, draw out (DO or min s.th.): Š-stem, caus.; 2 to take too long, find no end: Š-stem, denom. | ~ ʕalay-hi, vb., to keep s.o. waiting a long time; ~ lisāna-hū, to speak in a forward manner, be pert, saucy, insolent in speech; ~ al-naẓar ʔilay-hi, expr., he kept staring at him; ~ al-wuqūf, expr., he stayed a long time; ~ fī ’l-mawḍūʕ, expr., to dwell, expatiate on the subject.
    taṭāwala, vb. VI, 1 to become long, be lengthened, be extended, be prolonged; 2 to stretch up, stretch o.s.; 3 to stretch (ʔilà for), crane one’s neck (ʔilà at): [v1-3] tL-stem, intr., perh. denom.; 4 to attack (ʕalà s.o.); 5 to become insolent, get fresh (ʕalà with s.o.); 6 to be insolent enough, have the cheek (li‑ to do s.th.); 7 to dare do s.th. (bi‑), presume (bi‑ s.th.), pretend (bi‑ s.th.); 8 to arrogate to o.s. (ʔilà rank): [v4-8] tL-stem, assoc. autoref., fig. use, lit. *‘to compete with s.o. in tallness, claim one’s own “length” (ability, power, etc.) to be bigger than s.o. else’s’ | ~ bi-raʔsi-hī, vb., to bear one’s head high (with pride).
    ĭstaṭāla, vb. X, 1 to be or become long: Št-stem, denom.; 2 to be or become overbearing, presumptuous, display an arrogant behaviour (ʕalà toward): similar to [v4-8] of taṭāwala (see preceding paragraph).

    BP#1419ṭālamā, var. la-ṭālamā, adv., how often! often, frequently (with foll. verbal clause): lit., *‘there is a long time since’ | ~ ʔanna, conj., while, as, the more so as.
    BP#2626ʔaṭwalᵘ, adj., 1 longer, larger, bigger, taller; 2 extremely tall, very long: elat. of ↗ṭawīl.
    taṭwīl, n., 1 lengthening, elongation, stretching, extension, prolongation, protraction; 2 elaborateness, exhaustiveness, prolixity, long-windedness: vn. II.
    ʔiṭālaẗ, n.f., 1 lengthening, elongation, stretching, extension, prolongation, protraction; 2 elaborateness, exhaustiveness, prolixity, long-windedness: vn. IV.
    taṭāwul, n., insolence, cheek, arrogance: vn. VI.
    ĭstiṭālaẗ, n.f., overbearing attitude, haughtiness, presumptuousness, arrogance: vn. X.
    muṭawwal, adj., 1 elaborate, detailed, exhaustive, circumstantial; 2 extended; 3 comprehensive, thick (book): PP II, from ṭāla; 4 length: ?; 5 (pl. ‑āt) thick, detailed handbook: specialisation of [v1-3]; pl. muṭawwalāt, large volumes; heavy tomes | muʕǧam ~, n., comprehensive, unabridged dictionary.
    mutaṭāwil, adj., 1 long-extended, longstretched, long-protacted, prolonged, lengthy; 2 insolent, cheeky, arrogant: PA VI.
    mustaṭīl, adj., n., 1 long, oblong, elongate(d), long-stretched; 2 protracted, prolonged, long drawn out; 3 a rectangle, an oblong; 4 a saucy, presumptuous person: PA X.

    For other values of the root, cf. ↗ṭāla, ↗ṭawl, ↗ṭūl, ↗ṭuwwal, ↗ṭāʔilaẗ, ↗ṭāwilaẗ, and (for the general picture) ↗ṬWL. 
    ṭāʔilaẗ طائِلة 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬWL 
    n.f. 
    1 might, power, force; 2 vengeance, revenge, retribution, retaliation – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Grammatically a PA I f., lit. *‘(s.th.) reaching far’, from ↗ṭāla B, vb. I, ‘to reach, catch, get hold of; (fig.) to have power over’, fig. use of ↗ṭāla A, ‘to be(come) long, extend, stretch out’.
    ▪ [v2] ‘vengeance, revenge, retribution, retaliation’, in ClassAr also ‘enmity, rancour’ : obviously fig. use, but semantics not satisfactorily clear; prob. a specialisation of [v1]. 
    ▪ … 
    ṭāla
    ṭāla
    – 
    waqaʕa taḥta ṭāʔilaẗ al-qānūn, expr., to be subject to punishment by law;
    taḥta ṭāʔilaẗ al-mawt, expr., under penalty of death

    For other values of the root, cf. ↗ṭāla, ↗ṭawl, ↗ṭūl, ↗ṭuwwal, ↗ṭuwālaẗ, ↗ṭāwilaẗ, and (for the general picture) ↗ṬWL. 
    ṭāwilaẗ طاوِلة , var. ṭāwulaẗ , pl. ‑āt 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 1857 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬWL 
    n.f. 
    table – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ From It tavola, from Lat tabula
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ Perhaps Ar ṭablaẗ ‘drum, tambourine’ and Lat tabula , the ultimate etymon of ṭāwilaẗ ~ ṭāwulaẗ, have a common Sem ancestor. Cf. also ↗ṭunbūr ‘long-necked, stringed instrument resembling the mandoline; a device used to raise water for irrigation, Archimedean screw; drum, cylinder (techn.)’, perh. from mPers tabūrāk ‘tambour’, unless it is a slightly altered derivation from ṭabl ‘tambour, timbale’ – Rolland2014a. 
    ▪ Not from It tavola, but ultimately from the same Lat (< Umbr ?) source are also many Eur words for ‘table’, like Engl table itself, lC12, ‘board, slab, plate’, from oFr table ‘board, square panel, plank; writing table; picture; food, fare’ (C11), and loEngl tabele ‘writing tablet, gaming table’, from Germ *tabal (cognates: Du tafel, Dan tavle, oHGe zabel ‘board, plank’, Ge Tafel). Both the Fr and Germ words are from Lat tabula ‘a board, plank; writing table; list, schedule; picture, painted panel’, originally ‘small flat slab or piece’ usually for inscriptions or for games (source also of Span tabla, It tavola), of uncertain origin, related to Umbr tafle ‘on the board’. 
    laʕbaẗ al-ṭāwilaẗ, n.f., backgammon, trick-track
    tinnis al-ṭāwilaẗ, n.f., table tennis

    For other values of the root, cf. ↗ṭāla, ↗ṭawl, ↗ṭūl, ↗ṭuwwal, ↗ṭuwālaẗ, ↗ṭāʔilaẗ, and (for the general picture) ↗ṬWL. 
    ṬYB طيب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬYB 
    … 
    ▪ ṬYB_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ṬYB_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be good, to be agreeable, to be willing, to mollify; to be wholesome, to become ripe; to regain health; to be fragrant, fragrance, perfume’. – It has been suggested by some scholars that the derivative ṭūbà is linked to a corresponding Syr and a common Semitic root. Other scholars attribute the derivative ṭūbà to a borrowing from Hindi. 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘¹odoriferous; ²good’) Akk ¹ṭābu, ¹,²Hbr ṭōḇ, Syr ²ṭāḇā, SAr (ṭyb ‘incense’).
    ▪ Hoch1994: Akk ṭâbu ‘good’, Ug ṭb ‘good, pleasant’, Amor ṭābum, Hbr ṭôḇ , oAram, EmpAram ṭb, BiblAram ṭāḇ, TargAram ṭāḇâ, Syr ṭaḇ ‘good’, SAr ṭb ‘to be good’. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ nEg twby3, twi͗ub */ṭōbu/ ‘good’ »is almost certainly related to the common Sem root ṬWB« – Hoch1994. 
    – 
    … 
    ṬYR طير 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬYR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṬYR_1 ‘bird; to fly’ ↗ṭayr
    ▪ ṬYR_2 ‘bad omen, augury; to take as ~, see a ~ in s.th.’ ↗ṭīraẗ

    Other values (dialectal only):
    • ṬYR_3 ‘to pierce, perforate’: YemAr ʔaṭār, ṭayyar
    • ṬYR_4 ‘to appear, sprout, start to break through (plants, etc.)’: YemAr ṭayyar

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘flying thing/creature, bird, insect; to fly, fly away; to hasten; to rejoice; to scatter, spread out; bad omen, augury; deed’ 
    ▪ All values given for Sem ṬYR in DRS are represented in Ar, though two of them are dialectal use only and therefore not treated in EtymArab.
    ▪ ṬYR_1 and ṬYR_2 are etymologically the same item. However, given the more or less equal distribution of both values in Sem, it seems difficult to decide which was first. As a hypothesis, one may assume a priority of ‘bird’ and think of ‘to augur’ as secondary development, lit., *‘to take the way a bird flies as a (bad) omen’.
    ▪ Within ṬYR_1, we tacitly take etymological priority of ‘bird’ over ‘to fly’ for granted and therefore make the n. the main entry, classifying the vb. under DERIV. But this priority has still to be proven.
    ▪ ṬYR_3 YemAr ʔaṭār, ṭayyar ‘to pierce, perforate’ : etymology obscure (but perh. related to ṬYR_1?)
    ▪ ṬYR_4 YemAr ṭayyar ‘to appear, sprout, start to break through (plants, etc.)’ : etymology obscure (but perh. related to ṬYR_1?) 
    – 
    DRS 10 (2012)#ṬYR-1 JP ṭayyār, Syr ṭayrā, Ar ṭayr, Soq ṭaireh ‘oiseau’; Ar ṭāra ‘voler’; JP ṭᵉyārā ‘science des augures’, Ar Gz taṭayyara ‘prédire par le vol des oiseaux’. -2 YemAr ʔaṭār, ṭayyar ‘percer, perforer’, Te ṭäyyärä ‘périr, être perdu’, Amh ṭarä ‘être affligé, souffrant, agonisant; s’appliquer de tout son cœur à ce qu’on fait’. -3 YemAr ṭayyar ‘apparaître, poindre, commencer à sortir de terre (plantes, etc.)’.
    ▪ SED II#235: Syr ṭayrā, Ar ṭayr ‘bird’; pBiblHbr ṭayir, ṭəyār ‘divination from birds, augury’, JudAram ṭyr (pa, itpa.) ‘to augur’, Ar ṭayyār ‘Vogel, besonders ein solcher, dessen man sich beim Wahrsagen… bediente’, ṭayr ‘augure, surtout mauvais’, Gz taṭayyara ‘to divine by observing the flight of birds’
    ▪ Zammit2002: Hbr ṭiyyūr ‘divination’, Aram ṭayyār ‘bird’, ṭayyēr ‘to espy, augur’, Syr ṭayrā ‘avis, aves’, (pa.) ‘volare fecit (mentem)’, (af.) ‘volare fecit’, Ar ṭāra ‘to fly’, Gz ṭayyara ‘to fly’ (< Ar), taṭayyara ‘augurari, auspicia/omina captare’ (< Ar)
     
    ▪ Huehnergard2011 reconstructs CSem *ṬYR ‘to fly’.
    ▪ SED II#235: protSem *ṭayr- ‘bird’ is »[a]ttested as a faunal term in Aram and Ar only [… but is t]o be nevertheless reconstructed as a protSem animal name in view of clearly related forms connected with divination from birds whose attestation is not confined to Aram and Ar«. – »No AfrAs parallels found. Supposed cognates adduced in CHVAL no. 203 and HSED No. 2443 (*ṭaʔür-) are all erroneous or highly doubtful.«
     
    ▪ Engl Altairṭayr
    – 
    ṭār‑ / ṭir‑ طارَ / طِرْـ , i (ṭayarān
    ID 551 • Sw 64/54 • BP 2395 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬYR 
    vb., I 
    1 to fly; 2 to fly away, fly off, take to the wing; 3 to hasten, hurry, rush, fly (ʔilà to); 4 to be in a state of commotion, be jubilant, exult, rejoice; 5 ṭāra bi‑, to snatch away, carry away, carry off (s.o., s.th.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    Denom. from ↗ṭayr — or is ṭayr from ṭāra
    ▪ eC7 ṭāra (to fly) Q 6:38 ṭāʔirin yaṭīru bi-ǧanāḥay-hi ‘a bird that flies with its [two] wings’
     
    ṭayr
    ṭayr
    ▪ ↗ṭayr
    ṭāra bi-ḫayāli-hī ʔilà, vb., to let one’s imagination wander to
    ṭāra la-hū ṣīt fī ’l-nās, expr., his fame spread among people, he became well-known
    ṭāra ṭāʔiru-hū, vb., to become angry, blow one’s top
    ṭāra ʕaqlu-hū, vb., to lose one’s mind, go crazy
    ṭāra fuʔādu-hū (rūḥu-hū) šaʕāʕan, expr., his mind became confused, he became all mixed up
    ṭāra faraḥan, vb., to be beside o.s. with joy, be overjoyed
    ṭāra šawqan, vb., to be ecstatic with anticipation, be overjoyed
    ṭāra bi-lubbi-hī, vb., to drive s.o. out of his mind
    ṭāra bi-ṣawābi-hī, vb., to drive s.o. out of his mind; to make s.o. unconscious.

    For other items, cf. ↗ṭayr
    ṭayr طَيْر , pl. ṭuyūr , ʔaṭyār 
    ID 554 • Sw 20/12 • BP 1233 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬYR 
    n.coll. 
    1 birds, bird; 2 augury, omen. – pl. ṭuyūr : 3 poultry; 4 fowl – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ From Sem *ṭayr‑ ‘bird’, or — deverb. — from (CSem) *ṬYR ‘to fly’?
    ▪ EtymArab© assumes an etymological priority of [v1] ‘bird’ over [v2] ‘(to take as bad) omen’, which is almost equally widespread in Sem, i.e., we consider a development *‘bird’ > ‘(to take a bird’s flying as a bad) omen’ > ‘augury’ as more probable than the reverse order.
    ▪ For the value ‘evil omen’ cf. also individual entry ↗ṭīraẗ.
     
    ▪ eC7 ṭayr (birds, insects) Q 16:79 ʔa-lam yaraw ʔilà ’l-ṭayri musaḫḫarātin fī ǧawwi ’l-samāʔi mā yumsiku-hunna ʔillā ’llāhu ‘do they not consider the birds, sustained in the air [of the sky], nothing holding them up except God’
    ▪ eC7 ṭāra (to fly) Q 6:38 ṭāʔirin yaṭīru bi-ǧanāḥay-hi ‘a bird that flies with its [two] wings’
    ▪ eC7 ṭāʔir 1 (bird/s; insect/s) Q 6:38 wa-mā min dābbaẗin fī ’l-ʔarḍi wa-lā ṭāʔirin yaṭīru bi-ǧanāḥay-hi ʔillā ʔumamun ʔamṯālu-kum ‘there is not a creature of the earth nor a bird that flies with its [two] wings but are communitiers like yourselves’. – 2a (deed; destiny) and 2b (bad omen): ↗ṭīraẗ.
    ▪ eC7 mustaṭīr (of evil in particular: spreading far and wide) Q yūfūna bi’l-naḏri wa-yaḫāfūna yawman kāna šārru-hū mustaṭīran ‘they fulfil their vows; and fear a day whose harm is widespread’
     
    DRS 10 (2012)#ṬYR-1 JP ṭayyār, Syr ṭayrā, Ar ṭayr, Soq ṭaireh ‘oiseau’; Ar ṭāra ‘voler’; JP ṭᵉyārā ‘science des augures’, Ar Gz taṭayyara ‘prédire par le vol des oiseaux’.
    ▪ SED II#235: Syr ṭayrā, Ar ṭayr ‘bird’; pBiblHbr ṭayir, ṭəyār ‘divination from birds, augury’, JudAram ṭyr (pa, itpa.) ‘to augur’, Ar ṭayyār ‘Vogel, besonders ein solcher, dessen man sich beim Wahrsagen… bediente’, ṭayr ‘augure, surtout mauvais’, Gz taṭayyara ‘to divine by observing the flight of birds’
    ▪ Zammit2002: Hbr ṭiyyūr ‘divination’, Aram ṭayyār ‘bird’, ṭayyēr ‘to espy, augur’, Syr ṭayrā ‘avis, aves’, (pa.) ‘volare fecit (mentem)’, (af.) ‘volare fecit’, Ar ṭāra ‘to fly’, Gz ṭayyara ‘to fly’ (< Ar), taṭayyara ‘augurari, auspicia/omina captare’ (< Ar)
     
    ▪ SED II#235: protSem *ṭayr- ‘bird’ is »[a]ttested as a faunal term in Aram and Ar only [… but is t]o be nevertheless reconstructed as a protSem animal name in view of clearly related forms connected with divination from birds whose attestation is not confined to Aram and Ar«. – »No AfrAs parallels found. Supposed cognates adduced in CHVAL no. 203 and HSED No. 2443 (*ṭaʔür-) are all erroneous or highly doubtful.«
    ▪ Huehnergard2011 reconstructs CSem *ṬYR ‘to fly’.
    ▪ Not without reservation, Hoch1994 compares (as a borrowing from Sem) nEg t3rr3 */darra/?, */ṭallil/?, */ṭarir/ ‘to race; to go for an outing’. »Gardiner translated the word as ‘to sail around’, probably connecting it with BiblHbr TWR ‘to travel around; to spy’, Akk târu ‘to go around’. This derivation is somewhat questionable on semantic grounds. Waard proposed a link with Akk darāru ‘emancipation’, but the derivation is semantically even more dubious. Other possibilities include mHbr ṭwl ‘to walk about, enjoy o.s.’, Syr ṭwl (D-stem) ‘to walk to and fro, pace about for pleasure’, TargAram ṭll ‘to sport, play, have fun’, Syr ṭwr ‘to fly’, Ar ṭāra ‘to fly; to hurry, rush’, Gz ṭayyara ‘to fly’. 
    ▪ Engl Altair, C16, a bright star in the constellation Aquila, from Ar (al-nasr) al-ṭāʔir ‘the flying (eagle)’, from ṭāʔir ‘flying’, PA of ṭāra ‘to fly’ – Huehnergard2011, EtymOnline
    ṭuyūr ǧāriḥaẗ, n.pl., predatory birds, birds of prey
    ʕilm al-ṭuyūr, n., ornithology
    ka-ʔanna ʕalà ruʔūsi-him al-ṭayr, expr., motionless or silent with awe

    BP#2395ṭāra, ṭir-, i (ṭayarān), vb. I, 1 to fly; 2 to fly away, fly off, take to the wing; 3 to hasten, hurry, rush, fly (ʔilà to); 4 to be in a state of commotion, be jubilant, exult, rejoice; 5 ṭāra bi‑, to snatch away, carry away, carry off (s.o., s.th.) : denom. from ṭayr —or is ṭayr from ṭāra ? | ~ bi-ḫayāli-hī ʔilà, vb., to let one’s imagination wander to; ~ la-hū ṣīt fī ’l-nās, expr., his fame spread among people, he became well-known; ~ ṭāʔiru-hū, vb., to become angry, blow one’s top; ~ ʕaqlu-hū, vb., to lose one’s mind, go crazy; ~ fuʔādu-hū (rūḥu-hū) šaʕāʕan, expr., his mind became confused, he became all mixed up; ~ faraḥan, vb., to be beside o.s. with joy, be overjoyed; ~ šawqan, vb., to be ecstatic with anticipation, be overjoyed; ~ bi-lubbi-hī, vb., to drive s.o. out of his mind; ~ bi-ṣawābi-hī, vb., to drive s.o. out of his mind; to make s.o. unconscious
    ṭayyara, vb. II, 1 to make or let fly (s.o., s.th.), to fly, send up (a s.th., e.g., a balloon, a kite); 2 to pass on promptly, dispatch posthaste, forward without delay, rush, shoot (s.th., esp. a report, a message, ʔilà to); 3 to knock out (s.th., e.g., an eye, a tooth): D-stem, caus. | ~ raʔsa-hū, vb., to chop off s.o.’s head, behead s.o.
    ʔaṭāra, vb. IV, 1 to make or let fly (s.o., s.th.), to fly (s.th.); 2 to blow away (s.th.; of the wind); 3 to make (s.th.) disappear at once, dispel (s.th.): Š-stem, caus.
    taṭayyara, vb. V, to see an evil omen (min or bi‑ in): tD-stem, denom. from ṭayr in the fig. sense of ‘evil omen’; cf. also ↗ṭīraẗ.
    taṭāyara, vb. VI, 1 to be scattered, be dispersed, scatter, disperse, spread, diffuse; 2 to be exuded, rise (fragrance); 3 to fly apart, fly about, fly in all directions (esp. sparks); 4 to vanish, disappear, be dispelled: tL-stem.
    ĭstaṭāra, vb. X, 1 to make fly, cause to fly (s.th.): Št-stem, caus. refl./autoref.; 2 to knock (s.th.) out of s.o.’s hand; to alarm or upset seriously (s.o.), agitate, excite (s.o., s.th.): fig. use of [v1]; 3 = VI; 4 ŭstuṭīra, to be terrified: pass., fig. use; cf. also ↗ṭīraẗ. | ~ ʕaqlu-hū, expr., to go out of one’s mind (with astonishment or fright)
    ṭayraẗ, n.f., 1 commotion, agitation (of anger, wrath); 2 flight: quasi-n.vic.; 3 female bird: f. of ṭayr.
    ṭīraẗ, var. ṭiyaraẗ, n.f., evil omen, portent, foreboding: quasi-n.vic., fig., lit. *‘the flight of a bird (which is interpreted as an evil omen)’; cf. also ↗s.v..
    ṭayyār, adj., 1 flying; 2 evanescent, fleeting; 3 volatile (liquid); 4 floating, wafting, hovering. – n., 5 pl. ‑ūn, flyer, aviator, pilot: ints. formation, in [v5] used as n.prof. | zuyūt ~aẗ, n.pl., volatile oils; ~ ʔawwal, n., first lieutenant of the Air Force (formerly, Eg.); ~ musāʕid, n., copilot.
    ṭayyāraẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., 1 aviatrix, woman pilot: n.prof.f.; 2 airplane, aircraft; 3 kite (toy): neolog., properly an ints. formation, quasi-PA I, f. | ~ riyāḍiyyaẗ, n.f.,sport plane; ~ qaḏḏāfaẗ, n.f., bomber; ~ māʔiyyaẗ, n.f., seaplane
    BP#1463ṭayarān, n., 1 flying, flight; 2 aviation, aeronautics: vn. I | ~ bahlawānī, n., stunt flying; ~ širāʕī, n., glider flying, gliding; ḫuṭūṭ al-~, n., airlines; silāḥ al-~, n., airforce; wazīr al-~, n., minister of aviation
    BP#1349maṭār, pl. ‑āt, n., airfield, airport: n.loc. | ~ ʕāʔim, n., (tech.) aircraft carrier
    maṭāraẗ, n.f., aircraft carrier: n.loc.f.
    maṭīr, n., airfield, airport: n.loc.
    taṭayyur, n., pessimism: vn. V; cf. also ↗ṭīraẗ.
    BP#2403ṭāʔir, 1 adj., flying. – n., 2 flyer, aviator, pilot; 3 (pl. ‑āt, ṭayr) bird: PA I, from ṭāra ‘to fly’; 4 omen, presage: prob. fig. use, a ‘flying one’ (bird) being taken as a (bad) omen; cf. also ↗ṭīraẗ. | sukūn al-~, n., graveness, sedateness; ʕalà al-~ al-maymūn, expr., good luck! Godspeed! (said to s.o. setting out on a journey); ṭāra ṭāʔiru-hū, vb., to become angry, blow one’s top
    BP#973ṭāʔiraẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., airplane, aircraft: neolog., properly a PA I f. | ʕalà matn al-~, adv., aboard the airplane; by (air)plane (e.g., traveling); ~ baḥriyyaẗ, n.f., seaplane; ~ dawriyyaẗ, n.f., (tech.) (short-range) reconnaissance plane, observation plane; ~ širāʕiyyaẗ, n.f., sailplane, glider; ~ al-muṭāradaẗ, n.f., fighter, pursuit plane, interceptor; ~ ʕamūdiyyaẗ, n.f., helicopter; ~ al-qitāl, n.f., light bomber, combat plane; ~ al-muqātalaẗ, n.f. (do.); ~ al-ĭnqiḍāḍ or ~ ĭnqiḍāḍiyyaẗ, n.f. (tech.), dive bomber; ~ māʔiyyaẗ, n.f., seaplane; ~ naffāṯaẗ, n.f., jet plane; ~ al-naql, n.f., transport (plane); ~ hilīkōbtir, n.f., helicopter; ḥāmilaẗ al-ṭāʔirāt and nāqilaẗ al-ṭāʔirāt, n.f., aircraft carrier
    mutaṭayyir, n., pessimist: PA V.
    mustaṭīr, adj., 1 imminent, impending, threatening (of disaster); 2 scattered, dispersed; 3 spread out, spread all over, scattered about; 4 widespread; 5 pessimist: PA X.
     
    ṭīraẗ طِيرَة 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬYR 
    n.f. 
    evil omen, portent, foreboding – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ The word seems to be dependent on Sem *ṭayr‑ ‘bird’ (or *ṬYR ‘to fly’, cf. ↗ṭayr). EtymArab© assumes a semantic development *‘bird’ > ‘(to take a bird’s flying as a bad) omen’ > ‘augury’.
     
    ▪ eC7 taṭayyara (to take as an evil omen, augur evil) Q 36:18 ʔinnā taṭayyarnā bi-kum ‘we augur evil from you’
    ▪ eC7 ĭṭṭayyara (to take as an evil omen) Q 27:47 qālū ’ṭṭayyarnā bi-ka wa-bi-man maʕa-ka ‘they said, “We augur ill of you and those with you”’
    ▪ eC7 ṭāʔir 1 (bird/s; insect/s) ↗ṭayr. – 2a (deed; destiny) Q wa-kulla ʔinsānin ʔalzamnā-hu ṭāʔira-hū fī ʕunuqi-hī ‘and every human—We have bound his destiny (or: deeds) to his neck’; 2b (bad omen) Q 27:47 qālū ’ṭṭayyarnā bi-ka wa-bi-man maʕa-ka qāla ṭāʔiru-kum ʕinda ’ḷḷāhi ‘they said, “We augur ill of you and those with you”; he replied, “Your augury is with God.”’
     
    ṭayr
    ṭayr
    – 
    taṭayyara, vb. V, to see an evil omen (min or bi‑ in): tD-stem, denom.
    ĭstaṭāra, vb. X, 1 2 3ṭayr; 4 ŭstuṭīra, to be terrified: pass. of Št-stem, belonging here or rather to ‘bird; to fly’ (↗ṭayr)?; literally probably *‘to be made to interpret the flight of a bird as an evil omen’.
    BP#1233ṭayr, pl. ṭuyūr, ʔaṭyār, n., 1s.v.; 2 augury, omen: fig. use of ↗ṭayr ‘bird’ (or of vn. I); 3 4s.v.
    taṭayyur, n., pessimism: vn. V.
    BP#2403ṭāʔir, n., 1 2 3ṭayr; 4 omen, presage: formally PA I; fig. use of [v3] ‘bird’ of ṭāʔir, cf. ↗ṭayr. | ʕalà al-~ al-maymūn, expr., good luck! Godspeed! (said to s.o. setting out on a journey).
    mutaṭayyir, n., pessimist: PA V.
    mustaṭīr, adj., 1 2 3 4ṭayr; 5 pessimist: PA X. 
    ṭāʔir طائِر 
    ID 552 • Sw 64/12 • BP 2403 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬYR 
    adj., n. 
    1 flying; 2 flyer, aviator, pilot; 3 (pl. -āt, ṭayr) bird; 4 omen, presage – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Grammatically a PA, from ṭāra, vb. I, ‘to fly’ (↗ṭayr). [v1] is the primary meaning.
    ▪ [v2] neolog., nominalized adj.
    ▪ [v3] lit., *‘the flying one’.
    ▪ [v4] prob. fig. use, a ‘flying one’ (bird) being taken as a (bad) omen; cf. also ↗ṭīraẗ 
    ▪ … 
    ṭayr, ↗ṭīraẗ 
    ṭayr, ↗ṭīraẗ 
    ▪ Engl Altair, C16, a bright star in the constellation Aquila, from Ar (al-nasr) al-ṭāʔir ‘the flying (eagle)’, from ṭāʔir ‘flying’, PA of ṭāra ‘to fly’ – Huehnergard2011, EtymOnline
    sukūn al-ṭāʔir, n., graveness, sedateness
    ʕalà al-ṭāʔir al-maymūn, expr., good luck! Godspeed! (said to s.o. setting out on a journey)
    ṭāra ṭāʔiru-hū, vb. I, to become angry, blow one’s top

    For other items from this root, see ↗ṭayr, ↗ṭīraẗ; for the general picture, ↗ṬYR. 
    ṭāʔiraẗ طائِرَة , pl. ‑āt 
    ID 553 • Sw – • BP 973 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬYR 
    n.f. 
    airplane, aircraft – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ neolog., properly a PA f., from ṭāra, vb. I, ‘to fly’ (↗ṭayr). 
    ▪ … 
    ṭayr
    ṭayr
    – 
    ʕalà matn al-ṭāʔiraẗ, adv., aboard the airplane; by (air)plane (e.g., traveling)
    ṭāʔiraẗ baḥriyyaẗ, n.f., seaplane
    ṭāʔiraẗ dawriyyaẗ, n.f., (tech.) (short-range) reconnaissance plane, observation plane
    ṭāʔiraẗ širāʕiyyaẗ, n.f., sailplane, glider
    ṭāʔiraẗ al-muṭāradaẗ, n.f., fighter, pursuit plane, interceptor
    ṭāʔiraẗ ʕamūdiyyaẗ, n.f., helicopter
    ṭāʔiraẗ al-qitāl and ṭāʔiraẗ al-muqātalaẗ, n.f., light bomber, combat plane
    ṭāʔiraẗ al-ĭnqiḍāḍ or ṭāʔiraẗ ĭnqiḍāḍiyyaẗ, n.f. (tech.), dive bomber
    ṭāʔiraẗ māʔiyyaẗ, n.f., seaplane
    ṭāʔiraẗ naffāṯaẗ, n.f., jet plane
    ṭāʔiraẗ al-naql, n.f., transport (plane)
    ṭāʔiraẗ hilīkōbtir, n.f., helicopter
    ḥāmilaẗ al-ṭāʔirāt and nāqilaẗ al-ṭāʔirāt, n.f., aircraft carrier

    For other items from this root, see ↗ṭayr, ↗ṭīraẗ; for the general picture, ↗ṬYR. 
    ṬYN طين 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬYN 
    “root” 
    ▪ ṬYN_1 ‘clay, argil; soil; mud; slime; (pl.) farm lands, fields, estates’ ↗ṭīn
    ▪ ṬYN_2 ‘Linula viscosa (bot.) ’ ↗ṭayyūn

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘mud, clay, to be muddy, to coat with mud; nature, disposition; specific character’. – Some scholars attribute the word ṭīn to an early borrowing from either Syr or Aram. 
    ▪ From among the two values attributed to the Sem √ṬYN in DRS, only one is represented in Ar. The basic meaning of this latter is ‘clay, mud’ (ṬYN_1). Sources differ, however, as to whether it is of Sem or Iranian origin.
    ▪ ṬYN_2 : obscure; related to ṬYN_1 ? 
    – 
    DRS 10 (2012)#ṬYN-1 EmpAram ṭyn, BiblAram ṭīn, JP Syr ṭīnā, Ar ṭīn, ṭīnaẗ, Mhr Ḥrs ṭayn, Jib ṭun ‘glaise, argile, boue’, Ar ṭāna ‘enduire de boue’, Te ṭəṭäyyänä ‘s’ensabler, devenir désertique; devenir calme (temps)’. -2 Gur ṭanä, ṭānä ‘selle, charge, fardeau’.
    ▪ ṬYN_1 – Kogan2011: Akk ṭīṭu, ṭiṭṭu, Hbr ṭīṭ, Syr ṭīnā, Ar ṭīn, Mhr ṭayn, Jib ṭun, Te (tə)ṭäyyänä ‘to be filled with sand’.
     
    ▪ ṬYN_1 ṭīn ‘clay, mud, etc.’ : Although there is a Sem word *ṭīn- ‘clay, mud, etc.’ (Kogan2011), Ar ṭīn has often been regarded as a borrowing, either from Aram (Syr) ṭīnā or from Pers tīna. For details cf. ↗s.v.
    ▪ ṬYN_2 ṭayyūn ‘Linula viscosa (bot.) ’ : etymology obscure. Related to ṬYN_1 ‘clay, mud’ ?
     
    – 
    – 
    ṭīn طِين , pl. ʔaṭyān 
    ID 555 • Sw 79 • BP 3265 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬYN 
    n. 
    1 clay, potter’s clay, argil; 2 soil; 3 mud; 4 slime; 5 pl. ʔaṭyān, farm lands, fields, estates – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Although there is a protSem *ṭīn‑ ‘wet, glutinous earth (mud, clay)’ (Kogan2011), sources differ as to whether Ar ṭīn is directly from there, or an inner-Sem loan (from NSem, from Syr), or of Iranian origin (mPers < a Mesopotamian source).
     
    ▪ eC7 1 (clay, mud) Q 23:12 wa-laqad ḫalaqnā ’l-ʔinsāna min sulālaẗin min ṭīnin ‘We created man from an essence of clay’; 2 (mud bricks) Q 28:38 fa-ʔawqid lī yā Hāmānu ʕalà ’l-ṭīni fa-’ǧʕal lī ṣarḥan ‘so. light a fire for me, Hāmān, on [bricks of] clay, then build me a tall building’. – Cf. also Q 3:46, 5:110, 6:2, 7:12, 17:61, 32:7, 37:11, 38:71,76, 51:33.
     
    DRS 10 (2012)#ṬYN-1 EmpAram ṭyn, BiblAram ṭīn, JP Syr ṭīnā, Ar ṭīn, ṭīnaẗ, Mhr Ḥrs ṭayn, Jib ṭun ‘glaise, argile, boue’, Ar ṭāna ‘enduire de boue’, Te ṭəṭäyyänä ‘s’ensabler, devenir désertique; devenir calme (temps)’.
    ▪ Kogan2011: Akk ṭīṭu, ṭiṭṭu, Hbr ṭīṭ, Syr ṭīnā, Ar ṭīn, Mhr ṭayn, Jib ṭun, Te (tə)ṭäyyänä ‘to be filled with sand’.
     
    ▪ Although there is a Sem word *ṭīn- ‘clay, mud, etc.’ (Kogan2011), Ar ṭīn has often been regarded as a borrowing, either from Aram (Syr) ṭīnā or from mPers tīna. Here is a sample of previous opinions:
    • Jeffery1938: »The Qurʔān uses it particularly for the clay out of which man was created. / Ǧawharī and others take it to be from ṭāna, but this vb. is clearly denominative, and Fraenkel, Fremdw, 8, is doubtless correct in thinking it a loan-word from NSem. – We find ṭynʔ ‘clay’ in JudAram but not commonly used. The Syr ṭīnā was much more widely used. From some source in the Mesopotamian area the word passed into Iranian, where we find the Phlv ideogram tīna, meaning ‘clay’ or ‘mud’ (PPGJ, 219; Frahang, Glossary, p. 119), and it was probably from the same source that it came as an early borrowing into Ar, where we find it used in a general sense in the old poetry, e.g. Ḥamāsa, 712, 1. 14.
    • BAH2008: »Some scholars attribute the word ṭīn to an early borrowing from either Syr or Aram.«
    • Kogan2011 reconstructs protSem *ṭīn- ‘wet, glutinous earth (mud, clay)’, adding that some of the Sem words have been treated as inner-Sem borrowings: Hbr ṭīṭ < Akk ṭīṭ (Mankowski2000: 57-8), Ar ṭīn < Syr ṭīnā (Jeffery1938: 208).526
    • Rolland2014a: ṭīn, from mPers tīna ‘id.’, which seems to be of Mesopotamian origin.527
    ▪ Pennacchio2014 (probably the most correct reading of previous research and the most convincing conclusion from it): »Pour A. Jeffery, il s’agirait d’un emprunt ancien à la Mésopotamie, tandis que Fraenkel estime que l’Ar ṭīn pourrait être soit commun au Sem, soit un emprunt à Dn (2-41). Le mot est ancien car il est utilisé dans la poésie ancienne. […] Pour Moshe Bar-Asher, ṭīṭ et ṭīn en Hbr sont deux mots différents. Ils sont interchangeables, mais ils ons deux racines différentes. La proximité phonologique de ṭīn et ṭīṭ nous laisse supposer une origine commune. HALOT explique ainsi la transformation de l’Akk en attestant d’un affixe -t, ṭin-tu > ṭittu (ṭiddu ?) > ṭiṭṭu > ṭīṭu. Le -t serait probable puisqu’en Ug on a ṭt n.f. Il semblerait qu’il y ait une coexistence de deux formes: ṭīṭ et ṭīn. Soit l’Ar vient de l’Aram, soit d’une forme commune.« 
    – 
    ṭayyana, vb. II, to daub or coat with clay: D-stem, denom., applic.

    ṭīnaẗ, n.f., 1 clay, potter’s clay, argil: parallel f. form; 2 (Eg.) a piece or plot of ground: specialisation; 3 stuff, material, substance (of which s.th. is made): generalisation; 4 specific character, disposition, constitution, nature: fig. use.
    ṭīnī, adj., 1 made of clay; 2 argillaceous, clayey: nsb-adj.
    ṭayyān, n., mortar carrier, hod carrier: quasi-PA, quasi-n.prof., ints.
    ṭayyūn, n., Linula viscosa (bot.): belonging here? 
    ṭayyūn طَيُّون 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ṬYN 
    n. 
    Linula viscosa (bot.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Etymology obscure. Related in any way to ↗ṭīn ‘clay, argil; soil; mud’? 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    For other items of √ṬYN, cf. ↗ṭīn and, for the general picture, ↗ṬYN. 
    ẓāʔ ظاء 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ 
    R₁ 
    The letter of the Arabic alphabet. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ẒRF ظرف 
    Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | created 7Jun2023
    √ẒRF 
    “root” 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ẓarfiyyaẗ ظَرْفيّة 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 7Jun2023
    √ẒRF 
    n.f. 
    ▪ abstr. formation in -iyyaẗ, from ẓarf 
    ẒʕN ظعن
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 19Nov2022
    √ẒʕN 
    “root”
     
    ▪ ẒʕN_1 ‘to move away, leave, depart’ ↗ẓaʕana
    ▪ ẒʕN_ ‘…’

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to leave, depart, migrate, move around in search of pasture; camel litters in which women travel, howdaj; women travelling in the company of men’
     
    ▪ [v1] : from a vb., widely attested in Sem (protSem *Ṯ̣ʕN), with the basic meaning of *‘loading (an animal), decamping, hitting the road, etc.’ (DRS).
    ▪ [v2] : …
     
    – 
    ▪ [v1] DRS #Ḏ̣ʕN: Akk ṣēnu, ṣānu, ṣeʔānu ‘charger’, Hbr *ṣāʕan ‘plier une tente’, EmpAram ṭʕn ‘porter, charger’, ṭʕwn ‘charge’, JudPal ṭᵊʕan ‘charger, porter’, Syr ṭᵊʕen ‘porter’, Palm ṭʕyn ‘chargé (chameau)’, Ar ẓaʕana ‘se mettre en route, partir’, Sab ẓʕn ‘faire route; se déplacer, changer de position, décamper’, Jib ẓaʕan ‘se disperser, gagner une nouvelle résidence’, Soq ṭaʕan ‘se mettre en route’, Gz ṣaʕana, Tña ṣäʕanä, Te ṣäʕana, Amh Gaf Gur č̣anä, Har ṭaʔana, Arg č̣ahana ‘charger une bête de somme’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    ẓaʕan- ظَعَنَ , a (ẓaʕn)
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 19Nov2022
    √ẒʕN 
    vb., I
     
    to move away, leave, depart – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ from a vb., widely attested in Sem (protSem *Ṯ̣ʕN), with the basic meaning of *‘loading (an animal), decamping, hitting the road, etc.’
     
    eC7 ẓaʕn (journeying, travelling, in particular with the entire household) Q 16:80 wa-ǧaʕala la-kum min ǧulūdi l-ʔanʕāmi buyūtan tastaḫiffūna-hā yawma ẓaʕni-kum wa-yawma ʔiqāmati-kum ‘and He has provided for you, from the hide of cattle, tents [lit. houses] that you find light on the day you travel and on the day you settle down’
    ▪ …
     
    DRS #Ḏ̣ʕN: Akk ṣēnu, ṣānu, ṣeʔānu ‘charger’, Hbr *ṣāʕan ‘plier une tente’, EmpAram ṭʕn ‘porter, charger’, ṭʕwn ‘charge’, JudPal ṭᵊʕan ‘charger, porter’, Syr ṭᵊʕen ‘porter’, Palm ṭʕyn ‘chargé (chameau)’, Ar ẓaʕana ‘se mettre en route, partir’, Sab ẓʕn ‘faire route; se déplacer, changer de position, décamper’, Jib ẓaʕan ‘se disperser, gagner une nouvelle résidence’, Soq ṭaʕan ‘se mettre en route’, Gz ṣaʕana, Tña ṣäʕanä, Te ṣäʕana, Amh Gaf Gur č̣anä, Har ṭaʔana, Arg č̣ahana ‘charger une bête de somme’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ It feels tempting to compare It zaino ‘rucksack’, Span zaina ‘money pouch’, Ge Zaine ‘wicker basket’. But these seem to have another origin. The Span and It words go back to Lomb zaina ‘basket’ (dle.rae.es, etimo.it), which, like also Ge Zaine, have their common ancestor in oHGe zaina ~ zein(n)a (C8) ‘id.’, a genuine Germ word (cf. oSax mLGe tēn, oEngl tān, oNo teinn), from reconstructed Germ *tainjō ‘basket woven from twigs’, from Germ *taina- ‘branch, rod, reed, staff’ (DWDS). According to DWDS (Pfeiffer), the further origin of the Germ word is unknown. But it is rather unlikely that it is related to the Sem *Ṯ̣ʕN.
    ▪ …
     
    ẓaʕn, n., departure, start, journey, trek (esp. of a caravan): vn. I.
    ẓaʕīnaẗ, pl. ẓuʕun, ʔaẓʕān, n.f., 1 camel-borne sedan chair for women; 2 a woman in such a sedan: quasi-PP I.f
    ẓāʕin, adj., ephemeral, transient, transitory: PA I
     
    ẒFR ظفر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ẒFR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ẒFR_1 ‘fingernail, claw’ ↗ẓufr
    ▪ ẒFR_2 ‘to be successful, victorious’ ↗ẓafira

    Other values, now obsolete, include:

    ẒFR_3 ‘disease of the eye, pellicle growing on the eyes, cataract’: ẓufur and ẓafaraẗ
    ẒFR_4 ‘odoriferous substance added to incense’: ẓafār, ʔaẓfār

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘fingernails, toenails, claws, talons; to capture; victory, triumph, to succeed, to win’ 
    ▪ DRS 10 (2012) #Ṯ̣PR thinks that »la base sémantique générale peut être le nom de l’ongle, avec des développements métaphoriques«. But semantic relations inside the root, if any, remain far from evident.
    ▪ ẒFR_1 : (Orel&Stolbova1994#513:) The Sem word *ṯ̣upr‑ ‘fingernail’ (Kogan2015 Sw#13 < SED I #285: protSem *ṯ̣ipr‑ ‘claw’) has cognates in Agaw, HEC, Omot, and Rift. An AfrAs etymon may be reconstructed as *č̣upar‑ ‘fingernail’. According to the authors, the item is phonetically close to AfrAs *c̣ib˅ʕ ‘finger’ (↗Ar ʔiṣbaʕ).
    – Relation (if any) to ↗ẓafira ‘be victorious, triumphant’ remains obscure.
    ▪ ẒFR_2 : Ar ẓafira ‘to be successful, victorious’ has an obvious cognate only in Sab. Etymology obscure. Any relation to ↗ẓufr ‘fingernail, claw’ ?
    ▪ ẒFR_3-4 : see below, section DISC. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ DRS 10 (2012) #Ṯ̣PR-1 Akk ṣupr-, ṣupur-, Hbr ṣippōren, JudPal ṭuprā, Ar ẓufr, Mhr ẓēfēr, ṭayfir, Soq ṭifer, ṭayfher, Jib ẓifär, Ḥrs ẓefīr, Gz Te ṣəfər, Tña ṣəfri, Gaf ṣəfrä, Amh Gur ṭəfər, Har ṭifir, Arg č̣əffər ‘ongle, griffe’. – Ar ẓafara ‘égratigner avec les ongles’, Gz ṣafara ‘couper les ongles’, Gur č̣äfärä ‘griffer en laissant une marque’. - ? 2 Ar ẓafira ‘se saisir de; avoir le dessus, vaincre’, Sab ṯ̣fr ‘vaincre’. - ? 3 Ar ẓafār ‘arôme, parfum’, ʔaẓfār ‘espèce d’aromate’, Phoen ṣpr ‘parfum (?)’. -4 PalAr ẓafar ‘maladie qui atteint les naseaux de l’âne’. – Outside Sem: Pour AfrAs, Cohen 160 fournit: (Berb) Tua atfer ‘partie antérieure du pied (avec les doigts)’; aussi tifḍənt ‘orteil’?, (Cush) Ag Bil čiffer ‘ongle’. 
    See above, section CONC. 
    … 
    ▪ For ẒFR_1 and _2, cf. also above, section CONC.
    ▪ ẒFR_3 : The value ‘disease of the eye, pellicle growing on the eyes, cataract’, registered by Hava1899 and others for the obs. items ẓufur or ẓafaraẗ appears to be close to PalAr ẓafar ‘maladie qui atteint les naseaux de l’âne’, given in DRS 10 (2012) #Ṯ̣PR-4. – Cf. also the (denom.) vb. ẓafira or (pass.) ẓufira (a, ẓafar) ‘to have a pellicle over the eye, have the cataract’ (Hava1899). – The value is likely to be a metaphorical use of ẓufr, though the exact nature of a possible relation betw. ‘fingernail, claw’ and ‘eye-disease’ remains to be explained.
    ▪ ẒFR_4 : Accord. to Ar lexicographers, the odoriferious substance is attained from claw-shaped plants. That the value ‘perfume’ is metonymic use of ‘claw’ becomes clear also from several combinations of the type *‘claw of…x’, such as ẓufr al-ṭīb\al-ʕifrīt ‘unguis odoratus: odoriferous substance added to incense’, lit., *‘claw of fragrance\the genie’, ẓufr al-ḥaǧar ‘sard, cornelian (stone)’, lit., *‘fingernail of the stone’, or ẓufr al-qiṭṭ ‘lion’s (lit., *the cat’s’) foot (a plant)’ (Hava1899). Moreover, DRS reports that *‘odoriferous fingernail\claw’ also is »l’opercule de certains gastéropodes, utilisé en parfumerie dans l’antiquité«, which would make the use of ‘fingernail, claw’ for ‘perfume’ quite plausible.
    ▪ Accord. to DRS, »Dolgopol’skij 129 propose un rapprochement avec ZRP«. 
    ẓafir‑ ظَفِرَ , a (ẓafar)
     
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ẒFR 
    vb., I 
    1a to be successful, succeed, be victorious, be triumphant; 1b to gain a victory, conquer, vanquish, defeat, overcome, surmount, overwhelm, get the better; 2a to seize, take possession; 2b to get, obtain, attain, achieve, gain, win – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ Ar ẓafira ‘to be successful, victorious’ has an obvious cognate only in Sab (see below). Etymology obscure. Any relation to ↗ẓufr ‘fingernail, claw’ ?
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ DRS 10 (2012) #Ṯ̣PR-1 [perh. unrelated to -2!] Akk ṣupr-, ṣupur-, Hbr ṣippōren, JudPal ṭuprā, Ar ẓufr, Mhr ẓēfēr, ṭayfir, Soq ṭifer, ṭayfher, Jib ẓifär, Ḥrs ẓefīr, Gz Te ṣəfər, Tña ṣəfri, Gaf ṣəfrä, Amh Gur ṭəfər, Har ṭifir, Arg č̣əffər ‘ongle, griffe’. – Ar ẓafara ‘égratigner avec les ongles’, Gz ṣafara ‘couper les ongles’, Gur č̣äfärä ‘griffer en laissant une marque’. - ? 2 Ar ẓafira ‘se saisir de; avoir le dessus, vaincre’, Sab ṯ̣fr ‘vaincre’. -34 […]. 
    ▪ See above, section CONC. 
    … 
    ẓaffara, vb. II, to grant victory, make triumph, render victorious: D-stem, caus.
    ʔaẓfara, vb. IV, = II: *Š-stem, caus.
    taẓāfara, vb. VI, to ally, enter into an alliance or confederacy, join forces: Lt-stem, assoc.

    ẓafar, n., victory, triumph: vn. I, which may be the etymon proper.
    ẓafir, adj., victorious, successful, triumphant; (pl. ẓufrān) ↗ẓufr
    ʔuẓfūr, n., ↗ẓufr
    ẓāfir, adj., victorious, triumphant; successful; victor, conqueror
    muẓaffar, adj., victorious, successful, triumphant

    For other items formed from the root, cf. ↗ẓufr and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ẒFR
     
    ẓufr ظُفْر , var. ẓufur, ẓifr, pl. ʔaẓfār, ʔaẓāfirᵘ, ʔaẓāfīrᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ẒFR 
    n. 
    1a nail, fingernail; 1b toenail; 1c claw, talon – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ (Kogan2015 Sw#13:) from protSem *ṯ̣ipr‑ ‘claw’ (SED I #285). Passim throughout Sem.
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#513: from protSem *ṯ̣upr‑ < AfrAs *č̣upar‑ ‘fingernail’, phonetically close to AfrAs *c̣ib˅ʕ ‘finger’ (> Ar ↗ʔiṣbaʕ).
    ▪ Any connection to ↗√ẒFR ‘to be victorious, triumphant’?
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘fingernail, toe nail’) Akk ṣupru, Hbr (ṣippóren), Syr ṭep̄rā, Gz ṣefr.
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#513: Akk ṣupru, Hbr ṣipporen, PalAram ṭuprā, Ar ẓufr, Gz ṣǝfr, Te ṣǝfǝr, Tña ṣǝfri, Amh ṭǝfǝr, Gaf ṣǝfra, Arg č̣uffǝr, Gur ṭǝfǝr, Soq ṭifǝr, Mhr ṭayfer, Šḥr ẓefer, Jib ẓifɛr ‘fingernail’. – Outside Sem cognates in Agaw, HEC, Omot, Rift (see DISC below).
    ▪ Is ↗√ẒFR ‘to be victorious, triumphant’ cognate?
     
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#513: protSem *ṯ̣upr‑ ‘fingernail’, protAgaw *c̣ifar ‘finger’, protHEC *ʒurup‑ ‘finger’ (unexpected *ʒ‑), protOmot *ǯafar‑ ‘finger’ (which may be a common HEC‑Omot innovation or a loan), protRift *č̣araf‑ ‘fingernail’, all from an hypothetical AfrAs *č̣upar‑ ‘fingernail’. According to the authors, the word is phonetically close to AfrAs *c̣ib˅ʕ ‘finger’ (> Ar↗ʔiṣbaʕ).
    ▪ Any connection to ↗ẓafira ‘to be victorious, triumphant’ ?
     
    … 
    min/munḏu nuʕūmaẗ ʔaẓfārih, adv.expr., from (the days of) his earliest youth
    nāʕim al‑ẓufr, adj., youthful, of tender age
    ḤiǧAr ẓafir, pl. ẓufrān, n., young man, youth

    For other items formed from the root, cf. ↗ẓafira and, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√ẒFR
     
    ẒLː (ẒLL) ظلّ / ظلل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ẒLː (ẒLL) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ẒLː (ẒLL)_1 ‘shadow’ ↗ẓill
    ▪ ẒLː (ẒLL)_2 ‘to remain’ ↗ẓalla
    ▪ ẒLː (ẒLL)_3 ‘…’ ↗

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘shadow, shade, parasol; shelter, protection, patronage; to seek the shade; to seek protection; to continue doing s.th. by day, to remain’ 
    ▪ Any relation betw. ẒLː (ẒLL)_1 and ẒLː (ẒLL)_2? The latter seems to be a value peculiar to Ar.
    ▪ ẒLː (ẒLL)_1 : from protSem *ṯ̣ilal‑ (Kogan2011) or *ṯ̣il(l)‑ (Militarev2006) ‘shadow’ < AfrAs *č̣al-/*č̣il- (Militarev&Stolbova2007) < perh. from Nostr *č̣˹o˺l˻w˼˅ ‘shadow, shade, dark’ (Dolgopolsky2012).
    ▪ ẒLː (ẒLL)_2 : ?
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ DRS 10 (2012) #Ṯ̣LL-1 Akk ṣillu, Ug ṯ̣l ‘ombre’, mẓll ‘abri, maison’, Hbr ṣēl, JudPal ṭᵊlālā, Syr ṭillālā, nSyr ṭellā, Mnd ṭwlʔ, Palm ṭll ‘couvrir d’un toit’, Ar ẓill ‘ombre’, Ṣaf mẓll ‘couvert d’ombre, accablé’, MġrAr mẓalla ‘parasol, ombrelle’; Sab ṯ̣ll, mṯ̣lln, mṯ̣lt, mhṯ̣ll: sorte de structure couverte, tombeau (?)’, hθṯ̣l ‘construire une structure couverte’, Mhr aẓlēl, Jib ẓell ‘faire de l’ombre’, Mhr məẓallət, Jib ẓallät ‘ombrelle’, Gz ṣalala, ṣallala ‘ombrager, couvrir, cacher’, ṣəlālot ‘ombre, obscurité, protection’, Te ʔaṣläla ‘faire de l’ombre’, ṣəlal ‘ombre, obscurité’, Tña ʔaṣlälä ‘s’abriter’, ʔanṣälaläwä ‘faire de l’ombre’, ṣəlal(ot) ‘ombre’, Amh tällälä ‘faire de l’ombre’, Amh Arg ṭəla ‘ombre’, Gaf č̣əlayä, Har č̣āya, Gur ṭəlal, č̣al ‘ombre’, aṭṭillälä ‘séparer par un rideau’. -2 Ar ẓalla ‘être dans la journée; persister à, continuer à, devenir’, ḤassAr ẓall ‘passer la journée’, MġrAr ẓall ‘faire une chose sans cesse, ne cesser de’. -3 ẓelāl ‘coussinet placé sur le bât’. – Outside Sem (perh. < Sem?): Sa ṣalat, Bilin č̣aläla, Or č̣āya ‘ombre’.
    ▪ For further cognates (outside Sem) cf. individual entries. 
    … 
    … 
    … 
    ẓall‑ / ẓalil‑ ظَلَّ / ظَلِلْـ , a (ẓall, ẓulūl
    ID … • Sw – • BP 387 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ẒLː (ẒLL) 
    vb., I 
    to remain; to persist; (with foll. imperf. or participle:) to keep doing s.th., do s.th. constantly or continuously, persist in s.th. – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ The vb. does not seem to have cognates outside Ar. Is it somehow connected to ↗ẓill ‘shadow’?
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ DRS 10 (2012) #Ṯ̣LL-1 […]. -2 Ar ẓalla ‘être dans la journée; persister à, continuer à, devenir’, ḤassAr ẓall ‘passer la journée’, MġrAr ẓall ‘faire une chose sans cesse, ne cesser de’. -3 […].
    ▪ If related to ↗ẓill ‘shadow’, cf. s.v. for further cognates. 
    … 
    … 
    For other items of the root, cf. ↗ẓill and, for the overall picture, ↗√ẒLː (ẒLL). 
    ẓill ظِلّ , pl. ẓilāl, ẓulūl, ʔaẓlāl 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 876 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ẒLː (ẒLL) 
    n. 
    1 shadow, shade, umbra; 2 shelter, protection, patronage; 3 shading, hue; 4 slightest indication, semblance, trace, glimpse (of s.th.); 5 tangent (geom.) – WehrCowan1976.
     
    ▪ From protSem *ṯ̣ilal‑ (Kogan2011) or *ṯ̣il(l)‑ (Militarev2006) ‘shadow’ < AfrAs *č̣al-/*č̣il- (Militarev&Stolbova2007) < perh. from Nostr *č̣˹o˺l˻w˼˅ ‘shadow, shade, dark’ (Dolgopolsky2012).
    ▪ Connected to ↗ẓalla ‘to remain’?
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ DRS 10 (2012) #Ṯ̣LL-1 Akk ṣillu, Ug ṯ̣l ‘ombre’, mẓll ‘abri, maison’, Hbr ṣēl, JudPal ṭᵊlālā, Syr ṭillālā, nSyr ṭellā, Mnd ṭwlʔ, Palm ṭll ‘couvrir d’un toit’, Ar ẓill ‘ombre’, Ṣaf mẓll ‘couvert d’ombre, accablé’, MġrAr mẓalla ‘parasol, ombrelle’; Sab ṯ̣ll, mṯ̣lln, mṯ̣lt, mhṯ̣ll: sorte de structure couverte, tombeau (?)’, hθṯ̣l ‘construire une structure couverte’, Mhr aẓlēl, Jib ẓell ‘faire de l’ombre’, Mhr məẓallət, Jib ẓallät ‘ombrelle’, Gz ṣalala, ṣallala ‘ombrager, couvrir, cacher’, ṣəlālot ‘ombre, obscurité, protection’, Te ʔaṣläla ‘faire de l’ombre’, ṣəlal ‘ombre, obscurité’, Tña ʔaṣlälä ‘s’abriter’, ʔanṣälaläwä ‘faire de l’ombre’, ṣəlal(ot) ‘ombre’, Amh tällälä ‘faire de l’ombre’, Amh Arg ṭəla ‘ombre’, Gaf č̣əlayä, Har č̣āya, Gur ṭəlal, č̣al ‘ombre’, aṭṭillälä ‘séparer par un rideau’. -2 Ar ẓalla ‘être dans la journée; persister à, continuer à, devenir’, ḤassAr ẓall ‘passer la journée’, MġrAr ẓall ‘faire une chose sans cesse, ne cesser de’. -3 ẓelāl ‘coussinet placé sur le bât’. – Outside Sem (perh. < Sem?): Sa ṣalat, Bilin č̣aläla, Or č̣āya ‘ombre’.
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#503, Militarev&Stolbova2007: Akk ṣillu, Ug ẓl, Hbr ṣēl, Syr ṭullā, Gz ṣelālāt, Te ẓelɛl. – Outside Sem: (WCh) Angas ǯil ‘shade under trees’, Sha čalâ ‘shadow’, (CCh) Gisiga nʒala ‘west’, (HEC) Sid c̣aale ‘shade’, and Dhl ṯälali‑ (with partial reduplication) ‘shadow’.
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘shadow’) Akk ṣillu, Hbr ṣēl, Syr ṭullā, Gz (ṣelālṓt).
    ▪ Almedlaoui 2012: For ClassAr ẓll / Hbr ṣll ‘to be dark/black’ cf. Tashl ḍla ‘dto.’. – Cf. also Bennett1998:229 (#125): JebNaf eṭːlålː, Ghad tēle Warg AytSegr Kab tili.
    ▪ Is ↗ẓalla ‘to remain’ related to ẓill?
     
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#503 and Militarev&Stolbova2007 reconstruct protSem *ṯ̣il(l)‑, protWCh *(n˅)č̣ila‑, protCCh *n˅‑ǯal‑ < *n˅‑čal‑, HEC *c̣al‑, Dhl ṯälali‑ (with partial reduplication), all ‘shadow, shade’ (but CCh: ‘west’). An AfrAs origin is thus highly probable; the authors suggest AfrAs *č̣al‑ / *č̣il‑ ‘shadow’.
    ▪ DRS 10 (2012) #Ṯ̣LL: Cf. also ṬLṬ. – Outside Sem: Cush probably loaned from EthSem.
    ▪ Dolgopolsky2012 sees parallels also outside AfrAs and reconstructs Nostr *č̣˹o˺l˻w˼˅ ‘shadow, shade, dark’.
    ▪ Is ↗ẓalla ‘to remain’ akin to ẓill?
     
    … 
    fī ẓill …, quasi‑prep. (with foll. genit.), under the protection or patronage of, under the auspices of; under the sovereignty of
    taḥt ẓill … (with foll. genit.), quasi‑prep., under the protection or patronage of, under the auspices of;
    ṯaqīl al‑ẓill, adj., unsufferable, repugnant (of a person)
    ḫafīf al‑ẓill, adj., likable, nice (of a person)
    ĭstaṯqala ẓillah, expr., to dislike s.o., find s.o. insufferable, unbearable, a bore;
    taqallaṣa ẓilluh, expr., his prestige or authority faded, diminished; it decreased, diminished, dwindled away, waned
    wizāraẗ ẓill, n.f., shadow cabinet (pol.)

    ẓallala, vb. II, 1 to shade, overshadow, cast a shadow; 2 to screen, shelter, protect; 3 to preserve, guard, maintain, keep up: D-stem, caus.
    ʔaẓalla, vb. IV, = II.
    taẓallala, vb. V, to be shaded, sit in the shadow: Dt-stem, refl., autobenefact.
    ĭstaẓalla, vb. X, 1a = V; 1b to protect o.s. from the sun, hide in the shadow, seek the shadow; 2 to place o.s. unter the protection or patronage of s.o., seek shelter or refuge with s.o., be under the patronage or protection of s.o.: *Št-stem, desiderative.

    ẓullaẗ, pl. ẓulal, n.f., 1 awning, marquee, canopy, sheltering hut or tent, shelter; 2 shack, shanty; 3 kiosk, stall; 4 beach chair
    ẓalīl, adj., shady, shaded, umbrageous
    BP#3906miẓallaẗ, vulgAr maẓallaẗ, pl. ‑āt, maẓāllᵘ, n.f., 1 umbrella, parasol, sunshade; lamp shade; 2 awning; 3 veranda, porch: n.instr. | ʕīd al‑miẓallaẗ, n., Feast of Tabernacles, Sukkoth (Jud.); miẓallaẗ wāqiyaẗ\hābiṭaẗ, n.f., parachute; ǧundī al‑miẓallaẗ, n., paratrooper
    miẓallī, n., paratrooper; pl. paratroops, airborne troops: nisba formation from miẓallaẗ.
    muẓallil, and muẓill, adj., shady, shadowy, umbrageous, shading, causing shadow: PA II and IV, respectively.

    For other items of the root, cf. ↗ẓalla and, for the overall picture, ↗√ẒLː (ẒLL). 
    ẒLM ظلم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ẒLM 
    “root” 
    ▪ ẒLM_1 ‘to be dark, darkness’ ↗ẓlm
    ▪ ẒLM_2 ‘’ ↗ẓlm

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘darkness, (of darkness) to descend; to put s.th. in the wrong place, to act improperly; to cause s.o. to suffer a loss; to wrong s.o., to act unjustly, injustice, tyranny, oppression’ 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *ṯ̣lm ‘to be black’, one of the four basic colours in the protSem colour spectrum84 (see also Ar ↗LBN and BYḌ for ‘white’, ↗ʔDM and ḤMR for ‘red’, ↗WRQ and ḪḌR for ‘green’).
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ẓulm ظُلْم 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 1404 • APD … • © SG | created 7Jun2023
    √ẒLM 
    n. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    maẓlūm مَظْلُوم 
    ID 556 • Sw – • BP 4008 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ẒLM 
    adj. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ẒMʔ ظمأ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023
    √ ẒMʔ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ẒMʔ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ẒMʔ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ẒMʔ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘thirst, to be thirsty, to cause to be thirsty; span of time, to be mean, to be unjust’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ẒNː (ẒNN) ظنّ/ظنن 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023
    √ẒNː (ẒNN) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ẒNː (ẒNN)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ẒNː (ẒNN)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ẒNː (ẒNN)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘assumption, supposition, conjecture, guessing; opinion, belief, to realise, to know; doubt, to have a low opinion of, to think ill of, to be suspicious, to accuse. Contexts in which derivatives of this root occur vary greatly as regards the degree of doubt/certainty associated with them, and therefore cause interpretational problems’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ẒHR ظهر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ẒHR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ẒHR_1 ‘back, rear part; upper part, top; to endorse, support, help, assist’ ↗¹ẓahr
    ▪ ẒHR_2 ‘noon, midday’ ↗ẓuhr
    ▪ ẒHR_3 ‘to appear, seem, become visible, evident’ ↗ẓahara
    ▪ ẒHR_4 ‘cast iron’ ↗²ẓahr
    ▪ ẒHR_5 ‘Dhahran’ ↗ẓahrān

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘back, rear; backer, to back up; to neglect, to turn one’s back on; to carry on one’s back; outside, exterior, external, outward; to be apparent, perceptible, manifest, plain, evident; to assist, to gang up on; appearances; to travel from one place to another; to overpower, to conquer; noon, midday’ 
    DRS 10 (2012)#ẒHR: »Les valeurs les plus fréquentes sont fondées sur la notion de ‘dos’: surface supérieure, prêter le dos, adosser, tourner le dos, etc. Les dictionnaires arabes montrent bien les rapports entre ces usages métaphoriques, fréquents d’ailleurs dans bien d’autres langues.« 
    – 
    DRS 10 (2012)#ẒHR-1 Akk ṣēr‑ ‘dos, dessus, steppe’, Ug ẓr ‘dos, sommet’, Hbr ṣohᵃr ‘toit’, Ar ẓahr ‘dos, dessus, surface d’une chose’, SAr b-θ̣hr ‘sur le dos de, sur’, Jib źähər, Mhr źāhər, Ḥrs ẓahr, źahr ‘dos, dos de chameau’, Mhr ẓār, Jib ẓer, Soq ṭhar ‘sur’. – Ar ẓahara, ẓāhara ‘servir d’appui, aider, assister’, Soq ṣwr ‘porter’, Gz ṣora, Amh ṭorä, ṭäwwärä ‘entretenir, pourvoir aux besoins de ses parents’, Arg ṭora ‘porter’, Gur ṭäwärä ‘porter sur le dos ou sur la tête, pourvoir au besoins de qn (particulièrement de ses parents)’.
    DRS 10 (2012)#ẒHR-2 Hbr ṣāḫārayim, Aram ṭēhᵃrā, Syr ṭahrā, Ar ẓuhr, Mhr Ḥrs ẓahr, Jib ẓohur ‘midi’.
    DRS 10 (2012)#ẒHR-3 Ar ẓahara ‘paraître, apparaître; manifester, rendre évident, divulguer’, ʔaẓhara ‘proclamer, témoigner hautement’, YemAr ʔiẓhār ‘annonce publique, proclamation’, Sab hθ̣hr ‘attester, certifier’, θ̣hr ‘document, acte’, Mhr źəhēr, Ḥrs ẓehōr, ẓehār, lehōr, Jib źähär ‘apparaître’.
    ▪ Two other values, but not represented in Ar. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ẓahar‑ ظَهَرَ , a (ẓuhūr
    ID … • Sw – • BP 611 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ẒHR 
    vb., I 
    to be or become visible, perceptible, distinct, manifest, clear, apparent, evident, obvious, come to light, appear, manifest itself, come into view, show, emerge, crop up; to appear, seem; to break out (disease); to come out; to enter, appear (on the stage; theat.); to appear, be published (book, periodical); to arise, result (min from). – For other meanings ↗ẓahr, ẓuhr – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ According to DRS 10 (2012)#ẒHR, »[l]es valeurs les plus fréquentes [of the root ẒHR] sont fondées sur la notion de ‘dos’ [↗ẓahr ]: surface supérieure, prêter le dos, adosser, tourner le dos, etc. Les dictionnaires arabes montrent bien les rapports entre ces usages métaphoriques, fréquents d’ailleurs dans bien d’autres langues.«
    ▪ According to Orel&Stolbova1994#498, the vb. could go back via Sem *ṯ̣˅har‑ ‘to appear, be evident’ to AfrAs *č̣ahar‑ ‘to show’. 
    – 
    DRS 10 (2012)#ẒHR-3. Ar ẓahara ‘paraître, apparaître; manifester, rendre évident, divulguer’, ʔaẓhara ‘proclamer, témoigner hautement’, YemAr ʔiẓhār ‘annonce publique, proclamation’, Sab hθ̣hr ‘attester, certifier’, θ̣hr ‘document, acte’, Mhr źəhēr, Ḥrs ẓehōr, ẓehār, lehōr, Jib źähär ‘apparaître’. ▪ Cf. also other items of ↗√ẒHR. ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#498: Mhr ẓahar, Soq ṭahar ‘to appear, be evident’. – Outside Sem: a vb. a-čäřmeaning ‘to show’ in one CCh language. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    BP#1024ʔaẓhara, vb. IV, to make visible, make apparent, show, demonstrate, present, produce, bring to light, expose, disclose, divulge, reveal, manifest, announce, proclaim, make known, expound, set forth (s.th,); to develop (film; phot.); to articulate fully: caus. – For other meanings ↗ẓahr, ẓuhr.
    taẓāhara, vb. VI, to manifest, display, show outwardly, exhibit, parade (bi‑ s.th.); to feign, affect, pretend, simulate (bi‑ s.th.), act as if, make out as if (bi‑); to demonstrate, make a public demonstration:. – For other meanings ↗ẓahr.
    ĭstaẓhara, vb. X, to show, demonstrate, expose (s.th.); to memorize, learn by heart; to know by heart:. – For other meanings ↗ẓahara and ↗ẓuhr.

    ẓahīr, pl. ẓahāʔirᵘ, n., (mor.) decree, edict, ordinance: *‘the published one’ – For other meanings ↗ẓahr.
    BP#1507ẓuhūr, n., appearance; appearance, entry on the stage (theat.); visibility, conspicuousness; pomp, splendor, show, ostentation, window-dressing: vn. I | ḥubb al-ẓ. ostentatiousness, love of pomp; ʕīd al-ẓ., n., Epiphany (Chr.); badaʔa fī ‘l-ẓ., vb., to become visible, come into view.
    bayna ẓahrān ayhim, adv., in their midst, among them: ?.
    ẓihāraẗ, n.f., outside, right side (of a garment); blanket (e.g., of a mule):.
    ʔaẓharᵘ, adj., more distinct, more manifest, clearer: elat.
    BP#1831maẓhar, pl. maẓāhirᵘ, n., (external) appearance, external make-up, guise; outward bearing, comportment, conduct, behavior; exterior, look(s), sight, view; semblance, aspect; bearer or object of a phenomenon, object in which s.th. manifests itself; phenomenon; symptom (med.); pl. manifestations, expressions: n.loc. | maẓāhir al-ḥayāẗ, n.pl., manifestations of life (biol.); fī ‘l-m., adv., externally, in outward appearance, outwardly.
    BP#2723muẓāharaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., (public) demonstration, rally: vn. III. – For another meaning ↗ẓahr.
    BP#3598ʔiẓhār, n., presentation, exposition, demonstration, exhibition, disclosure, exposure, revelation, announcement, declaration, manifestation, display; developing (phot.): vn. IV.
    taẓāhur, n., dissimulation, feigning, pretending, pretension; hypocrisy, dissemblance; (pl. ‑āt) (public) demonstration, rally: vn. VI.
    BP#3596taẓāhuraẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., (public) demonstration: n.vic. of vn. VI.
    BP#1832ẓāhir, adj., (of God) mastering, knowing (ʕalà s.th.); visible, perceptible, distinct, manifest, obvious, conspicuous, clear, patent, evident, apparent; external, exterior, outward; seeming, presumed, ostensible, alleged; outside, exterior, surface; outskirts, periphery (of a city); (gram.) substantive; (pl. ẓawāhirᵘ) external sense, literal meaning (specif., of Koran and Prophetic Tradition): PA I. | ẓāhiran, adv., externally, outwardly; seemingly, presumedly, ostensibly, allegedly; ẓ. al-lafẓ the literal meaning of an expression; al-ẓ. ʔanna, it seems, it appears that…; ḥasab al-ẓ., adv., in outward appearance, externally, outwardly; fī ‘l-ẓ., adv., apparently, obviously, evidently; fī ‘l-ẓ. and fī ‘l-ẓ. al-ʔamr, adv., seen outwardly, externally; outwardly; min al-ẓ., adv., from outside :.
    ẓāhirī, adj., outer, outside, external, exterior, outward; superficial; appararent, seeming (in contrast with ḥaqīqī real); Zahiritic, interpreting the Koran according to its literal meaning: nsb-adj from ẓāhir.
    BP#1057ẓāhiraẗ, pl. ẓawāhirᵘ, n., phenomenon, outward sign or token, external symptom or indication: PA I, f. | ẓawāhir al-ḥayāẗ, n.pl., biological phenomena (biol.); ʕilm al-ẓawāhir al-ǧawwiyyaẗ, n., meteorology; satara ‘l-ẓawāhir, vb., to keep up appearances.
    ẓāhirātī, adj., phenomenological | al-falsafaẗ al-ẓāhirātiyyaẗ, n., phenomenology (philos.): nsb-adj from ẓāhirāt, a pl. of ẓāhiraẗ.
    BP#3944mutaẓāhir, pl. ‑ūn, n., demonstrator: PA VI.

    For other items of the root cf. ↗√ẒHR, ↗ẓahr, ↗ẓuhr

    ĭstaẓhar- اِسْتَظْهَرَ 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 7Jun2023
    √ẒHR 
    vb., X 
    ▪ *Št-stem, … 
    ¹ẓahr ظَهْر , pl. ẓuhūr , ʔaẓhur 
    ID 557 • Sw –/6 • BP 1373 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ẒHR 
    n. 
    back; rear, rear part, rear side, reverse; flyleaf; deck (of a steamer); upper part, top, surface; ẓuhūrāt (as a genit.; eg.) pro tempore, provisional, temporary – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *ṯ̣ahr‑ ‘back’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 10 (2012)#ẒHR–1: Akk ṣēr‑ ‘dos, dessus, steppe’, Ug ẓr ‘dos, sommet’, Hbr ṣohᵃr ‘toit’, Ar ẓahr ‘dos, dessus, surface d’une chose’, SAr b-θ̣hr ‘sur le dos de, sur’, Jib źähər, Mhr źāhər, Ḥrs ẓahr, źahr ‘dos, dos de chameau’, Mhr ẓār, Jib ẓer, Soq ṭhar ‘sur’. – Ar ẓahara, ẓāhara ‘servir d’appui, aider, assister’, Soq ṣwr ‘porter’, Gz ṣora, Amh ṭorä, ṭäwwärä ‘entretenir, pourvoir aux besoins de ses parents’, Arg ṭora ‘porter’, Gur ṭäwärä ‘porter sur le dos ou sur la tête, pourvoir au besoins de qn (particulièrement de ses parents)’.
    ▪ Kogan2011: Akk ṣēru, Ug ẓr, Ar ẓahr, Mhr ẓār, Jib ẓér, Soq ṭhar. Hbr ṣōhar is only preserved as a designation of Noah’s Ark in Genesis 6:16, but the adverb ṣú-uḫ-ru-ma ‘on the back’ is well attested in AmarnaCan.
    ▪ Cf. also other items of ↗√ẒHR. 
    ▪ Fronzaroli#2.65, and others after him, reconstruct Sem *ẓahr‑ ‘back’.
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    silsilaẗ al-ẓahr, n., spine, vertebral column.
    ẓahran li-baṭnin, adv., upside down, topsy-turvy.
    ẓahran ʕalà ʕaqibin, adv., from the ground up, radically, entirely, completely.
    bi-ẓahr al-ġayb, adv., behind s.o.’s back, insidiously, treacherously; secretly, stealthily, clandestinely.
    bayna ʔaẓhurihim, adv., in their midst, among them.
    min bayni ʔaẓhurinā, adv., from our midst, from among us.
    ʕalà ẓahr, prep., on (e.g., on the ground, on the water, etc.).
    ʕalà ẓahr al-bāḫiraẗ, adv., on board the steamer.
    ʕan ẓahr al-qalb, ʕan ẓahr qalbin or ʕan ẓahr al-ġayb, adv., by heart.
    mustaḫdam ẓuhūrāt, n., temporary employee.

    ẓahara, a (ẓuhūr), vb. I, to ascend, climb, mount; to gain the upperhand, to triumph (ʕalà over), get the better (ʕalà of), overcome, overwhelm, conquer, vanquish (ʕalà s.o.); to get (ʕalà s.th.) into one’s power; to gain or have knowledge (ʕalà of), come to know (ʕalà s.th.), become acquainted (ʕalà with); to know (ʕalà s.th.); to learn, receive information (ʕalà about); to be cognizant (ʕalà of); to learn (ʕalà s.th.) : denom. from ẓahr (*‘to get on top of s.th.’), or from ẓuhr (*‘to rise above s.th. like the sun at noon’)? – For other meanings ↗ẓahara ‘to appear, seem, become visible, evident’.
    ẓahhara, vb. II, to endorse (a bill of exchange): denom. (‘to back s.o.’)
    ẓāhara, vb. III, to help, assist, aid, support (s.o.): benefactive (*‘to lend one’s support to s.o., back s.o.’).
    ʔaẓhara, vb. IV, to grant victory (ʕalà over), render victorious; to acquaint (s.o. ʕalà with s.th.), initiate (s.o. ʕalà into s.th.), give knowledge or information (ʕalà about), inform, enlighten, explain; to let (s.o.) in on s.th. (ʕalà), make (s.o.) realize (ʕalà s.th.); to show, reveal (ʕalà s.th.): (caus., semantics not clear, may also be from ↗ẓahara ‘to appear, seem, become visible’ or from ↗ẓuhr ‘noon, midday’). – For other meanings of the vb. ↗ẓahara.
    taẓāhara, vb. VI, to help one another, make common cause (ʕalà against): reciprocal (to support/back each other). – For other meanings ↗ẓahara.
    ĭstaẓhara, vb. X, to seek help, assistance, or support (bi‑ with), appeal for help, for assistance (bi‑ to s.o.): properly, *‘to ask for s.o.’s backing, support’. – For other meanings ↗ẓuhr and ↗ẓahara

    ẓihrī: nabaḏa hū (ṭaraḥa-hū) ẓihriyyan, vb., to pay no attention to s.th., not to care about s.th., disregard s.th.: a nsb-adj?
    ẓahīr, n., helper, assistant, aid, supporter; partisan, backer; back (in soccer): lit., *‘the one who lends s.o. his/her support/backing’. – For another meaning ↗ẓahara.
    bayna ẓahrān ayhim, adv., in their midst, among them: ?.
    taẓhīr, n., endorsement, transfer by endorsement (of a bill of exchange; fin.): vn. II., denom.
    ẓihār, n., pre-Islamic form of divorce, consisting in the words of repudiation, ‘you are to me like my mother’s back’ (ʔanti ʕalayya ka-ẓahri ʔummī): vn. III, denom.
    muẓāharaẗ, n.f., assistance, support, backing: vn. III. – For another meaning ↗ẓahara.
    muẓahhir, pl. ‑ūn, n., endorser (of a bill of exchange; fin.): PA II.

    For other items of the root cf. ↗√ẒHR, ↗ẓuhr, ↗ẓahara

    ²ẓahr ظَهْر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ẒHR 
    n. 
    cast iron – WehrCowan1979. 
    Probably confused with ↗zahr (with non-emphatic z). 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Cf. also other items of ↗√ẒHR. 
    Probably confused with ↗zahr
    – 
    ẓahr al-ḥadīd and ḥadīd al-ẓahrzahr 
    ẓuhr ظُهْر , pl. ʔaẓhār 
    ID 558 • Sw – • BP 1425 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ẒHR 
    n. 
    noon, midday; (f.) midday prayer (Isl. Law) | baʕd al-ẓ., adv., in the afternoon, p.m.; qabl al-ẓ., adv., in the forenoon, a.m.; qabl ẓ. ʔams, adv., yesterday morning – WehrCowan1979. 
    According to DRS 10 (2012)#ẒHR, »[l]es valeurs les plus fréquentes [of the root ẒHR] sont fondées sur la notion de ‘dos’ [↗ẓahr ]: surface supérieure, prêter le dos, adosser, tourner le dos, etc. Les dictionnaires arabes montrent bien les rapports entre ces usages métaphoriques, fréquents d’ailleurs dans bien d’autres langues.« 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 10 (2012)#ẒHR-2. Hbr ṣāḫārayim, Aram ṭēhᵃrā, Syr ṭahrā, Ar ẓuhr, Mhr Ḥrs ẓahr, Jib ẓohur ‘midi’.
    Cf. also other items of ↗√ẒHR. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ẓahara, a (ẓuhūr), vb. I, to ascend, climb, mount; to gain the upperhand, to triumph (ʕalà over), get the better (ʕalà of), overcome, overwhelm, conquer, vanquish (ʕalà s.o.); to get (ʕalà s.th.) into one’s power; to gain or have knowledge (ʕalà of), come to know (ʕalà s.th.), become acquainted (ʕalà with); to know (ʕalà s.th.); to learn, receive information (ʕalà about); to be cognizant (ʕalà of); to learn (ʕalà s.th.) : denom. from ẓahr (to get on top of s.th.) or from ẓuhr (to rise above s.th. like the sun at noon)? – For other meanings ↗ẓahara ‘to appear, seem, become visible, evident’.
    ʔaẓhara, vb. IV, to grant victory (ʕalà over), render victorious; to acquaint (s.o. ʕalà with s.th.), initiate (s.o. ʕalà into s.th.), give knowledge or information (ʕalà about), inform, enlighten, explain; to let (s.o.) in on s.th. (ʕalà), make (s.o.) realize (ʕalà s.th.); to show, reveal (ʕalà s.th.): (caus., but semantics not clear, may also be from ↗ẓahara ‘to appear, seem, become visible’ or from ↗ẓahr ‘back; top’). – For other meanings ↗ẓahara.
    ĭstaẓhara, vb. X, to overcome, surmount, conquer, vanquish (ʕalà s.o., s.th.), have or gain the upperhand (ʕalà over), get the better (ʕalà of): t-stem of IV. – For other meanings ↗ẓahr and ↗ẓahara.

    BP#4925ẓahīraẗ, n.f., noon, midday, midday heat: ints.f.

    For other items of the root cf. ↗√ẒHR, ↗ẓahr, ↗ẓahara

    muẓāharaẗ مُظاهَرَة , pl. ‑āt 
    ID 559 • Sw – • BP 2723 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ẒHR 
    n.f. 
    1 assistance, support, backing. – 2 pl. ‑āt, n., (public) demonstration, rally – WehrCowan1979. 
    Essentially a vn. III, the two values of the word relate to (v1) the n. ↗ẓahr ‘back, rear’ and (v2) the vb. ↗ẓahara ‘to appear, become visible’, respectively. 
    ▪ … 
    ↗√ẒHR, ↗ẓahr, ↗ẓahara
    Since there is an overlapping between the three main values of ↗√ẒHR (‘back, rear’, ‘noon, midday’, and ‘to appear, become visible’), the value ‘(public) demonstration, rally’ may be derived from both ↗ẓahr and/or ↗ẓahara. In the first case, the proper meaning would be ‘mutual backing, support’, in the second the aspect of publicity (‘becoming visible together with s.o.’) would be prominent. 
    – 
    See also:
    ẓāhara, vb. III, to help, assist, aid, support (s.o.): benefactive (*‘to lend one’s support to s.o., back s.o.’).
    taẓāhara, vb. VI, to help one another, make common cause (ʕalà against); to manifest, display, show outwardly, exhibit, parade (bi‑ s.th.); to demonstrate, make a public demonstration.
    BP#3596taẓāhuraẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., (public) demonstration: n.vic. of vn. VI.
    BP#3944mutaẓāhir, pl. ‑ūn, n., demonstrator: PA VI. 
    al-Ẓahrān الظَّهْران 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ẒHR 
    n.prop.loc. 
    Dhahran (town in extensive oil region of E Saudi Arabia) – WehrCowan1979. 
    Connection to other items of ↗√ẒHR unclear. 
    – 
    ▪ Cf. also other items of ↗√ẒHR. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ʕayn عين 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ 
    R₁ 
    The letter ʕ of the Arabic alphabet. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ʕBʔ عبأ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023
    √ʕBʔ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕBʔ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕBʔ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕBʔ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘load, weight; to care, to get ready, to pack’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕBṮ عبث 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023
    √ʕBṮ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕBṮ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕBṮ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕBṮ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a mix up of things, adulteration, folly, to waste time in useless activity; to commit a folly’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕBD عبد 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕBD 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕBD_1 ‘slave; bondsman, servant; worshipper’ ↗ʕabd
    ▪ ʕBD_2 ‘to make passable for traffic (a road)’: ʕabbadaʕabd
    ▪ ʕBD_3 ‘a variety of melon’: EgAr ʕabdallāwīʕabd
    ▪ ʕBD_4 ‘Abadan (island and town in W Iran)’: ↗ʕabbādān

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘slave, servant, to enslave; obedience, submission, to worship, to adore; to tan camel hide, to tar a boat’. – Some scholars, apparently with no evidence save for the assumption that spiritual concepts are foreign to Arabic per se, attribute the concept of worshipping associated with some derivatives of this root to a borrowing from other Semitic languages. Al-Suyūṭī quotes Abū ’l-Qāsim’s suggestion that the sense of ‘to enslave’ is a borrowing from Nab. 
    ▪ ʕBD_1 : from CSem *ʕabd ‘slave’
    ▪ ʕBD_2 : vn. II, from ʕabd (ʕBD_1), metaphorical use with caus. meaning of D-stem, lit. *‘to make (a road) subservient (to the users)’ (?)
    ▪ ʕBD_3 EgAr ʕabdallāwī : prob. from the n.prop. ʕabd allāh ‘servant of God’, from ʕabd (ʕBD_1)
    ▪ ʕBD_4 ʕabbādān, var. ʕabādān ‘Abadan (island and town in W Iran)’: n.prop.loc., prob. with Persian etymology, see ↗s.v.
    – 
    See section CONC, above. 
    See section CONC, above. 
    – 
    – 
    ʕabd عَبْد , pl. ʕabīd, ʕubdān, ʕibdān 
    ID 561 • Sw – • BP 694 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last update 3Jun2023
    √ʕBD 
    n. 
    ▪ worshipper – Jeffery1938
    1 slave, serf; 2 bondsman, servant; — (pl. ʕibād) 1 servant (of God), human being, man; 2 humanity, mankind | al-ʕabd lillāh, al-ʕabd al-ḍaʕīf = I (form of modesty) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protCSem *ʕabd‑ ‘male slave’, perh. from the verbal root *ʕBD ‘to work, to make’ (Huehnergard2011: CSem *√ʕBD ‘to serve, work’; n. *ʕabd‑ ‘servant, slave’).
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1029: From Sem *ʕabd- ‘slave’, from AfrAs *ʕabod- ‘slave’. 
    ▪ eC7 Of very frequent occurrence in the Q – Jeffery1938.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Kogan2015: Ug ʕbd, Hbr ʕäbäd, Syr ʕabdā, Sab Min Qat ʕbd.
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1029: Hbr ʕebed, Syr ʕabdō, SAr ʕbd. – Outside Sem: WCh (metath.?) bad-am, bawəd-n ‘slave’, CCh (metath.?) vəḍa, vḍa, vuḍa ‘slave’. 
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »The root is common Sem, cf. Akk abdu,528 Hbr ʕBD [ʕäbäd], oAram ʕbd, Syr ʕabdā, Phoen ʕbd, Sab ʕbd (and perhaps Eth [Gz] ʕbṭ, Dillmann, Lex, 988). / The question of its being a loan-word in Arabic depends on the more fundamental question of the meaning of the root. If its primitive meaning is ‘to worship’, then the word retains this primitive meaning in Ar, and all the others are derived meanings. There is reason, however, to doubt whether ‘worship’ is the primitive meaning. In the oAram ʕbd means ‘to make, to do’, and the same meaning is very common in JudAram and Syr. In Hbr ʕābad is ‘to work’,529 and so Hbr ʕäbäd primarily means ‘worker’, as Nöldeke has pointed out,530 and the sense of ‘to serve’ is derived from this.531 With Hbr ʕābad meaning ‘to serve’, we get Hbr ʕäbäd, Aram ʕabdā, Syr ʕabdā, Phoen ʕbd and Akk abdu, all meaning ‘slave’ or ‘vassal’, like the Arab ʕabd, Sab ʕbd. From this it is a simple matter to see how with the developing cults [Hbr] ʕäbäd comes to be ‘a worshipper’, and ʕabada ‘to worship’, i.e. ‘to serve God’. / The inscriptions from NArabia contain numerous examples of ʕbd joined with the name of a divinity, e.g. ʕbdddwšrʔ = ʕabd ḏī šarà, ʕbdmnt = ʕabd Manāẗ, ʕbdlt = ʕabd al-Lāt, ʕbdʔlhʔ = ʕabd Allāh, ʕbdʔlʕzʔ = ʕabd al-ʕUzzà, to quote only from the Sinaitic inscriptions.532 Also in the SAr inscriptions we find ʕbdʕṯtr ‘ʕAbd ʕAṯtar’, ʕbdkll ‘ʕAbd Kallal’, ʕbdšms ‘ʕAbd Šams’, etc.533 It thus seems clear that the sense of ‘worship’, ‘worshipper’ came to the Arabs from their neighbours in pre-Islamic times,534 though it is a little doubtful whether we can be so definite as Fischer, Glossar, 77, in stating that it is from Jewish ʕbd
    ▪ Kogan2015: 181: »CSem *ʕabd- ‘slave’ is undoubtedly connected with the verbal root *ʕbd, whose attestations are, however, also limited to CSem: Ug ʕbd ‘to work (a field), to cultivate, to produce’, Hbr ʕbd ‘to work’, Syr ʕbd ‘laboravit; fecit’, Ar ʕbd ‘to serve, worship, adore’. Besides, since the meaning ‘to serve’ is probably the original one (cf. Huehnergard1995: 276), it is not unlikely that we are faced with a denominative vb. rather than with a deverbal noun (note that the C₁aC₂C₃- pattern is not commonly used to produce nouns of agent either in protCSem or in protSem).«
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1029: The Sem vb. *ʕ˅b˅d- ‘to work’ seems to be a denominative. — If one takes the Chad evidence into consideration, where the modern words seem to go back to WCh *bawad-<*baHwad- ‘slave’ and CCh *buḍ- < *buH˅d- ‘slave’, an alternative reconstruction could be AfrAs *baʕod-. In this case, Sem *ʕabd- would be the result of metathesis. 
    ▪ Not from Ar ʕabd but from its Hbr cognate are the Biblical names Obadiah, from Hbr ʕōbad-yāh ‘servant of Yahweh’, from ʕōbad, alternate form of ʕebed ‘servant, slave’, and Abednego, from Hbr ʕābēd-nəgô, probably alteration of ʕăbēd-nəbô ‘servant of Nabu’, from ʕābēd, alternate form of ʕebed ‘servant, slave’ (nəbô, Nabu, from Akk nabū) – Huehnergard2011. 
    ʕabada, u (ʕibādaẗ, ʕubūdaẗ, ʕubūdiyyaẗ), vb. I, to serve, worship (a god), adore, venerate (a god or human being), idolize, deify (s.o.): denom.
    ʕabbada, vb. II, 1 to enslave, enthrall, subjugate, subject (s.o.); 2 to make passable for traffic (a road): D-stem., denom. from ʕabd, caus. of G.
    taʕabbada, vb. V, to devote o.s. to the service of God; to show (divine) veneration (li‑ for s.o.), deify, worship (li‑ s.o.): tD-stem, refl./autoref. of D.
    ĭstaʕbada, vb. X, to enslave, enthrall, subjugate (s.o.): Št-stem.

    ʕabdallāwī (eg. ), n., a variety of melon: from the n.prop. ʕabd allāh ?
    ʕabdaẗ, pl. -āt, woman slave, slave girl, bondwoman: f. of ʕabd.
    ʕabbād: ~ al-šams, n., and ~aẗ al-šams, n.f., sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.): ints., lit. ‘the worshiper of the sun’.
    ʕabbādānᵘ, var. ʕabādānᵘ, n.prop.loc., Abadan (island and town in W Iran, oil center): prob. with Iranian origin, but attributed to a certain ʕAbbād by folk etymology.
    BP#2719ʕibādaẗ, n.f., worship, adoration, veneration; devotional service, divine service (Chr. ); pl. -āt, acts of devotion, religious observances (Isl. Law): vn. I.
    ʕubūdaẗ, n.f, 1 humble veneration, homage, adoration, worship; 2 slavery, serfdom; servitude, bondage: vn. I.
    BP#4873ʕubūdiyyaẗ, n.f, 1 humble veneration, homage, adoration, worship; 2 slavery, serfdom; servitude, bondage: vn. I.
    maʕbad, pl. maʕābidᵘ, n., place of worship; house of God, temple: n.loc., from vb. I.
    taʕbīd, n., 1 enslavement, enthrallment, subjugation, subjection; 2 paving, construction, opening (of a road for traffic): vn. II | ~ al-ṭuruq, n., road construction.
    taʕabbud, n., 1 piety, devoutness, devotion, worship; 2 hagiolatry, worship or cult of saints (Chr. ): vn. V.
    taʕabbudī, adj., pertaining to divine worship or the relation of man to God: nsb-formation, from vn. V.
    ĭstiʕbād, n., enslavement, enthrallment, subjugation: vn. X.
    ʕābid, pl. -ūn, ʕubbād, ʕabadaẗ, n., worshiper, adorer: PA I.
    maʕbūd, 1 adj., worshiped, adored; 2 n., deity, godhead; idol: PP I.
    maʕbūdaẗ, n.f., ladylove, adored woman: f. of PP I.
    muʕabbad, adj., levelled, graded, paved, passable for traffic (road): PP II.
    mutaʕabbid, 1 adj., pious, devout; 2 n., pious worshiper (Chr.): PA V.
     
    ʕabbādānᵘ عبّادانُ , var. ʕabādānᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕBD 
    n.prop.loc. 
    Abadan (island and town in W Iran, oil center) – WehrCowan1979. 
    Popular etymology relates the name to an alleged founder of the city, ʕAbbād. Most probably, however, it is of Iranian origin. One suggestion is that the meaning is ‘coastguard station’ (from Pers āb ‘water’, and the root ‘watch, guard’), see DISC below. 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    »In medieval sources, and up to the present [20th] century, the name of the island always occurs in the Arabic form ʕAbbādān; this name has sometimes been derived from ʕabbād ‘worshiper’. Balāḏurī (d. 279/892), on the other hand, quotes the story that the town was founded by one ʕAbbād b. Ḥusayn Ḫabiṭī, who established a garrison there during the governorship of Ḥaǧǧāǧ (75-95/695-714). An Iranian etymology of the name (from āb ‘water’, and the root ‘watch, guard’, thus ‘coastguard station’) was suggested by B. Farahvašī (“Arvandrūd”, MDAT, nos. 71/72, 1348š./1969: 75-87). Possible supporting evidence is the name Apphana, which Ptolemy (2nd cent. A.D.) applies to an island off the mouth of the Tigris (Geographia 6.7). The 4th-cen¬tury geographer Marcian, who, in general, draws his in¬formation from Ptolemy, renders the name Apphadana (Geographia Marciani Heracleotae, ed. David Hoeschel, Augsburg, 1600: 48). Thus there may have been some grounds for revising the name to Ābādān; the latter form had begun to come into general use before it was adopted by official decree in 1314š./1935 (see, e.g., Kayhān, Ǧoġrāfiyā, I: 77, 111)« – L.P. Elwell-Sutton, “Ābādān, I. History”, in EIr, I/1: 51-53, available online at Encyclopaedia Iranica (as of 15 Feb 2017). 
    – 
    – 
    ʕibādaẗ عِبادَة , pl. ‑āt 
    ID 560 • Sw – • BP 2719 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕBD 
    n.f. 
    worship, adoration, veneration; devotional service, divine service (Chr. ); pl. -āt, acts of devotion, religious observances (Isl. Law) – WehrCowan1979. 
    vn., from ʕabada, u, vb. I, ‘to serve, worship (a god), adore, venerate’, prob. denom. from ↗ʕabd ‘slave’, from CSem *ʕabd ‘id.’. 
    ▪ … 
    ʕabd
    ʕabd
    – 
    Not directly derived from ʕibādaẗ, but semantically close are:

    taʕabbada, vb. V, to devote o.s. to the service of God; to show (divine) veneration (li‑ for s.o.), deify, worship (li‑ s.o.): tD-stem, refl./autoref. of D., from vb. I or denom. from ↗ʕabd
    taʕabbud, n., 1 piety, devoutness, devotion, worship; 2 hagiolatry, worship or cult of saints (Chr. ): vn. V.
    taʕabbudī, adj., pertaining to divine worship or the relation of man to God: nsb-formation, from vn. V.
    mutaʕabbid, 1 adj., pious, devout; 2 n., pious worshiper (Chr.): PA V.
     
    ʕBR عبر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕBR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕBR_1 ‘the other/opposite side; to cross, traverse, pass over’ ↗ʕabara
    ▪ ʕBR_2 ‘contemplation; lesson’ ↗ʕibraẗ
    ▪ ʕBR_3 ‘expression, to express (a feeling, an opinion, etc.)’ ↗ʕibāraẗ
    ▪ ʕBR_4 ‘to interpret a dream’ ↗ʕabbara
    ▪ ʕBR_5 ‘tear, to shed tears’ ↗ʕabraẗ
    ▪ ʕBR_6 ‘(compound) perfume’ ↗ʕabīr
    ▪ ʕBR_7 ‘Hebrew’ ↗ʕibrī
    Other values, now obsolete, include:
    • ʕBR_8 ‘great number, crowd’ : ʕubr (Hava1899)
    • ʕBR_9 ‘sturdy, strong’ : ʕ˅br (Hava1899)
    • ʕBR_10 ‘ewe or goat one year old’ : ʕabūr, pl. ʕabāʔirᵘ (Hava1899)
    • ʕBR_11 ‘thick-woolled (sheep)’ : muʕbar (Hava1899)

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘1 one side of the valley, to traverse, passer-by; 2 to interpret a dream; 3 contemplation, a lesson; 4 tear; 5 plenty, group of people; 6 mixture of perfumes’ 
    ▪ Several of the values that the root ʕBR can take in Ar seem to be based, in one way or another, on ʕBR_1 (cf. entry ↗ʕabara). They are distinguished here only for the sake of structuring the semantic diversity within the root.
    ▪ ʕBR_1 : Following Dolgopolsky whose presentation looks convincing, the etyma proper seem to be ʕibr ~ ʕabr (preserved in MSA in the prep. ʕabrᵃ ‘across’) ~ ʕubr ‘shore, bank, margin’, from Sem *ʕib(˅)r- ‘region beyond/across a body of water (river, lake, sea), (further) bank/shore’, and the (prob. denom.) vb. Sem *ʕ˅b˅r- (> Ar ʕabara) ‘to cross (a body of water), pass over’ > *‘to pass over a stream to the other side’. (According to Dolgopolsky, these items may even be related to words for ‘shore, river bank; mainland’ in some IE langs, like Grk ḗpeiros, or Ge Ufer). – From ‘crossing’ seem to have branched off, through figurative use, several other ideas, notably ʕBR_2-4, perh. also ʕBR_5 and ʕBR_7.
    ▪ ʕBR_2 : based on ʕBR_1 ‘to cross’, interpreted as *‘to cross, traverse mentally, ponder about, wander through a world of ideas or possibilities’, hence ‘to contemplate’ (> ‘to draw a lesson from’), and hence also ‘to examine, test’.
    ▪ ʕBR_3 : based on ʕBR_1 ‘to cross’, interpreted as *‘to make s.th. pass from the tongue of the speaker to the ear of the hearer’ or *‘…from the inner world of feelings and thought to the outer world of words, i.e., to articulate s.th.’, hence ‘to express (a feeling, an opinion, etc.)’; cf. Engl express < Lat ex-primere, lit., *‘to squeeze, make come out’.
    ▪ ʕBR_4 : based on ʕBR_1 ‘to cross’, interpreted as *‘to translate the symbolic meaning of a dream into a concrete meaning’, hence ‘to interpret a dream’.
    ▪ ʕBR_5 : Perh. based on ʕBR_1 ‘to cross’, interpreted as *‘to cross a border, reach a limit, a brim, overflow’ (esp. feelings, emotion), hence ‘tear, to shed tears’.
    ▪ ʕBR_6 : ʕabīr ‘(compound) perfume’ is hardly akin to ʕBR_1 ‘to cross’; etymology obscure.
    ▪ ʕBR_7 : Ar ʕibrī ‘Hebrew’, which is the same as the Hbr term ʕiḇrī, has been linked by earlier research to ʕBR_1 ‘to pass by, go beyond, cross’, interpreting the Biblical ʕiḇrīm either as ‘Bedouins’, i.e., a group of people who *‘cross, or wander around in, the desert’, or, more convincingly (because paying attention to the nisba form), as *‘those who come from, or inhabit, the other side of the river, the region beyond (Hbr ʕēḇär; sc. either the Jordan or the Euphrates)’. The ‘Hebrews’ seem to be identical with the ḫabiru (Akk ḫāpiru) of the Tell el-Amarna tablets (-C14), a term that is believed to have been applied to »displaced persons who leave their homeland and seek their fortunes in neighboring countries«; the word seems to have a social connotation here, while its use as a n.gent. obviously is post-exilic – Hoch1994. – For a similar idea, cf. also ↗ʕarab.
    ▪ ʕBR_8-11 : etymology unclear/obscure. 
    – 
    ʕBR_1
    ▪ Zammit2002, Tropper2008, CAD: Akk ebēru (var. epēru, ḫabāru) ‘to cross (water); to extend beyond (s.th.)’, ebar (prep.) ‘beyond’, ¹ebertu (var. abartu) ‘the other bank/side’, ²ebertu ‘pace; step (of a staircase)’,151 Ug ʕbr ‘to pass by/through/over; to cross’, Phoen ʕbr ‘to pass’, Hbr ʕābar ‘to pass over, through, by’, Aram (sf) ʕbr ‘to pass on, by’, BiblAram ʕᵃbar ‘region across, beyond’, Syr ʕᵉbar ‘to pass on, by’, (af.) ‘to translate’, SAr ʕbr ‘to pass, cross’, Ar ʕabara ‘to interpret’, ʕābir ‘one who passes over’. – Not in EthSem.
    ▪ LandbergZetterstéen1942: DaṯAr ʕabr ‘canal’, cf. Sab ʕbr ‘bank, side’ [Müller2010: ‘(Ufer)seite (eines Wadis)’, ʕbr-n (prep.) ‘opposite of’, ʕbrt ‘littoral (of a wadi)’], like ʕubr ~ʕibr in the luġaẗ; Sab ʕbr = Hbr ʕēḇär ‘river bank, opposite side, region beyond; field, [prob.] littoral field irrigated by water or close to the water course’; accord. to Rossi ‘terreno a terazzi coltivato (nel Yemen occidentale’ = Stein2012: ʕbrt ‘(lit., seitlich gelegene?) Felder, die an den Seitenrändern der Wadis gelegenen, terrassenförmigen Felder’.
    ▪ Militarev2006 (in StarLing)#1641: Akk ebēru ‘to cross (water); to extend beyond s.th.’, Ug ʕbr ‘to cross’, Hbr ʕbr ‘to move through, pass over, pass by, travel (along a road)’, ʕäbär ‘(river) bank’, Syr ʕbr ‘to cross; to inundate, invade’, Ar ʕbr [-u- ] ‘to cross; to move through, pass over, pass by, travel (along a road)’; ʕubr ‘(river) bank’, SAr ʕbr, Mhr ʔābōr ‘to cross’, Jib ʕɔ̄r ‘to cross; to go far away’ (caus. aʕbér). – Outside Sem: (Berb) Sokna ta-barutt, pl. burâw, Fojaha ta-bārû-t, Ayr Taw abǝr, pl. abǝr-ăn ‘road, way’; (3 WCh langs show the forms) var, vǝ̀rǝ ‘to go out’, and bār ‘to escape’; (2 ECh langs have:) bìre ‘to go by’, bĩrré ‘to go for a walk’; and in Dahalo (Sanye) we find ḅariy - ‘to go out, depart’.
    ▪ Dolgopolsky2012#141: BiblHbr ʕēḇär ‘opposite side (of a river, lake etc.); side, edge, bank’, SamHbr ʕēbā̊r ‘id.’, JudAram ʕiḇrā ~ ʕäḇrā ‘opposite side’, Syr ʕeḇrā ‘crossing (a river), further bank’, Mand ʕbra ‘coastland, foreshore’, Ar ʕibr ~ ʕabr ~ ʕubr ‘shore’, Akk eber-nāri (lit. ‘the region beyond the river’) (< WSem), Ebl a-bar-rí-iš = ʕabar-iš (/ʕabāriš/) loc. ‘on the other bank’; Akk ebēru ‘to cross (water)’, Ebl a-ba-rí-im = ʕabār-im inf. gen. ‘id.’, Hbr Phoen Pun Ug oAram EmpAram JudAram Syr Ar Sab √ʕBR G ‘to cross over (water etc.), pass’. – Outside Sem: (Can >) Eg (in syllabic script) ʕá-bí-ya ‘ford, crossing’ (Eg NK y < *r); (IE:) Grk (Att) ḗpeiros, (Dor) ápeiros (long ā), (Aeol) áperros (with ā) ‘mainland’ (< *āper-yo-), oEngl ōfer, Du oever, mHGe uover > nHGe Ufer ‘shore’ (< *āper-o-), mLGe ō̈ver ‘id.’ (< *āper-yo-).
    ▪ ʕBR_2 : As ʕBR_1.
    ▪ ʕBR_3 : As ʕBR_1. – A similar semantic development is also found in Syr.
    ▪ ʕBR_4 : As ʕBR_1. – Closest to the value ‘to interpret a dream’, attached in ClassAr not only to the D-stem ʕabbara but also to the G-stem ʕabara, comes prob. the Syr (likewise caus.) Š-stem, ʔaʕbar, in the sense of ‘to transfer, translate’.
    ▪ ʕBR_5 Probably related to Hbr ʕäḇrāʰ ‘overflow, excess outburst; arrogance; overflowing rage, fury’, (Št-stem, denom.) hiṯʕabbar ‘to be arrogant, infuriate o.s.’ (BDB1906), and Syr ʕbar ‘…; to surpass, exceed, be beyond, overcome’ (e.g., bᵊ-šūp̱rāh lᵊ-šemšā ʕābrā hᵊwāt ‘she surpassed the sun in fairness’), (eṯp) ‘…; to neglect, fail (of accomplishment), to transgress, sin’, (aph) ‘…; to go beyond, exceed’ (PayneSmith1903). – ? Cf. also Akk ebirtu (var. abirtu, ḫibirtu), name of a month? According to CAD, this word is »possibly to be connected with [Akk] ebēru, in the meaning ‘to overflow’, attested in WSem (Hbr, Aram), hence ‘the month of overflowing of the rivers’«. – Furthermore, it is not clear whether WSem ‘to overflow’ is or is not related to Sem ʕBR ‘to cross’.
    ▪ ʕBR_6 : No obvious cognates found so far. – Is there any connection between ʕabīr ‘(mixed) perfume’ and the word ↗ʕanbar ‘ambergris’ that Lane lists both under √ʕNBR and √ʕBR?
    ▪ ʕBR_7 : Probably related to ʕBR_1 – see discussion above in section CONC.
    ▪ ʕBR_8-11 : ?

    ▪ In addition to the values mentioned in the preceding paragraphs, Sem ʕBR has also
    • BDB1906, CAD, Militarev2006 (in StarLing)#1662: Akk ebūru ‘harvest; crop, produce, grain; harvest time; summer’, Hbr ʕāḇûr ‘produce, yield’, JudAram Syr ʕăbūrā ‘produce, grain, corn’. < Sem *ʕabūr- ‘harvest; produce; grain’, derived from Sem *ḥ˅b˅r- ‘to gather’.
    • PayneSmith1903: Syr ʕābartā, ʕābārtā ‘dysentery’.
     
    ʕBR_1
    ▪ If Dolgopolsky’s assumption of a priority of the n. over the vb. is correct, then the only direct reflex of the etymon proper in MSA is the prep. ʕabrᵃ , originally a acc. of place/time from the now obsolete n. ʕabr, in ClassAr more often appearing as ʕibr (which is perh. the more original form), or also ʕubr ‘shore, bank, margin’, from which we also find the adj. ʕubrī ‘(species of lote-tree) that grows on the banks of rivers, and becomes large’ (Lane).
    ▪ Dolgopolsky2012#141: Sem *ʕib˻˅˼r- ‘the region beyond/across a body of water (river, lake, sea), (further) bank/shore’ (> denom. vb. Sem *ʕBR ‘to cross (a body of water), pass over’ > *‘to pass over a stream to the other side’), IE *āper-o-, *āper-yo- ‘shore, river bank; mainland’ (> [Kluge2002:] WGerm *ōbera-), both from Nostr *ʕ˅P˅R˅ ‘(river-)bank’.
    ▪ Militarev2008 (in StarLing): Sem *ʕ˅b˅r-1 to cross; 2 to extend beyond (s.th.); 3 to move through, pass over, pass by, travel (along a road); 4 to inundate, invade; 5 (river) bank; 6 to go far away’, Berb *Habar- ‘road, way’, WCh *H˅bar- ‘to escape; to go out’, ECh *birr- ‘to go by; to go for a walk’, Dahalo (Sanye) ḅariy- (<*H˅bar- ?) ‘to go out, depart’, all from AfrAs *ʕabir- ‘traveling (along a road), passing by, crossing (rivers)’.
    ▪ ʕBR_2 : see above, section CONC.
    ▪ ʕBR_3 : ʕibāraẗ ‘speech that passes from the tongue of the speaker to the ear of the hearer; hence: passage in a book or writing; and hence also: word, expression, phrase; and: explanation, interpretation’ (Lane).
    ▪ ʕBR_4 : A notion that is close to that of interpreting a dream, namely that of ‘translating’, is also found in the Syr caus., here expressed not (as in Ar) in the D-, but in the Š-stem (aph) ʔaʕbar which, in addition to the lit. meaning ‘to cause/allow to pass; to allow to depart; to transfer, remove, transport, transplant’ and several other figurative usages (e.g., ‘to pass over, remit, sc. a transgression, a sin; to convert, turn, e.g., from paganism to the faith; [logic ] to pass over, e.g., from a part to the whole, from detail to generality; to go beyond, exceed; etc.)’ also shows the value ‘to transfer, translate’, e.g., men lešānā ʕebrānā lᵊ-yūnānā ‘from Hebrew to Greek’ – PayneSmith1903.
    ▪ ʕBR_5 : Cf. also ClassAr (G-stem) ʕabara (ʕabr) and ʕabira a (ʕabar) ‘to shed tears; to grieve, mourn, be sorrowful, sad, unhappy’, ʕabrà (pl. ʕubr) ‘weeping (eye), hence: grieving (woman), bereft of her child’ – Lane/Hava1899. – If ʕabraẗ ‘tear’ is related to WSem *ʕBR ‘to overflow’, its original meaning would be *‘what overflows’ or *‘result of an overflow (of emotion, rage, fury, etc.)’. Gesenius1915 thinks it is obvious that WSem *ʕBR ‘to overflow’ has to be treated as a root in its own right, different from Sem *ʕBR ‘to cross’; but why should ‘to overflow’ not go back to an earlier ‘reaching/crossing a border, go beyond, pass over’ and thus probably have developed from the Sem etymon of ʕBR_1?
    ▪ ʕBR_6 : Hoch1994#68 thinks that Eg ʕbyr */ʕabīr/, which is of uncertain meaning but seems to be a loanword from Sem—»[cf.] Ar ʕabīr ‘fragrance; perfume’«—, perh. can be associated with BiblHbr (Song of Songs, 5:5) môr ʕōḇēr ‘liquid myrrh’ (cf. Ar ↗murr), where ʕōḇēr seems to be a PA (prop. ʕôḇēr) of ʕāḇar in the sense of *‘to overflow’. – The fact that Lane also lists ↗ʕanbar ‘ambergris’ under √ʕBR (though referring from there to √ʕNBR), prompts one to think of the possibility of an etymological relation between ʕabīr and ʕanbar, all the more so since ClassAr dictionaries render ʕabīr as ‘a mixture of perfumes, compounded with saffron [!]’ or sometimes even as a synonym for ‘saffron’ (Lane), while ʕanbar, too, often seems to take the meaning ‘saffron’ (Lane, Hava1899). However, even if there was some kind of relation between the two, it would still be difficult, phonologically speaking, to derive ʕabīr directly from ʕanbar.
    ▪ ʕBR_7 : The origin of the term Hbr ʕiḇrî (Ar ʕibrī) ‘Hebrew’ is, as Hopkins summarizes the state of affairs in etymological research about the word, still »a moot point, much discussed yet unresolved. None of the many etymologies proposed is satisfactory and so the origin of ‘Hebrew’ must be accounted unclear. Eccentricities apart, there are three main avenues of approach: (i) ʕiḇrî is an eponymous gentilic adjective, derived from the proper name ʕēḇär ‘Eber’, the great-grandson of Shem (Gen. 10.24; 11.14); (ii) ʕiḇrî is a geographical term, derived from ʕēḇär ‘across, beyond’, more particularly ʕēḇär han-nāhār ‘beyond the river’ (see especially Josh. 24.2). Depending upon the identity of the river in question, ʕiḇrî is to be understood as ‘trans-Euphrates’ or ‘trans-Jordan’; (iii) As opposed to (i) and (ii), which represent traditional views found in rabbinical sources, especially since the discovery of the Tel el-Amarna letters in the late 19th century it has been not uncommon in Biblical scholarship to find a connection between ‘Hebrew’ and the ḫabiru, groups of roving marauders mentioned in the Tel el-Amarna (and other) documents as having attacked Palestine in the mid-2nd millennium B.C.E.« – »Names of the Hebrew Language« (S. Hopkins), in Encyclopedia of Hebrew Language and Linguistics.
    ▪ ʕBR_8 : Cf. also maǧlis ʕabr/ʕibr ‘numerous gathering’ – Hava1899. – Etymology obscure.
    ▪ ʕBR_9 ▪ Cf. also ʕ˅br li-kull ʕamal ‘fit to every work’, ʕ˅br ʔasfār ‘bold traveller; strong to journey (camel)’ – Hava1899. – Etymology obscure.
    ▪ ʕBR_10-11 : Can ʕBR_10 ʕabūr ‘ewe or goat one year old’ and ʕBR_11 muʕbar ‘thick-woolled (sheep)’ be put together? 
    – 
    – 
    ʕabar‑ عَبَرَ , u (ʕabr , ʕubūr
    ID 562 • Sw – • BP 3333 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕBR 
    vb., I 
    1 to cross, traverse; 2 to ford, wade (DO through s.th.); 3 to swim (across s.th.); 4 to pass (over s.th.); 5 to ferry (a river, and the like); 6 to carry (bi‑ s.o., across or over s.th.); 7 to make cross over or go forward, lead (bi‑ s.o., ʔilà to, e.g., to a new life); 8 to pass, elapse (time), fade, dwindle; 9 to pass away, die, depart – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ From Sem *ʕBR ‘to cross (a body of water), pass over’. According to Dolgopolsky whose presentation looks convincing and whom we therefore follow here, the vb. is denom. from Sem *ʕib(˅)r- ‘region beyond/across a body of water (river, lake, sea), (further) bank/shore’. While this n. still forms part of the ClassAr vocabulary (Ar ʕibr ~ ʕabr ~ ʕubr ‘shore, bank, margin’), the only direct reflex of it in MSA seems to be the prep. ʕabrᵃ ‘across’.
    ▪ If Dolgopolsky is right, then these items may even be related to words for ‘shore, river bank; mainland’ in some IE langs, like Grk ḗpeiros, or Ge Ufer.
    ▪ From the idea of ‘crossing’ seem to have branched off, through fig. use, several other themes:
    • *‘to cross or wander through s.th. mentally ’, hence: ‘contemplation; lesson’ ↗ʕibraẗ
    • *‘to make s.th. (a feeling, an opinion, etc.) cross one’s lips’, hence: ‘expression, to express’ ↗ʕibāraẗ
    • *‘to make the meaning of s.th., esp. dreams, cross from the realm of symbols into that of concrete meaning, translate the symbolic language into s.th. meaningful’, hence: ‘to interpret a dream’ ↗ʕabbara
    • perh. also *‘to cross a brim > to overflow’, hence: ‘tear, to shed tears’ ↗ʕabraẗ (but this item is held apart from ʕabara by some scholars)
    • traditionally, also *‘to cross the air, evaporate’, hence: ‘(compound) perfume’ ↗ʕabīr (but this explanation is rather far-fetched and the item should probably better kept apart from ʕabara)
    • possibly even *‘people who cross (sc. the desert), hence: ‘Hebrew’ ↗ʕibrī (but there are a number of other etymologies for this n.gent.).
    • For the whole picture cf. ↗ʕBR.
     
    ▪ eC7 ʕabara (I, tr., to traverse; to interpret [a dream]) Q 12:43 ʔin kuntum lil-ruʔyā taʕburūna ‘if you are [ones who] interpret dreams’. – ʕābir (PA, one who passes by or through, one who traverses) Q 4:43 ʔillā ʕābirī sabīlin ‘unless you are passing through [the mosque]’.
    ▪ Hava1899, too, has ʕabara still in the meanings ‘(vn. ʕabr, ʕubūr) to cross, pass over (a river); to read (a book) mentally; to try (money); (vn. ʕibāraẗ, ʕabr) to interpret (a dream)’; ʕibr ‘shore, bank, margin’ (cf. also banāt ʕibr ‘trifles, falsehood, vanity’). 
    ▪ Dolgopolsky2012#141: BiblHbr ʕēḇär ‘opposite side (of a river, lake etc.); side, edge, bank’, SamHbr ʕēbā̊r ‘id.’, JudAram ʕiḇrā ~ ʕäḇrā ‘opposite side’, Syr ʕeḇrā ‘crossing (a river), further bank’, Mand ʕbra ‘coastland, foreshore’, Ar ʕibr ~ ʕabr ~ ʕubr ‘shore’, Akk eber-nāri (lit. ‘the region beyond the river’) (< WSem), Ebl a-bar-rí-iš = ʕabar-iš (/ʕabāriš/) loc. ‘on the other bank’; Akk ebēru ‘to cross (water)’, Ebl a-ba-rí-im = ʕabār-im inf. gen. ‘id.’, Hbr Phoen Pun Ug oAram EmpAram JudAram Syr Ar Sab √ʕBR G ‘to cross over (water etc.), pass’. – Outside Sem: (Can >) Eg (in syllabic script) ʕá-bí-ya ‘ford, crossing’ (Eg NK y < *r); (IE:) Grk (Att) ḗpeiros, (Dor) ápeiros (long ā), (Aeol) áperros (with ā) ‘mainland’ (< *āper-yo-), oEngl ōfer, Du oever, mHGe uover > nHGe Ufer ‘shore’ (< *āper-o-), mLGe ō̈ver ‘id.’ (< *āper-yo-).
    ▪ Zammit2002, Tropper2008, CAD: Akk ebēru (var. epēru, ḫabāru) ‘to cross (water); to extend beyond (s.th.)’, ebar (prep.) ‘beyond’, ¹ebertu (var. abartu) ‘the other bank/side’, ²ebertu ‘pace; step (of a staircase)’,152 Ug ʕbr ‘to pass by/through/over; to cross’, Phoen ʕbr ‘to pass’, Hbr ʕābar ‘to pass over, through, by’, Aram (sf) ʕbr ‘to pass on, by’, BiblAram ʕᵃbar ‘region across, beyond’, Syr ʕᵉbar ‘to pass on, by’, (af.) ‘to translate’, SAr ʕbr ‘to pass, cross’, Ar ʕabara ‘to interpret’, ʕābir ‘one who passes over’. – Not in EthSem.
    ▪ LandbergZetterstéen1942: DaṯAr ʕabr ‘canal’, cf. Sab ʕbr ‘bank, side’ [Müller2010: ‘(Ufer)seite (eines Wadis)’, ʕbr-n (prep.) ‘opposite of’, ʕbrt ‘littoral (of a wadi)’], like ʕubr ~ʕibr in the luġaẗ; Sab ʕbr = Hbr ʕēḇär ‘river bank, opposite side, region beyond; field, [prob.] littoral field irrigated by water or close to the water course’; accord. to Rossi ‘terreno a terazzi coltivato (nel Yemen occidentale’ = Stein2012: ʕbrt ‘(lit., seitlich gelegene?) Felder, die an den Seitenrändern der Wadis gelegenen, terrassenförmigen Felder’.
    ▪ Militarev2006 (in StarLing)#1641: Akk ebēru ‘to cross (water); to extend beyond s.th.’, Ug ʕbr ‘to cross’, Hbr ʕbr ‘to move through, pass over, pass by, travel (along a road)’, ʕäbär ‘(river) bank’, Syr ʕbr ‘to cross; to inundate, invade’, Ar ʕbr [-u- ] ‘to cross; to move through, pass over, pass by, travel (along a road)’; ʕubr ‘(river) bank’, SAr ʕbr, Mhr ʔābōr ‘to cross’, Jib ʕɔ̄r ‘to cross; to go far away’ (caus. aʕbér). – Outside Sem: (Berb) Sokna ta-barutt, pl. burâw, Fojaha ta-bārû-t, Ayr Taw abǝr, pl. abǝr-ăn ‘road, way’; (3 WCh langs show the forms) var, vǝ̀rǝ ‘to go out’, and bār ‘to escape’; (2 ECh langs have:) bìre ‘to go by’, bĩrré ‘to go for a walk’; and in Dahalo (Sanye) we find ḅariy ‘to go out, depart’.
     
    ▪ If Dolgopolsky’s assumption of a priority of the n. over the vb. is correct, then the only direct reflex of the etymon proper in MSA seems to be the prep. ʕabrᵃ , originally an acc. of place/time from the now obsolete n. ʕabr, in ClassAr more often appearing as ʕibr (which is perh. the more original form), or also ʕubr ‘shore, bank, margin’, from which we also find the adj. ʕubrī ‘(species of lote-tree) that grows on the banks of rivers, and becomes large’ (Lane).
    ▪ Dolgopolsky2012#141: Sem *ʕib(˅)r- ‘the region beyond/across a body of water (river, lake, sea), (further) bank/shore’ (> denom. vb. Sem *ʕ˅b˅r- ‘to cross (a body of water), pass over’ > *‘to pass over a stream to the other side’), IE *āper-o-, *āper-yo- ‘shore, river bank; mainland’ (> [Kluge2002:] WGerm *ōbera-, Ge Ufer), both from Nostr *ʕ˅P˅R˅ ‘(river-)bank’.
    ▪ Militarev2008 (in StarLing): Sem *ʕ˅b˅r-1 to cross; 2 to extend beyond (s.th.); 3 to move through, pass over, pass by, travel (along a road); 4 to inundate, invade; 5 (river) bank; 6 to go far away’, Berb *Habar- ‘road, way’, WCh *H˅bar- ‘to escape; to go out’, ECh *birr- ‘to go by; to go for a walk’, Dahalo (Sanye) ḅariy- (<*H˅bar- ?) ‘to go out, depart’, all from AfrAs *ʕabir- ‘traveling (along a road), passing by, crossing (rivers)’.
     
    – 
    BP#1168ʕabbara, vb. II, 1 to interpret (a dream); 2 to explain, illustrate, expound; 3 to state clearly, declare, assert, utter, express, voice (ʕan s.th.), give expression (ʕan to a feeling); 4 to designate (ʕan s.th., bi with or by); 5 to determine the weight of a coin, weigh (a coin): D-stem, caus., fig. use, lit. *‘to make cross’; see own entry ↗ʕabbara.
    BP#341ĭʕtabara, vb. VIII, 1 to be taught a lesson, be warned; 2 to learn a lesson, take warning, learn, take an example (bi from); 3 to consider, weigh, take into account or consideration (s.th.), allow, make allowances (DO for s.th.); 4 to acknowledge (DO a quality, li‑ in s.o.); 5 to deem, regard, take (2xDO s.o., s.th. as), look (DO at s.th., DO as); 6 to esteem, honour, revere, value, respect, hold in esteem (s.o.), have regard (DO for s.o.): tG-stem, either denom. from ʕibraẗ (see below and ↗s.v.) or self-referential in the sense of *‘to cross or wander around [for o.s., mentally] in a book, or in the realm of possible explanations, meanings, choices, etc.’

    ʕabr, n., 1 crossing, traversing, transit; 2 passage; 3 fording: vn. I; BP#3854 ~a…, prep., across, over; through, throughout; by way of, by means of: reflecting Sem *ʕib(V)r‑ ‘region beyond/across a body of water (river, lake, sea), (further) bank/shore’? | ~a ’l-madīnaẗ, adv., across/through the town; ~a ’l-ṣaḥrāʔ, adv., across/through the desert; ~a ’l-biḥār, adv., overseas; ~a ’l-tārīḫ, adv., throughout history; ~a ’l-ʕuṣūr, adv., through the centuries
    BP#3482ʕubūr, n., 1 crossing, traversing, transit; 2 passage; fording: vn. I.
    BP#3411ʕibraẗ, pl. ʕibar, n.f., 1 admonition, monition, warning; 2 (warning or deterring) example, lesson; 3 advice, rule, precept (to be followed); 4 consideration befitting s.th.; 5 that which has to be considered, be taken into consideration or account, that which is of consequence, of importance, s.th. decisive or consequential: prob. from ‘to cross’, interpreted as *‘to cross, traverse mentally, ponder about, wander through a world of ideas or possibilities’, hence ‘to contemplate’ (> ‘to draw a lesson from’), and hence also ‘to examine, test’. | mawṭin al-~, n., the salient point, the crucial point; lā ~a bi-hī, expr., it deserves no attention, it is of no consequence; al-~ fī/bi , expr., the crucial factor(s) is (are)…, decisive is (are)…; lā ~a li-man…, expr., it is of no consequence if s.o….
    BP#904ʕibāraẗ, pl. -āt, n.f., 1 explanation, interpretation; 2 (verbal) expression, utterance; 3 phrase; 4 clause; 5 way of expressing o.s.: quasi-vn. I; 6 term (math.) : prob. a neolog., extens. of [v3] or [v4] following the model of Engl Fr expression which is used for math. expressions too. | bi-~ ʔuḫrà, adv., in other words, expressed otherwise; ~an fa-~an, adv., sentence by sentence, word by word; ~ ʕan, n.f./adj./adv., consisting in; tantamount to, equivalent to, meaning…
    BP#3146maʕbar, pl. maʕābirᵘ, n., 1 crossing point, crossing, traverse, passage(way); 2 ford; 3 pass, pass road, defile: n.loc.; 4 means, way, medium (li‑ to): fig. use of n.loc.
    miʕbar, pl. maʕābirᵘ, n., 1 medium for crossing, ferry, ferryboat; 2 bridge: n.instr.
    BP#1062taʕbīr, n., 1 interpretation (of a dream); 2 assertion, declaration, expression, utterance (ʕan of a feeling); 3 (pl. -āt) expression (in general, also artistic); 4 (pl. taʕābirᵘ) (linguistic) expression, phrase, term: vn. II; for semantics, see ʕabbara above, and entry ↗ʕabbara. | bi-~ ʔāḫar, adv., in other words, expressed otherwise.
    taʕbīrī, adj., expressional, expressive, emotive: nsb-adj., from taʕbīr, vn. II. | al-ʔadab al-~, n., expressionistic literature; ḥarakāt ~aẗ, n.f.pl., mimic gestures or art; al-raqṣ al-~, n., interpretive dance, expressional dance; al-fann al-~, n., expressionism
    taʕbīriyyaẗ, n.f., expressionism: neolog., abstr. formation in -iyyaẗ, from taʕbīr, vn. II.
    BP#758ĭʕtibār, n., 1 respect, regard, esteem; 2 self-esteem, honour; 3 (pl. -āt) consideration, regard; 4 reflection, contemplation; 5 approach, outlook, point of view, view: vb. VIII. | ~an li-/bi-…, bi-~…, prep., with respect to, with regard to, in consideration of, considering…, in view of (s.th.); ~an min, prep., from, as of, beginning…, starting with…, effective from… (with foll. indication of time); bi-~i ʔan…, conj., considering (the fact) that…, with regard to the fact that…, in view of the fact that…; provided that…, with the proviso that…; bi-~i-hī… (+acc.), adv., in terms of, in the capacity of, e.g., wazīr al-ḫāriǧiyyaẗ bi-~i-hī ʔaqdama ’l-wuzarāʔ, the Foreign Minister in his capacity of senior-ranking minister; ʕalà / bi-hāḏā ’l-~, adv., from this standpoint, from this viewpoint; ʕalà ~-i ʔanna…, conj., considering (the fact) that…, with regard to the fact that…, in view of the fact that…; on the assumption that…; fī kull ~, adv., in every respect; ~an ʔaw ḥaqīqaẗan, adv., from a subjective point of view or in reality; ʔamr la-hū ~u-hū, expr., s.th. which one must take into consideration or pay attention to; radd al-~, n., rehabilitation
    ĭʕtibārī, adj., 1 based on a subjective approach or outlook; 2 relative: nsb-adj., from ĭʕtibār, vn. VIII | šaḫṣiyyaẗ ~aẗ, n.f., legal person (jur.)
    BP#2647ʕābir, adj., 1 passing; 2 crossing, traversing, etc. (see I); 3 fleeting (smile); 4 transient, transitory, ephemeral; 5 bygone, past, elapsed (time); 6 (pl. -ūn) passer-by : PA I. | ~ al-muḥīṭ, adj., crossing the ocean; ~āt al-muḥīṭ, n.f.pl., ocean liners; ~ al-sabīl, n., way-farer; passer-by, s.o. passing along in the street; ~ al-ṣaḥrāʔ, n., traverser of the Sahara; ṣārūḫ ~ al-qārrāt, n., intercontinental ballistic missile, ICBM
    BP#2741muʕabbir, n., 1 interpreter (ʕan of feelings); 2 expressive, significant: PA II. | raqṣ ~, n., interpretative dancing

    For other values attached to the same root, cf. ↗ʕabīr, ↗ʕibrī, ↗ʕabraẗ, and, for the whole picture, ↗ʕBR. 
    ʕabbar‑ عَبَّرَ (taʕbīr
    ID … • Sw – • BP 1168 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕBR 
    vb., II 
    1 to interpret (a dream); 2 to explain, illustrate, expound; 3 to state clearly, declare, assert, utter, express, voice (ʕan s.th.), give expression (ʕan to a feeling); 4 to designate (ʕan s.th., bi with or by); 5 to determine the weight of a coin, weigh (a coin) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ [v1-2] are usually explained as fig. use, lit. *‘to make cross’, caus. D-stem, from ↗ʕabara ‘to cross’, from Sem *ʕ˅b˅r- ‘to cross’, from *ʕib(˅)r- ‘region beyond/across a body of water (river, lake, sea), (further) bank/shore’; cf. also: »taʕbīr ‘the passage of one thing to another, one sense to another’, hence ‘explanation’, like ↗tafsīr, lit. ‘commenting, explaining’. In current usage, ~ is confined to the sense of ‘interpretation of dreams [, oneiromancy]’ (taʕbīr al-ruʔya) while tafsīr is used for commentaries on e.g. the Bible and the Qurʔān« – EI², Glossary and Index of Terms.
    ▪ [v3] could be regarded as denom. from ↗ʕibāraẗ in the meaning of ‘(verbal) expression, utterance; way of expressing o.s.’; the basic idea is a *‘crossing from the inner world (of feelings, opinions, etc.) to the outer world, hence: verbal articulation’.
    ▪ [v4] ?
    ▪ Like [v1-2], [v5] too is traditionally explained as fig. use from ‘to cross’, interpreted as *‘to (make) cross, traverse mentally, ponder about, wander through a world of ideas or possibilities’, hence ‘to contemplate’ (> ‘to draw a lesson from’, cf. ↗ʕibraẗ), and hence also ‘to examine, test’. 
    ▪ … 
    ʕabara
    Cf. above, section CONC, as well as ↗ʕabara and ↗ʕBR. 
    – 
    BP#1062taʕbīr, n., 1 interpretation (of a dream); 2 assertion, declaration, expression, utterance (ʕan of a feeling); 3 (pl. -āt) expression (in general, also artistic); 4 (pl. taʕābirᵘ) (linguistic) expression, phrase, term: vn. II | bi-~ ʔāḫar, adv., in other words, expressed otherwise.
    taʕbīrī, adj., expressional, expressive, emotive: nsb-adj., from taʕbīr, vn. II. | al-ʔadab al-~, n., expressionistic literature; ḥarakāt ~aẗ, n.f.pl., mimic gestures or art; al-raqṣ al-~, n., interpretive dance, expressional dance; al-fann al-~, n., expressionism
    taʕbīriyyaẗ, n.f., expressionism: abstr. formation in -iyyaẗ, from taʕbīr, vn. II.
    BP#2741muʕabbir, n., 1 interpreter (ʕan of feelings); 2 expressive, significant: PA II. | raqṣ ~, n., interpretative dancing.

    For other values attached to the same root, cf. ↗ʕabara, ↗ʕabīr, ↗ʕibrī, ↗ʕabraẗ, ↗ʕibraẗ, ↗ʕibāraẗ, and, for the whole picture, ↗ʕBR. 
    ʕabīr عَبِير 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕBR 
    n. 
    1 fragrance, scent, perfume, aroma; 2 bouquet (of wine) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Traditional etymologists tend to derive ʕabīr ‘(compound) perfume’ from ↗ʕabara ‘to cross, pass over’ in the sense of *‘to cross the air, evaporate’, but this explanation looks rather far-fetched.
    ▪ A relation to WSem *ʕBR ‘to overflow’ (as is sometimes assumed for ↗ʕabraẗ ‘tear’) seems to be suggested by Hoch1994#68 when he does not exclude the possibility that the Eg loanword ʕbyr */ʕabīr/ (of uncertain meaning) perh. should be associated with BiblHbr (Song of Songs, 5:5) môr ʕōḇēr ‘liquid myrrh’ where ʕōḇēr most probably is a PA of the Hbr vb. ʕāḇar ‘to overflow’, which some scholars put to Sem *ʕ˅b˅r- ‘to cross’ while others regard it as a homonymous root that should be separated from ‘to cross’.
    ▪ Another connection is insinuated, though only implicitly, by Lane when he lists not only ʕabīr but also ↗ʕanbar ‘ambergris’ under √ʕBR. What may look rather unlikely at first sight can gain some plausibility when attention is paid to the fact that ʕabīr and ʕanbar both are associated, and sometimes even identified, with ‘saffron’. Phonologically, however, it would be difficult to derive ʕabīr directly from ʕanbar.
    ▪ From the above it is evident that, for the moment, the etymology of ʕabīr remains rather obscure and that the item therefore better should be kept apart from ʕabara
    ▪ In ClassAr ‘a mixture of perfumes, compounded with saffron’ or even used as a synonym for ‘saffron’ – Lane. 
    ▪ ? – If related, cf. perh. ↗ʕabara
    ▪ See above, section CONC. 
    – 

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕabara, ↗ʕabbara, ↗ʕibrī, ↗ʕabraẗ, ↗ʕibraẗ, ↗ʕibāraẗ, and, for the whole picture, ↗ʕBR. 
    ʕibrī عِبْرِيّ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 3673 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕBR 
    adj., n.gent. 
    1 Hebrew, Hebraic; 2 (pl. -ūn) a Hebrew; 3 al-~, n., or al-~iyyaẗ, n.f., Hebrew, the Hebrew language – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ The origin of the term Hbr ʕiḇrî (Ar ʕibrī) ‘Hebrew’ is, as Hopkins summarizes the state of affairs in etymological research about the word, still »a moot point, much discussed yet unresolved. None of the many etymologies proposed is satisfactory and so the origin of ‘Hebrew’ must be accounted unclear. Eccentricities apart, there are three main avenues of approach: (i) ʕiḇrî is an eponymous gentilic adjective, derived from the proper name ʕēḇär ‘Eber’, the great-grandson of Shem (Gen. 10.24; 11.14); (ii) ʕiḇrî is a geographical term, derived from ʕēḇär ‘across, beyond’, more particularly ʕēḇär han-nāhār ‘beyond the river’ (see especially Josh. 24.2). Depending upon the identity of the river in question, ʕiḇrî is to be understood as ‘trans-Euphrates’ or ‘trans-Jordan’«; while the ultimate etymon here would be Sem *ʕib(˅)r- ‘region beyond’, another geographical reading interpreted the Biblical ʕiḇrīm as ‘Bedouins’, i.e., a group of people who *‘cross, or wander around in, the desert’ (< Sem *ʕ˅b˅R- ‘to pass by, go beyond, cross’); »(iii) As opposed to (i) and (ii), which represent traditional views found in rabbinical sources, especially since the discovery of the Tel el-Amarna letters in the late 19th century it has been not uncommon in Biblical scholarship to find a connection between ‘Hebrew’ and the ḫabiru, groups of roving marauders mentioned in the Tel el-Amarna (and other) documents as having attacked Palestine in the mid-2nd millennium B.C.E.« – »Names of the Hebrew Language« (S. Hopkins), in Encyclopedia of Hebrew Language and Linguistics.
    ▪ For more details see below, section DISC. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ If from Sem *ʕ˅b˅r- ‘to cross’ or *ʕib(˅)r- ‘the region beyond/across a body of water (river, lake, sea), (further) bank/shore’, then ʕibrī is cognate to ↗ʕabara
    ▪ LandbergZetterstéen1942: Sur Hbr ʕiḇrī = ‘bédouin’, voyez Spiegelberg, OLZ 1907, col. 618 ss.; sur ʕBR = ʕRB Paul Haupt, “Die Vorfahren der Juden”, OLZ 12 (1909), col. 163 n. 2: »Der Name Hebräer (ʕibr für ʕabĭr) bedeutet (mehr oder weniger unfreiwillig; vgl. JAOS 16: ci) ‘Umherziehender’ (OLZ 10: 620; AJSL 23: 261). ʕArab (eigentlich ‘das Durchzogene, worin man umherzieht’) ist nur eine Umstellung (JBL 19: 66; AJSL 24: 113) dieses Stammes; vgl. äthiop. ʕabra. Die Jordanspalte heisst ʕarabâ, weil sie überschritten werden muss. Kein Nomade würde ein Tal mit einem nie versiegenden Fluss als Wüste bezeichnen.«535
    ▪ BDB1906 connects the Hbr n.gent. ʕiḇrī with Sem √ʕBR (Ar ↗ʕabara ‘to cross’, Hbr ʕēḇär ‘region across or beyond, side’): it is »either a. put into the mouth of foreigners (Egypt, and Philist.), or b. used to distinguish Isr. from foreigners (= ‘one from beyond, from the other side’, i.e. prob. [in Hbr trad.] ‘from beyond the Euphrates’ […], but poss. in fact (if name given in Canaan) ‘from beyond the Jordan’«. However, BDB also mentions the »connexion […] with Ḫabiri (Tel Am.)«, cf. next paragraph.
    ▪ Are the ʕibrîm identical with the Ḫabiru of the Tell Amarna letters? — »The Ḫabiru-Hebrew parallelism was first suggested by F. J. Chabas in 1862. Soon after the discovery of the Amarna letters in 1887, the dispute over the above equation gained momentum. From the outset, scholars were split into two camps: those defending the identification, who endeavored to combine the two groups and to integrate them into the early history of Israel, and those rejecting it. In the course of time, it became clear that Ḫabiru is an appellative for a certain social element, namely displaced persons who leave their homeland and seek their fortunes in neighboring countries. However, whereas the nature of the Ḫabiru was unanimously recognized, the Ḫabiru-Hebrew equation remained as controversial as ever.«536
    ▪ Hoch1994#70: cf. Eg */ʕapīrū/, */ʕapūra/ ? — »The Eg contexts seem to indicate that the term designated social and not ethnic classification. […] Although the etymology is uncertain, the word is known in Akk texts as ḫabiru, and Ug as ʕprm. The word is also very likely related to the Biblical term/name ʕiḇrî ‘Hebrew’, but the nature of the relationship is not easily determined.« [fn. 33:] »Scholars have variously equated, loosely associated, or rejected any connection between the ʕIbrîm and the ʕApiru. Loretz, although admitting an etymological derivation from ʕprw=ʕprm=ḫabiru, considers that all the occurrences of the word in the Bible are as a gentilic, and not as a social term. This is certainly true of the post-exilic usage, but it is possible that in I Sam. 4-29 the word is used in its original sense, although put in the mouths of the Philistines, perh. with a certain degree of contempt. That ʕApiru groups were still active is shown by the narrative of I Sam. 22-30 where David leads a band of brigands that are all but called ʕApiru. The later usage as a gentilic may have arisen as a re-interpretation of the term, whose original sense had been forgotten, such social groups having long since disappeared. The view that the I Sam. instances are genuine Biblical examples of ʕApiru, but that the other examples are the gentilic was also expressed by N. P. Lemche, “‘Hebrew’ as a National Name for Israel”, Studia Theologica: Scandinavian Journal of Theology, 33 (1979): 1-23.« 
    ▪ Not from Ar ʕibrī, but ultimately from the same source is Engl Hebrew, loEngl, »from oFr Ebreu, from Lat Hebraeus, from Grk Hebraîos, from Aram ʕeḇrāʔī, corresponding to Hbr ʕiḇrî ‘an Israelite’. Traditionally from an ancestral name Eber [ʕēḇär ], but probably literally ‘one from the other side’, perhaps in reference to the River Euphrates, or perhaps simply signifying ‘immigrant’; from ʕēḇär ‘region on the other or opposite side’. The initial H- was restored in Engl from C16. As a noun from c. 1200, ‘the Hebrew language’; lC14 in reference to persons, originally ‘a biblical Jew, Israelite’ – EtymOnline
    ʕibrānī, adj., 1 Hebrew, Hebraic; 2 a Hebrew; 3 al-~, n., or al-~iyyaẗ, n.f., Hebrew, the Hebrew language.

    For other values attached to the same root, cf. ↗ʕabara, ↗ʕabbara, ↗ʕabīr, ↗ʕabraẗ, ↗ʕibraẗ, ↗ʕibāraẗ, and, for the whole picture, ↗ʕBR. 
    ʕabraẗ عَبْرة , pl. ʕabarāt , ʕibar 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕBR 
    n.f. 
    tear – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Perh. akin to ↗ʕabara ‘to cross’, from Sem *ʕ˅b˅r- ‘id.’ (denom. of *ʕib(˅)r- ‘opposite side, region beyond’), interpreted as *‘to cross a border, reach a limit, a brim, overflow’ (esp. feelings, emotion), hence ‘tear, to shed tears’, or, in a narrower sense, to WSem *ʕBR ‘to overflow’. 
    ▪ Cf. also ClassAr (G-stem) ʕabara (ʕabr) and ʕabira a (ʕabar) ‘to shed tears; to grieve, mourn, be sorrowful, sad, unhappy’, ʕabrà (pl. ʕubr) ‘weeping (eye), hence: grieving (woman), bereft of her child’ – Lane/Hava1899. 
    ▪ Probably related to Hbr ʕäḇrāʰ ‘overflow, excess, outburst; arrogance; overflowing rage, fury’, (Št-stem, denom.) hiṯʕabbar ‘to be arrogant, infuriate o.s.’ (BDB1906), and Syr ʕbar ‘…; to surpass, exceed, be beyond, overcome’ (e.g., bᵊ-šūp̱rāh lᵊ-šemšā ʕābrā hᵊwāt ‘she surpassed the sun in fairness’), (eṯp) ‘…; to neglect, fail (of accomplishment), to transgress, sin’, (aph) ‘…; to go beyond, exceed’ (PayneSmith1903). – ? Cf. also Akk ebirtu (var. abirtu, ḫibirtu), name of a month? According to CAD, this word is »possibly to be connected with [Akk] ebēru, in the meaning ‘to overflow’, attested in WSem (Hbr, Aram), hence ‘the month of overflowing of the rivers’«. – However, it is still not clear whether WSem ʕBR ‘to overflow’ really is related to Sem ʕBR ‘to cross’ or whether we are dealing with a homonymous root. 
    ▪ If ʕabraẗ ‘tear’ is related to WSem *ʕBR ‘to overflow’, its original meaning would be *‘what overflows’ or *‘result of an overflow (of emotion, rage, fury, etc.)’. Gesenius1915, it is right, thinks that WSem *ʕBR ‘to overflow’ has to be treated as a root in its own right, different from Sem *ʕBR ‘to cross’; but why should ‘to overflow’ not go back to an earlier ‘reaching/crossing a border, go beyond, pass over’ and thus probably have developed from *‘to cross’? 
    – 
    ʕabira, a (ʕabar) to shed tears
    ĭstaʕbara, vb. X, to shed tears, weep

    For other values attached to the same root, cf. ↗ʕabara, ↗ʕabbara, ↗ʕabīr, ↗ʕibrī, ↗ʕibraẗ, ↗ʕibāraẗ, and, for the whole picture, ↗ʕBR. 
    ʕibraẗ عِبْرة, pl. ʕibar 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 3411 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕBR 
    n.f. 
    1 admonition, monition, warning; 2 (warning or deterring) example, lesson; 3 advice, rule, precept (to be followed); 4 consideration befitting s.th.; 5 that which has to be considered, be taken into consideration or account, that which is of consequence, of importance, s.th. decisive or consequential… – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Based on ↗ʕabara ‘to cross’ (from Sem *ʕ˅b˅r- ‘id.’, denom. of *ʕib(˅)r- ‘opposite side, region beyond’), interpreted figuratively as *‘to cross, traverse mentally, ponder about, wander through (a world of ideas or possibilities)’, hence ‘to contemplate’ (> ‘to draw a lesson from’), and hence also ‘to examine, test’. 
    ▪ eC7 ʕibraẗ (lesson to be learned) Q 12:111 la-qad kāna fī qaṣaṣi-him ʕibraẗun li-ʔūlī ’l-ʔalbābi ‘in their stories is surely a lesson for those possessed of minds’. – ĭʕtabara (VIII, intr., to take heed, learn a lesson, consider) Q 59:2 fa-’ʕtabirū yā ʔūlī ’l-ʔabṣāri ‘so learn a lesson, you who have eyes’. 
    ▪ As ↗ʕabara
    ▪ See above, section CONC. 
    – 
    mawṭin al-ʕibraẗ, n., the salient point, the crucial point
    lā ʕibraẗa bi-hī, expr., it deserves no attention, it is of no consequence
    al-ʕibraẗ fī / bi , expr., the crucial factor(s) is (are)…, decisive is (are)…
    lā ʕibraẗa li-man , expr., it is of no consequence if s.o….

    BP#341ĭʕtabara, vb. VIII, 1 to be taught a lesson, be warned; 2 to learn a lesson, take warning, learn, take an example (bi from); 3 to consider, weigh, take into account or consideration (s.th.), allow, make allowances (DO for s.th.); 4 to acknowledge (DO a quality, li‑ in s.o.); 5 to deem, regard, take (2xDO s.o., s.th. as), look (DO at s.th., DO as); 6 to esteem, honour, revere, value, respect, hold in esteem (s.o.), have regard (DO for s.o.): tG-stem, either denom. from ʕibraẗ or self-referential in the sense of *‘to cross or wander around (for o.s., mentally, in a book, or the realm of possible explanations, meanings, choices, etc.)’.

    BP#758ĭʕtibār, n., 1 respect, regard, esteem; 2 self-esteem, honour; 3 (pl. -āt) consideration, regard; 4 reflection, contemplation; 5 approach, outlook, point of view, view: vn. VIII. | ~an li-/bi-…, bi-~…, prep., with respect to, with regard to, in consideration of, considering…, in view of (s.th.); ~an min, prep., from, as of, beginning…, starting with…, effective from… (with foll. indication of time); bi-~i ʔan…, conj., considering (the fact) that…, with regard to the fact that…, in view of the fact that…; provided that…, with the proviso that…; bi-~i-hī… (+acc.), adv., in terms of, in the capacity of, e.g., wazīr al-ḫāriǧiyyaẗ bi-~i-hī ʔaqdama ’l-wuzarāʔ, the Foreign Minister in his capacity of senior-ranking minister; ʕalà / bi-hāḏā ’l-~, adv., from this standpoint, from this viewpoint; ʕalà ~-i ʔanna…, conj., considering (the fact) that…, with regard to the fact that…, in view of the fact that…; on the assumption that…; fī kull ~, adv., in every respect; ~an ʔaw ḥaqīqaẗan, adv., from a subjective point of view or in reality; ʔamr la-hū ~u-hū, expr., s.th. which one must take into consideration or pay attention to; radd al-~, n., rehabilitation
    ĭʕtibārī, adj., 1 based on a subjective approach or outlook; 2 relative: nsb-adj., from ĭʕtibār, vn. VIII | šaḫṣiyyaẗ ~aẗ, n.f., legal person (jur.)

    For other values attached to the same root, cf. ↗ʕabara, ↗ʕabbara, ↗ʕabīr, ↗ʕibrī, ↗ʕabraẗ, ↗ʕibāraẗ, and, for the whole picture, ↗ʕBR. 
    ʕibāraẗ عِبارة , pl. ‑āt 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 904 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕBR 
    n.f. 
    1 explanation, interpretation; 2 (verbal) expression, utterance; 3 phrase; 4 clause; 5 way of expressing o.s.; 6 term (math.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Quasi-vn. I, based on ↗ʕabara ‘to cross’ (from Sem *ʕ˅b˅r- ‘to cross’, from *ʕib(˅)r- ‘region beyond/across a body of water, opposite bank/shore’), interpreted as *‘to make s.th. pass from the tongue of the speaker to the ear of the hearer’ or *‘…from the inner world of feelings and thought to the outer world of words, i.e., to verbalilze, articulate s.th.’, hence ‘to express (a feeling, an opinion, etc.)’; cf. Engl express < Lat ex-primere, lit., *‘to squeeze, make come out’; cf. also ↗ʕabbara.
    ▪ In mysticism, ʕibāraẗ means »the ‘literal language’, which is unsuitable for exoteric topics, in contrast to the coded language of ↗ʔišāraẗ « – EI², Glossary and Index of Terms.
    ▪ [v6] ‘term (math.)’ is prob. a neolog., an extens. of [v3] or [v4], following the model of Engl Fr expression which is likewise used for math. expressions.
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ ↗ʕabara
    ʕibāraẗ ‘speech that passes from the tongue of the speaker to the ear of the hearer; hence: passage in a book or writing; and hence also: word, expression, phrase; and: explanation, interpretation’ (Lane).
    ▪ A similar semantic development is also found in Syr.
     
    – 
    bi-ʕibāraẗ ʔuḫrà, adv., in other words, expressed otherwise
    ʕibāraẗan fa-ʕibāraẗan, adv., sentence by sentence, word by word
    ʕibāraẗ ʕan, n.f./adj./adv., consisting in; tantamount to, equivalent to, meaning

    BP#1168ʕabbara, vb. II, 1 to interpret (a dream); 2 to explain, illustrate, expound; 3 to state clearly, declare, assert, utter, express, voice (ʕan s.th.), give expression (ʕan to a feeling); 4 to designate (ʕan s.th., bi with or by); 5 to determine the weight of a coin, weigh (a coin): While [v1-2] are fig. use of the caus. D-stem, lit. *‘to make cross’, [v3] can be regarded as denom. from ʕibāraẗ; [v4] : ?; [v5] : from ↗ʕabara ‘to cross’, in the fig. sense of *‘to go through (the many possibilities), check out, test’, cf. ↗ʕibraẗ.
    BP#1062taʕbīr, n., 1 interpretation (of a dream); 2 assertion, declaration, expression, utterance (ʕan of a feeling); 3 (pl. -āt) expression (in general, also artistic); 4 (pl. taʕābirᵘ) (linguistic) expression, phrase, term: vn. II; for semantics, see ʕabbara above, and entry ↗ʕabbara. | bi-~ ʔāḫar, adv., in other words, expressed otherwise.
    taʕbīrī, adj., expressional, expressive, emotive | al-ʔadab al-~, n., expressionistic literature; ḥarakāt ~aẗ, n.f.pl., mimic gestures or art; al-raqṣ al-~, n., interpretive dance, expressional dance; al-fann al-~, n., expressionism
    taʕbīriyyaẗ, n.f., expressionism: neolog., abstr. formation in -iyyaẗ, from taʕbīr, vn. II.
    BP#2741muʕabbir, 1 n., interpreter (ʕan of feelings); 2 adj., expressive, significant: PA II. | raqṣ ~, n., interpretative dancing

    For other values attached to the same root, cf. ↗ʕabara, ↗ʕabīr, ↗ʕibrī, ↗ʕabraẗ, ↗ʕibraẗ, and, for the whole picture, ↗ʕBR. 
    ʕBS عبس 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023
    √ʕBS 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕBS_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕBS_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕBS_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘dung, to be soiled, to be dismal; to frown, to look stern, to be austere’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕBQR عبقر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023
    √ʕBQR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕBQR_1 ‘(a kind of) rich carpet’ ↗ʕabqarī
    ▪ ʕBQR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕBQR_3 ‘...’ ↗... 
    ▪ ‘This root is said to originate from the word ʕAbqar, the name of the place which the ancient Arabs believed to be the home of the wondrous jinn. It is said also to be a name of a town, either in the Yemen or in al-Ǧazīra, where cloth of great beauty is made. Some scholars, however, suggest that the word came into Ar from Pers long before the revelation of the Qur’an. The concepts associated with this root include: ‘genius, talent, poetical inspiration, rich floral types of carpet’ (the latter revealing perh. a Pers origin for the word)’ – BAH2008 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕabqarī عَبْقَريّ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Jun2023
    √ʕBQR
     
    n. 
    (a kind of) rich carpet – Jeffery1938 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q iv, 76 – Jeffery1938.
     
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »It occurs only in an early Meccan Sūra in a passage describing the delights of Paradise.
    The exegetes were quite at a loss to explain the word. Zam. says that it refers to ʕabqar, a town of the Jinn, which is the home of all wonderful things, and Ṭab., while telling us that ʕabqarī is the same as zarābī or dībāǧ states that the Arabs called every wonderful thing ʕabqarī.
    It seems to be an Iranian word. Addai Sher, 114, suggests that it the Pers ābkār, i.e. āb kār, meaning ‘something splendid’, from āb ‘splendour’ and kār ‘something made’. That would be Phlv āb ‘lustre, splendour’537 (cf. Skt. ābʰā) and kār ‘labour, affair’538 from Av kār (cf. Skt. kār),539 so Phlv ābkār would mean a ‘splendid or gorgeous piece of work’. It must be admitted, however, that this derivation seems very artificial.«
     
    – 
    – 
    ʕTB عتب 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023
    √ʕTB 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕTB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕTB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕTB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘flight of levelled stone steps up a mountain, threshold, lintel, stairs; anger, to be angry, to reprove, to have a bone to pick with s.o., to reproach a friend amicably because of an alleged hurtful action committed by him, to explain o.s., to seek forgiveness’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕTD عتد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023
    √ʕTD 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕTD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕTD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕTD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘container for personal valuables, war materials including horses kept at the ready, to prepare, to be ready; to treasure’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕTQ عتق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023
    √ʕTQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕTQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕTQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕTQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘shoulder; to set free, to go free; to mature, to be in the prime of condition; to be old, (wine and the like) mature’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕatīq عَتيق 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 3724 • APD … • © SG | created 7Jun2023
    √ʕTQ 
    adj. 
    ancient, antique 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ʕTL عتل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023
    √ʕTL 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕTL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕTL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕTL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘crowbar; to drag violently; ruffian and cruel person’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕTW/Y عتو/ي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023
    √ʕTW/Y 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕTW/Y_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕTW/Y_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕTW/Y_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be excessively fierce, arrogant, violent, aggressive, to be disobedient, to offer mutinous opposition; (of tree branches) to dry up; to reach very old age, to be infirm’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕṮR عثر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023
    √ʕṮR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕṮR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕṮR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕṮR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a hole in which irrigation water collects, palm trees that get water from such pools; to stumble upon, to find, to trip; a slip of the tongue; dusty land’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕṮW/Y عثو/ي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023
    √ʕṮW/Y 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕṮW/Y_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕṮW/Y_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕṮW/Y_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘tangled hair, to go haywire; to act wickedly, to harm, to cause mischief; male hyena, a crude unkempt person, a fool’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕǦB عجب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕǦB 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕǦB_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ʕǦB_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ʕǦB_x ‘sacrum’: ʕaǧb; cf. also ʔaʕǧabᵘ ‘having prominent buttocks’.

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘wonder, to admire, to like, a wondrous thing; conceit, conceited person’ 
    ▪ …
    ▪ …
    ▪ …
    ▪ (ʕaǧb ‘sacrum’, ʔaʕǧabᵘ ‘having prominent buttocks’) Kogan2011: from protWSem *ʕag(a)b‑ ‘coccyx, buttocks’. – For items with similar meaning, cf. ↗ʕaṣà (ʕaṣaṣ, ʕuṣuṣ, ʕuṣʕūṣ), ↗ʔist, and ↗qaynaẗ.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ʕaǧab‑ عَجَبَ 
    ID 563 • Sw – • BP 4086 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕǦB 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ʕǦZ عجز 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕǦZ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕǦZ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ʕǦZ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘posteriors, buttocks, (of palm trees) stumps; to hang back, to fail to perform, lack of strength, lack of ability, failure, to grow old; miracle, to out-perform’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ʕaǧiz‑ عَجِزَ 
    ID 566 • Sw – • BP 2607 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕǦZ 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ʔiʕǧāz إعْجاز 
    ID 564 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕǦZ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ʕāǧiz عاجِز 
    ID 565 • Sw – • BP 2946 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕǦZ 
    adj. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    muʕǧizaẗ مُعْجِزَة 
    ID 567 • Sw – • BP 4217 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕǦZ 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ʕǦF عجف 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023
    √ʕǦF 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕǦF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕǦF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕǦF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be emaciated, to be lean, to refrain from eating; to encounter hardship, to be miserly’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕǦL عجل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023
    √ʕǦL 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕǦL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕǦL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕǦL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘calf; haste, to hasten, speed, rush; wheel, camel litter, hawdaj; a palm tree ladder’ 
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    ʕǦM عجم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023
    √ʕǦM 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕǦM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕǦM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕǦM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘fruit stones (particularly those of dates), seed, solid; to test by biting on; to be dumb; beast; those who cannot speak Arabic, obscurity’ 
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    ʕDː (ʕDD) عدّ/عدد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023
    √ʕDː (ʕDD) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕDː (ʕDD)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕDː (ʕDD)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕDː (ʕDD)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘gear; group, number, to count, to number, to reckon, to enumerate, an appointed time; plenty of; to be reckoned with; to get ready, readiness’ 
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    ĭstiʕdād اِسْتِعْداد 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 1177 • APD … • © SG | created 7Jun2023
    √ʕDː (ʕDD) 
    n. 
    ▪ vn., X 
    ʕDS عدس 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023
    √ʕDS 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕDS_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕDS_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕDS_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a cry used in urging on a mule, to walk with vigour, to travel far and wide; lentils’ 
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    – 
    – 
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    ʕDL عدل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕDL 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕDL_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ʕDL_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘one side of a camel litter; to be equal to, justice, to be straight, to be upright, to be temperate, the happy medium, to be of impeccable character; to change one’s mind, value’ 
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    ʕadl عَدْل 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 1223 • APD … • © SG | created 7Jun2023
    √ʕDL 
    n. 
    ▪ vn., I 
    ʕadālaẗ عَدالَة 
    ID 568 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 1549 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕDL 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    ʕDN عدن 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023
    √ʕDN 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕDN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕDN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕDN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘metal, place of permanent residence, to settle in; group of people, Paradise’. – The last sense is attributed by al-Suyūṭī to a borrowing from Syr. 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ Not from Ar ↗ʕAdan ‘Aden’, but from the Hbr ancestor common to both is Engl Eden: from Hbr ʕēden ‘delight’. 
    – 
    ʕDW عدو 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕDW 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕDW_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ʕDW_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008, s.r. ʕDw/y): ‘the two sides of a valley, to cross from one side to the other, to run, to pass, to infect, infection, calamity; aggression, animosity, enemy, corruption; to boycott’ 
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    ʕaduww عَدُوّ 
    ID 569 • Sw – • BP 799 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕDW 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    ʕḎB عذب 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023
    √ʕḎB 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕḎB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕḎB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕḎB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘(of water) to be sweet, be pleasant, fresh, agreeable; to remove or deny sweet water, torture, cause pain; to be unable to eat because of extreme thirst; to go far; the tip of a pointed object’ 
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    ʕḎR عذر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023
    √ʕḎR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕḎR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕḎR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕḎR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘courtyard; a refuse dump; faeces; to cleanse; to excuse, justification; to forgive; virginity, modesty; hair growing on the cheeks; to become difficult; landmark’ 
    ▪ From CSem *√ʕḎR ‘to help’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Ezra, from Hbr ʕezrāʔ, hypocoristic form of a name such as ʕazrîʔēl ‘God (is) my help’, from ʕazr‑, ʕezr‑, presuffixal form of ʕēzer ‘help’, cf. Ar ↗ʕaḏara (ʔēl ‘God’, cf. Ar ↗ʔilāh, ↗allāh); Lazarus, from Hbr ʔelʕāzār ‘God has helped’, from ʕāzār ‘he has helped’, lengthened form of ʕāzar ‘to help (ʔel ‘God’); Hasdrubal, from Lat Hasdrubāl, from Phoen (Pun) *ʕazrō-baʕl ‘his help (is) Baal’, from *ʕazrō ‘his help’, from ʕazr ‘help’, from *ʕzr ‘to help’ + * ‘his’ (*baʕl ‘Baal’, cf. Ar ↗baʕl). 
    – 
    ʕRː (ʕRR) عرّ/عرر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023
    √ ʕRː (ʕRR) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕRː (ʕRR)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕRː (ʕRR)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕRː (ʕRR)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘scabies; dirt, dung; shame, to disgrace, to be exposed; to be of bad character; to harm; needy, to seek hospitality, to seek alms’ 
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    ʕRB عرب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕRB 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕRB_1 ‘Arab(ic); (D-stem) to make Arabic, Arabicize, translate into Arabic; (*Š-stem) to use desinential inflection’ ↗ʕarab, ↗ʕarraba, ↗ʔiʕrāb
    ▪ ʕRB_2 ‘to express’ ↗ʕarraba, ↗ʔaʕraba
    ▪ ʕRB_3 ‘to give earnest money, make a down payment’ ↗ʕarraba, ↗ʕurbūn
    ▪ ʕRB_4 ‘godfather, sponsor’ ↗ʕarrāb
    ▪ ʕRB_5 ‘swift river’ ↗ʕarabaẗ (1)
    ▪ ʕRB_6 ‘carriage, wagon, cart, coach’ ↗ʕarabaẗ (2)

    Other values, now obsolete, include (as given in F = Freytag1835 [vol. iii], H = Hava1899, L = Lane1874 [vol. v], LZ = LandbergZetterstéen1942, W = Wahrmund1887) :
    • ʕRB_7 ‘abundance (of water)’: ʕarib ‘(well, river) containing/yielding much water, abundance of water’
    • ʕRB_8 ‘soul, mind’ : ʕarabaẗ
    • ʕRB_9 ‘(a sort of) lizard’ : ʕurbānaẗ
    • ʕRB_10 ‘loving, pleasing, of matching age’ : ʕarūb (also [F] ʕarūbaẗ, ʕaribaẗ); cf. also (denom.) [F] vb. IV, ʔaʕraba ‘matrimonium iniit cum femina ʕarūb appellata’; should we also compare [LZ] DaṯAr ʕarab li- ‘être bon pour’?
    • ʕRB_11 ‘(an old, pre-Isl name for) Friday’ : ʕarūbaẗ
    • ʕRB_12 ‘¹to incite with lust, arouse (a partner’s) sexual appetite; ²to copulate, have sex’ : ¹ʕarraba, ²ʔaʕraba, [LZ] YemAr ʕarab ‘to have sex’; cf. also ĭstaʕraba, vb. X, ‘[F] appetivit marem (vacca), [L] to desire the bull (said of a cow)’
    • ʕRB_13 ‘foul speech, obscene talk’ : ʕarābaẗ ~ ʕirābaẗ ([W] ~ ʕurābaẗ), + denom. II, IV, X
    • ʕRB_14 ‘to eat (much), devour’ : [F,L,W] ʕaraba i (ʕarb); cf. also [LZ] DaṯAr ʕarab ‘être glouton, grand mangeur’, ʕarūb ‘dévorateur, qui dévore, qui a la fringale’
    • ʕRB_15 ‘bad, corrupt, disordered (stomach)’ : ʕarib ; cf. also ʕariba a (ʕarab) ‘to be(come) disordered (stomach); to become disordered in the stomach by indegestion (s.o.)’
    • ʕRB_16 ‘to become swollen and purulent, break up again after it had healed (wound)’ : ʕariba a (ʕarab) ‘[L] to become swollen and purulent (a camel’s hump), [F,H,W] intumuit et purulentum fuit (vulnus), [L] to become corrupt, break open again, [F,L,H] to leave a scar (wound), have a scar remaining after it has healed’. – Cf. also next item?
    • ʕRB_17 ‘inguinal region, groin; turgor of lymph node’ : [LZ] DaṯAr ʕurbiyyaẗ ‘aîne; bubon’
    • ʕRB_18 ‘(to be/make) clear, limpid, clean (water, a palmtree, a horse’s hoof, language, etc.); pure, genuine, hence: noble (horse etc., race)’ : ʕarab ~ ʕarib, and also (with double -b-b for intensification) ʕurbub ‘abundant water, such as is clear, or limpid’; ʕarraba, vb. II ([H,W:] also ʔaʕraba, vb. IV) ‘to prune (a palm-tree); to make an incision in the bottom of the horse / to scarify (a horse) (to make clear that it is a good horse); [F] puram et a vitiis immunem protulit (loquelam) [= overlapping with ʕRB_1 in ↗ʔiʕrāb ]; to reproach, upbraid s.o. [i.e., point out clearly the faults in s.o.’s behaviour]’; ʔaʕraba [F] ‘distinctam, manifestam effecit (rem)’. – [F] ʕurb ‘noble horse’, ʕarab ‘nobilitas generis (in equis)’, ʕarāb ‘boum species glabra’; [overlapping with ʕRB_1 ‘Arabic’:] (ḫayl) ʕirāb ‘Arabici nobilesque equi’, ʕaruba ‘Arabica et vitiis immunis fuit (loquela), (ʕarab) ʕaribaẗ / -āt / ʕāribaẗ ‘[F] (Arabum) gens pura / [L] the pure, or genuine Arabs’. – Cf. also next item?
    • ʕRB_19 ‘white/excellent (barley)’ : ʕarabī
    • ʕRB_20 ‘dried buhmà plant’ : [F,L] ʕirb, a species of barley-grass
    • ʕRB_21 ‘ordre, arrangement, convenance, résultat’ : DaṯAr ʕurb ~ ʕurub
    • ʕRB_22 ‘1 quarter tone; 2 device for adjusting the tone of the strings of the ↗qānūn (mus.)’ : EgAr ʕarbaẗ, pl. ʕurab – BadawiHinds1986.
    • ʕRB_23 ‘fruit of the ḫazam tree’ : ʕarāb, [W] ʕarābaẗ
    • ʕRB_24 ‘bag with which the udder of a sheep, or goat, is covered’ : [F,L] ʕarābaẗ, pl. -āt ; cf. also ʕarrāb ‘one who makes ʕarābāt
    • ʕRB_25 ‘(a name of) The Seventh Heaven’ : [F,L] ʕurūbāʔᵘ
    • ʕRB_26 ‘tetragonal stones’ : [LZ] DaṯAr taʕārīb
    • ʕRB_27 ‘somebody’ : [F,BK] ʕarib, ʕarīb
    Not in WehrCowan1979 but evidently still in use is
    • ʕRB_28 ‘the Arabah’ (depression to the south of the Dead Sea, Jordan Rift Valley) : (wādī)ʕarabaẗ (3)

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘1 [≙ ʕRB_1] the Arabs, the Ar language; 2 [≙ ʕRB_2] to speak out, express one’s own thoughts, be eloquent; 3 [≙ ʕRB_10&12] to be affectionate; 4 [≙ ʕRB_1&18] to correct s.o.; 5 [≙ ʕRB_28] a geographical location’. – »Some scholars attribute [v3] to a possible borrowing from Syr on the disputable grounds that this particular sense has no semantic connection with the central meaning with which the root, as a whole, is associated.« 
    ▪ Both Sem √ʕRB and, more specifically, Ar √ʕRB are among the most complex roots to disentangle. This is partly due to the fact that Sem √ʕRB comprises many values that in Ar not only correspond to √ʕRB but also to √ĠRB (see below). It seems to be due, however, also to the old age of the root within Ar itself, resulting in an immense semantic diversity. Since etymology and semantic history are still far from being clear, the following suggestions cannot be more than preliminary; they may serve as a starting point for further investigation.
    ▪ For some of the Sem ʕRB values that in Ar show ĠRB see the entries ↗ġarb ‘west’ [Sem *ʕRB ‘to set (sun)’], ↗ġarab ‘willow’ (cf. Hbr ʕᵃrāḇāʰ, Aram ʕᵃraḇtâ ‘willow’, perh. akin to Akk urbatu ‘rush, reed’), ↗ġurāb (Sem *ġārib-, *ġurā̆b-) ‘raven, craw’, and, for the whole picture, ↗ĠRB.
    ▪ Within the Ar root √ʕRB, we could identify six larger semantic complexes. These complexes are presented briefly and dealt with “from above”, from a macro-perspective, in this (CONC) section, while the DISC section will treat the items “bottom up”, leaving the details to the more specializing entries on the individual lemmata. The six complexes cover many of the most frequent values; however, they do not account for a considerable number of less frequent lexical items. The latter will, for the moment, remain isolated; this group includes:
    • in MSA only 2 items, namely: ʕarabaẗ ‘carriage, cart’ (ʕRB_6, probably a borrowing) and (wādī) ʕarabaẗ ‘the Arabah’ (depression to the south of the Dead Sea, Jordan Rift Valley) (ʕRB_28);
    • in ClassAr: ʕarabī ‘white/excellent (barley)’ (ʕRB_19), ʕirb ‘dried buhmà plant (a species of barley-grass)’(ʕRB_20), ʕarāb(aẗ) ‘fruit of the ḫazam tree’ (ʕRB_23), ʕarābaẗ ‘bag with which the udder of a sheep, or goat, is covered’ (ʕRB_24), ʕurūbāʔᵘ ‘(a name of) The Seventh Heaven’ (ʕRB_25, quite certainly a loan word), ʕarīb, ʕarīb ‘somebody’ (ʕRB_27);
    • in some dialects: DaṯAr ʕur(u)b ‘ordre, arrangement, convenance, résultat’ (ʕRB_21), EgAr ʕarbaẗ ‘quarter tone; device for adjusting the tone of the strings of the qānūn ’ (ʕRB_22), and DaṯAr taʕārīb ‘tetragonal stones’ (ʕRB_26).
    ▪ As larger semantic complexes within Sem and Ar √ʕRB emerge the following six (an asterisk * marking those cases where the basic meaning is not directly represented in Ar but some extant items seem to be reflexes of it):
    • *‘to enter ’ : According to many (Huehnergard, Kogan, Klein, et al.), this is the very basic value of the root in Sem [Akk erēbu ‘to enter, enter in the presence (of a god, king, etc.), come in (said of taxes), come (said of months), invade, penetrate; to return, arrive, come, go home’, (Š-stem) šūrubu ‘to penetrate’, Ug ʕrb ‘to enter, go in’, Phoen ʕrb ‘dto.’]. This value seems to be manifest however in Akk, Ug and Phoen only, while it has undergone a shift, or several shifts, of meaning in the remaining Sem area where it is mostly realized as one of five new semantic bases presented below. Retsö, meanwhile, seems to regard Ar ʔaʕraba ‘to penetrate, copulate, have sex’ (ʕRB_12, *‘“enter” a woman’) and perh. also the n.gent. ʕarab itself (ʕRB_1) as possible reflexes of the original ‘to enter’, suggesting for the latter an original meaning of *‘those who have entered [, sc. ] into the service of a divinity and remain his slaves or his property’ (Retsö2003: 598); cf. also next but one paragraph.
    • *‘to set, go down (sun), evening, west ’ : This value is usually explained as an extension of the former, based on the idea of the sun “entering”, i.e., setting, behind/below the horizon. The value can be observed already in Akk erêb šamši, Ug ʕrb špš ‘sunset’ and is very frequent throughout Sem, incl. Ar (where it, however, shows initial Ġ- instead of ʕ- 85 ), cf. Hbr ʕāraḇ (vn. ʕᵃrôḇ) ‘to become evening; to get dark’, ʕäräḇ ‘(sun)set, evening’, JudAram ʕrb, Syr ʕreḇ ‘to set, go down’, ʕerḇā, ʕᵊrābā ‘sunset’, Ar ġaruba, ġariba ‘to set’, ġarb ‘place of sunset, west’, Gz ʕaraba ‘to set (sun)’; Hbr maʕᵃrāḇ, Ar maġrib ‘west’. In addition, Rotter1993 suggested that also Ar ʕarūbaẗ, a pre-Isl name for ‘Friday’ (ʕRB_11; cf. also Syr ʕarūbtā ‘the eve, day of preparation, esp. the eve of the Sabbath, Friday’) probably should be put here, though not with the conventional explanation that the word refers to the *‘evening’ before Sabbath, but that ʕarūbaẗ originally was the *‘day of Venus’ (Lat dies Veneris, whence Fr vendredi, It venerdì, etc.), i.e., the day of the ancient deity of the evening star, the planet Venus (Rotter1993: 123, n. 56). The theory does not account for the stability of ʕ in this case while all ‘sunset, evening, west’ items show ġ; but if it should be correct, then one would probably also have to compare ʕarūb ‘loving, pleasing, of matching age’ (ʕRB_10), which usually is derived from the notion of ‘affection’ (see below) rather than along a hypothetical line of semantic development such as *‘to enter > to set > setting sun > evening > evening star, Venus > like Venus’.
    • pledge, to step in, stand surety or bail for, give guarantee \ earnest money’: In ascribing the meaning *‘to enter, stand surety or bail for, guarantee’ to Sem ʕRB, Huehnergard 2011 obviously regards the idea of ‘stepping in for s.o.’ as integral aspect of the Sem root, going together with *‘to enter’. According to Klein1987, this is doubted by others (cf., e.g., the fact that BDB groups this value apart from ‘to enter’). In contrast, BDB mentions that the value usually is identified with ‘to mix’ (see next paragraph), but adds that this is »quite uncertain«. There is consensus nevertheless that the value ‘to step in for s.o., stand surety or bail for s.o., give (o.s. or s.th.) as guarantee, in pledge, etc.’ is a major basis around which a larger semantic field has built up in CSem (Ug, Can, Aram, Ar, SAr), cf., Ug ʕrb, Hbr ʕāraḇ ‘to take on pledge, give in pledge, go surety for; to barter, exchange’ (> lEg Copt arēb ‘pledge, security’), Phoen ʕrb ‘guarantor, surety’, oAram ʕrbʔ ‘pledge’, TargAram Syr ʕᵃraḇ ‘to vouch for, go surety for’, Targ ʕārēḇ ‘bondsman, surety’, Syr ʕreb ‘to promise solemnly, be surety, give security, pledge o.s.; (with b-, l-, ʕal-) esp. to stand sponsor (at baptism)’, ʕurāb(t)ā ‘surety sponsor, god-parent; security, bail’ (> Ar ʕarrāb ‘godfather’, ʕRB_4), ʕarābūtā ‘suretyship; pledge, surety’, Ar ʕarraba ‘to give earnest money’ (ʕRB_3), SAr ʕrb ‘give guarantee, stand surety\bail for’, Sab ʕrb ‘to give in pledge’, Min Qat ‘to offer as sacrifice’; Hbr ʕᵃrubbāʰ ‘thing exchanged, pledge, token’, ʕērāḇôn ‘pledge’, EgAram ʕrbn, JudAram, ChrPal ʕarbûnā (> Ar ʕarabūn ‘pledge, token’, usually treated as from 4-rad. √ʕRBN). Retsö even tends to see the n.gent. ʕarab (ʕRB_1) itself as belonging here (as an extension from ‘to enter’) when he suggests an interpretation of the name ʕarab as *‘those who have entered into the service of a divinity and remain his slaves or his property’ (Retsö2003: 598).
    • (*)mixture > confusion ’ : With the exception, perhaps, of Ar ʕarib ‘bad, corrupt, disordered (stomach)’ (ʕRB_15), there seem to be no other direct reflexes of the basic value of ‘mixture, confusion’ in Ar. It figures on the list here nevertheless, for two reasons: first, because there is an old theory that would see the n.gent. ʕarab (ʕRB_1) as originally meaning *‘the mixed people’ (or even *‘riffraff’), a term applied by the Israelites on all types of foreigners and non-natives; and second, because it could serve as a semantic link between *‘to enter’ and *‘vehemence’ (see below), or (if *‘to enter’ has to be separated from ‘mixture’) as the origin from which *‘vehemence’ could have developed as an Ar innovation. The idea of *‘mixture > confusion’ seems to be realized mainly in Hbr and Aram, with a special aspect of it perh. also in Akk: Hbr ʕāraḇ, BiblAram ʕᵃraḇ, Syr ʕrab, ʕreb ‘to mix, mingle’, Targ ʕirbēb ‘to mix up, confound, disturb’, Targ ʕērāḇôn ‘mingling, suit of followers’; Hbr ʕēräḇ ‘mixture, mixed company; swarm (non-Israelites; foreign parts of the Egyptian population, the ethnic melting pot of Babel, foreigners in the land of Juda’ [=> cf. perh. Ar ↗ġarīb ?], ʕārōḇ ‘swarm of wild bees or flies—the forth plague of Egypt’ (prob. < *‘swarm of stinging flies’), (? >) Syr ʕᵊrûbâ, ʕarrûbâ ‘swarm of vermin and insect; mixed multitude, riff-raff, rabble; confusion (of words)’86 (cf. also Akk urbatu, urubatu ‘harmful animals’, erbu, var. erebu, aribu ‘locust’?87 ). – Do we also have to compare Hbr ʕēräḇ ‘woof’ (as *‘mixed, interwoven, with warp’) and Ar ʕurbānaẗ, ʕarabānaẗ ‘(a sort of) lizard’ (ʕRB_9)? — Klein1987 considers also the root Hbr Aram ʕrbl, Ar ġrbl as belonging here, as an extension in *-l : Hbr (pi) ʕirbēl ‘to mix; to cause to whirl; to confuse’, nHbr ʕarbāl ‘mixing machine; whirlpool, vortex, eddy’, ʕarblān ‘mixer (of concrete)’, Syr ʕarbel, Ar ↗ġarbala ‘to sift’. In contrast, Schulthess1900: 47, treats ‘sieve, to sift’ as an independent value (in Syr realized also as ʕrb, without additional l). – Schulthess1900 further mentions that earlier research sometimes tried to derive the meaning ‘mixture, confusion’ from that of ‘stepping in’ (see above). He prefers to keep the two apart nevertheless, although he concedes that such a derivation would not per se seem to be impossible and that the value ‘mixture, confusion’ otherwise will remain without etymology.
    • vehemence (passion, vitality, agility, outburst, expression, excess, abundance, abundance of passion, exuberance, affection)’ : This value is one of the broadest bases for new derivations in Ar, but apparently only there, i.e., it seems to be an Ar innovation. It can be thought to be a development from the preceding basis when the ‘mixture, confusion’ was thought to exceed a certain limit or an emotional quality was attached to it; in many derivations from this basis there is also an element of the ungovernable, unmanageable, or of an uncontrollable eruption. The most frequent items belonging to this complex are probably: ‘abundance (of water)’ (ʕRB_7), esp. that to be found in a ʕarabaẗ ‘swift river’ (ʕRB_5) (of which ʕRB_8 ʕarabaẗ ‘soul, mind’ is likely to be fig. use);88 the turbulences in a ʕarib ‘corrupt, disordered’ stomach (ʕRB_15, sometimes seen as deriving directly from ‘mixture, confusion’) and the ʕarab ‘swelling’ caused by it, an expression also used in connection with wounds that ‘become swollen and purulent’ and/or ‘break up again’ after they have healed, sometimes ‘leaving a scar’ (ʕRB_16); the dialectal (DaṯAr) ʕurbiyyaẗ ‘inguinal region, groin; lymphoma, turgor of lymph node’ (ʕRB_17) certainly also belongs here; the idea of excess is evident in the vb. ʕaraba ‘to eat (much), devour’ (ʕRB_14), and that of passion and affection in the adj. ʕarūb ‘loving, pleasing’ (ʕRB_10) that the Qurʔān uses as an epithet to describe the virgins of Paradise;89 if, as Rotter1993 suggested, the pre-Isl name for ‘Friday’, ʕarūbaẗ (ʕRB_11), originally really means ‘Venus’, then one could perh. also interpret this name as *‘the Affectionate, Loving’ one (rather than *‘Deity of the Evening Star’, from *‘to set, go down < to enter’, as assumed by Rotter, see above); to ʕarūb ‘loving, pleasing’ one could also put ʕarraba ‘to incite with lust, arouse (a partner’s) sexual appetite’ and ʔaʕraba ‘to penetrate, copulate, have sex’ (ʕRB_12),90 keeping in mind, however, that Retsö2003 interpreted the latter as a reflex of the basic meaning ‘to enter’; the same verbs ʕarraba and ʔaʕraba can, however, also remain free of all sexual connotation and instead refer to an eruption, an outburst, a letting out of feelings, emotions, thoughts, etc., i.e. an ‘expression’ (ʕRB_2), an outward showing of emotions or feelings or uttering of thoughts; if this ‘expression’ is not properly controlled, we get ʕ˅rābaẗ ‘foul speech, obscene talk’ (ʕRB_13).91
    • The sixth large semantic cluster within Ar √ʕRB is that of ‘clarity, purity ’ and hence also ‘nobility ’ (ʕRB_18). Since this value, too, seems to be an Ar idiosyncrasy, it is perh. not too far-fetched to try to derive it from the preceding complex, in itself probably an Ar innovation, along the hypothetical line *‘vehemence > abundance > abundance of water > abundance of clear water > clear water > clear’. Indeed, the idea of ‘abundance’ mostly occurs in connection with water, and items like those indicating an ‘abundance (of water)’ (ʕRB_7) or a ‘swift river’ (ʕRB_5), mentioned in the preceding paragraph, are often characterized in the dictionaries simultaneously with the attribute ‘clear, pure’ and can thus easily serve as bridge between ‘abundance’ and ‘clarity, purity’, e.g., ʕarab, ʕarib, ʕurbub ‘[F] Multa aqua pura / [BK] grande quantité d’eau pure / [L] abundant water, such as is clear, or limpid ’ (my italics, S.G.).92 . The basic idea of *‘clarity, purity’ is then transferred into quite a number of very different contexts, so that verbs like ʕarraba (D-stem) or ʔaʕraba (*Š-stem), lit. meaning ‘to make clear, limpid, clean’ can come to mean such diverse actions as ‘to prune (a palm-tree)’, ‘to make an incision in the bottom of the horse, to scarify (a horse) [to make clear that it is a good one]’, ‘to express clearly’ (overlapping with ‘to express’ understood as a simple “outing” of emotions etc., see above, ‘vehemence’)’, ‘to speak correctly, without mistakes’, ‘to reproach, upbraid s.o. [i.e., point out clearly the faults in s.o.’s behaviour]’, etc. From ‘purity’ the step is not far to ‘nobility’, particularly that of horses (ʕurb ‘noble horse’, ʕarab ‘purity of race’), but often overlapping with ethnic purity, esp. that of the Arabs (ʕRB_1) themselves, cf. such items as (ḫayl) ʕirāb ‘noble Arabian (horses)’, or the very frequent epithet of ‘genuine’ Arabs, (ʕarab) ʕaribaẗ / -āt / ʕāribaẗ . – With all probability also ʕarabī ‘white/excellent’ as a characterisation of high-quality barley (ʕRB_19) is just a specific application of ‘purity’ on this type of corn.
    ▪ For details, and for those items that do not form part of the above-mentioned six major semantic complexes, cf. below, section DISC. 
    85. Nöldeke1900: 155, fn.1, regards ʕ (which also appears in SAr ʕrb ‘to set’) as the more original sound and explains the shift ʕ > ġ in Ar ĠRB as a “Steigerung” (augmentation), likely to have been caused by neighbouring -r-.  86. MilitarevKogan2005#36 reconstruct Sem *ʕa/urub ‘kind of vermin, worm’.  87. This item is treated s.r. √ʔRB rather than √ʕRB in DRS 1 (1994): Akk erbū-, arab-, erib-, Ug i͗rby, Hbr ʔarbē, oAram ʔrbh, Soq ʔerbhiyoh, Mhr harbiēt ‘sauterelle’. Cf., however, the remark that the item originally seems to signify ‘foule, essaim’ (swarm).  88. It is also tempting to draw a line from this swiftness and agility to that of a ʕurbānaẗ ‘(kind of) lizard’ (ʕRB_9) or, outside Ar, a swarm of locusts; cf., however, what has been said in the preceding paragraph on the derivation of ‘swarm’ from the idea of ‘mixture, confusion’.  89. However, given the fact that this item, as the only one in the ‘vehemence’ group that we are suggesting here, does have cognates outside Ar (Hbr ʕārēḇ, TargAram ʕārîḇ ‘pleasant, sweet’, Aram miʕāraḇ ‘pleasing’), one should perh. be not too quick to derive it from ‘vehemence’. Klein1987, for instance, thinks the original meaning of Hbr ʕāraḇ may have been ‘to be well mixed, be duly arranged’, thus a »special sense development« of ʕāraḇ ‘to mix’.  90. Sometimes, the adj. ʕarūb (ʕRB_10) is not only explained as ‘loving, pleasing’ but also as ‘frivolous, indecent, unseemly’.  91. Cf. also the interpretation of ʕarūb ‘loving, pleasing’ (ʕRB_10) as ‘frivolous, indecent, unseemly’.  92. The fig. use of ʕarabaẗ ‘swift river’ as ‘soul, mind’ (ʕRB_8) does also fit into this picture: a swift mind is often also a clear mind. 
    – 
    ▪ Given the complexity within the root and the dependence of what one regards as cognate(s) on the interpretation of this complexity, possible/probable cognates will be mentioned en passant, in section DISC below.
    ▪ Other Sem langs display an even larger variety of values attached to √ʕRB. Following is a list of attestations from non-Ar langs that—as it seems so far—are not related to any of the Ar values. However, given the considerable degree of uncertainty in the assessment of the Ar case it may be useful to have them available nevertheless (for Syr: Sch = Schulthess1900, PS = PayneSmith1903):
    • ‘large bowl, vessel’ : Syr ʕarbā ‘[Sch] Trog / [PS] large wooden bowl, vessel, washtub, kneading-trough; cup, measure; olive-press’. – Acc. to Sch perh. belonging to ‘to mix’; cf. however Mand ʔrbʔ ‘boat’, and Ar ġar(a)b, designating any kind of vessel (‘Wasserschlauch’, ‘Brunneneimer’, ‘Trinkgefäss aus Silber’)
    • ‘vetch, chick-pea’ : Syr ʕarbā [PS]
    • ‘water-wheel, mill’ : Syr ʕarbā [PS]
    • ‘sheep, ram’ : Syr ʕerbā [Sch,PS]. Sch is reluctant to see the item together with Phoen ṣäräb ‘id.’, but Nöldeke1900 accepts it as cognate, adding: perh. from Sem *ḍrb in a sexual sense; if so, then the original meaning was prob. only ‘male sheep, ram’.
    • ‘(a waterfowl)’ : Akk (lBab) arabû (arabūa)
    • ‘(a garment)’ : Akk (mBab) aribû, ? Hbr ʕēräḇ ‘woof’ (mentioned above in section CONC as possibly dependent on *‘mixture’)
    • ‘(a part of the neck)’ : Akk (lBab) arūbu (or arūpu). CAD: »For possible Sem cognates in the meaning ‘neck’, see Holma, Körperteile, 141.«
     
    ▪ ʕRB_1 : Jan Retsö has written a whole book about the question who the ʕarab ‘Arabs’ actually were (The Arabs in Antiquity, Retsö2003). His thorough investigation into the pre-Isl sources concludes with the finding that they started out as »a group of initiates of a fellowship of warriors or guards around a divinity« (Retsö2003: 596). Consequently, Retsö tends to interpret the n.gent. ʕarab as related to ʕRB in the sense of *‘to enter’ which many consider to be the very basic value of the root in Sem. Thus, in Retsö’s opinion, the name originally carried a meaning that was close to one of the values the Akk erēbu could take, namely ‘to enter in the presence (of a god, king, etc.)’. With this, the n.gent. would also be close to the idea of a ‘pledge’ and of ‘giving s.th. or o.s. as guarantee, standing surety or bail, stepping in for s.o.’ that may be dependent on the basic ‘to enter’ and of which MSA ʕarraba ‘to give earnest money’, ʕarabūn ‘pledge, token’ (ʕRB_3) and ʕarrāb ‘godfather’ (ʕRB_4) are reflexes. Earlier theories, all dismissed by Retsö as little convincing, would connect the ethnonym with the ʕArabaẗ (ʕRB_28) region, or with the notion of *‘mixing’ (the Arabs as *‘mixed company’ or, more negatively, a ‘swarm’), or with its opposite, the *‘purity and nobility’ (ʕRB_18) of descent, or with *‘vehemence, excess’ (to have sex’ – ʕRB_12, to eat a lot, devour – ʕRB_14), or (by metathesis) with the ‘Hebrews’ (√ʕBR), by which the Arabs like the Hebrews are essentially seen as *‘the nomads, those who traverse, cross, wander around’ or *‘those who come from, or inhabit, the other side of the river, the region beyond’. – For further details cf. entry ↗ʕarab. — Derivatives: In the meaning ‘to make Arabic, Arabicize, translate into Arabic’ the D-stem ʕarraba is with all likelihood denominative from ʕarab. For another value cf. next paragraph. – In the *Š-stem ʔaʕraba the notions of ‘Arabicity’, ‘expression’ and ‘clarity, purity’ often overlap, particularly when ʔaʕraba takes the specific meaning of ‘pronouncing the final accents of a word, using desinential inflection (i.e., the ↗ʔiʕrāb)’. In these cases, the vb. has been interpreted as denominative from ‘Arab(ic)’ in the sense of *‘to make (one’s language obey to the rules of correct) Arabic’. According to Olivieri2020, this usage is a calque from Grk hellēnismós (in the Stoic tradition). Such a develeopment was certainly facilitated by the fact that it fitted well also with the notions of ‘(clear) expression’ and ‘purity, clarity’ (see below).
    ▪ ʕRB_2 ʕarraba, ʔaʕraba ‘to express’: This value can be thought to derive from the basic idea of *‘vehemence’, an expression being an *‘ex pression’, an act of releasing s.th. that had been locked inside where it had built up a pressure, a *‘letting flow, giving way’, or an *‘outburst, eruption’ (of passion, vitality, agility, passion, emotion, affect, etc., from *‘mixture, confusion’). Gabal2012 (III:1472) even identifies the »virulence/activity and outburst with inner vehemence in order to release what is imprisoned« (našāṭ wa-’nṭilāq bi-ḥiddaẗ ḏātiyyaẗ lil-ḫulūṣ mimmā yuḥbas) as the basic value of √ʕRB as such.540 With this, the value is closely related to the ‘swift river’ (ʕRB_5), the ‘abundance (of water)’ (ʕRB_7), the passion and affection in the adj. ‘loving, pleasing’ (ʕRB_10) or the one accompanying sexual intercourse (ʕRB_12), the expression of negative sentiments in the ‘foul speech, obscene talk’ (ʕRB_13), as well as the confusion of a ‘corrupt, disordered’ stomach (ʕRB_15) and the ‘swelling’ of such a stomach or the ‘breaking up’ of purulent wounds (ʕRB_16); combined with the idea of ‘clarity’ (ʕRB_18) we get ‘to express clearly’ which, according to Retsö, could also be the idea behind that of ‘stepping in (for s.o.)’ (ʕRB_3), interpreted as from *‘to speak out (ʕan on behalf of s.o.)’. – Apart from that, there may be interference from √ʕBR (showing BR instead of RB), where ↗ʕibāraẗ, which also means ‘expression’, is based on a similar idea of ‘letting out, releasing’, but with more attention to the action of crossing (↗ʕabara) than on that of vehemence.
    ▪ ʕRB_3 : The MSA vb. II ʕarraba ‘to give earnest money, make a down payment’ has preserved the Sem 3-cons. root while elsewhere the theme is treated as attached to 4-rad. √ʕRBN, from ↗ʕurbūn ~ ʕarabūn (ClassAr also ʕurbān ~ ʕurubbān ‘earnest money, down payment’), hence the denom. ʕarbana, vb. I, ‘to give earnest money, give a handsel, make a down payment’, synonymous with ʕarraba.541 While Ar ʕurbūn ~ ʕarabūn without doubt is an inner-Sem borrowing (prob. from Syr542 ), ʕarraba is not necessarily derived from this and reduced back to 3 radicals, but probably reflects the older Sem *ʕRB ‘to stand surety or bail for, guarantee’, perh. from Sem *ʕRB ‘to enter’ (but this is doubted). However that may be, the value is widespread in (C)Sem and can count as one of the oldest in the whole spectrum of meanings attached to the root (cf. the cognates given above in section CONC). With Retsö2003 one could also think of an original meaning of *‘to speak out (ʕan on behalf of)’, so that the value could be interpreted as if from *‘expression’ (ʕRB_2) and *‘clear’ (ʕRB_18). – Closely related to the idea of a pledge is also that of ʕarābaẗ ~ ʕirābaẗ ‘contract, treaty’ (+ the denom. vb.s II and IV, ʕarraba and ʔaʕraba, ‘to change, barter; to make a contract’). – ʕRB_4 ʕarrāb ‘godfather’ clearly belongs together with ʕRB_3. – For Engl arbiter and earnest as borrowings from Sem, see below, section WEST.
    ▪ ʕRB_4 ʕarrāb ‘godfather, sponsor’ : a specialisation of the preceding (ʕRB_3), with all likelihood borrowed from Syr ʕurāb(t)ā ‘surety sponsor, god-parent; security, bail’ (cf. Hava1899’s classification of ʕarrāb ‘godfather’, ʕarrābaẗ ‘godmother’ as LevAr; Dozy, too, classifies it as of Syr origin). Cf. also Syr ʕreb ‘to promise solemnly, be surety, give security, pledge o.s.; (with b-, l-, ʕal-) esp. to stand sponsor (at baptism)’.
    ▪ ʕRB_5 ʕarabaẗ ‘swift river’ : In our opinion, the ‘river that flows with a vehement, strong current’ reflects one of the earliest values that developed out of the basic Sem *ʕBR ‘mixture’, namely *‘briskness, liveliness, vehemence’, which is preserved in ClassAr ʕar(a)b; cf. also the corresponding vb. I, [F] ʕariba a (ʕarab) ‘alacer, lubens fuit’. Perhaps also ʕurbānaẗ ‘(a sort of) lizard’ ([F] ‘lacerta agilis’, ʕRB_9) belongs here (on account of the animal’s agility, but see below for another theory), possibly (fig. use?) also ʕarabaẗ ‘soul, mind’ (ʕRB_8). The value ‘swift river’ could also be seen as a specilisation of ʕRB_7 ‘abundance (of water)’, although the latter may of course be also be a generalisation of the former; it is certainly also related to the notion of *‘release, setting free, outburst’ on which of ʕRB_2 ‘to express’ is built.
    ▪ ʕRB_6 ʕarabaẗ ‘carriage, wagon, cart, coach’ : According to art. “Araba” in EI² (G.L.M. Clauson, M. Rodinson), the word was introduced into Ar in Mamluk Egypt via Tu (where it is first attested in C14), although the latter is in itself a corruption of Ar ʕarrādaẗ, properly ‘ballista [stone-throwing machine], military siege weapon’, but hence also ‘gun, mobile gun, carriage carrying a gun’ > ‘wagon, cart’.543 Rolland2014a however lists some more suggestions that have been made: »Pour Al-Tûnji, du Pers arāba ‘voiture, char; roue’. / Pour Nourai, qui croit que l’emprunt s’est fait dans le sens inverse, le mot arabe serait isu du Grk hárma ‘char de combat ou de course’. / Pour Nişanyan, du Skr rátha via l’Av ratha ‘char tire par un cheval’.544 Sa forme actuelle serait issue d’une forme intermédiaire hypothétique *ʕarrādaẗ
    ▪ ʕRB_7 : The value ‘abundance (of water)’ is represented in items such as ClassAr ʕarab ~ ʕarib ‘[F L H] abundant water, such as is clear, or limpid’, ʕarib ‘(well, river) containing/yielding much water, abundance of water’, (denom. vb. I) ʕariba a (ʕarab) ‘to abound with water (well), to swell (river)’, ʕārib ‘[F] profundum (flumen), [H] swollen, overflowing (river)’, ʕarīb ‘[F] multa aqua’, ʕurbub ‘[F] multa aqua pura’. – Cf. also [W] ʕarraba ‘viel und süßes reines Wasser trinken’. – The value is closely related to, and often overlapping with, that of *‘outburst, gushing out’ (ʕRB_2 ‘expression’); it can be thought to be the “master value” of ‘swift river’ (ʕRB_5), though it could in its turn be an extension/generalization of the latter; the same applies for ‘(to be/make) clear, limpid, clean’ (ʕRB_18) which sometimes goes together with ‘abundance (of water)’, as in ʕurbub ‘abundant water, such as is clear, or limpid’. An ‘abundance’ of a specific type of “water”, pus, is the background of ‘to become swollen and purulent, break up again after heal (wound)’ (ʕRB_16) and perh. also of the ‘corrupt, disordered (and therefore swollen)’ stomach’ (ʕRB_15).
    ▪ ʕRB_8 ʕarabaẗ ‘soul, mind’ : prob. fig. use of ʕRB_5 ʕarabaẗ ‘swift river’, taking the quickness and vitality as the tertium comparationis that allows the transfer of meaning from ‘river’ to ‘mind’.
    ▪ ʕRB_9 ʕurbānaẗ ‘(a sort of) lizard’ : related to ʕRB_5 ʕarabaẗ ‘swift river’ and the notion of ‘swiftness, agility’? – A relation with ʔirbiyān ‘[F] locusta marina, [̄L] a species of fish resembling worms’ is rather unlikely, both phonologically (ʕʔ) and semantically (‘lizard’ ≠ ‘locust’545 ).
    ▪ ʕRB_10 ʕarūb ‘loving, pleasing, of matching age’, cf. also (denom.) vb. IV, ʔaʕraba ‘[F] matrimonium iniit cum femina ʕarūb appellata’; should we also compare [LZ] DaṯAr ʕarab li- ‘être bon pour’? – Jeffery1938 followed Sprenger in assuming thought that the word was borrowed from Hbr: »The word is found only in an early Meccan passage [Q 56:37] describing the delights of Paradise, where the ever-virgin spouses are ʕuruban ʔatrāban which is said to mean that they will be ‘well pleasing’ to their Lords and ‘of equal age’ with them. / The difficulty, of course, is to derive it from the Ar root ʕRB, which does not normally have any meaning which we can connect with ʕarūb in this sense. For this reason Sprenger, Leben, ii: 508, n., suggested that it was to be explained from Hbr ʕRB, one of the meanings of which is ‘to be sweet, pleasing’, used, e.g., in Ez. xvi, 37; Cant, ii, 14, very much as in the Qurʔānic passage. So in the Targums ʕārēḇ means ‘sweet, pleasing’ (Levy, TW, ii, 240), but the word is not a common one, and it is not easy to suggest how it came to the Arabs. It is commonly used in the old poetry, which would point to an early borrowing.« ▪ However, even if we disregard Luxenberg’s view that the Qurʔānic ʕurub is a complete misreading546 and still think of the word as forming part of the more genuine Ar vocabulary, we do not need to go outside Ar in order to find a plausible semantic context to which ʕarūb could belong. Cf. the fact that it not only can mean a woman ‘who manifests love to her husband and is obedient to him’, but also one ‘who loves him passionately, or excessively, or who manifests love to him, evincing passionate, or excessive, desire’, as well as one ‘who uses amorous gesture or behaviour, and coquettish boldness, with feigned coyness or opposition, or who makes a show of, or act with, lasciviousnes or passionately loving’ [L]; therefore F has also ‘rebellis contra maritum’ (my emphasis – SG). Considering these notions, ʕarūb can easily be derived from the idea of *‘vehemence (passion, emotion, affect, etc.)’ ▪ To this one can probably connect ʕRB_12 ʕarraba, vb. II, ‘[F] libidine accendit (taurus vaccam), [W] brünstig machen (der Stier die Kuh) [to incite with lust]’, and ĭstaʕraba, vb. X, ‘[F] appetivit marem (vacca), [L] to desire the bull (said of a cow)’. The corresponding *Š-stem, ʔaʕraba, vb. IV, can even mean the act of copulating (‘[F] inivit feminam ’), and LZ reports that »chez les Bédouins du Yémen«, i.e., in YemAr, ʕarab is the regular verb for ‘to have sex, [vulg. ] to fuck’. ▪ Retsö2003: 599 (n.28) thinks that the latter, together with the vn. ʕarābaẗ ‘coition’, »must be a survival of the ancient meaning«, i.e., of Sem ʕRB *‘to enter’. However, the essential element in ‘arousing the partner’s sexual appetite’ seems to be the fact that it is done passionately, with a clear manifestation of desire; this is why there is semantic overlapping with ‘to speak out, express’ (ʕRB_2) and ‘clarity’ (ʕRB_18), and perh. even with ‘pledge, to stand in for s.o.’ (ʕRB_3), cf. the frequent interpretation of sexual stimulation as being effected by speaking and pleading or acting in a manner that expresses one’s desire (ʔaʕraba ‘[F] indicavit oblique verbis huius rei desiderium (feminae), [H] to afford [bi- clear arguments], [L] to plead one’s cause, speak and plead for the object of one’s want, speak of that act in an oblique, or indirect, manner’). – If ʕarūbaẗ (ʕRB_11) originally is ‘Venus’ then there may also be a relation of ʕarūb to the Evening Star and thus to *‘evening, sunset’, perh. from *‘to enter’.
    ▪ ʕRB_11 ʕarūbaẗ (so also in DaṯAr) ‘(an old, pre-Isl name for) Friday’ : Syr ʕarūbətā ‘id.’. – L notes that »accord. to some, it is most chastely without the article; thus it occurs in old poetry of the Time of Ignorance; and it is thought to be not Arabic; and said to be Arabicized from the Nabataean ʔarubā […]; accord. to others, the article is inseparable from it; and its meaning, accord. to Ibn al-Naḥḥās, is ‘the manifest and magnified’, from ʔaʕraba ‘he made clear, plain’, etc.; or accord. to an authority cited in the R, its meaning is ‘mercy’«. All these explanations are easily identifiable as late attempts to give some meaning to s.th. that wasn’t understood any longer. In contrast to this tradition, Western research had for a long time assumed that ʕarūbaẗ was derived from Sem *ʕRB ‘to enter, set (sun)’, meaning *‘the evening (before Saturday)’, corresponding to Hbr ʕäräḇ šabbāṯ ‘evening before Sabbath’.547 Rotter1993 modifies this assumption when he interprets the item as a name for ‘Venus’, the ancient deity of the evening star, the planet Venus. As a name for ‘Friday’, ʕarūbaẗ in his view thus corresponded to the Roman term for Friday, Lat dies Veneris (whence Fr vendredi, It venerdì, etc.). – Although this theory is not without some appeal and persuasive power, esp. when seen in the context of the other names for pre-Isl weekdays discussed by Rotter and framed by the idea of a shared heritage of Late Antiquity, it does not account for the fact that all other Ar items belonging to the ‘sunset, evening, west’ complex show /ġ /, not /ʕ / as first radical. Therefore, if the identification of ʕarūbaẗ with Venus shall be maintained we will either have to assume a borrowing in this meaning from a Sem lang that has preserved initial /ʕ / – but is there such a *ʕRB ‘Venus’ outside Ar? –, or derive the meaning ‘Venus’ from another value than that of Sem ‘sunset, evening, west’. Here, Ar ʕarūb ‘loving, pleasing, affectionate (woman)’ (ʕRB_10) somehow suggests itself. As we saw in the preceding paragraph, Jeffery would tend to see also this item as foreign; but there is no real need to do so. Thus, ʕarūbaẗ ‘Friday’ could indeed originally be the *‘Day of Venus’, but ‘Venus’ here would just be *‘the loving, affectionate one’, derived from ʕarūb by extension in f. ending aẗ, along the line *‘(clear expression of) emotion, affect < vehemence < mixture (? < to enter)’.
    ▪ ʕRB_12 ʕarraba ‘to incite with lust, arouse (a partner’s) sexual appetite, [F] libidine accendit (taurus vaccam), [W] brünstig machen (der Stier die Kuh)’ and ʔaʕraba ‘to copulate, have sex’, ĭstaʕraba ‘to desire the bull (said of a cow)’, [LZ] YemAr ʕarab ‘(vulg.) to fuck’ : Given that the Ar words are the same as those signifying value ʕRB_2, ʕRB_12 ʕarraba seems to be a special meaning of ‘to show one’s emotions, express one’s feelings, give way to one’s affects, instincts, etc.’. One could however also think of ʕarraba as denom. caus. from ʕarūb (ʕRB_10), i.e., lit., *‘to make (a partner) behave as a ʕarūb, i.e., as s.o. who shows (passionate) affection’. For Retsö, the *Š-stem ʔaʕraba in the meaning ‘to penetrate’ is derived from Sem *ʕRB ‘to enter’.
    ▪ ʕRB_13 ʕarābaẗ ~ ʕirābaẗ (~ [W] ʕurābaẗ) ‘foul speech, obscene talk’, hence (?) also ʕarraba ‘[F] turpia dixit (in aliquem) / [W] zotig, gemein reden, gemeine Rede brauchen (ʕalà gegen); [F] turpia esse dixit (verba vel facta) / [W] (jd-s Worte/Taten) für gemein erklären; [H] to point out (ʕalà to s.o.) the unseemliness of s.th.’; ʔaʕraba (vb. IV), taʕarraba (vb. V), ĭstaʕraba (vb. X) ‘turpiter et obscoene locutus fuit’ : In this value we have an overlapping of a number of notions that all can be thought to be based on the basic ideas of *‘mixture’ and *‘vehemence’. From the former we can draw a line *‘mixture’ > ‘(to be) corrupt, disordered (stomach)’ (ʕRB_15) > ‘to swollen and purulent (wound), pus’ (ʕRB_16) > *‘stinking like pus’ > *‘foul, obscene’ > ‘foul speech, obscene talk’. From *‘vehemence’ we get ‘abundance’ (as in ʕRB_7 ‘abundance of water’) > *‘excess’ (as in ʕRB_14 ‘to eat too much/fast, devour’) > *‘eruption of what had been kept closed inside (emotions, etc.)’ > ‘expression’ (ʕRB_2), and if the ‘expression’ is too vehement its ‘clarity’ (ʕRB_18) becomes offensive, obcene, too blunt.
    ▪ ʕRB_14 [F,L,W] ʕaraba i (ʕarb) ‘to eat (much), devour’, [LZ] DaṯAr ʕarab ‘être glouton, grand mangeur’, ʕarūb ‘dévorateur, qui dévore, qui a la fringale’ : While we tend to see this item as derived from the basic idea of *‘vehemence’, then also ‘excess(iveness)’ and ‘(clear expression of) intense desire’ (cf. ʕRB_2 and ʕRB_12 above), LandbergZettersteen1942 wonders whether we aren’t possibly dealing with a case of metathesis here so that ʕRB_14 actually is from Sem √RʕB, cf. Hbr : rāʕēḇ ‘to be very hungry, voracious; to desire intensely’, Gz rəʔāba ‘to be hungry’, Ar ↗raġiba ‘to desire, crave for’ (perh. also Akk barû ~ berû ‘to be hungry, starve’, Copt lībe ‘to go mad for, desire intensely’ – so Jensen, acc. to Gesenius1915 s.r. Hbr RʕB).
    ▪ ʕRB_15 : As already mentioned above, ʕarab ‘corruption, disorder (of the stomach, due to indigestion, etc.)’ and the corresponding adj. (ʕarib ‘bad, corrupt, disordered (stomach)’548 ) and vbs. (ʕariba ‘to be disordered (stomach); to become disordered in the stomach by indegestion (s.o.)’, ʕarraba ‘[F] aegrotum reddidit aliquem (stomachi corruptio), [L] to treat medically, remove the disease of s.o. whose stomach is in a corrupt, disordered state’) seem to be reflexes of the basic idea of *‘mixture, confusion, turbulence’ from which also other values attached to √ʕRB probably are derived, particularly those related to *‘vehemence’.
    ▪ ʕRB_16 ʕariba a (ʕarab) ‘[L] to become swollen and purulent (a camel’s hump), [F H W] intumuit et purulentum fuit (vulnus), [L] to become corrupt, break open again, [F L H] to leave a scar (wound), have a scar remaining after it has healed’ : The easiest way to explain this value would be to regard it as an extension of the former, the essential ‘disorder, corruption’ of ʕRB_15 leading to a swelling and eventually breaking up (cf. also ʕRB_2 ‘expression, (vehement) release of what had been locked inside’). – Cf., however, Ehret1995#695 where ʕariba ‘to swell and suppurate’ is interpreted as an extension in »extendative« *-b from a 2-cons. pre-protSem root nucleus *ʕr ‘to be raised’ (< AfrAs * ʕir ‘to be raised; sky’; cf. also ↗ʕaraǧa ‘to ascend, mount, rise’, ʕarada ‘to shoot up, grow’, ↗ʕaraša ‘to build, erect a trellis’, D-stem ‘to roof over’). – See also ʕRB_17.
    ▪ ʕRB_17 [LZ] DaṯAr ʕurbiyyaẗ ‘aîne; bubon’ (inguinal region, groin; turgor of lymph node) : likely to be akin to ‘swelling’ (ʕRB_16, < *‘corruption, disorder < mixture, confusion’).
    ▪ ʕRB_18 ʕarab ~ ʕarib and also (with double -b-b for intensification) ʕurbub ‘[F] multa aqua pura / [L] abundant water, such as is clear, or limpid’ : As mentioned above, the idea of ‘clarity, purity’ can be thought to be derived, ultimately, and almost ironically, from what may seem to be its very opposite: *‘mixture, confusion’, along the hypothetical line *‘clear < clear water < abundance of clear water < abundance of water < abundance < excess(iveness) < vehemence < turbulence < confusion, mixture’. If this etymology should be correct, ‘clarity, purity’ is akin to the ‘abundance (of water)’ (ʕRB_7) and the ‘swift river’ (ʕRB_5) as well as the *‘outburst’ of ʕRB_2, which can also be seen as a kind of *‘clearing’. In contrast, Ehret1989#33 would tentatively interpret ʕaraba (vn. ʕarab) in the (related?) meaning ‘to separate, put by, put aside’ [which I however was unable to confirm from my own sources – S.G.] as an extension in »extendative« *-b from a pre-protSem 2-cons. root nucleus *ʕr ‘to take out, remove’.549Extended / figurative use: As mentioned above, the idea of *‘clarity, purity’ was then also transferred into many other contexts: “making clear/clearing, purifying” in this way coming to mean ‘pruning palm-trees’, ‘scarifying horses’, ‘expressing s.th./o.s. clearly’ (overlapping here with ʕRB_2 ‘expression’), ‘speaking correctly, without mistakes; using the ↗ʔiʕrāb ’, ‘reproaching, upbraiding s.o. (i.e., pointing out clearly the faults in s.o.’s behavior)’, etc.; ‘purity’ was also identified with purity of descent, hence ‘nobility’ (ʕurb ‘noble horse’, ʕarab ‘purity of race’), and all these notions also merged with ‘Arabness’ (ʕRB_1; cf. the expression ʕarab ʕaribaẗ / -āt / ʕāribaẗ are for ‘genuine Arabs = Arabs of pure descent’), so that, e.g., ḫayl ʕirāb not only are ‘noble horses’ but also ‘noble Arabian horses’, and ‘to express o.s. clearly’ became synonymous with ‘to use pure and correct Arabic’ and ‘to make one’s speech truly Arabic’. – With all probability also ʕarabī ‘white/excellent’ as a characterisation of high-quality barley (ʕRB_19) is just a specific application of ‘purity’ on this type of corn.
    ▪ ʕRB_19 ʕarabī ‘white/excellent barley, [F] Hordeum praestantissimum, album, cuius grana duplicem seriem formant’ : properly *‘pure’ barley and thus special use of ʕRB_18?
    ▪ ʕRB_20 ʕirb ‘dried buhmà plant’, a species of barley-grass, or any dried herb leguminous plant : etymology obscure. Any connection with the idea of ‘purity’ (ʕRB_18) or in particular the ‘white/excellent barley’ of the preceding paragraph (ʕRB_19)? Or, given the fact that the plant is dry, is there a relation to the notion of *‘aridity’ that some researchers (though not without opposition) found to be reflected in the n.topogr. ↗ʕArabaẗ (ʕRB_18)?
    ▪ ʕRB_21 [LZ] DaṯAr ʕurb ~ ʕurub ‘ordre, arrangement, convenance, résultat’ : etymology obscure. Any connection to the idea of ‘matching (age)’ that is sometimes attached to the ‘loving, pleasing’ virgins of paradise (see ʕRB_10 above)?
    ▪ ʕRB_22 EgAr ʕarbaẗ, pl. ʕurab1 quarter tone; 2 device for adjusting the tone of the strings of the ↗qānūn (mus.)’ (BadawiHinds1986) : metathesis from RBʕ ‘four’ (↗ʔarbaʕ), rubʕ ‘quarter’?
    ▪ ʕRB_23 ʕarāb(aẗ) ‘fruit of the ḫazam tree’ : accord. to F,L,Ǧ ropes used to be made of the bark of these trees, and from the fruits were made prayer-beads; accord. to Ǧ, these fruits taste bitter so that humans only ate them in times of famine (if at all), while monkeys did not refuse them. – Etymology obscure; Ǧ relates the item to the idea of strength/intensity and sharpness, either because of the fruit’s bitter taste or the solidity of the ropes made of the ḫazam bark.
    ▪ ʕRB_24 ʕarābaẗ ‘bag with which the udder of a sheep, or goat, is covered’, ʕarrāb ‘arâba maker’: etymology obscure.
    ▪ ʕRB_25 ʕurūbāʔᵘ ‘(a name of) The Seventh Heaven’: probably (though phonologically unclear) from, or at least akin to, Targ ʕᵃrāḇôṯ (Ps. LXVIII, 5) ‘(a poetical name for) heaven, (Talm) Araboth, name of the seventh heaven (in which dwell Righteousness, Justice etc.)’ (as found in Jastrow1903), which is a pl., prob. used figuratively, of the word for the Jordan Rift Valley, the Wādī ↗ʕArabaẗ (ʕRB_28).
    ▪ ʕRB_26 DaṯAr taʕārīb ‘tetragonal stones’ : Should we conform Sab ʕrbw ‘to build with tetragonal stones’, mʕrbt ‘Quaderstein’ – Müller2010? Any relation (by metathesis) to ↗ʔarbaʕ ‘four’?
    ▪ ʕRB_27 ʕarib, ʕarīb ‘somebody’, as in the expression mā bi’l-dāri ʕarīb ‘there is nobody at home’ : etymology obscure.
    ▪ ʕRB_28 (wādī) al-ʕArabaẗ ‘the Arabah’ (depression to the south of the Dead Sea, Jordan Rift Valley): »The Lisān al-ʕArab explains it as ‘the river with a strong current’ [ʕRB_5] comparing it to the expression nahr ʕarib, ‘river with abundant water’ [ʕRB_7]. The Hbr word (hā)-ʕaraba (with or without the definite article; pl. ʕarabot, construct ʕarbot) occurs in the Old Testament as a name for the Jordan Valley between the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea (2 Samuel 2:29, Deuteronomy 3:17, 4:49, Joshua 12:1, 3), especially in the southern part of the valley, where ʕarbot yerīḥo (Jericho) and ʕarbot moab (Moab) lie on the west and east banks of the river respectively (e.g., Numbers 22:1, 26:3, Deuteronomy 34:1, Joshua 4:13, 5:10). The Dead Sea is sometimes referred to as ‘The Sea of the ʕArabah” (e.g., Deuteronomy 3:17, Joshua 3:16). Unfortunately, the Hbr etymology is as uncertain as the Ar but perh. related to [Hbr] ʕarabah ‘willow’ (Koehler/Baumgartner Lexicon 1:879–80) [Ar ↗ġarab]« – art. “ʕAraba, Wādī” (J. Retsö), in EI³. – Cf., however, Jastrow1903, BDB1906, Klein1987 who assume a basic notion of *‘aridity’ from which Hbr ʕᵃraḇ ‘desert-plateau, steppe’, ʕᵃrāḇāʰ, Syr ʕārābā ‘desert-plain, desert, wilderness, steppe’ (and perh.—metath.—also Gz ʕabəra ‘to be arid, sterile’, but dubious!) allegedly are derived; to this, these authors then also tend to put the n.gent. ʕarab (ʕRB_1) as the *‘steppe-dwellers’. The idea of a basic *‘aridity’ has been refuted on account of the fact that the Jordan valley is not arid, but rather green and fertile; cf., however, the fact that ʕᵃrāḇôṯ also can mean the Araboth steppes in Babylonia (Jastrow1903) and Syr ʕarab ‘part of N Mesopotamia between Tigris and Nisibis and around Edessa’. Should there be any basic *ʕRB ‘aridity’ and a relation between this and the ʕArabaẗ, then one may have to compare Sem *ʕRW/Y ‘to be naked’ (Akk erû ‘naked; empty; empty-handed, destitute’, Ug ʕrw ‘to be naked, empty; to be destroyed’, Hbr ʕārāʰ ‘to be naked, bare’, Phoen D-stem ‘to lay bare’, Ar ↗ʕariya ‘to be naked, nude, bare’, etc.—all over Sem, exept Gz). As for the association between ʕArabaẗ and the Arabs, this is »probably a folk etymology, based on phonetic similarity« – art. “ʕAraba, Wādī” (J. Retsö), in EI³
    540. Cf. also his derivation of ʕRB from *ʕR plus modifying * B : fī ʕRB tuʕabbir al-bāʔ ʕan al-talāṣuq ʔaw al-taǧammuʕ al-raḫw, wa-yuʕabbir al-tarkīb [i.e., initial ʕR- ] ʕan ḥiddaẗ ḏātiyyaẗ, ʔay ṯābitaẗ fī ʔaṯnāʔ al-šayʔ… – Ǧabal2012 III:1466).  541. The expr. ʔalqà ʕarabūna-hū, lit. *‘he placed his deposit’ for ‘he ejected his excrement, or ordure’ [F,L,BK,W, etc.] is clearly metaphorical use, motivated either by politeness or to achieve irony.  542. Retsö2003 thinks ʕurbūn ~ ʕarabūn is from Syr, while the now obsol. form ʕurbān looks genuine.  543. Like in a number of other langs, the Ar word for ‘catapult, kind of sieging engine’, ʕarrādaẗ, seems to be derived from the word for ‘wild ass’, Ar ʕard, Hbr ʕārōd, Syr ʕᵊrādā, etc., < Sem *ʕar(ā)d ‘wild ass’. »This usage is probably a calque from Grk onagros, Lat onager […], but it is worth noting that the meaning ‘a mechanical device’ (in particular, ‘a part of the battering ram’) is attested already for Akk imēru « – MilitarevKogan2005#37.  544. Le Lat raeda, même sens, supposé d’origine gauloise, pourrait bien avoir la même origine orientale.  545. Ar ʔirbiyān is »almost certainly« connected with Akk erbu (erebu, aribu), Ug i͗rby, Hbr ʔerbā̈, oAram ʔrbh, Sab ʔrby, Mhr ḥarbyēt, harbiêt, etc., all from Sem *ʔa/irbay- ‘locust’  546. Luxenberg2000:255-7 holds that the basis for this misreading is Syr ʕarrāyē ‘cold, ice-cold’. The verses Q 56:34-37, traditionally interpreted as meaning s.th. like »[…] And carpets raised. Verily We have produced them [sc. the Houris of v. 22] specially, And made them virgins, Loving and of equal age«, in Luxenberg’s reading become »Hochgezogene (Wein)lauben (werden sie haben); diese haben wir hochwachsen lassen und zu eisgekühlten, saftigen Erstlingsfrüchten gemacht«.  547. References given in Rotter1993: 123, n. 56.  548. According to Freytag, ʕarib means the disorder itself (‘corruptio stomachi’), while acc. to Lane it is ‘(s.o.) having the stomach in a bad, or corrupt, state’.  549. As other extensions from the same nucleus Ehret lists ʕarʕara ‘to uncork, pull out an eye’, ʕaraṯa ‘to remove, lift up, lay aside’, ʕarada ‘(vn. ʕard) to throw or fling far; (vn. ʕarad) to flee, take to flight’, ʕardasa ‘to throw to the ground’, ʕaraza ‘to tear out violently’, ↗ʕaraḍa ‘to offer, present, show itself, happen, occur, come to meet, show, bring to mind, give or take in exchange’, ʕaraqa ‘to depart, set out’, ↗ʕarā (√ʕRW) ‘to come up to, approach, visit, occur, happen, befall, strike, afflict’. 
    ▪ For Engl arbiter, earnest, cf. ↗ʕarrāb and ↗ʕurbūn.
    ▪ Engl eruv, from postBiblHbr ʕêrûb ‘eruv’, vn. of ʕērēb ‘to mix’, denom. vb. from Hbr ʕēreb ‘mixture’ (perh. < *‘an entering among’), see above, sections CONC and DISC.
    ▪ For Ar root √ĠRB ‘to depart’ (akin to some items of Sem and Ar √ʕRB; see above, sections CONC , COGN, DISC) and pertinent borrowings Engl Maghreb, Morocco, see Ar ↗maġrib
    – 
    ʕarrab‑ عَرَّبَ (taʕrīb
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 27Sep2022
    √ʕRB 
    vb., II 
    1a to Arabicize, make Arabic; b to translate into Arabic; 2 to express, voice, state clearly, declare (ʕan s.th.); 3 to give earnest money, give a handsel, make a down payment – WehrCowan1976
     
    D-stem, denom.:
    ▪ ¹ʕarraba: from ↗ʕarab;
    ▪ ²ʕarraba: from ʕarab~ʕarib ‘clear, limpid, clean; pure, genuine’, see ↗ʕRB_18;
    ▪ ³ʕarraba: from ↗ʕurbūn ‘earnest money’, related to ↗ʕarrāb
     
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    – 
    Deriv (only from ¹ʕarraba):

    taʕarraba, vb. V, to assimilate o.s. to the Arabs, become an Arab, adopt the customs of the Arabs: Dt-stem, self-referential, denom. from ʕarab

    taʕrīb, n., 1a Arabicizing, Arabization; b translation into Arabic; c incorporation (of loanwords) into Arabic: vn. II
    muʕarrib, n., translator into Arabic: PA II
    muʕarrab, adj., 1a Arabicized; b translated into Arabic: PP II

    For other meanings attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔaʕraba, ↗ʕarab, ↗ʕarabī, ↗¹ʕarabaẗ, ↗²ʕarabaẗ, ↗³ʕarabaẗ, ↗ʕarrāb, ↗ʔiʕrāb, and ↗ʕurbūn, as well as, for the overall picture, root entries ↗√ʕRB and ↗√ʕRBN.
     
    ʔaʕrab‑ أَعْرَبَ (ʔiʕrāb
    ID – • Sw – • BP 2018 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 27Sep2022
    √ʕRB 
    vb., IV 
    1 to Arabicize, make Arabic, give an Arabic form (to s.th.); 2 to make plain or clear, state clearly, declare (ʕan or ‑h s.th.), express (unmistakably), utter, voice, proclaim, make known, manifest, give to understand (ʕan s.th., esp. a sentiment), give expression (ʕan to s.th., esp. to a sentiment); 3 (gram.) to use desinential inflection, pronounce the ʔiʕrāb – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ *Š-stem, denom. caus. (1 from ʕarab; 2 from ʕarab ~ ʕarib ‘clear, limpid, clean; pure, genuine’; 3 special use of [v1] and [v2])
     
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    – 
    taʕarraba, vb. V, to assimilate o.s. to the Arabs, become an Arab, adopt the customs of the Arabs: Dt-stem, self-referential, denom. from ʕarab
    ĭstaʕraba, vb. X, = V (understood as desiderative, *Št-stem)

    For other meanings attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕarraba, ↗ʕarab, ↗ʕarabī, ↗¹ʕarabaẗ, ↗²ʕarabaẗ, ↗³ʕarabaẗ, ↗ʕarrāb, ↗ʔiʕrāb, and ↗ʕurbūn, as well as, for the overall picture, root entries ↗√ʕRB and ↗√ʕRBN.
     
    ʕarab عَرَب , pl. ʕurūb, ʔaʕrub, ʕurbān, ʔaʕrāb 
    ID 570 • Sw – • BP 45 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 27Sep2022
    √ʕRB 
    n.coll. 
    1a Arabs; b true Arabs, Arabs of the desert, Bedouins – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ʕarraba, vb. II, 1a to Arabicize, make Arabic; b to translate into Arabic: D-stem, denom.; 2 ↗s.v.; 3 ↗s.v. and ↗ʕurbūn ‘earnest money’, ↗ʕarrāb ‘godfather’
    ʔaʕraba, vb. IV, 1 to Arabicize, make Arabic, give an Arabic form (to s.th.); 2 ↗s.v.; 3 (gram.) to use desinential inflection, pronounce the ʔiʕrāb: *Š-stem, denom. caus.
    taʕarraba, vb. V, to assimilate o.s. to the Arabs, become an Arab, adopt the customs of the Arabs: Dt-stem, self-referential, denom.
    ĭstaʕraba, vb. X, = V (understood as desiderative, *Št-stem)
    ʕarabī, 1 adj., a Arab, Arabic, Arabian; b truly Arabic; 2 n., an Arab: nsb-adj., from ʕarab.
    al-ʕarabiyyaẗ, n.f., 1 the ʕArabiya, the language of the ancient Arabs; b classical, or literary, Arabic: nominalized nsb-adj.f.
    ʔaʕrābī, n., pl. ʔaʕrāb, an Arab of the desert, a Bedouin: based on ʕarab
    BP#2509ʕurūbaẗ, n.f., Arabism, Arabdom, the Arab idea, the Arab character: abstr. formation, from ʕarab
    taʕrīb, n., 1a Arabicizing, Arabization; b translation into Arabic; c incorporation (of loanwords) into Arabic: vn. II
    ʔiʕrāb, 1a manifestation, declaration, proclamation, pronouncement, utterance; b expression (ʕan of a sentiment); 2 desinential inflection (gram.): vn. IV, ↗³ʔaʕraba and s.v.
    muʕarrib, n., translator into Arabic: PA II
    muʕarrab, adj., 1a Arabicized; b translated into Arabic: PP II
    muʕrab, adj., desinentially inflective (gram.): PP IV, from ↗³ʔaʕraba
    mustaʕrib, n., Arabist: PA X, coined in analogy with ↗mustašriq ‘Orientalist’

    For other meanings attached to the root, cf. ↗¹ʕarabaẗ, ↗²ʕarabaẗ, ↗³ʕarabaẗ, ↗ʕarrāb, and ↗ʕurbūn, as well as, for the overall picture, root entries ↗√ʕRB and ↗√ʕRBN.
     
    ʕarabī عَرَبِيّ 
    ID 572 • Sw – • BP 45 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 27Sep2022
    √ʕRB 
    ¹adj.; ²n. 
    1 adj., a Arab, Arabic, Arabian; b truly Arabic; 2 n., an Arab – WehrCowan1976
     
    nsb-adj., from ↗ʕarab.
     
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    … 
    al-ʕarabiyyaẗ, n.f., 1 the ʕArabiya, the language of the ancient Arabs; b classical, or literary, Arabic: nominalized nsb-adj.f.

    For other meanings attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕarraba, ↗ʔaʕraba, ↗¹ʕarabaẗ, ↗²ʕarabaẗ, ↗³ʕarabaẗ, ↗ʕarrāb, ↗ʔiʕrāb, and ↗ʕurbūn, as well as, for the overall picture, root entries ↗√ʕRB and ↗√ʕRBN.
     
    ¹ʕarabaẗ عَرَبَة 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 27Sep2022
    √ʕRB 
    n.f. 
    a swift river – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    – 
    For other meanings attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕarraba, ↗ʔaʕraba, ↗ʕarab, ↗ʕarabī, ↗²ʕarabaẗ, ↗³ʕarabaẗ, ↗ʕarrāb, ↗ʔiʕrāb, and ↗ʕurbūn, as well as, for the overall picture, root entries ↗√ʕRB and ↗√ʕRBN.
     
    ²ʕarabaẗ عَرَبَة , pl. -āt 
    ID 571 • Sw – • BP 2914 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 27Sep2022
    √ʕRB 
    n.f. 
    a carriage, vehicle, wagon, cart; b (railroad) car, coach; c araba, coach – WehrCowan1976
     
    From Tu araba
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
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    – 
    ʕarabaẗ al-ʔuǧraẗ, cab, hack, hackney;
    ʕarabaẗ al-ʔakl, dining car, diner;
    ʕarabaẗ rašš, water wagon, sprinkling wagon;
    ʕarabaẗ al-rukūb, cab, back, hackney;
    ʕarabaẗ šaḥn, wagon, lorry; freight car;
    ʕarabaẗ maṭʕam, dining car, diner;
    ʕarabaẗ ʔaṭfāl, baby carriage;
    ʕarabaẗ naql, wagon, lorry, van; freight car;
    ʕarabaẗ nawm, sleeping car, sleeper;
    ʕarabaẗ yad, 1 handcart, pushcart; 2 wheelbarrow

    BP#2509ʕarabiyyaẗ, pl. -āt, n.f., 1a carriage, vehicle; b araba, coach: var. of ²ʕarabaẗ; 2 see ʕarabī
    ʕarbaǧī, pl. -iyyaẗ, n., coachman, cabman: from ²ʕarabaẗ + Tu suffix -ǧī for professions
    ʕarbaḫānaẗ, n.f., car shed, coach house: from ²ʕarabaẗ + Pers ḫāna ‘house’

    For other meanings attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕarraba, ↗ʔaʕraba, ↗ʕarab, ↗ʕarabī, ↗¹ʕarabaẗ, ↗³ʕarabaẗ, ↗ʕarrāb, ↗ʔiʕrāb, and ↗ʕurbūn, as well as, for the overall picture, root entries ↗√ʕRB and ↗√ʕRBN.
     
    ³ʕarabaẗ عَرَبَة 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 27Sep2022
    √ʕRB 
    n.topogr. 
    the (Wadi) Araba (depression to the south of the Dead Sea, Jordan Rift Valley) 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    – 
    For other meanings attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕarraba, ↗ʔaʕraba, ↗ʕarab, ↗ʕarabī, ↗¹ʕarabaẗ, ↗²ʕarabaẗ, ↗ʕarrāb, ↗ʔiʕrāb, and ↗ʕurbūn, as well as, for the overall picture, root entries ↗√ʕRB and ↗√ʕRBN.
     
    ʕarrāb عَرّاب 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 27Sep2022
    √ʕRB 
    n. 
    godfather, sponsor – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ related to ↗ʕurbūn, based on old *‘to step in for s.o.’
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl arbiter, from Lat arbiter judge, from Phoen (Pun) *ʕarb ‘surety, guarantee’; earnest, from Grk arrabōn, from Can *ʕirrabōn ‘pledge, surety’, akin to Hbr ʕērābôn, from *ʕaraba ‘to enter, stand surety for’, cf. Ar ʕarrāb and ↗ʕurbūn
    ʕarrābaẗ, n.f., godmother, sponsor: f. of ʕarrāb

    ʕarraba, vb. II, 1ʕarab; 2 ↗s.v.; 3 to give earnest money, give a handsel, make a down payment: D-stem, denom., from ↗ʕurbūn ‘earnest money’, related to ʕarrāb

    For other meanings attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔaʕraba, ↗ʕarab, ↗ʕarabī, ↗¹ʕarabaẗ, ↗²ʕarabaẗ, ↗³ʕarabaẗ, ↗ʔiʕrāb, and ↗ʕurbūn, as well as, for the overall picture, root entries ↗√ʕRB and ↗√ʕRBN.
     
    taʕrīb تَعْريب 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 7Jun2023
    √ʕRB 
    n. 
    ▪ vn., II 
    ʔiʕrāb إعْراب 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 27Sep2022
    √ʕRB 
    n. 
    1a manifestation, declaration, proclamation, pronouncement, utterance; b expression (ʕan of a sentiment); 2 desinential inflection (gram.) – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ vn. of ↗ʔaʕraba, vb. IV, where the notions of ‘making Arabic, giving an Arabic form’, ‘stating clearly, expressing unmistakably’ and that of ‘using desinential inflection’ have merged, so that the pronunciation of case endings etc. is conceived as ‘clear’ and ‘correct Arabic’
    ▪ According to Olivieri2020 calqued on the model of Grk hellēnismós (as used in the Stoic tradition).
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    – 
    muʕrab, adj., desinentially inflective (gram.): PP IV, from ³ʔaʕraba

    For other meanings attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕarraba, ↗ʔaʕraba, ↗ʕarab, ↗ʕarabī, ↗¹ʕarabaẗ, ↗²ʕarabaẗ, ↗³ʕarabaẗ, ↗ʕarrāb, and ↗ʕurbūn, as well as, for the overall picture, root entries ↗√ʕRB and ↗√ʕRBN.
     
    ʕRBN عربن 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕRBN 
    “root” 
    … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ For Engl arbiter, earnest, cf. ↗ʕurbūn and ↗ʕarrāb
    – 
    ʕurbūn عُرْبون 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕRB, ʕRBN 
    n. 
    … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl arbiter, from Lat arbiter judge, from Phoen (Pun) *ʕarb ‘surety, guarantee’; earnest, from Grk arrabōn, from Can *ʕirrabōn ‘pledge, surety’, akin to Hbr ʕērābôn, from *ʕaraba ‘to enter, stand surety for’, cf. Ar ʕurbūn and ↗ʕarrāb
    … 
    ʕRǦ عرج 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023
    √ʕRǦ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕRǦ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕRǦ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕRǦ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be lame, to walk with a limp; to ascend, flight of steps; zigzagging road, to zigzag; to call upon’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕRǦN عرجن 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023
    √ʕRǦN 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕRǦN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕRǦN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕRǦN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘type of truffle; date-palm stalk, dry date-palm stalks’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕRS عرس 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕRS 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕRS_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ʕRS_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ʕarūs عَرُوس 
    ID 573 • Sw – • BP 2590 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕRS 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪▪ …
    ▪ ʕarūsaẗ: Cf. Fück1950: 122.
    ▪▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ʕarīs عَرِيس 
    ID 574 • Sw – • BP 3838 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕRS 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ʕRŠ عرش 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕRŠ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕRŠ_1 ‘throne; trellis; arbour, pergola’ ↗ʕarš
    ▪ ʕRŠ_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ʕRŠ_3 ‘…’ ↗

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘trellis, to erect a trellis, roof, thatching; couch, dais, throne; mechanism on the top of a well for drawing water; a group of stars’ 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
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    … 
    … 
    ʕarš عَرْش , pl. ʕurūš, ʔaʕrāš 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 2464 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕRŠ 
    n. 
    1 throne; 2 tribe (maghr.) – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: Ar ʕarš ‘throne, nest, bier’ is related to Akk eršu, Hbr ʔéreś, Aram ʕarī́š, all meaning ‘bed’; cf. also Gz ʕarī́š ‘arbour, pergola’
     
    ▪ Ehret1995#695: an extension in »venitive« *‑ɬ from a bi‑consonantal »pre‑protSem« root *ʕR ‘to be raised’ < AfrAs *‑ʕir‑ ‘to be raised; sky’. – Other extensions from the same pre‑protSem root: ↗ʕRB, ↗ʕRǦ, ↗ʕRD_1.
     
    … 
    ʕaraša, i u, vb. I, to erect a trellis (for grapevines), train on a trellis or espalier, to trellis, to espalier (vines).
    ʕarraša, vb. II, to roof over

    ʕarīš, pl. ʕuruš, ʕarāʔišᵘ, n., arbor, bower; hut made of twigs; booth, shack, shanty; trellis (for grapevines); shaft, carriage pole | al‑ʕArīš, n.topogr., El Arish (town in N Egypt, on Mediterranean)
    taʕrīšaẗ, pl. taʕārīšᵘ, n.f., trellis, lattice‑word; arbor, bower; pergola
     
    ʕRḌ عرض 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕRḌ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕRḌ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ʕRḌ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘width, to widen, broaden, the middle; to show, review; to offer; to contrast, barter, match up; to reject; to occasion, accost, happen accidentally; to hint, insinuate’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    muʕāriḍ مُعارِض 
    ID 575 • Sw – • BP 2483 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕRḌ 
    adj. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    muʕāraḍaẗ مُعارَضَة 
    ID 576 • Sw – • BP 1200 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕRḌ 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ʕRF عرف 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕRF 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕRF_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ʕRF_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘heights, facial features, mane; comb or crest of a bird; to recognise, to know, knowledge, to inform; mentor; divinations; to confess, confession; social norms, good deeds, charity; fragrance, perfumes’ 
    ▪ From CSem *√ʕRP ‘to reckon, know’ – Huehnergard2011. 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl tariffʕarafa
    – 
    ʕaraf‑ عَرَفَ 
    ID 577 • Sw 59/83 • BP 49 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕRF 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ From CSem *√ʕRP ‘to reckon, know’ – Huehnergard2011. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl tariff, from Ar taʕrīf ‘notification’, vn. of ʕarrafa ‘to announce, inform’, D-stem (caus.) of ʕarafa ‘to know’. 
     
    ʕirfān عِرْفان 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 7Jun2023
    √ʕRF 
    n. 
    ▪ vn., I 
    ʕRQ عرق 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕRQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕRQ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ʕRQ_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ ʕRQ_1: From WSem *√¹ʕRQ ‘to gnaw, strip’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ ʕRQ_2: From Ar root √²ʕRQ ‘to sweat’. Perhaps a specialized semantic development of *√¹ʕRQ (< *‘to become emaciated’?) – Huehnergard2011. 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl ergʕirq. – Engl arak, arrack, raki, borageʕaraq
    – 
    ʕirq عِرْق 
    ID 580 • Sw – • BP 5662 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕRQ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl erg, from MġrAr ʕarq, ʕarg, coll. pronunciation of Ar ʕirq ‘vein; tract of sand extending along the ground’ (perh. < *‘s.th. stripped off, strip, strand’). 
     
    ʕaraq عَرَق 
    ID 579 • Sw – • BP 3225 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕRQ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl arak, arrack, raki (< Tu rakı), from Ar ʕaraq, originally short for ʕaraq al-tamr, lit. ‘sweat of the date’ (arak originally having been distilled from date wine); borage, prob. from Ar būʕaraq, from ʔabū ʕaraq ‘father of sweat’; all from Ar ʕaraq ‘sweat’, from ʕariqa ‘to sweat, perspire’. 
     
    ʕirāqī عِراقِيّ 
    ID 578 • Sw – • BP 177 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕRQ 
    ¹adj.; ²n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
     
    ʕRM عرم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1Mar2023
    √ʕRM 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕRM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕRM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕRM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘mound of grain; great inundation, dam built across a valley; multitude, strength, violence, evil; tree bark; to strip meat off bones; a mole-rat’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕRW عرو 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √ʕRW 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕRW_1 ‘to befall, grip, seize, strike, afflict, happen to, take possession of’ ↗ʕarā
    ▪ ʕRW_2 ‘buttonhole; loop, noose, coil; ear, handle (of a jug, etc.); tie, bond’ ↗ʕurwaẗ
    ▪ ʕRW_ ...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘loop, handle, hold, grip, link, buttonhole and the like; to grip, to seize; to befall, to afflict, to come over; to desert, to let down; extreme coldness; forlorn camels’. A degree of overlappping between this root and the root √ʕRY exists, as might be expected of corresponding W and Y radicals. 
    ▪ [v1] : denom. (?) from [v2] in the sense of ‘tie, bond’, i.e. *‘to take hold of s.o./s.th.’. – But cf. also ↗¹ĭʕtawara (√ʕWR) ‘to befall, affect, come over s.o. alternately, successively’
    ▪ [v2] : ...
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕarā / ʕaraw‑ عَرَا / عَرَوْــ , ū (ʕarw)
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 16Jul2023
    √ʕRW
     
    vb., I
     
    1a to befall, grip, seize, strike, afflict (s.o.), come, descend (‑h upon s.o.), happen (-h to s.o.); b to take possession (-h of s.o.) – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ denom. (?) from ↗ʕurwaẗ ‘tie, bond’, i.e. *‘to take hold of s.o./s.th.’. – But cf. also ↗¹ĭʕtawara (√ʕWR) ‘to befall, affect, come over s.o. alternately, successively’
     
    ▪ See perh. ↗ʕurwaẗ ‘tie, bond’, or ↗¹ĭʕtawara (√ʕWR)
     
    – 
    ĭʕtarà, vb. VIII, = ʕarā: Gt-stem

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕurwaẗ as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ʕRW.
     
    ʕurwaẗ عُرْوَة , pl. ʕuràⁿ
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 16Jul2023
    √ʕRW
     
    n.f.
     
    1a buttonhole; b loop, noose, coil; c ear, handle (of a jug, and the like); 2 tie, bond, e.g., ʕurà ’l-ṣadāqaẗ, bonds of friendship; support, prop, stay – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ Prob. akin to ↗ʕarā, ĭʕtarà ‘to befall, strike, afflict’
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ ...
     
    – 
    al-ʕurwaẗ al-wuṯqà, n.f., the firm, reliable grip or hold, the firm tie

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕarā as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ʕRW.
     
    ʕRY عري 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1Mar2023, last update 17May2023
    √ʕRY 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕRY_1 ‘to be naked, nude, be free, be bare’ ↗ʕariya
    ▪ ʕRY_2 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘remote open expanse of land, treeless area; nakedness, to be naked, to become emaciated, to strip off, to strip meat off bones; to evacuate’. A degree of overlapping between this root and root √ʕRW exists, as might be expected of corresponding W and Y radicals’ 
    ▪ [v1] Tropper2008: Sem (except Gz) ʕRW/Y ‘to be naked’. – Cf. also ↗ʕawraẗ (√ʕWR) ‘defectiveness; weakness; pudenda’ and ↗ʕār (√ʕYR) ‘shame, disgrace, dishonor, ignominy’.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ [v1] Tropper2008, Borg2021 #454: Akk erû, Ug ʕrw ‘to be naked, empty; to be destroyed’, (D) ‘to empty’, Ar ʕariya ‘to be naked, without clothes’, Malt għarwien ‘naked’. – Outside Sem, Borg2021 compares Eg ḥꜢj (OK) ‘to be naked’, ḥꜢ ‘homeless’, ḥꜢwt ‘nakedness’, ḥꜢwy ‘naked man’
     
    – 
    – 
    ʕariy‑ / ʕarī‑ عَرِيَ , à (ʕury, ʕuryaẗ)
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 16Jul2023
    √ʕRY 
    vb., I
     
    1a to be naked, nude; b to be free, be bare (ʕan of)
     
    ▪ Tropper2008: Sem (except Gz) *ʕRW/Y ‘to be naked’. – Cf. also ↗ʕawraẗ (√ʕWR) ‘defectiveness; weakness; pudenda’ and ↗ʕār (√ʕYR) ‘shame, disgrace, dishonor, ignominy’.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ Tropper2008, Borg2021 #454: Akk erû, Ug ʕrw ‘to be naked, empty; to be destroyed’, (D) ‘to empty’, Ar ʕariya ‘to be naked, without clothes’, Malt għarwien ‘naked’. – Outside Sem, Borg2021 compares Eg ḥꜢj (OK) ‘to be naked’, ḥꜢ ‘homeless’, ḥꜢwt ‘nakedness’, ḥꜢwy ‘naked man’
    ▪ ...
     
    – 
    ʕariya ʕan ṯiyābi-h, to take off one’s clothes, strip (naked), undress, have no clothes on;
    ʕariya ʕan kull ʔasās, to be completely unfounded, be without any foundation

    ʕarrà, vb. II, 1a to disrobe, unclothe, undress (s.o.); b to strip (s.o., ʕan ṯiyābi-h of his clothes); 2a to bare, denude, lay bare, uncover (s.th.); b to deprive, divest, strip: D-stem, caus.
    ʕury, n., 1 nakedness, nudity; 2 unsaddled (horse): vn. I
    ʕuryaẗ, n.f., nakedness, nudity: vn. I
    ʕarāʔ, n., 1a nakedness, nudity; b bareness; 2 open space, open country: vn. I | fī ’l-ʕarāʔ, in the open air, under the open sky, outside, outdoors; masraḥ fī ’l-ʕarāʔ, open-air theater
    ʕuryān, pl. ʕarāyà, adj., naked, nude, undressed, bare | EgAr ʕuryān malṭ, stark-naked
    ʕuryāniyyaẗ, n.f., nudism
    al-maʕārī, n.pl., the uncovered parts of the body (hands, feet, face): n.loc.
    BP#3718ʕāriⁿ, pl., ʕurāẗ, adj., 1a naked, nude, undressed, bare; b free, devoid, destitute, bare, deprived, stripped, denuded (min or ʕan of s.th.); c blank, bare (e.g., a room), stark (e.g., a narrative): PA I | ʕārī ’l-ʔaqdām, barefoot(ed), unshod
     
    ʕZː (ʕZZ) عزّ / عزز 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕZː (ʕZZ) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕZː (ʕZZ)_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ʕZː (ʕZZ)_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ʕZː (ʕZZ)_3 ‘…’ ↗

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘power, might, downpour, to be impregnable, to be hard, to be rough (e.g. land); to overcome; to support, to be near to one’s heart, to value highly; to be consoled; to cooperate, to be rare’ 
    ▪ From protSem *√ʕZZ ‘to be(come) strong’ – Huehnergard2011. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ Engl n.prop. Azazel, from Hbr ʕăzāʔzēl, perh. corrupt for ʕăzaz-ʔēl ‘God has been strong’ (personal name) ↗ʕazza
    … 
    ʕazz‑/ ʕazaz‑ عَزَّ / عَزَزْـ , i (ʕizz, ʕizzaẗ, ʕazāzaẗ)
     
    ID … • Sw – • BP 2055 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕZː (ʕZZ) 
    vb., I 
    1 to be or become strong, powerful, respected; 2 to be or become rare, scarce, be scarcely to be found; 3 to be or become dear, cherished, precious – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ From protSem *√ʕZZ ‘to be(come) strong’ – Huehnergard2011. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘strong, powerful’) Akk ezzu, Hbr ʕaz, Syr (vb. ʕaz, ipfv neʕʕaz), Gz (ʕazī́z).
     
    … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Azazel, from Hbr ʕăzāʔzēl, perh. corrupt for ʕăzaz-ʔēl ‘God has been strong’ (personal name), cf. Ar √ʕZː(ʕZZ) (and ↗ʔilāh, ↗allāh). 
    ʕazza ʕalayhi ʔan, expr., he is sorry that…; to be hard, difficult (ʕalà for s.o.); to hurt, pain, be painful, be hard

    BP#2785ʕazzaza, vb. II, to make strong, strengthen, reinforce, fortify, corroborate, confirm, solidify, invigorate, harden, advance, support; to consolidate; to honour; to raise in esteem, elevate, exalt; to make dear, endear.
    ʔaʕazza, vb. IV, to make strong, strengthen, fortify, reinforce, invigorate, harden, steel; to love; to honour; to esteem, value, prize; to make dear, endear.
    taʕazzaza, vb. V, to be or become strong, powerful, mighty, forceful, strengthened, fortified, reinforced, invigorated, hardened, solidified, consolidated; to be proud, boast (bi‑ of), pride o.s., glory, exalt (in).
    ĭʕtazza, vb. VIII, to feel strong or powerful (bi‑ because of, due to); to be proud, boast, pride o.s., glory, exult; to arrogate to o.s.
    ĭstaʕazza, vb. X, to overwhelm, overcome (ʕalà s.o.); to become powerful, mighty, respected, honored, be exalted; to make or hold dear, value highly, esteem.

    BP#2356ʕizz, n., might, power, strength; intensity, very high degree; honour, glory; high rank, fame, renown
    BP#3083ʕizzaẗ, n.f., might, power, strength; honour, glory; high rank, fame, renown; self‑esteem, pride
    BP#641ʕazīz, pl. ʔaʕizzāʔᵘ, ʔaʕizzaẗ, adj., mighty, powerful, respected, distinguished, notable; strong; noble, esteemed, venerable, august; honorable; rare, scarce, scarcely to be found; difficult, hard (al for s.o.); precious, costly, valuable; dear, beloved, cherished, valued; n., friend; ruler, overlord
    BP#4407ʔaʕazzᵘ, adj., mightier, more powerful; stronger; dearer, more beloved; al‑ʕUzzà, n.prop.f., a goddess of the pagan Arabs
    Taʕizz, n.topogr.,Taʕizz (city in Yemen Arab Republic)
    maʕazzaẗ, n.f., esteem, regard, affection, love
    BP#1194taʕzīz, pl. ‑āt, n., strengthening, consolidation, support, backing; pl. ‑āt reinforcements, supplies (mil.).
    ʔiʕzāz, n., strengthening, fortification, reinforcement, consolidation; love, affection, esteem, regard
    ĭʕtizāz, n., pride (bi‑ in)
    muʕtazz, adj., proud; mighty, powerful
     
    ʕZB عزب 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1Mar2023
    √ʕZB 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕZB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕZB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕZB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to move far away from inhabited areas, to be distant and to live apart from everyone, to he without a spouse, bachelorhood, celibacy’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕZR عزر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1Mar2023
    √ʕZR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕZR_1 ‘to help’ ↗ʕazzara
    ▪ ʕZR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕZR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to censure, to apply corporal punishment; to support; to be tough; to be bad tempered; to honour’. 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ Philologists classify under this root the proper name ʕUzayr, but recognised it as being of foreign origin -- BAH2008 
    – 
    – 
    ʕazzar عَزَّرَ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Jun2023
    √ʕZR
     
    vb., II 
    to help – Jeffery1938
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q v, 15; vii, 156; xlviii, 9 – Jeffery1938.
     
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »It is used only in late passages in the technical sense of giving aid in religious matters. / Obviously it is not used in the normal sense of ‘to correct’ or ‘punish’, nor can it be a normal development of ʕazara ‘to reprove, blame’. The Lexicons are forced to illustrate this Qurʔānic use of the word from the Ḥadīth whose usage is obviously dependent on the Qurʔān itself (LA, vi, 237). / It thus seems probable that the verb is denominative, formed from a borrowed [Hbr] ʕēzär or ʕäzrâʰ meaning ‘help’, ‘succour’, which would have come to Muḥammad from his contact with the Jewish communities.550 . As the Hbr and Phoen ʕzr, Aram ʕdr, Syr ʕdr are cognate with the Arab ʕaḏara ‘to aid’, it is possible to consider ʕazara as a by-form of ʕaḏara, just as [Palm] ʕdr occurs, though infrequently, beside ʕzr in the Palm inscriptions,551 but the fact that it is ʕazzara and not ʕazara which means ‘to help’ is against this, and in favour of its being a denominative.«
     
    – 
    – 
    ʕZL عزل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1Mar2023
    √ʕZL 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕZL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕZL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕZL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to remove, to set aside, to isolate, to boycott, to part from; unarmed person, loner, weakness’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕZM عزم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1Mar2023
    √ʕZM 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕZM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕZM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕZM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to decide, to urge, to intend, decision, resolution, resolute and stalwart’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕZW عزو 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1Mar2023
    √ʕZW 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕZW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕZW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕZW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a group of people, to attribute, to ascribe, to trace back, to console, to support’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕSR عسر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1Mar2023
    √ʕSR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕSR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕSR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕSR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘left-handedness, pecuniary hardship, to be difficult, to disagree, to dispute; to be stuck; to be untamed’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕSʕS عسعس 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1Mar2023
    √ʕSʕS 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕSʕS_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕSʕS_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕSʕS_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘(quadrilatiral root derived from root ʕ-s-s) wolf, hunting dog; to roam by night; to hunt by night; to seek, to go after, to stalk; (of day light) to appear, (of night darkness) to descend’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕSL عسل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕSL 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕSL_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ʕSL_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘honey, to sweeten with honey; to slip off; to deviate’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ʕasal عَسَل 
    ID 581 • Sw – • BP 2051 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕSL 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ʕSW عسو 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1Mar2023
    √ʕSW 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕSW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕSW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕSW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to hope, hope for, expect, anticipate, look forward to, be apprehensive, to fear’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕŠB عشب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕŠB 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕŠB_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ʕŠB_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ʕušb عُشْب 
    ID 582 • Sw –/62 • BP 3795 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕŠB 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protCSem *ʕ˅śb‑ ‘grass’, replaces protSem *daṯʔ‑ ‘grass’ (> Ar daṯaʕī, from daṯṯ ‘weak rain’).
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ʕŠR عشر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕŠR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕŠR_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ʕŠR_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘one’s own family, clan, spouse, to live with, to be on intimate terms, to mix with, cohabitation; number ten and its associates; to be with child (used specifically for female animals), to conceive’ 
    ▪ From protSem *ʕaśr‑ ‘ten’ – Huehnergard2011. 
    – 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘ten’) Akk ešru, Hbr ʕéśer, Syr ʕsar, Gz ʕašrū́.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ EnglAshuraʕāšūrāʔ
    – 
    ʕāšūrāʔᵘ عاشوراء, var. ʕašūrā 
    ID 583 • Sw – • BP??? • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕŠR 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) EnglAshura, from Ar ʕāšūrāʔ, the tenth of Muḥarram kept as a fast day by Arabs in pre-Islamic times, Ashura, ultimately (prob. via Aram *ʕāsorā) from Hbr ʕāśôr ‘a set of ten (days, etc.), decade’ (used in Leviticus to specify the date of Yom Kippur, the tenth of Tishri), from ʕeśer ‘ten’. 
     
    ʕŠQ عشق 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕŠQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕŠQ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ʕŠQ_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ʕašiq‑ عَشِقَ 
    ID 584 • Sw – • BP 4144 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕŠQ 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ʕišq عِشْق 
    ID 585 • Sw – • BP 2588 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕŠQ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ʕŠW/Y عشو / عشي 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕŠW/Y 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕŠW/Y_1 ‘bad eyesight, dim-sigthedness, night-blindness’ ↗ʕašan, ↗ʕišāʔ
    ▪ ʕŠW/Y_2 ‘evening; evening meal, dinner; evening prayer’ ↗ʕašāʔ, ↗ʕišāʔ
    ▪ ʕŠW/Y_3 ‘to wrong, treat unjustly, tyrannically’ ↗ʕašwāʔī, ↗ʕišāʔ
    ▪ ʕŠW/Y_4 ‘informal settlements, slum’ ↗ʕašwāʔiyyāt, ↗>ʕašwāʔī, ↗ʕišāʔ

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘1 bad eyesight, inability to see at night, to be dim-sighted; to feel around aimlessly, to veer away from. – 2 evening, darkness; to make a distant light at night; to give a night meal. 
    ▪ Given that the root apparently does not have any cognates in Sem or outside, we have no clue as to which value is to be regarded as primary—‘dim-sigthedness’, ‘evening, darkness’, or even ‘withdrawal’. The present entry proceeds from the assumption that the verbs are denominative and that the primary meaning of the corresponding n. was s.th. like *‘time of the day when it gets dark and it becomes difficult to see’. The items whose value comes closest to this notion in MSA are ʕišāʔ, ʕašiyy and ʕašiyyaẗ, all signifying ‘evening’. In absence of a self-evident etymon, the author of the present and related entries has chosen ↗ʕišāʔ (as the most ‘basic’ of the three) to serve as the main entry under which to treat the whole complex. 
    ▪ Three major lines of semantic development can be imagined:
    • 1.a) ‘dim-sighted’ > ‘time of dim-sightedness, beginning darkness, evening, early night’ > actions performed at this time of the day: pasture of cattle, dinner; prayer
    • 1.b) ‘dim-sighted’ > ‘to act blindly, overlook, withdraw from’ > ‘at random, haphazardly’
    • 2.a) ‘time of beginning darkness’ > actions performed at this time of the day: pasture of cattle, dinner; prayer
    • 2.b) ‘time of beginning darkness’ > ‘dim-sightedness’ > etc. (as 1.b)
    • 3. ‘to withdraw, turn away’ > (sun) ‘to get dark’ > etc. (as 2.a and 2.b)
    The author of the present entry thinks option (2) is the most probable.
    ▪ eC7 ʕašā (to fail to see, be blinded to) Q 43:36 wa-man yaʕšu ʕan ḏikri ’l-raḥmāni ‘and whoever is blind to the remembrance of the Lord of Mercy’. – ʕišāʔ (the first part of the night marked by the disappearing of the twilight, evening) 12:16 wa-ǧāʔū ʔabā-hum ʕišāʔan yabkūna ‘and they came to their father after nightfall weeping’, (night prayer) 24:58 ṣalāẗi ’l-ʕišāʔi ‘the night prayer’. – ʕašiyy (evening) 38:18 yusabbiḥna bi’l-ʕašiyyi wa-bi’l-ʔišrāqi ‘to sing the praises at evening and sunrise’. – ʕašiyyaẗ (one evening) 79:46 lam yalbaṯū ʔillā ʕašiyyaẗan ʔaw ḍuḥā-hā ‘they had not tarried but an evening or the mid-morning following’.
     
    Zammit2002 #ʕašā (ʕŠW) ‘to withdraw from’: no cognates in Sem 
    See CONCISE and SEMHIST above 
    – 
    – 
    ʕišāʔ عِشاء 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 4644 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕŠW/Y 
    n. 
    1 evening. – 2 (f.) evening prayer (Isl. Law) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ The item belongs to a root that has the two basic connotations of ‘dim-sightedness’ and ‘(actions performed, or to be performed in the) evening, at nightfall’. Given that neither Sem nor AfrAs give any clue as to semantic development within the root, the author of the present entry assumes the etymon proper of both to be s.th. like the *‘time of the day when it gets dark and it becomes difficult to see’. ʕišāʔ has been chosen as the main entry to treat the whole ʕŠW/Y complex because it is one out of three MSA items whose semantic value comes closest to the hypothetical etymon’s value (‘the time of nightfall, i. e. the first, or beginnng, of the darkness of night’ – Lane) and among the three displays the simplest morphological pattern.
    ▪ The semantic development suggested here is:
    • a) ‘time of beginning darkness’ > actions performed at this time of the day: pasture of cattle; dinner, supper; evening prayer
    • b) ‘time of beginning darkness’ > ‘dim-sightedness’ > ‘to act blindly, overlook, veer away from’ > ‘at random, haphazardly’ > ‘informal settlements, slum’
     
    ▪ eC7 ʕišāʔ (the first part of the night marked by the disappearing of the twilight, evening) 12:16 wa-ǧāʔū ʔabā-hum ʕišāʔan yabkūna ‘and they came to their father after nightfall weeping’, (night prayer) 24:58 ṣalāẗi ’l-ʕišāʔi ‘the night prayer’. – ʕašiyy (evening) 38:18 yusabbiḥna bi’l-ʕašiyyi wa-bi’l-ʔišrāqi ‘to sing the praises at evening and sunrise’. – ʕašiyyaẗ (one evening) 79:46 lam yalbaṯū ʔillā ʕašiyyaẗan ʔaw ḍuḥā-hā ‘they had not tarried but an evening or the mid-morning following’. – ʕašā (to fail to see, be blinded to) Q 43:36 wa-man yaʕšu ʕan ḏikri ’l-raḥmāni ‘and whoever is blind to the remembrance of the Lord of Mercy’. 
    – 
    Of obscure etymology. 
    – 
    ʕašā u (ʕašw) and ʕašiya a (ʕašan, det. ʕašā), vb. I, to be dim-sighted; to be night-blind: denominative from the assumed etymon *‘time of the day when it gets dark and it becomes difficult to see’.
    ʕaššà, vb. II, 1 to make dim-sighted, make night-blind: caus. of I. – 2 to give a dinner (DO for s.o.): denom., from ʕišāʔ or ʕašāʔ.
    ʔaʕšà, vb. IV, to make dim-sighted: caus. of vb. I.
    taʕaššà, vb. V, to have dinner (or supper), to dine, to sup: t-stem of vb. II [v2], autobenefactive.
    ʕašan, det. ʕašā, n., dim-sightedness; nightblindness, nyctalopia: vn. I.
    ʕašan, det. ʕašà, n., nightblindness, nyctalopia: vn. I.
    ʕašiyy, n., evening: orig. a quasi-PP with ints.-adjectival meaning?
    BP#2239ʕašāʔ, pl. ʔaʕšiyaẗ, n., dinner, supper:… | al-~ al-sirrī, n., the Lord’s supper, the Eucharist (Chr.) ʕašwaẗ, n.f., 1 darkness, dark, gloom: could also have served as main entry. – 2 dinner, supper: transfer of meaning from [v1] to the meal that is (to be) taken at this time of the day. – 3 (also ʕišwaẗ, ʕušwaẗ) defectus prudentiae in re tractanda [absence of prudence in doing s.th.] (Freytag1830): fig. use of ‘dim-sightedness, night-blindness’.
    ʕašāwaẗ, n.f., dim-sightedness; nightblindness, nyctalopia: ints. n., quasi-vn. I.
    BP#2850ʕašiyyaẗ, pl. ʕašāyā, n., 1 evening; nightfall: could also have served as main entry. – 2 eve, day before a feast: extended meaning of [v1] | ~a ʔamsi, adv., last night, yesterday in the evening; bayna ~ wa-ḍuḥā-hā, adv., from one day to the other, overnight, all of a sudden.
    ʕašwāʔᵘ, n., darkness, dark, gloom: nominalized f. of ʔaʕšà.
    ʔaʕšà, f. ʕašwāʔᵘ, adj., dim-sighted; night-blind, nyctalopic; blind, aimless, haphazard, desultory, senseless: ʔafʕalᵘ formation (for physical handicaps), from the (secondary?) value of the root, ‘dim-sightedness’. | yaḫbiṭu ḫabṭatan ʕašwāʔa, expr., he acts blindly, thoughtlessly, at random, haphazardly.
    BP#3282ʕašwāʔī, adj., random, happening at random, without plan: lit., *‘blindly, as in the dark (ʕašwāʔ)’.
    ʕašwāʔiyyāt, n., haphazard communities, informal settlements, ‘mushroom city’, slums: nominalized nsb-adj., f.pl., from ʕašwāʔ, lit. *‘the haphazard(ly built) ones (sc., settlements)’. 
    ʕašaⁿ عَشًى , det. عَشَى ʕašà ; var. عَشًا ʕašaⁿ , det. عَشَا ʕašā 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕŠW/Y 
    n. 
    dim-sightedness; nightblindness, nyctalopia – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ The item belongs to a root that has the two basic connotations of ‘dim-sightedness’ and ‘(actions performed, or to be performed in the) evening, at nightfall’. Given that neither Sem nor AfrAs give any clue as to semantic development within the root, the author of the present entry assumes the etymon proper of both to be s.th. like the *‘time of the day when it gets dark and it becomes difficult to see’. This entry treats only the notion of dim-sightedness and what is derived directly from it. For the broader picture cf. ↗ʕišāʔ , the item whose semantic value comes closest to the hypothetical etymon’s value (‘the time of nightfall, i. e. the first, or beginnng, of the darkness of night’ – Lane).
    ▪ In some of its derivations, ‘dim-sightedness’ gave also the extended value of ‘to act blindly, overlook, veer away from’, hence also figurative use in the sense of ‘(to act) at random, haphazardly’, and from here the modern expression for ‘informal settlements, slum’ has been coined. 
    ▪ eC7 ʕašā (to fail to see, be blinded to) Q 43:36 wa-man yaʕšu ʕan ḏikri ’l-raḥmāni ‘and whoever is blind to the remembrance of the Lord of Mercy’. 
    – 
    See ↗ʕŠW/Y and ↗ʕišāʔ
    – 
    ʕašā u (ʕašw) and ʕašiya a (ʕašan, det. ʕašā), vb. I, to be dim-sighted; to be night-blind: denominative from the assumed etymon *‘time of the day when it gets dark and it becomes difficult to see’.
    ʕaššà, vb. II, 1 to make dim-sighted, make night-blind: caus. of I. – 2 For another value see ↗ʕišāʔ and/or ↗ʕašāʔ.
    ʔaʕšà, vb. IV, to make dim-sighted: caus. of vb. I.
    ʕašwaẗ, n.f., 1 darkness, dark, gloom: could also have served as main entry. – 2 For another value see ↗ʕišāʔ and/or ↗ʕašāʔ. – 3 (also ʕišwaẗ, ʕušwaẗ) defectus prudentiae in re tractanda [absence of prudence in doing s.th.] (Freytag1830): fig. use of ‘dim-sightedness, night-blindness’.
    ʕašāwaẗ, n.f., dim-sightedness; nightblindness, nyctalopia: ints. n., quasi-vn. I.
    ʔaʕšà, f. ʕašwāʔᵘ, adj., 1 dim-sighted; night-blind, nyctalopic; 2 blind, aimless, haphazard, desultory, senseless: ʔafʕalᵘ formation (for physical handicaps); [v2] is fig. use. | yaḫbiṭu ḫabṭatan ʕašwāʔa, expr., he acts blindly, thoughtlessly, at random, haphazardly.
    BP#3282ʕašwāʔī, adj., random, happening at random, without plan: lit., *‘blindly, as in the dark (ʕašwāʔ)’.
    ʕašwāʔiyyāt, n., haphazard communities, informal settlements, ‘mushroom city’, slums: nominalized nsb-adj., f.pl., from ʕašwāʔ, lit. *‘the haphazard(ly built) ones (sc., settlements)’. 
    ʕašāʔ عَشاء , pl. ʔaʕšiyaẗ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 2239 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕŠW/Y 
    n. 
    dinner, supper – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ The item belongs to a root that has the two basic connotations of ‘dim-sightedness’ and ‘(actions performed, or to be performed in the) evening, at nightfall’. Given that neither Sem nor AfrAs give any clue as to semantic development within the root, the author of the present entry assumes the etymon proper of both to be s.th. like the *‘time of the day when it gets dark and it becomes difficult to see’. This entry treats only the notion of ‘actions performed, or to be performed in the evening, at nightfall’. For the broader picture cf. ↗ʕišāʔ , the item whose semantic value comes closest to the hypothetical etymon’s value (‘the time of nightfall, i. e. the first, or beginnng, of the darkness of night’ – Lane).
     
    See ↗ʕišāʔ
    – 
    ▪ See ↗ʕŠW/Y and ↗ʕišāʔ.
    ▪ The value the word has in MSA is the result of a development that can be imagined to have happened along the following line: *‘time of beginning darkness’ > actions performed at this time of the day: ‘pasture of cattle; dinner, supper; evening prayer’. 
    – 
    al-ʕašāʔ al-sirrī, n., the Lord’s supper, the Eucharist (Chr.)

    ʕaššà, vb. II, 1 See ↗ʕišāʔ. – 2 to give a dinner (DO for s.o.): denom. (from ʕašāʔ or ↗ʕišāʔ).
    taʕaššà, vb. V, to have dinner (or supper), to dine, to sup: t-stem of vb. II [v2], autobenefactive.
    ʕašwaẗ, n.f., 1 See ↗ʕišāʔ. – 2 dinner, supper: transfer of meaning from [v1] to the meal that is (to be) taken at this time of the day. – 3 See ↗ʕišāʔ, ↗ʕašwāʔī.
     
    ʕašwāʔī عَشْوائيّ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 3282 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕŠW/Y 
    adj. 
    random, happening at random, without plan – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ The adj. ʕašwāʔī is a nisba formation from ʕašwāʔᵘ ‘darkness, dark, gloom’. Literally, ʕašwāʔī thus means *‘blindly, as in the dark, without seeing what one is doing’.
    ʕašwāʔᵘ itself is originally the f. form of the ʔafʕalᵘ adj. ʔaʕšà1 dim-sighted; night-blind, nyctalopic; (hence also) 2 blind, aimless, haphazard, desultory, senseless’.
    ▪ For the wider context see ↗ʕišāʔ
    See ↗ʕišāʔ
    – 
    See ↗ʕŠW/Y and ↗ʕišāʔ
    – 
    minṭaqaẗ ʕašwāʔiyyaẗ, n.f., informal settlement, slum.

    ʕašwāʔiyyāt, n., haphazard communities, informal settlements, ‘mushroom city’, slums: nominalized nsb-adj., f.pl., from ʕašwāʔ, lit. *‘the haphazard(ly built) ones (sc., settlements)’. 
    ʕašwāʔiyyāt عَشْوائِيّات 
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    √ʕŠW/Y 
    n.f.pl. 
    haphazard communities, informal settlements, ‘mushroom city’, slums – ar/en.wikipedia 
    ʕašwāʔiyyāt is not yet lexicalized in WehrCowan1979 as an item in its own right, as it is a term that evolved only towards the end of C20.
    ▪ Grammatically speaking, it is the nominalization of the f.pl. of ↗ʕašwāʔī ‘random, happening at random, without plan’ and thus means *‘the haphazard(ly built) ones (sc., settlements)’, short for al-manāṭiq (or al-mudun) al-ʕašwāʔiyyaẗ ‘the haphazard(ly built) areas (or towns)’. The adj. ʕašwāʔī is a nisba formation from ʕašwāʔᵘ ‘darkness, dark, gloom’, itself the f. form of the ʔafʕalᵘ adj. ʔaʕšà1 dim-sighted; night-blind, nyctalopic; (hence also) 2 blind, aimless, haphazard, desultory, senseless’.
    ▪ For the wider context see ↗ʕišāʔ (= the item whose semantic value comes closest to the hypothetical etymon’s value *‘the time of nightfall, i. e. the first, or beginnng, of the darkness of night’).
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    See ↗ʕŠW/Y and ↗ʕišāʔ
    – 
    – 
    ʕṢB عصب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕṢB 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕṢB_1 ‘nerve; sinew’ ↗ʕaṣab; ‘nervous, neuro‑’ ↗ʕaṣabī; ‘nervosity’ ↗¹ʕaṣabiyyaẗ
    ▪ ʕṢB_2 ‘to wind, fold, tie, bind; to wrap (the head) with a band, turban, etc.’ ↗ʕaṣaba; ʻband(age), dressing; headcloth, brow band, frontlet; union, league, group, troop, gang’ ↗ʕiṣābaẗ; ʻto take sides, cling obdurately to; fanaticism, ardent zeal, bigotry’ ↗taʕaṣṣub; ʻtribal solidarity, tribalism’ ↗²ʕaṣabiyyaẗ; ʻstrike’ ĭʕtiṣāb
    ▪ ʕṢB_3 ‘hot, crucial, critical (time, stage)’ ↗ʕaṣīb

    Other values, now obsolete, include (Hava1899):
    ʕṢB_4 ‘to take by force’: ʕaṣaba (ʕaṣb) (ʕalà s.th.)
    ʕṢB_5 ʻto dry in the mouth (saliva); to become unclean (teeth)’: ʕaṣaba, ʕaṣiba (ʕaṣb, ʕuṣūb)
    ʕṢB_6 ʻto starve (people: dearth)’: ʕaṣṣaba; cf. also muʕaṣṣab ʻreduced to straitness by dearth’; taʕaṣṣaba ‘to be satisfied (bi‑ with)’
    ʕṢB_7 ʻto become red (horizon)’: ʕaṣaba, ʕaṣiba (ʕaṣb, ʕuṣūb); cf. also ʕiṣābaẗ ʻred mist seen in a time of drought’
    ʕṢB_8 ‘to walk at a quick pace (camel)’: ʔaʕṣaba
    ʕṢB_ ‘’ : …

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘1 tendons, bands, to wrap up; 2 to stick to; 3 gang, partisanship; to gang up; 4 to be prejudiced, prejudice, to be a fanatic; 5 creeper’.
     
    ▪ It is not clear whether all items in this root go back to one etymon (‘sinew, nerves, tendons’?) or whether we are dealing with two or more roots that have merged into one in Ar. It seems that previous research does not connect ‘sinew, nerves’ with the other values: SED I (Militarev&Kogan2000), on the one hand, only treats ‘sinew, nerves’ (with cognates in Mhr, Jib, and Te); Leslau2006 (CDG), on the other hand, does not mention ‘sinew, nerves’ at all and instead postulates a belonging together of Ar ʻto bind, fold, tighten’ [ʕṢB_2] as well as Ar ʻto be difficult’ [ʕṢB_3] with Hbr Aram ʻto hurt, pain, grieve’, and EthSem ʻharshness, trouble, distress, hunger, misery’.
    If ‘sinew, nerves’ should be related to the other values (which may belong together and be essentially one) the meaning ‘headache’ of Jib ʕaṣbɛ́t, alongside with ‘sinew, nerve’, may indicate a possible point of semantic transition from ‘sinew, nerve’ to the complex of ‘harshness, difficulty, pain, grievance’: according to MilitarevKogan, ‘headache’ could be »a late semantic development« (see below), i.e., the meaning ‘headache’ could be dependent on ‘sinew, nerve’. – In a similar vein, BK1860 interprets the obsol. Ar vb. XII, ĭʕṣawṣaba ʻto gather one’s forces, make the highest effort’, as »proprem. tendre tous ses muscles pour aller au plus vite; de là (fig.) devenir très intense, violent«, in this way bringing together ʻsinews’ (muscles) and ʻintensity, violence’; cf. also the ClassAr expressions ĭʕṣawṣaba ’l-šarr ʻle mal, le malheur, la guerre fut à son apogee’ and ĭʕṣawṣaba ’l-yawm ʻla journée (du combat ou de la chaleur) fut dure’ (BK1860) – see [v3].
    ▪ If ‘sinew, nerves’ and the other values are etymologically related, one could imagine a semantic development within the root along a hypothetical line such as *ʻsinew, nerves > tightness, contraction > a) to bind, tie, wrap; b) harshness, difficulty, tension, etc.’ or *ʻsinew, nerves > to bind, tie, wrap (with a sinew or) > to tighten up, tightness, contraction, tension > (fig. use) harshness, difficulty, precariousness, (etc.)’. If this should turn out to be untenable, it is perh. only the rather isolated ʻto bind, tighten’ that depends on ‘sinew, nerves’, while ʻharshness, difficulty, pain, etc.’ represent a domain in its own right. The same may hold for the obsolete values ʕṢB_7 ʻto become red (horizon), red mist seen in a time of drought’ andʕṢB_8 ‘to walk at a quick pace (camel)’ both of which seem to be difficult to connect to any of the other values – at first sight, at least (for more details, see DISC below).
    ▪ For ‘sinew, nerves’, SED I (Militarev&Kogan2000) #16 reconstructs protSem *ʕa(n)ṣab‑ ~ *ʕa(n)c̣ab‑ ‘sinew, nerves’ but simultaneously underlines that the word is »poorly attested in Sem«.
     
    – 
    ▪ Militarev&Kogan2000 (SED I) #16: Mhr ʔāṣbīt, Ḥrs ʔāṣebét ‘sinew, nerve’, Jib ʕaṣbɛ́t ‘dto.; condition of having headaches153 ’, Ar ʕaṣab (coll.) ‘nerves’, Te ʕanṣäbät, ʔanṣäbät ‘sinew, (Munzinger: nerv, corde)’.
    ▪ Leslau2006 (CDG): Hbr ʕāṣab ‘to hurt, pain, grieve’ (BDB1906), (Ni) ‘to be grieved’, (Hi) ‘to grieve’, Aram ʕᵃṣaḇ ‘to be grieved’; Ar ʕaṣaba ‘to bind, tighten’, ĭnʕaṣaba ‘to be difficult’; Gz ʕəṣab ‘harshness, rigor, severity, difficulty, trouble, [etc.]’, ʕəṣub, (Y) ʕəḍub ‘hard, harsh, difficult, severe, serious, rough, rugged, harassed, oppressed, troublesome, vehement, grievous, fierce, austere, onerous […]’, Te ʕaṣba ‘to be in distress, suffer from hunger’, Tña ʕaṣäbä ‘to be in misery, be in distress’, Amh aṭṭäbä ‘to be in distress, marvel’, aṣäba ‘poverty, distress’, əṣub ‘distressed, astounding, marvelous’.154 – Buhl 609, Baumgartner 818 (following Gesenius and Lagarde)155 also compare Ar ↗ġaḍiba ‘to be angry’ [mentioned also in BDB1906 but qualified as »dubious« parallel there]; to Leslau, a comparison with Ar ↗ṣaʕuba (by metathesis) ‘to be hard, be difficult’ seems more likely.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ ʕṢB_1 : Militarev&Kogan2000 (SED I) #16 state that the word is »poorly attested in Sem. The modSAr terms may be Arabisms. The Te form is hardly an Ar loan pace. Note modHbr ʕāṣāb ‘nerve’ which does not seem to be attested in early Jewish writings and may be a medieval Arabism.«[(cn :: For Klein1987 the mHbr word is unquestionably »[f]rom Arabic ʕaṣab (= nerve).«]
    ▪ ʕṢB_2 : As mentioned above (section CONC), the idea of ‘binding, wrapping’ may be derived from ʻnerve, sinew’. BK1860 gives the primary value as ʻceindre tout autour, entourer un lieu (se dit, p.ex., des bestiaux qui entourent une pièce d’eau pour y boire); empoigner, prendre avec la main (de manière que la chose entre toute entière dans la main); saisir, p.ex., plusieurs rameaux ou herbes à la fois, pour les arracher’. In Ar, this basic theme has developed a larger semantic field in its own right, with no similar or directly corresponding developments in Sem (at first sight, at least). Two main lines of development can be distinguished: 1 ‘binding, wrapping’ > ‘headcloth, turban’; 2 ‘binding, wrapping’ > a ‘to stick to, gather around (*tie o.s. to) s.th./s.o.’ > ‘union, group, gang; clan solidarity’, etc.; b ‘to cling obdurately to s.th./s.o.; fanaticism, ardent zeal, bigotry’; ĭʕtiṣāb that was used for a long time to render the Engl ‘strike’ before it became replaced by ↗ʔiḍrāb is prob. a variant of ‘to form a group of fanatic followers’. – Leslau2006 thinks Ar ʕaṣaba ʻto wind, fold, tie, bind, wrap’ should be seen together with the semantic complex of ʻto hurt, pain, grieve; harshness, trouble, distress, hunger, misery’ as found in Hbr, Aram, and EthSem. Obviously meant as a kind of semantic link, he notes Ar vb. VII, ĭnʕaṣaba ‘to be difficult’ (from *ʻto tighten, get denser, contract’?). If this should reflect historical reality, one may feel tempted to connect also values ʕṢB_3-6 to this complex and assume a further development from ‘binding, wrapping’ via *3 ʻto tighten, contract’ into *3a ʻto become critical, crucial (< *suffocating)’ (ʕṢB_3), b ‘to take by force (< *to tighten a siege, intensify one’s attack)’ (ʕṢB_4), c ʻto dry in the mouth (saliva), become unclean (teeth) (*< contraction in the mouth)’ (ʕṢB_5), d ʻ(*to make s.o. tighten his/her belt =) ʻto reduce to straitness, make people starve, (*to tighten one’s own belt =) to be satisfied’ (ʕṢB_6). – Leslau also mentions that earlier research (Buhl, Baumgartner) had proposed a relation between these items and Ar ↗ġaḍiba ʻto be angry, vexed, irritated’, a suggestion Leslau himself is not comfortable with (without giving further reasons). Indeed, the regular correspondence of Ar √ĠḌB in Gz should be √ʕṢ́B, not √ʕṢB. To Leslau, a connection with Ar ↗ṣaʕuba (metathesis) seems more likely.
    ▪ ʕṢB_3-6 : As discussed in the preceding paragraph, all these values can be thought to be based on ʕṢB_2 ‘to bind, tie, wrap’ etc. There is, however, no clear evidence for such a dependence yet, so that one should not prematurely exclude the possibility of an independent complex *‘to be difficult, harsh, hard, (hence:) pain, suffering, etc.’ (which may be related to ↗√ṢʕB, as considered by Leslau). However, the degree of semantic overlapping between the Hbr Aram EthSem values and Ar ʕaṣīb ‘hot, crucial, critical (time, stage)’, ĭnʕaṣaba ‘to be difficult’, ĭʕṣawṣaba (vb. XII) ‘to be hot, dangerous, grow worse’, as well as the ideas of ʻdearth’, ʻhunger’ and ʻstarvation’ associated with the root suggests a closeness of ʻbinding, wrapping’ and ʻdifficulty, pain’, linked by the notion of ʻto tighten, make dense, be(come) tense, have to tighten one’s belt’. An ultimate dependence on ʕṢB_1 could be plausible in the light of Ar ĭʕṣawṣaba ʻto gather one’s forces, make the highest effort’, interpreted by BK1860 as »proprem. tendre tous ses muscles pour aller au plus vite; de là (fig.) devenir très intense, violent«, in this way bringing together ʻsinews’ (muscles), ʻgathering, contraction’ and ʻintensity, violence’.
    ʕṢB_7 : The value ʻto become red (horizon)’, represented by the vb. I ʕaṣaba (ʕaṣb, ʕuṣūb), does, at first sight, not seem to be related to any other value found in the root. Cf., however, the n.f. ʕiṣābaẗ ʻred mist seen in a time of drought’ in which the redness of the air is connected to a ʻtime of drought’. Thus, it may be related to the ʻheat’ of ʕṢB_3 and/or the ʻhunger, starvation, dearth’ of ʕṢB_6, i.e., ultimately, depend on ʻdifficulty, hardship, etc.’.
    ʕṢB_8 : The meaning ‘to walk at a quick pace (camel)’ is expressed with the help of a vb. IV, ʔaʕṣaba. Given that form IV often produces causatives, it seems possible that ‘to walk at a quick pace’ originally is *ʻto accelerate, hasten, increase one’s speed (< intensify it, make it “tighter”)’. Should this be correct, the value would belong to ʕṢB_2 as a further notion developed from *3 ʻto tighten, contract’. BK1860 interprets the meaning ʻmarcher avec vitesse’ as »proprem. tendre tous les muscles à cet effet«, an explanation that connects the value to both ʕṢB_1 ʻnerve, sinew’ and ʕṢB_2 ʻto bind, tie, tighten’.
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ʕaṣab‑ عَصَبَ , i (ʕaṣb
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕṢB 
    vb., I 
    1a to wind, fold, tie, bind, wrap (s.th. ʕalà around or about s.th.); b to bind up, bandage (s.th.); c to fold (s.th.); d to wrap (the head) with a brow band, sash, or turban – WehrCowan1976.
     
    ▪ For ClassAr, BK1860 gives the primary value of ʕaṣaba as ʻceindre tout autour, entourer un lieu (se dit, p.ex., des bestiaux qui entourent une pièce d’eau pour y boire); empoigner, prendre avec la main (de manière que la chose entre toute entière dans la main); saisir, p.ex., plusieurs rameaux ou herbes à la fois, pour les arracher’ (to gather round s.th.; to clasp, grasp, hold tight).
    ▪ It seems possible that the semantic complex based on ʻto bind, tie, wrap’ and, as its derivative (?), perh. also ʻharshness, hardship, difficulty, pain, grieve’ (↗ʕaṣīb), ultimately depends on ↗ʕaṣab ʻnerves, sinew, tendons’ (as the material with which s.th. is tied together, and/or which is associated with the idea of *contraction, tightening, becoming tense\dense’).
    ▪ Inside Sem, Ar is the only language that has developed the value ‘to bind, tie, tighten’ as a meaning of √ʕṢB. With this sense, Ar ʕaṣaba has no direct cognates. However, the fact that ‘to bind, tie, tighten’ evidently has produced a larger complex of derived meanings can serve as an indication of the old age of this value, prob. older than the theme of ʻharshness, hardship, difficulty, pain, grieve’ which is the main value of √ʕṢB in Hbr, Aram, and EthSem (represented also in Ar ↗ʕaṣīb). In fact, it seems not unlikely that this latter complex is derived from ʻto bind, tie, tighten’. Accordingly, Leslau2006 lists it, without further comment, as cognate to Ar ʕaṣaba ‘to bind, tie, tighten’ (giving also vb. VII, ĭnʕaṣaba, where the passive-refl. of the N-stem, lit. *ʻto be tied up, be tightened’, has assumed the fig. meaning ‘to be\become difficult’).
    ▪ Leslau2006 (CDG) reports that Buhl and Baumgartner93 also compared Ar ↗ġaḍiba ‘to be angry’, an idea that Leslau himself does not find convincing.94 To Leslau, a comparison with Ar ↗ṣaʕuba (with metathesis) ‘to be hard, be difficult’ would seem more likely.
    ▪ The semantic field that has grown out of the basic ‘binding, wrapping’ (or ʻgathering around, clasping, grasping’, as BK1860 sees it) is wide. Meanings seem to have developed mainly into two directions: 1 ‘binding, wrapping’ > ‘headcloth, turban’; 2 ‘binding, wrapping’ > a ‘to stick to, gather around (*tie o.s. to) s.th./s.o.’ > ‘union, group, gang; clan solidarity’, etc.; b ‘to cling obdurately to s.th./s.o.; fanaticism, ardent zeal, bigotry’; ĭʕtiṣāb that was used for a long time to render the Engl ‘strike’ before it became replaced by ↗ʔiḍrāb, is prob. a variant of ‘to form a group of fanatic followers’.– If ʻbinding, wrapping’ also belongs together with the complex of ʻto hurt, pain, grieve; harshness, trouble, distress, hunger, misery’ as found in Hbr, Aram, and EthSem, perh. via *ʻto tighten, get denser, contract’, then the values treated sub ʕṢB_3-6 in root entry ↗√ʕṢB will have to be counted as a third string of derivations: *3 ‘binding, wrapping’ > ʻto tighten, contract’ > *a ʻto become critical, crucial (< *suffocating)’ (↗ʕaṣīb); b ‘to take by force (< *to tighten a siege, intensify one’s attack)’ (ʕaṣaba); c ʻto dry in the mouth (saliva), become unclean (teeth) (*< contraction in the mouth)’ (ʕaṣaba, ʕaṣiba); d ʻ(*to make s.o. tighten his/her belt >) ʻto reduce to straitness, (*to let the saliva dry out in s.o.’s mouth or on his\her lips >) to make people starve or die of thirst’ (ʕaṣṣaba), (*to tighten one’s own belt >) to be satisfied, content o.s. (taʕaṣṣaba)’. – Leslau also mentions that earlier research (Buhl, Baumgartner) had proposed a relation between these items and Ar ↗ġaḍiba ʻto be angry, vexed, irritated’, a suggestion Leslau himself is not comfortable with (without giving further reasons). Indeed, the regular correspondence of Ar √ĠḌB in Gz should be √ʕṢ́B, not √ʕṢB. To Leslau, a connection with Ar ↗ṣaʕb (metathesis) seems more likely.
    ▪ There is no clear evidence for such a dependence of 3 on 2 yet, so that one should not prematurely exclude the possibility of an independent complex *‘to be difficult, harsh, hard, (hence:) pain, suffering, etc.’ (which may be related to ↗√ṢʕB, as considered by Leslau). The degree of semantic overlapping between the Hbr Aram EthSem values and Ar ʕaṣīb ‘hot, crucial, critical (time, stage)’, ĭnʕaṣaba ‘to be difficult’, ĭʕṣawṣaba (vb. XII) ‘to make the highest efforts; to be hot, dangerous, grow worse’, as well as the ideas of ʻdearth’, ʻhunger’ and ʻstarvation’ associated with the root suggest a closeness of ʻbinding, wrapping’ and ʻdifficulty, pain’, linked by the notion of ʻto tighten, make dense, become tense, intensify, have to tighten one’s belt’.
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ Leslau2006 (CDG): Hbr ʕāṣab ‘to hurt, pain, grieve’ (BDB1906), (Ni) ‘to be grieved’, (Hi) ‘to grieve’, Aram ʕᵃṣaḇ ‘to be grieved’; Ar ʕaṣaba ‘to bind, tighten’, ĭnʕaṣaba ‘to be difficult’; Gz ʕəṣab ‘harshness, rigor, severity, difficulty, trouble, [etc.]’, ʕəṣub, (Y) ʕəḍub ‘hard, harsh, difficult, severe, serious, rough, rugged, harassed, oppressed, troublesome, vehement, grievous, fierce, austere, onerous […]’, Te ʕaṣba ‘to be in distress, suffer from hunger’, Tña ʕaṣäbä ‘to be in misery, be in distress’, Amh aṭṭäbä ‘to be in distress, marvel’, aṣäba ‘poverty, distress’, əṣub ‘distressed, astounding, marvelous’.156
    ▪ Cf. prob. also ↗ʕaṣab ʻnerves, sinews, tendons’.
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ʕaṣaba ’l-rīqu famahū, expr., the saliva dried in his mouth, clogged his mouth: lit., *ʻmade it contract’.

    ʕaṣṣaba, vb. II, 1a to wind around, fold around, tie around, wrap around (s.th.); b to bind up, bandage (s.th.); c to wrap (the head) with a brow band, sash, or turban: D-stem, ints., and/or denom. from ʕṣabaẗ, ʕuṣbaẗ, ʕiṣāb(aẗ), or a similar n.
    taʕaṣṣaba, vb. V, 1a to wind the turban round one’s head, put on the turban; b to apply a bandage, bandage o.s.; 2a to take sides, to side (maʕa, li‑ with; ʕalà against); b to form a league, clique, group, team, gang, or coalition, gang up, team up; c to cling obdurately or fanatically (li‑ to); d to be fanatic, bigoted, be a fanatic, a zealot; e to plot, conspire, collude, connive (ʕalà against): Dt-stem, with [v1] as the primary value and [v2] extended use of [v1].
    ĭʕtaṣaba, vb. VIII, 1 to form a league, clique, group, team, gang, or coalition, gang up, team up; 2 to go on strike, to strike: Gt-stem, with [v1] as the primary value (from ʕaṣabaẗ, ʕuṣbaẗ, or ʕiṣābaẗ, see below), and [v2] extended use of [v1].

    ʕaṣab, pl. ʔaʕṣāb, n., 1 nerve; 2 sinew: related to ʕaṣaba ʻto wind, fold, tie’ or to be treated separately? – Cf. ↗s.v.
    ʕaṣabī, adj., 1 sinewy, nerved, nervy; 2 nervous, neural, nerve‑, neuro‑, neur‑ (in compounds); 3 nervous, high-strung: nisba formation of ʕaṣab (see preceding item and ↗s.v.) | ʕaṣabiyyu ’l-mazāǧ, adj., nervous, high-strung; al-ǧihāz al-ʕaṣabī, n., the nervous system; ḥālaẗ ʕaṣabiyyaẗ, n.f., nervousness, nervosity; al-ḍuʕf al-ʕaṣabī, n., neurasthenia.
    ʕaṣabiyyaẗ, n.f., 1 nervousness, nervosity: abstract formation in ‑iyyaẗ, from of ʕaṣab ʻnerve’ (see above and ↗s.v.); – 2a (pl. ‑āt) zealous partisanship, bigotry, fanaticism; b party spirit, team spirit, esprit de corps; c tribal solidarity, racialism, clannishness, tribalism, national consciousness, nationalism: abstract formation in ‑iyyaẗ, from of ʕaṣabaẗ ʻnerve’ (see below and ↗ʕaṣābaẗ).
    ʕaṣbaẗ, pl. ʕuṣab (EgAr), n.f., a black headcloth with red or yellow border: cf. also ʕaṣabaẗ ʻblack head-kerchief worn by women’, marked as SyrAr in Hava1899.
    ʕaṣabaẗ, pl. ‑āt, and ʕuṣbaẗ, pl. ʕuṣab, n.f., 1a union, league, federation, association; b group, troop, band, gang, clique; 2 ʕaṣabaẗ, paternal relations, relationship, agnates | ʕuṣbaẗ al‑ʔumam, n.f., the League of Nations. – In Hava1899, ʕuṣbaẗ ʻfaction, gang’ is marked with the sign for SyrAr dialect.
    ʕaṣīb, adj., hot, crucial, critical (time, stage): related to ʕaṣaba ʻto wind, fold, tie’, or to ʕaṣab ʻnerves’, or to be treated separately? – Cf. ↗s.v.
    ʕiṣāb, n., band, ligature, dressing, bandage.
    ʕiṣābaẗ, pl. ʕaṣāʔibᵘ, n.f., 1a band, ligature, dressing, bandage; b headcloth, headband, fillet; c brow band, frontlet; – 2a (pl. ‑āt) union, league, federation, association; b group, troop, band, gang | ʕiṣābāt al-ḫaṭf, n.non-hum.pl., bands of robbers; ḥarb al‑ʕiṣābāt, n.f., guerrilla warfare.
    taʕaṣṣub, n., 1 fanaticism, ardent zeal, bigotry, fanatical enthusiasm; 2a party spirit, partisanship; b clannishness, racialism, race consciousness, tribalism: vn. V.
    ĭʕtiṣāb, pl. ‑āt, n., strike: vn. VIII.
    mutaʕaṣṣib, adj., 1 fanatically enthusiastic (li‑ for); 2 n., enthusiast, fanatic, bigot, zealot: PA V.
     
    ʕaṣab عَصَب , pl. ʔaʕṣāb 
    ID 587 • Sw – • BP 4388 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕṢB 
    n. 
    1 (coll.) nerves; – 2 (pl. ʔaʕṣāb) a nerve; b vein, artery; c sinew – WehrCowan1979.
     
    ▪ The Ar term has only few cognates in Sem. Militarev&Kogan2000’s tentative reconstruction, based on the scarce evidence: protSem *ʕa(n)ṣab‑ ~ *ʕa(n)c̣ab‑ ‘sinew, nerves’.
    ▪ It seems possible that, ultimately, the semantic complex based on ʻto bind, tie, wrap’ (↗ʕaṣaba) and, as its derivative (?), perh. also ʻharshness, difficulty, hardship’ (↗ʕaṣīb), are dependent on ↗ʕaṣab ʻnerves, sinew’ (as the material with which s.th. is bound together, or being associated with the idea of *contraction, tightening, becoming tense\dense’); see discussion in root entry ↗√ʕṢB.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Militarev&Kogan2000 (SED I) #16: Mhr ʔāṣbīt, Ḥrs ʔāṣebét ‘sinew, nerve’, Jib ʕaṣbɛ́t ‘dto.; condition of having headaches157 ’, Ar ʕaṣab (coll.) ‘nerves’, Te ʕanṣäbät, ʔanṣäbät ‘sinew, (Munzinger: nerv, corde)’.
    ▪ For further cognates, cf., perh., ↗ʕaṣaba.
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ʕaṣabī, adj., 1 sinewy, nerved, nervy; 2 nervous, neural, nerve‑, neuro‑, neur‑ (in compounds); 3 nervous, high-strung: nisba formation; see also ↗s.v. | ʕaṣabiyyu ’l-mazāǧ, adj., nervous, high-strung; al-ǧihāz al‑ʕaṣabī, n., the nervous system; ḥālaẗ ʕaṣabiyyaẗ, n.f., nervousness, nervosity; al-ḍuʕf al‑ʕaṣabī, n., neurasthenia
    ʕaṣabiyyaẗ, n.f., 1 nervousness, nervosity: abstract formation in ‑iyyaẗ, from of ʕaṣab ʻnerve’; – 2s.v.
    ʕaṣīb, adj., hot, crucial, critical (time, stage): related to ʕaṣab ʻnerve; sinew’, and\or to ↗ʕaṣaba ʻto bind, tie, wrap’, or to be treated separately? – Cf. ↗s.v.

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕaṣaba, ↗ʕiṣābaẗ, ↗taʕaṣṣub, ↗ĭʕtiṣāb, as well as, for the general picture, ↗√ʕṢB.
     
    ʕaṣabī عَصَبِيّ 
    ID 588 • Sw – • BP 2335 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕṢB 
    adj. 
    1 sinewy, nerved, nervy; 2 nervous, neural, nerve‑, neuro‑, neur‑ (in compounds); 3 nervous, high-strung – WehrCowan1976.
     
    ▪ nisba formation, from ↗ʕaṣab ʻnerves’, from protSem *ʕa(n)ṣab‑ ~ *ʕa(n)c̣ab‑ ‘sinew, nerves’ (Militarev&Kogan2000).
    ▪ [v2] : modern neologism – cf. Monteil1960: 123 (on ↗ʕaṣabiyyaẗ in the modern sense of ʻnervosity’).
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ ↗ʕaṣab.
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ʕaṣabiyyu ’l-mazāǧ, adj., nervous, high-strung
    al-ǧihāz al‑ʕaṣabī, n., the nervous system
    ḥālaẗ ʕaṣabiyyaẗ, n.f., nervousness, nervosity
    al-ḍuʕf al‑ʕaṣabī, n., neurasthenia

    ʕaṣabiyyaẗ, n.f., 1 nervousness, nervosity; – 2s.v.: abstract formation in ‑iyyaẗ; in the meaning ʻnervousness, nervosity’ a neologism (see Monteil1960: 123).

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕaṣaba, ↗ʕaṣab, ↗ʕaṣīb, ↗ʕiṣābaẗ, ↗taʕaṣṣub, ↗ĭʕtiṣāb, as well as, for the general picture, ↗√ʕṢB.
     
    ʕaṣabiyyaẗ عَصَبيّة 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕṢB 
    n.f. 
    1 nervousness, nervosity; – C 2a (pl. ‑āt) zealous partisanship, bigotry, fanaticism; b party spirit, team spirit, esprit de corps; c tribal solidarity, racialism, clannishness, tribalism, national consciousness, nationalism – WehrCowan1976.
     
    ▪ [v1] : modern neologism, from ↗ʕaṣab ʻnerves’ – cf. Monteil1960: 123.
    ▪ [v2]: From ↗ʕaṣaba ʻto wind, fold, tie, wrap, bind up, bandage; (in ClassAr also:) to gather round s.th.; to clasp, grasp, hold tight’.95 – »ʻʕaṣabiyyaẗ’ referred in Arab antiquity to kinship solidarity. The verb ʕaṣaba means ʻto bind, fold, or wind,’ and the noun ʕaṣabaẗ denotes the blood relations in the male line. Various translations and interpretations of ʕaṣabiyyaẗ have been suggested by modern scholars, ranging from ʻgroup feeling,’ ʻesprit de corps,’ ʻcohesiveness,’ or ʻsolidarity’ to ʻidea of nationhood,’ but all of them refer to the later complex reading attributed to it by the philosopher Ibn Ḫaldūn (d. 808/1406)«.96 – »Already used in the ḥadīṯ in which the Prophet condemns ʕaṣabiyyaẗ as contrary to the spirit of Islam, the term became famous as a result of the use to which it was put by Ibn Ḫaldūn, who made this concept the basis of his interpretation of history and his doctrine of the state. ʕAṣabiyyaẗ is, for Ibn Ḫaldūn, the fundamental bond of human society and the basic motive force of history […]. The first basis of the concept is undoubtedly of a natural character, in the sense that ʕaṣabiyyaẗ in its most normal form is derived from tribal consanguinity (nasab, ĭltiḥām), but the inconvenience of this racial conception was already overcome in Arab antiquity itself by the institution of affiliation (walāʔ), to which Ibn Ḫaldūn accords great importance in the formation of an effective ʕaṣabiyyaẗ. Whether it is based on blood ties or on some other social grouping, it is for Ibn Ḫaldūn the force which impels groups of human beings to assert themselves, to struggle for primacy, to establish hegemonies, dynasties and empires […]«.97
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ [v1] ↗ʕaṣab, [v2] ↗ʕaṣaba.
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕaṣaba, ↗ʕaṣab, ↗ʕaṣabī, ↗ʕaṣīb, ↗ʕiṣābaẗ, ↗taʕaṣṣub, ↗ĭʕtiṣāb, as well as, for the general picture, ↗√ʕṢB.
     
    ʕaṣīb عَصيب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕṢB 
    adj. 
    hot, crucial, critical (time, stage) – WehrCowan1976.
     
    ▪ With all probability, the item belongs to the complex of ʻharshness, hardship, difficulty, hence also pain, grieve’ attached to the root ʕṢB mostly in Hbr, Aram and EthSem. Closer relatives in Ar may be (among others) the notions, now obsol., of ‘to be(come) difficult’ (ĭnʕaṣaba, vb. VII), ʻto dry in the mouth (saliva); to become red (horizon) (< due to dryness)’ (ʕaṣaba, ʕaṣiba), ʻred mist seen in a time of drought’ (ʕiṣābaẗ), ʻto reduce s.o. to straitness, make (people) starve (dearth)’ (ʕaṣṣaba, vb. II). Leslau2006 would not exclude a (metathetical) relation to Ar ↗ṣaʕuba ʻto be(come) difficult, hard’. But the complex may also simply be dependent on the idea of *ʻtension, tightening, contraction’ implied in the vb. ↗ʕaṣaba ʻto bind, tie, wrap’, which, it its turn, may, ultimately, be derived from ↗ʕaṣab ʻnerves, sinews’.
    ▪ A more direct link (without the “detour” via ʻto bind, tie, wrap’) between ʻnerves, sinews’ and ʻhardship, pain’ can probably be seen in Jib ʕaṣbɛ́t which not only signifies ‘sinew, nerve’ but also ‘headache’.98 – In a similar vein, BK1860 interprets the obsol. Ar vb. XII, ĭʕṣawṣaba ʻto gather one’s forces, make the highest effort’, as »proprem. tendre tous ses muscles pour aller au plus vite; de là (fig.) devenir très intense, violent«, in this way bringing together ʻsinews’ (muscles) and ʻintensity, violence’; cf. also the ClassAr expressions ĭʕṣawṣaba ’l-šarr ʻle mal, le malheur, la guerre fut à son apogee’ and ĭʕṣawṣaba ’l-yawm ʻla journée (du combat ou de la chaleur) fut dure’. The same relation can be observed in ʔaʕṣaba, vb. IV, ‘to walk at a quick pace (camel)’, »proprem. tendre tous les muscles à cet effet« – BK1860.
     
    … 
    ▪ Leslau2006 (CDG): Hbr ʕāṣab ‘to hurt, pain, grieve’ (BDB1906), (Ni) ‘to be grieved’, (Hi) ‘to grieve’, Aram ʕᵃṣaḇ ‘to be grieved’; Ar ʕaṣaba ‘to bind, tighten’, ĭnʕaṣaba ‘to be difficult’; Gz ʕəṣab ‘harshness, rigor, severity, difficulty, trouble, [etc.]’, ʕəṣub, (Y) ʕəḍub ‘hard, harsh, difficult, severe, serious, rough, rugged, harassed, oppressed, troublesome, vehement, grievous, fierce, austere, onerous […]’, Te ʕaṣba ‘to be in distress, suffer from hunger’, Tña ʕaṣäbä ‘to be in misery, be in distress’, Amh aṭṭäbä ‘to be in distress, marvel’, aṣäba ‘poverty, distress’, əṣub ‘distressed, astounding, marvelous’.158
    ▪ See perh. also ↗ʕaṣab and ↗ṣaʕb.
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ Leslau2006 (CDG) reports that Buhl and Baumgartner552 also compared Ar ↗ġaḍiba ‘to be angry’, an idea that Leslau himself does not find convincing.553 . To Leslau, a comparison with Ar ↗ṣaʕuba (with metathesis) ‘to be hard, be difficult’ would seem more likely.
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕaṣaba, ↗ʕaṣab, ↗ʕaṣabī, ↗ʕaṣabiyyaẗ, ↗ʕiṣābaẗ, ↗taʕaṣṣub, ↗ĭʕtiṣāb, as well as, for the general picture, ↗√ʕṢB.
     
    ʕiṣābaẗ عِصابة , pl. ʕaṣāʔibᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 2300 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕṢB 
    n.f. 
    1a band, ligature, dressing, bandage; b headcloth, headband, fillet; c brow band, frontlet; – 2a (pl. ‑āt) union, league, federation, association; b group, troop, band, gang – WehrCowan1976.
     
    ▪ From ↗ʕaṣaba ʻto wind, tie, wrap’ and (in ClassAr also) ʻto gather around s.th./s.o. (e.g., cattle around a well)’.
    ▪ …
     
    … 
    ▪ ↗ʕaṣaba.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ʕiṣābāt al-ḫaṭf, n.non-hum.pl., bands of robbers
    ḥarb al-ʕiṣābāt, n.f., guerrilla warfare

    taʕaṣṣaba, vb. V, 1a to wind the turban round one’s head, put on the turban; b to apply a bandage, bandage o.s.; 2a to take sides, to side (maʕa, li‑ with; ʕalà against); b to form a league, clique, group, team, gang, or coalition, gang up, team up; c to cling obdurately or fanatically (li‑ to); d to be fanatic, bigoted, be a fanatic, a zealot; e to plot, conspire, collude, connive (ʕalà against): Dt-stem, self-referential, based on ʕiṣābaẗ or an item of similar semantics (ʕaṣabaẗ, ʕuṣbaẗ, ʕiṣāb, etc. – see below).
    ĭʕtaṣaba, vb. VIII, 1 to form a league, clique, group, team, gang, or coalition, gang up, team up; 2 to go on strike, to strike: Gt-stem, self-referential, based on ʕiṣābaẗ or an item of similar semantics (ʕaṣabaẗ, ʕuṣbaẗ, ʕiṣāb, etc. – see below); [v2] seems to be a rather modern use.

    ʕaṣabiyyaẗ, n.f., 1ʕaṣab; – 2a (pl. ‑āt) zealous partisanship, bigotry, fanaticism; b party spirit, team spirit, esprit de corps; c tribal solidarity, racialism, clannishness, tribalism, national consciousness, nationalism: not directly from ʕiṣābaẗ, but from the semantically close ʕaṣabaẗ (see below); a key term in Ibn Ḫaldūn’s sociology.
    ʕaṣbaẗ, pl. ʕuṣab (EgAr), n.f., a black headcloth with red or yellow border: semantically close to ¹ʕiṣābaẗ. – Cf. also ʕaṣabaẗ ʻblack head-kerchief worn by women’, marked as SyrAr in Hava1899.
    ʕaṣabaẗ, pl. ‑āt, and ʕuṣbaẗ, pl. ʕuṣab, n.f., 1a union, league, federation, association; b group, troop, band, gang, clique; 2 ʕaṣabaẗ, paternal relations, relationship, agnates: not derived from ʕiṣābaẗ, but semantically close to the latter’s [v2]. | ʕuṣbaẗ al‑ʔumam, n.f., the League of Nations. – In Hava1899, ʕuṣbaẗ ʻfaction, gang’ is marked with the sign for SyrAr dialect.
    ʕiṣāb, n., band, ligature, dressing, bandage: not derived from ʕiṣābaẗ, but semantically close to the latter’s [v1].
    taʕaṣṣub, n., 1 fanaticism, ardent zeal, bigotry, fanatical enthusiasm; 2a party spirit, partisanship; b clannishness, racialism, race consciousness, tribalism: vn. V (see above).
    ĭʕtiṣāb, pl. ‑āt, n., strike: vn. VIII, probably a rather modern (fig.?) use (cf. also ↗s.v.).
    mutaʕaṣṣib, adj., 1 fanatically enthusiastic (li‑ for); 2 n., enthusiast, fanatic, bigot, zealot: PA V.

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕaṣaba, ↗ʕaṣab, ↗ʕaṣabī, ↗ʕaṣabiyyaẗ, ↗ʕaṣīb, ↗ʕiṣābaẗ, as well as, for the general picture, ↗√ʕṢB.
     
    taʕaṣṣub تَعَصُّب 
    ID 586 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 4505 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕṢB 
    n. 
    1 fanaticism, ardent zeal, bigotry, fanatical enthusiasm; 2a party spirit, partisanship; b clannishness, racialism, race consciousness, tribalism – WehrCowan1976.
     
    ▪ vn. of taʕaṣṣaba, vb. V, in the meaning of ʻto take sides, side (with s.o., against s.o./s.th.); to form a league, clique, group, team, gang, or coalition, gang up, team up; to cling obdurately or fanatically (to s.th./s.o.); to be fanatic, bigoted, be a fanatic, a zealot; to plot, conspire, collude, connive (against s.o.)’, extension of the more original sense of ʻto wind the turban round one’s head, put on the turban; hence also: to apply a bandage, bandage o.s.’; Dt-stem, self-reflexive/self-referential, either from the vb. I, ʕaṣaba ʻto wind, tie, bind, bandage; to fold (s.th.); to wrap (the head) with a brow band, sash, or turban’, or directly from a n. akin to it (e.g., ʕaṣabaẗ, ʕuṣbaẗ, ʕiṣāb, or ʕiṣābaẗ).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ ↗ʕaṣaba.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    mutaʕaṣṣib, adj., 1 fanatically enthusiastic (li‑ for); 2 n., enthusiast, fanatic, bigot, zealot: PA V.

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕaṣaba, ↗ʕaṣab, ↗ʕaṣabī, ↗ʕaṣabiyyaẗ, ↗ʕaṣīb, ↗ʕiṣābaẗ, ↗ĭʕtiṣāb, as well as, for the general picture, ↗√ʕṢB.
     
    ĭʕtiṣāb اِعْتِصاب , pl. ‑āt 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕṢB 
    n. 
    strike – WehrCowan1976.
     
    ▪ vn. of ĭʕtaṣaba, vb. VIII, ʻto form a league, clique, group, team, gang, or coalition, gang up, team up; (hence also:) to go on strike, to strike’, Gt-stem, self-referential, either from the vb. I, ʕaṣaba ʻto wind, tie, bind, bandage, fold, [etc.]’, or directly from a n. akin to it (e.g., ʕaṣabaẗ, ʕuṣbaẗ, ʕiṣāb, or ʕiṣābaẗ – see below, section DERIV).99
    ▪ ʻStrike’ being in itself a modern concept that first emerged in Europe, Ar words for it seem to be calques. According to Beinin and Lockman 1998, »early accounts used the term ĭʕtiṣāb, from a root connoting tying or wrapping, and by extension, banding together: the workers had formed a cohesive group and stopped work. Only in the 1920s did ʔiḍrāb, the standard term today and intrinsically closer to our own ʻstrike,’ come into general use.«100 101
    ▪ …
     
    … 
    ▪ ↗ʕaṣaba.
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    The following items are not derived from ĭʕtiṣāb but may rather be words on which ĭʕtiṣāb itself is dependent:

    ʕaṣabaẗ, pl. ‑āt, and ʕuṣbaẗ, pl. ʕuṣab, n.f., 1a union, league, federation, association; b group, troop, band, gang, clique; 2 ʕaṣabaẗ, paternal relations, relationship, agnates | ʕuṣbaẗ al‑ʔumam, n.f., the League of Nations. – In Hava1899, ʕuṣbaẗ ʻfaction, gang’ is marked with the sign for SyrAr dialect.
    ʕiṣāb, n., band, ligature, dressing, bandage.
    ʕiṣābaẗ, pl. ʕaṣāʔibᵘ, n.f., 1a band, ligature, dressing, bandage; b headcloth, headband, fillet; c brow band, frontlet; – 2a (pl. ‑āt) union, league, federation, association; b group, troop, band, gang | ʕiṣābāt al-ḫaṭf, n.non-hum.pl., bands of robbers; ḥarb al‑ʕiṣābāt, n.f., guerrilla warfare.

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕaṣaba, ↗ʕaṣab, ↗ʕaṣabī, ↗ʕaṣabiyyaẗ, ↗ʕaṣīb, ↗ʕiṣābaẗ, ↗taʕaṣṣub, as well as, for the general picture, ↗√ʕṢB.
     
    ʕṢR عصر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕṢR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕṢR_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ʕṢR_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘time, age, era, period, the afternoon; to be a contemporary; to be of age; to squeeze, to wring; hurricane, whirlwind, cyclone, rain clouds’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ¹ʕaṣr عَصْر 
    ID 589 • Sw – • BP 880 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕṢR 
    n. 
    age, period, time, epoch … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ʕaṣrī عَصْريّ 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 3794 • APD … • © SG | created 8Jun2023
    √ʕṢR 
    adj. 
    contemporary, modern -- BP 
    ▪ nsb-formation 
    ʕaṣriyyaẗ عَصْريّة 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 3794 • APD … • © SG | created 8Jun2023
    √ʕṢR 
    n.f. 
    ▪ abstr. formation in -iyyaẗ 
    ²ʕaṣr عَصْر 
    ID 590 • Sw – • BP 2443 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕṢR 
    n. 
    afternoon … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ʕaṣīr عَصِير 
    ID 591 • Sw – • BP 3797 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕṢR 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ From WSem *√ʕṢR ‘to press, restrain, retain’ – Huehnergard2011. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    muʕāṣaraẗ مُعاصَرة 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 2370 • APD … • © SG | created 8Jun2023
    √ʕṢR 
    n.f. 
    ▪ vn., III 
    muʕāṣir مُعاصِر 
    ID 592 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 2370 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕṢR 
    adj. 
    contemporary; modern … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ PA, III 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ʕṢF عصف 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕṢF 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕṢF_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ʕṢF_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘chaff, straw, dried herbage, ears of corn; to ripen; storm, to storm, to blow away, (of wind) to blow’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ʕaṣaf‑ عَصَفَ 
    ID 593 • Sw – • BP 3841 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕṢF 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ʕṢFR عصفر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕṢFR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕṢFR_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ʕṢFR_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ʕuṣfūr عُصْفُور , var. ʕaṣfūr 
    ID 594 • Sw – • BP 3860 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕṢFR 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: may be due to contamination of protWSem *ṣ˅p(p)˅r‑ ‘bird’ (> Ar ↗ṣāfir, √ṢFR) and another, separate proto-form *ʕ˅ṣṣūr‑ (cf. Akk iṣṣūru, Ug ʕṣr).
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ʕṢM عصم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕṢM 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕṢM_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ʕṢM_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘neckband, dog collar; wrist; protection, bonds, to protect, impregnability; adherence to friendships’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ʕāṣimaẗ عاصِمَة 
    ID 595 • Sw – • BP 696 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕṢM 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ʕṢW عصو 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1Mar2023
    √ʕṢW 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕṢW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕṢW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕṢW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘stick, crook, rod, sceptre, to hit with a stick, to lean on a stick; to gather a group of people together’. Because a degree of overlapping exists between this root and the root ʕ-ṣ-y, philologists classify them together under a single heading. 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕṢY عصي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1Mar2023
    √ʕṢY 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕṢY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕṢY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕṢY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to disobey, to mutiny, to refuse, to defy, to be rebellious (also see: ʕ-ṣ-w)’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕḌː (ʕḌḌ) عضّ/عضض 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1Mar2023
    √ ʕḌː (ʕḌḌ) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕḌː (ʕḌḌ)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕḌː (ʕḌḌ)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕḌː (ʕḌḌ)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to hold with the teeth, bite, bite into; food, fodder; to adhere to’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕḌD عضد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1Mar2023
    √ʕḌD 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕḌD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕḌD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕḌD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘upper arm; power; assistance, support, cooperation; door stop’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕḌL عضل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1Mar2023
    √ʕḌL 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕḌL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕḌL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕḌL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘muscle, to be muscular; to prevent, to compel; problem, puzzle, puzzling, acute’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕḌW عضو 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕḌW 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕḌW_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ʕḌW_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘magic, sorcery; lying, falsehood, gossip; limb, to separate limb from limb, to dismember, part; to distribute’. – ʕiḍaẗ, which is derived from this root, is also classified by some philologists under the root ʕḌH which denotes ‘several types of great trees, (by camels) to defoliate such trees, to cut down such trees, to cut down’. 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ʕuḍw عُضْو 
    ID 596 • Sw – • BP 278 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕḌW 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ʕṬRD عطرد 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕṬRD 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕṬRD_1 ‘Mercury (planet)’ ↗ʕuṭārid

    Other values, now obsolete, include
    ʕṬRD_2 ‘apparatus prepared for the casualties of fortune’ ↗ʕuṭrūd
    ʕṬRD_3 ‘high (mountain); tall (man); long (day); generous (man)’: ʕaṭarrad ~ ʕaṭawwad
    ʕṬRD_4 ‘quick (pace, rate of going)’: ʕaṭarrad
     
    Etymology obscure. The variety of meanings divided into four values above, is repeated (and surpassed!) in one Pers word, tīr. Nourai gives ‘pointed thing’, hence also ‘sharp; arrow’ as the basic meaning of this word (which also denotes the planet Mercury) and derives it from oPers/Av tiǧra ‘sharp, pointed’, taěža, taěǧa ‘sharp’. According to Asbaghi1988, the planet Mercury’s Ar name, ʕuṭārid, (but none of the other values?) is derived from oPers *tīra-dāta ‘Mercury’. In contrast, ClassAr lexicographers relate ʕuṭārid to the root ↗ṬRD ‘to chase’, which however is little likely. Should one consider a derivation from Grk hydrárgyros ‘mercury’, the metal associated with the planet since early Antiquity? In any case, value ʕṬRD_4 (ʕaṭarrad ‘quick pace/rate of going)’ may be connected to the ‘quickly moving, volatile’ planet (cf. the name ‘quicksilver’ for mercury, the corresponding metal). In contrast, the ‘apparatus prepared for the casualties of fortune’, ʕuṭrūd (ʕṬRD_2), seems difficult to relate to either ‘Mercury’ or ‘quick’ (or is the ‘volatility’ of fortune a link?). The same holds for ʕaṭarrad in the sense of ‘high, tall, long; generous’ (ʕṬRD_3). The ClassAr dictionaries suggest that the latter is a var. of ʕaṭawwad (↗√ʕṬD). 
    – 
    – 
    ▪ Whole complex (ʕṬRD_1-4) from oPers *tīra-dāta ‘Mercury’ (Asbaghi1988)? According to Nourai, the first part of this *tīra-dāta (from which is modPers tīr ‘pointed thing’, hence ‘sharp; arrow’; but also ‘Mercury’) derives from an oPers/Av tiǧra ‘sharp, pointed’, taěža, taěǧa ‘sharp’.
    ▪ ʕṬRD_1 ‘Mercury (planet)’: see ↗ʕuṭārid.
    ▪ ʕṬRD_2: The word ʕuṭrūd that Lane treats as a n. meaning ‘apparatus prepared for the casualties of fortune’, is given by Kazimirski as an adj. meaning ‘tout prêt, preparé’. According to the latter, the corresponding vb., ʕaṭrada, means ‘1 garder, conserver; 2 préparer, arranger et tenir prêt’, and the expression ʕaṭrid-hu la-nā signifies ‘tiens-le tout prêt pour nous’554 .
    ▪ ʕṬRD_3: Lane does not distinguish this value from that of ʕṬRD_4, both falling together in one ʕaṭarrad which, according to Lane’s sources, properly is ʕaṭawwad (from √ʕṬD rather than √ʕṬRD). Hava1899 marks ʕaṭawwad with a symbol signifying “new Arabic root”, without further explanation.
    ▪ ʕṬRD_4: According to ClassAr dictionaries, ‘quick (pace, rate of going)’ is only another of the many values attached to ʕaṭarrad (which is usually seen as a var. of ʕaṭawwad, see ʕṬRD_3 in preceding paragraph). However, the value ‘quick (pace, rate of going)’ does not seem to express the same notion of extension or copiousness that may be seen as the common denominator of ‘high (mountain); tall (man); long (day); generous (man)’. Rather, it could belong to ʕuṭārid ‘Mercury’ (ʕṬRD_1), given the fact that the planet was characterized, from Antiquity, as the quickly moving one, the mobile or volatile planet.
     
    ▪ See ↗ʕuṭārid
    – 
    ʕuṭāridᵘ عُطارِدُ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕṬRD 
    n.pr. 
    (the planet) Mercury – WehrCowan1979. 
    Etymology obscure. Some relate the name of the planet to an oPers *tīra-dāta ‘Mercury’, while ClassAr dictionaries usually derive it from ↗ṭarada ‘to chase’, which however is little likely. Given that the word does not seem to have cognates in Sem or AfrAs, should one consider a derivation from Grk hydrárgyros ‘mercury (quicksilver)’, the metal associated with the planet since early Antiquity? (Prepared from cinnabar, the silver-white element was one of the seven metals, bodies terrestrial, known to the ancients, which were coupled in astrology and alchemy with the seven known heavenly bodies.) 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ In Class times, ʕuṭārid also served as a personal name. Some sources say that it should be diptote (ʕuṭāridᵘ) only when used in this function; the planet name however should be triptote (ʕuṭāridᵘⁿ).
    ▪ According to Asbaghi1988, ʕuṭārid is borrowed from oPers *tīra-dāta ‘Mercury’ (no further explanation supplied). Nourai gives the basic meaning of the first component of this Pers word, tīr, as ‘pointed thing’, hence also ‘sharp; arrow’ (from oPers/Av tiǧra ‘sharp, pointed’, taěža, taěǧa ‘sharp’). Interestingly, this value is among the basic meanings that also the obsol. adj. Ar ʕaṭarrad can take in ClassAr: ‘sharpened (spear-head)’. However, the semantic relation between ‘Mercury’ and ‘sharp, pointed’—if there was any—is not explained. In addition to the value ‘sharp, pointed’ of ʕaṭarrad, Lane lists also ‘high (mountain), tall (man, camel), long (day; limit, term, reach, goal; heat, single run to a goal or limit; road); generous, noble, or liberal (man); quick (pace, rate of going)’. While all of these but the last seem to denote some kind of extension or copiousness, the last one is difficult to relate to this extension or the *extremity of ‘sharp, pointed’. Rather, the value ‘quick (pace, rate of going)’ could have s.th. to do with Mercury, the ‘quick, volatile’ planet. From this one may have to infer that ʕaṭarrad not only has one, but two basic meanings (and perhaps also etymologies): 1 (from Pers tīr ‘pointed thing’) *‘extreme, extended (having some quality in excess)’, and 2 (akin to ʕuṭārid) ‘quick (pace, rate of going)’.
    ▪ In contrast, ʕuṭrūd ‘apparatus prepared for the casualties of fortune’ (↗ʕṬRD_2) seems difficult to relate to both, ‘Mercury / quick’ and ‘high, tall, long, generous’—or could the ‘volatility’ of fortune be a link?
    ▪ According to ClassAr dictionaries, ʕaṭarrad is a variant of ʕaṭawwad, root ʕṬD,555 while the planet name, ʕuṭārid, is said by some to derive from ↗ṭarada ‘to drive, chase’ (ṬRD), interpreting Mercury as ‘the chasing and pursued one’ (al-ṭārid wa’l-muṭarrad).
    ▪ Strangely enough, the Ar name of the planet, which was known already to the Sumerians556 and Ancient Egyptians, does not have any cognates in Sem. The fact that, to the Ancient Egyptians, it was one of the many appearances of the gods Seth and Thot (the latter typically represented as a scribe), may account for the fact that Ar ʕuṭārid too is often called the ‘star of the scribes’, but not for the etymology of the name itself.
    ▪ Could it be that the Ar name was taken from Grk? In Ancient Greece, Mercury was believed to be the planet of the God and messenger Hermes (= Lat Mercurius), hence it was called ho toû Hermoû astḗr ‘the star of Hermes’. The GGA provides evidence (in [Ps.-] Plutarchus, Placita Philosophorum) to the fact that the Arabs knew of this association (Hermes is translated as kawkab ʕuṭārid there). Etymologically, however, it is not very likely that ʕuṭārid should have developed from ho toû Hermoû astḗr , even if we assume an (unlikely) development from only the last elements of this name, …oû astḗr. This seems too far-fetched.
    ▪ Another possibility, however, may be worth considering: a derivation of the Ar planet name from Grk hydrárgyr-os ‘(the metal) mercury’, lit. ‘water-silver’ (from hydr-, the root of hýdōr ‘water’, and árgyr-os ‘silver’). Should it be possible some day to prove that ʕuṭārid is from < hydrárgyros, then the Ar would be taken from the name of the metal with which the planet was associated since early times.557 We would then have to assume that the meaning of the loaned word was transferred from the name of the metal associated with the planet to the planet itself. 
    ▪ According to Lokotsch1927#2143, Ar ʕuṭārid ‘mercury’ (> Tu utarıd) gave the words for the metal in some Slav langs: Ru rtut’, Ukr ortut’, rtut’, Pol rtęć, trtęć, Cz rtut ‘id.’. Vasmer[1958]1987 however thinks that this derivation is “phonologically impossible”. Instead, he sees the Slav terms belonging to the notion of ‘to turn over, roll, writhe’, also ‘to fall off, drop off, part, split up, separate’, cf. Germ *wreit-a- ‘to tear (apart), scratch’ (> oEng wrītan ‘to score, outline, draw the figure of’, later ‘to set down in writing, to write’) 
    … 
    ʕṬF عطف 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1Mar2023
    √ʕṬF 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕṬF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕṬF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕṬF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘side of the body, coats, robes; creeper plants; to fold, bend, lean on, incline towards; to show kindness; to beseech, implore’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    mutaʕāṭif مُتَعاطِف 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 8Jun2023
    √ʕṬF 
    adj. 
    ▪ …PA, VI 
    ʕṬL عطل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1Mar2023
    √ʕṬL 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕṬL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕṬL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕṬL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be without jewellery, without ornaments, be featureless, without arms, be idle, without work, without a leader, be unattached, to make s.o. idle, cause to be dysfunctional’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕṬW عطو 
    ID … • Sw 70/60 • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕṬW 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕṬW_1 ‘to raise o.’s head and hands to take s.th., seek to attain’
    ▪ ʕṬW_2 ‘to take; to swallow; to take over, or upon o.s., undertake, pursue’
    ▪ ʕṬW_3 ‘to give, present, hand over, grant’

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to give, to offer, to donate, gift; to handle, to deal with; to search for; to dare; to practise or engage in a certain type of work’ 
    ▪ The two main values in MSA, ʕṬW_2 and ʕṬW_3, go probably back to the value, still found in ClassAr, (ʕṬW_1) ‘to raise the head and the hands to take s.th.’.102 [v2] ‘to take; to swallow; to take over, or upon o.s., undertake, pursue’ is still closer to this original ‘taking’ than [v3], a caus. in the sense of ‘to make s.o. raise his head and hands to take s.th.’
    ▪ There is only litte material to base a reconstruction on. But if Orel&Stolbova1994 are right, the ancestor in Sem is to be reconstructed as *ʕ˅ṭ˅w‑ ‘to give (a present)’. In its turn, the Sem may go back to AfrAs *ʕaṭuw‑ ‘to give, pay’. Given the values of Hbr and ClassAr, however, an original meaning of ‘to stretch out trying to reach or attain s.th.’ seems to be more likely.
    ▪ The scarcity of direct cognates in Sem has led some scholars to assume overlapping with, or contamination by, or of, Ar ↗ʔatā(w) ‘to give, produce’
    ▪ The forms that express ‘giving’ in many Ar dialects (ʔidda etc.) are probably not from ʕṬW (which would have afforded many irregular sound changes) but from a Sem *NTN ~ *YTN, a root that, with the exception perhaps of Ar ↗ʔaddà, does not seem to have found its way into ClassAr and MSA.
     
    lC6 ʕAntarah b. Šaddād 36,9 (PA I f. ʕāṭiyaẗ, pl. ʕawāṭī) muršiqātin ka-’l-ẓibāʔi ʕawāṭiyā ‘looking like the gazelles, stretching out (to reach the leaves of a tree)’ (Polosin1995)
    ▪ eC7 (ʔaʕṭà ‘to give, grant; [without obj.] to give alms, to donate to appropriate causes) Q 92:5; — (taʕāṭà ‘to commit; to take hold of; to give one another s.th.; to dare, become bold, rush’) 54:29 fa-nādaw ṣāḥibahum fa-taʕāṭà fa-ʕaqara ‘but they called upon their companion and he grabbed [a sword/the she-camel] and hacked [at the camel] (or: and he rushed and hacked)’; — ʕaṭāʔ ‘gift, favour, bounty, donation’) 17:20 wa-mā kāna ʕaṭāʔu rabbika maḥẓūran ‘your Lord’s bounty is not restricted’. 
    ▪ Hbr ʕāṭâ ‘to grasp’
    ▪ OrelStolb1994#1076: cognates only outside Sem: àtùwe ‘to pay’ in 1 ECh lang. 
    ▪ Zammit2002, 557: »The Hbr cognate meaning ‘to grasp’ is well within the semantic domain of Ar, as is attested in Ibn Fāris (ʔaḫḏ wa-munāwalaẗ) and in Lane, who defines ʕṭw as “… the act of raising the head and the hands… to take a thing”.«
    ▪ OrelStolb1994#1076: From Ar ʕṭw the authors reconstruct Sem *ʕ˅ṭ˅w‑ ‘give (a present)’, from the ECh form àtùwe ECh *ʔatuw‑. Taken together, the authors suggest AfrAs *ʕaṭuw‑ ‘to give, pay’ as a common ancestor.
    DRS 1 (1994)#ʔTW/Y-3 ask whether Ar ʔatā (w) ‘to give, produce’ may be related.
    ▪ While a number of Ar dialects show forms based on ʕṬW (MorAr ʕṭa, LevAr ʕaṭa, ḤiǧāzAr ʔaʕṭā, KuwAr ʕaṭā)558 , others render the notion of ‘giving’ by verbs that seem to be akin to another Sem root rather than to ʕṬW, namely Sem *NTN ~ *YTN.559 This root has no representative in MSA, but appears in560 Akk nadānu, pret. iddin 561 (< *yandin) ‘to give, to make a payment, offer a gift, a sacrifice, to grant a share, to hand over (a document, an insigne), to entrust (a boat), to proffer (water, a goblet), etc.’,562 Ug ytn, Hbr nāṯan ‘to give, put, set’, Phoen ytn (n-tn), EmpAram BiblAram ntn, Nab yntn (ipfv), chrPA ntn, Syr netel (ipfv), Mand ntn, Sab ntn, EgAr ʔidda, ipfv yiddi 563 , and as a reflex also in NAr/IrAr niṭa 564 , which, because it shows /ṭ/, seems to be based on ʕṬW but influenced by the Aram forms with initial n‑ 565 . It has been proposed that EgAr ʔidda developed from ʕṬW, but this seems—at least to Behnstedt and Corriente—as unlikely as a Copt origin (cf. note above).566 — StarLing 2007 is not consistent in their etymologies. While #3143 assigns Akk nadānu (iddin) to a Sem *NTN ~ *YTN, the same nadānu is juxtaposed, in #865, with Ar √DYN (dān‑, i) and attributed to a Sem *d˅y˅n‑ ‘to give, grant’. The Sem evidence is then regarded as cognate with Eg (Pyr) wdn ‘offering’ and the word tūn ‘tuwo [sic!] as an offering’ in a WCh lang (< WCh *dun‑), all deriving from a reconstructed AfrAs *d˅w/y˅n‑ ‘to give, grant’.
    ▪ Corriente 2008: 63 is convinced that Sem *NTN (or *YTN) has found its way into ClassAr and MSA in the vb. II ↗ʔaddà, ipfv. yuʔaddī ‘to deliver; to pay’. 
    558. Bennett 1998: 205, isoglosses.  559. Reconstructed as in StarLing 2007 #3143.  560. Forms given as in BDB 1906 and Bennett 1998.  561. BDB: »rarely ittan «; CAD gives also tadānu as a variant.  562. Values as in CAD.  563. Said to be of Copt origin by Badawi/Hinds1986, but this is rather unlikely, cf. Corriente 2008: 63 (who argues against Bishai 1964: 42 who proposed a derivation from Copt ti ‘to give’): »However, the first syllable is left phonetically unexplained, and the fact that this item exists in other Ar dialects, more impervious to oEg influence, such as SyrAr (according to Barthelemy), YemAr, as well as in ClassAr (ʔaddà yuʔaddī ‘to deliver; to pay’), would require this borrowing, if it is such, to have taken place in much older times than the Copt period. This is also Behnstedt’s view in 1981:89 and 1997:37; as for Vittmann 219, while rejecting the Copt etymon, prefers to suppose an evolution of Ar aʕṭà which is, as Behnstedt states and we subscribe, unlikely and unnecessary.«  564. In his remarks on EgAr ʔidda, Corriente1986: 63, fn. 6, points also to Behnstedt1992: 15-16, who lists some peculiar idioms »which preclude a recent borrowing from EgAr, as well as phonetic variants with /ḍ/, suggesting contamination with oAr and EAr ʔanṭa ‘to give’, which can only have happened locally and in old times.«  565. …if not the other way round: basically Aram but influenced by Ar ʕṬW. We go for the reverse assumption, following the identification of niṭa as Ar, not Aram, in the map of isoglosses given in Bennett 1998: 2005.  566. The Hbr verb forms the main part of Engl names like Matthew (from Hbr mattayyan < *mattan-yāh ‘gift of Yahweh’, from mattan, bound form of mattān < *mantan ‘gift’, yāh ‘Yahweh’), Nathan (from nātān ‘he, i.e. God, gave’); Jonathan (from yônātān ‘Yahweh has given’, from nātān ‘he gave’ and ‘Yahweh’), Nathanael (Hbr nətan-ʔēl ‘God has given’, from nətan, reduced form of nātan, see above), while the pret. of Akk nadānu ‘to give’, iddin (< *yandin), forms the second part of the name Esarhaddon (Akk *Aššur-aḫa-iddin ‘Ashur has given a brother’, where *aḫa is ‘brother (acc.)’, cf. Ar ↗ʔaḫ(ū) — Huehnergard 2011. 
    ▪ For the names Matthew, Nathan, Jonathan, Nathanael, Esarhaddon, cf. note 9 in DISC. 
    ʕāṭà, vb. III, to give: associative.
    BP#346ʔaʕṭà, vb. IV, to give; to present, hand over, offer; to grant, award, accord; to present, bestow (s.th. upon s.o.): originally caus. (‘to make s.o. raise his head and hands to take s.th.’)?; pass. ʔuʕṭiya, to get, obtain, receive | ~ durūsan, vb., to give lessons; ~ ʔaqwālahū, vb., to give evidence, give o.’s testimony (jur.); ~ lahū ’l-kalimata, vb., to allow s.o. to speak; ~ bi-yadihī, vb., to surrender or submit to s.o.; ~ ǧahdahū li‑, to devote o.’s efforts to s.th.; ~ maṯalan, vb., to give or set an example.
    taʕaṭṭà, vb. V, to ask for charity, ask for alms; to beg: autobenef.caus., specialization in the charity domain.
    taʕāṭà, vb. VI, to take; to swallow, take (a medicine); to take over, assume, undertake, take upon o.s. (a task); to occupy o.s., be occupied or busy with, be engaged in, pursue, practice (an activity):…
    ĭstaʕṭà, vb. X = V.

    ʕaṭan, det. ‑à, n., gift, present: could be regarded as etymon but is probably already a specialisation.
    BP#2149ʕaṭāʔ, pl. ʔaʕṭiyaẗ, n., gift, present; (pl. ‑āt) offer, tender; bid (at an auction or on invitation of tenders); bid with cost estimate (com.); vn. I | qaddama ~an, vb., to make an offer or tender, submit a written bid.
    ʕaṭiyyaẗ, pl. ʕaṭāyā, n., gift, present: nominalized pseudo-PP.f.
    miʕṭāʔ, adj.m.f., very liberal, generous (person); productive, yielding well (land): ints.
    muʕāṭāẗ, n., exercise, practice, pursuit (of an activity): vn. III.
    BP#2215ʔiʕṭāʔ, n., donation; presentation, grant(ing), award(ing): vn. IV.
    BP#3612taʕāṭin, det. ‑ī, pursuit, practice (of an activity), handling: vn. VI.
    ĭstiʕṭāʔ, n., begging, mendicity: vn. X.
    muʕṭin, det. ‑ī, n., giver, donor: nominalized PA IV.
    BP#3030muʕṭan, det. ‑à, adj., given: PP IV; (pl. ‑āt), n., given quantity (math.); pl. al-muʕṭayāt, n., the given facts, data, factors: nomin. PP IV.
    mustaʕṭin, det. ‑ī, n., beggar: nominalized PA X.
     

    ʔaʕṭà / ʔaʕṭay‑ أَعْطَى / أَعْطَيْـ 
    ID 597 • Sw 70/60 • BP 346 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕṬY 
    vb., IV 
    to give; to present, hand over, offer; to grant, award, accord; to present, bestow (s.th. upon s.o.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Originally probably a caus. (‘to make/cause s.o. to…’) from vb. I, now obsolete, ʕaṭā ‘to raise o.’s head and hands to take s.th.’, see ↗ʕṬW.
    ▪ In some Ar dialects, the notion of ‘giving’ is expressed by verbs like EgAr ʔidda that some scholars consider to have developed from Ar ʕṬW while others think they are from, or akin to, Sem *NTN~YTN (if not Copt, in the case of EgAr ʔidda). For this discussion, see "DISC" in ↗ʕṬW. 
    lC6 Many attestations in pre-Islamic poetry (Polosin1995).
    ▪ eC7 Q ‘to give, grant; [without obj.] to give alms, to donate to appropriate causes), e.g. 92:5 
    ↗ʕṬW 
    ↗ʕṬW 
    – 
    ʔuʕṭiya, pass., to get, obtain, receive
    ʔaʕṭà durūsan, vb. IV, to give lessons
    ʔaʕṭà ʔaqwālahū, vb IV., to give evidence, give o.’s testimony (jur.)
    ʔaʕṭà lahū ’l-kalimata, vb. IV, to allow s.o. to speak
    ʔaʕṭà bi-yadihī, vb. IV, to surrender or submit to s.o.
    ʔaʕṭà ǧahdahū li , vb. IV, to devote o.’s efforts to s.th.
    ʔaʕṭà maṯalan, vb. IV, to give or set an example
     
    ʕẒM عظم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕẒM 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕẒM_1 ‘bone’ ↗ʕaẓm
    ▪ ʕẒM_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘bones, a bone, to bone; to be or become powerful, great, grand, immense, to venerate, to measure up to; proud, arrogant’ 
    ▪ ʕẒM_1 : (Kogan2015 Sw#10:) from protSem *ʕaṯ̣ m‑ ‘bone’ (SED I #25). Passim except Syr and modSAr.
    ▪ ʕẒM_2 : …
    ▪ ʕẒM_3 : …
    … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ʕaẓm عَظْم 
    ID 598 • Sw 31/17 • BP 2548 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕẒM 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2015 (Sw#10): from protSem *ʕaṯ̣m‑ ‘bone’ (SED I #25). Passim except Syr and modSAr.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘bone’) Akk eṣemtu, Hbr ʕéṣem, Syr ʕaṭmā ‘Hüfte’, Gz (ʕaḍm).
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ʕFː (ʕFF) عفّ/عفف 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1Mar2023
    √ ʕFː (ʕFF) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕFː (ʕFF)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕFː (ʕFF)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕFː (ʕFF)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘the small amount of milk which remains in the udder of a female animal after feeding her young, to suckle such an amount of milk, meagre quantity; austerity, modesty, chastity, to refrain from committing unlawful or shameful acts’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕFRT عفرت 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕFRT 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕFRT_1 ‘demon’ ↗ʕifrīt
    ▪ ʕFRT_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Cf. semantic value spectrum of ʕFR in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘dust, to dust, to rub in the dust; genie, mighty; hair, mane’. – Some scholars attribute ʕifrīt to a borrowing from Pers, but philologists classify it under this root. 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ʕifrīt عِفْريت , pl. ʕafārītᵘ 
    ID 599 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕFRT 
    n. 
    1a malicious, mischievous; b sly, cunning, crafty, wily; 2 afreet, demon, imp, devil; 3 (EgAr) naughty child – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Cheung2017rev: ultimately of Ir origin, but prob. borrowed indirectly, via JudBabAram ? < (learned) mPers/Parth *āfrīt < Av āfriti ‘spirit, force of benediction’. For details, see below, section DISC.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 (a member of the jinn, genie, powerful, so called because, as it is said, he knocks down his adversaries and rolls them in the dust, ↗ʕafar) Q 27:39 qāla ʕifrītun min-a ’l-ǧinni ‘a powerful genie from among the jinn said’. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »The philologers would derive it from √ʕFR ‘to rub with dust’, and tell us that the word is applied to Jinn or to men as meaning one who rolls his adversary in the dust (cf. LA, vi, 263). That the philologers had difficulty with it is evident from the number of possible forms given by Ibn Khalawaih, 109. – Grimme, ZA, xxvi, 1G7, 168, suggests that the word was formed under SAr influence, but there seems nothing in this, and Barth, ZDMG, xlviii, 17, would take it as a genuine Ar word.567 Hess, ZS, ii, 220, and Vollers, ZDMG, 1, 646, however, have shown that it is Pers, derived from Phlv āfrītan 568 (cf. Av āfrīnāṭ 569 ), which in modPers is āfrīd, the participle from āfrīdan ‘to create’, Paz āfrīdan, Phlv ???? (Shikand, Glossary, 226), and used like the Ar maḫlūq [↗ḫalaqa ] for ‘creature’.«
    EALL : from mPers afrīt ‘creature’ (Asbaghi, »Persian Loanwords«). 
    – 
    taʕafrata, vb. II, to behave like a demon or devil: denominative.
    ʕifrītī, adj., devilish: nsb-adj.
    ʕafrītaẗ, n.f., (Eg.) lifting jack; overall:.
    ʕafrataẗ, n.f., devilry; dirty trick: vn. I. 
    ʕFW عفو 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1Mar2023
    √ʕFW 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕFW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕFW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕFW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘wasteland, dust, to grow wildly, (of camels) to grow thick hair; to forgo, let go, relieve, forgive; to achieve without toil; to be in good health, multiply in number; to seek one’s livelihood’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕQB عقب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕQB 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕQB_1 ‘heel’ ↗
    ▪ ʕQB_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘heels, to arrive at the heel of, to follow, pursue, investigate; eagle; to turn back; to repair; result; to avenge o.s.; to punish; to interlace; obstacle; to detain’ 
    ▪ [v1] Kogan2011: from protSem *ʕaḳib‑ ‘heel’. – See also the special designation ↗ʕurqūb (< protWSem *ʕarḳ˅b‑) ‘Achilles’ tendon’.
    ▪ Huehnergard2011: WSem *√ʕQB ‘to follow, guard, protect’. 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl jack, jacket, Jacob, Jacobin, Jacquerie, James, from Hbr yaʕăqōb ‘(God) has protected’, from early NWSem *yaʕqub, pret. of *ʕaqaba ‘to follow, guard’. 
    – 
    ʕaqb عَقْب , var. ʕaqib 
    ID 600 • Sw – • BP 1423 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕQB 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ʕQD عقد 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕQD 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕQD_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ʕQD_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘knot, tangle, to tie, to complicate, to make difficult; to put together; to contract; to thicken, to coagulate; oath, alliance, pact; necklace; sand dune’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ʕaqīdaẗ عَقِيدَة 
    ID 601 • Sw – • BP 2558 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕQD 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ʕQR عقر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕQR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕQR_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ʕQR_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘the main part of one’s dwelling, real estate, landed property, residence; furniture; to slay by stabbing, to wound, to be savaged by an animal; to be barren, to be sterile; to be alcoholic; medicine’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ʕaqqār عَقّار 
    ID 602 • Sw – • BP 4153 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕQR 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ʕQRB عقرب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕQRB 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕQRB_1 ‘scorpion; sting, prick; hand (of a watch or clock); lock, curl; Scorpio (astron.)’ ↗ʕaqrab
    ▪ ʕQRB_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ʕQRB_3 ‘…’ ↗ 
    ▪ ʕQRB_1 : (Orel&Stolbova1994:) From protSem *ʕaḳrab‑ ‘scorpion’ (and perh., with prefix *ʕa‑, from AfrAs *ḳurab‑ ‘insect’).
    ▪ ʕQRB_2 : …
    ▪ ʕQRB_3 : … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    … 
    ʕaqrab عَقْرَب, pl. ʕaqāribᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕQRB 
    n. 
    1 scorpion; 2 sting, prick; 3 hand (of a watch or clock); 4 lock, curl; 5 العقرب Scorpio (sign of the zodiac; astron.); 6 the eighth month of the solar year (Saudi Ar.; cf. ḥamal) – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994# 1609: From protSem *ʕaḳrab‑ ‘scorpion’ (and perh., with prefix *ʕa‑, from AfrAs *ḳurab‑ ‘insect’).
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: Akk aqrabu, Hbr ʕaqrāḇ, Aram ʕeqarḇā, Gz ʕaqráb ‘scorpion’
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994# 1609: Hbr ʕaqrāb, Syr ʕeqarbō. – Outside Sem: kurba ‘ant’ in a WCh language.
     
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1609: protSem *ʕaḳrab‑ ‘scorpion’, protWCh *ḳur˅b‑, both from hypothetical AfrAs *ḳurab‑ ‘insect’. The basis for reconstruction in WCh is only 1 lang, the AfrAs dimension therefore doubtful. The authors explain the initial consonant in Sem as a prefix *ʕa‑.
    ▪ Lipiński2001 thinks (with Diakonoff) the etymon may be segmented into a root plus AfrAs »key consonant« ‑b for strong and/or dangerous animals, cf. also ↗ʔarnab, ↗dubb, ↗ḏiʔb, ↗ḏubāb, ↗kalb, ↗labb, ↗ṯaʕlab.
     
    ▪ Sem *ʕaḳrab‑, more exactly Phoen ʕqrb, may have been the source of the Germ words for ‘crab’.
    … 
    … 
    ʕQL عقل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕQL 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕQL_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ʕQL_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘tie, to tie up, stoppage, halter; brain, rational person, to judge as rational; to ransom, blood money; head of a group; fine woman; taking refuge’ 
    ▪ From WSem *√ʕQL ‘to bend, bind, confine’ – Huehnergard2011. 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ʕaql عَقْل 
    ID 603 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 646 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕQL 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ʕQM عقم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1Mar2023
    √ʕQM 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕQM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕQM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕQM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘dryness, to be sterile, (of the womb or woman) be barren; devastating, destructive; gibberish, futile and archaic’ – 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕKF عكف 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 2Mar2023
    √ʕKF 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕKF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕKF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕKF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be curled or twisted, to cling to, be constant, devote o.s. to, apply o.s. singlemindedly to; to isolate, bar, turn away from’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕLː (ʕLL) علّ/علل 
    Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | created 8Jun2023
    √ʕLː (ʕLL) 
    “root” 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    taʕlīliyyaẗ تَعْليليّة 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 8Jun2023
    √ʕLː (ʕLL) 
    n.f. 
    ▪ abstr. formation in -iyyaẗ, from taʕlīl ‘explanation’, vn. of ʕallala (II) ‘to explain’, D-stem, denom. from ↗ʕillaẗ 
    ʕLǦ علج 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕLǦ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕLǦ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ʕLǦ_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ʕilāǧ عِلاج 
    ID 604 • Sw – • BP 750 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕLǦ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ʕLM علم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕLM 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕLM_1 ‘knowledge; to know; knowing, scholar’ ↗ʕilm, ↗ʕalima, ↗ʕālim
    ▪ ʕLM_2 ‘sign, token; flag; eminent personality, authority’ ↗ʕalam
    ▪ ʕLM_3 ‘tender (adj.); well with abundant water’ ↗ʕaylam
    ▪ ʕLM_4 ‘singer, chanteuse, belly dancer’ ↗ʕālimaẗ
    ▪ ʕLM_5 ‘world, universe’ ↗ʕālam

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘mountain, landmark, mark, flag; a notch, slit, harelip; to mark; to know, learn, be acquainted, to inform, knowledge, learning, cognition and a learned person; the world, the universe’. – It has been suggested by some scholars that the word ʕālam, meaning the world or the universe, which philologists derive from this root, is a very early borrowing from either Hbr or Syr. 
    ▪ Ar root √ʕLM ‘to know’ – Huehnergard2011.
     
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl ulemaʕālim
    – 
    ʕilm عِلْم 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 515 • APD … • © SG | created 8Jun2023
    √ʕLM 
    n. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ʕLQ علق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023
    √ʕLQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕLQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕLQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕLQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘clinging, to adhere, to be suspended, to hang; to be attached, creeper, blood clot; morsel of food; treasure’ 
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    ʕalim‑ عَلِمَ , a (ʕilm
    ID 608 • Sw 59/83 • BP 377 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕLM 
    vb., I 
    to know, have knowledge, be cognizant, be aware (bi‑ of s.th.), be informed, be familiar, be acquainted (with s.th.); to perceive, discern (bi‑ or DO s.th.), find out, learn, come to know; to distinguish, differentiate (min from) – WehrCowan1979. 
    The vb. ʕalima is probably denominative, the meaning ‘to know’ having developed from an original *‘to recognize a sign, token, mark’ (↗ʕalam), perhaps one that had been made by ‘nicking, notching, incising’. 
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    The vb. ʕalima is probably denominative from ↗ʕalam ‘sign, token, mark’ and may originally have meant *‘to recognize’ (a sign, token, mark). Given that an obsolete trans. vb. ʕalama, u, i (ʕalm) means ‘to mark (by slitting, nicking, notching?)’, the intr. vb. probably signified ‘to be able to read the signs, marks, traces’, hence ‘to orient o.s.’. 
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    BP#3450ʕallama, vb. II, to teach, instruct, brief; to train, school, educate: caus. I, denom. – For other meanings ↗ʕalam.
    ʔaʕlama, vb. IV, to let know, tell, notify, advice, apprise, inform (bi‑ of or about s.th.), acquaint:.
    BP#1179taʕallama, vb. V, to learn, study; to know :.
    ĭstaʕlama, vb. X, to inquire, ask, query (ʕan about), inform o.s. (ʕan about), gather information:.

    BP#515ʕilm, n., knowledge, learning, lore; cognizance, acquaintance; information; cognition, intellection, perception, knowledge; BP#548(pl. ʕulūm) science; pl. al-ʕulūm the (natural) sciences. – For compounds etc. ↗s.v.
    BP#545ʕilmī, adj., scientific; erudite (book); learned (society): nsb-adj from ↗ʕilm.
    ʕilmiyyaẗ, n.f., scientific nature (of s.th.); scientificalness: n.abstr. from ↗ʕilm.
    BP#3467ʕalam, pl. ʔaʕlām, n., sign, token, mark, [etc.]: ↗ʕalam.
    ʕalīm, pl. ʕulamāʔᵘ, adj., knowing; cognizant, informed; learned, erudite; al-ʕ. the Omniscient (one of the attributes of God): ints.
    ʕallām, adj., knowing thoroughly, completely familiar (with): ints.
    BP#4161ʕallāmaẗ, adj., most erudite, very learned:; n., eminent scholar:.
    BP#1552ʕalāmaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., mark, sign, token [etc.]: ↗ʕalam.
    ʔuʕlūmaẗ, pl. ʔaʕālīmᵘ, n., road sign, signpost, guidepost: ↗ʕalam.
    tiʕlāmaẗ, adj., most erudite, very learned: ↗s.v...
    BP#2288maʕlam, pl. maʕālimᵘ, n., place, abode, locality, spot [etc.]: ↗ʕalam.
    maʕlamaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., encyclopedia: n.loc.
    BP#388taʕlīm, pl. ‑āt, taʕālīmᵘ, n., information, advice, instruction, direction; teaching, instruction; training, schooling, education; apprenticeship: vn. II, caus.; pl. ‑āt instructions, directions, directives; information, announcements | t. muḫtaliṭ coeducation; t. ʕālin higher education, academic studies; fann al-t. pedagogy, pedagogics; t. al-bāliġīn and t. al-kibār adult education; t. šaʕbī public education:.
    BP#1400taʕlīmī, adj., instructional; educational; didactic: nsb-adj from taʕlīm.
    BP#571ʔiʕlām, n., notification, advice; information; communication; notice: vn. IV, lexicalized | maʕhad al-ʔ., institute of communication; wazīr al-ʔ., minister of information; wasāʔil al-ʔ., communications media, the media:.
    BP#1075ʔiʕlāmī, adj., information, communication (in compounds): nsb-adj from ʔiʕlām.
    BP#3199taʕallum, n., learning, studying, study; education: vn. V.
    ĭstiʕlām, n., inquiry (ʕan about); (pl. ‑āt) information: vn. X | maktab al-ĭ. information office, information desk:.
    BP#869ʕālim, adj., knowing; familiar, acquainted (bi‑ with), cognizant (bi‑ of); n., expert, connoisseur, professional; (pl. ʕulamāʔᵘ), adj., learned, erudite; n., scholar, savant, scientist: PA I, later lexicalized | ʕ. ṭabīʕī physicist, natural scientist; al-ʕulamāʔ al-muḫtaṣṣūn the specialists, the experts:.
    ʕālimaẗ, n.f., woman of learning, woman scholar: PA I; (eg., pronounced ʕalmaẗ) singer, chanteuse, belly dancer: ↗s.v..
    ʕālimiyyaẗ, n.f., learnedness, scholarliness, erudition, rank or dignity of a ʕālim; rank of scholarship, conferred by diploma, of the Great Mosque in Tunis and of AI-Azhar in Cairo: n.abstr. from ʕālim.
    BP#3600ʔaʕlamᵘ, adj., having more knowledge; more learned; el. formation from ʕālim | ăllāhu ʔ. God knows best:.
    BP#2631maʕlūm, adj., known; fixed, determined, given; of course! certainly! sure! no doubt! (as an affirmative reply); known quantity (math.); al-m. the active voice (gram.): PP I; — (pl. maʕālīmᵘ) fixed sum, fixed rate (money); fixed income; tax, duty, fee; sum, amount, cost(s) | m. al-ḥayawānāt impost on livestock (Tun.):.
    BP#412maʕlūmaẗ, n.f., known fact, a given fact; given quantity (math.); pl. ‑āt knowledge, information; data, facts, details (which one has, or has received, ʕan about): n.u. of PP I | ǧamʕ al-m.āt data gathering:.
    BP#4695maʕlūmātī, adj., informatics, information science: nsb-adj from maʕlūmāt, pl. of maʕlūmaẗ.
    maʕlūmiyyaẗ, n.f., fact or state of being known, notoriety (of s.th.): n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ from maʕlūm.
    BP#899muʕallim, pl. ‑ūn, n., teacher, instructor; master (of a trade, etc.): nominalized PA II | m. al-ĭʕtirāf father-confessor, confessor:.
    muʕallimaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., woman teacher, woman instructor: nominalized PA II, f.
    muʕallam, adj., taught, instructed, trained, schooled: PP II; m. ʕalayh designated, marked | m. ʕalayh bi’l-ʔaḥmar PP II of ↗ʕalima, from ↗ʕilm.
    mutaʕallim, adj., educated; able to read and write, literate: PA V; n., an educated person: nominalization.
    BP#93ʕālam n.: ↗s.v..
    BP#308ʕālamī, adj.: ↗ʕālam.
    ʕālamiyyaẗ, n. ↗ʕālam.
    BP#4288ʕalmānī, var. ʕā̆lmānī, adj./n.: ↗s.v..
     

    ʕilm عِلْم , pl. ʕulūm 
    ID 609 • Sw – • BP 548 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕLM 
    n. 
    knowledge, learning, lore; cognizance, acquaintance; information; cognition, intellection, perception, knowledge; BP#548(pl. ʕulūm) science; pl. al-ʕulūm the (natural) sciences – WehrCowan1979. 
    vn. of ↗ʕalima
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    ʕilman wa-ʕamalan, theoretically and practically:.
    li-yakun fī ʕilmih, be it known to him, may he know, for his Information:.
    kāna ʕalà ʕilmin tāmmin, to know s.th. inside out, be thoroughly familiar with s.th.; to have full cognizance of s.th.:.
    ʕilm al-wuṣūl, n., receipt; bi-ʕilm al-wuṣūl registered (mail), risālaẗ bi-ʕilm al-wuṣūl registered letter:.
    ʕilm al-ʔadab, n., study of literature; ʕilm al-ʔadab al-muqāran comparative literature:.
    ʕilm al-ʔinsān, n., anthropology:.
    ʕilm al-ǧarāṯīm, n., bacteriology:.
    ʕilm al-ĭǧtimāʕ, n., sociology; al-ʕulūm al-ĭǧtimāʕiyyaẗ the social sciences:.
    ʕilm al-ǧamāl, n., aesthetics:.
    ʕilm al-ḥisāb, n., arithmetic:.
    ʕilm al-ḥafriyyāt, n., archaeology; paleontology; ʕilm al-ʔaḥāfīr, n., paleontology:.
    ʕilm al-muḥīṭāt, n., oceanography:.
    ʕilm al-ḥayāẗ, n., biology; ʕilm al-ʔaḥyāʔ, n., do.; ʕilm al-ḥayawān, n., zoology:.
    ʕilm al-ʔaḫlāq, n., ethics:.
    ʕilm al-dalālaẗ, n.f., and ʕilm al-maʕnà, n., semantics (linguistics):.
    ʕilm al-ʔidāraẗ, n.f., study of administration; business management; al-ʕulūm al-ʔidāriyyaẗ, n.f., administrative sciences:.
    ʕilm al-ḏarrāt, n., nuclear physics:.
    ʕilm al-tarbiyaẗ, n.f., pedagogy:.
    ʕilm al-ʔasāṭīr, n., mythology:.
    ʕilm al-šuʕūb, n., ethnology:.
    ʕilm al-ṣiḥḥaẗ, n.f., hygiene:.
    ʕilm al-ṣarf, n., morphology (gram.):.
    ʕilm al-ʔaṣwāt, n., and ʕilm al-ṣawtiyyāt, n., phonetics; phonology:.
    ʕilm al-ṭabīʕaẗ, n.f., physics; natural science; ʕilm ṭabīʕaẗ al-ʔarḍ, n., geophysics:.
    ʕilm ṭabaqāt al-ʔarḍ, n., geology:.
    ʕilm al-maʕādin, n., mineralogy:.
    ʕilm al-falak, n., astronomy; astrology:.
    ʕilm al-luġaẗ, n.f., lexicography (of the Arabs); linguistics (Western); ʕilm al-luġaẗ al-ʕāmm, n., general linguistics:.
    ʕilm al-nabāt, ʕilm al-nabātāt, n., botany:.
    ʕilm al-nafs, n., psychology; ʕilm al-nafs al-ĭǧtimāʕī social psychology; ʕilm al-nafs al-fardī individual psychology:.
    ʕilm al-wirāṯaẗ, n.f., genetics:.
    ʕilm al-waẓāʔif al-ʔaʕḍāʔ, n., physiology:.

    For other compounds look up the second word.

    ṭālib ʕilm, n., student:.
    kulliyyaẗ al-ʕulūm, n., the Faculty of Science (of a university):.

    BP#377ʕalima, a (ʕilm), vb. I, to know, have knowledge, be cognizant, be aware (bi‑ of s.th.), be informed, be familiar, be acquainted (with s.th.); to perceive, discern (bi‑ or DO s.th.), find out, learn, come to know; to distinguish, differentiate (min from): vn. I.
    BP#3450ʕallama, vb. II, to teach, instruct, brief; to train, school, educate: caus. I, denom. – For other meanings ↗ʕalam.
    ʔaʕlama, vb. IV, to let know, tell, notify, advice, apprise, inform (bi‑, of or about s.th.), acquaint: caus. of I.
    BP#1179taʕallama, vb. V, to learn, study; to know: pseudo-pass. of II.
    ĭstaʕlama, vb. X, to inquire, ask, query (ʕan about), inform o.s. (ʕan about), gather information: autoben., t-stem of IV.

    BP#545ʕilmī, adj., scientific; erudite (book); learned (society): nsb-adj.
    ʕilmiyyaẗ, n.f., scientific nature (of s.th.); scientificalness: n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ.
    ʕalīm, pl. ʕulamāʔᵘ, adj., knowing; cognizant, informed; learned, erudite; al-ʕ. the Omniscient (one of the attributes of God): ints. (possessing much ʕilm)
    ʕallām, adj., knowing thoroughly, completely familiar (with): ints.
    BP#4161ʕallāmaẗ, adj., most erudite, very learned: ints.; n., eminent scholar: nominalized and lexicalized.
    tiʕlāmaẗ, adj., most erudite, very learned: ↗s.v.
    maʕlamaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., encyclopedia: n.loc. (place where ʕilm can be found).
    BP#388taʕlīm, pl. ‑āt, taʕālīmᵘ, n., information, advice, instruction, direction; teaching, instruction; training, schooling, education; apprenticeship: vn. II, caus., denom.; pl. ‑āt instructions, directions, directives; information, announcements | t. muḫtaliṭ coeducation; t. ʕālin higher education, academic studies; fann al-t. pedagogy, pedagogics; t. al-bāliġīn and t. al-kibār adult education; t. šaʕbī public education:.
    BP#1400taʕlīmī, adj., instructional; educational; didactic: nsb-adj from taʕlīm.
    BP#571ʔiʕlām, n., notification, advice; information; communication; notice: vn. IV, lexicalized | maʕhad al-ʔ., institute of communication; wazīr al-ʔ., minister of information; wasāʔil al-ʔ., communications media, the media:.
    BP#1075ʔiʕlāmī, adj., information, communication (in compounds): nsb-adj from ʔiʕlām.
    BP#3199taʕallum, n., learning, studying, study; education: vn. V.
    ĭstiʕlām, n., inquiry (ʕan about); (pl. ‑āt) information: vn. X | maktab al-ĭ. information office, information desk:.
    BP#899muʕallim, pl. ‑ūn, n., teacher, instructor; master (of a trade, etc.): nominalized PA II | m. al-ĭʕtirāf father-confessor, confessor:.
    muʕallimaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., woman teacher, woman instructor: nominalized PA II, f.
    mutaʕallim, adj., educated; able to read and write, literate: PA V; n., an educated person: nominalization.

    For other items of ʕLM cf. ↗ʕalam, ↗ʕalima, ↗ʕālim, ↗ʕālimaẗ, ↗ʕālam, ↗ʕalmānī

    ʕalam عَلَم , pl. ʔaʕlām 
    ID 607 • Sw – • BP 3467 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕLM 
    n. 
    sign, token, mark, badge, distinguishing mark, characteristic; harelip; road sign, signpost, guidepost; flag, banner; a distinguished, outstanding man; an eminent personality, an authority, a star, a luminary; proper name (gram.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Originally a mark made by incision, nicking, notching? (cf. Ehret1989 in the DISC section below).
    ▪ The word may be the etymon not only of the derivatives of the ‘marking, signing, designating’ theme, but also of the ‘knowledge’ complex, since the vb. ↗ʕalima ‘to know’ may be denominative from ʕalam, ‘knowledge’ originally being the ability to read the signs and to find one’s way through the desert with the help of marks put up earlier. 
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    Ehret1989:163 considers ʕalam an extension in a »deverbative noun-forming suffix« ‑m from a bi-radical base *ʕal‑. In this type of application, the author says, »*m is clearly cognate with suffixes in *m in Cush and can therefore be traced back to AfrAs«. The sense that connects ʕalam with other extensions of the bi-rad. base is ‘to nick, notch’ (ʕalb ‘to mark by an incision or impression, cut off’, ʕalṭ ‘to mark a camel across the neck’, ʕalm ‘to split the upper lip’). 
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    nār ʕalà ʕalam, n., a leading light or celebrity. ʔašhar min nār ʕalà ʕ., adj., very famous.
    ĭsm ʕalam, pl. ʔasmāʔ al-ʔaʕlām, n., proper name (gram.).
    ḫidmaẗ al-ʕalam, n., (Syr.) military service.

    BP#3450ʕallama, vb. II, to designate, mark, earmark, provide with a distinctive mark (ʕalà s.th.); to put a mark (ʕalà on): denom. – For other meanings ↗ʕalima, ↗ʕilm.
    BP#1552ʕalāmaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., mark, sign, token; (conventional) sign or symbol (also linguistics); punctuation mark; grade or mark (in school); badge, emblem; distinguishing mark, characteristic; indication, symptom | ʕ. tiǧāriyyaẗ trade-mark; ʕ. al-rutbaẗ insignia of rank; ʕ. al-taʔaṯṯur and ʕ. al-taʕaǧǧub exclamation point; ʕ. al-ĭstifhām question mark; ʕ. al-tanṣīṣ quotation mark; ʕ. al-waqf period, full stop (as punctation mark); naẓariyyaẗ al-ʕalāmāt theory of signs, semiotics:.
    ʔuʕlūmaẗ, pl. ʔaʕālīmᵘ, n., road sign, signpost, guidepost:.
    BP#2288maʕlam, pl. maʕālimᵘ, n., place, abode, locality, spot; track, trace; landmark, mark, distinguishing mark, characteristic; road sign, signpost, guidepost; peculiarity, particularity; pl. sights, curiosities; characteristic traits; outlines, contours (e.g., of the body), lineaments, features (of the face):.
    muʕallam ʕalayh, adj., designated, marked | m. ʕalayh bi’l-ʔaḥmar marked with red pencil: PP II, denom. – For other meanings ↗ʕalima, ↗ʕilm.

    For other items of ʕLMʕalima, ↗ʕilm, ↗ʕālim, ↗ʕālimaẗ, ↗ʕālam, ↗ʕalmānī

    ʕaylam عَيْلَم , pl. ʕayālimᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕLM • ʕYLM 
    ¹adj.; ²n. 
    1 adj., tender. – 2 (pl. ʕayālimᵘ), n., well with abundant water; sea – WehrCowan1979. 
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    ▪ Do v1 and v2 belong together etymologically?
    ▪ Is the item, or any one of its values, related to other items of ↗ʕLM, such as ↗ʕalam, ↗ʕalima / ↗ʕilm, ↗ʕālimaẗ, or ↗ʕālam
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    ʕālim عالِم , pl. ‑ūn ; ʕulamāʔᵘ 
    ID 606 • Sw – • BP 869 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕLM 
    ¹adj.; ²n. 
    knowing; familiar, acquainted, cognizant; expert, connoisseur, professional; (pl. ʕulamāʔᵘ) learned, erudite; scholar, savant, scientist; (in Islam) theologian and expert in canonical law – WehrCowan1979. 
    PA I of ʕalima ‘to know’, later lexicalized as n. 
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    ʕalima, ↗ʕilm 
    ʕalima
    ▪ Engl ulema ‘scholars of Muslim religious law’, 1680 s, from the pl. ʕulamāʔ ‘learned men, scholars’ – EtymOnline
    ʕālim ṭabīʕī, n., physicist, natural scientist:.
    al-ʕulamāʔ al-muḫtaṣṣūn, n.pl., the specialists, the experts.

    ʕālimaẗ, n.f., woman of learning, woman scholar: f. of ʕālim. – For another value in Eg ↗ʕālimaẗ.
    ʕālimiyyaẗ, n.f., learnedness, scholarliness, erudition, rank or dignity of a ʕālim; rank of scholarship, conferred by diploma, of the Great Mosque in Tunis and of AI-Azhar in Cairo: n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ.
     
    ʕālimaẗ , عالِمَة, pl. ‑āt , ʕawālimᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕLM 
    n.f. 
    1 woman of learning, woman scholar. – 2 (eg., pronounced ʕalmaẗ, pl. ʕawālimᵘ) singer, chanteuse, belly dancer – WehrCowan1979., woman leader of a troupe of women musicians and dancers – BadawiHinds1986 
    v1 nominalized PA I of ↗ʕalima ‘to know’
    v2 from Hbr ʕalmā ‘young woman (ripe sexually; maid or newly married)’ ? 
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    v1ʕalima, ↗ʕilm
    v2 BDB#ʕLM-2: perhaps orig. ‘to be mature (sexually)’, Aram ʕᵃlēm ‘to be strong’, Syr ʕālem ‘to rejuvenate’ (certainly denom.), Ar ġalima ‘be lustful’ (denom.), cf. also Sab ʕlm, ʕlmn ‘young man’, Ar ġulām ‘id.’, Phn ʕlmt‑ ‘girl’, Nab Palm ʕlm, ʕlym ‘slave’, Palm f.pl. ‘harlots’, Syr ʕalmā ‘young man’, ʕalmtā ‘young woman’ 
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    ʕālam عالَم , pl. ‑ūn , ʕawālimᵘ 
    ID 605 • Sw – • BP 93 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕLM, ʕWLM 
    n. 
    world; universe, cosmos – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Paret, in his commentary on Q I:2, says that in Aram the word means ‘world’ (and the plural ‘worlds’), whereas in the Qurʔān it rather refers to the world’s ‘inhabitants’. He therefore translated rabb al-ʕālamīn as ‘Herr der Menschen in aller Welt’ [Lord of men all over the world, i.e. of all mankind].
    ▪ Article “ʕālam” (Tj. de Boer, L. Gardet) in EI², s.v. 
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    ▪ Rajki 2002: Sem *ʕLM, Hbr ʕōlam, Syr ʕalmā, JNA ʕalam, BAram ʕalmā, Amh alem, Ug ʕLM, Phn ʕLM 
    ▪ Ar lexicography generally holds that the word is derived from ↗ʕalima. But
    ▪ Paret 1980, in his commentary on sura 1:2, confirms that the Qurʔānic ‎word is a loan from Aram ʕālmā. Among his references he mentions also Jeffery 1938: 208-9, who confirms ‎‎ Fraenkel’s opinion that both the pattern ‎‎(CāCaCun) and the plural in ‑īna point to a non-Ar provenance ‎‎(although there is a ʕLM meaning ‘world’ in SAr; but this may be a borrowing either, ‎since the plural is ʕLMYN, conforming to the Qur’anic form). Jeffery favours a Jewish (instead of a ‎Christian) origin, following (among others) Grünebaum (ZDMG 39: 571) who pointed out that ‎‎»the common Qurʔānic rabb al-ʕālamīn is precisely the rabbōn ha-ʕōlamīm of the Jewish ‎liturgy« (Jeffery1938: 209). »Hbr ʕōlam means any duration of time, and in the Rabbinic ‎writings it, like Aram ʕālᵉmā, comes to mean ‘age’ or ‘world’« (ibid.). – There are ‎however also evidences that make a Christian origin probable. The Syr ʕālmā, suggested by ‎Fraenkel, means both aiōn and kósmos [age and world]. 
    ▪ Rajki 2002: Aze alem, Ind alam, ‎Kyr aalam, Per ʕālam, Tat galem, Tur alem, Uzb olam, all borrowed from Ar. 
    al-ʕālamāni, n.du., the two worlds = Europe and America.
    ʕālamūn, n.pl., inhabitants of the world, specif. human beings:.

    BP#308ʕālamī, adj., worldly, secular, world (adj.); international; world-wide, worldfamous, enjoying world-wide renown
    ʕālamiyyaẗ, n.f., internationality: n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ.
    BP#4288ʕalmānī, var. ʕā̆lmānī, adj., laic, lay; (pl. ‑ūn) layman (in distinction from the clergy):.
    BP#4288ʕalmāniyyaẗ, n.f., secularism: n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ.
    BP#2842ʕawlamaẗ, n.f., globalization: neologism, calqued from ʕālam

    ʕLMN علمن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕLMN 
    “root” 
    ʕalmānī, ↗ʕalmāniyyaẗ 
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    ʕalmānī عَلْمانِيّ , var. ʕā̆lmānī , pl. ‑ūn 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 4288 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕLMN 
    ¹adj.; ²n. 
    laic, lay; (pl. ‑ūn) layman (in distinction from the clergy) 
    From ↗ʕālam ‘world’. 
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    BP#4380ʕalmāniyyaẗ, n.f., laicism; secularism, secularization: n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ 
    ʕalmāniyyaẗ عَلْمانِيَّة 
    ID 610 • Sw – • BP 4380 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕLMN 
    n.f. 
    laicism; secularism, secularization – WehrCowan1979. 
    Abstract formation in ‑iyyaẗ from ↗ʕalmānī ‘laic, lay’. 
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    ʕLN علن 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023
    √ʕLN 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕLN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕLN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕLN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to declare, to bring into the open, to announce, to reveal, declaration’ 
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    ʕLW علو 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕLW 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕLW_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ʕLW_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ʕLW_3 ‘…’ ↗

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): [√ʕLW/Y] »The overlap between root ʕLW (basically associated with the concept ‘to rise’) and root ʕLY (basically associated with the sense ‘to mount up’) is so great that in some cases it is not possible, or even desirable to draw a line of demarcation between them. The semantic scatter of these roots includes: ‘height, exaltation, loftiness, honour, grandeur, to rise, to ascend, to tower, to mount, to overcome, to be arrogant, to be proud, pride, notables, tops and extras’. – The word ʕilliyūn is regarded by some scholars as a borrowing from either Hbr or Gz.« 
    ▪ From protSem *√ʕLY ‘to ascend, become high, exalted’ – Huehnergard2011. 
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    … 
    ▪ Engl aliyahʕalā/ʕalà
    … 
    (1) ʕalā / ʕalaw‑ عَلا / عَلَوْـ , u (ʕuluww)
    (2) ʕalà / ʕalay‑ عَلَى / عَلَيْـ , ī
    (3) ʕaliy‑ / ʕalī‑ عَلِيـ , à (ʕalāʔ
    ID … • Sw – • BP 1901 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕLW 
    vb., I 
    (1) to be high, elevated, rise, loom, tower up; to rise, ascend; to ring out (voice); to heave (chest); to be higher or taller (ʕan than), (over)top, tower over, be located or situated higher; to be attached, fixed or fastened above or on top of s.th.; to rise (ʕan above); to exceed, excel, surpass (ʕan); to be too high; to overcome, overwhelm (ʕalà), get the better of s.o.; to be or become noisy; to be louder (ʕalà than), drown out; to turn upward; to ascend, mount, climb, scale (s.th.); to overspread, cover (s.th.); to come, descend (upon), befall, seize; ʕalā bihī, to raise s.th. or s.o.; to exalt, extol s.o., sing s.o.’s praises
    (2) to climb (e.g., to the roof)
    (3) to be high, elevated; to excel, stand out – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ From protSem *√ʕLY ‘to ascend, become high, exalted’ – Huehnergard2011. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: Akk ēlī, Hbr ʕālā yaʕlē ‘to rise'; cf. also Aram (intens.) ʕallī ‘to make grow, let increase’, Gz ʕaláwa yéʕlū ‘to transcend, go beyond’.
    ▪ Almedlaoui2012: For ClassAr √ṬLʕ and Sem √ʕLW/Y ‘to go up’ cf. Berb ġli, uly ‘to go up’.
    ▪ …
     
    See above, section CONC. 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl aliyah, from Hbr ʕălīyâ ‘ascent’, from ʕālâ ‘to ascend’, akin to Ar ʕLW/Y. 
    ʕallà, vb. II, 1 to raise, make higher; 2 to raise aloft, lift, hoist, lift up, elevate, uplift, exalt: D‑stem, caus.
    ʔaʕlà, vb. IV, = II: *Š‑stem, caus. | ʔaʕlà šaʔnah, to play up, emphasize, stress; to further, promote, advance s.th.; to raise s.o.’s prestige
    taʕallà, vb. V, to rise, become high : Dt‑stem, intr.
    BP#420 taʕālà, vb. VI, to rise, lift, ascend, rise aloft; to be raised, become loud (noises, voices); to resound, ring out; to eem o.s. above s.o./s.th., look down on; to be sublime (ʕan above s.th., said of God); to stay away (ʕan from) : Lt‑stem. | taʕāla, impv., come (here)!, come on!, let’s go!, forward!; ʔallāh taʕālà, God the Sublime.
    ĭʕtalà, vb. VIII, to rise, lift, ascend, rise aloft; to rise high, tower up; to mount, ascend, climb, scale; to step (up); to be enthroned, be perched; to tower (above s.th.); to ascend the throne; to accede to a high office: Gt‑stem.
    ĭstaʕlà, vb. X, to rise, tower (ʕalà above s.th.); to master (ʕalà s.th.); to take possession (ʕalà of), appropriate (ʕalà s.th.): *Št‑stem.

    ʕalu, adv.: min ʕalu, from above.
    ʕuluww, n., height, tallness, elevation, altitude; greatness, grandeur, highness, exaltedness, sublimity: vn. I | ʕuluww al‑ṣawt, n., sound volume, sound intensity; ʕuluww al‑kaʕb, n., high, outstanding position
    BP#4381ʕulwī, adj., upper; high, lofty; built on a roof (apartment); sublime, exalted; heavenly, divine: nisba formation, from ʕalu, ʕuluww, or ʕulan | ʔirādaẗ ʕulwiyyaẗ, n.f., supreme will, divine decree; bināʔ ʕulwī, n., superstructure (also fig.); ṭābiq ʕulwī, n., top floor; al‑ṭaraf al‑ʕulwī, n.def., the upper end.
    ʕalawī, adj., upper; heavenly, celestial; Alawi (adj. and n.): nisba formation, from ʕalà | al‑ʕalawiyyūn, n.pl., the Alawis (official name of the Nusairis inhabiting the coastal district of Latakia in NW Syria).
    ʕulan (def. al‑ʕulà), n., height, tallness, elevation, altitude; highness, exaltedness, augustness, sublimity; high rank.
    BP#7ʕalà / ʕalay‑, prep., on, above
    BP#3362ʕaliyy, adj., supreme, exalted: ints formation, quasi‑PP.
    ʕilyaẗ, n.f. (pl. of ʕaliyy): ʕilyaẗ al‑nās\al‑qawm, upper class, people of distinction, prominent people
    ʕulliyyaẗ, vAr ʕilliyyaẗ, pl. ʕalāliyy, n.f., upper room, upstairs room
    ʕilliyyūn, n., the uppermost heaven; loftiest heights
    ʕalāʔ, n., high rank, high standing, nobility
    ʕalāẗ, pl. ʕalan (det. ʕalà), n.f., anvil
    ʕalyāʔᵘ, n.f., loftiness, exaltedness, sublimity, augustness; lofty height; heaven(s) | ʔahl al‑ʕalyāʔ, n., people of highest social standing
    BP#3649ʕilāwaẗ, n.f., addition; increase, raise, extra allowance, subsidy, bonus | ʕilāwaẗan ʕalà, quasi‑prep., in addition to
    ʕalāyaẗ, n.f., height, loftiness
    BP#402ʔaʕlà, f. ʕulyā, pl. ʕulan (det. ʕulà), ʔaʕālin (det. ʔaʕālī), adj., higher, highest; upper, uppermost: : elative; ʔaʕālin, the highest portion of s.th.; heights, peaks (fig.) | ʔaʕlāhu, adv., further up, above; maḏkūr ʔaʕlāhu, adj., above‑mentioned; muʔtamar (munʕaqid) ʕalà ʔaʕlà mustawan, n., top‑level conference; bi‑ʔaʕlà ṣawt, adv., very loud, at the top of one’s voice); safīnaẗ ʔaʕālī ’l‑biḥār, n.f., seagoing vessel; ʔaʕālī ’l‑Nīl, n.pl.f., the upper course of the Nile
    BP#2282maʕālin (def. al‑maʕālī), n.pl.: maʕālī ’l‑ʔumūr, noble things; ṣāḥib al‑maʕālī \ maʕālīh, His Excellency; maʕālī ’l‑wazīr, His Excellency the Minister (title of cabinet minister)
    taʕliyaẗ, n.f., elevation, enhancement, uplift, exaltation; raising (e.g., of the voice): vn. II.
    ʔiʕlāʔ, n., elevation, enhancement, uplift, exaltation; raising, lifting; (psych.) sublimation: : vn. IV. | ʔiʕlāʔ šaʔn al‑šayʔ, n., boooting, furtherance, promotion, or advancement of s.th.
    ĭʕtilāʔ, n., ascension (e.g., to the throne) ; accension to office (e.g., of a cabinet minister): vn. VIII.
    ĭstiʕlāʔ, n., superiority: vn. X.
    BP#505ʕālin (def. al‑ʕālī), adj., high, tall, elevated; loud, strong (voice); higher (as opposed to elementary); lofty, exalted, sublime, high‑ranking, of high standing; excellent, first‑class, first‑rate, outstanding, of top quality (commodity) : PA I | al‑bāb al‑ʕālī, n., the Sublime Porte; ḍaġṭ ʕālin, n., high voltage, high tension (el.); tawātur ʕālin, n., high frequency (el.); ʕāliyahū, adv., above, above‑mentioned (in letters; esp. in official and business style); maḏkūr bi‑ʕālīhi, adj., above‑mentioned; (EgAr) ʕāl il‑ʕāl, adj., excellent, first‑rate, top quality, A‑1 (merchandise); maʕhad ʕālin, n., institution of higher learning, college, academy.
    mutaʕālin (def. al‑mutaʕālī), adj., high, elevated, lofty, exalted; resounding, ringing; al‑mutaʕālī, n.def., the Most High, the Supreme Being (one of the attributes of God): PA VI.
    mustaʕlin (def. al‑mustaʕlī), adj. (PA X): al‑ʔaṣwāt al‑mustaʕliyaẗ, nhum.pl., the sounds articulated with the back part of the tongue raised (i.e., according to grammarians, , , , , q, ġ, and ).
     
    ʕMː (ʕMM) عمّ / عمم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕMː (ʕMM) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕMː (ʕMM)_1 ‘paternal uncle’ ↗ʕamm
    ▪ ʕMː (ʕMM)_2 ‘(to be\come) common, general, comprehensive, embracing; common people; people, nation’ ↗ʕamma
    ▪ ʕMː (ʕMM)_3 ‘turban’ ↗ʕimāmaẗ

    Other values, now obsolete, include (after Lane and Hava1899):
    • ʕMː (ʕMM)_4 ‘large(ness), tall(ness), numerous(ness), abundance, density’ : ʕamma ‘to make long, or tall; to be(come) long, or tall’, ʕamʕama (ʕamʕamaẗ) ‘to have a numerous army, or military force (after paucity thereof)’, ʕamam ‘[…]; numerous(ness), abundance; largeness, bigness; whole, complete, full-grown’, ʕumum ‘completeness; largeness of body, youthful vigour’, ʕamīm (pl. ʕumum) ‘abundant, numerous; […]; of tall stature (woman), lofty (palm-tree)’, ʕamm ‘tall palm-tree, of full tallness and abundance and density’, ʕummiyyaẗ ‘pride, haughtiness’, ĭʕtamma (said of beast of the bovine kind) ‘to have all teeth grown’
    • ʕMː (ʕMM)_5 ‘(to be, become) chief, lord’: muʕammam ‘[…]; made a chief; chief’
    • ʕMː (ʕMM)_6 ‘raft’: ʕimāmaẗ, ʕāmmaẗ ‘pieces of wood bound together, upon which one embarks on the sea, and upon which one crosses a river’: should properly be ʕāmaẗ < ↗ʕāma ‘to float, swim’

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘1 turban; 2 encompassing, general, common; 3 to be strong, become chief; 4 the common people; 5 uncle, paternal aunt’ 
    ▪ It cannot be excluded, or even seems likely, that all three values are related. Together with others, Kogan2015 thinks that »protCSem *ʕamm- ‘people’ [cf. ʕMː (ʕMM)_2] probably represents a semantic extension of the kinship term WSem *ʕamm- ‘grandfather, ancestor’ [cf. ʕMː (ʕMM)_1] «, which in Ar specialized into ‘paternal uncle’, replacing protSem *dād- ‘paternal uncle’.103 . The idea, put forward in BDB1906, that ‘people’ prob. originally means *‘those united, connected, related’, lets one think whether this “binding together” might be somehow related to the binding together of a ‘turban’, Ar ʕimāmaẗ. But neither this word nor a vb. *ʕmm ‘to bind together’ is attested throughout Sem, except in the fig. sense of ‘to encompass, comprise, cover’[ʕMː (ʕMM)_2], and this rarely outside Ar. Is ʕimāmaẗ an Ar spezialisation then, developed from the idea of ‘kinship’ and ‘belonging together’ (*‘uniting’ the hair, or the piece of cloth, or covering it completely, in its wholeness)? For another possibility see below.
    ▪ For ʕMː (ʕMM)_2, the most adequate entry to treat the corresponding semantic field in would be ʕamm ‘company of men, crowd; numerous party’ rather than the (prob. denom.) verb ʕamma. The reason why the data nevertheless will be arranged under ʕamma is the fact that the more original n. has become obsolete in MSA and n.s with a similar value are derived from the vb.
    ▪ Given that ʕMː (ʕMM)_3 ʕimāmaẗ ‘turban’ stands rather isolated within Sem *ʕMM (see above), should one perh. put it together with WSem *ĠMM ~ ĠMY/W ‘to be dark, dim’, a root that in Ar usually has preserved initial *ġ- (cf. Ar ↗ġamma ‘to cover, veil, conceal’, ↗ġamām ‘clouds’, ʔaġammᵘ ‘covered with dense hair’), but in Can and Aram has undergone the regular sound shift *ġ > ʕ : Ug ʕmm (D pass.) ‘to be covered, veiled, darkened’, Hbr ʕāmam ‘to darken, dim’, JudAram ʕᵃmam ‘to be(come) dim, dark(ened)? Semantically, the ‘turban’ as *‘(head) cover, (kind of) veil’ would be quite plausible. But would it be justifiable also from a phonological point of view? Should initial *ġ- have been preserved in some places, but undergone an irregular shift *ġ > ʕ in ʕimāmaẗ ? Rather unlikely. ʕimāmaẗ would then have to be a loan from Hbr or Aram. But these langs have nothing that would fit, and Syr ʕᵃmamtā ‘a mitra’ is a loan from Ar… 
    – 
    ▪ ʕMː (ʕMM)_1 : (Kogan2015) Ug ʕm ‘kinsfolk’, Hbr ʕam ‘kinsman (on father’s side)’, Syr ʕamtā (f.) ‘paternal aunt’, Ar ʕamm ‘paternal uncle’, Sab ʕm, Min ʕm, Ḥaḍ ʕm ‘uncle’, Te ʕammät (f.) ‘paternal aunt’, Mhr ʔōm, f. ʔāmēt, Jib ʕom, f. aʕĩt ‘grandfather, f. -mother’
    ▪ ʕMː (ʕMM)_2 ‘(to be, become) common, general, comprehensive, embracing; common people; people, nation’: Ug ʕm ‘kinsfolk, people’, Hbr ʕām, ʕam, Syr ʕammā ‘people’, Min ʕm , Ar ʕamm ‘crowd; numerous party; dense (palm-trees, herbs). – Cf. prob. also the prep. Ug ʕm /ʕimma/, Hbr ʕim, JudPal ʕäm, Sab ʕm, Min ʕm, Qat ʕm- n ‘together with’, ? Ar maʕa (metath.) ‘with’, ʕinda (< *ʕim-da ‘by’, ? ʕan ‘from’159 .
    ▪ ʕMː (ʕMM)_3 ‘turban’ : Ar ʕimāmaẗ; ? items mentioned as cognates of ʕMː (ʕMM)_1 and _2; ? Ug ʕmm (D pass.) ‘to be covered, veiled, darkened’, Hbr ʕāmam ‘to darken, dim’, Ar ↗ġamma ‘to cover, veil, conceal’ (see also ↗ġamām ‘clouds’, ʔaġammᵘ ‘covered with dense hair’).
    ▪ ʕMː (ʕMM)_4-5 are akin to the preceding [ʕMː (ʕMM)_2-3], while ʕMː (ʕMM)_6 originally is ʕāmaẗ, from ↗ʕāma (√ʕWM) ‘to float, swim’. 
    ▪ ʕMː (ʕMM)_1-2 : While Huehnergard2011 assumes the belonging to the paternal lineage to be a characteristic already of the noun he reconstructs as ComSem *ʕamm , Kogan2015 regards it as a secondary phenomenon, reconstructing the—lineage-wise still unspecific—kinship term WSem *ʕamm- ‘grandfather, ancestor’. According to Kogan, the latter value took on the more specific meaning ‘uncle’ in some langs, but was probably also extended to mean ‘kinsfolk, clan, tribe’ and then also ‘people’ in general.
    ▪ ʕMː (ʕMM)_2 : For the prep. ‘together with’, which according to the standard view underlies Ar maʕa ‘with’, as well as in ʕinda (< *ʕim-da) ‘by’, Kogan2015 reconstructs protCSem *ʕimm(-a) ‘together with’. Ar maʕa would then be the result of metathesis, while ʕinda is traditionallybelieved to go back to *ʕim-da.571 )
    ▪ Ultimately from Sem *ʕamm- is perh. also Ar ↗ʔummaẗ ‘nation, people, community’. For details, see s.v.
    ▪ ʕMː (ʕMM)_3 : How Ar ʕimāmaẗ ‘turban’ fits into this picture remains unclear so far. (See above, section DISC.) Further research needed.
    ▪ ʕMː (ʕMM)_4 ‘large(ness), tall(ness), numerous(ness), abundance, density’ : is basically the same as ʕMː (ʕMM)_2.
    ▪ ʕMː (ʕMM)_5 ‘(to be, become) chief, lord’: result./fig. use of ʕMː (ʕMM)_3; since the ʕimāmaẗ is the “crown of the Arabs”, putting on the turban signifies a kind of coronation, and the one who is crowned becomes chief. For many other instances of fig. use cf. entry ↗ʕimāmaẗ.
    ▪ ʕMː (ʕMM)_6 : ʕimāmaẗ, ʕāmmaẗ ‘raft’ is a popular re-interpretation of original ʕāmaẗ, from ↗ʕāma (√ʕWM) ‘to float, swim’. 
    ▪ Engl n.prop. Jeroboam, cf. (↗RBː/RBB and) ↗ʕamm, ↗ʕāmm
    – 
    ʕamm‑ / ʕamam‑ عَمَّ / عَمَمْـ , u (ʕumūm
    ID … • Sw – • BP 3457 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕMː (ʕMM) 
    vb., I 
    1 to be or become general, universal, common, prevalent, comprehensive, all-embracing, to spread, prevail; 2 to comprise, include, embrace, encompass, pervade, extend, stretch, be spread, be diffused, be prevailing – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ The most adequate lemma under which the semantic field that this entry deals with should be treated, would have been ʕamm ‘company of men, tribe, people’ rather than the (prob. denom.) vb. ʕamma. The reason why the data nevertheless is presented s.v. ʕamma is the fact that the more original noun has become obsolete in MSA and nouns with a similar value all are derived from the vb.
    ʕamm ‘company, tribe, people’ goes back to CSem *ʕamm- ‘people’ which generally is believed to represent a semantic extension of the kinship term WSem *ʕamm- ‘grandfather, ancestor’ (> Ar ↗ʕamm ‘paternal uncle’).
    ▪ The idea, put forward in BDB1906, that ‘people’ prob. originally means *‘those united, connected, related’, would lead one to ask whether this “binding together” might be somehow related to the binding together of a ‘turban’, Ar ʕimāmaẗ, from the same (or a homonymous?) root ʕMM. But neither this word nor a vb. *ʕmm ‘to bind together’ are attested in Sem, except in the fig. sense of ‘to encompass, comprise, cover’, and this rarely outside Ar. – For further discussion, see probably ↗ʕMː (ʕMM) and ↗ʕimāmaẗ.
    ▪ For the theory that also ↗ʔummaẗ ‘people, nation’ and ↗ʔummī (traditionally rendered as) ‘illiterate’—with initial ʔ- rather than ʕ- —are based on ʕamm ‘company of men, tribe, people’, cf. below, section WEST, and entries ↗ʔummaẗ and ↗ʔummī for more details. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ For the kinship term WSem *ʕamm- ‘grandfather, ancestor’ on which CSem *ʕamm- ‘people’ probably is based, cf. cognates given in entry ↗ʕamm ‘paternal uncle’.
    ▪ For the extended value treated in the present entry cf. (Kogan2015, Tropper 2008, et al.): Ug ʕm ‘kinsfolk, people’, Hbr ʕām, ʕam, Syr ʕammā ‘people’, Min ʕm , Ar ʕamm ‘(Lane:) company of men, tribe; (Hava1899:) crowd; numerous party; dense (palm-trees, herbs)’. – Cf. prob. also the prep. Ug ʕm /ʕimma/, Hbr ʕim, JudPal ʕäm, Sab ʕm, Min ʕm, Qat ʕm-n ‘together with’, ? Ar maʕa (metath.) ‘with’, ʕinda (< *ʕim-da ‘by’, ? ʕan ‘from’).
     
    ▪ While Huehnergard2011 assumes the belonging to the paternal lineage to be a characteristic already of the noun he reconstructs as ComSem *ʕamm , Kogan2015 regards it as a secondary phenomenon, reconstructing the—lineage-wise still unspecific—kinship term WSem *ʕamm- ‘grandfather, ancestor’ from which the meaning ‘kinsfolk, clan, tribe’ and then also ‘people’ in general probably are semantic extensions.
    ▪ How Ar ʕimāmaẗ ‘turban’ fits into this picture remains unclear so far, see ↗ʕMː (ʕMM) and ↗ʕimāmaẗ. Further research needed.
    ▪ From CSem *ʕamm ‘kinsfolk, clan, tribe; people’ are perh. also Ar ↗ʔummaẗ ‘nation, people, community’ and, hence, the adj. ↗ʔummī, traditionally rendered as ‘illiterate’, but perh. properly meaning ‘of the (Arab) people’. See briefly below, section WEST, and s.v. for more details. 
    ▪ Tu amme ‘common, general; the public, common people’: 1574 Hoca Saʕdeddīn Ef., Tāǧü’t-Tevārīḫ : ʕāmme-i bilād-i ʕOs̱māniyeyi nehbü iḥrāḳ itmeğe ittifāḳleri oldı. < Ar ʕāmmaẗ ‘the common people’ < Ar ʕamma ‘to encompass, be common, general’ – Nişanyan01Apr2015. – Cf. also amiyane ‘vulgarly (adv.); vulgar’ (< Ar ʕāmmī + Pers adv.suff. -āne), avam ‘the common people; rabble, mob; the commons’ (< Ar ʕawāmm), imece ‘work done for the community by the whole village; by the united efforts of the community’.
    ▪ Tu katliam (ḳatl-i âm) ‘massacre’: 1535 Fużūlī, Leylà ve Mecnūn : ḳatl-i ʕāmm içün verir cellāda tīġ-i āb-dār. < Ar qatl ʕāmm ‘mass murder, massacre’ (qatl ‘killing’ + ʕāmm ‘general, all-encompassing’) – Nişanyan15May2015.
    ▪ Tu umum ‘general, public’ : 1574 Hoca Saʕdeddīn Ef., Tāǧü’t-Tevārīḫ. – umumhane ‘brothel’ : 1930 Cumhuriyet (daily newspaper). < Ar ʕumūm ‘the public, people, everybody) – Nişanyan11Dec2015. – Cf. also alelumum ‘generally, in general, commonly (adv.)’ (< Ar ʕalà ’l-ʕumūm), umumi ‘general; universal; common; public’ (< Ar ʕumūmī), müddeiumumi ‘public prosecutor’ (< Ar muddaʕī ʕumūmī), umumiyet ‘universality; generality’ (< Ar ʕumūmiyyaẗ).
    ▪ ? Engl umma, from Ar ↗ʔummaẗ ‘nation, people, community’, from Aram ʔumməṯā, from Akk ummatu ‘troop’, probably from earlier *ʕammatum, f. of *ʕamm ‘paternal kinsman’ – Huehnergard2011. 
    ʕammat il-balwà bi-hī, expr., it has become a general necessity

    ʕammama, vb. II, 1 to generalize; 2 to spread universally, universalize, popularize, democratize; 3 to make universally accessible, open to the public at large; 4 to introduce universally: D-stem, caus. – 5 ʕimāmaẗ.
    ʕamīm, adj., 1 general, universal, common, prevalent; 2 all-comprehensive: quasi-PP I, ints.
    BP#1204ʕumūm, n., 1 generality, universality, prevalence; 2 whole, total, totality, aggregate; 3 al-~, n., the (general) public, the public at large: originally a pl. of ʕamm ‘company of men, tribe, people’? | ~an, adv., in general, generally; ~an… ḫuṣūṣan, adv., in general… in particular; ʕalà ’l-~, adv., in general, generally; fī ~ al-quṭr, adv., throughout the country; maǧlis al-~, n., the House of Commons, the Lower House; ʕumūm frequently replaces ʕumūmī in compound terms of administrative language, e.g.: ǧāmiʕaẗ ~ al-ʕummāl, n.f., general federation of labour; ʔidāraẗ ~ al-ǧamārik, n.f., General Administration of Customs and Tariffs (Eg.); dīwān ~ al-maṣlaḥaẗ, n., administration headquarters, chief administration office; dīwān ~ al-māliyyaẗ, n., General Administration of Finances (Eg.); mufattiš ~ al-nīl al-ǧanūbī, n., Inspector General for the Southern Nile (Eg.).
    BP#3120ʕumūmī, adj., 1 public; 2 universal; 3 general; 4 common; 5 state, civil, public: nsb-adj. from ʕumūm. | ǧamʕiyyaẗ ~iyyaẗ, n.f., plenary session; general assembly; dār al-kutub al-~iyyaẗ, n.f., public library; ʔašġāl / ʔaʕmāl ~iyyaẗ, n.pl., public works; al-ṣundūq al-~, n., public treasure; wakīl ~, n., general agent, distributor (com.); al-ǧuzʔiyyāt wa’l-~iyyāt, n.f.pl., the particular and the general aspects, the minor and the major issues.
    ʕumūmiyyaẗ, n.f., public character, openness to the general public: abstr. in -iyyaẗ, from ʕumūm.
    BP#3727taʕmīm, n., 1 generalization, universalization, general propagation or diffusion, popularization, democratization; 2 vulgarization: vn. II.
    taʕmīmī, adj.: ʔamr ~, n., general order, governmental edict to all agencies and departments: nsb-adj., from taʕmīm, vn. II.
    BP#88ʕāmm, adj., 1 public; 2 universal, prevalent; 3 general; 4 common: quasi-PA I. | al-ʔamn al-~, n., public security; mudīr ~, n., director general, general manager; al-raʔy al-~, n., public opinion; al-ṣāliḥ al-~, n., or al-maṣlaḥaẗ al-~aẗ, n.f., public welfare, the common-weal; al-ḫāṣṣ wa’l-~, n., high and low, all men, all, everybody; ʕilm al-luġaẗ al-~, n., general linguistics. – For ʕāmm as the counter-concept of ↗ḫāṣṣ, cf. art. “al-ʕĀmm wa-l-khāṣṣ” (Joseph E. Lowry), in EI³.
    BP#2414ʕāmmaẗ, n.f., 1 general public, people at large; 2 al-~, n.f., the common people, the broad mass of the people; 3 ~an, adv., in general; generally; commonly, altogether, in the aggregate, collectively: nominalized f. of ʕāmm, quasi-PA I of ʕamma. | ḫāṣṣaẗan…~an, adv., in particular… in general; ~ al-nās = al-~; al-ḫāṣṣaẗ wa’l-~, n.f./pl., high and low, all men, all, everybody.
    al-ʕawāmm, n.pl., 1 the common people, the populace; 2 the laity (Chr.): pl. of ʕāmmaẗ, f. of ʕāmm, quasi-PA I.
    ʕāmmī, 1 adj., common, vulgar, plebeian, ordinary, popular: nsb-adj., from ʕāmmaẗ, nominalized f. of ʕāmm, quasi-PA I of ʕamma; 2 n., ordinary person, man in the street: nominalized adj. –; 3 al-ʕāmmiyyaẗ, n.f., popular language, colloquial language: short for al‑luġaẗ al-~ ‘the language of the ʕāmmaẗ ’.

    For other values attached to the same root, cf. ↗ʕamm, ↗ʕimāmaẗ, and, for the whole picture, ↗ʕMː (ʕMM). 
    ʕamm عَمّ , pl. ʕumūm , ʔaʕmām 
    ID 612 • Sw – • BP 770 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕMː (ʕMM) 
    n. 
    father’s brother, paternal uncle – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protWSem *ʕamm‑ ‘relatives, clan, people’, which in Ar specialized into ‘paternal uncle’. – ProtWSem *dād‑ ‘paternal uncle’ (preserved in Hbr, Syr, modSAr, Gz) has left no trace in Ar.
    ▪ ? Or: A semantic extension from this WSem *ʕamm- ‘kinsman, grandfather, ancestor’ is usually believed to be CSem *ʕamm- ‘people’, cf. Ar ↗ʕamma, ↗ʕāmm, ↗ʕāmmaẗ.
    ▪ Is perhaps also ↗ʕimāmaẗ ‘turban’ related? Further research needed. 
    ▪ eC7 ʕamm (paternal uncle) Q 33:50 wa-banāti ʕammi-ka ‘and the daughters of your paternal uncle’. – ʕammaẗ (paternal aunt) Q 4:23 ḥurrimat ʕalay-kum ʔummahātu-kum wa-banātu-kum wa-ʔaḫawātu-kum wa-ʕammātu-kum ‘forbidden to you [as wives] are your mothers, daughters, sisters, paternal aunts▪ …’ 
    ▪ ʕMː (ʕMM)_1 : (Kogan2015) Ug ʕm ‘kinsfolk’, Hbr ʕam ‘kinsman (on father’s side)’, Syr ʕamtā (f.) ‘paternal aunt’, Ar ʕamm ‘paternal uncle’, Sab ʕm, Min ʕm, Ḥaḍ ʕm ‘uncle’, Te ʕammät (f.) ‘paternal aunt’, Mhr ʔōm, f. ʔāmēt, Jib ʕom, f. aʕĩt ‘grandfather, f. -mother’
    ▪ For the wider context cf. ↗ʕMː (ʕMM) and/or the cognates given s.v. ↗ʕamma
    ▪ See above, section CONC. 
    ▪ Not from Ar ʕamm but from related terms in Sem are several Biblical names: Engl Jeroboam, from Hbr yārobʕām ‘the (divine) kinsman increased’ (yārob ‘he increased’; √RBB); Rehoboam, from Hbr rəḥabʕām ‘the (divine) kinsman has increased’ (rəḥab ‘he has increased’; see √RḤB); both from Hbr ʕām ‘people, clan’ (earlier also ‘kinsman’). – Ammonite, from Hbr ʕammônî ‘Ammonite’, from ʕammôn ‘Ammon’, perh. from Can *ʕamm ‘paternal kinsman, kin’. – Hammurabi, from Akk ḫammurāpi, from Amor *ʕammu-rāpiʔ ‘the (divine) kinsman (is) a healer’, from *ʕammu ‘kinsman’ (*rāpiʔ ‘healer’; √RPʔ > Ar RFʔ). – ? Cf. also: Engl umma, from Ar ↗ʔummaẗ ‘nation, people, community’, from Aram ʔumməṯā, from Akk ummatu ‘troop’, prob. from earlier *ʕammatum, f. of *ʕamm ‘paternal kinsman’ – Huehnergard2011. 
    ibn al-ʕamm, n., 1 cousin on the father’s side; 2 periphrastically for husband
    bint/ĭbnaẗ al-ʕamm, n.f., 1 female cousin on the father’s side; 2 periphrastically for wife
    yā ʕamm-ī, exclam., uncle! old boy! (friendly address for older men of simple status)
    al-ʕamm Murād, “uncle” Murad, good old Murad

    ʕammaẗ, pl. -āt, n.f., paternal aunt: f. of ʕamm.
    ʕumūmaẗ, n.f., 1 uncleship, unclehood: abstr. formation; 2 pl. of ʕamm.

    For other values attached to the same root, cf. ↗ʕamma, ↗ʕimāmaẗ, ↗ʕāmmiyyaẗ, and, for the whole picture, ↗ʕMː (ʕMM). 
    ʕumūmī عُمُوميّ 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 3120 • APD … • © SG | created 8Jun2023
    √ʕMː (ʕMM) 
    adj. 
    1 public; 2 state, civil, public; 3a universal; b general; c common – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ nsb-formation, based on ʕumūm … 
    ʕimāmaẗ عِمامة 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕMː (ʕMM) 
    n.f. 
    turban – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Etymology uncertain. Related to the idea of ‘connecting, binding together, encompassing’ expressed in the root ↗ʕMM and otherwise represented in ↗ʕamm ‘paternal uncle’ (< WSem *‘kinsman, grandfather, ancestor’), CSem *ʕamm ‘kinsfolk, member of the clan/family, i.e., those united, connected, related’) and (denom. vb. I) ↗ʕamma ‘to be(come) general, universal, common, prevalent, comprehensive, all-embracing, to spread; to comprise, include, embrace, encompass, pervade, extend, stretch, be spread, be diffused, be prevailing’? – See below, section DISC, for further discussion.
    ▪ »The ʕimāmaẗ or turban has been worn by the Arabs since pre-Islamic times. […] The ʕimāmaẗ of Dj̲āhilī and early Islamic times was probably not the composite headgear of the mediaeval and modern periods consisting of one or two caps (↗ṭaqiyyaẗ or ↗ʕaraqiyyaẗ and/or ↗qalansuwaẗ, kulāh, or ↗ṭarbūš) and a winding cloth, but merely any strip of fabric wound around the head. G. Jacob has suggested that the later turban is a synthesis of Arab and Persian styles (Altarabisches Beduinenleben, Berlin 1897: 237). In the early ʔummaẗ, the ʕimāmaẗ certainly did not have any of the significance it was later to have as a “badge of Islam” (sīmā al-Islām) and a “divider between unbelief and belief” (ḥāǧizaẗ bayn al-kufr wa’l-ʔīmān). Nor was it yet—in the words of a proverb still heard in Morocco, at least—the “crowns of the Arabs” (tīǧān al-ʕarab). The many ḥadīth s which provide detailed descriptions of the Prophet’s ʕimāmaẗ are clearly anachronistic. For later generations, Muḥammad was “the wearer of the turban” (ṣāḥib al-ʕimāmaẗ), and like many of the accoutrements associated with a hero of epic proportions, his turban had a name—al-siḥāb or “the cloud”. According to a Shīʕī tradition, he willed it to ʕAlī. This ḥadīth may have been circulated in order to counteract any prestige accruing to the Umayyad and ʕAbbāsid caliphs by their possession of the Prophet’s ↗burdaẗ. One of the few reliable facts we know about the ʕimāmaẗ in early Islamic times is that it is one of the garments specifically forbidden to a person in a state of ↗ʔiḥrām. The ʕimāmaẗ must have consisted of a very long strip of fabric as in later periods, since there are reports of its being used for bandaging (e.g. Bukhārī, Ṣaḥīḥ, lxiv, 16, 2)« – art. “Libās – I.” (Y.K. Stillmann), in EI²
    ▪ In ClassAr, fig. use abounds: note particularly ʕammama ‘to attire s.o. with a ʕimāmaẗ ’, hence also ‘to make s.o. a chief, or lord’. – Cf. also ĭʕtammat il-ʔākāmᵘ bi’l-nabāt ‘the hills became crowned with plants, or herbage’; taʕammamat bi-hā ruʔūsᵘ ’l-ǧibāl ‘the heads of the mountains became crowned with its light [referring to the sun, when its light has fallen upon the heads of the mountains and become to them like the turban]’; ĭʕtamma ’l-labanᵘ ‘the milk frothed [as though its froth were likened to a turban]’; ĭʕtamma ’l-nabatᵘ ‘the plant, or herbage, became of its full height, and blossomed, became luxuriant, or abundant and dense’ (like ĭġtamma)]; ĭʕtamma ’l-šābbᵘ ‘the youth, or youg man, became tall’. 
    ▪ No direct cognates identifiable so far.
    ▪ If akin to ‘to encompass, comprise, cover, be common, general, etc.’, cf. ↗ʕamma.
    ▪ If related to ‘to veil, cover, conceal, be dark, dim’, cf. ↗ġamma
    ▪ The idea, put forward in BDB1906, that Hbr ʕam, ʕām ‘people’ prob. originally meant *‘those united, connected, related’, lets one think whether this “binding together” might be somehow related to the binding together of a ‘turban’, Ar ʕimāmaẗ. But neither this word nor a vb. *ʕmm ‘to bind together’ is attested throughout Sem, except in the fig. sense of ‘to encompass, comprise, cover’, and this rarely outside Ar. Is ʕimāmaẗ an Ar spezialisation then, developed from the idea of ‘kinship’ and ‘belonging together’ (*‘uniting’ the hair, or the piece of cloth)? For another possibility see below.
    ▪ Given that Ar ʕimāmaẗ ‘turban’ stands rather isolated within Sem *ʕMM, should one perh. put it together with WSem *ĠMM ~ ĠMY/W ‘to be dark, dim’, a root that in Ar usually has preserved initial *ġ- (cf. Ar ↗ġamma ‘to cover, veil, conceal’, ↗ġamām ‘clouds’, ʔaġammᵘ ‘covered with dense hair’), but in Can and Aram has undergone the regular sound shift *ġ > ʕ : Ug ʕmm (D pass.) ‘to be covered, veiled, darkened’, Hbr ʕāmam ‘to darken, dim’, JudAram ʕᵃmam ‘to be(come) dim, dark(ened)? Semantically, the ‘turban’ as *‘(head) cover, (kind of) veil’ would be quite plausible. But would it be justifiable also from a phonological point of view? Should initial *ġ- have been preserved in some places, but undergone an irregular shift *ġ- > ʕ- in ʕimāmaẗ ? Rather unlikely. ʕimāmaẗ would then have to be a loan from Hbr or Aram. But these langs have nothing that would fit. Syr ʕᵃmamtā ‘a mitre’ (PayneSmith) is said to be a loan from Ar… 
    – 
    ʕammama, vb. II, 1ʕamma; 2 to attire with a turban: D-stem, denom., applicative.
    taʕammama, vb. V, to put on or wear a turban: tD-stem, denom., refl. of caus., applic.
    ĭʕtamma, vb. VIII, = V: Gt-stem, denom., applic.
    ʕimmaẗ, n.f., turban: originally the way to wear a turban
    . muʕammam, adj., wearing a turban, turbaned: PP II.

    For other values attached to the same root, cf. ↗ʕamm, ↗ʕamma, ↗ʕāmmiyyaẗ, and, for the whole picture, ↗ʕMː (ʕMM). 
    ʕāmmaẗ عامَّة 
    ID 611 • Sw – • BP 2414 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕMː (ʕMM) 
    n.f. 
    1 general public, people at large; 2 al-~, n.f., the common people, the broad mass of the people; 3 ~an, adv., in general; generally; commonly, altogether, in the aggregate, collectively – WehrCowan1979. 
    Nominalized f. of ʕāmm, quasi-PA I of ↗ʕamma
    ▪ … 
    ▪ ↗ʕamma
    ▪ ↗ʕamma
    – 
    ʕāmmaẗ al-nās = al-ʕāmmaẗ
    al-ḫāṣṣaẗ wa’l-ʕāmmaẗ, high and low, all men, all, everybody.

    BP#3727taʕmīm, n., 1ʕamma; 2 vulgarization: vn. II.
    al-ʕawāmm, n.pl., 1 the common people, the populace; 2 the laity (Chr.): pl. of ʕāmmaẗ, f. of ʕāmm, quasi-PA I.
    ʕāmmī, 1 adj., common, vulgar, plebeian, ordinary, popular: nsb-adj., from ʕāmmaẗ, nominalized f. of ʕāmm, quasi-PA I of ʕamma; 2 n., ordinary person, man in the street: nominalized adj. –; 3 al-ʕāmmiyyaẗ, n.f., popular language, colloquial language: short for al‑luġaẗ al-~ ‘the language of the ʕāmmaẗ ’.

    For other values attached to the same root, cf. ↗ʕamm, ↗ʕimāmaẗ, and, for the whole picture, ↗ʕMː (ʕMM). 
    al-ʕāmmiyyaẗ عامّيّة 
    ID … • Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕMː (ʕMM) 
    n.f. (for al-luġaẗ al-ʕāmmiyyaẗ
    popular language, colloquial language – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Short for al-luġaẗ al-ʕāmmiyyaẗ, from ↗luġaẗ ‘language’ and ʕāmmiyyaẗ, f. of ʕāmmī, nsb-formation from n.f. ↗ʕāmmaẗ ‘the common people, broad mass of the people’, nominalized f. of adj. ʕāmm ‘public, general, common, universal’, from CSem *ʕamm- ‘people, nation’, probably a semantic extension of WSem *ʕamm- ‘kinsman, grandfather, ancestor’ (cf. Ar ↗ʕamm ‘paternal uncle’). 
    ▪ … 
    ʕamma
    ʕamma
    – 

    For other values attached to the same root, cf. ↗ʕamm, ↗ʕamma, ↗ʕimāmaẗ, and, for the whole picture, ↗ʕMː (ʕMM). 
    ʕMD عمد 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕMD 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕMD_1 ‘pole, pillar, column, mast; to lean against, rely, depend on; to support, prop; to sanction, confirm, accredit’ ↗ʕamūd, ‘column, pole’ ↗ʕimād
    ▪ ʕMD_2 ‘firm resolution, intention; intent, purpose, aim; to intend, betake o.s., approach, repair to, aim at’ ↗ʕamada
    ▪ ʕMD_3 ‘village chief, mayor’ ↗ʕumdaẗ; ‘head, chief, dean’ ↗ ʕamīd
    ▪ ʕMD_4 ‘to baptize, christen’ ↗ʕammada

    Other values, now obsolete, include (BK, Steingass1884, Hava1899):

    ʕMD_5 ‘branch, twig’ : ʕimd (pl. ʔaʕmād).
    ʕMD_6 ‘to pierce, empale’ : ʕamada.
    ʕMD_7 ‘to cudgel, cause to fall, throw down’ : ʕamada.
    ʕMD_8 ‘to oppress heavily, strike s.o. (a disease, love, anger, an idea, etc.), molest, vex, render gloomy, to grieve’: ʕamada. – The corresponding intr./pass. is ʕamida, which shows a broad spectrum of *‘being struck, oppressed, molested, vexed, etc.’: either mentally, in the sense of ‘to be(come) astonished, angry, etc., be taken (by an idea, etc.), cling to, adhere’, or physically, i.e., ‘to be seized with pain’, hence also, specifically, ‘to be sore at the inner side of the hump, swell’ and the corresponding n., ʕamid ‘backsore’.
    ʕMD_9 ‘(to be\become) moistened and made sticky by the rain (earth)’: ʕamida (a, ʕamad), adj. ʕamid.
    ʕMD_10 ‘in the full prime of youth’ : ʕumudd, ʕumnadānī.
    ʕMD_11 ‘to dam in (a water-course), stop, obstruct (a stream)’: ʕammada.

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘pillar, support, to support, to stab in the part called ʕamūd al-baṭn (the pillar of the stomach); chief, master, to depend upon; to intend; to approach, to undertake; to afflict with illness, to be severely ill’. – Some scholars attribute the word ʕimād to an early borrowing from Aram. 
    ▪ With the exception of [v4] ‘to baptize, christen’, which seems to be a borrowing from Syr, and perh. [v9] ‘to be(come) moistened’, all other values may (as Gabal2012:1554 sees it) derive from the basic idea of *‘firmness, strength, uprightness’, most clearly respresented in the ‘pillar, pole’ (ʕamad, ʕamūd, ʕāmūd) and the corresponding vb. ‘to support’ (ʕamada). – Gabal2012 regards the root √ʕMD as an extension in ‑D of the 2-rad. root nucleus *ʕM‑ to which he ascribes the basic meaning of ‘multitude or meeting/confluence (of several elements), combined with cohesion and uprightness’ (kaṯraẗ aw ĭǧtimāʕ maʕa ĭrtifāʕ wa-ĭltiḥām ʕulwī, ibid.: 1551).
    ▪ ʕMD_1 : Dolgopolsky2012#135 identifies two common protSem items: a vb. *ʕmd ‘to be raised\propped up, lean against; to stand upright’, and the corresponding n. *ʕamad- ‘support, pole’; in addition, he identifies a specifically WSem variant of the latter: protWSem *ʕa˻m˼mūd- ‘prop, pole of a tent, column, pillar’. As there also seem to be some possible Chad and Cush (and perh. even IE) cognates, the author assumes a Nostr dimension and reconstructs Nostr *ʕ­˹o˺m˻˅˼dE ‘to stand upright, rise’. (No protAfrAs form given.)
    ▪ ʕMD_2 : Related to the preceding? No comparable developments in other Sem langs. But ʕamada seems to have developed (from ʕamūd ‘pole’ as a tool to strike with?) the sense of [v8] ‘to strike, afflict’, and the corresponding intr. vb. ʕamida signifies all kinds of (physical and mental) *‘struckness’. The firmness of resolution that is central to [v2] may thus stem from an original *‘being struck by an idea > to cling, adhere to it’. – Another explanation is given by Gabal2012: 1555-6: he compares the firmness of resolution and intent to the uprightness of a tent pole or the strength of supporting pillar and thus regards [v2] as fig. use of [v1]. – Ehret1995#683 thinks that Ar ʕamada (vn. ʕamd) ‘to purpose, resolve upon; attend to, undertake’ is an extension in »durative« ‑D from a bi-consonantal pre-protSem root *ʕM ‘to apply, put into effect’, from AfrAs *‑ʕīm‑ ‘to apply, put into effect’. Other extensions from the same pre-protSem root would be: ↗ʕMR, ↗ʕML.
    ▪ ʕMD_3 : ʕumdaẗ ‘village chief, mayor’ and ʕamīd ‘head, chief, dean’ are basically *‘pillars relied upon, or to rely on’ and as such dependent on ʕMD_1, esp. ʕamūd or ʕamad.
    ▪ ʕMD_4 : prob. a loan from Syr ʕmaḏ ‘to dive, plunge, sink; to penetrate; to dip (in\under water), bath, wash; to be baptized’. – Cf. also [v9] ‘to be(come) moistened by rain’?
    ʕMD_5 : Together with the semantically close words for ‘pole, pillar’ (ʕamad, ʕamūd etc.), the now obs. ʕimd ‘branch, twig’ may represent one of the earliest values and in this case almost certainly belong together with [v1].
    ʕMD_6 : In the now obs. sense of ‘to pierce, empale’ the vb. ʕamada is denom. from ʕamad or ʕamūd and thus dependent on [v1] ‘pole, prop, pillar’.
    ʕMD_7 : Like [v6], [v7] ‘to cudgel, cause to fall, throw down’ represents a denom. derivation from ʕamūd; originally, it seems to mean *‘to cudgel, cause to fall, etc., by beating him/her with a ʕamūd’, the latter being attested also in the sense of ‘iron bar, rod of iron with which one beats or strikes’ (Lane v 1874).
    ʕMD_8 : The value spectrum ‘to oppress heavily, strike s.o. (a disease, love, anger, an idea, etc.), to molest, vex, render gloomy, grieve’ attached to ʕamada seems to be fig. use of [v6] and/or [v7], meaning a *‘striking’ or *‘being struck by an idea or an emotion’. This meaning may be at the heart of [v2] ‘firm resolution’.
    ʕMD_9 : The obs. meaning ‘(to be\become) moistened and made sticky by the rain (earth)’ of the intr. vb. ʕamida (a, ʕamad) may be another variant of [v7] *‘to strike / be struck’: earth becoming moistened because it is “struck” by the rain pouring down on it. However, the fact that there is also the adj. ʕamid, which looks rather “basic”, can arouse suspicion as to an assumed secondary character of the value. Therefore, do we perh. have to see it together with [v4] ‘to baptise’ and thereby assume that it is cognate to Syr ʕmaḏ ‘to dive, plunge, sink; to dip (in\under water) (etc.)’?
    ʕMD_10 : The value ‘in the full prime of youth’ belongs to the ‘firmness, strength, uprightness’ of an upright, firm ‘pole, pillar’ etc. ([v1]), additionally underlined here by the doubling of d in ʕumudd or of m in ʕummadānī.
    ʕMD_11 : The meaning ‘to dam in (a water-course), stop, obstruct (a stream)’ is taken from ʕamūd ‘pole, pillar’ and thus a specialised use of [v1] ‘to support’.
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ ʕMD_1 : (Bergsträsser1928:) Akk imdu ‘supporting wall’ (»Stützmauer«), Hbr ʕammūḏ, Aram ʕammūḏā, Gz ʕamd ‘post (n.)’, Ar ʕamūd. – Dolgopolsky2012#135 identifies three strings: (1) one for the basic notion of the root, expressed in a vb. meaning *‘to be raised\propped up, lean against; to stand upright’, (2) a nominal etymon meaning *‘support, pole’, and (3) a more or less synonymous, but specifically WSem variant, signifying a *‘prop, pole of a tent, column, pillar’. In group (2), he juxtaposes Akk imdu ‘stanchion, support’, (here?) Sab ʕmd ‘(?) vine support, vinestock’, Gz ʕamd ‘column, pillar, post’, and Ar ʕamad ‘pole of a tent, column, pillar’. From the WSem n. (3) are Ug ʕmd ‘column, ceiling beam’, BiblHbr ʕammûḏ, SamHbr ʕammod ‘id.’, Phoen Palm ʕmd, JudAram ʕammûḏ, JudAram Syr ʕammûḏ-â ‘column’, JEA ʕammūḏ-ā ‘pillar, column’, Sab (pl.) ʔʕmd ‘columns, pillars’, Mhr ʔamawd ‘ceiling beam’, Jib C ʕamud ‘beam, pillar’ (< Ar?), and Ar ʕamūd- ‘prop, support, column, base’. The Ar vb. ʕamada ‘étayer\appuyer\soutenir à l’aide d’un pilier \ d’une colonne’ is either a denom. derivation from this latter n., or it is directly (or perh. with contamination through the WSem n.) from (1) the protSem vb., from which the author derives also Akk emēdu ‘to lean against, cling to, stand near by’, BiblHbr ʕāmad ‘to take one’s stand’, JudAram ʕammeḏ ‘to place’; Mhr hāmōd ‘to prop up one’s head (with a pillow, arm)’, Jib C aʕmid ‘to put a pillow under the head’.
    ▪ ʕMD_2 : If related to [v1], cf. cognates given in preceding paragraph. – Ehret1995#683 regards Ar ʕamada (vn. ʕamd) in the sense of ‘to purpose, resolve upon; attend to, undertake’ is an extension in »durative« ‑D from a bi-consonantal pre-protSem root *ʕM ‘to apply, put into effect’. If this is correct, this ʕamada may be only one of several other extensions from the same pre-protSem root, such as ↗ʕMR (in the sense of ‘to cultivate and inhabit land’) and ↗ʕML (with the n. ↗ʕamal ‘deed, action; occupation; work’ and the denom. ↗ʕamila ‘to work, perform; to do; to practise, profess; to produce an effect’).
    ▪ ʕMD_3 : as fig. use of [v1], [v3] has no direct cognates in other Sem langs, but is of course dependent on ʕMD_1.
    ▪ ʕMD_4 : (Brockelmann1895, PayneSmith1903:) Syr ʕmaḏ ‘to dive, plunge, sink; to penetrate; to dip (in\under water), bath, wash; to be baptized’, Syr ʕmāḏā ‘setting (of the sun or stars); plunge, somersault; dipping; baptism’. – ? Cf. also [v9] below.
    ▪ ʕMD_5 : no direct cognates, but without doubt akin to ↗ʕMD_1.
    ▪ ʕMD_6-7 : Denom. deriv. from ʕamad or ʕamūd ‘pole, post’, ↗ʕMD_1.
    ▪ ʕMD_8 : Fig. use of [v6] and/or [v7], hence ultimately dependent on [v1], ↗ʕMD_1.
    ▪ ʕMD_9 : Either fig. use of [v6] and/or [v7] and hence ultimately dependent on [v1], ↗ʕMD_1, or perh. to be seen together with [v4] ‘to baptise’ and Syr ʕmaḏ ‘to dive, plunge, sink; to dip (in\under water) (etc.)’, ʕmāḏā ‘setting (of the sun or stars); plunge, somersault; dipping; baptism’.
    ▪ ʕMD_10 : no direct cognates, but without doubt akin to ↗ʕMD_1.
    ▪ ʕMD_11 : no direct cognates, but without doubt a D-stem formed from ↗ʕMD_1.
     
    ▪ ʕMD_1 Dolgopolsky2012#135 reconstructs three items: a protSem vb. *ʕmd ‘to be raised\propped up, lean against; to stand upright’, a protSem n. *ʕamad- ‘support, pole’, and a specifically WSem development, protWSem *ʕa˻m˼mūd- ‘prop, pole of a tent, column, pillar’; also some possible Chad and Cush (and perh. even IE) cognates, all from hypothetical Nostr *ʕ̱˹o˺m˻˅˼dE ‘to stand upright, rise’. (No protAfrAs form given.). – Klein1987 (s.v. Hbr ʕimmāḏī) notes that the Ar “prep.” ʕindᵃ ‘at, near, by’ »is formed from *ʕimdᵃ (lit., ‘on the stand of, in the position of’), from the stem of ʕamada (= he supported), ʕamūd (= post, prop)«. Cf., however, Kogan2015:182 #6 : »Ug ʕm, Hbr ʕim, JPA ʕäm, Sab ʕm, Min ʕm, Qat ʕm-n < protCSem *ʕimm(‑a) ‘together with’ ⇒ In its basic form, this protCSem prep. is not attested in Ar, but accord. to a widespread consensus, it is preserved there in the metathetic form maʕa ‘with’, as well as in ʕinda (< *ʕim-da) ‘by’. The origin of protCSem *ʕimm(‑a) ‘with’ is uncertain. Traditionally, it is thought to be derived from the verbal root *ʕmm ‘to be common, general, to embrace’[(cn: Kogan2015, n.513: E.g. Lipiński 1997:465 (“It is obviously related to the noun ʕam(m), ‘people,’ and to the vb. ʕamma, ‘to be common’”) or Voigt 1999:39 (“*ʕimm-a ‘Einschluss’”).)] [cf. ↗ʕāmm, ↗ʕāmmiyyaẗ], but this root is hardly attested anywhere beyond Ar ʕmm
    ▪ ʕMD_2-3 : see above, section CONC.
    ▪ ʕMD_4 : Although there is a faint possibility that ʕammada ‘to baptise’ is an inner-Ar derivation, it seems more likely that the item is a borrowing from Syr, because the original meaning of the underlying Grk term used in the NT for ‘to baptise’, baptízein, is ‘to immerse, dip in water’, rendered in Syr by ʕmaḏ ‘to dive, plunge, sink; to penetrate; to dip (in\under water), bath, wash; (hence also:) to be baptized’. The Ar D-stem would express the caus., *‘to immerse s.o., make s.o. dive, sink (etc.)’. Given that there is no Ar G-stem from √ʕMD meaning ‘to drown, be immersed’, dependence on Syr is highly probable (and was also suggested by Ar lexicographers themselves). – If ʕammada is from Syr it may, etymologically, belong together with ↗√ĠMD rather than √ʕMD. – For the vague possibility of an inner-Ar dependence, cf. above, section CONC.
    ▪ ʕMD_5-11 : cf. above, section CONC.
     
    … 
    … 
    ʕamad‑ عَمَدَ , i (ʕamd
    ID … • Sw – • BP 4677 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕMD 
    vb., I 
    1ʕamūd; 2a to intend, purpose (li‑ or ʔilà s.th.); 2b to betake o.s., repair, go (li‑, ʔilà, ‑hu to); 2c to approach, undertake (li‑ or ʔilà s.th.), go, set (li‑ or ʔilà about s.th.), proceed, apply o.s., turn, attend (li‑ or ʔilà to), embark (li‑ or ʔilà upon); 2d to take up (ʔilà s.th.); 2e to be intent (ʔilà on); – 3ʕammada – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ While one of the meanings of ʕamada (1 ‘to support, prop, shore, buttress’) evidently is denominative from ↗ʕamūd and another (3 ‘to baptize’) probably a loan from Syr, the semantic complex of ‘intention, purpose, aim’ stands within the root as an Ar idiosyncrasy without comparable developments in other Sem langs. Gabal2012: 1555-6 compares the firmness of resolution and intent to the uprightness of a tent pole or the strength of a supporting pillar and thus regards ʕamada in the sense of ‘to intend (etc.)’ as fig. use, lit. *‘to have s.th. as a ↗ʕamūd, a firm pillar, in one’s mind, follow an idea with a resolution as strong a pillar’. – Another form of fig. dependence on ʕamad~ʕamūd can be imagined on the basis of the meaning ‘iron bar\rod’, now obsolete but attested in ClassAr, as also the corresponding denom. vb. ʕamada ‘to beat with an iron bar\rod, strike, afflict’, hence also ‘to strike, afflict’ in general, and the corresponding intr. vb. ʕamida, signifying all kinds of (physical and mental) *‘struckness’. The firmness of resolution that is central to [v2] may thus stem from an original *‘being struck by an idea > to cling, adhere to it’.
    ▪ Ehret1995#683 suggests that Ar ʕamada (vn. ʕamd) ‘to purpose, resolve upon; attend to, undertake’ is an extension in »durative« ‑D from a bi-consonantal pre-protSem root *ʕM ‘to apply, put into effect’, from AfrAs *‑ʕīm‑ ‘to apply, put into effect’. Other extensions from the same pre-protSem root would be: ↗ʕMR, ↗ʕML.
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ If fig. use, then perh. dependent (as denom. vb.) on ↗ʕamūd.
    ▪ For Ehret’s suggestion of a derivation of Ar ʕamd from a 2-rad. pre-protSem root *ʕM and other “cognate” extensions, cf. above, section CONC.
     
    Cf. above, section CONC.
    ▪ … 
    … 
    taʕammada, vb. V, 1a to intend, purpose, do intentionally, do on purpose; b to approach with a definite aim in mind; c to single out, aim at: Dt-stem, intr., focus on self-referentiality. – 2ʕammada.

    BP#4282ʕamd, n., intention, intent, design, purpose; premeditation, willfulness (jur.): vn. I | ʕamdan, adv., intentionally, deliberately, on purpose; willfully, premeditatedly (jur.); šibh al‑ʕamd, n., quasi‑deliberate intent (Isl. Law)
    ʕamdī, adj., intentional, deliberate; premeditated, willful (jur.): nisba formation of preceding item.
    taʕammud, n., 1 intention, intent, design; 2 resolution, determination, purpose: : vn. V | taʕammudan , bi-taʕammud, intentionally, deliberately, willfully, on purpose, premeditatedly.
    taʕammudī, adj., intentional, deliberate, premeditated, willful: nisba formation from the preceding.
    mutaʕammad, adj., deliberate, premeditated, willful; intentional: PP V.

    For other meanings of the root, cf. ↗ʕammada, ↗ʕamūd, ↗ʕumdaẗ, ↗ ʕamīd, as well as, for the overall picture, ↗√ʕMD. 
    ʕammad‑ عَمَّدَ (taʕmīd
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕMD 
    vb., II 
    to baptize, christen – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Ar ʕammada ‘to baptize’ is a D-stem belonging to the root √ʕMD which in general expresses the basic notion of *‘strength, firm support’, as, e.g., in the vb. ʕamada ‘to support, prop, shore, buttress’ or the n. ↗ʕamūd~ʕamad ‘post, pillar, column’ (Bergsträsser1928: *‘supporting wall’, for the protSem etymon). As it is not evident in which way the meaning ‘to baptize’ could be derived from this basic meaning of the root, it is quite likely that it we are dealing with a case of borrowing, all the more so since it is a Christian term. The giver language was probably Syr, where we find the vb. ʕmaḏ ‘to dive, plunge, sink; to penetrate; to dip (in\under water), bath, wash’ which in its turn is a calque from the Grk baptízein with the same original meaning, but also used in the NT to render the act of baptism.
    ▪ A derivation of Ar ʕammada ‘to baptize’ from the obsolete adj. ʕamid ‘moistened by rain (earth)’ and the denom. intr. vb. ʕamida ‘to be(come) moistened by rain’ seems less likely. But even in this case ʕammada would prob. be akin to Syr ʕmaḏ ‘to dive, plunge, sink; to penetrate; to dip (in\under water), bath, wash’.
    ▪ Should one consider also the possibility of an inner-Ar development according to which ʕammada ‘to baptize’ would be *‘to confirm’ (one’s belief in God)? In this case the vb. would depend on ↗ʕamūd~ʕamad ‘post, pillar, column’. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (If loaned from Syr): Syr ʕmaḏ ‘to dive, plunge, sink; to penetrate; to dip (in\under water), bath, wash; to be baptized’, ʕmāḏā ‘setting (of the sun or stars); plunge, somersault; dipping; baptism’ – Brockelmann1895, PayneSmith1903.
    ▪ (If lit. *‘to confirm/assert one’s belief, make one’s belief stronger’): ↗ʕMD_1.
    ▪ … 
    See above, sections CONC and COGN. 
    … 
    BP4677ʕamada, i (ʕamd), vb. I, 1ʕamūd; 2ʕamada; 3 to baptize, christen.
    ʔaʕmada, vb. IV, 1ʕamūd; 2 to baptize, christen: *Š-stem.
    taʕammada, vb. V, 1-3ʕamada; – 4 to be baptized, be christened: Dt-stem, pass./self-refl.

    BP#3409ʕimād, pl. ʕumud, ʔaʕmidaẗ, n., 1-6ʕamūd; – 7 baptism
    Yūḥannā ’l‑maʕmadān, n., John the Baptist
    taʕmīd, n., baptism: vn. II.
    maʕmūdiyyaẗ, n.f., 1 baptism; 2 baptismal font: : n. formation in -iyyaẗ for the process of baptizing or the tool used to carry out baptism.
    muʕammad, adj., baptizee, one receiving baptism: PP II.

    For other meanings of the root, cf. ↗ʕamada, ↗ʕamūd, ↗ʕumdaẗ, ↗ ʕamīd, as well as, for the overall picture, ↗√ʕMD. 
    ʕamūd عَمود , pl. ʔaʕmidaẗ, ʕumud 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 3015 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕMD 
    n. 
    1a flagpole, shaft (of a standard); 1b pale, post, prop, shore, pier, buttress; 1c lamppost; 1d (telephone, telegraph) pole; 2 column, pillar, pilaster; item (of a glass); – 3a (pl. ʔaʕmidaẗ), n., column (of a newspaper); 3b element, cell (eI.) – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ (Dolgopolsky2012#135): from protWSem *ʕa˻m˼mūd- ‘prop, pole of a tent, column, pillar’ (< protSem *ʕmd ‘to be raised\propped up, lean against; to stand upright’, *ʕamad- ‘support, pole’ < AfrAs [?] < Nostr *ʕ­˹o˺m˻˅˼dE ‘to stand upright, rise’.
    ▪ Gabal2012 regards the root √ʕMD as an extension in ‑D of the 2-rad. root nucleus *ʕM‑ to which he ascribes the basic meaning of ‘multitude or meeting/confluence (of several elements), combined with cohesion and uprightness’ (kaṯraẗ aw ĭǧtimāʕ maʕa ĭrtifāʕ wa-ĭltiḥām ʕulwī, ibid.: 1551).
    ʕamūd figures among the terms that Bergsträsser1928 regarded as very old and widespread throughout Sem. The n. or the corresponding vb. is probably origin of most of the values found on ↗√ʕMD. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Bergsträsser1928:) Akk imdu ‘supporting wall’ (»Stützmauer«), Hbr ʕammūḏ, Aram ʕammūḏā, Gz ʕamd ‘post (n.)’, Ar ʕamūd. ▪ (Dolgopolsky2012#135:) Ug ʕmd ‘column, ceiling beam’, BiblHbr ʕammûḏ, SamHbr ʕammod ‘id.’, Phoen Palm ʕmd, JudAram Syr ʕammûḏ-â ‘column’, Sab (pl.) ʔʕmd ‘columns, pillars’, Mhr ʔamawd ‘ceiling beam’, Jib C ʕamud ‘beam, pillar’ (< Ar?), and Ar ʕamūd- ‘prop, support, column, base’. – Cf. also Akk imdu ‘stanchion, support’, (here?) Sab ʕmd ‘(?) vine support, vinestock’, Gz ʕamd ‘column, pillar, post’, and Ar ʕamad ‘pole of a tent, column, pillar’, as well es Akk emēdu ‘to lean against, cling to, stand near by’, BiblHbr ʕāmad ‘to take one’s stand’, JudAram ʕammeḏ ‘to place’; Mhr hāmōd ‘to prop up one’s head (with a pillow, arm)’, Jib C aʕmid ‘to put a pillow under the head’.
     
    See above, sections CONC and COGN. 
    … 
    al-ʕamūd al-šawkī\faqrī, n., the vertebral colomn, the spine.
    ʕamūd kahrabāʔī, n., electrode.

    BP4677ʕamada, i (ʕamd), vb. I, 1 to support, prop, shore, buttress; 2ʕamada; 3ʕammada.
    ʕammada, vb. II, ↗ s.v..
    ʔaʕmada, vb. IV, 1 to support, prop, shore, buttress: *Š-stem. – 2ʕammada.
    taʕammada, vb. V, 1a to intend, purpose, do intentionally, do on purpose; b to approach with a definite aim in mind; c to single out, aim at: Dt-stem. – 2ʕammada.
    BP#1145ĭʕtamada, vb. VIII, 1 = V; 2 to lean (ʕalà against), support one’s weight (ʕalà on); 3a to rely, depend (‑hu or ʕalà on s.o., on s.th.); 3b to use as a basis (‑hu or ʕalà s.th.); 3c to employ, use, apply (‑hu s.th., e.g., a new method); 4a to confirm (‑hu s.th.); 4b to sanction, authorize (‑hu s.th.); 5 to loan, give on credit (‑hu to s.o. li‑ a sum): Gt-stem.

    BP#4282ʕamd, n., intention, intent, design, purpose; premeditation, willfulness (jur.): vn. I | ʕamdan, adv., intentionally, deliberately, on purpose; willfully, premeditatedly (jur.); šibh al‑ʕamd, n., quasi‑deliberate intent (Isl. Law)
    ʕamdī, adj., intentional, deliberate; premeditated, willful (jur.): nisba formation of preceding item.
    ʕumdaẗ, 1 n.f., support, prop, shore; 2main subject, main issue, basic issue (e.g., of a controversy); 3a (pl. ʕumad) n.m., chief of a village, chief magistrate of a small community (eg.); 3b mayor: [v3ab] is fig. use.
    BP#3409ʕimād, pl. ʕumud, ʔaʕmidaẗ, n., 1 support, prop, stay (also fig.); 2 bracket, buttress, post; 3 pole, pillar; 4 column; 5 mast; 6 major general (Leb; mil.); – 7 baptism.
    ʕimādaẗ, n.f., office of dean, deanship; (also ʕamādaẗ) office of the dean (university).
    BP#2383ʕamīd, pl. ʕumadāʔᵘ, n., 1 support; 2a head, chief; 2b leading personality (in a cultural field); 2c dean (of a faculty); 2d director (of a college or academy); 2e doyen, dean (as, of a diplomatic oorps); 3 high commissioner (also al‑ʕamīd al‑sāmī), resident general; 4 brigadier general (Eg, Syr, Irq, etc.); colonel (Leb); (formerly, Irq) general, (formerly, Eg) lieutenant colonel: quasi-PP I | ʕamīd ʔawwal, n., brigadier general (Leb); ʕamīd al‑ʔadab al‑ʕarabī, n., the foremost representative of Arabic literature; ʕamīd al‑ʕāʔilaẗ, n., head of the family.
    ʕamīdaẗ, n.f., dean (f.); directress: quasi-PP I, f.
    ʕāmūd, pl. ʕawāmīd², n., = ʕamūd | ʕāmūd al-qiyādaẗ, n., steering column, steering mechanism (of an automobile).
    ʕamūdī, adj., 1a columnar, pillar-shaped; 1b vertical, perpendicular, upright: nisba formation of preceding item | ṭāʔiraẗ ʕamūdiyyaẗ, n.f., helicopter.
    Yūḥannā ’l‑maʕmadān, n., ↗ ʕammada.
    taʕmīd, n., ↗ ʕammada.
    taʕammud, n., 1-2ʕamada.
    taʕammudī, adj., ↗ ʕamada.
    BP#1362ĭʕtimād, n., 1 reliance, dependence, reliance (ʕalà on), confidence, trust (ʕalà in); 2 confirmation; 3a sanction, approbation; b recognition; c accreditation (of diplomats); (pl. āt) credit, loan: : vn. VIII | ĭʕtimādāt, n.nhum.pl., funds, financial means (for an objective, a project) | al-iʕtimād ʕalà ’nafs, self-confidenoe, self-reliance; kutub\ʔawrāq al-iʕtimād, n.nhum.pl., credentials (of diplomats); ĭʕtimād ʔiḍāfī, n., supplementary loan; ĭʕtimādāt mutāḥaẗ, available funds.
    maʕmūdiyyaẗ, n.f., ↗ ʕammada.
    muʕammad, adj., ↗ ʕammada.
    mutaʕammad, adj., ↗ ʕamada.
    BP#2722muʕtamad, 1 adj., a reliable, dependable; b object of reliance, support; c sanctioned, approved, authorized; d accredited; e allocated, available: PP VIII. – 2 (pl. pl. ūn), n., a commissioner, authorized agent, proxy, envoy, representative; b commissary, commissar; c (Tun.) al-muʕtamad al-sāmī, n., the High Commissioner; d muʕtamad qunṣulī, n., consular agent (dipl.); 3 ʔasās muʕtamad ʕalayh, n., a reliable basis.
    muʕtamadiyyaẗ, n.f., legation (dipl.); (Tun.) administrative district (subdivision of a wilāyaẗ, province); district government.

    For other meanings of the root, cf. ↗ʕamada, ↗ʕammada, ↗ʕamūd, ↗ʕumdaẗ, ↗ ʕamīd, as well as, for the overall picture, ↗√ʕMD. 
    ʕumdaẗ عُمْدة 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕMD 
    n.f. (or m., if used for men) 
    1 support, prop, shore; 2 main subject, main issue, basic issue (e.g., of a controversy); 3a (pl. ʕumad) n.m., chief of a village, chief magistrate of a small community (eg.); 3b mayor – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ [v1] means the support given by a ↗ʕamūd ‘pole, pillar, beam’, hence also fig. use in [v2] as the *‘pillar’ that ‘bears’ a conversation or discussion, and [v3ab] as *‘pillars’ of a community, i.e., reliable, trustworthy persons on whose steadfastness, resolution, strength etc. the structure of the “building” (of a village or city community) rests. 
    ▪ … 
    See ↗ʕamūd
    See above, section CONC. 
    … 
    muʕtamadiyyaẗ, n.f., 1 legation (dipl.); 2 (Tun.) administrative district (subdivision of a wilāyaẗ, province); district government: PP VIII, f., from ĭʕtamada ‘to relie upon, trust in’, lit., ‘to turn to s.o.\s.th. as one’s ʕamūd (pillar) or ʕumdaẗ (chief, mayor), Gt-stem, self-referential.

    For other meanings of the root, cf. ↗ʕamada, ↗ʕammada, ↗ʕamūd, ↗ ʕamīd, as well as, for the overall picture, ↗√ʕMD. 
    ʕimād عِماد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP 3409 • APD … • © SG | 3Jun2023
    √ʕMD
     
    n. 
    column, pole – Jeffery1938 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q xiii, 2; xxxi, 9; civ, 9 (sing. A*P); lxxxix, 6 – Jeffery1938.
     
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »The word can hardly be derived from the Ar verbal root ʕamada ‘to afflict’ and was apparently borrowed from the Aram. / Zimmern, Akkad. Fremdw, 31, goes back to an Akk imdu meaning ‘a support’ for a house or a wall, from a root emēdu (< ʕmd) ‘to stand’, which he would consider as having influenced the Can and Aram areas, whence we find Hbr ʕammûd, Phoen ʕmd ‘pillar’, and Aram Palm ʕmwdʔ, Syr ʕamūdā ‘pillar’. If so it must also have influenced the SAr area, for there we find Sab ʕmd (D.H. Müller, Epigraphische Denkmäler aus Abessinien, 80)572 and Eth [Gz] ʕamd, also meaning ‘pillar’. From the Aramaic, according to this theory, would have come the Arab ʕamūd ‘a pillar’, and thence the denominative verb ʕamada ‘to prop’, from which the Qurʔānic ʕimād would have been derived. In this case it would have been an early borrowing.«
     
    – 
    – 
    ʕamīd عَميد , pl. ʕumadāʔᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 2383 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕMD 
    n. 
    1 support; 2a head, chief; 2b leading personality (in a cultural field); 2c dean (of a faculty); 2d director (of a college or academy); 2e doyen, dean (as, of a diplomatic oorps); 3 high commissioner (also al‑ʕamīd al‑sāmī), resident general; 4 brigadier general (Eg, Syr, Irq, etc.); colonel (Leb); (formerly, Irq) general, (formerly, Eg) lieutenant colonel – WehrCowan1976. 
    ʕamīd is a quasi-PP from ʕamada, vb. I, ‘to support, prop, shore, buttress’ (itself perh. denom. from ↗ʕamūd ‘pole, pillar, beam’) and means as such a person like a “pillar” or “pole” that bears the structure of a “building” and can be relied upon and/or serve as a model for others. From the general meaning of a supporting “pillar” are several derived values such as [v2a-e] (in the cultural field, and for civilians), [v3] (in international politics), or [v4] (in the military).
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    No direct cognates in other Sem langs, but ultimately from, or akin to, ↗ʕamūd
    See above, section CONC. 
    … 
    ʕamīd ʔawwal, n., brigadier general (Leb)
    ʕamīd al-ʔadab al‑ʕarabī, n., the foremost representative of Arabic literature
    ʕamīd al-ʕāʔilaẗ, n., head of the family.

    ʕimādaẗ, n.f., office of dean, deanship; (also ʕamādaẗ) office of the dean (university)
    ʕamīdaẗ, n.f., dean (f.); directress: quasi-PP I, f.

    For other meanings of the root, cf. ↗ʕamada, ↗ʕammada, ↗ʕamūd, ↗ʕumdaẗ, as well as, for the overall picture, ↗√ʕMD. 
    ʕMR عمر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕMR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕMR_1 a ‘(to be/make) full, to prosper / make prosperous; to inhabit; to build, erect, construct; to repair’ ↗ʕam˅ra; b ‘to live long, lifespan; donation for life’ ↗ʕumr
    ▪ ʕMR_2 ‘to perform the ↗ʕumraẗ
    ▪ ʕMR_3 ‘headgear’ ↗ʕamraẗ
    ▪ ʕMR_4 ‘naval fleet’ ↗ʕamāraẗ
    ▪ ʕMR_5 ‘camel-borne sedan’ ↗ʕammāriyyaẗ
    ▪ ʕMR_6 ‘ʕImrān (father of Moses, Aaron, and Miriam)’ ↗ʕImrān

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘age, life, life-span, to live long, to grow old; to cultivate, to inhabit, to populate; a haunted house; to intend; to worship; headgear; a subgroup of a tribe’ 
    ▪ ʕMR_1 : Huehnergard2011 reconstructs CSem *ʕMR ‘to live, dwell, build’ and the n. CSem *ʕumr‑ ‘life’. – According to Ehret1995, ʕamara ‘to cultivate and inhabit land’ is an extension in *‑r from a »pre-Proto-Semitic« root *ʕm ‘to apply, put into effect’ that in its turn goes back to AfrAs *‑ʕīm‑ ‘to apply, put into effect’. – Other extensions from the same pre-Sem root: ↗ʕMD • ↗ʕML
    – 
    See references to individual subvalues, above. 
    ▪ ʕMR_1 : ‘long life’ is seen as a form of ‘being full, prospering’. – From ʕMR_1 probably also the personal names ʕUmar, ʕAmr, ʕImrān, etc. ▪ ʕMR_1 : for ‘(to be/make) full, to prosper’ cf. also ↗ĠMR
    . ▪ ʕMR_1 : Ehret1995#683: Ar ʕamr (vn.) ‘to cultivate and inhabit land’ is an extension in »diffusive« *‑r 573 from a bi-consonantal »pre-Proto-Semitic« (pPS, i.e. preSem) root *ʕm ‘to apply, put into effect’. Other extensions from the same pre-Sem root: ↗ʕMD • ↗ʕml. – Pre-Proto-Sem *ʕm may in turn go back to AfrAs *‑ʕīm‑ ‘to apply, put into effect’, which lived on also in Eg imi ‘to give; place; cause (imper.)’, Iraqw (SCush) ʕim amis ‘to continue (doing)’, and Omot *im ‘to give’ (´im , i´m).
    ▪ ʕMR_2 ‘(to perform the) ʕumraẗ ’: traditionally explained as ‘visit’, or (Wellhausen1897) as ‘cult’. If this is true, then ʕumraẗ is related to ʕMR_1.
    ▪ ʕMR_3-5 : ??? any relation to one or more of items ʕMR_1-2 ?
     
    – 
    ʕamara, u, i (ʕamr, ʕumr), vb. I, to live long, be longevous.
    ʕamura, u (ʕamāraẗ), vb. I, to thrive, prosper, flourish, flower, bloom; to be or become inhabited, peopled, populated, civilized, cultivated; to be full (bi‑ of), filled, filled up (bi‑ with).
    ʕamara, u, vb. I, to fill with life, cause to thrive, make prosperous; to inhabit, live, dwell; to fill, pervade (jawāniḥahū s.o.’s heart), reign (in s.o.’s heart); to build, erect, construct, raise, rebuild, reconstruct, restore:
    ʕammara, vb. II, to let live, preserve alive; to prolong (s.o.’s) life, grant long life (to s.o.; of God); to populate, people; to build, erect, construct, raise, rebuild, reconstruct, restore, repair, overhaul, refurbish, recondition (s.th., esp. a building); to provide, furnish, supply, fill (bi‑ with, e.g., the lamp with oil, the censer with charcoal, the goblet with wine); to load (a gun); to fill (a pipe); to fill in (a form, a blank; tun.): caus. | ʕ. waqtahū to take up, or claim, s.o.’s time.
    ʔaʕmara, vb. IV, to bring growth and prosperity; to build up, develop (a country); to populate, people (s.th.): caus. – 2 to perform the ↗ʕumraẗ : denom., from the latter.
    ĭʕtamara, vb. VIII, to visit (s.o., s.th.); to perform the ↗ʕumraẗ : denom. from the latter.
    ĭstaʕmara, vb. X, to settle (s.o. in); to settle, colonize (s.th.); to turn (a country) into a colony: autoben., t-stem of IV.

    BP#281ʕumr (ʕamr in oaths), pl. ʔaʕmār, n., life, duration of life, life span, lifetime; age (of a person) | la-ʕamrī upon my life! la-ʕamru ’llāhi by the everlasting existence of God! by the Eternal God! ḏāt al-ʕumrayn amphibian (n.); ʕumruhū ʕišrūna sanatan he is twenty years old.
    BP#4721ʕumrī, adj., age-related, age-based, age group: nsb-adj from ʕumr.
    ʕamraẗ, n.f., 1 headgear (e.g., turban); 2 (eg.) repair, repair work:.
    BP#4852ʕumraẗ, n.f., pilgrimage to Mecca (the so-called ‘minor hadj’ which, unlike the hadj proper, need not be performed at a particular time of the year and whose performance involves fewer ceremonies):
    ʕumrà, donation for life (Isl. Law): el.f.
    ʕamāraẗ, n.f., (naval) fleet:.
    BP#2892ʕimāraẗ, pl. ‑āt, ʕamāʔirᵘ, n., building, edifice, structure; real estate, tract lot; al-ʕ., fann al-ʕ., or handasaẗ al-ʕ., architecture, art of building: vn. I.
    ʕumrān, n., inhabitedness, populousness, thriving, flourishing, prosperity (as opposed to ↗ḫarāb); luxuriance, lushness; civilization; construction of houses; building trade, architecture: vn. I.
    BP#4095ʕumrānī, adj., civilized; populous and flourishing (country, region); civilizational, serving or concerning the development of civilization; constructional, construction (in compounds), architectonic, architectural: nsb-adj from ʕumrān | taḫṭīṭ ʕ., n., architectural planning.
    ʕammāriyyaẗ, n.f., camel-borne sedan and the virgin riding in it into battle:
    ʔaʕmarᵘ, adj., more inhabited, more populated, more populous; more cultivated, more civilized; more flourishing, more thriving: elat.
    miʕmār, n., builder, architect; mason:
    miʕmārī, adj., architectonic, architectural: nsb-adj from miʕmār; — (pl. ‑ūn), n., builder, architect; mason: nominalized nisba | muhandis m., n., builder, architect; al-fann al-m., n., art of building, architecture.
    taʕmīr, n., building, construction, erection; restoration, repair, overhauling, refurbishing, reconditioning; renovation of old buildings; development (of an area); reconstruction (eg., of a country’s industry); filling, filling-up; (tun.) filling out (of a form): vn. II
    taʕmīraẗ, n.f., filling, fllling-up: vn. II, n.vic.
    BP#2592ʔiʕmār, n., construction, building, development: vn. IV.
    BP#3055ĭstiʕmār, n., colonizing, colonization, foundation of colonies; colonialism (pol.), colonial rule: vn. X | al-ĭ. al-jadīd, n., neo-colonialism:
    BP#4561ĭstiʕmārī, adj., colonial; colonizer: nsb-adj from ĭstiʕmār.
    ĭstiʕmāriyyaẗ, n.f., colonialism (pol.): n.abstr. in iyyaẗ, coined from ĭstiʕmār.
    ʕāmir, adj., inhabited; peopled, populated, populous; full, filled, filled up; jammed, crowded, filled to capacity (bi‑ with); amply provided, splendidly furnished; civilized; cultivated (land); flourishing, thriving, prosperous: PA I; al-ʕāmir is a frequent epithet of castles, palaces, etc., of ruling houses | ʕ. bi’l-ʔamal, adj., full of hope; ʕ. al-jayb, adj., with a full pocket; ʕ. al-ḏimmaẗi li obliged to s.o., committed to s.o.; ʕ. al-nafs bi , adj., obsessed by, possessed by; ʔumm ʕ., n., hyena (zool.); nuhūd ʕāmiraẗ, n.pl., voluptuous bosoms :
    BP#4930maʕmūr, adj., inhabited, populated, populous: PP I; al-m. or al-maʕmūraẗ, n., the (inhabited) world | fī kull ʔanḥāʔ al-m.(aẗ), adv., all over the world, throughout the world.
    muʕammir, pl. ‑ūn, adj./n., colonist; colonizer: PA II.
    muʕammar, pl. ‑ūn, adj., senior (in sports): PP II from ʕumr.
    mustaʕmir, adj., colonial, imperialistic: PA X; — (pl. ‑ūn), n., settler, colonist; colonizer; foreign conqueror, invader; imperialist: nominalized PA X.
    mustaʕmaraẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., colony, settlement: nominalized PP X. | m. mustaqillaẗ, n., dominion :
     

    ʕamur‑ عَمُرَ , u (ʕamāraẗ)
    ʕamar‑ , u, i (ʕamr, ʕumr)
    ʕamar‑ , u 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕMR 
    vb., I 
    ʕamura, u (ʕamāraẗ), 1 to thrive, prosper, flourish, flower, bloom. – 2 to be or become inhabited, peopled, populated, civilized, cultivated. – 3 to be full (bi‑ of), filled, filled up (bi‑ with).
    ʕamara, u, i (ʕamr, ʕumr), to live long, be longevous.
    ʕamara, u, 1 to fill with life, cause to thrive, make prosperous. – 2 to inhabit, live, dwell. – 3 to fill, pervade (jawāniḥahū s.o.’s heart), reign (in s.o.’s heart). – 4 to build, erect, construct, raise, rebuild, reconstruct, restore 
    ▪ Huehnergard2011 reconstructs CSem *ʕMR ‘to live, dwell, build’ and the n. CSem *ʕumr‑ ‘life’.
    ▪ According to Ehret1995, ʕamara ‘to cultivate and inhabit land’ is an extension in *‑r from a »pre-Proto-Semitic« root *ʕm ‘to apply, put into effect’ that in its turn goes back to AfrAs *‑ʕīm‑ ‘to apply, put into effect’. – Other extensions from the same pre-Sem root: ↗ʕMD, ↗ʕML. 
    ▪ … 
    For ʕamura 3. ‘(to be) full’:
    ▪ BDB1906: Hbr ʕōmär ‘sheaf, heap of sheaves’, ʕōmär ‘omer (a measure)’ (cf. also Ar ġumar ‘small drinking cup, or bowl’), ʕāmîr ‘swath, row of fallen grain’

    For ʕamara ‘to live long’:
    ▪ BDB1906: Hbr ʕāmrî ‘Omri, king of Israel’, Ar n.pr. ʕumar, ʕamr, ʕāmir, etc. 

    ▪ From here (probably the n. ʕumr) also the personal names ʕUmar, ʕAmr, ʕĀmir, ʕImrān, etc., all meaning ‘full of live, prosperous’.
    ▪ For ‘(to be/make) full, to prosper’ cf. also ↗ĠMR.
    ▪ Ehret1995#683: Ar ʕamr (vn.) ‘to cultivate and inhabit land’ is an extension in »diffusive« *‑r 574 from a bi-consonantal »pre-Proto-Semitic« (pPS, i.e. preSem) root *ʕm ‘to apply, put into effect’. Other extensions from the same pre-Sem root: ↗ʕMD, ↗ʕML. – Pre-Proto-Sem *ʕm may in turn go back to AfrAs *‑ʕīm‑ ‘to apply, put into effect’, which lived on also in Eg imi ‘to give; place; cause (imper.)’, Iraqw (SCush) ʕim amis ‘to continue (doing)’, and Omot *im ‘to give’ (´im , i´m).
    ▪ Is also ↗ʕumraẗ ‘the “lesser” pilgrimage’ connected?
    ▪ Unclear is also whether or not ↗ʕamraẗ ‘headgear’, ↗ʕamāraẗ ‘naval fleet’, and ↗ʕammāriyyaẗ ‘camel-borne sedan’ are to be seen in connection with ʕam˅ra.
     
    – 
    ʕammara, vb. II, to let live, preserve alive; to prolong (s.o.’s) life, grant long life (to s.o.; of God); to populate, people; to build, erect, construct, raise, rebuild, reconstruct, restore, repair, overhaul, refurbish, recondition (s.th., esp. a building); to provide, furnish, supply, fill (bi‑ with, e.g., the lamp with oil, the censer with charcoal, the goblet with wine); to load (a gun); to fill (a pipe); to fill in (a form, a blank; tun.): caus. | ʕ. waqtahū to take up, or claim, s.o.’s time.
    ʔaʕmara, vb. IV, to bring growth and prosperity; to build up, develop (a country); to populate, people (s.th.): caus. – For another meaning ↗ʕumraẗ.
    ĭstaʕmara, vb. X, to settle (s.o. in); to settle, colonize (s.th.); to turn (a country) into a colony: autoben., t-stem of IV.

    BP#281ʕumr (ʕamr in oaths), pl. ʔaʕmār, n., life, duration of life, life span, lifetime; age (of a person) | la-ʕamrī upon my life! la-ʕamru ’llāhi by the everlasting existence of God! by the Eternal God! ḏāt al-ʕumrayn amphibian (n.); ʕumruhū ʕišrūna sanatan he is twenty years old.
    BP#4721ʕumrī, adj., age-related, age-based, age group: nsb-adj from ʕumr.
    ʕumrà, donation for life (Isl. Law): el.f.
    ʕamraẗ, n.f., (eg.) repair, repair work:. – For another meaning see s.v..
    BP#2892ʕimāraẗ, pl. ‑āt, ʕamāʔirᵘ, n., building, edifice, structure; real estate, tract lot; al-ʕ., fann al-ʕ., or handasaẗ al-ʕ., architecture, art of building: vn. I.
    ʕumrān, n., inhabitedness, populousness, thriving, flourishing, prosperity (as opposed to ↗ḫarāb); luxuriance, lushness; civilization; construction of houses; building trade, architecture: vn. I.
    BP#4095ʕumrānī, adj., civilized; populous and flourishing (country, region); civilizational, serving or concerning the development of civilization; constructional, construction (in compounds), architectonic, architectural: nsb-adj from ʕumrān | taḫṭīṭ ʕ., n., architectural planning.
    ʔaʕmarᵘ, adj., more inhabited, more populated, more populous; more cultivated, more civilized; more flourishing, more thriving: elat.
    miʕmār, n., builder, architect; mason:
    miʕmārī, adj., architectonic, architectural: nsb-adj from miʕmār; — (pl. ‑ūn), n., builder, architect; mason: nominalized nisba | muhandis m., n., builder, architect; al-fann al-m., n., art of building, architecture.
    taʕmīr, n., building, construction, erection; restoration, repair, overhauling, refurbishing, reconditioning; renovation of old buildings; development (of an area); reconstruction (eg., of a country’s industry); filling, filling-up; (tun.) filling out (of a form): vn. II
    taʕmīraẗ, n.f., filling, fllling-up: vn. II, n.vic.
    BP#2592ʔiʕmār, n., construction, building, development: vn. IV.
    BP#3055ĭstiʕmār, n., colonizing, colonization, foundation of colonies; colonialism (pol.), colonial rule: vn. X | al-ĭ. al-jadīd, n., neo-colonialism:
    BP#4561ĭstiʕmārī, adj., colonial; colonizer: nsb-adj from ĭstiʕmār.
    ĭstiʕmāriyyaẗ, n.f., colonialism (pol.): n.abstr. in iyyaẗ, coined from ĭstiʕmār.
    ʕāmir, adj., inhabited; peopled, populated, populous; full, filled, filled up; jammed, crowded, filled to capacity (bi‑ with); amply provided, splendidly furnished; civilized; cultivated (land); flourishing, thriving, prosperous: PA I; al-ʕāmir is a frequent epithet of castles, palaces, etc., of ruling houses | ʕ. bi’l-ʔamal, adj., full of hope; ʕ. al-jayb, adj., with a full pocket; ʕ. al-ḏimmaẗi li obliged to s.o., committed to s.o.; ʕ. al-nafs bi , adj., obsessed by, possessed by; ʔumm ʕ., n., hyena (zool.); nuhūd ʕāmiraẗ, n.pl., voluptuous bosoms :
    BP#4930maʕmūr, adj., inhabited, populated, populous: PP I; al-m. or al-maʕmūraẗ, n., the (inhabited) world | fī kull ʔanḥāʔ al-m.(aẗ), adv., all over the world, throughout the world.
    muʕammir, pl. ‑ūn, adj./n., colonist; colonizer: PA II.
    muʕammar, pl. ‑ūn, adj., senior (in sports): PP II from ʕumr.
    mustaʕmir, adj., colonial, imperialistic: PA X; — (pl. ‑ūn), n., settler, colonist; colonizer; foreign conqueror, invader; imperialist: nominalized PA X.
    mustaʕmaraẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., colony, settlement: nominalized PP X. | m. mustaqillaẗ, n., dominion.

    For other items of √ʕMR cf. ↗ʕumraẗ, ↗ʕamraẗ, ↗ʕamāraẗ, and ↗ʕammāriyyaẗ

    ʕumr عُمْر , var. ʕamr (in oaths), pl. ʔaʕmār 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 281 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕMR 
    n. 
    life, duration of life, life span, lifetime; age (of a person) – WehrCowan1979. 
    Akin to a vb. meaning ‘to be full, live, dwell, build’, cf. ↗ʕam˅ra
    ▪ … 
    See ↗ʕam˅ra
    ▪ Huehnergard2011 reconstructs CentrSem *ʕumr . For details and the connection to the vb. ‘to live, dwell, build’, see ↗ʕam˅ra.
    ▪ From here (probably the n. ʕumr) also the personal names ʕUmar, ʕAmr, ʕImrān, etc., all meaning ‘full of live, prosperous’.
     
    – 
    la-ʕamrī (oath), upon my life!
    la-ʕamru ’llāhi (oath), by the everlasting existence of God! by the Eternal God!
    ḏāt al-ʕumrayn, n., amphibian (n.).

    ʕamara, u, i (ʕamr, ʕumr), vb. I, to live long, be longevous: denom.?

    BP#4721ʕumrī, adj., age-related, age-based, age group: nsb-adj.
    ʕumrà, donation for life (Isl. Law): el.f.
    muʕammar, pl. ‑ūn, adj., senior (in sports): PP II from ʕumr.

    Cf. also ↗ʕamVra.
     

    ʕumraẗ عُمْرة 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 4852 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕMR 
    n.f. 
    pilgrimage to Mecca (the so-called ‘minor hadj’ which, unlike the hadj proper, need not be performed at a particular time of the year and whose performance involves fewer ceremonies) – WehrCowan1979. 
    Wellhausen1897 translates the word simply as ‘cult’, in which case it would be from the vb. ↗ʕamara in the sense of ‘to make prosper, cultivate’. It may however have to do, more directly, with the ‘omer’ (Hbr ʕōmär), a central element in the Jewish Pessach rituals. Originally, the ʕumraẗ, like the Pessach, was a spring festival on which a lamb (from the current year) was sacrificed. There was intense exchange between the religions of Arabia of late antiquity, of which many similarities between Judaism, Christianity, pre-Islamic Arabian “paganism”, and Islam give ample evidence. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ If belonging to ʕam˅ra, cf. ↗s.v..
    ▪ Connected to Hbr ʕōmär ‘heap/sheaf of grain; cupfull of barley, sacrificed during Pesach’? Cf. "Discussion" below. 
    ▪ Traditionally explained as belonging to a vb. ‘to visit’. If this, or what Wellhausen (1897: 78) says, namely that ʕumraẗ means nothing else than »Cultus«, then it is clearly akin to ↗ʕam˅ra in the sense of ‘to cultivate’.
    ▪ BDB1906 (s.v. ʕMR-3) mentions ʕamara ‘to live long’ and ʕamara ‘to worship’ in the same lemma.
    ▪ Given that the ʕumraẗ goes back to pre-Islamic times575 and evidently is related to the Jewish Pessach576 (cf. Ar ↗fiṣḥ) in which the ‘omer’ rituals play an important role, we should also not exclude a relation between Ar ʕumraẗ and Hbr ʕōmär ‘(a measure)’ (which in turn is probably akin to Ar ʕamura ‘to be full’ and/or perhaps to Ar ġamura ‘to be abundant (of water), surpass, overtop’, ↗ĠMR). 
    – 
    ĭʕtamara, vb. VIII, to visit (s.o., s.th.); to perform the ↗ʕumraẗ : denom. from the latter.
     
    ʕamraẗ عَمْرة 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕMR 
    n.f. 
    headgear (e.g., turban) – WehrCowan1979. – For another meaning ↗ʕam˅ra
    Connection to other items of ↗√ʕMR unclear. 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ʕamāraẗ عَمارَة 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕMR 
    n.f. 
    naval fleet – WehrCowan1979. 
    Connection to other items of ↗√ʕMR unclear. 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ʕImrān عِمْران 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Jun2023
    √ʕMR
     
    n.prop. 
    ʕImrān, the father of Moses, Aaron, and Miriam – Jeffery1938 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q iii, 30, 31; lxvi, 12 – Jeffery1938.
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Jun2023
    ʕMR
    ▪ eC7 Q iii, 30, 31; lxvi, 12 – Jeffery1938.
    ʕImrān, the father of Moses, Aaren, and Miriam – Jeffery1938 ▪ Jeffery1938: »In these passages we have the well-known confusion between Miriam the sister of Moses and Aaron, and Miriam the mother of our Lord, and in spite of the attempts at defence made by Gerock,577 Sale,578 and Weil,579 we have no need to look elsewhere than the [Hbr] ʕamrām of the O.T. for the ultimate source of the name, though the direct borrowing would seem to have been from the Syr ʕamrān.
    Sycz, Eigennamen, 60, would take it as a genuine Ar name applied to [Hbr] ʕamrām because the name seems to be a formation from ʕamara, and used in pre-Islamic times. Ibn Durayd, Ištiqāq, 314, tells us of an ʕimrān among the Quḍāʕa, and Ibn Qutayba, Maʕārif, 223, speaks of an ʕImrān bin Maḫzūm at Mecca. D. H. Müller, WZKM, i, 25, says the name was known in SArabia, and evidence for its existence in NArabia is found in a Grk inscription from the Hauran given by Lidzbarski, Ephemeris, ii, 331, which reads Aúθou Salémou kè Emránou Bássou, as well as the Abū ʕImrān mentioned in Al-ʔAʕšà.580 Horovitz, KU, 128, also quotes Littmann’s unpublished second volume No. 270 for an occurrence of the name in the Safaite inscriptions (cf. Ryckmans, Noms propres, i, 167).
    This, however, hardly affects the Qurʔānic name, for though we may agree that there was an early Arabic name of this form, it is surely clear, as both Lidzbarski and Horovitz note, that the Qurʔānic name came to Muḥammad from his Jewish or Christian sources, though in the form it takes he may have been influenced by the Arabic name (Horovitz, JPN, 159).«
     
    – 
    – 
    ʕammāriyyaẗ عَمّارِيّة 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕMR 
    n.f. 
    camel-borne sedan and the virgin riding in it into battle – WehrCowan1979. 
    Connection to other items of ↗√ʕMR unclear. 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ĭstiʕmār اِسْتِعْمار 
    ID 613 • NahḍConSw – • BP 3055 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕMR 
    n., X 
    colonizing, colonization, foundation of colonies; colonialism (pol.), colonial rule – WehrCowan1979. 
    vn. X, coined from ↗ʕam˅ra ‘to be full, prosper, live, dwell, build’ and/or the vn. I, ↗ʕumrān
    ▪ Not yet in Lane iii 1874, nor in Dozy1881.
    1887 Wahrmund1887 has a lemma ĭstiʕmār and gives its meaning as ‘Colonisierung’. 
    See ↗ʕam˅ra
    See ↗ʕam˅ra
    – 
    al-ĭstiʕmār al-jadīd, n., neo-colonialism.

    BP#4561ĭstiʕmārī, adj., colonial; colonizer: nsb-adj.
    ĭstiʕmāriyyaẗ, n.f., colonialism (pol.): n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ, coined from ĭstiʕmār.
     

    ĭstiʕmāriyyaẗ اِسْتِعْماريّة 
    ID … • Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕMR 
    n.f. 
    colonialism (pol.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ, coined from ↗ĭstiʕmār, vn. of ↗ĭstiʕmara vb. X, ‘to settle, colonize; to turn (a country) into a colony’, autoben., from ↗ʕam˅ra ‘to be full, prosper, live, dwell, build’. 
    ▪ … 
    See ↗ʕam˅ra
    See ↗ʕam˅ra
    – 
    Not derived, but related:
    BP#3055ĭstiʕmār, n., colonizing, colonization, foundation of colonies; colonialism (pol.), colonial rule: vn. X.
    BP#4561ĭstiʕmārī, adj., colonial; colonizer: nsb-adj from ĭstiʕmār.
     
    mustaʕmaraẗ مُسْتَعْمَرة 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 8Jun2023
    √ʕMR 
    n.f. 
    settlement, colony 
    ▪ nominalized PP X, f. 
    ʕMQ عمق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 2Mar2023
    √ʕMQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕMQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕMQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕMQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘depth, distant road, deep, to deepen; to contemplate’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕML عمل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕML 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕML_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ʕML_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘work, action, activity, labour, achievement, profession, to serve, to employ, maker, doer; respresentative, governor’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ʕamaliyyaẗ عَمَلِيَّة 
    ID 614 • Sw – • BP 133 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕML 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ʕāmil عامِل 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 1064 (adj.), 628 (n.), 1160 ‘factor etc.’ • APD … • © SG | created 8Jun2023
    √ʕML 
    adj.; n. 
    ▪ …PA, I 
    ʕMH عمه 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 2Mar2023
    √ʕMH 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕMH_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕMH_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕMH_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘perplexity; confusion; to be perplexed; to be puzzled’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕMY عمي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 2Mar2023
    √ʕMY 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕMY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕMY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕMY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘blindness, uncharted lands, thick black rain clouds, to become blind; to become obscure, become misguided, be ignorant, be enigmatic’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕNB عنب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕNB 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕNB_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ʕNB_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘grapes, vine, wine’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ʕinab عِنَب 
    ID 615 • Sw – • BP 4134 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕNB 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protCSem *ʕinab‑ (or *ġinab‑) ‘grape’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘grapes’) Akk inbu ‘fruit, tree, fruit’, Hbr ʕēnāḇ, Syr ʕenbṯā, SAr ʕnb ‘Rebe’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ʕNBR عنبر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕNBR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕNBR_1 ‘ambergris; sperm whale, cachalot (zool.)’ ↗ʕanbar_1
    ▪ ʕNBR_2 ‘storehouse, warehouse, depot’ ↗ʕanbar_2, ↗ʔanbār

    Other values, now obsolete, include:
    • ʕNBR_3 ‘saffron’ : ʕanbar (Lane, Hava1899)
    • ʕNBR_4 ‘shield’ : ʕanbar (Lane, Hava1899)
    • ʕNBR_5 ‘bitter cold of winter’ : ʕanbaraẗ (Hava1899)
    • ʕNBR_6 ‘nobility of a tribe’ : ʕanbaraẗ (Hava1899)
    • ʕNBR_7 ‘belonging to the Banū ’l-ʕAnbar’ : ʕanbarī
     
    ▪ ʕNBR_1 ʕanbar ‘ambergris’: of obscure etymology. Perhaps a transfer of meaning from ʕanbar ‘sperm whale, cachalot (zool.)’, which is of similarly unclear origin, to the solid, wax-like, flammable substance of a dull grey or blackish colour produced in the digestive system of the sperm whale, found floating in tropical seas and used in perfume manufacture. Or it is the other way round, the name for the type of whale stemming from its fragrant excrements? – Lane lists ʕanbar not only under √ʕNBR, but also under √ʕBR (referring the reader from there to √ʕNBR). Is ʕanbar in any way related to ↗ʕabīr then? According to ClassAr lexicography, ʕabīr is a mixture of perfumes, containing (among many other things) also saffron; in some places it is even quated with ‘saffron’, as is also ʕanbar (see ʕNBR_3). – Any connection of ʕanbar ‘ambergris’ with Grk lamprós ‘bright, brilliant, radiant’ (with initial l- interpreted as article al-)?
    ▪ ʕNBR_2 ʕanbar ‘storehouse, warehouse, depot’: The Ar word is believed by some to be of Pers origin, a var. of ↗ʔanbār. Others, however, think the Pers word is borrowed from Ar. Meanwhile, Roland2014a reminds us of the possibility that ʕanbar also may have been the original word for the ‘sperm whale, cachalot’; if this is true then the meaning ‘storehouse’ may be the result of a semantic development from ‘cachalot’ > ‘skin of the cachalot, used as a shield; shield’ (see ʕNBR_4, below) > *protection > ‘hangar (protecting food, etc.), storehouse’.

    ▪ ʕNBR_3 : In some ClassAr texts, ʕanbar seems to have the meaning ‘saffron’ (Lane, Hava1899). Are we dealing with a homonym here, or is it just the result of a confusion and/or transfer of meaning from ‘ambergris’ (ʕNBR_1) to ‘saffron’ (perh. due to its smell)?
    ▪ ʕNBR_4 : The value ‘shield’ that ʕanbar can take in ClassAr is explained by the lexicographers as the result of a semantic development from ʕanbar as the term for the ‘spermaceti whale’ (»a certain great fish, the length of which reaches to fifty cubits, called in Pers pāleh [apparently a mistranscription for (Pers) vāl, see (Ar) bāl ]«), via the ‘shields [that] are made of its skin’, »and hence, a shield, made of the skin of the fish above mentioned, and some say, coats of defence« – Lane.
    ▪ ʕNBR_5 ʕanbaraẗ ‘bitter cold of winter’ (Hava1899): seems to be a fig. use of ‘ambergris’, though the nature of the relation is not really clear. Is the tertium comparationis the idea of ‘essence’ or ‘purity’—ambergris being the ‘essence’ of a perfume, and the bitter cold the ‘essence’ of winter? Cf. also the next two items.
    ▪ ʕNBR_6 ʕanbaraẗ ‘nobility of a tribe (Hava1899), purity of the pedigrees of a people (Lane)’: like ʕNBR_5.
    ▪ ʕNBR_7 ʕanbarī ‘ʕAnbarite’, »belonging to the Banū ’l-ʕAnbar, or Balʕanbar, a tribe of Tamīm who were the most skilful people as guides, hence the proverbial saying, ʔanta ʕanbarī bi-hāḏā ’l-balad ‘thou art an Amberee in this country, or district’« (Lane): like in ‘bitter cold’ (ʕNBR_5) or ‘nobility of a tribe’ (ʕNBR_6), the basic idea here too may be *‘essence, purity’, a fig. use of ʕanbar in the (original?) sense of ‘ambergris’. 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    See above, section CONC. 
    – 
    – 
    ¹ʕanbar عَنْبَر , pl. ʕanābirᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕNBR 
    n. 
    1 ambergris; 2 (pl. ʕanābirᵘ) sperm whale, cachalot (zool.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Whatever the primary value may have been—[v1] or [v2]—, the word is of obscure etymology.
    ▪ Accord. to Lokotsch1927, ʕanbar ‘ambergris’ is a »sehr teure, dunkelgraue Masse, die in früheren Zeiten in der Medizin hochgeschätzt war, während sie heute fast nur noch zur Herstellung von Parfümen benutzt wird. In rundlichen oder kantigen Stücken auf dem Meere schwimmend oder am Strande angespült, wird die Ambra im Indischen Ozean gefunden und für feine Sorten je kg 5000 Mark und mehr gezahlt.« 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ ? 
    ▪ »Nişanyan rapproche le mot du [mPers] ambar ‘id.’. Pour Desmaisons et Johnson, le [Pers] ʕambar est d’origine arabe. Vu le nombre de mots construits sur cette base consonantique aux sens très divers que l’on trouve aussi bien chez Kazimirski que chez Lane [cf. ↗ʕNBR], on a probablement affaire à des homonymes et à plusieurs origines linguistiques. Il ne faut pas exclure la possibilité que ʕanbar soit un vieux mot racine désignant le cachalot« – Rolland2014a.
    ▪ [v1] ‘ambergris’ is perh. a transfer of meaning from ʕanbar [v2] ‘sperm whale, cachalot (zool.)’, which is of similarly unclear origin, to the solid, wax-like, flammable substance of a dull grey or blackish colour produced in the digestive system of the sperm whale, found floating in tropical seas and used in perfume manufacture (wiktionary/en.wikipedia). Or it is the other way round, the name for the type of whale stemming from its fragrant excrements?
    ▪ Lane lists ʕanbar not only under √ʕNBR, but also under √ʕBR (referring the reader from there to √ʕNBR). Is ʕanbar in any way related to ↗ʕabīr then? According to ClassAr dictionaries, ʕabīr is a mixture of perfumes, containing (among many other things) also saffron; in some places it is therefore even equated with ‘saffron’, as is also ʕanbar (see ʕNBR_3).
    ▪ Any connection betw. Ar ʕanbar ‘ambergris’ and Grk lamprós ‘bright, brilliant, radiant’ (with initial l- interpreted as article al-)?
     
    ▪ Tu amber ‘ambergris’: 1303 Codex Cumanicus : ladano = ʕanbar – Nişanyan10Apr2015.
    ▪ Ar ʕanbar ‘ambergris’ is also the source of corresponding words in many Eur langs—cf., e.g., Engl amber, mC14, ‘ambergris, perfume made from ambergris’, »from oFr ambre, from mLat ambar ‘ambergris’ (> It ambra, etc.), from Ar ʕanbar ‘id.’ – In Europe, the sense was extended, inexplicably, to fossil resins from the Baltic (lC13 in AngloLat; c. 1400 in Engl), which has become the main sense as the use of ambergris has waned. This formerly was known as ‘white or yellow amber ’ to distinguish it from ambergris, which word entered Engl eC15 from Fr, which distinguished the two substances as ambre gris and ambre jaune. The classical word for Baltic amber was electrum (cf. electric [cf. Ar ↗kahrabāʔ ])« – EtymOnline .
     
    ʕanbarī, adj., 1 perfumed with ambergris: nsb-adj. from ʕanbar in the sense of [v1] ‘ambergris’; 2 liqueur (also nabīḏ ʕanbarī): short for al-ʕaraq al-~ which, accord. to Dozy, is »la meilleure espèce de ʕaraq «; if from [v1] ‘ambergris’ then prob. in the latter’s fig. meaning of *‘essence’ (see ʕNBR_5-7 in entry ↗ʕNBR); 3 a variety of pigeon: etymology unclear.
    ʕanbaraẗ al-šitāʔ, n.f., the severity of winter, frost: belonging here, or to be kept apart from ‘ambergris’? Perh. the *‘essence’ of winter, cf. ʕanbarī [v2] above and ʕNBR_5-7 in entry ↗ʕNBR. 
    ²ʕanbar عَنْبَر , pl. ʕanābirᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕNBR 
    n. 
    1 storehouse, warehouse, store, depot; 2 hold (of a ship); 3 shed; 4 locomotive shed, car shed; 5 aircraft shed, hangar; 6 factory hall; 7 sleeping quarters, dormitory; 8 ward (of a hospital or prison) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Var. of ↗ʔanbār ‘hangar, grange, magasin, entrepôt, dépôt; pont (de vaisseau)’, from mPers hanbārak ‘id.’, akin to Skr sambhāra ‘collecte, accumulation de nourriture’ < IE *sem- ‘un, même, ensemble’ + *bʰer- ‘porter’ – Rolland2014a.104
    ▪ Cf., however, also ↗ʕanbar_1 in the meaning of ‘sperm whale, cachalot’, hence also ‘skin of the cachalot, used as a shield; shield [see ʕNBR_4 in root entry ↗ʕNBR]’ from where it is not a big step to > *protection, and hence ‘hangar (protecting food, etc.), storehouse’. 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    – 
    – 
    ʕNT عنت 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 2Mar2023
    √ʕNT 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕNT_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕNT_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕNT_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a mountain which is difficult to climb, hardship, to cause hardship; corruption, sinning; to be overbearing, to be fastidious, to be finicky’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕND عند 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 2Mar2023
    √ʕND 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕND_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕND_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕND_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘side, location, being at a point in time or place; to deviate, to oppose stubbornly, obstinacy, to be headstrong’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕinda-ʔiḏⁱⁿ عِنْدَئِذٍ 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 3953 • APD … • © SG | created 8Jun2023
    √ʕND, ʔḎ 
    adv. 
    then, at that time 
    ▪ … 
    ʕNṢR عنصر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕNṢR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕNṢR_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ʕNṢR_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ʕunṣuriyyaẗ عُنْصُرِيَّة 
    ID 616 • Sw – • BP 4540 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕNṢR 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ʕNQ عنق 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕNQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕNQ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ʕNQ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘neck, to twist the neck, notables; to hug, to wrestle, to struggle; legendary bird (the phoenix)’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ʕunq عُنْق , var. ʕunuq 
    ID 617 • Sw 50/103 • BP 3122 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕNQ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: an alternative term for ‘neck’ for which protSem *ʕ˅nḳ‑ can be reconstructed. But the basic protSem term for ‘neck’, *kišād‑, does not seem to have left reflexes in Ar. – Cf. also ↗ṣawar, √ṢWR.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ʕNKB عنكب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕNKB 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕNKB_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ʕNKB_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘spider, worms that infest honeycombs, to be twisted almost into the shape of a ram’s horns’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ʕankabūt عَنْكَبُوت 
    ID 618 • Sw – • BP 5231 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕNKB 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protWSem *ʕankab‑ ‘spider’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ʕNW عنو 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 2Mar2023
    √ʕNW 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕNW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕNW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕNW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be humble, be subservient, yield, show humility, submit, humble o.s.; to take by force, force, to take as prisoner of war, to be imprisoned; to show interest; to take s.th.; to mean, meaning; title’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕHD عهد 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕHD 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕHD_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ʕHD_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘covenant, agreement, promise; purity; safe conduct; to enjoin; to frequent; agreed time; known place; to inspect, to look for’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ʕahd عَهْد 
    ID 619 • Sw – • BP 892 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕHD 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ʕHN عهن 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Mar2023
    √ʕHN 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕHN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕHN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕHN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘wool dyed in several colours, broken branches still attached to the tree; to relax’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕWǦ عوج 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Mar2023
    √ʕWǦ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕWǦ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕWǦ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕWǦ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘ivory, to be crooked, to be curved/twisted around, to bend up, to twist, to lean to; to divert’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕWD عود 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, updated 29Oct2021
    √ʕWD 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕWD_1 ‘to return’ ↗ʕāda; ‘custom, habit’ ↗ʕādaẗ; ‘clinic’ ↗ʕiyādaẗ (√ʕWD); ‘feast, festival’ ↗ʕīd (√ʕYD)
    ▪ ʕWD_2 ‘1 wood; 2 lute’ ↗ʕūd
    ▪ ʕWD_3 ‘old, ancient, antique’: ↗ʕādī
    ▪ ʕWD_4 ‘(Lev.Gul) so; (Irq) already’: ↗ʕād

    Other values, now obsolete, include:
    ʕWD_5 ‘1ʔinna; 2hal; 3 not (negative answer to a question)’: ʕādi
    ʕWD_6 ‘ʕĀd’ (an ancient Arabian tribe): ʕĀd
    ʕWD_7 ‘…’ : …

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘1 stick, pole, branch of a tree; 2 to go back, rescind, accrue; 3 to be accustomed, habits, to repeat, be experienced; 4 appointed time or place, anniversary, feast day; 5 to change to, change; to visit’. 
    ▪ ʕWD_1 : from protWSem *√ʕWD ‘to turn’. – ʕādaẗ ‘custom, habit’ is *‘s.th. returning regularly’, and dto. the ʕīd ‘feast, festival’ (which in itself is considered an inner-Sem loan, from Syr, see ↗ʕīd); ʕiyādaẗ ‘clinic’ is from ʕāda in the sense of ‘to return regularly to s.o., visit (a patient)’
    ▪ ʕWD_2 : etymology obscure; a relation to Sem *ʕiś‑ ‘tree’ can be excluded. – 1 Accord. to A. Dietrich (in entry »ʕūd« in EI²), the widespread use of the term ʕūd as ‘aloe wood’ is wrong as ʕūd originally signifies »certain kinds of resinous, dark-coloured woods with a high specific weight and a strong aromatic scent, which were used in medicine as perfume and incense (ʕūd al-baḫūr) and were highly coveted because of their rarity and value«. – 2 The Ar lute was called ʕūd ‘wood(en)’ prob. because its upper part was made of precious ʕūd wood.
    ▪ ʕWD_3 : explained in the ClassAr dictionaries as based on ʕWD_6 ʕĀd, the ancient Arab tribe, not as semantic extension of the more common sense of ʕādī, which is ‘customary, usual, common, ordinary; hence also simple, plain, ordinary (man)’, derived as a nsb-adj. from ʕādaẗ ‘custom, habit’ (i.e., * ‘s.th. returning regularly’, from [v1] ‘to return’).
    ▪ ʕWD_4 : The modern dialectal meanings ‘so’ (LevAr, GulfAr) and ‘already’ (IrqAr) of the adv. ʕādi have an old Sem background and can be traced back to protWSem *ʕād- ‘(he is) still’ (Kogan2015: 76-77 #6), which is prob. related to ʕWD_1 ‘to return’.
    ʕWD_5 : prob. same as preceding, though semantics seem to differ slightly.
    ʕWD_6 : »ʕĀd, an ancient Arab tribe, is mentioned by name twenty-four times in the Qurʔān, as the people to whom the prophet Hūd was sent. One of the peoples associated with the long-lost past, they are named in pre-Islamic poetry and are a part of ancient Arabian mythology. They represent the origin of the Arabs in the distant past and exemplify their power, longevity, and pride; this sense is found in dictionaries, with the word ʕādī, meaning ‘very ancient,’ connected etymologically to the ʕĀd (see Lane, s.v.)« – A. Rippin, art. »ʕĀd«, in EI³. – The tribe’s name itself is of obscure etymology. »Wellhausen pointed out that instead of the expression ‘since the time of ʕĀd’ the expression min al-ʕād also occurs; therefore he supposed that originally ʕĀd was a common noun (‘the ancient time’; adj. ʕādī ‘very ancient’) and that the mythical nation arose from a misinterpretation of that expression« – F. Buhl, art. »ʕĀd«, in EI².
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ʕWD_3 : cf. ʕawd, pl. ʕiyadaẗ, ʕiwadaẗ, adj., ‘old (animal); ancient (road)’ – Hava1899.
    ʕWD_5 : ʕādi ‘(1) indeclinable particle having the sense of ʔinna, e.g., raqadtu wa-ʕādi ʔabāka sāhir “I slept while thy father remained awake”; (2) interrog. part. in the sense of hal, e.g., ʕādi ʔabūk muqīm “Is thy father abiding?”; (3) negative answer to a question, e.g., ʕādi ḫaraǧa Zayd? ʕādi-h “Has Zeyd gone forth? He has not”’ – Hava1899.
    ʕWD_6 : ʕĀd, »an ancient Arab tribe descended from Shem, a son of Noah and ancestor of the Semites (Gen. X.21), and described as being of giant stature *(7:74) wa-ḏkurū ʔiḏ ǧaʕala-kum ḫulafāʔa min baʕdi ʕĀdin ‘and remember when He made you successors after ʕĀd’. The people of ʕĀd were a great tribe that dwelled in al-ʔAḥqāf (q.v.), a vast hilly desert region said to have extended between Oman and Ḥaḍramawt in Arabia. Their main city ʔIram (q.v.) was described in the Qurʔān (89:7-8), as ‘the city of lofty pillars, the like of which has never been created in the land’. When their brother, the prophet Hūd, warned them against their worshipping of idols (said to have been the Goddess Allāt, q.v.) they called him a liar. They were punished for denying God and their mighty city was destroyed by a terrible wailing wind (69:6) that levelled everything to the ground and left the inhabitants strewn around like felled palm trees« – BadawiAbdelHaleem2008.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ʕWD_1: (Klein1987:) Hbr ʕwd ‘to return, repeat, do again’, Aram ʕîdâ ‘festival’, Syr ʕyādâ ‘usage, ceremony’, SAr ʕwd ‘to return’. – (Kogan2015, 76-77 #6 n219:) »reliably attested in a rather narrow circle of WSem languages«: Hbr ʕwd ‘to surround’ (very marginal), Ar ʕwd ‘to return’, Sab ʕwd ‘to return’, Min ʕwd ‘retourner’, Gz ʕoda ‘to go around, turn around’. – (Tropper2008:) Cf. also Ug ʕwd (D-stem) ‘to return (s.th.), bring back’ (?)
    ▪ ʕWD_2: – (modHbr ʕūd ‘lute’ is from Ar).
    ▪ ʕWD_3: [v1] based on ʕādaẗ ‘custom, habit’, see ʕWD_1; [v2] from ʕĀd, the ancient Arab tribe, see ʕWD_6.
    ▪ ʕWD_4: (Kogan2015, 76-77 #6:) Hbr ʕōd, BiblAram ʕōd, Ar ʕād(a), Gz ʕādi, Mhr ʔād, Jib ʕɔd, Soq ʕad.
    ʕWD_5: = ʕWD_4?
    ʕWD_6: of unknown etymology (but see DISC below).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ It seems that, etymologically, we can distinguish three main complexes: A ‘to return’, comprising the broad value spectrum of [v1] and [v4], and prob. also [v5], B ‘wood; lute’, with [v2] as the only representative, and C the tribal name ‘ʕĀd’ [v6], with [v3] ‘ancient’ derived from it.
    ▪ Within complex A, the exact semantic relation (and dependence) between [v1] ‘to return’ and [v4] ‘(is) still’ should be further explored. Probably, the meaning ‘still’ is resultative: when one ‘returns’ and finds s.th. ‘repeatedly’ or ‘again’ in the same condition as before, one qualifies it as ‘still’ having an unchanged status.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ʕWD_2: Engl lute (lC13) < oFr lut, leut < oProv laut < Ar al-ʕūd. – Cf. also Ar al-ʕūd > mLat lutana > Span laud, Port alaude, It liutoEtymOnline. | Ge Laute < mHGe lūte, mDu lute, luyte, Du luit < oFr leüt (C13) (> Fr luth), oProv laüt (c1300), It liuto (lC13) < Span laúd, older form alaúd (eC14), alod (mC13) < Ar al-ʕūdDWDS (< Pfeiffer, Etym. Wb.)
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ʕād‑ / ʕud‑ عادَ / عُدْـ 
    ID 620 • Sw – • BP 123 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, updated 31Oct2021
    √ʕWD 
    vb., I 
    1a to return, come back (li or ʔilà to); b to flow back; 2a to go back, be traceable, be attributable (ʔilà to); b to revert, redound, accrue (ʕalà to); c to refer, relate (ʕalà to); 3a to be due, go back (ʔilà to); b to fall to s.o.’s (ʔilà) lot or share, fall in s.o.’s (ʔilà) bailiwick; c to belong, (ap)pertain, be proper (ʔilà or li to); 4 to give up, abandon, relinquish (ʕan s.th.), withdraw, resign (ʕan from); ʕāda bi to return with = to lead back, bring back, take back, return, reduce, revert s.o. or s.th. (ʔilà to); ʕāda ʕalayhi bi to bring about, entail s.th. for s.o., result in s.th. for s.o., yield, bring in, return s.th. to s.o.; (with predicate adjective or noun in acc.) to become, grow (into), turn into; (with foll. imperf. or ʔilà) to resume, renew (an activity); (with neg. and foll. imperf.) to do s.th. no more or no longer; (with foll. finite verb) to do s.th. again or anew; — 5 (ʕiyādaẗ) to visit (DO a patient), have under treatment (DO; of a physician) – WehrCowan1979.
     
    ▪ From protWSem *√ʕWD ‘to turn’ – Kogan2015.
    ▪ Related also to protSem *ʕād- ‘(he is) still’ – Kogan2015: 76-77 #6, see ↗ʕād.
    ▪ Kogan2015, 203 #66: In Ar, ʕāda and ↗raǧaʕa have largely ousted ↗ṯāba, the Ar reflex of the main exponent of the meaning ‘to return’ in protCSem, *ṯwb.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Klein1987: Hbr ʕwd ‘to return, repeat, do again’, Aram ʕîdâ ‘festival’, Syr ʕyādâ ‘usage, ceremony’, SAr ʕwd ‘to return’.
    ▪ Kogan2015, 76-77 #6 n219: (reliably attested in a rather narrow circle of WSem languages:) Hbr ʕwd ‘to surround’ (very marginal), Ar ʕwd ‘to return’, Sab ʕwd ‘to return’, Min ʕwd ‘retourner’, Gz ʕoda ‘to go around, turn around’.
    ▪ Tropper2008: cf. prob. also Ug ʕwd (D-stem) ‘to return (s.th.), bring back’ (?).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    taʕawwud, n., contraction of a habit, habituation: vn. V.
    ĭʕtiyād, n., contraction of a habit, habituation: vn. VIII.
    ĭʕtiyādī, adj., 1a ordinary, common; b usual, customary, habitual; c normal, regular; d plain, simple, ordinary (man): nsb-formation of preceding
    BP#2502ĭstiʕādaẗ, n.f., reconquest, recovery, recuperation, regaining, reclamation, retrieval: vn. X.
    BP#2061ʕāʔid, adj., 1a returning, reverting, recurrent; b (pl. ūn), n., returning emigrant, re-emigrant; c (pl. ʕuwwād), n., visitor (to a sick person); 2a accruing (profit, merit); b belonging, (ap)pertaining, proper (li or ʔilà to s.o./s.th.); 3 pl. ʕāʔidāt, nonhum.pl., revenues: PA I. | ʕāʔid al-ʔarbāḥ, n., net profit, net gain
    ʕāʔidaẗ, pl. ʕawāʔidᵘ, n.f., benefit, profit, advantage, gain (ʕalà for s.o.): PA I.f.
    ʕāʔidiyyaẗ, n.f., a belonging (to), a being part (of), membership: abstr. formation in iyyaẗ, based on ʕāʔid (2b).
    muʕawwad, adj., 1a used, accustomed, habituated, conditioned, inured, seasoned (ʕalà to); b wont (ʕalà to do s.th.), being in the habit (ʕalà of doing s.th.): PP II.
    muʕīd, pl. -ūn, n., 1 repetitor, tutor, coach; 2 assistant conducting drill sessions (university): PA IV.
    muʕād: muʕād taṣdīruh, forwarded (mail): PP IV.
    mutaʕawwid, adj., 1a used, accustomed, habituated, conditioned, inured, seasoned (ʕalà to); b wont (ʕalà to do s.th.), being in the habit (ʕalà of doing s.th.): PA V.
    BP#3431muʕtād, adj., 1a used, accustomed, habituated, conditioned, inured, seasoned (ʕalà to); b wont (ʕalà to do s.th.), being in the habit (ʕalà of doing s.th.); 2 usual, customary, normal: PA/PP VIII | ka-’l-muʕtād, adv., as usual; muʕtād al-ǧarāʔim, n., habitual criminal

    For other items pertaining to √ʕWD/ʕYD, cf. ↗ʕūd, ↗ʕādaẗ, ↗ʕādī, ↗ʕiyādaẗ, ↗ʕād, and ↗ʕīd (√ʕYD), as well as, for the whole picture, root entries ↗√ʕWD and ↗√ʕYD. 
    ʕūd عُود , pl. ʔaʕwād, ʕīdān 
    ID 621 • Sw – • BP 3206 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, updated 31Oct2021
    √ʕWD 
    n. 
    1a wood; b stick, rod, pole; c branch, twig, switch; d item, stalk; e cane, reed; 2 aloes (wood); 3 lute (musical instrument); 4a body, build, physique; b strength, force, intensity; c pl. ʔaʕwād, full intensity (e.g., of a disease) – WehrCowan1979.
     
    ▪ [v1] : etymology obscure; a relation to Sem *ʕiś ‘tree’105 can be excluded.
    ▪ [v2] : Accord. to A. Dietrich, the widespread use of ʕūd for ‘aloe wood’ is incorrect; originally, ʕūd rather signifies »certain kinds of resinous, dark-coloured woods with a high specific weight and a strong aromatic scent, which were used in medicine as perfume and incense (ʕūd al-baḫūr) and were highly coveted because of their rarity and value« (entry »ʕūd« in EI²).
    ▪ [v3] : The ʕūd is »the most important musical instrument of Islamic peoples from the Atlantic shores to the Persian lands« – Dietrich, ‘ʕūd’, in EI². — Lute-like instruments are attested far back in the history of the Middle East and have been part of musical culture in Mesopotamia and the Fertile Crescent since a very long time. While long-necked lutes (or harps) ultimately may be related to the Persian setār and Indian sitar (see ↗qīṯāraẗ), the short-necked ʕūd is assumed to have developed from the Persian berbat by C9‘. – The fact that the Arabic lute was called ʕūd is usually explained as due to the instrument’s (upper part) being made of wood (as opposed to earlier similar lutes, called mizhar or barbat, with a body cover made of skin/leather). However, prob. the reason was not only that it had a wooden deck, but also that the wood that was used for this purpose was precious wood, as ʕūd »was regarded as a luxury item, used especially for fine wood-carving and furniture-making« (ibid.). — Another explanation (promoted, among others, by Ibn Ḫaldūn) connects it to a wooden plectrum with which the ʕūd allegedly was played; but this is rather unlikely, as the plectrum typically is soft (cf. its traditional name, rīšaẗ ‘feather’). – Ar al-ʕūd is the etymon of most Eur words for ‘lute’ (see below, section WEST). Europeans came to know the lute perh. through the crusaders, but prob. even earlier via Andalusia (the Arabs had brought musical instruments with them from the East when the conquered Southern Spain and established the Umayyad caliphate in Córdoba) or via Byzantium. In Europe, the lute received bonds (made of catgut), and from c.1500 CE onwards, it was played with the fingers rather than with a plectrum. During the Renaissance, the lute was regarded as the queen of musical instruments – art. »Laute« in de.wiki (as of 30Oct2021).
    ▪ [v4] : fig. use
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ – . (modHbr ʕūd ‘lute’ is from Ar).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ The fact that ʕūd does not have cognates in Sem underlines the term’s peculiarity. Should one assume that it is a foreign word?
    ▪ Lokotsch1927 #2127: In the same way as the lute, the instrument accompanying love songs, has reached us from the Islamic East, so probably also medieval Minnesang is of Oriental provenience; for discussion, see ↗ṭarab (etymon of Fr troubadour?).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Engl lute (lC13) < oFr lut, leut < oProv laut < Ar al-ʕūd. – Cf. also Ar al-ʕūd > mLat lutana > Span laud, Port alaude, It liutoEtymOnline.
    ▪ Ge Laute < mHGe lūte, mDu lute, luyte, Du luit < oFr leüt (C13) (> Fr luth), oProv laüt (c1300), It liuto (lC13) < Span laúd, older form alaúd (eC14), alod (mC13) < Ar al-ʕūdDWDS (< Pfeiffer, Etym. Wb.)
    ▪ Ar al-ʕūd ‘wood; instrument made from wood, lute, cither’ > It liuto, liudo, oFr leüt, Fr luth, Span laud, Port alaude, Rum laută, Du luit, Engl lute, Ge Laute; [Rum laută > Tu lauta, lāʔuṭa > nGrk laoùta, Bulg lauta ‘violin’, Serb Iout ‘lute’, Ukr łavuta ‘lute, violin; thickhead, fool’, ljutnja, Ru Ijutnja, Pol lutnia, Cz loutna ‘lute’ – Lokotsch1927 #2127.
    ▪ …
     
    ʕūd al-ṯiqāb, n., matchstick, match;
    ʕūd al-ṣalīb, n., peony (Paeonia; bot.);
    ʕūd al-kibrīt, n., matchstick, match;
    raḫāwaẗ al-ʕūd, n.f., weakness of character;
    ṣulb al-ʕūd, adj., of robust physique; strongly built, husky, sturdy; stubborn, resistant, unbending, unyielding, relentless;
    ṣalābaẗ al-ʕūd, n.f., sternness, severity, hardness, obstinacy, stubbornness, inflexibility, relentlessness;
    ladn al-ʕūd, adj., lissome, lithe, of elastic physique;
    ṯaqqafa ʕūdah, expr., to train, educate s.o.;
    ʕaǧama ʕūdah, expr., to test s.o., put s.o. to the test;
    kasara ʕūdah, expr., to break s.o.’s power of resistance, crush s.o.’s spirit

    ʕawwādaẗ, pl. āt, woman lutist: n.prof.f.

    For other items pertaining to √ʕWD/ʕYD, cf. ↗ʕāda, ↗ʕādaẗ, ↗ʕādī, ↗ʕiyādaẗ, ↗ʕād, and ↗ʕīd (√ʕYD), as well as, for the whole picture, root entries ↗√ʕWD and ↗√ʕYD. 
    ʕādaẗ عادة , pl. ‑āt, ʕawāʔidᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 734 • APD … • © SG | 31Oct2021
    √ʕWD 
    n.f. 
    1 habit, wont, custom, usage, practice; ʕādaẗan, adv., usually, customarily, ordinarily, habitually; 2 pl. ʕawāʔidᵘ, a taxes, duties; b charges, fees, rates – WehrCowan1979
     
    ▪ From ↗ʕāda ‘to return’ (*‘to return regularly, become habitual’), from protWSem *√ʕWD ‘to turn’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ↗ʕāda
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    fawqᵃ l-ʕādaẗ, adv., extraordinary, unusual, uncommon; special, extraordinary, emergency (e.g., meeting);
    ʕalà ʕādatih, adv., according to his habit, as was his wont, as he used to do;
    ka-sābiq al-ʕādaẗ, adv., as was formerly customary, as usual;
    ǧarat-i l-ʕādaẗ bi , expr., to be customary, usual, common or current, prevail, be a common phenomenon, be the vogue, have become common practice;
    ǧarat bi-ḏālika ʕādatuhum, expr., that was their habit, that’s what they used to do;
    al-ʕādaẗ al-sirriyyaẗ, n.f., onanism, masturbation;
    ʕawāʔid al-gumruk, nonhum.pl., customs duties;
    ʕawāʔid mabānin, nonhum.pl., house taxes;
    ʕawāʔid al-ʔamlāk, nonhum.pl., taxes on real estate

    BP#2964taʕawwada, vb. V, to get used, be accustomed, habituate o.s. (ʕalà or DO, to s.th.), make a habit (ʕalà or DO, of s. th.), be used to doing, be wont to do: Dt-stem, selfref. and/or denom. from ʕādaẗ.
    BP#3527ĭʕtāda, vb. VIII, = V: Gt-stem, selfref.

    BP#631ʕādī, adj., 1a customary, usual, common, ordinary, normal, regular; b undistinguished, run-of-the-mill; c ordinary, regular (e.g., meeting, as opposed to extraordinary, special, emergency); d simple, plain, ordinary (man): nsb-formation from ʕādaẗ. — 2ʕādī, [v2]
    taʕwīd, n., accustoming, habituation, conditioning, inurement (ʕalà to): vn. II.
    taʕawwud, n., contraction of a habit, habituation: vn. V.
    ĭʕtiyād, n., contraction of a habit, habituation: vn. VIII.
    ĭʕtiyādī, adj., 1a ordinary, common; b usual, customary, habitual; c normal, regular; d plain, simple, ordinary (man): nsb-formation of preceding
    BP#2502ĭstiʕādaẗ, n.f., reconquest, recovery, recuperation, regaining, reclamation, retrieval: vn. X.
    BP#2061ʕāʔid, adj., 1a returning, reverting, recurrent; b (pl. ūn), n., returning emigrant, re-emigrant; c (pl. ʕuwwād), n., visitor (to a sick person); 2a accruing (profit, merit); b belonging, (ap)pertaining, proper (li or ʔilà to s.o./s.th.); 3 pl. ʕāʔidāt, nonhum.pl., revenues: PA I. | ʕāʔid al-ʔarbāḥ, n., net profit, net gain
    muʕawwad, adj., 1a used, accustomed, habituated, conditioned, inured, seasoned (ʕalà to); b wont (ʕalà to do s.th.), being in the habit (ʕalà of doing s.th.): PP II.
    mutaʕawwid, adj., 1a used, accustomed, habituated, conditioned, inured, seasoned (ʕalà to); b wont (ʕalà to do s.th.), being in the habit (ʕalà of doing s.th.): PA V.
    BP#3431muʕtād, adj., 1a used, accustomed, habituated, conditioned, inured, seasoned (ʕalà to); b wont (ʕalà to do s.th.), being in the habit (ʕalà of doing s.th.); 2 usual, customary, normal: PA/PP VIII | ka-’l-muʕtād, adv., as usual; muʕtād al-ǧarāʔim, n., habitual criminal

    For other items pertaining to √ʕWD/ʕYD, cf. ↗ʕāda, ↗ʕūd, ↗ʕādī, ↗ʕiyādaẗ, ↗ʕād, and ↗ʕīd (√ʕYD), as well as, for the whole picture, root entries ↗√ʕWD and ↗√ʕYD. 
    ʕādī عاديّ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 631 • APD … • © SG | 29Oct2021
    √ʕWD 
    adj. 
    1a customary, usual, common, ordinary, normal, regular; b undistinguished, run-of-the-mill; c ordinary, regular (e.g., meeting, as opposed to extraordinary, special, emergency); d simple, plain, ordinary (man): nsb-formation of the preceding; — 2 old, ancient, antique – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ [v1] : nsb-formation from ʕādaẗ ‘custom, habit’, from ↗ʕāda, vb. I, ‘to return’ (> *‘to be repeated, become a habit’), ultimately from protWSem *√ʕWD ‘to turn’.
    ▪ [v2] : prob. a nsb-formation from ʕĀd, the name of an ancient Arab tribe; see ʕWD_6 in root entry ↗√ʕWD.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ [v2] : ʕawd, pl. ʕiyadaẗ, ʕiwadaẗ, adj., ‘old (animal); ancient (road)’; ʕādī ‘old; old building; ruins’ – Hava1899.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ [v1] : ↗ʕāda.
    ▪ [v2] : ? – Cf. ↗ʕWD_6.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ʕādiyyāt, nonhum.pl., antiques, antiquities

    For other items pertaining to √ʕWD/ʕYD, cf. ↗ʕāda, ↗ʕūd, ↗ʕādaẗ, ↗ʕiyādaẗ, ↗ʕād, and ↗ʕīd (√ʕYD), as well as, for the whole picture, root entries ↗√ʕWD and ↗√ʕYD. 
    ʕiyādaẗ عِيادة , pl. ‑āt 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 4369 • APD … • © SG | 31Oct2021
    √ʕWD 
    n.f. 
    1 visit (with a patient), doctor’s call (on a patient); — 2a (pl. āt) clinic; b office (of a physician), consultation room (of a physician): vn. I | ʕiyādaẗ ḫāriǧiyyaẗ, n.f., policlinic; outpatient clinic
     
    ▪ [v1] : vn. of ʕāda, ū, vb. I, ‘to visit (DO a patient), have under treatment (DO; of a physician), a specialized use of ↗ʕāda ‘to return’ (*’to return regularly to a patient, to change’), ultimately from protWSem *√ʕWD ‘to turn’.
    ▪ [v2] : metonymic use of [v1] (‘place of doctor’s call’ < ‘doctor’s call’).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ↗ʕāda
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     

     

    For other items pertaining to √ʕWD/ʕYD, cf. ↗ʕāda, ↗ʕūd, ↗ʕādaẗ, ↗ʕādī, ↗ʕād, and ↗ʕīd (√ʕYD), as well as, for the whole picture, root entries ↗√ʕWD and ↗√ʕYD. 
    ʕād عاد 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 1369 • APD … • © SG | 29Oct2021
    √ʕWD 
    adv. 
    1 (LevAr GulfAr) so; 2 (IrqAr) already – BuckwalterParkinson2011. 
    ▪ (Kogan2015, 76-77 #6:) from protWSem *ʕād- ‘(he is) still.’
    ▪ »The use of ʕād with the meaning ‘still, yet’ is curiously absent from the classical sources and is not recognized by the standard dictionaries of ClassAr (such as Lane 2188-2189). This is in glaring contrast with its broad presence in a variety of modern Ar dialects and in post-classical written sources. Nöldeke’s inability to cope with this contradiction is more than understandable: “So nahe es liegt, dies ʕād einfach mit Hbr ʕôd zu identifizieren, so wäre das doch angesichts der historischen Entwicklung unrichtig” (Nöldeke 1904: 66)« – Kogan2015, 76-77 #6 n217.
    ▪ Prob., we also have to compare the older use as attested in Hava1899, see below, section HIST.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Though semantics remain to be explained, we prob. have to compare ʕādi as given by Hava1899 (cf. ʕWD_5 in root entry ↗√ʕWD): ‘(1) indeclinable particle having the sense of ʔinna, e.g., raqadtu wa-ʕādi ʔabāka sāhir “I slept while thy father remained awake”; (2) interrog. part. in the sense of hal, e.g., ʕādi ʔabūk muqīm “Is thy father abiding?”; (3) negative answer to a question, e.g., ʕādi ḫaraǧa Zayd? ʕādi-h “Has Zeyd gone forth? He has not”’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Kogan2015, 76-77 #6: Hbr ʕōd, BiblAram ʕōd, Ar ʕād(a), Gz ʕādi, Mhr ʔād, Jib ʕɔd, Soq ʕad.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Kogan2015, 76-77 #6: »Standard etymological treatments of [Sem] *ʕād ‘(he is) still’ typically present it as having no Akk cognates. It may therefore appear as a likely candidate for a protWSem lexical innovation, ultimately connected with the verbal root *ʕWD ‘to turn’ [↗ʕāda]. It is hard to avoid thinking, however, that the functional equivalent of *ʕād- in Akk, namely adīni ‘until now; not yet’, has something to do with it also in terms of etymology.581 In a broader perspective, an eventual connection between *ʕād and the protSem preposition *ʕaday ‘until’ is not to be excluded.582 «
    ▪ …
     

     

    For other items pertaining to √ʕWD/ʕYD, cf. ↗ʕāda, ↗ʕūd, ↗ʕādaẗ, ↗ʕādī, ↗ʕiyādaẗ, and ↗ʕīd (√ʕYD), as well as, for the whole picture, root entries ↗√ʕWD and ↗√ʕYD. 
    ʕWḎ عوذ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Mar2023
    √ʕWḎ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕWḎ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕWḎ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕWḎ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘refuge, protection, curtain, hideout, to seek refuge, to invoke the protection of; amulet, charm, incantation, tight circle’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕWR عور 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last update 17Jul2023
    √ʕWR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕWR_1 ‘one-eyed’ ↗ʔaʕwarᵘ; ‘defectiveness, faultiness, deficiency, imperfection; weakness, weak spot; pudendum, genitals’ ↗ʕawraẗ; ‘to damage, mar, spoil’ ↗²ʕawwara; ? ‘to lend, loan (s.th. to s.o.)’ ↗ʔaʕāra; ? (EgAr) ‘false, artificial (teeth, hair)’ ↗ʕīraẗ
    ▪ ʕWR_2 ‘to alternate, take turns, do by turns’ ↗¹taʕāwara; ‘to befall, affect (alternately, successively) (s.o.), come (alternately, successively) (over s.o.)’ ↗¹ĭʕtawara; ? ‘to lend, loan (s.th. to s.o.)’ ↗ʔaʕāra; ? (EgAr) ‘false, artificial (teeth, hair)’ ↗ʕīraẗ
    ▪ ʕWR_3 ‘to shape, mold, form (said of heterogeneous influences or factors)’ ↗²ĭʕtawara
    ▪ ʕWR_4 ‘to stand in the way of, hinder’ ↗³ĭʕtawara
    ▪ ʕWR_5 ‘a variety of swallow’ ↗ʕuwwār
    ▪ ʕWR_6 ‘to gauge (measures, weights), test the accuracy (of measures, of weights)’ ↗ʕiyār, ↗miʕyār (s.r. ↗ʕYR)
    ▪ ʕWR_7 ‘naked, bare, nude’ ↗ʕariya (arranged s.r. ↗ʕRY)
    ▪ ʕWR_

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘loss of an eye, to be one-eyed, to be vulnerable, bad word, bad deed, defect, shame, s.th. to be kept from the eyes, infamous person; difficult, uncharted road; to fall prey; to borrow’ 
    ▪ [v1] Kogan2015 77 #8: from protWSem *ʕwr‘to be blind’ (SED I #5ᵥ). In Ar, semantic marginalization from ‘to be blind’ into ‘to be one-eyed’ took place. The basic meaning ‘to be blind’ is expressed by the root ↗ʕMY, of uncertain etymology (cf. SED I #3ᵥ). – The notions of ‘defectiveness, faultiness; weakness; pudendum, genitals’ expressed in the concept of ʕawraẗ seem to be generalisations from the basic ‘one-eyedness’ < *‘blindness’. In ‘pudendum, genitals’, the value comes close to that of ↗ʕār (↗ʕYR) ‘shame, disgrace, dishonor, ignominy’, but the causatives still make clear the different origin: while ²ʕawwara means ‘to damage, mar, spoil’, ↗ʕayyara is ‘to reproach, rebuke, insult, revile’. With this in mind, EgAr ↗ʕīraẗ ‘false, artificial (teeth, hair)’ is prob. better grouped here, under √ʕWR *‘defectiveness’, than under ↗ʕYR ‘shame, disgrace, etc.’; cf. also ʕWR_2 in the sense of ‘borrowing’ (‘false, artificial’ < *‘borrowed’)? – The idea of ‘lending, loaning’ (↗ʔaʕāra) is prob. rather akin to [v2], although it is not inconceivable that ‘lending, loaning’ is regarded as *‘leaving (the one who is lending s.th.) defective’ or *‘making (the receiving part) obliged, with a debt, i.e., with a “weak point”’.
    ▪ [v2] : A relation to [v1] is unlikely. No obvious Sem cognates either. BadawiHinds1986 arranges corresponding values (e.g, ʔaʕārᵃ, vb. IV, ‘to second, send on secondment’, muʕār ‘out on loan’) s.r. ↗√ʕYR, but this does not make things much clearer. – The basic value seems to be similar to the tL-stem, ¹taʕāwara, i.e., ‘to alternate, take turns, do by turns’, a notion that is repeated in the Gt-stem ↗¹ĭʕtawara ‘to befall, affect, come over s.o. alternately, successively’ (*‘alternation’ here combined with [v1] *‘damage < blindness’? But compare also ↗ʕRW, with ʕarā ‘to befall, grip, seize, strike, afflict’, ʕurwaẗ ‘tie, bond’, etc.). Thus, the *Š-stem, ʔaʕāra, today mostly used in the sense of ‘to lend, loan (s.th. to s.o.)’, originally must have meant *‘to alternate ownership, let people take turns in owning/using s.th.’, cf. the meaning ‘to second, send on secondment’ of vb. IV in EgAr (but see also the option mention sub [v1]). – DialAr ʕīraẗ ‘false, artificial’ may also be *‘borrowed’ rather than *‘deficient’.
    ▪ [v3] ²ĭʕtawara ‘to shape, mold, form (said of heterogeneous influences or factors)’: etymological affiliation unclear.
    ▪ [v4] ³ĭʕtawara ‘to stand in the way of, hinder’: etymological affiliation unclear.
    ▪ [v5] ʕuwwār ‘a variety of swallow’: no obvious cognates in Sem or outside. MilitarevStolbova2007 (StarLingTB) #2678 suggest kinship with the obsol. Ar ʔaʕwar, dim. ʕuwayr ‘raven’, from Sem *ʕarw/y- ~ *ʕawr- ‘bird of prey’, but semantics would be slightly problematic here. There may also be some overlapping/influence from Ar ↗warwār ‘bee-eater’ (accord. to MilitarevStolbova2007 StarLingTB from Sem *ʔarVr- ~ *warwar- ‘bee-eater, used to find honey’; cf. also Eg wr ‘swallow’, etc. – see entry ↗warwār).
    ▪ [v6] ‘to gauge (measures, weights), test the accuracy (of measures, of weights)’: ↗ʕiyār, ↗miʕyār (s.r. ↗ʕYR)
    ▪ [v7] ‘naked, bare, nude’ ↗ʕariya (arranged s.r. ↗ʕRY)
     
    – 
    ▪ [v1] Kogan2015 77 #8: Ug ʕwr, Hbr ʕiwwēr, Syr ʕwārā, Ar ʔaʕwarᵘ, Gz ʕora, Mhr ʔáywər, Jib ʕēr, Soq ʕóuhɛr. There is no trace of *ʕwr ‘to be blind’ in Akk; all the alleged cognates mentioned in SED I #5ᵥ are highly unreliable. – BDB1906 includes also forms in ‑m: Hbr ʕērōm, ʕêrōm ‘naked; nakedness’, ʕārōm, ʕârōm ‘naked’ (cf. ↗ʕRY). – Borg2021 #476: Saf ʕwr ‘to obliterate’, Ar ʕāra ‘to damage, destroy’, ʕawwara ‘to mar, spoil’, PalAr IrqAr OmanAr ‘to hurt, injure; bruise’, DamAr EgAr ‘to damage, mutilate’. – Outside Sem, Borg2021 compares Eg (Pyr) ʕwꜢ ‘to go bad, rot, become sour’ (cf. also ḥwꜢ.w ‘to rot; to putrefy; to be foul, offensive’).
    ▪ [v2] : BadawiHinds1986 arranges corresponding values (e.g, ʔaʕārᵃ, vb. IV, ‘to second, send on secondment’, muʕār ‘out on loan’) s.r. ↗√ʕYR. – Perh. overlapping with ↗ʕRW.
    ▪ [v3] : ?
    ▪ [v4] : ?
    ▪ [v5] : ? Cf. (with MilitarevStolbova2007 StarLingTB) Akk arru ‘bird used for decoy’, Syr ʔarrā ‘avis illicebra’ (< Akk ?), Tña ʔirir, ʔǝrir ‘bird which has an instinct to lead a honey gatherer to where there is honey’; ? Tña wari ‘kind of blackbird whose feathers have a metallic sheen’, Amh wari ‘a kind of blackbird’ ; outside Sem: Eg (Pyr) wr ‘swallow’; (WChad) Ha wā́rà ‘eagle’, (CChad) Higi-Futu, H.-Nkafa waři, H.-Kamale (Kapsiki) wəři, H.-Ghye wǝrì ‘kite’; Beja ḗrʔe ‘white-tailed sea-eagle’, (SCush) Dahalo (Sanye) weere ‘peafowl’; (NOmot) Woleta awriya ‘cock’ (< Sem?). – Or related to / influenced by ↗warwār (for cognates see s.v.) ?
    ▪ [v6] : ↗ʕiyār, ↗miʕyār (↗√ʕYR)
    ▪ [v7] : ↗ʕariya (↗√ʕRY)
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
     
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl average, from Ar ʕawārīya ‘damaged goods’, from ʕawār ‘blemish’, from ʕawira ‘to become one-eyed, damaged’.
    ▪ Tu avarya: from It avaria ‘damage (esp. during transport by ship) < Ar ʕawāriyyaẗ ‘damage, damaged freight\goods’ < ʕawār ‘defective, damaged, rotten’ < vb. ʕāra ‘to be disabled, faulty, defective’. First attested 1870 in Schlechta-Wssehrd, Manuel terminologique français-turque : « [Fr] Avarie: [Tu] Hasarât-ı bahriye, âvârya » – NişanyanSözlük_1Sep2020. – Ge Havarie ‘Unfallschaden, Bruch’, from Ar ʕawāriyyaẗ ‘goods\freight damaged by sea water’ < ʕawār ‘defect, lack’ (cf. Ar ʕawwara ‘to damage, spoil’). Maritime trade brought the word to It (avaria) already by c. 1300, > oProv avarias (pl.) ‘expenditure, costs’, oFr mFr avaries (pl.) ‘charges levied on the transport of goods by sea, including for actual or potential damage’. From Fr is Du averij and haverij (made similar to Du haven by folk etymology) ‘operating costs of shipping, damage suffered by ship and cargo during the voyage, and resulting costs’, borrowed lC16 into nGe and NGe as Haverye, Haferye; in lit. lang. as Havarie only during C19; general for ‘accidental damage to vehicles and aircraft, damage and malfunctions to machines and equipment’ not earlier than C20DWDS_Pfeifer.
    ▪ Engl average ‘any small charge over freight cost, payable by owners of goods to the master of a ship for his care of the goods; financial loss incurred through damage to goods in transit’, lC15, from Fr avarie ‘damage to ship’ and It avaria. A word from C12 Mediterranean maritime trade, of uncertain origin; sometimes traced to Ar ʕawāriyyaẗ ‘damaged merchandise’. Du avarij, Ge haferei, etc., also are from Romanic languages. ... The meaning developed to ‘equal sharing of loss by the interested parties’. Transferred sense of ‘statement of a medial estimate, proportionate distribution of inequality among all’ is first recorded 1735. The mathematical sense ‘a mean proportion arrived at by arithmetical calculation’ is from 1755. Sports sense, of batting, attested by 1845, originally in cricket – EtymOnline. – Tu averaj < Fr average ‘sharing of costs of damage among partners in ship insurance’ (C15), ‘arithmetic mean’ (C18, suff. ‑age) < It avariaggio ‘insurance statement’ < It avaria ‘loss, damage in maritime trade’ < Ar ʕawār (ʕWR) ‘damage, fault, defect’; sense of ‘arithmetic middle’ is from 1938 (in Cumhuriyet) : Futbolun doğduğu memleket olan İngiltere’nin kullanmakta olduğu averaj şekliniNişanyanSözlük_6Nov2013.
     
    – 
    ²ʕawwar‑ عَوَّرَ , ‑ʕawwir‑ (taʕwīr)
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 16Jul2023
    √ʕWR 
    vb., II
     
    1 to deprive of one eye, make blind in one eye; 2 to damage, mar, spoil; 3 ↗ʕYR
     
    ▪ Like [v1], which is clearly dependent on ↗ʔaʕwarᵘ ‘one-eyed, half-blind’, also [v2] ‘to damage, mar, spoil’ is likely a function of the same base, though with a much more generalized meaning.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ ↗ʔaʕwarᵘ
    ▪ Borg2021 #476: Saf ʕwr ‘to obliterate’, Ar ʕāra ‘to damage, destroy’, ʕawwara ‘to mar, spoil’, PalAr IrqAr OmanAr ‘to hurt, injure; bruise’, DamAr EgAr ‘to damage, mutilate’. – Outside Sem: Eg (Pyr) ʕwꜢ ‘to go bad, rot, become sour’ (cf. also ḥwꜢ.w ‘to rot; to putrefy; to be foul, offensive’).
     
    ▪ The Gt-stem (see DERIV) may be related, though semantics are not really clear: the element of ‘befalling, affecting’ is close to ‘damaging, spoiling’, but ‘alternately, successively’ points to the complex of ‘alteration’ treated sub ↗taʕāwara. – Cf. also ↗ʕRW (with ʕarā ‘to befall, grip, seize, strike, afflict’, etc.)
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ For Tu avarya, Ge Havarie as well as Engl average, Tu averaj, see root entry ↗ʕWR.
    ▪ ...
     
    ? ¹ĭʕtawara, vb. VIII, to befall, affect (alternately, successively) (s.o.), come (alternately, successively) (‑h over s.o.): see above, section DISC.

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔaʕwarᵘ, ↗ʕawraẗ, EgAr ↗ʕīraẗ, ↗ʔaʕāra, ↗¹taʕāwara, ↗¹ĭʕtawara, ↗²ĭʕtawara, ↗³ĭʕtawara, and ↗ʕuwwār, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ʕWR (with overlappings also from ↗ʕYR, ↗ʕRW and ↗ʕRY)
     
    ʔaʕār‑ / ʔaʕar‑ أَعارَ / أَعَرْـــ , ‑ʕīr‑ (ʔiʕāraẗ
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 16Jul2023
    √ʕWR 
    vb., IV
     
    to lend, loan (‑h ‑h, s.th. to s.o.) – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ No obvious cognates in Sem. BadawiHinds1986 arranges EgAr vb. IV ʔaʕār ‘to second, send on secondment’ and related items (e.g., muʕār ‘out on loan’) sub ↗√ʕYR, but this does not make things much clearer. – The basic value seems to be similar to the tL-stem, ↗¹taʕāwara, i.e., ‘to alternate, take turns, do by turns’, a notion that is repeated in the Gt-stem ↗¹ĭʕtawara ‘to befall, affect, come over s.o. alternately, successively’ (*‘alternation’ here combined with *‘damage < blindness’, cf. ↗ʔaʕwarᵘ ? But also overlapping with ↗ʕarā ‘to befall, grip, seize, strike, afflict’, √ʕRW). Thus, the *Š-stem ʔaʕāra, today mostly used in the sense of ‘to lend, loan s.th. to s.o.’, originally must have meant *‘to let people take turn in owning/using s.th.’.
    ▪ A relation to ↗ʔaʕwarᵘ ‘one-eyed, half-blind’ is unlikely, though not completely inconceivable: perhaps, ‘lending, loaning’ is, originally, a *‘leaving (the one who is lending s.th.) defective’ or *‘making (the receiving part) obliged, with a debt, i.e., with a “weak point”’.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ ↗¹taʕāwara. – BadawiHinds1986 arrange corresponding items (EgAr ʔaʕār ‘to second, send on secondment’, muʕār ‘out on loan’, etc.) sub ↗√ʕYR.
     
    See below, notes to ĭstiʕāraẗ and mustaʕār in section DERIV. 
    ĭstaʕāra, vb. X, to borrow (s.th., min from): t-stem of ʔaʕāra, self-refl.
    ? EgAr ʕīraẗ, n.f., false, artificial (teeth, hair): < *‘borrowed’? See also ↗ʕawraẗ.
    ʔiʕāraẗ, n.f., lending: vn. IV
    ʔiʕārī, adj.: maktabaẗ ʔiʕāriyyaẗ, lending library, circulating library: nsb-formation from the preceding
    ĭstiʕāraẗ, n.f., 1 borrowing; 2 metaphor: vn. X, ¹lit., ²fig. use9
    ĭstiʕārī, adj., metaphorical, figurative: nsb-formation from the preceding (²ĭstiʕāraẗ)
    ʕāriyaẗ, var. ʕāriyyaẗ, n.f., pl. ʕawāriⁿ, 1a s.th. borrowed, borrowing; b loan: PA.f., functioning as quasi-vn.10
    muʕīr, n., lender: PA IV
    muʕār, adj., lent, loaned: PP IV
    mustaʕīr, n., borrower: PA X
    mustaʕār, adj., 1 borrowed; 2 used metaphorically or figuratively; 3 false, artificial (e.g., hair): PP X | ĭsm mustaʕār, pseudonym; wuǧūh mustʕāraẗ, masked faces; hypocrites11

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔaʕwarᵘ, ↗ʕawraẗ, EgAr ↗ʕīraẗ, ↗²ʕawwara, ↗¹taʕāwara, ↗¹ĭʕtawara, ↗²ĭʕtawara, ↗³ĭʕtawara, and ↗ʕuwwār, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ʕWR (with overlappings also from ↗ʕYR, ↗ʕRW and ↗ʕRY)
     
    ¹taʕāwar‑ تَعاوَرَ , ‑taʕāwar‑ (taʕāwur)
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 16Jul2023
    √ʕWR 
    vb., VI
     
    1 to alternate, take turns (‑h in s.th.), do by turns, take alternately (s.th.); 2ʕarā (√ʕRW) – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ A relation of [v1] to the most prominent notion attached to the root √ʕWR, that of *‘blindness’ (> Ar ‘one-eyedness’ > ‘deficiency, imperfection’, ↗ʔaʕwarᵘ, > ‘weakness > pudenda’ ↗ʕawraẗ) is unlikely. No obvious Sem cognates. Within Ar, closer kinship seems to exist only to the Gt-stem ↗¹ĭʕtawara ‘to befall, affect, come over s.o. alternately, successively’ and the *Š-stem ↗ʔaʕāra ‘to lend, loan s.th. to s.o.’ (< *‘to let own by turn, alternately’). – The basic value seems to be similar to that of the present tL-stem, i.e., ‘to alternate, come in intervals, take turns, do by turns’.
    ▪ The identity of meaning between [v2] andʕarā ‘to befall, grip, seize, strike, afflict’ shows that √ʕWR often overlaps with ↗ʕRW.
     
    ▪ no obvious cognate in Sem.
    ▪ BadawiHinds1986 arranges corresponding values (e.g, ʔaʕār, vb. IV, ‘to second, send on secondment’, muʕār ‘out on loan’) s.r. ↗√ʕYR.
     
    – 
    ¹ĭʕtawara, vb. VIII, to befall, affect (alternately, successively) (s.o.), come (alternately, successively) (‑h over s.o.): Gt-stem, prob. derived from same base as also ¹taʕāwara, perh. with overlapping/influence from ↗ʕawwara ‘to damage, spoil’ as well as ↗ʕRW (with ʕarā ‘to befall, grip, seize, strike, afflict’, ʕurwaẗ ‘tie, bond’, etc.).
    taʕāwur, n., alternation, variation, fluctuation: vn. VI

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔaʕwarᵘ, ↗ʕawraẗ, EgAr ↗ʕīraẗ, ↗²ʕawwara, ↗ʔaʕāra, ↗²ĭʕtawara, ↗³ĭʕtawara, and ↗ʕuwwār, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ʕWR (with overlappings also from ↗ʕYR, ↗ʕRW and ↗ʕRY)
     
    ¹ĭʕtawar‑ اِعْتَوَرَ , -ʕtawir- (ĭʕtiwār)
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 17Jul2023
    √ʕWR 
    vb., VIII
     
    1 to befall, affect (alternately, successively) (s.o.), come (alternately, successively) (‑h over s.o.); [2 to shape, mold, form ↗²ĭʕtawara; 3 to stand in the way, hinder ↗³ĭʕtawara] – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ Semantic relation (if any) between [v1] ‘to alternate, take turns, etc.’ and the two other values [v2]-[v3] remains unclear. The latter two are treated separately here, see ↗²ĭʕtawara and ↗³ĭʕtawara.
    ▪ [v1] seems to be a merger of two main ideas attached to the root ↗ʕWR: (a) *‘defectiveness, weakness’ (↗ʕawraẗ), which is prob. a generalisation from the basic ‘one-eyedness’ (↗ʔaʕwarᵘ) (< Sem *‘blindness’) and akin to the caus. D-stem ‘to damage, mar, spoil’ (↗²ʕawwara); (b) *‘alternation, taking turns’, as in tL-stem ↗¹taʕāwara ‘to alternate, take turns, do by turns’ (cf. also the *Š-stem ↗ʔaʕāra, today mostly used in the sense of ‘to lend, loan s.th. to s.o.’, prob. < *‘to alternate ownership, let people take turns in owning/using s.th.’). – Further etymology obscure. – Conspicuous semantic overlapping with ↗ʕarā ‘to befall, grip, seize, strike, afflict’, ↗√ʕRW.
     
    ▪ ↗ʔaʕwarᵘ, ↗ʕawraẗ, ↗²ʕawwara, ↗¹taʕāwara; perh. also ↗ʕRW.
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
     
    – 
    ? taʕāwara, vb. VI, 1 to alternate, take turns (‑h in s.th.), do by turns, take alternately (s.th.); 2 to seize, grip, befall, overcome (alternately, successively) (s.o., s.th.): tL-stem, see above, section CONC as well as own entry ↗¹taʕāwara.

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔaʕwarᵘ, ↗ʕawraẗ, EgAr ↗ʕīraẗ, ↗²ʕawwara, ↗ʔaʕāra, ↗²ĭʕtawara, ↗³ĭʕtawara, and ↗ʕuwwār, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ʕWR (with overlappings also from ↗ʕYR, ↗ʕRW and ↗ʕRY)
     
    ²ĭʕtawar‑ اِعْتَوَرَ , -ʕtawir- (ĭʕtiwār)
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 17Jul2023
    √ʕWR 
    vb., VIII
     
    [1 to alternate, take turns, etc. ↗¹ĭʕtawara;] 2 to shape, mold, form (‑h s.th., said of heterogeneous influences or factors); [3 to stand in the way, hinder ↗³ĭʕtawara] – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ [v1] : see individual entry
    ▪ [v2] :Etymological affiliation obscure. Thus, also the semantic relation (if any) between this ²ĭʕtawara ‘to shape, mold, form’ and the other two values (↗¹ĭʕtawara’ and ↗³ĭʕtawara) remains unclear.
    ▪ [v3] : see individual entry
     
    ▪ ?
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
     
    – 
    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔaʕwarᵘ, ↗ʕawraẗ, EgAr ↗ʕīraẗ, ↗²ʕawwara, ↗ʔaʕāra, ↗¹taʕāwara, ↗¹ĭʕtawara, ↗³ĭʕtawara, and ↗ʕuwwār, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ʕWR (with overlappings also from ↗ʕYR, ↗ʕRW and ↗ʕRY)
     
    ³ĭʕtawar‑ اِعْتَوَرَ , -ʕtawir- (ĭʕtiwār)
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 17Jul2023
    √ʕWR 
    vb., VIII
     
    1 ↗¹ĭʕtawara; 2taʕāwara; 3 to stand in the way of (‑h), hinder (s.th.) – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ [v1], [v2] : see individual entries.
    ▪ [v3] : Etymological affiliation obscure. Thus, also the semantic relation (if any) between this ³ĭʕtawara ‘to stand in the way of (‑h), hinder (s.th.)’ and the other two values (↗¹ĭʕtawara’, ²ĭʕtawara) remains unclear.
     
    ▪ ?
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
     
    – 
    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔaʕwarᵘ, ↗ʕawraẗ, EgAr ↗ʕīraẗ, ↗²ʕawwara, ↗ʔaʕāra, ↗¹taʕāwara, ↗¹ĭʕtawara, ↗²ĭʕtawara, and ↗ʕuwwār, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ʕWR (with overlappings also from ↗ʕYR, ↗ʕRW and ↗ʕRY)
     
    ʕawraẗ عَوْرَة
     
    ID 622 • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 17Jul2023
    √ʕWR 
    n.f. 
    1a defectiveness, faultiness, deficiency, imperfection; b (pl. -āt) weakness, weak spot; – 2 pudendum, genitals – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ The notion of [v1a] ‘defectiveness, faultiness, deficiency, imperfection’ seems to be a generalisation from an underlying basic ‘one-eyedness’ (↗ʔaʕwarᵘ), from protWSem *ʕwr ‘to be blind’ (Kogan2015 77 #8) (but see also below, section DISC).
    ▪ In [v1b], the ‘defectiveness, imperfection’ of [v1a] is interpreted as ‘weakness, weak spot’, and in [v2] this ‘weak spot’ is specified as the ‘genitals’, a ‘pudendum’.
    ▪ In the latter [v2], the meaning comes close to that of ↗ʕār (↗ʕYR) ‘shame, disgrace, dishonor, ignominy’, but the corresponding D-stems still make clear the distinct origins: while ↗²ʕawwara means ‘to damage, mar, spoil’ (caus.), ↗ʕayyara is ‘to reproach, rebuke, insult, revile’ (appell., *‘to call disgraceful, accuse of shamelessness’).
    ▪ With this in mind, EgAr ↗ʕīraẗ ‘false, artificial (teeth, hair)’ is prob. better grouped together with ʕawraẗ, i.e., under √ʕWR *‘defectiveness’, than with ↗ʕār under ↗√ʕYR *‘shame, disgrace, etc.’. But it may also be from *‘borrowing’, see ↗ʔaʕāra.
    ▪ Both √ʕWR *‘defectiveness’ and √ʕYR *‘shame, disgrace, etc.’ are in semantic vicinity of ↗√ʕRY ‘nakedness, bareness, nudity’.
    ▪ The Gt-stem ↗¹ĭʕtawara ‘to befall, affect, come over s.o. alternately, successively’ seems to be the result of a fusion/combination of *‘alternation, taking turns’ (↗¹taʕāwara) and *‘damage’. Conspicuous overlapping also with ↗ʕarā, ĭʕtarà ‘to befall, grip, seize, strike, afflict’, ↗√ʕRW.
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Borg2021 #476: Saf ʕwr ‘to obliterate’, Ar ʕāra ‘to damage, destroy’, ʕawwara ‘to mar, spoil’, PalAr IrqAr OmanAr ‘to hurt, injure; bruise’, DamAr EgAr ‘to damage, mutilate’. – Prob. based on *‘half-eyedness’ (< Sem *‘blindness’), see ↗ʔaʕwarᵘ. – Outside Sem, Borg2021 compares Eg (Pyr) ʕwꜢ ‘to go bad, rot, become sour’ (cf. also ḥwꜢ.w ‘to rot; to putrefy; to be foul, offensive’).
    ▪ Partly overlapping with ↗ʕYR and ↗ʕRY.
     
    ▪ ClassAr ʕāra ‘to mar off; to injure s.th.; to spoil (a well)’ (Hava1899) as well as the D-stem ʕawwara, often meaning ‘to mutilate’ (see section COGN), could be an indication of a dependence of *‘one-eyedness, blindness’ on a more general verbal root also in Sem. However, given the wide distribution of *‘blindness’ in Sem, as opposed to the singular evidence of the general *‘to damage, mutilate, destroy’ in Ar, it seems safer to assume a development *‘blindness > damage, defectiveness’ than a reverse evolution.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ For Tu avarya, Ge Havarie as well as Engl average, Tu averaj, see root entry ↗ʕWR.
    ▪ ...
     
    ʕawwara, vb. II, 1ʔaʕwarᵘ; 2 to damage, mar, spoil; – 3 ↗ʕYR: D-stem, caus.
    ? taʕāwara, vb. VI, 1 ↗s.v.; 2 to seize, grip, befall, overcome (alternately, successively) (s.o., s.th.): tL-stem, regular alteration; for semantics, see above, section CONC.
    ? ĭʕtawara, vb. VIII, 1 to befall, affect (alternately, successively) (s.o.), come (alternately, successively) (‑h over s.o.); 2 ↗²ĭʕtawara; 3 ↗³ĭʕtawara: Gt-stem, self-refl.; for semantics, see above, section CONC.
    ʕawār, ʕiwār, n., fault, blemish, defect, flaw, imperfection
    EgAr ʕīraẗ, n.f., false, artificial (teeth, hair): from *ʕiwraẗ ?; for semantics, see above, section CONC.

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔaʕwarᵘ, EgAr ↗ʕīraẗ, ↗²ʕawwara, ↗¹ĭʕtawara, ↗²ĭʕtawara, ↗³ĭʕtawara, and ↗ʕuwwār, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ʕWR (with overlappings also from ↗ʕYR, ↗ʕRW and ↗ʕRY)
     
    ʕuwwār عُوّار
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Jun2023
    √ʕWR
     
    n.
     
    a variety of swallow – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ No obvious cognates in Sem or outside. MilitarevStolbova2007 (StarLingTB) #2678 suggest kinship with the obsol. Ar ʔaʕwarᵘ, dim. ʕuwayr, ‘raven’, from Sem *ʕarw/y- ~ *ʕawr- ‘bird of prey’, but semantics would be slightly problematic here (‘swallow’ vs. ‘raven’). There may also be some overlapping/influence from Ar ↗warwār ‘bee-eater’ (accord. to MilitarevStolbova2007 StarLingTB from Sem *ʔarVr- ~ *warwar- ‘bee-eater, used to find honey’; cf. also Eg wr ‘swallow’, etc. – see entry ↗warwār).
     
    ▪ ? Cf. (with MilitarevStolbova2007 StarLingTB) Akk arru ‘bird used for decoy’, Syr ʔarrā ‘avis illicebra’ (< Akk ?), Tña ʔirir, ʔǝrir ‘bird which has an instinct to lead a honey gatherer to where there is honey’; ? Tña wari ‘kind of blackbird whose feathers have a metallic sheen’, Amh wari ‘a kind of blackbird’; outside Sem: Eg (Pyr) wr ‘swallow’; (WChad) Ha wā́rà ‘eagle’, (CChad) Higi-Futu, H.-Nkafa waři, H.-Kamale (Kapsiki) wəři, H.-Ghye wǝrì ‘kite’; Beja ḗrʔe ‘white-tailed sea-eagle’, (SCush) Dahalo (Sanye) weere ‘peafowl’; (NOmot) Woleta awriya ‘cock’ (< Sem?). – Or related to / influenced by ↗warwār (for cognates see s.v.) ?
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
     
    – 
    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔaʕwarᵘ, ↗ʕawraẗ, EgAr ↗ʕīraẗ, ↗²ʕawwara, ↗ʔaʕāra, ↗¹taʕāwara, ↗¹ĭʕtawara, ↗²ĭʕtawara, and ↗³ĭʕtawara, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ʕWR (with overlappings also from ↗ʕYR, ↗ʕRW and ↗ʕRY)
     
    EgAr ʕīraẗ عِيرَة
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 17Jul2023
    √ʕWR 
    n.f.
     
    false, artificial (teeth, hair) – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ In BadawiHinds1986, EgAr ʕīraẗ ‘false, artificial (teeth, hair)’ is arranged under ↗√ʕYR (*‘shame, disgrace’) while it is more common to group it with ↗ʔaʕāra (↗√ʕWR) ‘to lend, loan (s.th. to s.o.)’, as the *‘borrowed’ teeth, hair, etc. This etymology seems to be obvious, and if correct, it is akin to the semantic complex *‘alternation, taking turns’ treated s.v. ↗¹taʕāwara. There may, however, also be some influence of ↗ʕawraẗ ‘defectiveness, imperfection; weakness, weak spot (hence also: pudenda, genitals)’, prob. from *‘one-eyedness’ < *‘blindness’ (↗ʔaʕwarᵘ).
     
    ▪ BadawiHinds1986 arranges corresponding values (e.g, ʔaʕārᵃ, vb. IV, ‘to second, send on secondment’, muʕār ‘out on loan’) s.r. ↗√ʕYR. In any case, cf. ↗ʔaʕāra and perh. ↗ʕawraẗ.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
     
    – 
    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔaʕwarᵘ, ↗ʕawraẗ, ↗²ʕawwara, ↗ʔaʕāra, ↗¹taʕāwara, ↗¹ĭʕtawara, ↗²ĭʕtawara, ↗³ĭʕtawara, and ↗ʕuwwār, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ʕWR (with overlappings also from ↗ʕYR, ↗ʕRW and ↗ʕRY)
     
    ʔaʕwarᵘ أَعْوَرُ , f. ʕawrāʔᵘ, pl. ʕūr
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 17Jul2023
    √ʕWR 
    adj.
     
    one-eyed – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ Kogan2015 77 #8: from protWSem *ʕwr ‘to be blind’ (SED I #5ᵥ). In Ar, semantic marginalization from ‘to be blind’ into ‘to be one-eyed’ took place.106 – The notions of ‘defectiveness, faultiness; weakness; pudendum, genitals’ expressed in the concept of ↗ʕawraẗ seem to be generalisations from the basic ‘one-eyedness’ < *‘blindness’.
    ▪ A relation between ‘half-eyedness’ and many other values attached to √ʕWR (↗¹taʕāwara ‘to alternate, take turns, do by turns’, ↗ʔaʕāra ‘to lend, loan s.th. to s.o.’, ↗²ĭʕtawara ‘to shape, mold, form’, ↗³ĭʕtawara ‘to stand in the way of, hinder’) looks rather unlikely.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ Kogan2015 77 #8: Ug ʕwr, Hbr ʕiwwēr, Syr ʕwārā, Ar ʔaʕwarᵘ, Gz ʕora, Mhr ʔáywər, Jib ʕēr, Soq ʕóuhɛr. There is no trace of *ʕwr ‘to be blind’ in Akk; all the alleged cognates mentioned in SED I #5ᵥ are highly unreliable. – BDB1906 includes also forms in ‑m: Hbr ʕērōm, ʕêrōm ‘naked; nakedness’, ʕārōm, ʕârōm ‘naked’ (cf. ↗ʕRY). – Borg2021 #476: Saf ʕwr ‘to obliterate’, Ar ʕāra ‘to damage, destroy’, ʕawwara ‘to mar, spoil’, PalAr IrqAr OmanAr ‘to hurt, injure; bruise’, DamAr EgAr ‘to damage, mutilate’. – Outside Sem, Borg2021 compares Eg (Pyr) ʕwꜢ ‘to go bad, rot, become sour’ (cf. also ḥwꜢ.w ‘to rot; to putrefy; to be foul, offensive’).
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
     
    – 
    al-maʕy al-ʔaʕwar, n., caecum, blind gut

    ʕawira, a (ʕawar), vb. I, to lose an eye, be or become one-eyed: denom.?
    ʕawwara, vb. II, 1 to deprive of one eye, make blind in one eye; 2 to damage, mar, spoil; – 3ʕiyār, ↗miʕyār (√ʕYR): D-stem, ¹caus., ²generalized caus.
    taʕāwara, vb. VI, 1 ↗s.v.; 2 to seize, grip, befall, overcome (alternately, successively) (s.o., s.th.): perh. akin to ʕawraẗ (see below and ↗s.v.)
    ĭʕtawara, vb. VIII, 1taʕāwara, ↗¹ĭʕtawara 2 ↗²ĭʕtawara; 3 to stand in the way of (‑h), hinder (s.th.): Gt-stem; akin to ʔaʕwarᵘ ?
    ʕawraẗ, n.f., 1 defectiveness, faultiness, deficiency, imperfection; b (pl. -āt) weakness, weak spot; – 2 pudendum, genitals: prob. a generalised meaning dependent on *‘blindness’.
    ʕawār, ʕiwār, n., fault, blemish, defect, flaw, imperfection: similar to ʕawraẗ (see preceding item as well as ↗s.v.)

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕawraẗ, EgAr ↗ʕīraẗ, ↗ʔaʕāra, ↗¹taʕāwara, ↗¹ĭʕtawara, ↗²ĭʕtawara, and ↗ʕuwwār, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ʕWR (with overlappings also from ↗ʕYR, ↗ʕRW and ↗ʕRY)
     
    ʕWQ عوق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Mar2023
    √ʕWQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕWQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕWQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕWQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘obstacle, obstruction, impediment, to obstruct, to delay, to hinder, to incapacitate’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕWL عول 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕWL 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕWL_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ʕWL_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to swerve; to be unjust; to have a large number of children; to increase; to be dependable’. – There is a degree of overlapping between some derivations of this root and the root ʕYL (q.v.), particularly in the associated concepts of ‘to have many children’. 
    ▪ … 
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    – 
    ʕāʔilaẗ عائِلَة 
    ID 623 • Sw – • BP 850 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕWL 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
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    – 
     
    ʕWM عوم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕWM 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕWM_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ʕWM_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘year, to hire on a yearly basis; to swim, to float and to run fast’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
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    ʕām عام 
    ID 624 • Sw –/199 • BP 62 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕWM 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: cf. EthSem and modSAr *ʕām‑ / ʕān‑ ‘year’. – Cf. also protSem *šan‑at‑ (> Ar ↗sanaẗ).
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
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    – 
     
    ʕWN عون 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Mar2023
    √ʕWN 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕWN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕWN_2 ‘help’ ↗māʕūn (see alphabetically)
    ▪ ʕWN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘herd of zebras; to be in a middle state, being middle-aged; tall palm tree; helper, backer, to assist’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕYː (ʕYY) عيّ/عيي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Mar2023
    √ ʕYː (ʕYY) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕYː (ʕYY)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕYː (ʕYY)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕYː (ʕYY)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘incurable disease, fatigue, to be ineffectual, to lack the ability or the strength to complete a task; riddle, inability to express o.s., to become dumbfounded’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕYB عيب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕYB 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕYB_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ʕYB_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘large sack, bag for holding clothes and other belongings, bosom, confidant; to cause to be defective, to damage, to slander’ 
    ▪ … 
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    – 
    ʕayb عَيْب 
    ID 625 • Sw – • BP 1670 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕYB 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    ʕYD عيد 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕYD 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕYD_1 ‘feast, festival’ ↗ʕīd
    ▪ ʕYD_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
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    – 
    ʕīd عِيد , pl. ʔaʕyād 
    ID 626 • Sw – • BP 647 • APD … • © SG | 31Oct2021
    √ʕYD (ʕWD) 
    n. 
    feast, feast day, festival, holiday – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Usually considered an inner-Sem loan (from Syr), but as such related to ↗ʕāda ‘to return’ (a feast as s.th. *‘returning regularly’), ultimately from protWSem *√ʕWD ‘to turn’.
    ▪ …
     
    eC7 (festive day, feast day, festival) Q 5:114 rabba-nā ʔanzil ʕalaynā māʔidaẗan min-a l-samāʔi takūnu la-nā ʕīdan li-ʔawwali-nā wa-ʔāḫiri-nā ‘our Lord, send down to us a table from heaven so that it may become a recurring festival for those of us who are present and future generations’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Syr ʕyād, ʕyādâ ‘custom, habit, rite, use’ (PayneSmith1903), TargAram ʕêd, ʔêd, ʕêdâ ‘anniversary, (idolatrous) festival’ (Jastrow1903)
    ▪ Cf. ↗ʕāda.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »The sole occurrence in the Q is in the latest Madinan Sūra, in connection with Muḥammad’s curious confusion on the Lord’s supper. / The Lexicons try to derive it from ʕāda, though as we see from the discussion of al-Azharī in LA, iv: 314, they were somewhat in difficulties over it. Fraenkel, Fremdw, 276, pointed out that it has no derivation in Ar, and it was doubtless borrowed from the Syr ʕêdâ,583 though the root is common Sem, and the Targumic ʕīdā is not impossible as the source. It would have been an early borrowing, for already in the Minaean inscriptions s-ʕyd means ‘festum instituit’ (Rossini, Glossarium, 205).«
    ▪ …
     

     
    ʕīd al-rusul, Day of St. Peter and Paul (Chr.)
    ʕīd al-ṣuʕūd, Ascension Day (Chr.)
    al-ʕīd al-ṣaġīr, the Minor Feast = ʕīd al-fiṭr
    ʕīd al-ʔaḍḥà, the Feast of Immolation, or Greater Bairam, on the 10th of Ḏū l-↗ḥiǧǧaẗ
    ʕīd al-fiṭr, the Feast of Breaking the Ramadan Fast, or Lesser Bairam, on the last of Šawwāl
    al-ʕīd al-kabīr, the Major Feast = ʕīd al-ʔAḍḥà the Feast of Immolation, or Greater Bairam
    ʕīd al-qiyāmaẗ, Easter (Chr.)
    ʕīd al-kiswaẗ (Eg.), the Festival of the Kiswa, celebrated in the month of Šawwāl on the occasion of the ceremonial transport of the ↗kiswaẗ from Cairo to Mecca
    ʕīd kull al-qiddīsīn, All Saints’ Day (Chr.)
    ʕīd al-mīlād Christmas (Chr.)

    ʕayyada, vb. II, to celebrate, or observe, a feast; to felicitate (ʕalà s.o.) on the occasion of a feast, wish (ʕalà s.o.) a merry feast: D-stem, denom.
    ʕāyada, vb. III, to felicitate (ʕalà s.o.) on the occasion of a feast, wish (ʕalà s.o.) a merry feast: L-stem, denom.
    ʕīdiyyaẗ, n.f., gift, present given on the occasion of a feast; New Year’s present: nsb-formation, f.
    muʕāyadaẗ, n.f., cocelebration, exchange of felicitations; (pl. āt) congratulatory call on feast days: vn. III.

    For other items pertaining to √ʕWD/ʕYD, cf. ↗ʕāda, ↗ʕūd, ↗ʕādaẗ, ↗ʕādī, ↗ʕiyādaẗ, and ↗ʕād, as well as, for the whole picture, root entries ↗√ʕWD and ↗√ʕYD. 
    ʕYR عير 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last update 17Jul2023
    √ʕYR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕYR_1 ‘to wander, stray, roam, rove’ ↗ʕāra; ‘caravan’ ↗ʕīr; ‘scoundrel, vagabond, vagrant’ ↗¹ʕayyār
    ▪ ʕYR_2 ‘shame, disgrace, dishonor, ignominy’ ↗ʕār; ‘to reproach, blame, rebuke, condemn; to insult, revile’ ↗ʕayyara
    ▪ ʕYR_3 ‘standard measure, standard, gauge (measures, weights) ↗ʕiyār, ↗miʕyār
    ▪ ʕYR_4 ‘wild ass, onager’ ↗¹ʕayr
    ▪ ʕYR_5 ‘crane (machine)’ ↗²ʕayyār
    ▪ ʕYR_6 ‘false, artificial (teeth, hair)’ (EgAr) ↗ʕīraẗ (arranged s.r. ↗ʕWR)

    Other values, now obsolete, include (Hava1899):

    ʕYR_7 ‘to be overspread with green moss (water): ʕayyara
    ʕYR_8 ‘to set (a horse) free; to fatten (a horse); to pluck out (the hair of the tail): ʔaʕāra
    ʕYR_9 ‘prominence\ridge in the middle of the iron head or blade of an arrow or of a spear, sword, knife, etc.; prominent line, like a little wall, in the middle of a leaf; its middle rib, the spine, i.e., the prominent part, in the middle of the scapula\shoulderblade; prominent\projecting bone in the middle of the hand; ... any prominent\protuberant bone in the body; line on a map; edge\ridge of a rock, naturally prominent; anything prominent\protuberant in an even thing, or in the middle of an even thing [or surface]; pupil of the eye; king, chief; wooden peg; drum’: ²ʕayr (Lane v 1874, Hava1899)
    ʕYR_ ‘...’: ...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘donkey, zebra; chief; pupil of the eye; to run away, vagabond; caravan, to measure; infamy, to exchange insults; to borrow and loan’ 
    ▪ [gnrl] : In MSA, the root ʕYR displays 3 main values: [v1] ‘to wander, roam around’, [v2] ‘shame, disgrace’, and [v3] ‘standard measure, standard’. The position of [v4] ‘wild ass, onager’ is unclear (forming a unit with [v1]?). Historically, also a fifth value, [v9] ‘prominent\protuberant part of s.th.’, should prob. be taken into consideration as a basic value. Given the lack of Sem or extra-Sem cognates (except for [v2] and [v4]), the relation, or non-relation, among these 4-5 values is hard to determine. Should one, for instance, assume a development where ‘wandering around’ is based on ‘wild ass’ and later came to be identified with ‘shame, disgrace’? Or where ‘standard measure’ is dependent on ‘to wander’, as the index on the scales *‘goes to and fro’, in this way showing the im-/balance? Or where the pointer is regarded as the ‘prominent part’ of the scales? – The remaining values are either dependent on one of these 4-5 or better grouped with another root (↗ʕWR, ↗ʕRW, ↗ʕRY).
    ▪ [v1] : To ʕāra ‘to wander, stray, roam, rove’ and ʕīr ‘caravan’, the relation among which is evident, belongs not only ¹ʕayyār ‘scoundrel, vagabond, vagrant’, but perh. also [v4] ¹ʕayr ‘donkey’, as *‘estray, scatterling’ (so BDB1906). Or is [v1] ‘wandering, etc.’ denom. from [v4]̀ ‘donkey’ (as *‘roaming around, straying like a wild ass’)? Given the lack of Sem cognates for the value ‘wandering, etc.’, such a dependence is prob. worth considering. – Perh. also [v7] ʕayyara ‘to be overspread with green moss (water)’ has to be seen as D-stem coined from ‘wandering, etc.’ with ints. meaning, likening the rampant spread of moss over water to an aimless *‘wandering, roaming, going astray’. – Any relation betw. [v1] ‘wandering, roaming around’ and [v2] ‘shame, disgrace, etc.’ and/or [v3] ‘standard measure’?
    ▪ [v2] : Ar ʕār ‘shame, disgrace, dishonor, ignominy’ and ʕayyara ‘to reproach, blame, rebuke, condemn; to insult, revile’ have obvious cognates in Hbr, SAr, Śḥr, Gz, Te, Tña, perh. also Akk, so that one may assume a deeper (W?)Sem dimension. – Any relation betw. [v1] ‘wandering, roaming around’ and [v2] ‘shame, disgrace, etc.’? A ¹ʕayyār ‘scoundrel, vagabond, vagrant’ used to be regarded as base and ignoble...
    ▪ [v3] ʕiyār, miʕyār ‘standard measure, standard, gauge (measures, weights)’: etymology obscure (but cf. below, section DISC); perh. related to [v1] ‘wander, etc.’ (the index of scales *‘going to and fro’) or [v9] *‘prominent\protuberant part of s.th.’ (as the scales show the excess of weight etc.)?
    ▪ [v4] Kogan2015 124#2 (cf. (SED II #50): from WSem *ʕayr ‘donkey’.107 – On account of extra-Sem evidence StarlingTB further reconstructs AfrAs *ʕay/wr- ‘donkey (and horse?)’ and posits kinship also with IndEur terms. The authors further see a relation to Sem *ḥ˅wār- ‘young (of camel, donkey)’ < AfrAs *ḥ(i/uw)ar(r)- ‘(young of) donkey, camel’.
    ▪ [v5] ²ʕayyār ‘crane (machine)’: prob. related to [v3] ʕiyār ‘gauge (measures, weights)’, orig. *‘crane of a pair of scales’. Or specialised use of ints. (FaʕʕāL) var. of ClassAr ʕāʔir ‘going to and fro, and round about’ (pointer on scales)? Or from [v4], a crane being a weight-carrying *‘donkey’? Or fig. use of ¹ʕayyār ‘scoundrel’, as tools sometimes are likened to persons or professions? (cf. Engl jack for a ‘car lifter’, or dialAr ḥarāmī ‘thieve’ for an electric ‘plug, adapter’?
    ▪ [v6] : EgAr ʕīraẗ (invar.) ‘false, artificial (teeth, hair)’ (also attested in Hava1899 as ʕiyāraẗ al-šaʕr ‘wig, false hair’) is treated in EtymArab s.r. ↗√ʕWR (as akin to ↗ʔaʕāra ‘to lend, borrow’), but arranged s.r. ↗√ʕYR by BadawiHinds1986, suggesting that the item is akin to [v2] ↗ʕār ‘dishonour, disgrace’, ʕayyar (II) ‘to taunt (s.o.) by mentioning his/her faults or failures’, etc.
    [v7] : ʕayyara ‘to be overspread with green moss (water)’ is prob. fig. use of [v1] (see above).
    [v8] : ʔaʕāra ‘to set (a horse) free; to fatten (a horse); to pluck out (the hair of the tail)’: three rather different values treated in one here for the sake of convenience; none of them seems to be related to the common ↗ʔaʕāra ‘to lend, borrow’ (√ʕWR).
    [v9] : The basic value of ²ʕayr seems to be ‘anything prominent\protuberant\projecting’. If this assumption is valid, ²ʕayr (which evidently must be distinguished from ¹ʕayr ‘donkey’) could be at the basis of [v3] ʕiyār, miʕyār ‘standard measure, standard, gauge (measures, weights)’ and [v5] ²ʕayyār ‘crane (machine)’ (see above), as s.th. that shows the tipping of the scales, see above.
    ▪ ...
     
    – 
    ▪ [v1] BDB1906: (Hbr ʕyr), Ar ʕāra ‘to go away, go hither and thither, »whence« ¹ʕayr ‘(wild) ass’, Hbr ʕayir ‘male ass’.
    ▪ [v2] Leslau2006 (CDG): Akk âru [?]160 , Hbr ʕyr ‘to revile’ (Po ʕōrēr), SAr ʕyr ‘disgrace, shame’, Śḥr ʕer ‘disgrace’, Ar ʕayyara ‘to revile’, Gz ʕayyara ‘to rebuke, reproach, (T) despise, mock, make fun of’, Te ʕayyära ‘to insult’, Tña ʕayyärä ‘to joke, jest’
    ▪ [v3] ʕiyār, miʕyār ‘standard measure, standard, gauge (measures, weights)’: no obvious cognates, but cf. perh. [v1] or [v9] (see above, section CONC); see also below, section DISC.
    ▪ [v4] StarlingTB Sem #1977, Kogan2015 124#2, Borg2021 #480: Ug ʕr (Tropper2008: /ʕêru/) ‘donkey’, Hbr ʕayir postBiblHbr ‘foal, young full-grown ass’,161 ʕīr162 ‘male donkey’, postBiblHbr ‘foal of a donkey’, JudAram *ʕayir (only in pl. ʕayrīn) ‘foal’, Sam ʕyr ’young ass’, Mhr ḥayr, Jib (Kathīri) aḥyɛ́r ‘male donkey’, ḥīrīt ‘female donkey’, Ḥrs ḥayr ’donkey’, ḥayrēt ’she-donkey’, Saf ʕr, Taym ʕyr, Ar ¹ʕayr ‘domestic and wild ass’, ʕayraẗ ‘ânesse et femelle de l’onagre’, ʕuyayr, ʕiyayr ‘ânon, poulain d’âne ou d’onagre’. – According to Kogan, Te ʕayro ‘young camel three years old; (fig.) young man’ (given in SED, StarLingTB, etc.) is too isolated to be taken as a reliable cognate.163 – Outside Sem, Borg2021 compares Eg (OK) ʕꜢ, Dem ʕꜢ, Copt ⲉⲓⲱ ‘ass’. – In addition, StarLingTB lists (WChad) Pero áurà ‘donkey’, (Omot) Kafa (Kaficho) awarō, EMao (Diddesa) wɔɔre ‘horse’, as well as (IndEur) Arm oroǯ ‘agnus, -a’, erinǯ ‘vitula, juvenca, bos’, Grk éripho-s (m./f.) ‘junger Bock, junge Ziege’, Slav *ā́rъka, *ā́rę̄, *ā́rьcь ‘goat’, Balt *ē̂r-a- (c.), (Ital) Lat ariēs ‘Widder, Schafbock; Seewidder’, Umbr erietu ‘arietem’, (Celt) oIr heirp ‘dama, capra’, mIr earb, fearb ‘Damtier’; (Kartvel) Georg irem- ‘deer’, SDrav *IraLai ‘deer’.
    ▪ [v5] ²ʕayyār ‘crane (machine)’: no obvious cognates, see above, section CONC, [v1] and [v3]-[v4].
    ▪ [v6] : EgAr ʕīraẗ (invar.) ‘false, artificial (teeth, hair)’: see ↗s.v. (arranged sub ↗√ʕWR); cf. also above, section CONC.
    [v7] : see prob. [v1].
    [v8] : ?
    [v9] : ²ʕayr *‘anything prominent\protuberant\projecting’: no obvious cognates.
     
    ▪ [v3] ʕiyār, miʕyār ‘standard measure, standard, gauge (measures, weights): Lindberg1897: 87 compares Gz ʕarräyä with Ar ʕāyara ‘to make even’ (Leslau2006 CDG, s.v. ʕarraya).
    ▪ [v4]: StarlingTB Sem#1977 reconstructs: protSem *ʕayr- ‘(male) donkey’584 – Cf. also Sem *y˅ʕr- ‘kid, calf, goat’).)], Eg *ʕ˅r- ‘ass’, WChad *(H)awr- ‘donkey’ (otherwise <*ḥ(i/uw)ar(r)- ‘(young of) donkey, camel’), Omot *(H)awar- ‘horse’, all from a hypothetical AfrAs *ʕay/wr- ‘donkey (and horse?)’. – Outside AfrAr, the authors reconstruct protIndEur *ar-/e- ‘lamb, kid’ < IndEur *ē̆r- (?) < Eurasiatic: *ʔir˅ ‘ungulate’, < Borean (approx.) *H˅R˅ ‘ungulateʼ. – Based on the same evidence, Dolgopolsky2012 reconstructs WSem *ʕayr-/*ʕīr- ‘male wild ass, ass foal’, Kart *°ir- ‘deer’, Drav *ir- ‘deer, stag’, NaIE *er(i)-bʰ- (with the suffix *-bʰ(o)- of animal names), all from a hypothetical Nostr *ʕiR˹i˺ ‘(male, young) big ungulate’.
    ▪ ...
     
    – 
    – 
    ʕār‑ / ʕir‑ عارَ , ī (ʕayr)
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 19Jul2023
    √ʕYR 
    vb., I
     
    to wander, stray, roam, rove – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ No obvious cognates in Sem.
    ▪ The G-stem vb. clearly forms a semantic unit with ↗ʕīr ‘caravan’ and is prob. also the basis from which ↗¹ʕayyār ‘scoundrel, vagabond, vagrant’ (*‘person who roams around a lot’) and the obsolete ʕayyara ‘to be overspread with green moss (water)’ are derived (the latter as D-stem with ints. meaning, likening the rampant spread of moss over water to an aimless *‘wandering, roaming, going astray’).
    ▪ Less obvious, but still not unlikely is a (far) kinship between ‘wandering, roaming, etc.’ and ²ʕayr (↗ʕYR_9) with the general meaning *‘anything prominent\protuberant\projecting’.108 The basic ‘going to and fro, and round about’ is conceivable as having acquired the fig. meaning of *‘excessing a limit\boundary’ in going to and fro, thus being ‘prominent, protuberant, projecting’. The notion of *‘excessing’ could also be imagined to form the basis of the ↗ʕār ‘shame, disgrace, dishonor, ignominy’ – see below.
    ▪ Relation to ↗¹ʕayr ‘donkey’ unclear: Is ‘donkey’ deverbative, as *‘estray, scatterling’ (so BDB1906), or is ‘wandering, etc.’ denominative from ‘donkey’ (< *‘roaming around, straying like a wild ass’)? Given the lack of Sem cognates for ʕāra as compared to the wide attestation of ‘donkey’, such a dependence is well worth considering.
    ▪ Any relation betw. ‘wandering, roaming around’ and the semantic field of ↗ʕār ‘shame, disgrace, dishonor, ignominy’, roaming around being regarded as ignoble, disgraceful, an attribute of vagrants and vagabonds? Or their appearance and doings as an *‘excess’, a *‘going beyond’ the norms of society (see above)? Cf. also D-stem ↗ʕayyara ‘to reproach, blame, rebuke, condemn; to insult, revile’ (with obvious cognates in Hbr, SAr, Śḥr, Gz, Te, Tña, perh. also Akk) – from orig. *‘to accuse of roaming around, going beyond the norms’ (see ↗¹ʕayyār ‘scoundrel, vagabond, vagrant’)?
    ▪ Any relation betw. ‘wandering, roaming around’ and ↗ʕiyār, ↗miʕyār ‘standard measure, standard, gauge (measures, weights)’, the pointer/index on a pair of scales *‘going to and fro’ and finally showing the balance or difference in weight etc.?
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ No obvious cognates, cf. above, section CONC.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ ...
     
    – 
    Semantic affiliation or non-affiliation of many items unclear, see above, section CONC.

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕayyara, ↗ʕār, ↗¹ʕayr, ↗ʕīr, ↗ʕiyār, ↗¹ʕayyār, ↗²ʕayyār, and ↗miʕyār, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ʕYR (with overlappings also from ↗ʕWR, ↗ʕRW and ↗ʕRY).
     
    ʕayyar‑ عَيَّرَ , ‑ʕayyir‑ (taʕyīr)
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 19Jul2023
    √ʕYR 
    vb., II
     
    1a to reproach, upbraid, blame, rebuke, condemn (s.o., ‑h, bi-, ʕalà for); b to abuse, insult, revile (s.o.), rail (-h at s.o.) – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ The D-stem vb. ʕayyara seems to be declarative from ↗ʕār ‘shame, disgrace, dishonor, ignominy’. The value has obvious cognates in Hbr, SAr, Śḥr, Gz, Te, Tña, perh. also Akk, so that one may assume a deeper (W?)Sem dimension.
    ▪ Any relation betw. this value and ↗ʕāra ‘to wander, stray, roam, rove’? A ↗¹ʕayyār ‘scoundrel, vagabond, vagrant’ used to be regarded as base and ignoble...
    ▪ For further speculation, see ↗ʕāra.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ Leslau2006 (CDG): Akk âru [?]164 , Hbr ʕyr ‘to revile’ (Po ʕōrēr), SAr ʕyr ‘disgrace, shame’, Śḥr ʕer ‘disgrace’, Ar ʕayyara ‘to revile’, Gz ʕayyara ‘to rebuke, reproach, (T) despise, mock, make fun of’, Te ʕayyära ‘to insult’, Tña ʕayyärä ‘to joke, jest’
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ ...
     
    –  
    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕāra, ↗ʕār, ↗¹ʕayr, ↗ʕīr, ↗ʕiyār, ↗¹ʕayyār, ↗²ʕayyār, and ↗miʕyār, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ʕYR (with overlappings also from ↗ʕWR, ↗ʕRW and ↗ʕRY).
     
    ʕār عار , pl. ʔaʕyār
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP 3006 • APD … • © SG | 19Jul2023
    √ʕYR 
    n.
     
    shame, disgrace, dishonor, ignominy (ʕalà for) – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ Together with the declar. D-stem vb. ↗ʕayyara ‘to reproach, upbraid, blame, rebuke, condemn’ (*< ‘to accuse of shameful behaviour’), ʕār seems has obvious cognates in Hbr, SAr, Śḥr, Gz, Te, Tña, perh. also Akk, so that one may assume a deeper (W?)Sem dimension.
    ▪ Any relation betw. this value and ↗ʕāra ‘to wander, stray, roam, rove’? A ↗¹ʕayyār ‘scoundrel, vagabond, vagrant’ used to be regarded as base and ignoble... – According to Nişanyan, ClassAr lexicographers used to group ʕār under √ʕYR ‘to go, make a move’, but from a semantic perspective, it seems to make better sense (why, exactly?) to group it with ↗√ʕWR (NişanyanSözlük_17Apr2015).
    ▪ For further speculation, see ↗ʕāra.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ Leslau2006 (CDG): Akk âru [?]165 , Hbr ʕyr ‘to revile’ (Po ʕōrēr), SAr ʕyr ‘disgrace, shame’, Śḥr ʕer ‘disgrace’, Ar ʕayyara ‘to revile’, Gz ʕayyara ‘to rebuke, reproach, (T) despise, mock, make fun of’, Te ʕayyära ‘to insult’, Tña ʕayyärä ‘to joke, jest’
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ Tu ar, arsız, arsızlık, etc.
    ▪ ...
     
    ʕayyara, vb. II, 1a to reproach, upbraid, blame, rebuke, condemn (s.o., ‑h, bi-, ʕalà for); b to abuse, insult, revile (s.o.), rail (-h at s.o.): D-stem, declar.

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕāra, ↗¹ʕayr, ↗ʕīr, ↗ʕiyār, ↗¹ʕayyār, ↗²ʕayyār, and ↗miʕyār, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ʕYR (with overlappings also from ↗ʕWR, ↗ʕRW and ↗ʕRY).
     
    ¹ʕayr عَيْر , pl. ʔaʕyār
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 19Jul2023
    √ʕYR 
    n.
     
    wild ass, onager – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ Kogan2015 124#2 (cf. (SED II #50): from WSem *ʕayr ‘donkey’.109 – On account of extra-Sem evidence StarlingTB further reconstructs AfrAs *ʕay/wr- ‘donkey (and horse?)’ and posits kinship also with IndEur terms. The authors further see a relation to Sem *ḥ˅wār- ‘young (of camel, donkey)’ < AfrAs *ḥ(i/uw)ar(r)- ‘(young of) donkey, camel’.
    ▪ Any relation betw. ¹ʕayr and ↗ʕāra ‘to wander, stray, roam, rove’, a donkey being an *‘estray, scatterling’? (This seems to be the opinion of BDB1906.) – Or is ‘wandering, etc.’ denom. from ‘donkey’, as *‘roaming around, straying like a wild ass’? Given the lack of Sem cognates for the value ‘wandering, etc.’, such a dependence is prob. worth considering.
    ▪ Relation betw. ¹ʕayr and ↗ʕār ‘shame, disgrace, dishonor, ignominy’ as well as ↗ʕiyār, ↗miʕyār ‘standard measure, standard, gauge (measures, weights)’ looks rather unlikely.
    ▪ ↗²ʕayyār ‘crane (machine)’ could be thought of as *‘(weight-carrying) “donkey”’; but it is rather akin to ↗ʕiyār ‘gauge (measures, weights)’
    ▪ Historically, ʕayr is also attested with several other meanings: ‘pupil of the eye; prominent line on a map, a leaf; mountain; projecting bone of the hand, or the body; king, chief; wooden peg; drum’ (see ↗ʕYR_9). It seems hard to connect these values to ‘donkey, wild ass, onager’. It is therefore prob. better to distinguish ¹ʕayr ‘donkey’ from ²ʕayr *‘anything prominent\protuberant\projecting’.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ StarlingTB Sem #1977, Kogan2015 124#2, Borg2021 #480: Ug ʕr (Tropper2008: /ʕêru/) ‘donkey’, Hbr ʕayir postBiblHbr ‘foal, young full-grown ass’,166 ʕīr167 ‘male donkey’, postBiblHbr ‘foal of a donkey’, JudAram *ʕayir (only in pl. ʕayrīn) ‘foal’, Sam ʕyr ’young ass’, Mhr ḥayr, Jib (Kathīri) aḥyɛ́r ‘male donkey’, ḥīrīt ‘female donkey’, Ḥrs ḥayr ’donkey’, ḥayrēt ’she-donkey’, Saf ʕr, Taym ʕyr, Ar ¹ʕayr ‘domestic and wild ass’, ʕayraẗ ‘ânesse et femelle de l’onagre’, ʕuyayr, ʕiyayr ‘ânon, poulain d’âne ou d’onagre’. – According to Kogan, Te ʕayro ‘young camel three years old; (fig.) young man’ (given in SED, StarLingTB, etc.) is too isolated to be taken as a reliable cognate.168 – Outside Sem, Borg2021 compares Eg (OK) ʕꜢ, Dem ʕꜢ, Copt ⲉⲓⲱ ‘ass’. – In addition, StarLingTB lists (WChad) Pero áurà ‘donkey’, (Omot) Kafa (Kaficho) awarō, EMao (Diddesa) wɔɔre ‘horse’, as well as (IndEur) Arm oroǯ ‘agnus, -a’, erinǯ ‘vitula, juvenca, bos’, Grk éripho-s (m./f.) ‘junger Bock, junge Ziege’, Slav *ā́rъka, *ā́rę̄, *ā́rьcь ‘goat’, Balt *ē̂r-a- (c.), (Ital) Lat ariēs ‘Widder, Schafbock; Seewidder’, Umbr erietu ‘arietem’, (Celt) oIr heirp ‘dama, capra’, mIr earb, fearb ‘Damtier’; (Kartvel) Georg irem- ‘deer’, SDrav *IraLai ‘deer’.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ StarlingTB Sem#1977 reconstructs: protSem *ʕayr- ‘(male) donkey’585 – Cf. also Sem *y˅ʕr- ‘kid, calf, goat’).)], Eg *ʕ˅r- ‘ass’, WChad *(H)awr- ‘donkey’ (otherwise <*ḥ(i/uw)ar(r)- ‘(young of) donkey, camel’), Omot *(H)awar- ‘horse’, all from a hypothetical AfrAs *ʕay/wr- ‘donkey (and horse?)’. – Outside AfrAr, the authors reconstruct protIndEur *ar-/e- ‘lamb, kid’ < IndEur *ē̆r- (?) < Eurasiatic: *ʔir˅ ‘ungulate’, < Borean (approx.) *H˅R˅ ‘ungulateʼ. – Based on the same evidence, Dolgopolsky2012 reconstructs WSem *ʕayr-/*ʕīr- ‘male wild ass, ass foal’, Kart *°ir- ‘deer’, Drav *ir- ‘deer, stag’, NaIE *er(i)-bʰ- (with the suffix *-bʰ(o)- of animal names), all from a hypothetical Nostr *ʕiR˹i˺ ‘(male, young) big ungulate’.
    ▪ ...
     
    –  
    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕāra, ↗ʕayyara, ↗ʕār, ↗ʕīr, ↗ʕiyār, ↗¹ʕayyār, ↗²ʕayyār, and ↗miʕyār, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ʕYR (with overlappings also from ↗ʕWR, ↗ʕRW and ↗ʕRY).
     
    ʕīr عِير , pl. ʕiyarāt 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 19Jul2023
    √ʕYR 
    n.
     
    caravan – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ Akin to ↗ʕāra ‘to wander, stray, roam, rove’, itself of obscure origin.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ ↗ʕāra.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ ...
     
    –  
    lā fī ’l-ʕīr wa-fī ’l-nafīr, expr., 1a neither here nor there; b in no way, in no manner; 2 unimportant, of no consequence

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕāra, ↗ʕayyara, ↗ʕār, ↗¹ʕayr, ↗ʕiyār, ↗¹ʕayyār, ↗²ʕayyār, and ↗miʕyār, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ʕYR (with overlappings also from ↗ʕWR, ↗ʕRW and ↗ʕRY).
     
    ʕiyār عِيار , pl. ‑āt, ʔaʕyiraẗ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 19Jul2023
    √ʕYR 
    n.
     
    1 standard measure, standard, gauge (of measures and weights); 2a fineness (of gold and silver articles), standard (of gold and silver coins); b caliber; 3 (pl. ‑āt, ʔaʕyiraẗ) (rifle) shot (also ʕiyār nārī) – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ Etymology obscure
    ▪ Perh. related to ↗ʕāra ‘to wander, etc.’, the index of scales *‘going to and fro’? Or to ↗ʕYR_9 *‘prominent\protuberant part of s.th.’, as the scales show the excess of weight etc.? Cf. also below, section DISC.
    ▪ [v1] : in MSA almost exchangeable with ↗miʕyār.
    ▪ [v2] : specifications of the more general [v1].
    ▪ [v3] : meton. use of [v2b], a rifle shot being likened to the ‘calibre’ of a rifle bullet.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ No obvious cognates in Sem or outside, but cf. perh. ↗ʕāra or ²ʕayr (↗ʕYR_9) (see above, section CONC); see also below, section DISC.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ According to Leslau2006 (CDG, s.v. Gz ʕarraya), Lindberg1897: 87 compares Gz ʕarräyä with Ar ʕāyara (L-stem) ‘to make even’.
    ▪ ...
     
    – 
    ʕāyara, vb. III, to gauge (measures, weights), test the accuracy (‑h of measures, of weights)
    ʕayyār, pl. ‑ūn, n., 1 ↗¹ʕayyār; 2 (pl. -āt) crane (machine)
    BP#1677miʕyār, n., measuring, mensuration, gauging, measurement, measure; – (pl. maʕāyīrᵘ) standard measure, standard, gauge (of measures and weights); standard; norm | miʕyār al-ʕayš, Iiving standard; miʕyār al-ḏahab, gold standard
    muʕāyaraẗ, n.f.: muʕāyaraẗ al-mawāzīn wa’l-makāyīl, verification of weights and measures of capacity (by the bureau of standards)

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕāra, ↗ʕayyara, ↗ʕār, ↗¹ʕayr, ↗ʕīr, ↗¹ʕayyār, ↗²ʕayyār, and ↗miʕyār, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ʕYR (with overlappings also from ↗ʕWR, ↗ʕRW and ↗ʕRY).
     
    ¹ʕayyār عَيّار , pl. ‑ūn
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 19Jul2023
    √ʕYR 
    n.
     
    1a loafer, scoundrel, bum; b vagabond, vagrant; 2 ↗²ʕayyār – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ »ʿAyyār (Ar pl. ʿayyārūn; Pers pl. ʿayyārān) is a term used historically to refer to a member of the paramilitary chivalric bands that constituted an important element in premodern Islamic society, primarily in the pre-Mongol Middle East (the Mashriq) and the eastern Iranian lands«.110
    ▪ Prob. from ↗ʕāra ‘to wander, stray, roam, rove’ (cf. also ↗ʕīr ‘caravan’).
    ▪ Any relation (via ↗ʕāra?) to ↗¹ʕayr ‘donkey’ (*‘roaming around, straying like a wild ass’) or to ↗ʕār ‘shame, disgrace, etc.’, as ‘wandering, roaming, going astray’ may have been regarded as *‘disgraceful, base, ignoble’?
    ▪ ↗²ʕayyār ‘crane (machine)’ is prob. rather akin to ↗ʕiyār ‘gauge (measures, weights)’ than fig. use of ¹ʕayyār ‘donkey’, although a crane could be a weight-carrying *‘donkey’? Fig. use of ¹ʕayyār ‘scoundrel’ is not completely inconceivable, as tools sometimes are likened to persons or professions (cf. Engl jack for a ‘car lifter’, or dialAr ḥarāmī ‘thieve’ for an electric ‘plug, adapter’.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ For ClassAr, Hava1899 also gives a more general meaning: ‘sharp, sprightly; idle (man)’
    ...
     
    ▪ ↗ʕāra (but cf. also above, section CONC).
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ ...
     
    –  
    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕāra, ↗ʕayyara, ↗ʕār, ↗¹ʕayr, ↗ʕīr, ↗ʕiyār, ↗²ʕayyār, and ↗miʕyār, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ʕYR (with overlappings also from ↗ʕWR, ↗ʕRW and ↗ʕRY).
     
    ²ʕayyār عَيّار , pl. ‑āt
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 19Jul2023
    √ʕYR 
    n.
     
    1 ↗¹ʕayyār; 2 (pl. -āt) crane (machine) – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ Prob. related to ↗ʕiyār ‘gauge (measures, weights)’, as *‘crane of a pair of scales’, rather than fig. use of ¹ʕayyār ‘scoundrel’, though the latter option is not completely inconceivable, as tools sometimes are likened to persons or professions (cf. Engl jack for a ‘car lifter’, or dialAr ḥarāmī ‘thieve’ for an electric ‘plug, adapter’). Or specialised use of ints. (FaʕʕāL) var. of ClassAr ʕāʔir ‘going to and fro, and round about’ (pointer on scales)? Cf. also ²ʕayr (↗ʕYR_9) *‘anything prominent\protuberant\projecting’ (showing the tipping of the scales)?
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ No obvious cognates, see above, section CONC.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ ...
     
    –  
    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕāra, ↗ʕayyara, ↗ʕār, ↗¹ʕayr, ↗ʕīr, ↗ʕiyār, ↗¹ʕayyār, and ↗miʕyār, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ʕYR (with overlappings also from ↗ʕWR, ↗ʕRW and ↗ʕRY).
     
    miʕyār مِعْيار , pl. maʕāyīrᵘ
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP 1677 • APD … • © SG | 19Jul2023
    √ʕYR 
    n. 
    1 measuring, mensuration, gauging, measurement, measure; – 2 (pl. maʕāyīrᵘ) a standard measure, standard, gauge (of measures and weights); b standard; c norm – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ Etymology obscure. In MSA almost exchangeable with ↗ʕiyār.
    ▪ Perh. related to ↗ʕāra ‘to wander, etc.’, the index of scales *‘going to and fro’? Or to ↗ʕYR_9 *‘prominent\protuberant part of s.th.’, as the scales show the excess of weight etc.? Cf. also below, section DISC.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ No obvious cognates in Sem or outside, but cf. perh. ↗ʕāra or ²ʕayr (↗ʕYR_9) (see above, section CONC); see also below, section DISC.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ According to Leslau2006 (CDG, s.v. Gz ʕarraya), Lindberg1897: 87 compares Gz ʕarräyä with Ar ʕāyara (L-stem) ‘to make even’.
    ▪ ...
     
    –  
    miʕyār al-ʕayš, Iiving standard;
    miʕyār al-ḏahab, gold standard

    ʕāyara, vb. III, to gauge (measures, weights), test the accuracy (‑h of measures, of weights)
    ʕiyār, pl. ‑āt, n., 1 standard measure, standard, gauge (of measures and weights); 2a fineness (of gold and silver articles), standard (of gold and silver coins); b caliber; 3 (pl. -āt, ʔaʕyiraẗ) (rifle) shot (also ʕiyār nārī)
    ʕayyār, pl. ‑ūn, n., 1 ↗¹ʕayyār; 2 (pl. -āt) crane (machine)
    muʕāyaraẗ, n.f.: muʕāyaraẗ al-mawāzīn wa’l-makāyīl, verification of weights and measures of capacity (by the bureau of standards)

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕāra, ↗ʕayyara, ↗ʕār, ↗¹ʕayr, ↗ʕīr, ↗ʕiyār, ↗¹ʕayyār, and ↗²ʕayyār, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ʕYR (with overlappings also from ↗ʕWR, ↗ʕRW and ↗ʕRY).
     
    ʕYS عيس 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Mar2023
    √ʕYS 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕYS_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕYS_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕYS_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘camels of good stock, camel breeding, yellowish white (i.e. the colour of such camels)’. Philologists almost unanimously attribute the proper name ʕĪsà to a borrowing from either Hbr or Syr. A few, however, regard it as a derivation from forms associated with the concepts of camels of good stock and guidance. 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕYŠ عيش 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕYŠ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕYŠ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ʕYŠ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘state and way of living, life (particularly of animals), to live, to make one’s home in a particular place or with a particular person, livelihood’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ʕāš‑ / ʕiš‑ عاشَ / عِشْـ , i (ʕayš , ʕīšaẗ , maʕīš , maʕīšaẗ , maʕāš
    ID … • Sw – • BP 326 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕYŠ 
    vb., I 
    to live, be alive; to pass, spend, go through, experience (a period of time), live through (events) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 ʕīšaẗ: Q 69:21 fa-huwa fī ʕīšatin rāḍiyatin ‘and so he will live a pleasant life’. – maʕāš: Q 78:11 wa-ǧaʕalnā ’l-nahāra maʕāšan ‘And we made the day [for earning] a living/for toiling’. – maʕīšaẗ: Q 43:32 naḥnu qasamnā bayna-hum maʕīšata-hum fī ’l-ḥayāti ’l-dunyā ‘We apportion out among them their livelihood in this life’.
    ▪▪ … 
    ▪ Zammit2002: Syr ʕās ‘recreatus est’, SAr ʕšt ‘way of life > community’
    ▪ Youssef2003: for EgAr ʕēš ‘life; that which sustains life, bread’ compare Eg ʕnḫ ‘life’
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Youssef2003 postulates a relation between EgAr ʕēš ‘life; that which sustains life, bread’ and Eg ʕnḫ ‘life’
    ▪ Albright1927 reports that Ar ʕāša had been combined with Eg ʕnḫ ‘to live’ earlier, but favours himself rather a relation between Eg ʕnḫ and Ar ↗naʕaša. The latter, however, can be thought of as being a "a prefixed nūn formation" from a *ʕŠ root (NʕŠ < *n-ʕŠ).
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ʕayyaša, vb. II, to keep alive, make or let live; to feed, support, sustain, provide for: caus.
    ʕāyaša, vb. III, to live together with: associative.
    ʔaʕāša, vb. IV, = II: caus.
    taʕayyaša, vb. V, to eke out a living, just manage to make both ends meet; to earn one’s bread, make a living (min with); to live, subsist (min on, by):…
    taʕāyaša, vb. VI, to live together: recipr.
    ĭʕtāša, vb. VIII, = V. :…

    BP#1408ʕayš, n., life, way of living, way (or mode) of life; livelihood, subsistance, living: vn. I; (chiefly eg.) bread: accord. to some with own etymology | mustawà ’l-~, n., living standard; ʕēš ġurāb (eg.), n., mushrooms.
    ʕīšaẗ, n.f., sort of life, way (or mode) of living, way of life, life: vn. I.
    ʕayyāš (eg.), n., bread seller: n.prof.
    maʕāš, n., life, manner (or style) of living; livelihood, subsistence, living; means of subsistence; income: vn. I; (pl. ‑āt) retirement pay, pension; benefits or allowances from a public-welfare fund | ḏū ’l-~, n., pensioner; ʔarbāb al-~āt, n.pl., pensioners; ʔuḥīla ʔilà/ʕalà ’l-~, vb. IV pass., to be pensioned off, be retired, be superannuated.
    BP#3239maʕīšaẗ, n.f., pl. maʕāyišᵘ, n., life, way of living, way (or mode) of life; form of life; livelihood, subsistence, living; household: vn. I | ~ al-rīf, n., rural life, life in the country.
    BP#4642maʕīšī, adj., of or pertaining to the way of living: nsb-adj from maʕīšaẗ | al-ḥālaẗ al-~iyyaẗ, n., living standard.
    muʕāyašaẗ, n.f., coexistence (pol.): vn. III.
    ʔiʕāšaẗ, n.f., sustenance, nourishment, food: vn. IV | biṭāqaẗ al-~, n., food ration card.
    BP#4222taʕāyuš, n., living together; coexistence (pol.): vn. VI.
    BP#3252ʕāʔiš, adj., living, alive; well off, well-to-do, prosperous: PA I.
     
    ʕYL عيل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Mar2023
    √ʕYL 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕYL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕYL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ʕYL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘children, family, to have many children; to be underfed, to be dependent, to be poor; to deviate; to be conceited, to walk with a conceited gait’. – There is a certain degree of overlapping between this root and the root ↗ʕWL (q.v.), whereby the sense of ‘to have many children’ might be derived from either. 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʕYN عين 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕYN 
    “root” 
    ▪ ʕYN_1 ‘eye’ ↗ʕayn
    ▪ ʕYN_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ʕYN_3 ‘fountain, clear flowing water’ ↗maʕīn

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘eye, eyesight, to see, to have beautiful eyes, to injure the eye, to give the evil eye, to spy, to ascertain, notables; water spring; group of brothers’ 
    ▪ ʕYN_1 : (Kogan2011:) from protSem *ʕayn‑ ‘eye’.
    ▪ ʕYN_2 : …
    ▪ ʕYN_3 : … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ʕayn عَيْن 
    ID 628 • Sw 40/39 • BP 130 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʕYN 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2015 (Sw#25): from protSem *ʕayn‑ ‘eye’ (SED I #28). Passim throughout Sem.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘eye’) Akk ēnu, Hbr ʕáyin, Syr ʕaynā, Gz ʕayn.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    maʕīn مَعِين 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Jun2023
    √ʕYN, MʕN
     
    n. 
    fountain, clear flowing water – Jeffery1938 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q xxiii, 52; xxxv’u, 44; lvi, 18; lxvii, 30 – Jeffery1938.
     
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »It occurs only in early and middle Meccan passages. / The philologers were uncertain whether it was a form faʕīl from ↗maʕana ‘to flow’, or connected with ↗māʕūn, or from ↗ʕāna, so called because of its clearness, cf. Zam. on xxiii, 52, and LA, xvii, 179, 298. / The word ʕyn for a ‘spring of water’ is of course comSem, but Fraenkel, Fremdw, 281, noted that the Qurʔānic maʕīn is the Hbr maʕyān, Syr mʕīnā = Grk ‘pēgḗ’, commonly used for ‘spring, bubbling fountain’. From one of these sources, probably from the Syr, it came into Ar.«
     
    – 
    – 
    ġayn غين 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ 
    R₁ 
    The letter ġ of the Arabic alphabet. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ĠBR غبر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 11Apr2023
    √ĠBR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠBR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠBR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠBR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘dust, earth, to gather dust, to remain, to depart, previous time; devastation, famine, poverty’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ĠBN غبن 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 11Apr2023
    √ĠBN 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠBN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠBN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠBN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to forget, to be lacking in judgement; to weaken, to deceive’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ĠṮW غثو 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 11Apr2023
    √ĠṮW 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠṮW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠṮW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠṮW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘debris, scum, dry vegetation, wanting to vomit’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ĠDR غدق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 12Apr2023
    √ĠDR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠDR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠDR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠDR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘puddles of rainwater; to leave behind, to double cross, to depart; long plaited locks of hair’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ĠDQ غدق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 12Apr2023
    √ĠDQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠDQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠDQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠDQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘great volume of water, heavy rain; fertile land, comfortable living, generosity of character’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ĠDW غدو 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ĠDW 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠDW_1 ‘’ ↗
    ▪ ĠDW_2 ‘’ ↗
    ▪ ĠDW_3 ‘’ ↗
    ▪ ĠDW_4 ‘’ ↗
    ▪ ĠDW_5 ‘’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘time between the break of dawn and the rising of the sun, to do things during such time; the morrow, future’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ġadāʔ غَداء 
    ID 629 • Sw – • BP 2774 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ĠDW 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ĠRː (ĠRR) غرّ/غرر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 12Apr2023
    √ ĠRː (ĠRR) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠRː (ĠRR)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠRː (ĠRR)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠRː (ĠRR)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘white spot on a horse’s face, first day of the month; blank, of clear complexion, to be foolish, be simple minded, gullible, inexperienced; to deceive, make vain promises, lull into false security; conceit, self deception’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ĠRB غرب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ĠRB 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠRB_1 ‘sunset, the west, to travel westward’ ↗ġurūb, ↗maġrib
    ▪ ĠRB_2 ‘to leave home, become a stranger, strange, obscure words’ ↗ġurbaẗ, ↗ġarīb
    ▪ ĠRB_3 ‘crow’ ↗ġurāb
    ▪ ĠRB_4 ‘Euphrates poplar’ ↗ġarab
    ▪ ĠRB_5 ‘part between the hump and the neck’ ↗ġārib
    ▪ ĠRB_6 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘sunset, the west, to travel westward; to leave home, to become a stranger, strange, obscure words; high sea waves; crow; black men’ 
    ▪ [v1] …
    ▪ [v2] …
    ▪ [v3] Kogan2011: from protSem *ġārib‑, *ġurā̆b‑ ‘crow, raven’.
    ▪ [v4] Kogan2011: from protWSem *ġarab‑ (probably) ‘Euphrates poplar’.
    ▪ [v5] Kogan2011: For a protSem term for ‘occiput’, one may compare Akk arūpu (arūbu) ‘part of neck’, ḫuruppu ‘hump’, Hbr ʕīräp ‘top of the head, neck’, Ar ġārib ‘part between the hump and the neck’ and ʕurf- ‘mane, feathers on the neck’, Mhr ġarb ‘camel’s back and neck in front of the hump’, Soq ʕárib ‘neck’.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘to set (sun)’) Akk īrub, Hbr ʕrb, Syr ʕrb a (u), Gz ʕrb – (a).
     
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl grab, from Ar ġurāb ‘raven, swift galley’. – Maghreb, Moroccomaġrib 
    – 
    ĭstaġrab‑ اِسْتَغْرَبَ 
    ID 630 • Sw – • BP 4111 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ĠRB 
    vb., X 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ġurbaẗ غُرْبَة 
    ID 631 • Sw – • BP 2581 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ĠRB 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
     
    ġurūb غُرُوب 
    ID 632 • Sw – • BP 3416 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ĠRB 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ġarīb غَرِيب , 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 526 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ĠRB 
    ¹adj., ²n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪▪ …
    ▪ Cf. Fück1950:▪ ….
    ▪▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    … 
    maġrib مَغْرِب 
    ID 633 • Sw – • BP 4816 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ĠRB 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Ar root form √ĠRB ‘to depart’: Maghreb, Morocco, from Ar ↗maġrib ‘place where the sun sets, west’, from ġaraba ‘to depart, set (of the sun)’, akin to some items of Sem and Ar ↗√ʕRB. 
     
    ĠRQ غرق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 12Apr2023
    √ĠRQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠRQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠRQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠRQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to sink, be submerged, drown; to go to the extreme; to be preoccupied, to engross’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ĠRM غرم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 12Apr2023
    √ĠRM 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠRM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠRM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠRM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘loss, financial liability one takes upon o.s., to be in debt; lasting torment, aching love, fondness, heart; (of heat) scorching; opponent’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ĠRW غرو 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 12Apr2023
    √ĠRW 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠRW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠRW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠRW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to glue, stick; wonder, allurement, to tempt; to incite, rouse against, stir up’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ĠZL غزل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 14Apr2023
    √ĠZL 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠZL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠZL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠZL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘spindle, yarn, to spin; courtship; gazelle’ 
    ▪ From CSem *√ĠZL ‘to spin (yarn or thread)’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ĠZW غزو 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 14Apr2023
    √ĠZW 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠZW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠZW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠZW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to intend, seek s.th., strive; to invade a territory, carry out a military offensive; sense, signification’ 
    ▪ From Ar root √ĠZW ‘to strive, make a raid’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl ghazi, from Ar ↗ġāzī ‘raider, warrior’, PA of ↗ġazā ‘to strive, make a raid’; razzia, from Ar ġazyaẗ, dialectal variant of ġazwaẗ ‘raid, military attack’, from ↗ġazā (see above). 
    – 
    ĠSQ غسق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 14Apr2023
    √ĠSQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠSQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠSQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠSQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘evening dusk, darkness of the night; bright red; extreme coldness, pus, foul fluid, to pour out, (of the eye) to water’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ĠSL غسل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 14Apr2023
    √ĠSL 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠSL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠSL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠSL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘washing, dirty water left after washing, to wash, bathe, washed clothes, bath, washing place, filth’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ĠŠW غشو 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 14Apr2023
    √ĠŠW 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠŠW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠŠW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠŠW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to cover, seek cover, conceal; to overcome; to faint; to visit frequently’ 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ĠṢː (ĠṢṢ) غص/غصص 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 14Apr2023
    √ ĠṢː (ĠṢṢ) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠṢː (ĠṢṢ)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠṢː (ĠṢṢ)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠṢː (ĠṢṢ)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘choking, to choke, to be crowded’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ĠṢB غصب 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 14Apr2023
    √ĠṢB 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠṢB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠṢB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠṢB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to extort, take by force, rape; to scrape hair off the skin by sheer force’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ĠḌː (ĠḌḌ) غضّ/غضض 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 14Apr2023
    √ ĠḌː (ĠḌḌ) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠḌː (ĠḌḌ)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠḌː (ĠḌḌ)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠḌː (ĠḌḌ)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be tender, be young; to be affluent; to cast one’s eyes down to show humility, be modest, check’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ĠḌB غضب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ĠḌB 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠḌB_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ĠḌB_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘protruding rock; to be angry, to frown; to have a severe eruption of small pox; (of the eyes) to swell’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ġaḍib‑ غَضِبَ 
    ID 635 • Sw – • BP 4154 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ĠḌB 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ġāḍib غاضِب 
    ID 634 • Sw – • BP 2808 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ĠḌB 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ĠṬŠ غطش 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 14Apr2023
    √ĠṬŠ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠṬŠ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠṬŠ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠṬŠ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘weak eye sight; (of night) to be dark, cause to be dark; to be difficult; to travel through the land’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ĠṬY غطي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 14Apr2023
    √ĠṬY 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠṬY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠṬY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠṬY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to become full; to cover, veil, hide; to be overbearing, become dark’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ĠFR غفر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 14Apr2023
    √ĠFR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠFR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠFR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠFR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to cover, hide; helmet, cloak; large crowd of people; to pardon, forgiveness; large increase in wealth’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ĠFL غفل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 14Apr2023
    √ĠFL 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠFL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠFL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠFL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to neglect, overlook, forget, be distracted; to be simple, be unmarked; to be anonymous, be of low birth’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ĠLː (ĠLL) غلّ/غلل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 11Mar2023, last updated 17Mar2023
    √ĠLː (ĠLL) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠLː (ĠLL)_1 ‘to insert, enter, penetrate’ ↗¹ġalla
    ▪ ĠLː (ĠLL)_2 ‘iron collar; manacles, handcuffs; chains, shackles, fetters’ ↗²ġull
    ▪ ĠLː (ĠLL)_3 ‘produce, crops; revenue, returns; grain, cereals, corn; fruits’ ↗ġallaẗ ; ‘to rake in, gain, win, obtain, reap; to derive advantage or profit from, capitalize on s.th.; to exploit’ ↗ĭstaġalla
    ▪ ĠLː (ĠLL)_4 ‘burning thirst’ ↗¹ġull
    ▪ ĠLː (ĠLL)_5 ‘rancor, hatred, spite, malice’ ↗ġill
    ▪ ĠLː (ĠLL)_6 ‘fine, diaphanous, cape, mantilla, veil; shirtlike garment, gown’ ↗ġilālaẗ

    Other values, now obsolete, include (BK1860, Lane vi 1877, Hava1899)

    ĠLː (ĠLL)_7 ‘to perfume (the beard, bi‑ with balm) | enduire, parfumer (de musc, ġāliyaẗ 12 )’: ġallala
    ĠLː (ĠLL)_8 ‘water flowing amid trees’: ġalal (pl. ʔaġlāl ); cf. also ġalla ‘couler, pénétrer, entrer (bayn au milieu de; se dit de l’eau qui coule entre les arbres)’, and mutaġallil ‘qui circule entre les arbres, dans une avenue plantée d’arbres’
    ĠLː (ĠLL)_9 ‘filtre pour coler, clarifier un liquide (= miṣfāẗ ) | strainer’: ġalal
    ĠLː (ĠLL)_10 ‘mêler, mélanger l’un avec l’autre’: ġalla
    ĠLː (ĠLL)_11 ‘couvrir’: ġalla
    ĠLː (ĠLL)_12 ‘certaine maladie des moutons’13 : ġalal ; cf. also ĭnġalla ‘avoir la maladie ġalal
    ĠLː (ĠLL)_13 ‘oter la peau de l’animal égorgé avec trop de précipitation ou en tirant trop, au point que des morceaux de chair et de graisse restent après la peau’: ʔaġalla
    ĠLː (ĠLL)_ ‘...’: ...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘extreme thirst; to bar from drinking; shackles, to shackle; treachery, animosity, hatred; to confiscate; to purloin, to yield, to produce, to earn’ 
    ▪ [v1] : Attested in Ug, Hbr, several varieties of Aram, and Ar; from protWSem *ġll ‘to insert; to immerse’ – Kogan2015: 381 #5111 – The value *‘to insert, enter’ may be the origin of several others, see [v2], [v5]?, [v6]-[v10], below. – For the aspect of *‘passing through/between/beneath’, etc., accompanying that of ‘entering’, and its possible connection to final *‑Lː/‑LL, see DISC in entry ↗ġalla.
    ▪ [v2] : According to Zammit2002, Ar ²ġull ‘yoke, collar’ has cognates in Akk ḫalālu ‘einsperren, festhalten | (CAD ) to detain, keep waiting’, Ug ġll ‘to tie up’, Hbr ʕōl (√ʕLL) ‘yoke’. If this juxtaposition is valid, [v2] may represent a value in its own right that should be kept distinct from [v1]. Others interpret ²ġull (esp. in the meaning ‘manacles, handcuffs; chains, shackles, fetters’) as *‘s.th. into which hands, feet, etc. are inserted’, thus dependent on [v1].
    ▪ [v3] : Borg2021 #494 shows that the term is widespread also in the Ar dialects (with the Maġrib tending to the meaning of ‘fruit’, e.g., MorAr and TunAr), but the author’s identification of the Ar ġallaẗ with (Eg jꜣrrt, Dem ꜣllj, Copt ⲉⲗⲟⲟⲗⲉ ‘grapes’ and) Hbr ʕôlēlōt ‘gleanings (of grapes and olives)’ is questionable, as these may belong to ↗ʕLː (ʕLL) *‘to repeat, do s.th. a second time’ rather than to ĠLː (ĠLL). A more obvious cognate is Syr ʕᵃlaltâ, esp. in one of the pl.s, ʕallᵊtâ) ‘what is brought in, ingathering, increase, harvest, crop, fruit, yield, produce’), from Syr ʕal ‘enter’, (Af) ʔaʕel ‘to bring, put, carry in, introduce; […] to bring in (ʕallᵊlātâ the harvest)’, Aram ʕᵃlal, Hbr ²ʕLL ‘to insert, thrust in’. Ar ġallaẗ thus seems to stem from [v1] ġalla ‘to put in, thrust in’.
    ▪ [v4] : Kogan2015: 325 #8 would not exclude an identification of Ar ġll ‘to be thirsty’ with the Ug hapax ġll ‘thirsty one’, but adds that such an identification, though possible, is »but by no means compelling«.
    ▪ [v5] : Most ClassAr dictionaries explain Ar ġill ‘rancor, hatred, spite, malice’ as fig. use of [v4] ‘burning thirst’. However, while [v4] has no cognates in SAr, [v5] has many in Sab, both with the meaning ‘grudge, anger, hatred, to hate’ and its extension ‘to act fraudulently against s.o., (H -stem:) to damage s.o.’. One rendering of Sab ġll – ‘to inject (anger)’ (Jamme 1976: 29) – seems to suggest that the vb. is related to [v1] ‘to insert, enter’.
    ▪ [v6] : Lane’s (vi 1877) rendering of ġilālaẗ as ‘garment that is worn next the body, beneath the other garment, and likewise beneath the coat of mail’ suggests that it is derived from [v1] *‘to insert, enter’
    [v7] : ‘to perfume o.s.’ is either cognate to [v1] (as suggested by explanations of ġalla as ‘huiler, pommader abondamment les cheveux, de manière que l’huile pénètre jusqu’à la racine des cheveux’) or denominative from ġāliyaẗ ‘Galia : parfum de couleur noire composé de musc, d’ambre et autres aromates, et employé comme cosmétique pour les cheveux’, itself of unknown etymology (discussion reproduced in Lane vi 1877.)
    [v8] : Kogan2015: 555 #35 thinks Ar ġalal ‘water flowing amid trees’112 might be akin to prot-modSAr *ġill-at - ‘mist’, but dependence on [v1] seems more likely (< *‘water squeezing itself through the trees\bushes’).
    [v9] : ġalal ‘filter, strainer’ is prob. extended use of [v8] (‘filter, strainer’ = *‘device through which water is running’) and thus, ultimately, prob. from [v1].
    [v10] : prob. cognate to [v1], as ‘mêler, mélanger l’un avec l’autre’ is a form of *‘inserting’ o.s. among others.
    [v11] : The value ‘couvrir’ for ġalla is mentioned only in BK1860. Is it reliably attested?
    [v12] : The identity of the term ġalal for a ‘certain disease that attacks sheep, or goats’113 with that for [v8] ‘water flowing amid trees’ and [v9] ‘filter, strainer’ seems to imply some kind of semantic link between the three, so that, ultimately, also the term for this specific disease would have s.th. to do with [v1] ‘inserting, entering’ s.th. But semantics are not clear…
    [v13] : ?
     
    – 
    ▪ [v1] : Ug ġll ‘to enter’, Hbr ʕālal ‘to insert, thrust in; to ascend, land, enter’, oAram ʕll (so also continued in later Aram varieties, such as JPA, Syr, etc.; Aram ʕᵃlal ‘to enter a town, a house, come in’, Syr ʕal ‘to enter; to come in to a woman; to attack, invade’), Ar ġalla ‘to enter’ – Zammit2002, Kogan2015: 381 #5
    ▪ [v2] : Zammit2002 juxtaposes Akk ḫalālu ‘einsperren, festhalten | (CAD ) to detain, keep waiting’, Ug ġll ‘to tie up’, Hbr ʕōl (√ʕLL) ‘yoke’, Ar ²ġull ‘yoke, collar’, ġalla ‘to bind’. Reliable?
    ▪ [v3] : Syr ʕᵃlaltâ (pl. ʕallᵊlātâ and ʕallᵊtâ) ‘what is brought in, ingathering, increase, harvest, crop, fruit, yield, produce’), from Syr ʕal ‘to enter’, (Af) ʔaʕel ‘to bring, put, carry in, introduce; to substitute, put instead; to bring in (ʕallᵊlātâ the harvest)’, Aram ʕᵃlal, cf. Hbr ²ʕLL ‘to insert, thrust in’, Ar ġalla ‘to put in, thrust in’ (see [v1]). – Borg2021 #494 shows that the term is widespread also among the Ar dialects (with the Maġrib tending to the meaning of ‘fruit’): DamAr ġalleẗ ‘crop, harvest’, AlepAr ‘récolte qu’on attend’, LebAr ġallīl ‘récolte abondante’, Malta ‹għallaẗ› ‘prodotto della terra annuale’, TunAr ġallaẗ ‘fruit(s)’, Takrūna ġallaẗ ʔarð̣iyyaẗ ‘cucurbitacées et tomates’, MorAr ġellaẗ ‘fruit’, Djidjelli ġollaẗ ‘fruits, récolte’. The author suggests to see this evidence together with Hbr ʕôlēlōt ‘gleanings (of grapes and olives)’ (and Eg jꜣrrt, Dem ꜣllj, Copt ⲉⲗⲟⲟⲗⲉ ‘grapes’), which, however, may be from *ʕLː (ʕLL) ‘to do (a second time)’ rather than from *ĠLː (ĠLL) ‘to enter, insert, bring in’.
    ▪ [v4] : Ug ġll ‘thirsty one’, Ar ġll ‘to be thirsty’, ¹ġull ‘burning thirst’169
    ▪ [v5] : SAr (Sab) ġll ‘to be angry (deity ), be filled with hatred, wrath | exercer (de la haine)’, Ar ġalla ‘von Haß, Groll erfüllt sein’, Gz (ʕll ) ‘to separate, set aside a place, excommunicate, grant someone a fief’; Sab ġlyt ‘anger, hate, wrath’, Ar YemAr ġill ‘Groll, Haß, Bosheit | hidden enmity, grudge’. – Extended meaning: Sab ġll ‘to fraudulently appropriate, withhold’, Ar ġalla ‘to be unfaithful in respect of a thing privily, defraud’, ġalla, ʔaġalla ‘to act unfaithfully, become unfaithful’ (Lane vi 1877). – Causative: Sab h-ġll ‘schädigen; Verlust bescheren | to damage | endommager’, Ar ʔaġalla ‘to water one’s camels ill, so that they do not satisfy their thirst, or bring\send them back from the water without satisfying their thirst’, ġalla, ʔaġalla ‘to act unfaithfully, become unfaithful’, Gz ʔaʕlala ‘to separate, consecrate, excommunicate’ (Leslau 1991: 60) – Zammit2002, SabaWeb#ĠLL
    ▪ [v6] : prob. cognate to [v1].
    [v7] : either cognate to [v1] or derived from ġāliyaẗ ‘Galia : parfum de couleur noire composé de musc, d’ambre et autres aromates, et employé comme cosmétique pour les cheveux’
    [v8] : Kogan2015: 555 #35 thinks Ar ġalal ‘water flowing amid trees’ might be akin to Mhr ġəllēt, Jib ġíẑẑɔt ‘mist’, Soq aʕlʼílʼo ‘cloud’ (< prot-modSAr *ġill -at - ‘mist’), but dependence on [v1] seems more likely (< *‘water squeezing itself through the trees\bushes’)
    [v9] : prob. cognate to [v8] and thus < [v1] (‘filter, strainer’ < *‘device through which the water flows’)
    [v10] : prob. cognate to [v1] (‘mêler, mélanger l’un avec l’autre’ < * ‘to insert s.th. in s.th. else’)
    [v11] : ?
    [v12] : ?
    [v13] : ?
     
    ▪ [v1], [v2], [v6]-[v10] : The aspect of *‘passing through/between/beneath’, etc., which accompanies that of ‘entering’, seems to be expressed by the final *‑Lː/‑LL, see DISC in entry ↗ġalla.
    ▪ ...
     
    – 
    – 
    ¹ġall‑ / ġalal‑ غَلَّ/غَلَلْــــ , u (ġall )
     
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 11Mar2023, last updated 17Mar2023
    √ĠLː (ĠLL) 
    vb., I 
    1a to insert, put, stick, enter (s.th. in, into, between); b to penetrate, enter (s.th., into s.th.); 2 ↗²ġull ; 3ġallaẗ – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ Attested in Ug, Hbr, several varieties of Aram, and Ar; from protWSem *ġll ‘to insert; to immerse’ – Kogan2015: 381 #5114
    ▪ See also below, section DISC.
    ▪ …
     
    ġalla ‘cohabiter (avec une femme)’, ʔaġalla ‘to make a raid’
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ Ug ġll ‘to enter’, Hbr ʕālal ‘to insert, thrust in; to ascend, land, enter’, oAram ʕll (so also continued in later Aram varieties, such as JPA, Syr, etc.; Aram ʕᵃlal ‘to enter a town, a house, come in’, Syr ʕal ‘to enter; to come in to a woman; to attack, invade’), Ar ġalla ‘to enter’ – Zammit2002, Kogan2015: 381 #5.
    ▪ For the possibly related ↗²ġull ‘yoke, collar’, Zammit2002 juxtaposes Akk ḫalālu ‘einsperren, festhalten | (CAD ) to detain, keep waiting’, Ug ġll ‘to tie up’, Hbr ʕōl (√ʕLL) ‘yoke’, Ar ²ġull ‘yoke, collar’, ġalla ‘to bind’.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ The value *‘to insert, enter’ is possibly at the origin of several others. Thus, Ar ↗²ġull ‘manacles, handcuffs; chains, shackles, fetters’ may be a *‘device into which hands, feet, etc. are inserted’; ↗ġallaẗ ‘produce, harvest; corn’ is originally *‘what is brought in, harvested’; ↗ġilālaẗ goes back to a ‘garment that is worn next the body, beneath the other garment, and likewise beneath the coat of mail’, thus prob. *‘what is inserted\worn betw. outer garment and inner layers, or the skin’; ClassAr dictionaries often analyze the vb. I ġalla in the sense of ‘to perfume o.s.’ as cognate of ‘to insert’ (as suggested, e.g., by explanations of ġalla as ‘huiler, pommader abondamment les cheveux, de manière que l’huile pénètre jusqu’à la racine des cheveux’);586 ġalal ‘water flowing amid trees’[↗ĠLː (ĠLL)_8]587 could be *‘water “entering”\squeezing itself through the trees\bushes’;588 ; ġalal can also mean ‘filter, strainer’ [↗ĠLː (ĠLL)_9], conveying an idea (*‘water running through between...’) that is very similar to the preceding, so that the ‘filter, strainer’ may be a *‘device through which water is running’; in ClassAr, the vb. ġalla is also attested with the value ‘mêler, mélanger l’un avec l’autre’ [↗ĠLː (ĠLL)_10], which can be seen as a mutual *‘entering, penetration’, too.
    ▪ If, as suggested above, values like *‘garment worn between...’, *‘water running between/beneath/through...’, *‘mutual penetration’, etc., belong to ġalla ‘to insert, enter (s.th. in, into, between), penetrate’, this would underline the aspect of *‘passing through/between/beneath s.th.’ coming in addition to the simple directionality of *‘entering, penetration’. It seems that this aspect is mainly expressed by the final *‑Lː/‑LL, cf., for instance, ↗ḫalla (u, ḫall ) ‘to pierce, transfix’, ḫalal ‘gap, interval, interstice; cleft, crack, rupture, fissure’, ḫilālᵃ ‘during; through, via’, ↗zalla (zalal-, i, zall ; zalil-, a, zalal ) ‘to slip’, ↗tasallala ‘to slip, slink, sneak (into); to invade, infiltrate, enter, penetrate’, ↗šallāl ‘cataract, waterfall’, ↗ʕalla (i, ʕillaẗ ) *‘to befall, afflict (s.o., a disease, etc.)’, perh. also ↗ḥalla (i,u, ḥulūl ) ‘to descend, come down, befall; to set in, arrive, begin (time, season)’ and ↗halla (i, hall ) ‘to appear, come up, show (new moon); to begin, set in (month)’.
    ▪ ...
     
    – 
    taġallala, vb. V, to enter, penetrate ( s.th., into s.th.): tD-stem, self-ref.
    ĭnġalla, vb. VII, = V: N-stem

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ġallaẗ (with ↗ĭstaġalla), ↗ġill, ↗¹ġull, ↗²ġull, and ↗ġilālaẗ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ĠLː (ĠLL).
     
    ĭstaġall‑ / ĭstaġlal‑ اسْتَغَلَّ/اسْتَغْلَلْــ , yastaġillu (ĭstiġlāl
    ID … • Sw – • BP 2952 • APD … • © SG | 11Mar2023, last updated 17Mar2023
    √ĠLː (ĠLL) 
    vb., X 
    1a to rake in, gain, win, obtain, reap; b to realize, or make, a profit (‑h on s.th.), receive the proceeds (-h of s.th., esp. of land, and the like), turn to (good) account, invest profitably, utilize; c to profit (‑h by s.o., s.th.), derive advantage or profit from, make capital (-h out of s.th.), capitalize (on s.th.); d to take advantage (-h of), exploit – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ The form X vb. is a typical desiderative *Št- formation, based on ↗ġalla ‘to produce, yield, yield crops (land)’ or the corresponding n.f., ↗ġallaẗ ‘yield, produce, crops; proceeds, revenue, returns (esp. of farming); grain, cereals, corn; fruits’, from ↗ġalla ‘to bring in, enter, insert’, from protWSem *ġll ‘to insert; to immerse’.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ▪ ↗ġalla, ↗ġallaẗ
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC. 
    – 
    BP#1957ĭstiġlāl, n., 1a utilization; b usufruct; 2 development, working (of a mine, and the like), exploitation (of a mine; also = selfish utilization, sweating); 3 abuse
    ĭstiġlālī, adj., serving exploitation, exploitative: nsb-formaton of preceding
    mustaġill, n., exploiter, utilizer, usufructuary, beneficiary: PA X, desiderative
    mustaġall, pl. ‑āt, n., 1a that which yields crops, proceeds, or profit; b yield, produce, proceeds; c profit: PP X

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹ġalla, ↗ġill, ↗¹ġull, ↗²ġull, and ↗ġilālaẗ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ĠLː (ĠLL).
     
    ġallaẗ غَلَّة , pl. ‑āt, ġilāl
     
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 11Mar2023, last updated 17Mar2023
    √ĠLː (ĠLL) 
    n.f. 
    1a yield, produce, crops; b proceeds, revenue, returns (esp. of farming); 2a grain, cereals; b corn; c fruits – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ Like Syr ʕᵃlaltâ (pl. ʕallᵊlātâ and ʕallᵊtâ) ‘what is brought in, ingathering, increase, harvest, crop, fruit, yield, produce’), which belongs to Syr ʕal ‘enter’, (Af) ʔaʕel ‘to bring, put, carry in, introduce’, Ar ġallaẗ seems to stem from the corresponding vb., ↗ġalla ‘to put in, thrust in’.
    ▪ For the most frequent derivative in MSA, the desiderative *Št-stem with the most widespread meaning ‘to exploit’, see ↗ĭstaġalla.
    ▪ …
     
    ġalūl ‘light food | aliment léger et qu’on avale facilement’, ʔaġalla ‘apporter des vivres, des denrées à qn, en pourvoir qn (p.ex., sa famille, sa tribu)’
     
    ▪ Syr ʕᵃlaltâ (pl. ʕallᵊlātâ and ʕallᵊtâ) ‘what is brought in, ingathering, increase, harvest, crop, fruit, yield, produce’), from Syr ʕal ‘to enter’, (Af) ʔaʕel ‘to bring, put, carry in, introduce; to substitute, put instead; to bring in (ʕallᵊlātâ the harvest)’, Aram ʕᵃlal, cf. Hbr ²ʕLL ‘to insert, thrust in’, Ar ġalla ‘to put in, thrust in’.
    ▪ Borg2021 #494: DamAr ġalleẗ ‘crop, harvest’, AlepAr ‘récolte qu’on attend’, LebAr ġallīl ‘récolte abondante’, Malta ‹għallaẗ› ‘prodotto della terra annuale’, TunAr ġallaẗ ‘fruit(s)’, Takrūna ġallaẗ ʔarð̣iyyaẗ ‘cucurbitacées et tomates’, MorAr ġellaẗ ‘fruit’, Djidjelli ġollaẗ ‘fruits, récolte’. The author suggests to see this evidence together with Eg jꜣrrt, Dem ꜣllj, Copt ⲉⲗⲟⲟⲗⲉ ‘grapes’ and Hbr ʕôlēlōt ‘gleanings (of grapes and olives)’; see, however, DISC.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ Borg2021 #494 shows that the term is widespread in the Ar dialects (with the Maġrib tending to the meaning of ‘fruit’, e.g., MorAr and TunAr), but the author’s identification of the Ar ġallaẗ with Hbr ʕôlēlōt ‘gleanings (of grapes and olives)’ (> Eg jꜣrrt, Dem ꜣllj, Copt ⲉⲗⲟⲟⲗⲉ ‘grapes’) is questionable, as these may belong to ↗ʕLː (ʕLL) *‘to repeat, do s.th. a second time’ rather than to ĠLː (ĠLL).
    ▪ ...
     
    – 
    ġall‑ / ġalal‑, u (ġall ), vb. I, 1 ġalla ; 2 ↗²ġull ; 3 to produce, yield, yield crops (land): G-stem, ?denom.
    ʔaġalla, vb. IV, 1a to produce, yield, yield crops (land); b to yield (s.th. ʕalà to s.o.): *Š-stem

    BP#2952ĭstaġalla, vb. X, 1a to rake in, gain, win, obtain, reap; b to realize, or make, a profit (‑h on s.th.), receive the proceeds (-h of s.th., esp. of land, and the like), turn to (good) account, invest profitably, utilize; c to profit (‑h by s.o., s.th.), derive advantage or profit from, make capital (-h out of s.th.), capitalize (on s.th.); d to take advantage (-h of), exploit: *Št-stem, desiderative

    BP#1957ĭstiġlāl, n., 1a utilization; b usufruct; 2 development, working (of a mine, and the like), exploitation (of a mine; also = selfish utilization, sweating); 3 abuse: vn. X
    ĭstiġlālī, adj., serving exploitation, exploitative: nsb-formaton of preceding
    muġill, adj., productive, fruitful, fertile (land, soil): PA IV
    mustaġill, n., exploiter, utilizer, usufructuary, beneficiary: PA X
    mustaġall, pl. ‑āt, n., 1a that which yields crops, proceeds, or profit; b yield, produce, proceeds; c profit: PP X

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹ġalla, ↗ġill, ↗¹ġull, ↗²ġull, and ↗ġilālaẗ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ĠLː (ĠLL).
     
    ġill غِلّ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 11Mar2023
    √ĠLː (ĠLL) 
    n. 
    rancor, hatred, spite, malice – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ Most ClassAr dictionaries explain Ar ġill ‘rancor, hatred, spite, malice’ as fig. use of ↗¹ġull ‘burning thirst’. However, while ¹ġull has no reliable cognates in Sem,115 ġill has many at least in Sab, both with the meaning ‘grudge, anger, hatred, to hate’ and its extension ‘to act fraudulently against s.o., (H -stem:) to damage s.o.’ – are these Arabisms or rather an indication of the value’s earlier origin and independence from ‘burning thirst’?
    ▪ One rendering of Sab ġll – ‘to inject (anger)’ (Jamme 1976: 29, quoted in SabaWeb) – seems to suggest that the vb. is related to Ar ↗ġalla ‘to insert, enter’.
    ▪ …
     
    ġalla ‘tromper qn, frauder (= ↗ḫāna ); voler, frauder qn (‑h, min sur qc, p.ex., dans la distribution des lots qui reviennent à chacun)’; ʔiġlāl ‘deceit, unfaithfulness’ | lā ʔiġlāl wa-lā ʔislāl ‘there shall be no deceit nor bribe’
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ Zammit2002, SabaWeb#ĠLL: SAr (Sab) ġll ‘to be angry (deity ), be filled with hatred, wrath | exercer (de la haine)’, Ar ġalla ‘von Haß, Groll erfüllt sein’, Gz ʕallala ‘to separate, set aside a place, excommunicate, grant someone a fief’. – Sab ġlyt ‘anger, hate, wrath’, Ar YemAr ġill ‘Groll, Haß, Bosheit | hidden enmity, grudge’. – Extended meaning: Sab ġll ‘to fraudulently appropriate, withhold’, Ar ġalla ‘to be unfaithful in respect of a thing privily, defraud’, ġalla, ʔaġalla ‘to act unfaithfully, become unfaithful’ (Lane vi 1877). – Causative: Sab h-ġll ‘schädigen; Verlust bescheren | to damage | endommager’, Ar ʔaġalla ‘to water one’s camels ill, so that they do not satisfy their thirst, or bring\ send them back from the water without satisfying their thirst’, ġalla, ʔaġalla ‘to act unfaithfully, become unfaithful’, Gz ʔaʕlala ‘to separate, consecrate, excommunicate’ (Leslau 1991: 60)
    ▪ See perh. also ↗¹ġull ‘burning thirst’ and ↗ġalla ‘to enter’ (cf. discussion in section CONC, above).
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ ...
     
    – 
    ġall‑ / ġalal‑, i (ġill ), vb. I, to be filled with hatred or rancor (breast)

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹ġalla, ↗ġallaẗ (with ↗ĭstaġalla ), ↗¹ġull, ↗²ġull, and ↗ġilālaẗ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ĠLː (ĠLL).
     
    ¹ġull غُلّ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 11Mar2023
    √ĠLː (ĠLL) 
    n. 
    1 burning thirst; 2 ↗²ġull – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ No obvious relation to other main values of the root ↗ĠLː (ĠLL), like ‘to insert, enter, penetrate’ (↗¹ġalla ), ‘iron collar; manacles, handcuffs; chains, shackles, fetters’ (↗²ġull ), ‘produce, crops; revenue, returns; grain, cereals, corn; fruits’ (↗ġallaẗ ), ‘fine cape, shirtlike garment, gown’ (↗ġilālaẗ ), or ‘water flowing amid trees’ [ġalal, ↗ĠLː (ĠLL)_8]
    ▪ Kogan2015: 325 #8 would not exclude an identification of Ar ġll ‘to be thirsty’ with the Ug hapax ġll ‘thirsty one’, but adds that such an identification, though possible, is »but by no means compelling«.
    ▪ Most ClassAr dictionaries regard ‘burning thirst’ as the basic value of which ↗ġill ‘rancor, hatred, spite, malice’ is fig. use. In the ints. form ġalīl, both values overlapp: it takes the meaning ‘burning thirst’ as well as that of ‘thirst for revenge; rancor, ill will’ (and also ‘ardent desire’ in general). While ¹ġull is without reliable cognates in Sem, ġill has clear parallels in Sab (see COGN s.v. ġill ) and may therefore represent a more original value (unless the Sab forms should be Arabisms).
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ▪ Kogan2015: 325 #8 : cf. perh. Ug ġll ‘thirsty one’; but this is a hapax in a partly broken context, thus not reliable.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ ...
     
    – 
    ġulla (ġull, ġullaẗ ), vb. I pass., to suffer violent thirst, burn with thirst: prob. denom.

    ġullaẗ, n.f., burning thirst: f. of ¹ġull, also serving as vn. of the vb. I.
    ġalīl, I n., 1 burning thirst; 2 (cf. also ↗ġill ) a thirst for revenge; b rancor, ill will; c ardent desire; II adj. (pl. ġilāl ), exhausted with thirst, very thirsty
    maġlūl, adj., 1 ↗²ġull ; 2 exhausted with thirst, very thirsty: PP I

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹ġalla, ↗ġallaẗ (with ↗ĭstaġalla ), ↗ġill, ↗²ġull, and ↗ġilālaẗ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ĠLː (ĠLL).
     
    ²ġull غُلّ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 11Mar2023
    √ĠLː (ĠLL) 
    n. 
    1 ↗¹ġull ; 2 (pl. ʔaġlāl ) a iron collar; b manacles, handcuffs; c pl. chains, shackles, fetters – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ According to Zammit2002, Ar ²ġull ‘yoke, collar’ has cognates in Akk ḫalālu ‘einsperren, festhalten | (CAD ) to detain, keep waiting’, Ug ġll ‘to tie up’, Hbr ʕōl (√ʕLL) ‘yoke’. If this juxtaposition is valid, the item may represent a value in its own right that should be kept distinct from ↗ġalla ‘to insert, enter’, the vb. that others interpret as the etymon, analyzing the meaning ‘manacles, handcuffs; chains, shackles, fetters’ as *‘s.th. into which hands, feet, etc. are inserted ’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ Zammit2002: Akk ḫalālu ‘einsperren, festhalten | (CAD ) to detain, keep waiting’, Ug ġll ‘to tie up’, Hbr ʕōl (√ʕLL) ‘yoke’, Ar ²ġull ‘yoke, collar’.
    ▪ If from ‘to insert’, see ↗ġalla.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ ...
     
    – 
    ġall‑ / ġalal‑, u (ġall ), vb. I, 1 ↗¹ġalla ; 2 to apply an iron collar or manacles (-h on s.o.), handcuff, shackle, fetter (-h s.o.) | ġalla yada-hū ʔilà ʕunuqi-h (lit., to fetter one’s hand to one’s neck, i.e. ) not to spend or give away anything, be niggardly; 3ġallaẗ
    ġallala, vb. II, to apply an iron collar or manacles (-h on s.o.), handcuff, shackle, fetter: D-stem, denom.

    maġlūl, adj., 1 fettered, shackled | maġlūl al-yad, inactive, idle; 2 ↗¹ġull : PP I

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹ġalla, ↗ġallaẗ (with ↗ĭstaġalla ), ↗ġill, ↗¹ġull, and ↗ġilālaẗ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ĠLː (ĠLL).
     
    ġilālaẗ غِلالة , pl. ġalāʔilᵘ
     
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 11Mar2023
    √ĠLː (ĠLL) 
    n.f. 
    1a a fine, diaphanous cape, mantilla, veil; b shirtlike garment, gown – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ Lane’s (vi 1877) rendering of ġilālaẗ as ‘garment that is worn next the body, beneath the other garment, and likewise beneath the coat of mail’ suggests that it is derived from ↗ġalla ‘to insert, enter’.
    ▪ Historically, ġilālaẗ is also attested as ‘pin fastening two rings of a coat of mail’, a value that would bring it close to the idea of ‘holding together, binding together’, as in ↗²ġull ‘yoke; manicles, fetters’
    ▪ …
     
    ġilālaẗ ‘pin fastening two rings of a coat of mail’.
    ▪ Cf. also ġullaẗ (pl. ġulal ) ‘robe de dessous’ (> ĭnġalla ‘mettre, avoir un vêtement sous un autre’), ġalīlaẗ ‘robe de dessous; garment worn beneath a coat of mail; coat of mail’ (> ʔaġalla ‘to put on a coat of mail’).
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ ↗ġalla, perh. also ↗²ġull.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ ...
     
    – 
    ġilālaẗ al-nawm, n.f., nightshirt, nightgown

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹ġalla, ↗ġallaẗ (with ↗ĭstaġalla ), ↗ġill, ↗¹ġull and ↗²ġull, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ĠLː (ĠLL). 
    ĠLB غلب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ĠLB 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠLB_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ĠLB_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘(of the neck) to be thick and long, (of trees) to be leafy and full of branches, (of gardens) to be full of thick trees; to prevail over, to overpower, to defeat’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ʔaġlabiyyaẗ أَغْلَبِيَّة 
    ID 636 • Sw – • BP 2537 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ĠLB 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ĠLṬ غلط 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ĠLṬ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠLṬ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ĠLṬ_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ġalṭān غَلْطان 
    ID 637 • Sw – • BP 4954 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ĠLṬ 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ĠLẒ غلظ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 14Apr2023
    √ĠLẒ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠLẒ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠLẒ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠLẒ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be thick, gross, strong; to be severe, harsh, firm’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ĠLF غلف 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 14Apr2023
    √ĠLF 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠLF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠLF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠLF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to cover, wrap, seal; to be uncircumcised; to be covered with vegetation’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ĠLM غلم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ĠLM 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠLM_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ĠLM_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘youth, boy, to be young, beautiful women; lust, to be lustful; to exceed the boundaries; to be in a rage’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ġulām غُلام 
    ID 638 • Sw – • BP 5711 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ĠLM 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ĠLW غلو 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 16Apr2023
    √ĠLW 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠLW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠLW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠLW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be excessive, run too fast, go too high, rashness of youth; to be expensive; to value highly; (of plants) to be thick and leafy’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ĠLY غلي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 16Apr2023
    √ĠLY 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠLY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠLY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠLY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to boil; type of perfume’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ĠMː (ĠMM) غمّ/غمم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 16Apr2023
    √ ĠMː (ĠMM) 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠMː (ĠMM)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠMː (ĠMM)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠMː (ĠMM)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to cover, to conceal; clouds; obscurity, to be incomprehensible, to mumble; anxiety, distress’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ĠMR غمر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 16Apr2023
    √ĠMR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠMR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠMR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠMR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘open wasteland, tumultuous sea, to submerge, to overwhelm, hatred, grudge; ordinary people; oblivion; to be adventurous’ 
    ▪ From CSem *ġumr‑ ‘sheaf’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ĠMZ غمز 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 16Apr2023
    √ĠMZ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠMZ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠMZ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠMZ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘nudge, wink; squeeze; dimple; to examine, probe an animal for defects, weakness, faults’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ĠMḌ غمض 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 16Apr2023
    √ĠMḌ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠMḌ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠMḌ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠMḌ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to sleep, close one’s eyes; to let go; to be obscure; to travel through unchartered land; to lower the price of goods because of their inferior quality; to ignore; to examine carefully’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ĠNM غنم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ĠNM 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠNM_1 ‘…’ ↗ġanam
    ▪ ĠNM_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘sheep, to acquire sheep, to gain without trouble, to acquire as booty, spoils of war; to avail o.s. of an opportunity’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ġanam غَنَم 
    ID 639 • Sw – • BP 5145 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ĠNM 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ĠNY غني 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 16Apr2023
    √ĠNY 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠNY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠNY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠNY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be able to do without others, be independent, be free from want, be self-sufficient; to be rich, enrich; to be beautiful enough not to have to use cosmetics; to sing; (of a garden) to be full of flowering trees, flourish’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ĠWṮ غوث 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 16Apr2023
    √ĠWṮ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠWṮ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠWṮ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠWṮ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to go to the aid of, call for assistance, cry for assistance’ 
    ▪ BAH2008: »Considering the uncertainty surrounding w and y when they function as radicals, there is a connection and a degree of overlapping between this root and the root ↗ĠYṮ resulting in classifying yuġāṯ under ĠYṮ but classifying yuġāṯū here.« 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ĠWR غور 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 16Apr2023
    √ĠWR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠWR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠWR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠWR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘depth, bottom, valley, lowlands, cave; to reach the bottom, sink, disappear, (of the moon and stars) to set; to raid; to be jealous; to go in haste’ 
    ▪ From protSem *√ĠRR, also *√ĠWR; > CSem *ġār‑, *ġarr‑, *miġarr ‘cave’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl realgar, from Ar rahǧ al-ġār ‘powder of the cave’, from ġār ‘cave’, see ↗maġāraẗ
    – 
    ĠWṢ غوص 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 16Apr2023
    √ĠWṢ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠWṢ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠWṢ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠWṢ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to dive under water, dive for pearls, diver, a dive’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ĠWṬ غوط 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 16Apr2023
    √ĠWṬ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠWṬ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠWṬ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠWṬ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘valley, lowland, to dig, go deep in the ground, relieve o.s.; a place full of thick intertwined trees’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ĠWL غول 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ĠWL 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠWL_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ĠWL_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to kill by stealth; to devour; to overwhelm, to deprive of reason, intoxication, materials affecting the mind or judgement; to seize; ghoul, troll, adder’ 
    ▪ …
    ▪ …
    ▪ From Ar root √ĠWL ‘to snatch, grab, destroy’ – Huehnergard2011.
    … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Algol, ghoul, from Ar (al‑)ġūl ‘(the) desert demon, ogre, ghoul’, from ġāla, vb. I, ‘to snatch, grab, destroy’. 
    – 
    ĭġtiyāl اِغْتِيال 
    ID 640 • Sw – • BP 1659 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ĠWL 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ĠWY غوي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 16Apr2023
    √ĠWY 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠWY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠWY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠWY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘darkness, hole in the ground dug up as a trap for wolves, to lure, mislead, seduce; to err, stray from the right path; (of young camels) to become bloated from drinking too much milk’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ĠYB غيب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ĠYB 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠYB_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ĠYB_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘the unknown, the invisible, depth of a well, to vanish, to be concealed, to be absent; to be doubtful; setting of the sun, the moon or the stars; to travel in the folds of the Earth; to slander, to backbite, gossip’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ġaybūbaẗ غَيْبُوبَة 
    ID 641 • Sw – • BP 4612 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ĠYB 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ĠYṮ غيث 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 16Apr2023
    √ĠYṮ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠYṮ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠYṮ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠYṮ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘rain, to rain, be given rain; herbage, pasture’. 
    ▪ BAH2008: »Considering the uncertainty surrounding w and y when they function as radicals, there is a connection and a degree of overlapping between this root and the root ↗ĠWṮ resulting in classifying yuġāṯ here but classifying yuġāṯū under ĠWṮ« 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ĠYR غير 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ĠYR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠYR_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ ĠYR_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to alter, to modify, to change, to interchange; to be zealous; to be jealous; calamities, to raid’. – There is a certain degree of overlapping and confusion between members of this root and those of the root ĠWR (cf. ʔaġāra ‘to raid’. 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ġayr غَيْر 
    ID 642 • Sw –/119 • BP 42 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ĠYR 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ĠYḌ غيض 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 16Apr2023
    √ĠYḌ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠYḌ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠYḌ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠYḌ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘den, thicket, bush, to disappear (by water into the soil), recede, dwindle, abate, diminish’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ĠYẒ غيظ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 16Apr2023
    √ĠYẒ 
    “root” 
    ▪ ĠYẒ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠYẒ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ ĠYẒ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to anger, infuriate, enrage, vex, gall; wrath, rage, ire, fury’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    fāʔ فاء 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ 
    R₁ 
    The letter f of the Arabic alphabet. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl pi, from Grk pei, ‘pi’, from Phoen * ‘mouth; seventeenth letter of the Phoen alphabet’, cf. Ar ↗fam and letter fāʔ
     
    FʔD فأد 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FʔD 
    “root” 
    ▪ FʔD_1 ‘heart; mind’ ↗fuʔād
    ▪ …

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘oven, to roast meat, to bake on an open fire or in an oven, raging core of an oven; throbbing of the heart’. – Unlike qalb, fuʔād is not used as ‘heart’ in either the Qur’an or Arabic in general to refer to the actual organ, but rather to the faculty of thought, power of discernment and human emotion. 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    fuʔād فُؤاد , pl. ʔafʔidaẗ 
    ID 643 • Sw –/70 • BP 3323 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FʔD 
    n. 
    1 heart. – 2 mind – WehrCowan1979. 
    From Sem *p˅ʔ˅d‑ ‘heart’, from AfrAs *puʔ˅d‑ ‘heart’ ? Both reconstructions are based on little evidence and therefore far from being secured. It is safer to assume that the ancestor of the Ar (and Ug) word did not form part of the comSem vocabulary – cf. Sivkov2015. 
    ▪ eC7 1 (heart) Q 14:37 fa-’ǧʕal ʔafʔidaẗan min-a ’l-nāsi tahwī ʔilay-him ‘so make hearts of humankind turn to them’, 11:120 nuṯabbitu bi-hī fuʔāda-ka ‘with which We make your heart firm’. – 2 (mind, intellect, power of discernment) Q 16:78 wa-ǧaʕala lakum-u ’l-samʕa wa’l-ʔabṣāra wa’l-ʔafʔidata laʕalla-kum taškurūna ‘and He gave you hearing and sight and minds (lit. hearts) so that you might be thankful’. – 3 (innermost secrets, in an interpretation of verse 104:7).
    ▪ In ClassAr, fuʔād is the source of a number of derivatives, both n.s and vb.s, with the shared metaphorical values ‘pulsation, commotion; ardor, eagerness, passion; fire; burning, blazing, flaming; baking, roasting’. It also constitutes a group of idioms that metaphorically denote such notions as ‘mind (intellect); emotional condition’ – Sivkov2015.
    ▪ Semantic shift v1 ‘heart’ > v2 ‘mind, intellect’ by metaphoric extension (heart = seat of mind and intellect) – Sivkov2014: 19.
     
    ▪ Ug pʔid ‘heart’ > ‘feeling, emotion, goodness’ (Ug written in the syllabic tradition: the element /pi?du / in personal names); in the divine epithet il d_pid ‘divine name, the dear, kind-hearted’.
    ▪ Militarev2006 (in StarLing) : Cognates outside Sem, in some WCh (pǝ̀tūup, tūhūp, tūup, pùut, pùtuɣup, put ‘heart’) and ECh langs (pədəpədə, podpod, pət-pət ‘lungs’) as well as in Afar afʕad ‘heart’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Militarev2006 (in StarLing) reconstructs (on the basis of the Ug and Ar evidence) Sem *p˅ʔ˅d‑ ‘heart’. From the words for ‘heart’ and ‘lungs’ in some WCh and ECh idioms, the author further reconstructs WCh *puHud‑ ‘heart’ and ECh *H˅-p˅d(p˅d)‑ ‘lungs’. Taking together the Sem, Ch and Afar forms, AfrAs *puʔ˅d‑ ‘heart’ is assumed as the origin of all these forms, not however without an explicit ‘(?)’ after it.
    ▪ Given the fact that Ar fuʔād has only one cognate (in Ug), it seems that the item does not belong to the comSem vocabulary and a reconstruction like Militarev’s Sem *p˅ʔ˅d‑ ‘heart’ has to be met with caution. Even weaker is the assumption, tentatively made by the same author, of an AfrAs etymon *puʔ˅d‑ ‘heart’.
    ▪ BAH2008 give the variety of the root’s meanings in ClassAr as: ‘oven, to roast meat, to bake on an open fire or in an oven, raging core of an oven; throbbing of the heart’. – Are the two values connected?
    ▪ While BAH2008 hold that, »[u]nlike the word ↗qalb, the word fuʔād is not used as ‘heart’ in either Q or Ar in general to refer to the actual organ, but rather to the faculty of thought, power of discernment and human emotion«, Sivkov2015 thinks that »fuʔād is absolute synonymous to ↗qalb despite the fact that almost all ClassAr lexicographers suppose certain semantic inconsistencies between them.«
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    fuʔādiyyaẗ, n.f., “Fuad cap” (formerly, summer field-cap of the Eg Air Force) 
    FʔL فأل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FʔL 
    “root” 
    … 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    faʔl فَأْل , pl. fuʔūl , ʔafʔul 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FʔL 
    n. 
    good omen, favorable auspice; optimistic outlook, hope; omen, auspice, sign – WehrCowan1994 
    According to Orel&Stolbova1994, the word goes back to AfrAs *faʔ˅l‑ ‘to foretell’, which itself is related to AfrAs *fal‑/*faʔ˅l‑ ‘magic word, omen’. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#769: Ar fʔl, Gz fwl ‘to foretell fortune’. Cf. Hbr plʔ ‘confirm miracles’. – Cognates in HEC *faʔ˅l‑ ‘to deceive’. – Related to (#774) Śḥr fol, Mhr fōl, Ḥrs fōl.170 . Cognates in Eg *fnn.wy‑ (partial redupl) ‘magic words’ (pyr), Agaw *fal‑ ‘omen’, SA *fal‑ ‘omen’, and LEC *fal‑ ‘omen’ (e.g., Som faal). 
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#769 and #774 reconstruct Sem *p˅ʔ˅l‑ ‘to foretell fortune’ and HEC *faʔ˅l‑ ‘to deceive’, both from AfrAs *faʔ˅l‑ ‘to foretell’ which is related to AfrAs *fal‑ /*faʔ˅l‑ ‘magic word, omen’, whence Sem *faʔl‑ ‘omen’, Eg *fnn.wy‑ (partial redupl) ‘magic words’ (pyr), Agaw *fal‑ ‘omen’, SA *fal‑ ‘omen’, and LEC *fal‑ ‘omen’. 
    – 
    qaraʔa ’l-faʔl, vb., to tell fortunes, predict the future.

    tafāʔala, vb. VI, to regard as a good omen, as an auspicious beginning; to be optimistic: denom.

    BP#3721tafāʔul, n., optimism: vn. VI.
    BP#4971mutafāʔil, adj., optimistic; n., optimist: PA VI. 

    FʔY فأي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Apr2023
    √FʔY 
    “root” 
    ▪ FʔY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FʔY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FʔY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘party, company, faction, portion, group of people; to split open, cause a cleavage to appear’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    FTʔ فتأ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Apr2023
    √FTʔ 
    “root” 
    ▪ FTʔ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FTʔ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FTʔ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to cease, quieten, become still’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    FTḤ فتح 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FTḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ FTḤ_1 ‘to open’ ↗fataḥa
    ▪ FTḤ_2 ‘judgment, decision’ ↗fatḥ
    ▪ FTḤ_3 ‘…’ ↗

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘aperture, space, to open; to find a way, key; to conquer, conquest, victory; to initiate; to adjudicate, judgement’. There is a degree of overlapping between the two senses of ‘seeking victory’ and ‘seeking judgement’ because victory in battle is regarded as a kind of judgement between the antagonists’ 
    ▪ FTḤ_1 : (Orel&Stolbova1994#1989:) from protSem *p˅taḥ‑ ‘to open’ < AfrAs *pitaḥ‑ ‘to open’.
    ▪ FTḤ_2 : …
    ▪ FTḤ_3 : … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    … 
    fataḥ‑ فَتَحَ , a (fatḥ
    ID … • Sw – • BP 512 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FTḤ 
    vb., I 
    1 to open; 2 to switch on, turn on (lights, TV); 3a to dig (a canal); 3b to build (a road); 4 to open, preface, introduce, begin; 5 to reveal, disclose; 6a to grant victory or success (God); 6b to open the gates (of profit) (God); 6c to conquer, capture; 7 to infuse, imbue, inspire, endow; 8 (gram.) to pronounce with the vowel a. – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1989: from protSem *p˅taḥ‑ ‘to open’ < AfrAs *pitaḥ‑ ‘to open’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘to open’) Akk iptē, Hbr ptḥ a (a), Syr ptḥ a (a), Gz ftḥ (ā).
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1989: Akk petû, Ug ptḥ, Hbr ptḥ, Aram Syr ptḥ, Gz ftḥ, Ḥrs fetōḥ, Mhr fōteḥ, Śḥr fetaḥ). – Outside Sem; (CCh) pəth‑ ‘open (of eyes or anus’) in 1 lang; (ECh) pit fitifiti (with redupl.). 
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994# 1989: protSem *p˅taḥ‑ ‘open’, CCh *p˅t˅H‑ (reconstructed from pəth‑ ‘open (of eyes or anus)’ in 1 lang), ECh *pit‑ ‘open’, all perh. from a hypothetical AfrAs *pitaḥ‑ ‘to open’.
    ▪ Ehret1995#89: an extension in »iterative« *‑ḥ (» > extendative sense«) from a bi‑consonantal »pre‑protSem« root *pṭ ‘to break apart’ < AfrAs *‑feeť‑ or *‑fooť‑ ‘to separate (tr.)’. – Other extensions from the same pre‑Sem root: ↗FṬR, ↗FṬM.
    ▪ … 
    … 
    fattaḥa, vb. II, to open (also of a flower): D‑stem, ints.
    fātaḥa, vb. III, 1a to address first, speak first; 1b to open the conversation or talk; 2 to disclose, let s.o. in on s.th.: L‑stem, assoc.
    tafattaḥa, vb. V, 1 to open, open up, unfold (intr.); 2a to be opened (so that s.o. becomes perceptible); 2b to be open, be responsive (heart): Dt‑stem, intr./pass.
    ĭnfataḥa, vb. VII, 1a to open, open up, unfold (intr.); 1b to be opened: N‑stem, pass./intr.
    BP#1720ĭftataḥa, vb. VIII, 1 to open, inaugurate; 2 to introduce, preface, begin; 3 to conquer, capture: Gt‑stem.
    ĭstaftaḥa, vb. X, 1 to begin, start, commence; 2 to seek the assistance of God (against s.th.), implore God for victory: *Št‑stem, desiderative.

    BP#910fatḥ, 1 opening; 2 introduction, commencement, beginning; 3 pl. futūḥ, futūḥāt, n., 3a conquest; 3b victory, triumph; 4 pl. futūḥāt, alms; donations, contributions (for a zāwiyaẗ; Tun.): vn. I.
    BP#4634fatḥaẗ, 1 the vowel point a; 2 opening; porthole: < n.vic.
    futḥaẗ, pl. futaḥ, ‑āt, n.f., 1 opening, aperture, breach, gap, hole; 2 sluice.
    fattāḥ, n., openor (of the gates of profit, of sustenance; one of the attributes of God): ints. formation.
    fattāḥaẗ, n.f., can opener: ints. formation, f. for instr.
    BP#1845miftāḥ, pl. mafātīḥᵘ, n., 1 key; 2 switch; 3 lever (peadal (of a vehicle); 4 knob (on the radio); knob (in the radio; stopp; valve; peg, pin): n.instr.
    miftāḥǧī, n., (railroad) switchman: n.prof. in (Tu) ‑ǧī.
    mufātaḥaẗ, n.f., opening of a conversation: vn. III.
    BP#3577ĭnfitāḥ, n., 1 opening up, welcoming; 2 openness: vn.VII.
    BP#1780ĭftitāḥ, n., 1 opening, inauguration; 2 introduction, beginning: vn.VIII.
    BP#4865ĭftitāḥī, adj., 1 opening; 2 introductory
    ĭftitāḥiyyaẗ, n.f., 1 editorial, leading article, leader; 2 overture (mus.)
    ĭstiftāḥ, n., 1 start, beginning, commencement, inception, incipience; 2 earnest money, handsel: vn. X.
    BP#2577fātiḥ, 1 n., opener; 2 beginner; 3 conqueror, victor; 4 adj., clear (color): PA I | fātiḥ al‑baḫt, n., fortuneteller.
    BP#4349fātiḥaẗ, pl. fawātiḥᵘ, n.f., 1 start, opening, beginning, commencement, inception; 2 incipience; 3 introduction, preface, preamble, proem: PA I.f.
    BP#1045maftūḥ, adj., open, opened: PP I.
    mufattiḥ, 1 adj., appetizing; 2 (pl. ‑āt), n., aperitif: PA II.
    muftataḥ, n., start, beginning, commencement, inception, opening, inauguration: n.loc.
     
    fatḥ فَتْح 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Jun2023
    √FTḤ
     
    n. 
    judgment, decision – Jeffery1938 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q xxvi, 118; xxxii, 28 – Jeffery1938.
     
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »The verb fataḥa ‘to open’, with its derivatives, is commonly used and is genuine Ar, but in these two passages589 where it has a peculiar technical meaning, Muḥammad seems to be using, as Horovitz, KU, 18, n., noted, an Eth [Gz] word fətḥ, which had become specialized in this sense and is used almost exclusively of legal affairs, e.g. fatḥa ‘to give judgment’, tafatḥa ‘iudicari’, tafātḥa ‘litigare’, fətḥat ‘iudicium’, and fətḥ which is both ‘iudicium’ and ‘sententia iudicis’. This sense had already become domiciled in SArabia, as we see from the use of [SAr] ftḥ in the inscriptions (Rossini, Glossarium, 221).«
     
    – 
    – 
    FTR فتر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Apr2023
    √FTR 
    “root” 
    ▪ FTR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FTR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FTR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to abate, weaken, slacken; weakness; period between two events; onset of intoxication, to be tipsy’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    FTQ فتق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Apr2023
    √FTQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ FTQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FTQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FTQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to split, rip open, ent, slash lengthwise’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    FTL فتل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FTL 
    “root” 
    ▪ FTL_1 ‘to twist together, entwine, plait; to spin’ ↗fatala
    ▪ FTL_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FTL_3 ‘…’ ↗

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to twist together, to entwine; twine, cord, thin rope’ 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    … 
    fatal‑ فَتَلَ , i (fatl
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FTL 
    vb., I 
    1 to twist together, twine, entwine, plait, throw; 2 to spin – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘to twist’) Akk ptl, Hbr pāṯīl ‘thread, rope’, Syr pṯl a (u), Gz ftl a (e).
     
    … 
    … 
    fattala, vb. II, 1 to twist, twine, wreathe, wind, weave, plait; 2 to splice (a rope): D‑stem, ints.
    tafattala, vb. V, to be twisted, be twined, be plaited, be woven, be wound: Dt‑stem, pass./intr.
    ĭnfatala, vb. VII, 1 = V; 2a to turn on one’s heel and leave, turn away; 2b to go away, depart: N‑stem.

    fatlaẗ, n.f., 1 twist(ing), twining, plaiting: n.vic.; 2 (EgAr; pl. fital) thread: meton. use ov n.vic. | šammaʕa ’l‑fatlaẗ, expr., to make off, make a getaway, beat it.
    fatīl, 1 adj., twisted, twined, entwined, plaited, wreathed, wound, woven, coiled; – 2 (pl. ‑āt, fatāʔilᵘ), n., 1 wick; 2 gauze tampon; 3 fuse, slow match, match cord: quasi‑PP I | lā yuġnī\yuǧdī fatīlan, expr., it is of no use at all, it won’t help him a bit, it isn’t worth a farthing.
    fatīlaẗ, pl. ‑āt, fatāʔilᵘ, n.f., 1 wick; 2 filament of a light bulb: quasi‑PP I.f.
    fattāl, n., ropemaker, cordmaker: ints. formation, n.prof.
    maftūl, adj., 1 tightly twisted, taut (rope): PP I; 2 powerful, tense, flexed (esp. of musculature): fig. use of [v1] | maftūl al‑sāʕid, adj., muscular, brawny, strong, husky, burly; – 3 n., (watch) tower (Nejd): so called on account of its being twisted like a rope?
     
    FTN فتن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FTN 
    “root” 
    ▪ FTN_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FTN_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to purify gold and silver by smelting them; to bum; to put to the test, to afflict (in particular as a means of testing s.o.’s endurance); to disrupt the peace of a community; to tempt, to seduce, to allure, to infatuate’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    fitnaẗ فِتْنَة 
    ID 644 • Sw – • BP 1560 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FTN 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    FTW فتو 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FTW 
    “root” 
    ▪ FTW_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FTW_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008, s.r. FTY): ‘youthfulness, youth, to be youthful, (of an infant/child) to reach youthfulness; vigour, to be vigorous; to formulate an opinion, counsel, to counsel, to give an opinion’ 
    ▪ From WSem *√PTW ‘to advise’ – Huehnergard2011.
    … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl fatwa, muftifatwà
    – 
    fatāẗ فَتاة 
    ID 645 • Sw – • BP 791 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FTW 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    fatwà فَتْوَى 
    ID 646 • Sw – • BP 2802 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FTW 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ From WSem *√PTW ‘to advise’ – Huehnergard2011.
    … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl fatwa, from Ar fatwà ‘legal opinion’, from a vb. *fatà ‘to advise’ (attested only in derived denom. forms such as ʔaftà, vb. IV, ‘to give a formal legal opinion’); mufti1, from Ar muftī ‘one who delivers legal opinions, mufti’, PA of ʔaftà (see above). 
     
    FǦː (FǦǦ) فجّ/فجج 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Apr2023
    √ FǦː (FǦǦ) 
    “root” 
    ▪ FǦː (FǦǦ)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FǦː (FǦǦ)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FǦː (FǦǦ)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘wide open space situated in a hilly area, wide paths situated in the valley between high mountains; sound or movement made by a frightened ostrich; unripeness of fruit and vegetables’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    FǦʔ فجأ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FǦʔ 
    “root” 
    ▪ FǦʔ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FǦʔ_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    tafāǧaʔ‑ تَفاجَأَ 
    ID 647 • Sw – • BP 6411 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FǦʔ 
    vb., VI 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    FǦR فجر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FǦR 
    “root” 
    ▪ FǦR_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FǦR_2 ‘wicked’ ↗fāǧir
    ▪ FǦR_3 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to gush forth, to explode; dawn, (of dawn) to appear; to cut, to divide, to cleave; to incline; to violate social or religious norms, to commit adultery’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ĭnfaǧar‑ اِنْفَجَرَ 
    ID 648 • Sw – • BP 2358 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FǦR 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    faǧr فَجْر 
    ID 649 • Sw – • BP 1048 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FǦR 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    fāǧir فاجِر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Jun2023
    √FǦR
     
    adj. 
    wicked – Jeffery1938 
    ▪ eC7 Q lxxi, 28; pl. faǧaraẗ, lxxx, 42, and fuǧǧār, xxxviii, 27; lxxxii, 14; lxxxiii, 7 – Jeffery1938.
     
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »With this must be taken the verb faǧara ‘to act wickedly’, lxxv, 5, and fuǧūr ‘wickedness’, xci, 8.
    This set of words, as Ahrens, Christliches, 31, notes, has nothing to do with the root faǧara ‘to break forth’ or its derivatives. Rather we have here a development from a word borrowed from the Syr pagrā which literally means ‘a body, corpse’, but from which were formed the technical words of Christian theology, pagrānācorporalis’, and pagrānūṯācorporalitas’, referring to the sinful body, the ‘flesh’ that wars against the spirit. Thus in 2 Pet. i, 13, [Syr] b-pgrʔ hnʔ = ‘en toútō tṓ skēnṓmati’, and in 1 Cor. iii, pagrānā = ‘sōmatikós’, and in this technical sense it may very well have been in use among the Christian Arabs long before the time of Islam.«
     
    – 
    – 
    FǦW فجو 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Apr2023
    √FǦW 
    “root” 
    ▪ FǦW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FǦW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FǦW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘clear hole in a wall, (in a cave) open space, gap; to make a hole’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    FḤŠ فحش 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Apr2023
    √FḤŠ 
    “root” 
    ▪ FḤŠ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FḤŠ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FḤŠ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be excessive, immoderate or beyond measure; to be foul, be obscene, act in an indecent way, be shameless, use obscene language; adultery, to commit adultery’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    FḤM فحم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FḤM 
    “root” 
    ▪ FḤM_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FḤM_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    faḥm فَحْم 
    ID 650 • Sw – • BP 4785 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FḤM 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *p˅ḥm‑ ‘charcoal’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    FḪR فخر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Apr2023
    √FḪR 
    “root” 
    ▪ FḪR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FḪR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FḪR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be proud, be boastful, self-glorify; earthenware’ 
    ▪ (BAH2008:) The philologists classify faḫḫār ‘earthenware’ under this root presumably because of the shared radicals. It has, however, been suggested that the latter word is a borrowing, probably from Syr. 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    FDY فدي 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FDY 
    “root” 
    ▪ FDY_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FDY_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to ransom, to redeem’ 
    ▪ From protSem *√PDY ‘to redeem, ransom’ – Huehnergard2011.
    … 
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    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl fedayeefidāʔ
    – 
    fidāʔ فِداء 
    ID 651 • Sw – • BP 4049 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FDY 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl fedayee, from Ar fidāʔī ‘one who sacrifices himself, freedom fighter’, from fidāʔ ‘ransom, sacrifice’, vn. of fadà, vb. I, ‘to ransom, sacrifice’. 
     
    *FR‑ فرـ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √*FR- 
    2-cons. "root nucleus" 
    to cut (a piece from) (Ehret1989#37), to divide, spatial separation, distance (Versteegh 1997). 
    From a pre-protSem root nucleus *PR- ‘to cut, divide, separate’. 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    According to Ehret1989#37, 3-rad. extensions of pre-protSem *PR- ‘to cut (a piece from)’ in Ar are:

    (reduplicated simple form > intensive) : far-fara ‘to break, cut, tear to pieces’
    + ‘durative’ *‑t- + ‘durative’ *‑f : fartaka ‘to cut very small’
    + ‘diffusive’ *‑ṯ : faraṯa ‘to cut up the liver, split’
    + ‘finitive fortative’ *‑g : ↗faraǧa (farǧ) ‘to put asunder, separate, split’
    + ‘durative’ *‑d : ↗farada (furūd) ‘to be single, isolated, be unique’
    + ‘intensive (manner)’ *‑z : ↗faraza (farz) ‘to separate, set apart, secrete, select’
    + ‘fortative’ *‑s : ↗farasa (fars) ‘to break the neck, tear the prey into pieces’
    + ‘venitive’ *‑ɬ : ↗faraša (farš) ‘to spread on the floor, spread out’
    + ‘venitive’ *‑ɬ + ‘iterative’ *‑ḥ : ↗faršaḥa, var. faršaḫa ‘to straddle, stand with one’s legs apart’12
    + ‘focative’ *‑ṣ : faraṣa (farṣ) ‘to cut, split, tear’, cf. ↗furṣaẗ
    + ‘focative’ *‑ṣ + ‘fortative’ *‑m : farṣama ‘to break off, cut off’
    + ‘middle’ *‑ḍ : faraḍa (farḍ) ‘to make incisions, notches’, cf. ↗furḍaẗ
    + ‘durative intensive’ *‑ṭ : ↗faraṭa (farṭ) ‘to beat off, stripp off (fruits)’
    + ‘sunderative’ *‑ʕ : ↗faraʕa (farʕ) ‘to prune a tree’
    + ‘intensive (effect)’ *‑q : ↗faraqa (farq) ‘to split, separate’
    + ‘durative’ *‑k + ‘iterative’ *‑ḥ : farkaḥa ‘to have the buttocks wide apart, separate the legs immoderately in walking’
    + ‘fortative’ *‑m : ↗farama (farm) ‘to cut small, hash’
    + ‘inchoative (> tr.)’ *‑y : ↗farà (fary) ‘to cut, cleave, sever’

    To the same semantic complex seems to belong also ↗faṭara (faṭr) ‘to split, cleave, break apart’, (fuṭūr) ‘to break the fast’

    Probably also the idea of ‘fleeing, escaping’ (i.e., creating a separating distance) is related, cf.:

    (simple form) : ↗farra (firār) ‘to flee, run away’
    + ‘durative intensive’ *‑ṭ : ↗faraṭa (farṭ) ‘to escape inadvertedly, slip, get lost’ 
    FRː (FRR) فرّ / فرر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FRː (FRR) 
    “root” 
    ▪ FRː (FRR)_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FRː (FRR)_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to flee, to escape, to take refuge, place of refuge; to be in a hurry; to shake o.s’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ The root probably belongs to the idea of ‘cutting, separating, dividing’ attached to the pre-protSem 2-consonantal root nucleus *PR- (Ar ↗*FR-) as described by Ehret1989#37. For other extensions from the same pre-protSem *PR- see ↗faraǧa (farǧ) ‘to put asunder, separate, split’, ↗farada (furūd) ‘to be single, isolated, be unique’, ↗faraza (farz) ‘to separate, set apart, secrete, select’, ↗farasa (fars) ‘to break the neck, tear the prey into pieces’, ↗faraša (farš) ‘to spread on the floor, spread out’, ↗faršaḥa, var. faršaḫa, ‘to straddle, stand with one’s legs apart’, ↗furṣaẗ ‘chance, auspicious moment; holiday’ (i.e., s.th. that comes like a ‘cut’ in normal life), ↗furḍaẗ ‘notch, incision, opening’, ↗faraṭa (farṭ) ‘to beat off, stripp off (fruits)’, ↗faraʕa (farʕ) ‘to prune a tree’, ↗faraqa (farq) ‘to split, separate’, ↗farama (farm) ‘to cut small, hash’, ↗farà (fary) ‘to cut, cleave, sever’; cf. also ↗faraṭa (farṭ) ‘to escape inadvertedly, slip, get lost’, ↗faṭara (faṭr) ‘to split, cleave, break apart’, (fuṭūr) ‘to break the fast’. 
    – 
    – 
    FRT فرت 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FRT 
    “root” 
    ▪ FRT_1 ‘Euphrates’ ↗furāt

    Apart from this value, Lane vi (1877) has also
    FRT_2: as in farita a ‘to become weak in o.’s intellect, after having possessed ample intelligence’
    FRT_3: farata i u (fart) ‘to act vitiously, or unrighteously; to commit adultery, fornication’, to which according to some also belongs (al-) fartanā ‘fornicatress, adultress, female slave’, obviously a loanword (from ?) but related by many lexicographers to √FRT (though others say it is from √FRTN), from which is also the invective ibn al-fartanā ‘son of the female slave that is a fornicatrice; low, ignoble, mean, sordid’
    FRT_4: firt, var. fitr ‘space measured by the extension of the thumb and forefinger’

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘1 sweet-tasting water; 2 to be weak-minded; 3 to violate religious norms’ 
    Disamgibuation follows Badawi2008 and Lane 6 (1877). Only FRT_1 is found in MSA. 
    – 
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    – 
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    furāt فُرات 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FRT 
    n.pr. 
    al-f. the Euphrates; furāt sweet (water) – WehrCowan1979. 
    Via Hbr Syr pᵊrāt, or (as Pennacchio2014 thinks) directly, from Akk purattu, purāt, ultimately from Sum pura-nun ‘great water’. 
    ▪ eC7 The word occurs three times in the Qur'an, always meaning ‘sweet-tasting water’, e.g., Q 77:27 wa-ʔasqaynā-kum māʔan furātan ‘and We gave you to drink sweet-tasting water’ (Badawi 2008). 
    Akk purattu, purāt, Hbr Syr pᵊrāt are not real cognates since the word is loaned from there. 
    ▪ Jeffery1937: 222-3: »The passages are all Meccan and refer to the sweet river water as opposed to the salt water of the sea, and in the two latter passages the reference is apparently to some cosmological myth. – In any case the word furāt is derived from the river Euphrates (Horovitz, KU, 130), which from the Sum pura-nun ‘great water’, appears in Akk as purattu, or purāt 590 , and in oPers as Ufrātu,591 whence the Grk euphrátēs. From the Akk come the Hbr pᵊrāt and Syr pᵊrāt, whence in all probability the Ar furāt, if indeed this was not an early borrowing from Mesopotamia.«
    ▪ Pennacchio2014:81 thinks the word is directly from Akk purāt, for phonological reasons. The meaning ‘sweet (water)’, as in the Q, »viendrait de l’une des caractéristique du fleuve«, by semantic extension. 
    ▪ The Eur names for one of the main rivers in Mesopotamia, e.g. Engl Euphrates, have all come in via Grk euphrátēs. Jeffery1938 thinks the latter is directly from Akk, while OED assumes oPers ufrātu as the more immediate source of borrowing. As this is perhaps from Av huperethuua ‘good to cross over’, composed of hu‑ ‘good’ + peretu‑ ‘ford’, which, however, according to Kent [Old Persian, p.176], probably is »a popular etymologizing in oPers of a local non-Iranian name«, we are back to Akk purattu, purāt, from Sum pura-nun ‘great water’. 
    – 
    FRṮ فرث 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Apr2023
    √FRṮ 
    “root” 
    ▪ FRṮ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FRṮ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FRṮ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘dung; emptying out the contents of a sack or a belly; to inform on s.o’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    FRǦ فرج 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FRǦ 
    “root” 
    ▪ FRǦ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FRǦ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘that which is between the legs of a human and the hind legs of an animal, opening, cleavage, euphemesim for the sexual organs of the two sexes; hole; to open, to split, to cleave a way; to relieve; to set free’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ According to Ehret1989#37, the root is an extension in‘finitive fortative’ *-g from a pre-protSem 2-consonantal root nucleus *PR- ‘to cut (a piece from)’ > Ar ↗*FR-. For other extensions from the same pre-protSem *PR- see ↗farada (furūd) ‘to be single, isolated, be unique’, ↗faraza (farz) ‘to separate, set apart, secrete, select’, ↗farasa (fars) ‘to break the neck, tear the prey into pieces’, ↗faraša (farš) ‘to spread on the floor, spread out’, ↗faršaḥa, var. faršaḫa, ‘to straddle, stand with one’s legs apart’, ↗furṣaẗ ‘chance, auspicious moment; holiday’ (i.e., s.th. that comes like a ‘cut’ in normal life), ↗furḍaẗ ‘notch, incision, opening’, ↗faraṭa (farṭ) ‘to beat off, stripp off (fruits)’, ↗faraʕa (farʕ) ‘to prune a tree’, ↗faraqa (farq) ‘to split, separate’, ↗farama (farm) ‘to cut small, hash’, ↗farà (fary) ‘to cut, cleave, sever’; cf. also ↗farra (firār) ‘to flee, run away’, ↗faraṭa (farṭ) ‘to escape inadvertedly, slip, get lost’, ↗faṭara (faṭr) ‘to split, cleave, break apart’, (fuṭūr) ‘to break the fast’. 
    – 
    … 
    FRḤ فرح 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FRḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ FRḤ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FRḤ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘joy, happiness, to rejoice; conceit, pride; ungratefulness; affliction’ 
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    – 
    fariḥ‑ فَرِحَ 
    ID 652 • Sw – • BP 3200 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FRḤ 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
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    – 
     
    FRD فرد 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FRD 
    “root” 
    ▪ FRD_1 ‘(to be) single, alone; to separate, single out’ ↗fard
    ▪ FRD_2 ‘tax, head tax, poll tax’ ↗firdaẗ
    ▪ FRD_3 ‘pistol’ ↗fard_[v11]

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘1 to be unique, be without peers; 2 aloneness, oneness, to be single; 3 to be separated, be without companions; 4 odd number’ 
    ▪ FRD_1 : protSem *PRD ‘to cut, separate, divide; single, alone; to separate, single out’ (Huehnergard2011: WSem *√PRD ‘to separate’), from pre-protSem 2-cons. root nucleus *PR- ‘to cut (a piece from). For details, cf. ↗fard
    ▪ FRD_2 : firdaẗ ‘tax, head tax, poll tax’ is with all likelihood an unemphatic var. of furdaẗ (with !), from ↗faraḍaẗ ‘to impose, make incumbent on, prescribe’
    ▪ FRD_3 : probably so called because of its single barrel, or because it can be used with one single hand

     
    – 
    fard
    ▪ Huehnergard (in AHDEL): From WSem *PRD ‘to separate’.
    ▪ According to Ehret1989#37, the root is an extension in ‘durative’ *-d from a pre-protSem 2-consonantal root nucleus *PR- ‘to cut (a piece from)’ > Ar ↗*FR-. For other extensions from the same pre-protSem *PR- see ↗faraǧa (farǧ) ‘to put asunder, separate, split’, ↗faraza (farz) ‘to separate, set apart, secrete, select’, ↗farasa (fars) ‘to break the neck, tear the prey into pieces’, ↗faraša (farš) ‘to spread on the floor, spread out’, ↗faršaḥa, var. faršaḫa, ‘to straddle, stand with one’s legs apart’, ↗furṣaẗ ‘chance, auspicious moment; holiday’ (i.e., s.th. that comes like a ‘cut’ in normal life), ↗furḍaẗ ‘notch, incision, opening’, ↗faraṭa (farṭ) ‘to beat off, stripp off (fruits)’, ↗faraʕa (farʕ) ‘to prune a tree’, ↗faraqa (farq) ‘to split, separate’, ↗farama (farm) ‘to cut small, hash’, ↗farà (fary) ‘to cut, cleave, sever’; cf. also ↗farra (firār) ‘to flee, run away’, ↗faraṭa (farṭ) ‘to escape inadvertedly, slip, get lost’, ↗faṭara (faṭr) ‘to split, cleave, break apart’, (fuṭūr) ‘to break the fast’. 
    ▪ Cf. ↗fard
    – 
    fard فَرْد , pl. ʔafrād , furādà 
    ID 653 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 626 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FRD 
    n. 
    1 alone, single; 2 sole, only; 3 solitary; 4 singular, unique, matchless, unrivaled, peerless, incomparable; 5 (pl. ʔafrād) one, a single one, a single person, individual; 6 soldier, private; 7 (pl. ʔafrād, with foll. gen.) the individual members (of a group); — 8 odd, uneven (number); 9 al-~, epithet of the month of Rajab; 10 (pl. firād) one, one of a couple, one of a pair; 11 (pl. furūd, furūdaẗ) pistol; — 12 singular (gram.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Huehnergard (in AHDEL): From WSem *PRD ‘to separate’.
    ▪ According to Ehret1989#37, the root is an extension in ‘durative’ *‑d from a pre-protSem 2-consonantal root nucleus *PR- ‘to cut (a piece from)’. For other extensions from the same pre-protSem *PR- see Ar ↗*FR-.
    ▪ [v11] ‘pistol’: perh. *‘the weapon with the one single shot’ (as distinct from the musaddas ‘the six-fold one’, i.e., a revolver), or because it could be used with one single hand (?) 
    ▪ eC7 fard 1 (pl. furādà, alone, solitary, by o.s.) Q 6:94 wa-laqad ǧiʔtumū-nā furādà ka-mā ḫalaqnā-kum ʔawwala marraẗin ‘now you have returned to Us alone [just] as We first created you’; 2 (single, singly) Q 34:46 ʔan taqūmū li-llāhi maṯnà wa-furādà ‘to stand before God, in pairs and singly’; 3 (childless) Q 21:89 wa-Zakariyyā ʔiḏ nādà rabba-hū rabbi lā taḏar-nī fardan wa-ʔanta ḫayru ’l-wāriṯīna ‘and [mention] Zachariah, when he cried out to his Lord, “My Lord, do not leave me childless, though You are the best of inheritors”’.
    ▪ Bocthor1828 gives fard already as a correspondence of ‘individual’. 
    ▪ Zammit2002: (Akk parādu ‘sich absondern’)171 , Ug brd ‘separar, apartar’, Hbr pārad (nif.) ‘to divide; separate’, Aram pᵉrad ‘to separate, scatter’, Syr pᵉrad ‘to place apart’, Ar fard ‘alone’, SAr frd ‘sole, unique’, Gz tafārada ‘separari a se invicem’.
    ▪ Kogan2015:567-8: Hbr prd ‘to separate, diverge’, Ar frd ‘to become sole, single’, Sab frd -m ‘uniquely, alone’, Te täfarädä ‘to part company as enemies’. – Cf. also Mhr fərōd, Jib férɔ́d, Soq férod ‘to stampede, panic; to make off, to run away’.172  
    ▪ Kogan2015:567: Sem *PRD ‘to be separated’. – »Leslau plausibly connects [also] prot-modSAr *PRD ‘to flee in panic’ with Sem *PRD ‘to be separated’«.
    ▪ [v11] ‘pistol’: Hava1899 gives this meaning as LevAr (marked with the sign for »used in the dialect of Syria«). 
    ▪ WSem *PRD ‘to separate’: Engl fardel ‘bundle, burden’ (c1300), from OFr fardel ‘parcel, package, small pack’ (C13, modFr fardeau), dim. of farde, which OED says is ‘cognate with’ (others say ‘from’) Span fardo ‘pack, bundle’, which is said to be from Ar fardaẗ, ‘single piece, pack, package, bundle’, from farada ‘to be(come) separate, segregated, single’ – EtymOnline, and Huehnergard (in AHDEL, https://ahdictionary.com/word/semitic.html).
    ▪ Ar fard has made its way into other languages of the Islamic world, cf. Aze ferd, Hin fard, Per fard, Tur fert – Rajki2002. 
    fardan fardan, adv., singly, separately, one by one, one at a time, one after the other
    ʔafrād al-ʕāʔilaẗ, n.pl., members of the family
    ʔafrād al-farīq, n.pl., members of the team (sport)

    farada, and faruda, u (furūd), vb. I, to be single, be alone; to be singular, be unique: denom. (?). — farada, u (furūd), vb. I, to withdraw, retire, segregate (ʕan from): the etymon proper? — EgAr farada, i, vb. I, to spread, spread out, extend, stretch (s.th.); to roll out (al-ʕaǧīnaẗ the dough); to unfold (s.th.): var. of ↗faraša (?).
    ʔafrada, vb. IV, to set aside, separate, segregate, isolate (s.o., s.th.); to single out, assign especially (s.th. li‑ or bi‑ for), devote (s.th., li‑ to a special subject): caus.
    tafarrada, vb. V, 1 to be alone; 2 to do alone, perform singlehandedly (bi‑ s.th.); 3 to possess alone (bi‑ s.th.); 4 to be matchless, be unique: tD-stem, denom., intr.
    ĭnfarada, vb. VII, 1 = V; 2 to stand alone, be without parallel ( or bi‑ with or in s.th.): fig.; 3 to withdraw, segregate, walk away (ʕan from); 4 to be isolated (ʕan from): quasi-pass.
    ĭstafrada, vb. X, 1 to find (s.o., s.th.) singular, unique or isolated; 2 to isolate (chem.): Št-stem, denom., appellative.

    fardaẗ, n.f., one part, one half, one of a pair: n.un.
    BP#2251fardī, adj., 1 single, solitary; single- (in compounds); 2 pertaining to a single person; one-man (in compounds); solo (adj.); singles (tennis); 3 individual, personal; individualist; 4 odd, uneven (number): nsb-adj. | ʕilm al-nafs al-~, n., individual psychology.
    fardiyyaẗ, n.f., individuality, individualism; solipsism (philos.): abstr. formation in <-iyyaẗ.
    fardāniyyaẗ, n.f., solipsism (philos.): abstr. formation in <-iyyaẗ.
    BP#2650farīd, adj., 1 alone, lone, lonely, solitary; 2 singular, unique, matchless, peerless, unrivaled, incomparable; (with foll. gen.) especially endowed with: quasi-PP I | ~ fī bābi-hī, adj., unique of its kind.
    farīdaẗ, pl. farāʔidᵘ, n.f., 1 precious pearl, precious gem, solitaire; 2 (eg.) quire (of paper): nominalized adj.f.
    furādan, and furādà, adv., singly, separately, one by one, one at a time, one after the other:…
    tafrīdī, adj., detailed, itemized: nsb-adj., from *vn. II.
    ĭnfirād, n., 1 solitude, loneness, loneliness; 2 isolation, seclusion: vn. VII | ʕalà ~, adv., alone, apart, isolatedly, in solitude, in seclusion; singly, by o.s.; confidentially; al-~ bi’l-sulṭaẗ, n., autocracy.
    ĭnfirādī, adj., individual; individualistic; autocratic; isolationistic, tending to isolation: nsb-adj., from vn. VII.
    BP#4028mufrad, adj., 1 single, solitary, lone, detached, isolated; 2 (gram.) simple, consisting of only one word (expression); 3 being in the singular; singular (gram.); BP#37254 (‑āt) vocable, word; pl. words, terms, names, expressions (of a scientific field); 5 details: lexicalized PP IV | ~āt ḫāṣṣaẗ, n.f.pl., technical terms, terminology; bi-mufradi-h, adj., by o.s., alone, apart, singly, isolatedly, in solitude, in seclusion, solitarily; bi’l-mufradāt, adj., in detail; by retail.
    munfarid, adj., 1 isolated, detached, separated; 2 lone, solitary, alone; 3 solo (adj.; also mus.): PA VII.

    For another value attached to FRD cf. ↗firdaẗ
    firdaẗ فِرْدة , pl. firad 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FRD (properly, FRḌ) 
    n.f. 
    tax, head tax, poll tax – WehrCowan1979. 
    From furḍaẗ (with emphatic !), from ↗faraḍa ‘to impose, make incumbent on, prescribe’. 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    For other values of the root, cf. ↗FRD, ↗fard
    FRDS فردس 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FRDS 
    “root” 
    ▪ FRDS _1 ‘paradise’ ↗firdaws
    ▪ FRDS _ ‘...’ ↗...
     
    ▪ [v1] (BAH2008:) »The sources almost unanimously agree that this word is a borrowing from either Gz, Syr, Nab, Pers or, most likely, Grk, and that it came into Ar in pre-Islamic times.« 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
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    – 
    – 
    firdaws فِرْدَوْس , pl. farādīsᵘ 
    ID 654 • Sw – • BP 4395 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 11Apr2023
    √FRDS 
    n. 
    Paradise – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Cheung2017rev: ultimately of Ir origin, but prob. borrowed indirectly, via (?) Sab *frdws < Syr pardaysā ‘paradise, garden (of Eden)’ < Grk parádeisos < oIr *pari-daiza- ‘hunting domain; garden for growing produce’. For details, see below, section DISC.
    ▪ … 
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    … 
    firdawsī, adj., paradisiacal, heavenly: nsb-formation 
    FRZ فرز 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FRZ 
    “root” 
    ▪ FRZ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FRZ_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ According to Ehret1989#37, the root is an extension in‘intensive (manner)’ *-z from a pre-protSem 2-consonantal root nucleus *PR- ‘to cut (a piece from)’ > Ar ↗*FR-. For other extensions from the same pre-protSem *PR- see ↗faraǧa (farǧ) ‘to put asunder, separate, split’, ↗farada (furūd) ‘to be single, isolated, be unique’, ↗farasa (fars) ‘to break the neck, tear the prey into pieces’, ↗faraša (farš) ‘to spread on the floor, spread out’, ↗faršaḥa, var. faršaḫa, ‘to straddle, stand with one’s legs apart’, ↗furṣaẗ ‘chance, auspicious moment; holiday’ (i.e., s.th. that comes like a ‘cut’ in normal life), ↗furḍaẗ ‘notch, incision, opening’, ↗faraṭa (farṭ) ‘to beat off, stripp off (fruits)’, ↗faraʕa (farʕ) ‘to prune a tree’, ↗faraqa (farq) ‘to split, separate’, ↗farama (farm) ‘to cut small, hash’, ↗farà (fary) ‘to cut, cleave, sever’; cf. also ↗farra (firār) ‘to flee, run away’, ↗faraṭa (farṭ) ‘to escape inadvertedly, slip, get lost’, ↗faṭara (faṭr) ‘to split, cleave, break apart’, (fuṭūr) ‘to break the fast’. 
    – 
    – 
    FRS فرس 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FRS 
    “root” 
    ▪ FRS_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FRS_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ …
    ▪ …
    ▪ Kogan2011: from a protWSem *paraš‑ ‘horse’. There is no deeply rooted common Sem term for ‘horse’. For a word of possibly foreign (IE) origin, cf. (EgAr) ↗sīsī.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Huehnergard (in AHDEL): NWSem *PRŠ ‘to make distinct, to separate’.
    ▪ According to Ehret1989#37, the root is an extension in‘fortative’ *-s from a pre-protSem 2-consonantal root nucleus *PR- ‘to cut (a piece from)’ > Ar ↗*FR-. For other extensions from the same pre-protSem *PR- see ↗faraǧa (farǧ) ‘to put asunder, separate, split’, ↗farada (furūd) ‘to be single, isolated, be unique’, ↗faraza (farz) ‘to separate, set apart, secrete, select’, ↗faraša (farš) ‘to spread on the floor, spread out’, ↗faršaḥa, var. faršaḫa, ‘to straddle, stand with one’s legs apart’, ↗furṣaẗ ‘chance, auspicious moment; holiday’ (i.e., s.th. that comes like a ‘cut’ in normal life), ↗furḍaẗ ‘notch, incision, opening’, ↗faraṭa (farṭ) ‘to beat off, stripp off (fruits)’, ↗faraʕa (farʕ) ‘to prune a tree’, ↗faraqa (farq) ‘to split, separate’, ↗farama (farm) ‘to cut small, hash’, ↗farà (fary) ‘to cut, cleave, sever’; cf. also ↗farra (firār) ‘to flee, run away’, ↗faraṭa (farṭ) ‘to escape inadvertedly, slip, get lost’, ↗faṭara (faṭr) ‘to split, cleave, break apart’, (fuṭūr) ‘to break the fast’. 
    – 
    – 
    FRŠ فرش 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FRŠ 
    “root” 
    ▪ FRŠ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FRŠ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘beating of wings, spreading of wings, butterfly; to spread, to lay out; bedding, nest, bed; wife, husband’ 
    ▪ From NWSem *√PRŠ ‘to make distinct, to separate’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ According to Ehret1989#37, the root is an extension in‘venitive’ * from a pre-protSem 2-consonantal root nucleus *PR- ‘to cut (a piece from)’ > Ar ↗*FR-. For other extensions from the same pre-protSem *PR- see ↗faraǧa (farǧ) ‘to put asunder, separate, split’, ↗farada (furūd) ‘to be single, isolated, be unique’, ↗faraza (farz) ‘to separate, set apart, secrete, select’, ↗farasa (fars) ‘to break the neck, tear the prey into pieces’, ↗faršaḥa, var. faršaḫa, ‘to straddle, stand with one’s legs apart’, ↗furṣaẗ ‘chance, auspicious moment; holiday’ (i.e., s.th. that comes like a ‘cut’ in normal life), ↗furḍaẗ ‘notch, incision, opening’, ↗faraṭa (farṭ) ‘to beat off, stripp off (fruits)’, ↗faraʕa (farʕ) ‘to prune a tree’, ↗faraqa (farq) ‘to split, separate’, ↗farama (farm) ‘to cut small, hash’, ↗farà (fary) ‘to cut, cleave, sever’; cf. also ↗farra (firār) ‘to flee, run away’, ↗faraṭa (farṭ) ‘to escape inadvertedly, slip, get lost’, ↗faṭara (faṭr) ‘to split, cleave, break apart’, (fuṭūr) ‘to break the fast’. 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Pharisee, from Aram pᵊrišayyā, pl. of pᵊriš ‘separate, separated’, from pᵊraš ‘to separate’, akin to Ar ↗faraša ‘to spread’ 
    – 
    FRSḤ فرشح , var. FRŠḪ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FRŠḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ FRŠḤ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FRŠḤ_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ According to Ehret1989#37, the root is an extension in‘venitive’ * + ‘iterative’ *-ḥ from a pre-protSem 2-consonantal root nucleus *PR- ‘to cut (a piece from)’ > Ar ↗*FR-. For other extensions from the same pre-protSem *PR- see ↗faraǧa (farǧ) ‘to put asunder, separate, split’, ↗farada (furūd) ‘to be single, isolated, be unique’, ↗faraza (farz) ‘to separate, set apart, secrete, select’, ↗farasa (fars) ‘to break the neck, tear the prey into pieces’, ↗faraša (farš) ‘to spread on the floor, spread out’, ↗furṣaẗ ‘chance, auspicious moment; holiday’ (i.e., s.th. that comes like a ‘cut’ in normal life), ↗furḍaẗ ‘notch, incision, opening’, ↗faraṭa (farṭ) ‘to beat off, stripp off (fruits)’, ↗faraʕa (farʕ) ‘to prune a tree’, ↗faraqa (farq) ‘to split, separate’, ↗farama (farm) ‘to cut small, hash’, ↗farà (fary) ‘to cut, cleave, sever’; cf. also ↗farra (firār) ‘to flee, run away’, ↗faraṭa (farṭ) ‘to escape inadvertedly, slip, get lost’, ↗faṭara (faṭr) ‘to split, cleave, break apart’, (fuṭūr) ‘to break the fast’. 
    – 
    – 
    FRŠḪ فرشخ , var. of FRŠḤ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FRŠḪ 
    “root” 
    ↗FRŠḤ 
    ↗FRŠḤ 
    – 
    ↗FRŠḤ 
    ↗FRŠḤ 
    – 
    – 
    FRṢ فرص 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FRṢ 
    “root” 
    ▪ FRṢ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FRṢ_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ According to Ehret1989#37, the root is an extension in‘focative’ *-ṣ from a pre-protSem 2-consonantal root nucleus *PR- ‘to cut (a piece from)’ > Ar ↗*FR-. For other extensions from the same pre-protSem *PR- see ↗faraǧa (farǧ) ‘to put asunder, separate, split’, ↗farada (furūd) ‘to be single, isolated, be unique’, ↗faraza (farz) ‘to separate, set apart, secrete, select’, ↗farasa (fars) ‘to break the neck, tear the prey into pieces’, ↗faraša (farš) ‘to spread on the floor, spread out’, ↗faršaḥa, var. faršaḫa, ‘to straddle, stand with one’s legs apart’, ↗furḍaẗ ‘notch, incision, opening’, ↗faraṭa (farṭ) ‘to beat off, stripp off (fruits)’, ↗faraʕa (farʕ) ‘to prune a tree’, ↗faraqa (farq) ‘to split, separate’, ↗farama (farm) ‘to cut small, hash’, ↗farà (fary) ‘to cut, cleave, sever’; cf. also ↗farra (firār) ‘to flee, run away’, ↗faraṭa (farṭ) ‘to escape inadvertedly, slip, get lost’, ↗faṭara (faṭr) ‘to split, cleave, break apart’, (fuṭūr) ‘to break the fast’. 
    – 
    – 
    FRḌ فرض 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FRḌ 
    “root” 
    ▪ FRḌ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FRḌ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to incise, to indent; to make obligatory, obligation, enforcement, enforced absence; to be advanced in years; appointed measure’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ According to Ehret1989#37, the root is an extension in‘middle’ *-ḍ from a pre-protSem 2-consonantal root nucleus *PR- ‘to cut (a piece from)’ > Ar ↗*FR-. For other extensions from the same pre-protSem *PR- see ↗faraǧa (farǧ) ‘to put asunder, separate, split’, ↗farada (furūd) ‘to be single, isolated, be unique’, ↗faraza (farz) ‘to separate, set apart, secrete, select’, ↗farasa (fars) ‘to break the neck, tear the prey into pieces’, ↗faraša (farš) ‘to spread on the floor, spread out’, ↗faršaḥa, var. faršaḫa, ‘to straddle, stand with one’s legs apart’, ↗furṣaẗ ‘chance, auspicious moment; holiday’ (i.e., s.th. that comes like a ‘cut’ in normal life), ↗faraṭa (farṭ) ‘to beat off, stripp off (fruits)’, ↗faraʕa (farʕ) ‘to prune a tree’, ↗faraqa (farq) ‘to split, separate’, ↗farama (farm) ‘to cut small, hash’, ↗farà (fary) ‘to cut, cleave, sever’; cf. also ↗farra (firār) ‘to flee, run away’, ↗faraṭa (farṭ) ‘to escape inadvertedly, slip, get lost’, ↗faṭara (faṭr) ‘to split, cleave, break apart’, (fuṭūr) ‘to break the fast’. 
    – 
    – 
    farīḍaẗ فَرِيضَة 
    ID 655 • Sw – • BP 4684 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FRḌ 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    FRṬ فرط 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FRṬ 
    “root” 
    ▪ FRṬ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FRṬ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to precede, to be at the fore; to be in excess; to neglect, to inadvertently allow to escape; to compete’ 
    ▪ From NWSem *√PRṬ ‘to break, rend’ – Huehnergard2011.
    … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Huehnergard (in AHDEL): NWSem *PRṬ ‘to break, rend’.
    ▪ According to Ehret1989#37, the root is an extension in‘durative intensive’ *-ṭ from a pre-protSem 2-consonantal root nucleus *PR- ‘to cut (a piece from)’ > Ar ↗*FR-. For other extensions from the same pre-protSem *PR- see ↗faraǧa (farǧ) ‘to put asunder, separate, split’, ↗farada (furūd) ‘to be single, isolated, be unique’, ↗faraza (farz) ‘to separate, set apart, secrete, select’, ↗farasa (fars) ‘to break the neck, tear the prey into pieces’, ↗faraša (farš) ‘to spread on the floor, spread out’, ↗faršaḥa, var. faršaḫa, ‘to straddle, stand with one’s legs apart’, ↗furṣaẗ ‘chance, auspicious moment; holiday’ (i.e., s.th. that comes like a ‘cut’ in normal life), ↗furḍaẗ ‘notch, incision, opening’, ↗faraʕa (farʕ) ‘to prune a tree’, ↗faraqa (farq) ‘to split, separate’, ↗farama (farm) ‘to cut small, hash’, ↗farà (fary) ‘to cut, cleave, sever’; cf. also ↗farra (firār) ‘to flee, run away’, ↗faṭara (faṭr) ‘to split, cleave, break apart’, (fuṭūr) ‘to break the fast’. 
    – 
    – 
    FRʕ فرع 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FRʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ FRʕ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FRʕ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be tall, to grow high; (of a tree or mountain) the upper part; to climb’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ According to Ehret1989#37, the root is an extension in ‘sunderative’ * from a pre-protSem 2-consonantal root nucleus *PR- ‘to cut (a piece from)’ > Ar ↗*FR-. For other extensions from the same pre-protSem *PR- see ↗faraǧa (farǧ) ‘to put asunder, separate, split’, ↗farada (furūd) ‘to be single, isolated, be unique’, ↗faraza (farz) ‘to separate, set apart, secrete, select’, ↗farasa (fars) ‘to break the neck, tear the prey into pieces’, ↗faraša (farš) ‘to spread on the floor, spread out’, ↗faršaḥa, var. faršaḫa, ‘to straddle, stand with one’s legs apart’, ↗furṣaẗ ‘chance, auspicious moment; holiday’ (i.e., s.th. that comes like a ‘cut’ in normal life), ↗furḍaẗ ‘notch, incision, opening’, ↗faraṭa (farṭ) ‘to beat off, stripp off (fruits)’, ↗faraqa (farq) ‘to split, separate’, ↗farama (farm) ‘to cut small, hash’, ↗farà (fary) ‘to cut, cleave, sever’; cf. also ↗farra (firār) ‘to flee, run away’, ↗faraṭa (farṭ) ‘to escape inadvertedly, slip, get lost’, ↗faṭara (faṭr) ‘to split, cleave, break apart’, (fuṭūr) ‘to break the fast’. 
    – 
    – 
    FRʕN فرعن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FRʕN 
    “root” 
    ▪ FRʕN_1 ‘pharaoh’ ↗firʕawn

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘Pharaoh; to act tyrannically, to oppress; sagacity, intelligence, cunning; crocodile’. – Some philologists derive firʕawn from this root, but the majority recognise it as a borrowing from the language of the Copts, with other meanings, presumably, derived from it. 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    firʕawn فِرْعَوْن , pl. farāʕinaẗᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FRʕN, FRʕWN 
    n. 
    Pharaoh – WehrCowan1979. 
    Ultimately from Eg pr ʕ3 [per-ʕō ?] ‘pharaoh’ (lit. ‘big house,’ i.e., the royal palace), probably via Syr perʕūn (which would explain the final ‑n). The ‑n in Syr is probably from Lat or Grk. 
    ▪ eC7 Q 10:79 wa-qāla firʕawnu ’ʔtū-nī bi-kulli sāḥirin ʕalīmin ‘and Pharaoh said: Bring me every learned sorcerer’ 
    … 
    ▪ Youssef2003: from Eg pr ʕ3 ‘pharaoh’
    ▪ Rolland2014: from Eg per-o, via Syr. [PayneSmith1903: perʕūn ]
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »The Commentators tell us that firʕawn was the title of the kings of the Amalekites,592 just as Chosroes and Caesar were titles of the kings of Persia and Roum (Ṭab. and Bayḍ. on ii, 46). It was thus recognized as a foreign word taken over into Ar (Sībawaih in Siddiqi, Studien, 20, and al-Jawālīqī, Muʕarrab, 112). / Hirschfeld, New Researches, 13, thinks that it came to Ar from Hbr, the form being due to a misreading of PRʕH as PRʕWN but there is no need to descend to such subtleties when we note that the Christian forms give us the final n. In Grk it is pharaôn, in Syr perʕūn, and in Eth [Gz] firʕon. The probabilities are that it was borrowed from Syr (Mingana, Syriac Influence, 81; Sprenger, Leben, i, 66; Horovitz, JPN, 169). / There does not seem to be any well authenticated example of the word in pre-Islamic times, for the oft quoted examples from Zuhair and Umayya are spurious.593 Sprenger has noticed the curious fact that the name does not occur in the Sūra of Joseph where we should naturally expect it, which may indicate that the name was not known to Muḥammad at the time that story was composed, or may be was not used in the sources from which he got the material for the story.« 
    ▪ Not from Ar firʕawn but, ultimately, from the same Eg etymon, is Engl pharaoh : < oEngl pharon, from Lat pharaon-is [gen.; nom. pharao ], from Grk pharaṓ, from Hbr parʕōh, from Eg per-ʕoEtymOnline 
    firʕawnī, adj., Pharaonic; al-firʕawniyyūn, n.pl., the ‘Pharaonians’, a nickname for the ‘Egypt first’ school of thought of the twenties and early thirties 
    FRĠ فرغ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FRĠ 
    “root” 
    ▪ FRĠ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FRĠ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘wasteland, space, emptiness; width; to be empty, to be unoccupied, to be free; to finish, to be devoted’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    farāġ فَراغ 
    ID 656 • Sw – • BP 1912 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FRĠ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    FRQ فرق 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FRQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ FRQ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FRQ_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FRQ_3 ‘discrimination’ ↗furqān

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to scatter, to disperse, to spread over a period of time; to separate, to distinguish, to cause to be distinct; to split; to discriminate; opening between the front teeth; group, faction’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ According to Ehret1989#37, the root is an extension in‘intensive (effect)’ *-q from a pre-protSem 2-consonantal root nucleus *PR- ‘to cut (a piece from)’ > Ar ↗*FR-. For other extensions from the same pre-protSem *PR- see ↗faraǧa (farǧ) ‘to put asunder, separate, split’, ↗farada (furūd) ‘to be single, isolated, be unique’, ↗faraza (farz) ‘to separate, set apart, secrete, select’, ↗farasa (fars) ‘to break the neck, tear the prey into pieces’, ↗faraša (farš) ‘to spread on the floor, spread out’, ↗faršaḥa, var. faršaḫa, ‘to straddle, stand with one’s legs apart’, ↗furṣaẗ ‘chance, auspicious moment; holiday’ (i.e., s.th. that comes like a ‘cut’ in normal life), ↗furḍaẗ ‘notch, incision, opening’, ↗faraṭa (farṭ) ‘to beat off, stripp off (fruits)’, ↗faraʕa (farʕ) ‘to prune a tree’, ↗farama (farm) ‘to cut small, hash’, ↗farà (fary) ‘to cut, cleave, sever’; cf. also ↗farra (firār) ‘to flee, run away’, ↗faraṭa (farṭ) ‘to escape inadvertedly, slip, get lost’, ↗faṭara (faṭr) ‘to split, cleave, break apart’, (fuṭūr) ‘to break the fast’. 
    – 
    – 
    furqān فُرْقان 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Jun2023
    √FRQ
     
    n. 
    discrimination – Jeffery1938 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q ii, 50, 181; iii, 2; viii, 29, 42; xxi, 49; xxv, 1 – Jeffery1938.
     
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »In all the passages save viii, 42, it is used as though it means some sort of a Scripture sent from God. Thus ‘We gave to Moses and Aaron the Furqān and an illumination’ (xxi, 49), and ‘We gave to Moses the Book and the Furqān’ (ii, 50), where it would seem to be the equivalent of Taurah. In iii, 2, it is associated with the Taurah and the Inǧīl, and xxv, 1, and ii, 181, make it practically the equivalent of the Qurʔān, while in viii, 29, we read, ‘if ye believe God, He will grant you a Furqān and forgive your evil deeds.’ In viii, 42, however, where the reference is to the Battle of Badr, ‘the day of the Furqān, the day when the two hosts met,’ the meaning seems something quite different. / The form of the word would suggest that it was genuine Arabic, a form fuʕlān from faraqa, and thus it is taken by the Muslim authorities. Ṭab. on ii, 50, says that ‘Scripture’ is called Furqān because God faraqa bi-hī bayna ’l-ḥaqq wa’l-bāṭil and as referring to Badr it means ‘the day when God discriminated (faraqa) between the good party and the evil’ (Rāġib, Mufradāt, 385). In this latter case it is tempting to think of Jewish influence, for in the account of Saul’s victory over the Ammonites in 1 Sam. xi, 13, where the Hbr text reads h-ywm ʕśh yhwh tšwʕh b-yśrʔl, in the Targum it reads ywmʔ dyn ʕbd yhwh pwrqnh b-yśrʔl, where ywmʔ pwrqnʔ is exactly yawm al-furqān.594 / The philologers, however, are not unanimous as to its meaning. Some took it to mean naṣr; Bayḍ. on xxi, 49, tells us that some said it meant falaq al-baḥr, and Zam. on viii, 29, collects a number of other meanings. This uncertainty and confusion is difficult to explain if we are dealing with a genuine Ar word, and is sufficient of itself to suggest that it is a borrowed term.595 / Arguing from the fact that in the majority of cases it is connected with Scriptures, Hirschfeld, New Researches, 68, would derive it from [Hbr] pᵊrāqîm, one of the technical terms for the divisions of the text of the Hbr Scriptures.596 . This, however, is rather difficult, and Margoliouth, Mohammed, 145 (but see ERE, ix, 481; x, 538), while inclining to the explanation from [Hbr] pᵊrāqîm, refers it, not to the sections of the Pentateuch, but to a book of Sayings of the Jewish Fathers, which Muḥammad heard of from the Jews, and which he may have thought of as similar to the Taurah and the Inǧīl. This theory is more probable than that of Hirschfeld and has in its favour the fact that resemblances have been noted between phrases and ideas in the Qurʔān and the well-known [Hbr] prqy ʔbwt.597 It also, however, has its difficulties, and in any case does not explain the use of the word in viii, 42. / Linguistically there is a closer equivalence in the Aram prqn ‘deliverance, redemption’, and Geiger, 56 ff.,598 suggested this as the source of the Ar word. He would see the primary meaning in viii, 29 ‘He will grant you redemption and forgive your evil deeds,’ where the Targumic pwrqnʔ would fit exactly (cf. Ps. iii, 9, etc.). Nowhere, however, is pwrqnʔ used of revelation, and Geiger is forced to explain furqān in the other passages, by assuming that Muḥammad looked upon revelation as a means of deliverance from error. / Geiger’s explanation has commended itself to many scholars,599 but Fraenkel, Vocab, 23, in mentioning Geiger’s theory, suggested the possibility of a derivation from Syr pûrqānā, a suggestion which has been very fruitfully explored by later scholars.600 Not only is pûrqānā the common word for ‘salvation’ in the Peshitta and the ecclesiastical writers (PSm, 3295), but it is the normal form in the ChrPal dialect, and has passed into the religious vocabulary of Eth [Gz] as fərqān (Nöldeke-Schwally, i, 34) and Armenian as p‘owrkan.601 It is of much wider use than the Rabbinic pwrqnʔ, but as little does it refer to revelation, so even if we agree that the borrowing was from Syr we still have the problem of the double, perhaps triple, meaning of the word in the Qurʔān. / Sprenger thought we might explain this by assuming the influence of the Ar root faraqa on the borrowed word.602 Schwally, however, has suggested that this is not necessary, as the word might well have had this double sense before Muḥammad’s time, under the influence of Christian or Jewish Messianic thought,603 and Lidzbarski, ZS, i, 91, points out that in Gnostic circles ‘Erlösung und Heil besonders durch Offenbarung vermittelt werden’.604 There is the difficulty, however, that there seems to be no evidence of the use of the word in Arabic earlier than the Qurʔān, and Bell, Origin, 118 ff., rightly insists that we must associate the use of the word for ‘revelation’ with Muḥammad himself. He links up the use of the word in the Qurʔān with the story of Moses and thinks that as in the story of Moses the deliverance was associated with the giving of the Law, so Muḥammad conceived of his Furqān as associated with the revelation of the Qurʔān. Wensinck, EI, ii, 120, would also attribute the use of the word in the sense of revelation to Muḥammad himself, but he thinks we have two distinct words used in the Qurʔān, one the Syr pûrqānā meaning ‘salvation’ or ‘deliverance’, and the other a genuine Ar word meaning ‘distinction’, which Muḥammad used for ‘revelation’ as ‘that which makes a distinction between the true and the false.’605 Finally, Horovitz, KU, 77, would make a sort of combination of all these theories, taking the word as of Syr origin, but influenced by the root faraqa and also by the Hbr prqym (cf. also JPN, 216-18). / In any case it seems clear that furqān is a word that Muḥammad himself borrowed to use as a technical term, and to whose meaning he gave his own interpretation. The source of the borrowing was doubtless the vocabulary of the Aram-speaking Christians, whether or not the word was also influenced by Judaism.«
     
    594. Lidzbarski, ZS, i, 92, notes an even closer verbal correspondence with Is. xlix, 8, where for [Hbr] w-b-ywm yšwʕh ʕzrtyk the Pesh. has [Syr] w-b-ywmʔ d-pwrqnʔ ʕdrtk.  595. This is strengthened by the fact that there are apparently no examples of its use earlier than the Qurʔān. Fleischer, Kleinere Schriften, ii, 125 ff., who opposed the theory that it is a foreign word, is compelled to admit that it was probably a coining of Muḥammad himself. See Ahrens, Christliches, 31, 32.  596. So Grimme, Mohammed, ii, 73, thinks it means ‘sections of a heavenly book’ and compares the Rabbinic pᵊraq, pirqâʰ; but see Rudolph, Abhängigkeit, 39.  597. Rudolph, Abhängigkeit, 11; Hirschfeld, Beiträge, 58.  598. So Torrey, Foundation, 48.  599. Ullmann, Der Koran (Bielefeld, 1872), p. 5; von Kremer, Ideen, 225; Sprenger, Leben, ii, 337 ff.; Pautz, Offenbarung, 81.  600. Schwally, ZDMG, Iii, 135; Knieschke, Erlosingslehre des Koran (Berlin, 1910), p. 11 ff. See also Wellhausen, ZDMG, lxvii, 633; Massignon, Lexique, 52; Mingana, Syr Influence, 85.  601. Merx, Chrestomathia Targumica, 264; Hühschmann, ZDMG, xlvi, 267; Arm Gramm., i, 318.  602. Leben, ii, 339, ‘Wenn Mohammed Forkan auch aus dem Aramäischen entnommen hat, so schwebte ihm doch die arabische Etymologie vor.’ See also Rudolph, Abhängigkeit, 39; Bell, Origin, 118; Nöldeke, Sketches, 38.  603. Nöldeke-Schwally, i, 34 : ‘in erster Linie und am wahrscheinlichsten unter Christen, in zweiter Linie in messianisch gerichteten jüdischen Kreisen.’  604. He refers, for example, to Liechtenhan’s Die Offenbarung im Gnosticismus, p. 123 ff.; but as Rudolph, Abhängigkeit, 92, points out, this idea is not confined to Gnostic circles.  605. Wensinck seems to have been unduly influenced by the theories of the native Commentators. 
    – 
    – 
    FRM فرم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FRM 
    “root” 
    ▪ FRM_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FRM_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ According to Ehret1989#37, the root is an extension in ‘fortative’ *-m from a pre-protSem 2-consonantal root nucleus *PR- ‘to cut (a piece from)’ > Ar ↗*FR-. For other extensions from the same pre-protSem *PR- see ↗faraǧa (farǧ) ‘to put asunder, separate, split’, ↗farada (furūd) ‘to be single, isolated, be unique’, ↗faraza (farz) ‘to separate, set apart, secrete, select’, ↗farasa (fars) ‘to break the neck, tear the prey into pieces’, ↗faraša (farš) ‘to spread on the floor, spread out’, ↗faršaḥa, var. faršaḫa, ‘to straddle, stand with one’s legs apart’, ↗furṣaẗ ‘chance, auspicious moment; holiday’ (i.e., s.th. that comes like a ‘cut’ in normal life), ↗furḍaẗ ‘notch, incision, opening’, ↗faraṭa (farṭ) ‘to beat off, stripp off (fruits)’, ↗faraʕa (farʕ) ‘to prune a tree’, ↗faraqa (farq) ‘to split, separate’, ↗farà (fary) ‘to cut, cleave, sever’; cf. also ↗farra (firār) ‘to flee, run away’, ↗faraṭa (farṭ) ‘to escape inadvertedly, slip, get lost’, ↗faṭara (faṭr) ‘to split, cleave, break apart’, (fuṭūr) ‘to break the fast’. 
    – 
    – 
    FRN فرن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FRN 
    “root” 
    ▪ FRN_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FRN_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    furn فُرْن 
    ID 657 • Sw – • BP 4420 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FRN 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
     
    FRNǦ فرنج 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FRNǦ 
    “root” 
    ▪ FRNǦ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FRNǦ_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ʔifranǧī إِفْرَنْجيّ 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 8Jun2023
    √FRNǦ 
    adj./n. 
    ▪ loanword, nsb-formation from ʔifranǧ 
    tafarnuǧ تَفَرْنُج 
    ID 658 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FRNǦ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
     
    FRH فره 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Apr2023
    √FRH 
    “root” 
    ▪ FRH_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FRH_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FRH_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be good-looking, be accomplished, be active’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    FRY فري 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FRY 
    “root” 
    ▪ FRY_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FRY_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to cut, to chop, to tear up; to acquire riches; to fabricate, to feign, to forge, to invent’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ According to Ehret1989#37, the root is an extension in‘inchoative (> tr.)’ *-y from a pre-protSem 2-consonantal root nucleus *PR- ‘to cut (a piece from)’ > Ar ↗*FR-. For other extensions from the same pre-protSem *PR- see ↗faraǧa (farǧ) ‘to put asunder, separate, split’, ↗farada (furūd) ‘to be single, isolated, be unique’, ↗faraza (farz) ‘to separate, set apart, secrete, select’, ↗farasa (fars) ‘to break the neck, tear the prey into pieces’, ↗faraša (farš) ‘to spread on the floor, spread out’, ↗faršaḥa, var. faršaḫa, ‘to straddle, stand with one’s legs apart’, ↗furṣaẗ ‘chance, auspicious moment; holiday’ (i.e., s.th. that comes like a ‘cut’ in normal life), ↗furḍaẗ ‘notch, incision, opening’, ↗faraṭa (farṭ) ‘to beat off, stripp off (fruits)’, ↗faraʕa (farʕ) ‘to prune a tree’, ↗faraqa (farq) ‘to split, separate’, ↗farama (farm) ‘to cut small, hash’, ↗farà (fary) ‘to cut, cleave, sever’; cf. also ↗farra (firār) ‘to flee, run away’, ↗faraṭa (farṭ) ‘to escape inadvertedly, slip, get lost’, ↗faṭara (faṭr) ‘to split, cleave, break apart’, (fuṭūr) ‘to break the fast’. 
    – 
    – 
    FZː (FZZ) فزّ/فزز 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Apr2023
    √ FZː (FZZ) 
    “root” 
    ▪ FZː (FZZ)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FZː (FZZ)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FZː (FZZ)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to unsettle, dislodge, frighten, disturb; to overcome; to ooze’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    FZʕ فزع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Apr2023
    √FZʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ FZʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FZʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FZʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be frightened, be afraid, take fright’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    FSTN فستن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FSTN 
    “root” 
    ▪ FSTN_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FSTN_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    fustān فُسْتان 
    ID 659 • Sw – • BP 6167 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FSTN 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    FSḤ فسح 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FSḪ 
    “root” 
    ▪ FSḤ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FSḤ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be wide, to be spacious, to be roomy, to make room, clear open space’ 
    ▪ From Hbr root √PSḤ ‘to pass over’ – Huehnergard2011.
    … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ For Engl Pesach and Pasch, cf. ↗fasaḥa
    – 
    fasaḥ‑ فَسَحَ , a (fasḥ
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FSḤ 
    vb., I 
    to make room, clear a space – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ From Hbr root √PSḤ ‘to pass over’ – Huehnergard2011.
    … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Pesach, from Hbr pesaḥ ‘Passover’; Pasch, from Aram pasḥā, from Hbr pesaḥ (see above); both from Hbr pāsaḥ ‘to pass over’, akin to Ar ↗fasaḥa; cf., however, also fiṣḥ
    fasuḥa, u (fusḥaẗ, fasāḥaẗ), vb. I, to be or become wide, spacious, roomy: intr.
    fassaḥa, vb. II, 1 to make wide, make spacious, widen, broaden, extend, expand; 2 to make room, clear a space: caus. of fasuḥa or denom. from fasīḥ or some other n.
    ʔafsaḥa, vb. IV, 1 to make room, clear a space; 2 to clear, open up: caus. of fasuḥa or denom. from fasīḥ or some other n.
    tafassaḥa, vb. V, 1 to be or become wide, spacious, roomy; 2 to walk, take a walk: tD-stem, intr.
    ĭnfasaḥa, vb. VII, 1 to be or become wide, spacious, roomy; 2 to extend, expand, dilate; 3 to be free, be ample (time):.

    fusḥaẗ, n.f., 1 wideness, ampleness, spaciousness, roominess; 2 extensive possibilities, ample opportunities, wide scope for action; 3 (time) margin, enough time; — 4 (pl. fusaḥ, ‑āt) free, open, or empty, space; 5 holidays, vacation; 6 walk, promenade, stroll, ride, drive, outing, excursion:…
    fasḥaẗ, n.f., pl. ‑āt, 1 (eg.) anteroom, vestibule, hallway, entrance hall; 2 (eg., also syr.) open space between houses; 3 courtyard:…
    BP#4091fasīḥ, n., pl. fisāḥ, wide, ample, spacious, roomy, broad:.
    ĭnfisāḥ, n., 1 wideness, ampleness; 2 extension, expansion, dilation: vn. VII.
    munfasaḥ, n., 1 wideness, ampleness; 2 plane, surface: n.loc. VII. 

    FSḪ فسخ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FSḪ 
    “root” 
    ▪ FSḪ_1 ‘to lose colour, fade’ ↗fasiḫa
    ▪ FSḪ_2 ‘to dislocate, disjoint, tear; to abolish, dissolve’ ↗fasaḫa
    ▪ FSḪ_3 ‘(EgAr) salted fish’ ↗fasīḫ
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Are FSḪ_1 and FSḪ_2 related to each other? ( ‘to lose colour’ = result of being ‘torn apart, disjointed’?)
    ▪ FSḪ_3 probably dependent on FSḪ_1 (fish that ‘loses colour’, during the process of fermentation) or on FSḪ_2 (fish that ‘dissolves’ or is ‘torn apart’). 
    – 
    – 
    FSD فسد 
    Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | created 8Jun2023
    √FSD 
    “root” 
    ▪ FSD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FSD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FSD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to corrupt, spoil, decay, fall into disorder, be perverted, be wicked; to make trouble’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    fasād فَساد 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 1215 • APD … • © SG | created 8Jun2023
    √FSD 
    n. 
    ▪ vn., I 
    fasiḫ‑ فَسِخَ , a (fasaḫ
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FSḪ 
    vb., I 
    to lose color; to fade (color) – WehrCowan1979. 
    Orel&Stolbova1994 suggest: < Sem *pašaḫ‑ ‘to be bad, be spoilt’ < AfrAs *fosaḫ‑ ‘to be bad’. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Cf. ↗fasaḫa
    ▪ Related to ↗fasaḫa ‘to dislocate, disjoint, tear; to abolish, dissolve’ ?
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#820: AfrAs *fosaḫ ‘be bad’ > Sem *pašaḫ‑ ‘be bad, be spoilt’: Sem *‑a‑ in the first syllable is a regular reflex of Sem *‑u‑ < AfrAs *‑o‑. A cognate in WCh *fwas‑ (from 1 fwaš) ‘bad’. – AfrAs *fosaḫ related to AfrAs *fus‑ ‘be angry’.
    ▪ See also ↗FSḪ 
    – 
    fasīḫ, n., (eg.) small salted fish: ↗s.v..
    fassaḫa, vb. II, (Eg.) to salt (fish): denom. from ↗fasīḫ.

    For other meanings ↗fasaḫa.
     

    fasaḫ‑ فَسَخَ , a (fasḫ
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FSḪ 
    vb., I 
    to dislocate, disjoint, luxate, put out of joint (a limb); to sever, sunder, tear; (jur.) to cancel, abolish, rescind, revoke, abrogate, annul, nullify, invalidate, dissolve, void, vacate – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ BDB1906: Hbr pāšaḥ Pi, Aram Syr pᵊšaḥ, Syr pašaḥ ‘to tear in pieces’. 
    ▪ Related to ↗fasiḫa ‘to lose color, fade’ ?
    ▪ See also ↗FSḪ 
    – 
    fassaḫa, vb. II, to tear to pieces, tear apart, lacerate, mangle: ints. of I. – For another meaning ↗fasīḫ.
    tafassaḫa, vb. V, to break up into fragments, fall apart, disintegrate: intr. of II.
    ĭnfasaḫa, vb. VII, (jur.) to be canceled, abolished, rescinded, revoked, abrogated, annulled, nullified, invalidated, dissolved, voided, vacated: pass. of I.

    fasḫ, n., (jur.) cancellation, abolishment, abolition, rescission, revocation, abrogation, annulment, nullification, invalidation, diasolving, voiding, vacating: lexicalized vn. I. – Lane vi 1877: »In the traditional language of the philosophers, al-fasḫ signifies the transmigration of the rational soul of a human being from his body to (some one of) the inanimate, not increasing, bodies, such as the minerals, or metals, and the simple elements, or to a plant [sources given].«
    fasḫī, adj., abolitionary, revocatory, abrogative, nullifying: nsb-adj from fasḫ.
    fasḫaẗ, n.f., (wood) splinter, chip, sliver:.
    mutafassiḫ, adj., degenerate(d): PA V.

    For other items of √FṢḤ cf. ↗fasiḫa and ↗fasīḫ.
     

    fasīḫ فَسيخ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FSḪ 
    n. 
    (EgAr) small salted fish – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ »Fesikh […] is a traditional Egyptian fish dish consisting of fermented salted and dried gray mullet, of the mugil family, a saltwater fish that lives in both the Mediterranean and the Red Seas. Fesikh is eaten during the Sham el-Nessim [↗šamma, ↗nasīm ] festival, which is a spring celebration from ancient times in Egypt. – The traditional process of preparing Fesikh is to dry the fish in the sun before preserving it in salt. The process of is quite elaborate, passing from father to son in certain families. The occupation has a special name in Egypt, fasakhani [fasaḫānī ]. Egyptians in the West have used whitefish as an alternative. Each year food poisoning tales involving incorrectly prepared fesikh appear in Egyptian periodicals. […]«116 – Usually eaten with eggs, onion and vegetables.117
    ▪ Properly, an item (fish) ‘whose colour has faded’ (during the process of fermentation), or that ‘has desintegrated, degenerated, fallen apart’? 
    ▪ … 
    See ↗FSḪ, ↗fasiḫa, ↗fasaḫa
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    fassaḫa, vb. II, (Eg.) to salt (fish): denom. – For other meanings ↗fasaḫa.

    For other items of √FṢḤ cf. ↗fasiḫa and ↗fasīḫ.
     

    FSR فسر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FSR 
    “root” 
    ▪ FSR_1 ‘…’ ↗, ‘explanation, interpretation’ ↗tafsīr
    ▪ FSR_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to explain, to interpret, to explicate, to elucidate’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    tafsīr تَفْسِير 
    ID 660 • Sw – • BP 1999 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FSR 
    n. 
    explanation, interpretation – Jeffery1938.
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q xxv, 35 – Jeffery1938.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »The exegetes naturally take it as the verbal noun from fassara ‘to explain’, form II of fasara ‘to discover something hidden’. Fraenkel, Fremdw, 286, however, thinks that in this technical sense fassara is a borrowing from the Syr pšr ‘to expound, make clear’, which is very commonly used in early Syr texts in the sense of ‘interpretation of Scripture’. This sense of ‘to solve, interpret’ from the Aram pīšar, Syr pᵊšar ‘to dissolve’ seems a peculiar development of meaning in Aram, and Hbr pēšär is a loan-word from Aram pišrā, so that Arab fassara is doubtless of the same origin,606 and tafassara and tafsīr were later formed from this borrowed verb. / Halevy, JA, viiᵉ sér., vol. x, p. 412, thinks that he finds the word ʔfsr ‘interpreter’ in the Safaite inscriptions, which, if correct, would point to the pre-Islamic use of the root in this sense in NArabia.«
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    FSQ فسق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21Apr2023
    √FSQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ FSQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FSQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FSQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘the old expression fasaqat il-ruṭabaẗu ‘the fresh, ripe-soft date emerged out of its skin’, is often quoted as an illustration for the central meaning of this root, namely, s.th. coming forth from another mainly in a bad or corrupt manner. The Qur’an extends the original meaning to include the concept of acting outside moral and social norms in general and violating Islamic teachings in particular. Certain actions of Muslims, as well as non-Muslims, are described as fisq. All actions described as kufr (q.v.) can also be described as fisq, but not vice versa (see širk). Fisq is used to describe actions widely ranging from those as drastic as denying God, to much lesser ones such as eyeing up a woman lecherously. Other derivative meanings include ‘disobedience’, ‘breaking away from social norms’ and ‘deserting the community’. 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    FŠL فشل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21Apr2023
    √FŠL 
    “root” 
    ▪ FŠL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FŠL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FŠL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be weak, be lazy; to be faint-hearted, be cowardly; to fail’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    FṢː (FṢṢ) فصّ / فصص 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FṢː (FṢṢ) 
    “root” 
    ▪ FṢː (FṢṢ)_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FṢː (FṢṢ)_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    faṣṣ فَصّ , var. fuṣṣ , fiṣṣ , pl. fuṣūṣ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FṢː (FṢṢ) 
    n. 
    stone of a ring; clove (of garlic); segment (of an orange); lobe (anat., bot.); joint – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    According to Ehret1989:177, the root has preserved the original biconsonantal *PṢ ‘to take out’. In other cases, the original root has been extended, cf., for instance, (iterative) faṣfaṣ ‘to separate, disperse’, (iterative) faṣḥ ‘to break forth and shine in full splendor’ (↗faṣaḥa), (durative) faṣd ‘to bleed’ (↗faṣada), (sunderative) faṣʕ ‘to press the fresh date to make it come out of the shell, so take or scrape off the shell of an almond, put off the turban’, (finitive) faṣl ‘to cut off and separate one thing from another, detach, distinguish between’ (↗faṣala), (fortative) faṣm ‘to cut, break’ (↗faṣama), (inchoative > tr.) faṣy ‘to separate, loosen, dismiss, set free’ (↗tafaṣṣà). 
    – 
    faṣṣaṣa, vb. II, to pod, shell, peel (e.g., peas, beans); to section, divide into pieces (e.g., an orange); to divide, split up (a subject material); to give a detailed outline of s.th.: denominative 
    FṢḤ فصح 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FṢḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ FṢḤ_1 ‘to be clear, good, pure (Arabic); to be eloquent’ ↗faṣuḥa (with ↗faṣāḥaẗ, ↗faṣīḥ, ↗fuṣḥà)
    ▪ FṢḤ_2 ‘Passover; Easter’ ↗fiṣḥ

    Other values, now obsolete, include:
    • FṢḤ_3 ‘milk divested of the froth’ : fiṣḥ (Lane1877)
    • FṢḤ_4 ‘breaking of the dawn light’ : faṣḥ (Lane1877)

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘1 breaking of the dawn light; 2 to be eloquent, express o.s. clearly’ 
    ▪ While the notion of ‘clarity, purity’ and ‘eloquence’ (FṢḤ_1) probably goes back to that of ‘milk divested of the froth’ (FṢḤ_3) or the ‘breaking of the dawn light’ (FṢḤ_4), which with all likelihood are akin to each other (sharing the idea of clarity, brightness, and/or purity), the word for the Jewish ‘Passover’ and Christian ‘Easter’ (FṢḤ_2) seems to be the result of regressive assimilation ( < s before ) after borrowing from Hbr, either directly or via Syr peṣḥā, so that, etymologically, fiṣḥ should be arranged sub radice ↗FSḤ rather than √FṢḤ; due to its origin in Hbr pāsaḥ ‘to pass over, spring over’, it is, properly spoken, closer to Ar ↗fusḥaẗ ‘walk, promenade, stroll, ride, drive, outing, excursion’ than to the idea of purity (FṢḤ) with which it obviously became associated, given the homonymity of the roots after the change from s to .
    ▪ FṢḤ_4: faṣḥ ‘breaking of the dawn light’ and the corresponding vb. I, faṣaḥa, a (faṣḥ), ‘to appear in all its splendour (dawn)’, belong with all probability together with FṢḤ_3 *‘to be divested of the froth (milk)’, and, hence, FṢḤ_1 ‘to use clear language, be eloquent’. The Sem evidence suggests that this, rather than ‘purity’, is the primary value. 
    – 
    ▪ See above, section CONC. For details:
    ▪ FṢḤ_1 : see ↗faṣuḥa
    ▪ FṢḤ_2 : see ↗fiṣḥ and (with non-emphatic s) ↗fasaḥa, ↗FSḤ. 
    ▪ See above, section CONC. For details:
    ▪ FṢḤ_1 : see ↗faṣuḥa
    ▪ FṢḤ_2 : see ↗fiṣḥ and (with non-emphatic s) ↗fasaḥa, ↗FSḤ. 
    – 
    – 
    faṣuḥ‑ فَصُحَ , u (faṣāḥaẗ
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FṢḤ 
    vb., I 
    to be eloquent – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ »The root FṢḤ is very ancient and is found in other Sem langs. […] In some Sem langs, FṢḤ is explicitly associated with something clear, or bright: in [Akk] Ass, piṣū signifies ‘pure; bright’; in Aram, paṣṣiḥ signifies ‘pure; radiant’. In C7 Ar the notion refers to s.th. pure, faultless, unaltered (faṣḥ). The vb. ʔafṣaḥa means ‘to become limpid [urine]; to be skimmed of its froth [milk]’; it refers to clearness, to the dazzling morning light (ʔafṣaḥa ’l-ṣubḥu), and to a horse or donkey whose whinnying or braying is clear (ʔafṣaḥa ’l-farasu wa’l-baʕāru). Linguistically, faṣuḥa wa-ʔafṣaḥa ’l-raǧulu refers to an enunciation both pure and clear. This seems to be the best match for classical texts, with the notion of ‘correctness’ added. It is also the meaning retained by Blachère (1952: I,119) when he translates the expression fuṣaḥāʔ al-ʕArab as ‘the Arabs with pure and correct speaking’. According to al-Suyūṭī (d. 911/1505), the linguistic usage is a metaphor derived from the concrete meaning of the word. In ClassAr, it implies at the same time correctness of language and its aesthetic quality« – art. »faṣāḥa« (Georgine Ayoub), in EALL.
    ▪ According to Ehret1989, the root is derived from a bi-consonantal *PṢ ‘to take out’ through extension in iterative *-ḥ
    ▪ Hava1899 still lists some values of FṢḤ that seem to have become obsolete during C20. Particularly interesting is the differentiation between two G-stems, namely I faṣaḥa, a (faṣḥ), ‘to appear in all its splendour (dawn)’, and II faṣuḥa, u (faṣāḥaẗ), ‘to be pure, without froth (milk); to use good, clear language; to be eloquent’ (cf. also faṣḥ and faṣīḥ, adj., ‘pure, without froth (milk); chaste in speech, eloquent’; tafaṣṣaḥa, vb. V, ‘to speak clearly, eloquently’; tafāṣaḥa fī kalāmi-hī, vb. VI, expr., ‘he made a show of eloquence’). All notions—that of purity of milk, clarity of language, and appearing brightly at dawn—converge in vb. IV, ʔafṣaḥa, which today is used mostly in the meaning ‘to express o.s. in flawless literary Arabic; to speak clearly, distinctly, intelligibly; to express, state clearly, declare outright, speak openly, frankly’, but in Hava1899 still also is listed with the meanings ‘to appear (dawn)’ and ‘to be pure, without froth (milk); to yield pure milk’. 
    ▪ Zammit2002, CAD: Akk peṣû (paṣiu, paṣû) ‘white, pale, bleached; cleared, emptied (of vegetation, obstructions, etc., said of plots of land)’, peṣû (paṣû) ‘to become white, to pale’, Aram pᵉṣaḥ ‘to sparkle, be bright’, Syr pᵉṣaḥ ‘to rejoice’, (af.) ‘to make bright, serene, [Goschen-Gottstein1970:] glad, happy, (eṯp.) to be happy’, Ar ʔafṣaḥᵘ ‘more eloquent’ (ḫulūṣ fī šayʔ wa-naqāʔ min al-šawb). 
    ▪ Denominative from fiṣḥ ‘milk divested of the froth’ (Lane, following ClassAr authors)? The meaning referring to speech seems to be secondary, as ClassAr authors already suggested – Lane VI (1877). The Sem (Akk, Aram) evidence, however, would rather point to a primary meaning of ‘to be white, pale, clear, bright, dazzling’, the only direct reflex of which in MSA is the PA IV, mufṣiḥ, in the meaning ‘cloudless, sunny, bright (day)’.
    ▪ Ar ↗fiṣḥ ‘Easter; Passover’ does not seem to be etymologically related, neither to faṣaḥa, a (faṣḥ), ‘to appear in all its splendour (dawn)’, nor to faṣuḥa, u (faṣāḥaẗ), ‘to be pure, without froth (milk); to use good, clear language; to be eloquent’. Any interpretation of fiṣḥ as *‘feast of purity’ is secondary, resulting from the merging of Aram PṢḤ / Ar FṢḤ (from Hbr PSḤ) with an earlier Aram PṢḤ / Ar FṢḤ (from Sem *PṢḤ), due to regressive assimilation after borrowing from Hbr.
    ▪ According to Ehret1989:177, the root is an extension in iterative *-ḥ from a biconsonantal *PṢ ‘to take out’, originally meaning ‘to break forth and shine in full splendor’. Other derivations from the same *PṢ : faṣṣ ‘to separate, detach, pull out from’ (↗faṣṣ), (iterative) faṣfaṣ ‘to separate, disperse’, (durative) faṣd ‘to bleed’ (↗faṣada), (sunderative) faṣʕ ‘to press the fresh date to make it come out of the shell, so take or scrape off the shell of an almond, put off the turban’, (finitive) faṣl ‘to cut off and separate one thing from another, detach, distinguish between’ (↗faṣala), (fortative) faṣm ‘to cut, break’ (↗faṣama), (inchoative > tr.) faṣy ‘to separate, loosen, dismiss, set free’ (↗tafaṣṣà).
     
    – 
    faṣṣaḥa, vb. II, to bring (the language) into literary form, make (the language) correct Arabic, purify (the language): D-stem, caus., denom. from faṣīḥ, faṣāḥaẗ, etc.
    ʔafṣaḥa, vb. IV, 1 to express o.s. in flawless literary Arabic; 2 to speak clearly, distinctly, intelligibly; 3 to give expression (ʕan to), express, state clearly, declare outright, make plain, speak openly, frankly (ʕan about); 4 to orient, inform (li‑ s.o. ʕan about); 5 to become clear, plain, distinct: denom., from faṣīḥ, faṣāḥaẗ, etc. — 6fiṣḥ.
    tafaṣṣaḥa, vb. V, to affect eloquence, affect mastery of the language: tD-stem.
    tafāṣaḥa, vb. VI, = V.

    faṣīḥ pl. fuṣaḥāʔᵘ, fiṣāḥ, fuṣuḥ, adj., 1 pure, good Arabic (language), literary; 2 skillful in using the correct literary language; 3 clear, plain, distinct, intelligible (language, speech); 4 fluent, eloquent: quasi-PP, adj. formation.
    faṣāḥaẗ, n.f., 1 purity of the language; 2 fluency, eloquence: vn. I.
    ʔafṣaḥᵘ, f. fuṣḥà, adj., 1 of purer language; 2 more eloquent: elat. | (al-ʕarabiyyaẗ, al-luġaẗ) al-fuṣḥà, adj./n. f., classical Arabic.
    ʔifṣāḥ, n., 1 flawless literary Arabic style; 2 frank statement, open word (ʕan about), open declaration: vn. IV.
    mufṣiḥ, adj., 1 clear, plain, distinct, intelligible; 2 cloudless, sunny, bright (day): PA IV; [v2] shows the closest affinity to what may be the etymon proper, namely faṣaḥa, a (faṣḥ), ‘to appear in all its splendour (dawn)’.

    fiṣḥ, faṣḥ n., pl. fuṣūḥ, 1 Easter (Chr.); 2 Pesach, Passover (Jud.): interpreted by some as belonging together with faṣuḥa; but this is probably wrong, cf. ↗fiṣḥ, incl. deriv. ʔafṣaḥa, vb. IV, 1 to celebrate Easter (Chr.); 2 to celebrate Passover (Jud.). 

    faṣīḥ فَصِيح , pl. fuṣaḥāʔᵘ , fiṣāḥ , fuṣuḥ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FṢḤ 
    adj. 
    1 pure, good Arabic (language), literary; 2 skillful in using the correct literary language; 3 clear, plain, distinct, intelligible (language, speech); 4 fluent, eloquent – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Morphologically a FaʕīL adj. denoting the intense presence of a quality in s.th., the word probably is ultimately from the now obsolete fiṣḥ ‘milk divested of the froth’ or faṣḥ ‘breaking of the dawn light’, see ↗faṣuḥa and, for the whole picture, ↗FṢḤ. 
    ▪ … 
    faṣuḥa
    faṣuḥa
    ▪ Tu fasih: 1330 ʕĀşıḳ Paşa, Ġarīb-nāme : ten dili vü cān dili eytdi faṣīḥ – Nişanyan22Apr2015. 
    faṣṣaḥa, vb. II, to bring (the language) into literary form, make (the language) correct Arabic, purify (the language): D-stem, caus., denom. from faṣīḥ or ↗faṣāḥaẗ.
    ʔafṣaḥa, vb. IV, 1 to express o.s. in flawless literary Arabic; 2 to speak clearly, distinctly, intelligibly; 3 to give expression (ʕan to), express, state clearly, declare outright, make plain, speak openly, frankly (ʕan about); 4 to orient, inform (li‑ s.o. ʕan about); 5 to become clear, plain, distinct: denom., from faṣīḥ or ↗faṣāḥaẗ. — 6fiṣḥ.
    ʔafṣaḥᵘ, f. fuṣḥà, adj., 1 of purer language; 2 more eloquent: elat. | (al-ʕarabiyyaẗ, al-luġaẗ) al-fuṣḥà, adj./n. f., classical Arabic.
    ʔifṣāḥ, n., 1 flawless literary Arabic style; 2 frank statement, open word (ʕan about), open declaration: vn. IV.
    mufṣiḥ, adj., 1 clear, plain, distinct, intelligible; 2 cloudless, sunny, bright (day): PA IV; [v2] shows the closest affinity to what may be the etymon proper, namely faṣaḥa, a (faṣḥ), ‘to appear in all its splendour (dawn)’. 
    faṣāḥaẗ فَصاحَة 
    ID 661 • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FṢḤ 
    n.f. 
    1 purity of the language; 2 fluency, eloquence – WehrCowan1979. 
    Vn. of faṣuḥa ‘to be eloquent’, ultimately from the now obsolete fiṣḥ ‘milk divested of the froth’ or faṣḥ ‘breaking of the dawn light’, see ↗faṣuḥa and, for the whole picture, ↗FṢḤ.
     
    ▪ … 
    faṣuḥa
    faṣuḥa
    – 
    faṣṣaḥa, vb. II, to bring (the language) into literary form, make (the language) correct Arabic, purify (the language): D-stem, caus., denom. from faṣāḥaẗ or ↗faṣīḥ.
    ʔafṣaḥa, vb. IV, 1 to express o.s. in flawless literary Arabic; 2 to speak clearly, distinctly, intelligibly; 3 to give expression (ʕan to), express, state clearly, declare outright, make plain, speak openly, frankly (ʕan about); 4 to orient, inform (li‑ s.o. ʕan about); 5 to become clear, plain, distinct: denom., from faṣāḥaẗ or ↗faṣīḥ. — 6fiṣḥ.
    tafaṣṣaḥa, vb. V, to affect eloquence, affect mastery of the language: tD-stem.
    tafāṣaḥa, vb. VI, = V.

    ʔifṣāḥ, n., 1 flawless literary Arabic style; 2 frank statement, open word (ʕan about), open declaration: vn. IV.
    mufṣiḥ, adj., 1 clear, plain, distinct, intelligible; 2 cloudless, sunny, bright (day): PA IV; [v2] shows the closest affinity to what may be the etymon proper, namely faṣaḥa, a (faṣḥ), ‘to appear in all its splendour (dawn)’. 

    fuṣḥà فُصْحَى 
    ID … • Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FṢḤ 
    adj., elat., f. 
    al-fuṣḥà, short for al-luġaẗ ʕarabiyyaẗ al-fuṣḥà or al-ʕarabiyyaẗ al-fuṣḥà or al-luġaẗ al-fuṣḥà : classical Arabic – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Morphologically, fuṣḥà is the f. of the m. adj. ʔafṣaḥᵘ ‘of purer/purest language; more/most eloquent’, elat. of ↗faṣīḥ ‘pure, good Arabic (language), literary; skillful in using the correct literary language; clear, plain, distinct, intelligible (language, speech); fluent, eloquent’, which, probably, ultimately goes back to a now obsolete fiṣḥ ‘milk divested of the froth’. Used as a n., al-fuṣḥà is short for al-luġaẗ al-fuṣḥà, al-ʕarabiyyaẗ al-fuṣḥà, or al-luġaẗ al-ʕarabiyyaẗ al-fuṣḥà ‘classical Arabic’, lit. *‘the purest, most eloquent Arabic language’. (↗luġaẗ, ↗ʕarab).
    ▪ »It is quite startling to see how pervasive and still prevalent the exaltation and professing of fuṣḥà as the sole unifying force of an otherwise politically and economically divided Arab world is, and how allegiance to ‘perfect’ fuṣḥà (fuṣḥà salīmaẗ) continues to be constructed as allegiance to the unity of the Arab world, its glorious Golden Age and magnificent heritage, when allegiance to any alliance or unity in the rest of the world is based on economic interests and political ties.« – art. »Diglossia« (N.B. Omar), in EALL.
    ▪ »It is now generally agreed that the fuṣḥà and the dialects represent the end points of a variation continuum (Badawī 1973; Holes 1995; Versteegh 1997), but it is worth pointing out that, in the native linguistic-cum -intellectual tradition, little recognition is accorded to the taxonomies Western Arabists use to describe the diachronic variability of the language.« – art. »ʕArabiyyat« (unspecified author), in EALL
    ▪ eC7 ʔafṣaḥᵘ (more/most able to express o.s., more/most eloquent) Q 28:34 wa-ʔaḫī Hārūnu huwa ʔafṣaḥu min-nī lisānan ‘and my brother Aaron is more eloquent than I in speech’ 
    faṣuḥa
    See above, section CONC, and ↗faṣuḥa
    – 
    – 
    fiṣḥ فِصْح , var. faṣḥ , pl. fuṣūḥ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FṢḤ 
    n. 
    1 Easter (Chr.); 2 Pesach, Passover (Jud.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ One may be tempted to connect Ar fiṣḥ ‘Pessach, Passover; Easter’ with ↗faṣuḥa, u (faṣāḥaẗ), today mostly meaning ‘to use good, clear language; to be eloquent’, but earlier also ‘to be pure, without froth (milk)’, and interpret it fiṣḥ ‘Pesach, Easter’ as a *‘feast of purity’. This, however, is secondary and the result of a root merger that made both (Aram) PṢḤ and Ar FṢḤ into homonymous roots. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ BDB1906, CAD: (? Akk pašāḫu ‘peace, tranquillity; to be at rest, become tranquil, act benevolently, relent, abate, settle’, puššuḫu ‘to calm, soothe, heal, relax, restore’, pašḫu ‘soothing’), Hbr pā̈saḥ ‘Passover’, pāsaḥ ‘to pass over, spring over’, Syr peṣḥā ‘Passover’. 
    ▪ Listed separately in WehrCowan1979, but seen as belonging to the same theme of ‘purity’ as ↗faṣuḥa by Ayoub (EALL, “faṣīḥ”). Variant vowelling (fiṣḥ ~ faṣḥ) indicates that it is a loan.
    ▪ Either directly from Hbr pā̈saḥ ‘Passover’ or indirectly, via Syr peṣḥā, which seems more likely for phonological reasons. Compared to Hbr pā̈saḥ, both Syr and Ar show forms with regressive assimilation of *-s- to -ṣ- due to following emphatic -ḥ. A reading of the Jewish Pessach not being a festival of ‘passing over’ (FSḤ) but of ‘purity’ (FṢḤ) is probably secondary. The original relation with Ar ↗fasaḥa would then have been forgotten, or ignored, in order to connect the feast to faṣuḥa.607
    ▪ Acc. to Lane,608 an alternative name for the Passover, besides fiṣḥ, is al-fāsiḫ .
    ▪ However, should Ar fiṣḥ reflect original terminology, then Pessach would be, originally, not a feast of passing over but one of (ritual?) purity. Given the fact that the sacrifice rituals point to a Nomadic tradition of spring sacrifices—as does also Passover’s Islamic counterpart, the ↗ʕumraẗ (also called ‘smaller ḥaǧǧ ’)—, a relation of Pessach to FṢḤ rather than to FSḤ should not be prematurely excluded. 
    ▪ Not from Ar fiṣḥ, but from the same Hbr etymon are Engl Pesach ‘Passover’ and the old word for ‘Easter’, Pasch(e) (eC12), paschal ‘of or pertaining to Easter’, eC15, from oFr paschal (C12) and directly from lLat paschalis, from pascha ‘Passover, Easter’, from Grk pásχa ‘Passover’, from Aram pasḥā ‘pass over’, corresponding to Hbr pā̈saḥ, from pāsaḥ ‘to pass over’ – Huehnergard 2011, EtymOnline . — Cf. also Fr Pâques, It Pasqua, Span Pascua, Port Páscoa, Russ Pasxa, No påske, etc. 
    ʔafṣaḥa, vb. IV, 1 to celebrate Easter (Chr.); 2 to celebrate Passover (Jud.): denom. — 3 For other values see section DERIV in entry ↗faṣuḥa
    FṢD فصد 
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    √FṢD 
    “root” 
    ▪ FṢD_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FṢD_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    faṣad‑ فَصَدَ , i (faṣd , fiṣād
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FṢD 
    vb., I 
    to open a vein; to bleed, perform a venesection – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    According to Ehret1989:177, the root is an extension in durative *‑d from a biconsonantal *PṢ ‘to take out’. Other derivations from the same *PṢ : faṣṣ ‘to separate, detach, pull out from’ (↗faṣṣ), (iterative) faṣfaṣ ‘to separate, disperse’, (iterative) faṣḥ ‘to break forth and shine in full splendor’ (↗faṣaḥa), (sunderative) faṣʕ ‘to press the fresh date to make it come out of the shell, so take or scrape off the shell of an almond, put off the turban’, (finitive) faṣl ‘to cut off and separate one thing from another, detach, distinguish between’ (↗faṣala), (fortative) faṣm ‘to cut, break’ (↗faṣama), (inchoative > tr.) faṣy ‘to separate, loosen, dismiss, set free’ (↗tafaṣṣà). 
    – 
    tafaṣṣada, vb. V, to drip (e.g., the face, ʕaraqan with perspiration):.
    ĭnfaṣada, vb. VII, to be bled, undergo a venesection; to bleed (nose)
    faṣd opening of a vein, bloodletting, venesection, phlebotomy
    fiṣād opening of a vein, bloodletting, venesection, phlebotomy
    fiṣādaẗ pl. faṣāʔidᵘ bloodletting, venesection, phlebotomy | ʔabū f. (eg.) wagtail (zool.)
    mifṣad, pl. mafāṣidᵘ lancet 
    FṢL فصل 
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    √FṢL 
    “root” 
    ▪ FṢL_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FṢL_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘distance between two objects, barrier, separation, to separate, to disjoint; elucidation; adjudication, judgement; discrimination; meaning; piece; clan’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    faṣal‑ فَصَلَ , i (faṣl
    ID … • Sw – • BP 1915 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FṢL 
    vb., I 
    to separate, part, divide, disjoin, divorce, cut off, detach, set apart, segregate; to separate (bayna two things or persons); to isolate; to cut, sever, sunder, interrupt; to discharge, dismiss, fire, sack, expel (min, ʕan from an office), relieve, divest), cashier; to decide (a controversy, a case; jur.), make a decision, render judgment ( in, about, with respect to); to fix the price (for s.th.); — (fiṣāl) to wean (ʕan al-raḍāʕ the infant from sucking); — faṣala u (fuṣūl) to go away, depart, move away, leave, pull out (ʕan or min of a place) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    According to Ehret1989:177, the root is an extension in finitive *‑l from a biconsonantal *PṢ ‘to take out’, originally meaning ‘to cut off and separate one thing from another, detach, distinguish between’. Other derivations from the same *PṢ : faṣṣ ‘to separate, detach, pull out from’ (↗faṣṣ), (iterative) faṣfaṣ ‘to separate, disperse’, (iterative) faṣḥ ‘to break forth and shine in full splendor’ (↗faṣaḥa), (durative) faṣd ‘to bleed’ (↗faṣada), (sunderative) faṣʕ ‘to press the fresh date to make it come out of the shell, so take or scrape off the shell of an almond, put off the turban’, (fortative) faṣm ‘to cut, break’ (↗faṣama), (inchoative > tr.) faṣy ‘to separate, loosen, dismiss, set free’ (↗tafaṣṣà). 
    – 
    faṣṣala, vb. II, to divide into particular sections, arrange in sections, group, classify, categorize; to present in logical order, set forth in detail, detail, particularize: denominative from ↗faṣl ‘section, part, chapter’; to make (s.th.) clear, plain, distinct: caus.; to make to measure, cut out (a garment):.
    fāṣala, vb. III, to separate o.s., dissociate o.s., be separated, part company with; to haggle, bargain (ʕalà for):.
    ĭnfaṣala, vb. VII, to come off (e.g., a wheel); to separate o.s., disengage o.s., dissociate o.s., segregate, secede (ʕan from); to be separated, disjoined, detached, removed, set aside, cut off (ʕan from), be interrupted; to be discharged, dismissed, fired, sacked, cashiered; to retire, resign (min or ʕan from an office), be relieved, be divested; to quit, leave (min or ʕan a political party, and the like):.
    BP#1377faṣl, n., parting, disjunction, detachment, severance, sunderance, cutting off; separation; division, partition; discharge, dismissal (min or ʕan from an office); decision, (rendering of) judgment: vn. I; — BP#1856(pl. fuṣūl) section, part; chapter; act (theat.; pol., esp of a hostile or mean sort); movement (of a symphony, etc.); article (in a newspaper); class, grade (school); season: lexicalized vn. I.
    faṣlaẗ, n.f., comma:. | f. manqūṭaẗ semicolon:.
    fiṣlaẗ, n.f., offprint, reprint:.
    faṣīl, n., pl. fiṣāl, fuṣlān young (weaned) camel: nominalized pass.adj.
    faṣīlaẗ, n.f., pl. faṣāʔilᵘ genus, species, family (bot., and the like); detachment, squad; group, cell (pol.); BP#2474platoon, squadron (of heavy arms; mil.):. | f. dam blood group; f. al-ʔiʕdām firing squad, execution squad; f. al-istikšāf reconnaissance squad, patrol:.
    fayṣal, n., decisive criterion; arbitrator, arbiter:.
    fayṣaliyyaẗ, n.f., “Faisal cap", Iraqi field cap (formerly, Ir.): from (King) Fayṣal.
    BP#4333mafṣil, n., pl. mafāṣilᵘ joint, articulation: n.loc.
    mafṣilī, adj., articular: nsb-adj from mafṣil.
    BP#1112tafṣīl, n., detailed statement, elaborate or minute exposition, particularization, detailing; elaborateness, minuteness, completeness of detail; cutting out, cut (of a garment): vn. II; (pl. ‑āt, tafāṣīlᵘ) detail, particular: lexicalized vn. II.
    tafṣīlī, adj., detailed, minute, particular, elaborate; analytic(al): nsb-adj from tafṣīl.
    BP#4298ĭnfiṣāl, n., separation; disengagement, dissociation, withdrawal; secession; interruption: vn. VII. | ḥarb al-ĭ. the American Civil War; ʔanṣār al-ĭ. separatist:.
    ĭnfiṣālī, adj., separatistic; (pl. ‑ūn) separatist: nsb-adj from ĭnfiṣāl.
    ĭnfiṣāliyyaẗ, n.f., separatism: n.abstr. from ĭnfiṣāl.
    BP#2910fāṣil, adj., separatory, separating, parting, dividing; isolating, insulating; decisive, crucial; conclusive: PA; n., separation, partition, diviaton, interruption: nominalized PA. | ḫaṭṭ f. demarcation line:.
    fāṣilaẗ, n.f., pl. fawāṣilᵘ partition, division; interstice, interspace, interval; comma; O dash (punctuation mark); end, rhyme of a Koranic verse: nominalized PA.f.
    mufaṣṣal, adj., set forth or described minutely, elaborately or in great detail, detailed, minute, elaborate, circumstantial; tailor-made, custom-made: PP II.
    mufaṣṣalaẗ, n.f., pl. ‑āt hinge: lexicalized nominalized PP.f.
    BP#4000munfaṣil, adj., separate, detached: PA VII. 
    FṢM فصم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FṢM 
    “root” 
    ▪ FṢM_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FṢM_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to crack, to subside, to split without completely separating, (of a house) to collapse; (of rain) to abate, (of a favour) to be withdrawn’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    faṣam‑ فَصَمَ , i (faṣm
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FṢM 
    vb., I 
    to cause to crack, crack (s.th.); to split, cleave; pass. fuṣima to be destroyed (house) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    According to Ehret1989:177, the root is an extension in fortative *‑m from a biconsonantal *PṢ ‘to take out’, originally meaning ‘to cut, break’. Other derivations from the same *PṢ : faṣṣ ‘to separate, detach, pull out from’ (↗faṣṣ), (iterative) faṣfaṣ ‘to separate, disperse’, (iterative) faṣḥ ‘to break forth and shine in full splendor’ (↗faṣaḥa), (durative) faṣd ‘to bleed’ (↗faṣada), (sunderative) faṣʕ ‘to press the fresh date to make it come out of the shell, so take or scrape off the shell of an almond, put off the turban’, (finitive) faṣl ‘to cut off and separate one thing from another, detach, distinguish between’ (↗faṣala), (inchoative > tr.) faṣy ‘to separate, loosen, dismiss, set free’ (↗tafaṣṣà). 
    – 
    ĭnfaṣama, vb. VII, to have a crack, be cracked; to be split, be cleft: pass. of I.
    faṣm, n., pl. fuṣūmāt, recess, niche, chamfer (in walls; arch.): lexicalized vn. I.
     
    FṢY فصي 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FṢY 
    “root” 
    ▪ FṢY_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FṢY_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    tafaṣṣà تَفَصَّى 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FṢY 
    vb., V 
    to free o.s., rid o.s. (min of), shake off – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    According to Ehret1989:177, the root is an extension in inchoative (then > tr.) *‑y from a biconsonantal *PṢ ‘to take out’, originally meaning ‘to separate, loosen, dismiss, set free’ (inch. > tr.). Other derivations from the same *PṢ : faṣṣ ‘to separate, detach, pull out from’ (↗faṣṣ), (iterative) faṣfaṣ ‘to separate, disperse’, (iterative) faṣḥ ‘to break forth and shine in full splendor’ (↗faṣaḥa), (durative) faṣd ‘to bleed’ (↗faṣada), (sunderative) faṣʕ ‘to press the fresh date to make it come out of the shell, so take or scrape off the shell of an almond, put off the turban’, (finitive) faṣl ‘to cut off and separate one thing from another, detach, distinguish between’ (↗faṣala), (fortative) faṣm ‘to cut, break’ (↗faṣama). 
    – 
    – 
    FḌː (FḌḌ) فضّ/فضض 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21Apr2023
    √ FḌː (FḌḌ) 
    “root” 
    ▪ FḌː (FḌḌ)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FḌː (FḌḌ)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FḌː (FḌḌ)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘layers of rock lying one on top of another; to separate, break open, scatter, rock breakage; silver (said to be broken from rocks); to disperse; to give generously; (of water) gushing’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    FḌḤ فضح 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21Apr2023
    √FḌḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ FḌḤ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FḌḤ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FḌḤ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to expose, uncover, subject to shame, scandalise, give a bad name to, defame’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    FḌL فضل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FḌL 
    “root” 
    ▪ FḌL_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FḌL_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘remnant, remaining part, extra part; virtue, favour, high rank; excessiveness; idle curiosity’ 
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    – 
    – 
    faḍīlaẗ فَضِيلَة 
    ID 662 • Sw – • BP 3143 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FḌL 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    – 
     
    FḌW فضو 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21Apr2023
    √FḌW 
    “root” 
    ▪ FḌW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FḌW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FḌW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘wide open space, to go out into the open; to be empty; to reach out to, break the barriers between, become close to; to occupy the space of’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    FṬR فطر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FṬR 
    “root” 
    ▪ FṬR_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FṬR_2 ‘Creator’ ↗fāṭir
    ▪ FṬR_3 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘fungi; nature, instinct; to crack open, to rend, to split; to bring out; to fashion; to break the fast’ 
    From protSem *√PṬR ‘to split, separate, detach’ – Huehnergard2011.
    … 
    – 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘?’) Akk pṭr (u) ‘to loosen, remove’, Hbr pṭr a (a) ‘to release, set free’, Syr pṭr a (a) ‘to loosen, take away’, Gz fṭr a (e) ‘to create’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Huehnergard (in AHDEL): NWSem *PRṬ ‘to break, rend’.
    ▪ The root probably belongs to the idea of ‘cutting, separating’ attached to the pre-protSem 2-consonantal root nucleus *PR- as described by Ehret1989#37. For other extensions from the same pre-protSem *PR- see ↗faraǧa (farǧ) ‘to put asunder, separate, split’, ↗farada (furūd) ‘to be single, isolated, be unique’, ↗faraza (farz) ‘to separate, set apart, secrete, select’, ↗farasa (fars) ‘to break the neck, tear the prey into pieces’, ↗faraša (farš) ‘to spread on the floor, spread out’, ↗faršaḥa, var. faršaḫa, ‘to straddle, stand with one’s legs apart’, ↗furṣaẗ ‘chance, auspicious moment; holiday’ (i.e., s.th. that comes like a ‘cut’ in normal life), ↗furḍaẗ ‘notch, incision, opening’, ↗faraṭa (farṭ) ‘to beat off, stripp off (fruits)’, ↗faraʕa (farʕ) ‘to prune a tree’, ↗faraqa (farq) ‘to split, separate’, ↗farama (farm) ‘to cut small, hash’, ↗farà (fary) ‘to cut, cleave, sever’; cf. also ↗farra (firār) ‘to flee, run away’, ↗faraṭa (farṭ) ‘to escape inadvertedly, slip, get lost’. 
    ▪ Engl Eid al-Fitr, iftarfiṭr
    – 
    fiṭr فِطْر 
    ID 664 • Sw – • BP 3770 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FṬR 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
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    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Eid al-Fitr, from Ar fiṭr ‘breaking a fast’; iftar, from Ar ʔifṭār, vn. of ʔafṭara ‘to break a fast’. Both a and b from Ar faṭara ‘to split, break, break a fast’. 
     
    fuṭr فُطْر 
    ID 663 • Sw – • BP 6277 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FṬR 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    – 
     
    fāṭir فاطِر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Jun2023
    √FṬR
     
    n. 
    Creator – Jeffery1938 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q vi, 14; xii, 102; xiv, 11; xxxv, 1; xxxix, 47; xlii, 9 – Jeffery1938.
     
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »It occurs only in the stereotyped phrase fāṭir al-samawāt wa’l-ʔarḍ.
    The root faṭara is ‘to cleave’ or ‘split’, and from this we have several forms in the Qurʔān, viz. fuṭūr ‘a fissure’, tafaṭṭara ‘to be rent asunder’, etc. On the other hand, faṭara ‘to create’ (cf. fiṭraẗ, xxx, 29), is a denominative from fāṭir. / The primary sense is common Sem, cf. Akk paṭāru ‘to cleave’, Hbr pāṭar, Phoen pṭr ‘to remove’, Syr pṭar ‘to release’, etc. The meaning of ‘to create’, however, is peculiar to Eth [Gz], and as Nöldeke, Neue Beiträge, 49, shows, the Arab fāṭir is derived from faṭāri though Arabicized in its form.609 «
     
    – 
    – 
    FẒː (FẒẒ) فظّ/فظظ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21Apr2023
    √ FẒː (FẒẒ) 
    “root” 
    ▪ FẒː (FẒẒ)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FẒː (FẒẒ)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FẒː (FẒẒ)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘thick, tarnished matter taken from a camel’s belly; to split open; to be rough, rude, ill-tempered’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    FʕL فعل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21Apr2023
    √FʕL 
    “root” 
    ▪ FʕL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FʕL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FʕL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to act, do, work, labour, toil’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ĭnfiʕāl اِنْفِعال 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 8Jun2023
    √FʕL 
    n. 
    ▪ vn., VII 
    FQD فقد 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FQD 
    “root” 
    ▪ FQD_1 ‘to fail to find, lose, be deprived; to mislay; to miss’ ↗faqada, ‘to seek, look for, search s.th.; to examine, study, inspect, investigate’ ↗tafaqqada
    ▪ FQD_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FQD_3 ‘…’ ↗

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to lose, loss; to seek, to search, to research; to inspect’ 
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    ▪ …
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    … 
    … 
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    faqad‑ فَقَدَ , i (faqd, fiqdān, fuqdān
    ID … • Sw – • BP 1264 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FQD 
    vb., I 
    1a to fail to find; b to lose; c to have lost, miss; d not to have, be bereaved, be deprived, bereft, destitute; e to mislay, have mislaid; f to miss (an opportunity, and the like) – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘¹to pay attention; ²to miss, search, look for’) Akk ¹pqd (i), Hbr ¹pqd a (o), Syr ¹,²pqd a (u), Gz ¹,²fqd a (e).
     
    … 
    … 
    faqada ṣawābahu, vb. I, to go out of one’s mind

    ʔafqada, vb. IV, to cause to lose or miss or forfeit; to bereave, deprive, dispossess, rob: *Š-stem, caus.
    tafaqqada, vb. V, 1a to seek, look, search s.th.; b to examine, study, survey, inspect, check, investigate; c to visit, review, inspect (troops, and the like): Dt-stem, resultative (*to have lost > therefore search for it > study > visit, inspect)
    ĭftaqada, vb. VIII, = V; to miss: Gt-stem, self-refl.
    ĭstafqada, vb. X, to miss: *Št-stem: *find missing.

    faqd, n., loss; bereavement: vn. I.
    faqīd, adj./., 1 lost, missing; 2adead, deceased; b deceased person: ints. formation, quasi-PP I. | faqīd al‑ʕilm, n., one whose death is deplored by science; al‑faqīd al‑rāḥil, n., the deceased
    fiqdān, fuqdān, n., loss; bereavement: vn. I | fiqdān al‑ṣawāb, n., folly, madness; fiqdān al‑ḏākiraẗ, n., loss of memory, amnesia.
    tafaqqud, pl. ‑āt, n., 1a examination, study, survey, inspection, check, investigation; b review, inspection (e.g., of troops); c visit: vn. V.
    ĭftiqād, n., examination, study, survey, inspection, check, investigation; review, inspection (e.g., of troops); visit: vn. VIII.
    fāqid, adj., devoid, destitute, bereft, deprived (of s.th.; with foll. genitive), bereaved (of; with foll. genitive); ‑less, un‑, in‑; loser: PP I. | fāqid al‑šuʕūr, adj., unconscious; insensible, senseless; fāqid al‑ḍamīr, adj., unconscionable, unscrupulous, unhesitating; fāqidū ’l‑tahḏīb, n.pl., people without education, unmannered people
    mafqūd, adj., lost, missing, nonexistent, absent, lacking, wanting; missing person: PP I.
    mutafaqqid, n., controller, inspector: PA V.
     
    tafaqqad‑ تَفَقَّدَ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FQD 
    vb., V 
    1a to seek, look, search s.th.; b to examine, study, survey, inspect, check, investigate; c to visit, review, inspect (troops, and the like): Dt-stem, resultative (*to have lost > therefore search for it > study > visit, inspect) – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Dt-stem (resultative) of ↗faqada ‘to fail to find, lose, have lost, miss’, hence ‘to search for it > to study > to visit, inspect’. 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    See above, section CONC. 
    … 
    tafaqqud, pl. ‑āt, n., 1a examination, study, survey, inspection, check, investigation; b review, inspection (e.g., of troops); c visit
    mutafaqqid, n., controller, inspector.

    For other items of the root, cf. ↗faqada
    FQR فقر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21Apr2023
    √FQR 
    “root” 
    ▪ FQR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FQR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FQR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘vertebra; breaking of vertebra; calamity; want, lack s.th., poverty, the poor, needy’ 
    ▪ From protSem *√PQR ‘to long for’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl fakir, from Ar ↗faqīr ‘poor’, faqura ‘to be(come) poor’. 
    – 
    FQʕ فقع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22Apr2023
    √FQʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ FQʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FQʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FQʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘truffle; brightness of white or yellow; to pop, explode, bubbles; devastating calamity; poverty’ 
    ▪ From WSem *√PQʕ, also *√BQʕ, ‘to split, cleave, open’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl burqa, from Ar ↗burqaʕ, variant of burquʕ, perh. from *buqquʕ, from root variant ↗√BQʕ, akin to Ar ↗faqaʕa ‘to burst’, the name of the garment, burquʕ, perh. originally making reference to a split or slit in front of the eyes through which the wearer can see. 
    – 
    FQH فقه 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FQH 
    “root” 
    ▪ FQH_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FQH_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to understand, to learn, to acquire knowledge; comprehension’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
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    – 
    fiqh فِقْه 
    ID 665 • Sw – • BP 3475 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FQH 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
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    ▪ …
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    – 
     
    faqīh فَقِيه 
    ID 666 • Sw – • BP 3782 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FQH 
    ¹adj.; ²n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    – 
     
    FKR فكر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22Apr2023
    √FKR 
    “root” 
    ▪ FKR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FKR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FKR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘thought, reflection, idea, to think, reflect’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    FKH فكه 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FKH 
    “root” 
    ▪ FKH_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FKH_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘(of a she-ʕamel) to produce plenty of milk; fruit; to jest, to have a sense of humour; to be kindly; to enjoy s.th., to live in luxury; to be regretful’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
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    ▪ …
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    – 
    – 
    fākihaẗ فاكِهَة 
    ID 667 • Sw –/59 • BP 3010 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FKH 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
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    ▪ …
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    – 
     
    FLḤ فلح 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FLḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ FLḤ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FLḤ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘tiller of the land, cultivator of plants, to cultivate, to plant; to succeed, to prosper; to remain; to cut, to break; to negotiate, to mediate’ 
    ▪ From protSem *√PLX̣ ‘to cleave, till, work’ – Huehnergard2011.
    … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl fellahfallāḥ
    – 
    fallāḥ فَلّاح 
    ID 668 • Sw – • BP 3345 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FLḤ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl fellah, from Ar fallāḥ ‘peasant, farmer’, from falaḥa ‘to cleave, cultivate, till’. ↗ 
     
    FLḎ فلذ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FLḎ 
    “root” 
    ▪ FLḎ_1 ‘piece (of meat)’ ↗filḏaẗ
    ▪ FLḎ_2 ‘steel’ ↗fūlāḏ 
    ▪ FLḎ_1 filḏaẗ ‘piece (of meat)’:…
    ▪ FLḎ_2 fūlāḏ ‘steel’: from Pers pūlāḏ.
     
    – 
    ▪ …
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    – 
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    FLFL فلفل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FLFL, FL‑ 
    “root” 
    ▪ FLFL_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FLFL_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    filfil فِلْفِل 
    ID 669 • Sw – • BP 6768 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FLFL 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
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    … 
     
    FLQ فلق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22Apr2023
    √FLQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ FLQ_1 ‘to split, cleave’ ↗falaqa
    ▪ FLQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FLQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to split, cleave, crack, open up; fault, rift, cleft; section, part; (of light) to show through; (of seed) to sprout’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    falaq فَلَقَ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Jun2023
    √FLQ
     
    vb., I 
    to split, cleave – Jeffery1938 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q vi, 95, 96; xxvi, 63; cxiii, 1 – Jeffery1938.
     
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »Three forms occur in the Qurʔān: (1) fāliq ‘he who causes to break forth’, vi, 95, 96; (2) ĭnfalaqa ‘to be split open’ xxvi, 63; (3) falaq ‘the dawn’, cxiii, 1. / Zimmern, Akkad. Fremdw, 12, notes that the Ar verb is denominative and would derive it from an Aram source. The Akk palāqu ‘to slay, kill’ is a denominative from pilaqqu ‘hatchet’, which itself may be derived from the Sum balag. From this Akk pilaqqu were derived on the one hand the Syr pelqā and Mand pylqʔ, both meaning ‘hatchet’, and on the other hand the Skr parjʰu ‘hatchet’,610 , Grk pélekus ‘axe’.611 / Syr pelqā is used to translate the Hbr paššîl in Ps. lxxiv, 6, and would probably have been the origin of the form that was first borrowed and from which all the others have been developed.612 «
     
    – 
    – 
    FLK فلك 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22Apr2023
    √FLK 
    “root” 
    ▪ FLK_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FLK_2 ‘ship’ ↗fulk
    ▪ FLK_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘star orbit; sea wave, sea-faring ships, boats; boundary; round and flat hillocks, rounded breasts; buttocks’ 
    ▪ (BAH208:) It has been suggested that the meanings of ‘boat’ and ‘ship’ associated with this root are borrowed from Grk, either directly or through Akk. 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    fulk فُلْك 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Jun2023
    √FLK
     
    n. 
    ship – Jeffery1938 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Occurs some twenty-three times in the Q, cf. vii, 62 – Jeffery1938.
     
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »It is used of shipping in general (xxx, 45; xlv, 11), of Noah’s Ark (vii, 62; x, 74), and of the ship from which Jonah was cast (xxx vii, 140). / The root falaka means ‘to have rounded breasts’ (Lane, Lex, 2443), and from the same primitive Sem root we get Akk pilakku, Hbr päläk, Ar falkaẗ, all meaning the ‘whirl of a spindle’, and by another line of derivation Ar falak, Eth [Gz] falak for the ‘celestial hemisphere’. So the philologers as a rule endeavour to derive fulk from this root, imagining it is so named from its rounded shape.613 The philologers, however, were somewhat troubled by the fact that it could be masc., fem., and pl., without change of form (LA, xii, 367), and there can be little doubt that the word is a borrowing. Vollers, ZDMG, 1, 620; li, 300, claims that it is the Grk epʰólkion which usually means a ‘small boatʼ towed after a ship,614 but from the Periplus Maris Erythraei, 16,615 we gather that as used around the Red Sea it must have meant a vessel of considerable size. The borrowing was probably direct from the Grk, though there is a possibility that it came through an Aram medium.616 «
     
    – 
    – 
    FLN فلن 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22Apr2023
    √FLN 
    “root” 
    ▪ FLN_1 ‘...’ ↗fulān
    ▪ FLN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FLN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘The forms fulān, f. fulānaẗ, and the abbreviations fulu and fulā are derived from this (what should be described as) hypothetical root’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    FM فم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FM 
    “root” 
    ▪ FM_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FM_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl Fomalhautfam. – For pi cf. ↗fam and letter ↗fāʔ
    – 
    fam فَم 
    ID 670 • Sw 42/99 • BP 1525 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FM, FW, FWH 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *pay‑ (or *paw‑) (Huehnergard2011: *p˅̄‑) ‘mouth’. – The extension in ‑m is common also in other Sem langs.
    ▪ … 
    ▪▪ …
    ▪ Cf. Fück1950: 113.
    ▪▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘mouth’) Akk , Hbr , Syr (pummā), Gz ʔaf.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl pi, from Grk pei, ‘pi’, from Phoen * ‘mouth; seventeenth letter of the Phoen alphabet’, cf. Ar ↗fam and letter fāʔ. – Engl Fomalhaut, from Ar fam ‘mouth’, and al-ḥūt
     
    FNː (FNN) فنّ / فنن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 22Apr2023
    √FNː (FNN) 
    “root” 
    ▪ FNː (FNN)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FNː (FNN)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FNː (FNN)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘branches of a tree, locks of hair; variety, type, variation on a theme, types of expression, people of various backgrounds’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    fann فَنّ 
    ID 671 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 817 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FNː (FNN) 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    fannī فَنّيّ 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 604 • APD … • © SG | created 8Jun2023
    √FNː (FNN) 
    adj.; n. 
    ▪ nsb-formation 
    FNǦ فنج 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FNǦ 
    “root” 
    FNǦ_1 ‘…’ ↗ … FNǦ_2 ‘coup, cup’ ↗finǧān 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    FNǦL فنجل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FNǦL 
    “root” 
    FNǦL_1 ‘coup, cup’ ↗finǧāl 
    ▪ … 
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    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    finǧāl فِنْجال , pl. fanāǧīlᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FNǦL 
    n. 
    ↗finǧān 
    A variant of ↗finǧān. 
    ▪ … 
    ↗finǧān 
    ↗finǧān 
    – 
    – 
    FNǦN فنجن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FNǦN 
    “root” 
    ▪ FNǦN_1 ‘coup, cup’ ↗finǧān
    ▪ FNǦN_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    finǧān فِنْجان , and finǧānaẗ , pl. fanāǧīnᵘ (var. finǧāl , pl. fanāǧīlᵘ
    ID 672 • Sw – • BP 4146 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FNǦN 
    n. 
    coup; coffee cup – WehrCowan1979. 
    From the same etymon as mPers pingān ‘tasse, bocal, coupe; horloge d’eau, clepsydre’ – Rolland2014a. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Lokotsch1927#608: Ar finǧān ‘porcelain, cup made from porcelain’ > Tu fincan, vulg. filǧān [dissimilation] ‘small cup’ > Rum filigean ‘cup’, (Wallachia) filingen ‘coffee cup’, BulgSerb fildžan, Serb findžan, Ukr findža, Pol filiżanka, fliżanka, Ukr fyndžan ‘cup’. 
    ǧaʕala zawbaʕatan fī finǧānin, expr., to cause a tempest in a teapot 
    FND فند 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22Apr2023
    √FND 
    “root” 
    ▪ FND_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FND_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FND_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘branch, branch out, faction; to be weak of mind or body, become senile; to lie; to refute, dispute; to err; to fall into factions, take refuge’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    FNDQ فندق 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FNDQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ FNDQ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FNDQ_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    funduq فُنْدُق , pl. fanādiqᵘ 
    ID 673 • Sw – • BP 1352 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FNDQ 
    n. 
    hotel, ‎inn – WehrCowan1979. 
    The word is a loan from Grk pandokeîon (var. pandokíon, NT pandokheîon) ‘hostel, inn’ and was itself loaned into a number of Western Mediterranean languages, typically connected with medieval trade. “One could mention fondaco, which was a sort of accommodation for traders, with a warehouse and the possibility of selling” (Cifoletti 2007). It has come to mean ‘hotel’ in Egyptian Arabic but in Tunisian retains the meaning ‘caravanserai’ (ibid.), i.e., a type of “hostelries at which animals and humans can lodge, on the lines of the caravanserais or khāns of the Muslim East” (LeTourneau1964). 
    v1: caravanserai: mC8 mentioned (according to Lane) by al-Layṯ b. Naṣr b. Sayyār al-Ḫurasānī with the meaning ‘(in the dialect of the people of Syria) building of the kind called ↗ḫān, where men alight and lodge, [and in which they deposit their goods], of the ḫānāt that are in the roads, and in the cities’ (Lane VI: 2449). According to Pedani2013, the word appeared in Arabic texts by C9. mC9? Galen SM X 2,2 wa-ʔaḫbaranī baʕḍu ʔahli ’l-ṣidqi bal ʕiddatun minhum ʔannahum ʔakalū fī baʕḍi ’l-fanādiqi ʔamrāqan ṭayyibatan bi-luḥūmin maṭbūḫatin fīhā ‘some reliable people, quite a number of them even, told me that they had eaten in some funduq delicious soups with meat cooked in them’(< Grk allà kaì diēgouménōn tinṓn ḗkousa pistṓn anthrṓpōn hedēdokénai mèn én tini pandokheíō zōmón dapsilē̂ metà kreō̂n hēdístōn) (Ullmann2002: 493). – With this meaning the word entered into Western languages (cf., e.g., Ital fondaco ‘warehouse’) (ibid.).
    v2: Should one separate the meaning ‘hostel, inn, hotel’ [when used without reference to trading, i.e., having lost the function of a warehouse]? The article by O’Meara mentions funduq, ↗ḫān, ↗samsaraẗ or ↗wakālaẗ as giving more or less the same meaning, depending on the region. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    Held to be of Persian origin by Sībawayh, but from Grk pandokeîon (Fück1950, Rolland2014), or pandokheîon (Heinrichs1997: 179, fn. 13) ‘hostel, inn’.
    Classical dictionaries often specify that the word was used by ‘the people of Syria’ (ʔahl al-šām), while LeTourneau1964 says that it was in use “particularly in North Africa”. Fück1950 unites both with a plausible explanation when he reports that the Arab geographer al-Muqaddasī, in his ʔAḥsan al-taqāsīm fī maʕrifat al-ʔaqālīm (completed in 955), mentioned funduq as characteristic of Syria, Egypt and North Africa, “die alten Einflußsphären des byzantinischen Reiches” [the old sphere of influence of the Byzantine Empire], while ḫān was in use in Persia and tīm in Transoxania – Fück1950: 111. 
    – 
    – 
    FNY فني 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22Apr2023
    √FNY 
    “root” 
    ▪ FNY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FNY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FNY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to perish, expire, pass away, come to an end; large, open courtyard’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    FHM فهم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22Apr2023
    √FHM 
    “root” 
    ▪ FHM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FHM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FHM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to understand, comprehend’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    FWT فوت 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22Apr2023
    √FWT 
    “root” 
    ▪ FWT_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FWT_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FWT_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to bypass, miss, escape the notice of, ignore; to accuse falsely; to vary greatly, be flawed; to be inadequate’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    FWǦ فوج 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22Apr2023
    √FWǦ 
    “root” 
    ▪ FWǦ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FWǦ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FWǦ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘group of people; running fast; clearing between two heights; waft of fragrance; (of a she-camel) being fat’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    FWR فور 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22Apr2023
    √FWR 
    “root” 
    ▪ FWR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FWR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FWR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to boil over, gush out; to spread smells; to erupt with anger; (of heat) rising, to increase in intensity, swelling; immediacy’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    FWZ فوز 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22Apr2023
    √FWZ 
    “root” 
    ▪ FWZ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FWZ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FWZ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘perilous desert, a place of danger; to attain one’s desire, succeed, safety, victory, gaining, success, achievement, a place of safety’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    FWḌ فوض 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FWḌ 
    “root” 
    ▪ FWḌ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FWḌ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to submit to, to authorise; confusion, to be disorderly, anarchy; negotiation, exchange of ideas, consultation; also said to include: making clear the discourse’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ …
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    – 
    – 
    fawḍà فَوْضَى 
    ID 674 • Sw – • BP 1897 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FWḌ 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
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    FWṬ فوط 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FWṬ 
    “root” 
    ▪ FWṬ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FWṬ_2 ‘…’ ↗
    FWṬ_ ‘towel’ ↗fūṭaẗ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    fūṭaẗ فُوطة , pl. fuwaṭ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FWṬ 
    n.f. 
    apron, pinafore; napkin, serviette; towel – WehrCowan1979. 
    Etymology unclear. While Rolland2014a reproduces Al-Tûnji’s and Corriente’s view that the word is from Pers fūṭa, originally a textile from Sindh the word for which goes back to Skr, Youssef2003 pleads for a Copt < Eg etymology. Corriente2008 (as earlier in Corriente1997) speaks of an "undoubtedly Indian" origin. 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ Youssef2003: from Eg fčy, Copt fōte ‘towel’617
    ▪ Rolland2014a: from Pers fūṭa ‘tissu rayé originaire du Sindh’, lui-même d’origine sanskrite, d’après Al-Tûnji et Corriente.
    ▪ Corriente2008 repeats his earlier (1997) opinion that the word is without doubt of Indian origin. 
    ▪ Lokotsch1927#622: Ar fūṭaẗ ‘Handtuch, Badeschürze’ > Port fota ‘eine Art Turban’, Fr foutah ‘irgendein Stoff’. From Tu futa 20 are Rum fotă ‘Schürze der Bäuerinnen’, fotiţă, Bulg futa, huta, Serb futa ‘Schürze’, Pol (dial.) futa, Ukr fofa ‘Schusterschurz’, Pol Ukr fotka ‘Schürze’. 
    – 
    FWQ فوق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22Apr2023
    √FWQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ FWQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FWQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FWQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘up, above, on top, beyond, to reach the top, gain on; to surpass, excel; to regain consciousness; to hiccup; to gasp; the time between two milkings of a she-camel in a single milking session, periods of time within the span of one night; poverty’ 
    ▪ … 
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    FWL فول 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FWL 
    “root” 
    ▪ FWL_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FWL_2 ‘…’ ↗
    FWL_ ‘fava beans’ ↗fūl 
    ▪ From NWSem *pawl‑ ‘broad bean’. … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl fulfūl
    – 
    fūl فُول 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FWL 
    n.coll. (n.u. ‑aẗ, pl. ‑āt
    bean(s); broad bean(s), horse bean(s) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Youssef2003 suggests a Copt < from Eg etymology.
    ▪ From Aram pōlā ‘broad bean’ – Huehnergard2011.
     
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ Youssef2003: from Eg pr ‘beans’, Copt phel ‘fava beans’ 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl ful, from Ar fūl ‘broad beans’, from Aram pōlā ‘broad bean’. 
    fūl mədammis, n., (Eg.) cooked broad beans with oil: according to Youssef2003 from Copt tōms, from Eg tms ‘buried’.
    fūl nābit, n., (Eg.) sprouting broad beans soaked in water before being cooked (national dishes of Egypt)
    fūl sūdānī, n., peanuts.

    fawwāl, n., seller of beans: n.prof. 
    FWLʔḎ فولاذ , FūLāḎ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FWLʔḎ 
    “root” 
    ▪ FWLʔḎ_1 ‘steel’ ↗fūlāḏ 
    fūlāḏ 
    fūlāḏ 
    fūlāḏ 
    fūlāḏ 
    ▪ ↗fūlāḏ 
    – 
    fūlāḏ فُولاذ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FLḎ, FWLʔḎ, FūLāḎ 
    n. 
    steel – WehrCowan1979. 
    From Pers pūlād ‘steel’. 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ Rolland2014a gives also the var. Ar būlād.
     
    ▪ Lokotsch1927#1672: Not directly from Ar, but from the same source, Pers pūlād, is Tu bulat ‘steel’, which gave Pol Ukr bułat ‘id.’, Ru bulat ‘Damascene steel, dagger’. 
    fūlāḏī, var. fulāḏī, adj., steel (adj.), of steel, made of steel; steely, steel-like, steel-hard 
    FWM فوم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22Apr2023
    √FWM 
    “root” 
    ▪ FWM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FWM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FWM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘Except for fawwama ‘to bake (bread)’, it is rare to find any form of this root except fūm, the meaning of which is disputed by philologists (see below for the various suggestions)’ 
    ▪ … 
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    FWH فوه 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22Apr2023
    √FWH 
    “root” 
    ▪ FWH_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FWH_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FWH_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘mouth, to utter by mouth; to speak out, be eloquent; gluttony; gossip; the first part of a road, river or valley’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
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    FYʔ فيأ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22Apr2023
    √FYʔ 
    “root” 
    ▪ FYʔ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FYʔ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FYʔ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘shade, the movement of shade; to return; to take shelter in the shade, recover from anger; spoils from battle; taxation; flock of birds; company of people’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    FYD فيد 
    Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | created 8Jun2023
    √FYD 
    “root” 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    fāʔidaẗ فائدة 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 1124 • APD … • © SG | created 8Jun2023
    √FYD 
    n.f. 
    ▪ nominalized PA, f. 
    mufād مُفاد 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 3654 • APD … • © SG | created 8Jun2023
    √FYD 
    n. 
    ▪ nominalized PP IV 
    FYRWZ فيروز 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FYRWZ 
    “root” 
    ▪ FYRWZ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FYRWZ_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ …. 
    – 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    fayrūz فَيْروز 
    ID 675 • Sw – • BP 7574 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FYRWZ, FRZ? 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    FYḌ فيض 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22Apr2023
    √FYḌ 
    “root” 
    ▪ FYḌ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FYḌ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ FYḌ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘large mass of water, people moving in great numbers, to overflow; to speak at length’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    FYL فيل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FYL 
    “root” 
    ▪ FYL_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ FYL_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘weakness of the body, lack of wisdom; to rebuke; to give bad counsel’. – Philologists derive the word fīl, elephant, from this root, although it has been suggested that it is a borrowing from either Pers or Aram that came into Arabic in pre-Islamic times. 
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    fīl فيل 
    ID 676 • Sw – • BP 5372 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √FYL 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: In most Semitic languages, ‘elephant’ is denoted by reflexes of *pīl‑ or *pīr‑. These forms are usually considered interborrowings going back to a non-Semitic source.
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    – 
     
    qāf قاف 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ 
    R₁ 
    The letter q of the Arabic alphabet. 
    ▪ … 
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    – 
     
    QāRūN قارُون 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 13May2023
    √QāRūN, QRN 
    n.pr. 
    Korah (Q 28:76 etc.) 
    ▪ BAH2008: »occurring four times in the Qurʔān and recognised by the philologists as being of foreign origin. Of the four Korahs mentioned in the Bible, the name and story of Qārūn correspond to the name and story of Korah (son of Izhar, the son of Kobath, the son of Levi) who was leader of the famous rebellion against his cousins, Moses and Aaron, in the wilderness, and who, together with his followers, was burned and swallowed by an earthquake as a punishment from God (Num. 16 and 26:9-11)« | »Qārūn is described in the Qur’an as being so rich that it took a group of strong men just to carry the keys to his treasury. Though people envied him his wealth, he was arrogant and rebelled against God, Moses and Aaron, declaring that he had been given his wealth on account of the knowledge he possessed, and forgetting the many generations before him who were mightier and wealthier than him but were destroyed. In retribution God caused the earth to swallow him and his treasure, thereby proving that wealth is a responsibility and the Hereafter is a reward only for those who do not exalt themselves above others or cause corruption in the earth (28:76-83).« 
    ▪ ec7 (Q 28:76) ʔinna Qārūna kāna min qawmi Mūsà fa-baġà ʕalay-him wa-ʔataynā-hu min-a ’l-kunūzi mā ʔinna mafātiḥa-hū la-tanūʔu bi-’l-ʕuṣbati ʔulī ’l-quwwati ‘Now Korah was of Moses’ folk, but he oppressed them; and We gave him so much treasure that the stores thereof would verily have been a burden for a troop of mighty men’ 
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »As Geiger, 155, has shown, the Qurʔānic account of Korah is based on the Rabbinic legends, and we might assume that the word is derived from the Hbr Qōraḥ. The dropping of the final guttural, however, makes this a little difficult. The final guttural, as a matter of fact, is missing in the Grk Koré and Eth [Gz] Qore, but neither of these help us with the Ar form. Hirschfeld, New Researches, 13, n., made the suggestion that Qārūn is due to a misreading of קרח q-r-ḥ as קרון q-r-w-n, a mistake which is very possible in Hbr script. It is fairly certain, however, that Muḥammad’s information came from oral sources, and it is difficult to believe that anyone sufficiently acquainted with Hbr or Aram to be able to read him the story would have made such a blunder. There is a Mnd form K-r-w-n618 (Lidzbarski, Ginza, Göttingen, 1925: 157), but there can be no certainty that this is connected with Qārūn, and if it is it was probably influenced by the Qurʔānic form. Thus it seems best to look on it as a rhyming formation to parallel Hārūn (Sycz, Eigennamen, 43; Horovitz, KU, 131; JPN, 163), though whether from the Hbr Qōraḥ or from a Christian form without the guttural, it is impossible to say.619 « 
    – 
    – 
    QāN قان 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QāN 
    “root” 
    ▪ QāN_1 ‘deep(-red), blood(-red)’ ↗qān(in) (√QāN, QNY), ↗qāniʔ (√QNʔ) 
    From Tu kan ‘blood’? 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    From Tu kan ‘blood’? 
    – 
    – 
    qān قان , var. qāniⁿ , det. qānī 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QāN, QNY 
    adj. 
    ʔaḥmarᵘ qān(in) : blood-red, deep-red – WehrCowan1979. 
    From, or contaminated with, Tu kan ‘blood’? 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ From, or contaminated with, Tu kan ‘blood’?
    ▪ Cf. also ↗qāniʔ
    – 
    – 
    QBḤ قبح 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Apr2023
    √QBḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ QBḤ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QBḤ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QBḤ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be or become bad, evil, foul, ugly, unseemly; to chase away, repulse, curse’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    QBR قبر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QBR 
    “root” 
    ▪ QBR_1 ‘to bury, inter, entomb; grave, tomb’ ↗qabara
    ▪ QBR_2 ‘capers (bot.)’ ↗qubbār~qabbār
    ▪ QBR_3 ‘lark (zool.)’ ↗qubbar
    ▪ QBR_4 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ QBR_1 : …
    ▪ QBR_2 : …
    ▪ QBR_3 : …
    ▪ QBR_4 : …
    ▪ QBR_5 : … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    … 
    qabar‑ قَبَرَ , u, i (qabr, maqbar
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QBR 
    vb., I 
    to bury, inter, entomb – WehrCowan1976.
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘to bury’) Akk qbr (i), Hbr qḇr a (o), Syr qbr a (u), Gz qbr – (e).
     
    … 
    … 
    BP#1786qabr, pl. qubūr, n., frave, tomb, sepulcher.
    maqbar, pl. maqābirᵘ, n. 1 tomb, burying place, burial ground; 2 cemetery, graveyard: n.loc.
    BP#2286maqburaẗ, var. maqbaraẗ, pl. maqābirᵘ, n.f., 1 grave, tomb; 2 graveyard: n.loc.f.
    maqburī, maqbarī, n., caretaker of a cemetery; gravedigger: nisba formation, from maqburaẗ ~ maqbaraẗ.

    For other items of the root, cf. ↗qubbār~qabbār, and ↗qubbar, as well as, for the overall picture, ↗√QBR.
     
    qubbār قُبّار , var. qabbār 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QBR 
    n. 
    capers (bot.)– WehrCowan1976.
     
    ▪ Variant of ↗kabar~kabbār ‘capers’. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ See ↗kabar~kabbār
    ▪ See above, section CONC, as well as ↗kabar~kabbār
    ▪ See ↗kabar~kabbār
    For other items of the root, cf. ↗qabara, and ↗qubbar, as well as, for the overall picture, ↗√QBR.
     
    qubbar قُبَّر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QBR 
    n.coll. (n.un. ‑aẗ
    lark (zool.) – WehrCowan1976.
     
    ▪ Of obscure etymology. Probably an assimilated variant of ↗qunbur(aẗ) ‘lark’, which seems to have its name from the small crest / coxcomb that sometimes shows on its head, cf. ↗qunbūr (MSA: ‘hump, hunch’). 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    … 
    For other items of the root, cf. ↗qabara, and ↗qubbār~qabbār, as well as, for the overall picture, ↗√QBR.
     
    QBS قبس 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Apr2023
    √QBS 
    “root” 
    ▪ QBS_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QBS_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QBS_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘flame, fire, firebrand, live coal, to try to aquire fire; to seek knowledge, acquire knowledge; to adopt; good countenance’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ĭqtibās اِقْتِباس 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 8Jun2023
    √QBS 
    n. 
    ▪ vn., VIII 
    QBḌ قبض 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Apr2023
    √QBḌ 
    “root” 
    ▪ QBḌ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QBḌ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QBḌ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘fist, handful, handhold, to take a handful; to contract, seize, grab; to control; to depress; to fold up, drive fast’ 
    ▪ From WSem *√QBṢ́ ‘to collect, gather’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl kibbutz, from Hbr qibbûṣ ‘gathering’, from qibbēṣ ‘to gather’, D-stem of qābaṣ ‘to gather’, akin to Ar √QBḌ. 
    – 
    QBL قبل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QBL 
    “root” 
    ▪ QBL_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ QBL_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘facade, face of a mountain, front; encounter, to face; opposite; openly; to come, approach; before; to accept, to receive; direction; midwife; to consent, willingness; to be pleasing; to compare; to kiss, kiss; section, type, sort, group, tribe; squint; power, capacity; surety, guarantor; spontaneous; possibility’ 
    ▪ From protSem *qabl‑ ‘front’, whence WSem denom. vb. qbl ‘to receive’ – Huehnergard2011.
    … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl Kabyleqabīlaẗ; qiblahqiblaẗ. – gabelleqabila.
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl cabal, kabbalah, from Hbr qabbālâ ‘received doctrine, tradition’, from qibbēl ‘to receive’, akin to Ar ↗qabila
    – 
    qiblaẗ قِبْلَة 
    ID 677 • Sw – • BP 4194 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QBL 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl qiblah, from Ar qiblaẗ ‘the direction of the Kaaba, toward which Muslims face when praying’, from qabila, vb. I, ‘to receive’ (cf. also the prob. denom. L-stem qābala ‘to face’). 
     
    qabīlaẗ قَبِيلَة 
    ID 678 • Sw – • BP 1539 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QBL 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Kabyle, from Ar qabāʔilᵘ, pl. of qabīlaẗ ‘tribe’. 
     
    mustaqbal مُسْتَقْبَل 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 539 • APD … • © SG | created 8Jun2023
    √QBL 
    n. 
    future 
    ▪ PP (or n.loc.?) X 
    QTR قتر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, updated 28Oct2021
    √QTR 
    “root” 
    ▪ QTR_1 ‘to be stingy, tightfisted, niggardly, parsimonious (toward s.o.), keep (s.o.) short, stint’ ↗qatara
    ▪ QTR_2 ‘dust’ ↗qataraẗ
    ▪ QTR_3 ‘aroma, smell (of s.th. fried or cooked)’ ↗qutār
    ▪ QTR_4 (QYTR) ‘guitar; lute’: qītār, var. ↗qīṯāraẗ
    ▪ QTR_5 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ …

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘smell or fumes of roasting meat, black smoke, darkness, depression; to be stingy; to be poor; opening in a wall; to group things together’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    qatar‑ قَتَرَ , i (qatr, qutūr
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QTR 
    vb., I 
    to be stingy, tightfisted, niggardly, parsimonious (ʕalà toward s.o.), keep (ʕalà s.o.) short, stint (ʕalà s.o.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    qattara, vb. II, = vb. I: intens.
    ʔaqtara, vb. IV, 1 dto.: intens.; 2 to live in straitened circumstances, be or become poor: denom. from qatr.

    qatr, n., stinginess, niggardliness, parsimony (ʕalà toward): vn. I, perh. the real etymon from which qatara is denom.
    taqtīr, n., stinginess, niggardliness, parsimony (ʕalà toward): vn. II.
    qātir, muqattir, muqtir, adj., stingy, tightfisted, miserly, niggardly, parsimonious (ʕalà toward): PA I, II, IV (respectively).
     
    qataraẗ قَتَرَة 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QTR 
    n.f. 
    dust – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    qutār قُتار 
    ID … • Sw 78 • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QTR 
    n. 
    aroma, smell (of s.th. fried or cooked) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘smoke’) Akk quṭru, Hbr qṭóreṯ, Syr <qiṭrā>, Gz qetārḗ ‘incense’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    QTL قتل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QTL 
    “root” 
    ▪ QTL_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ QTL_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to kill, killing, slaughter; to fight; to put into hardship; to curse; to inquire, to look deeply; to quench a thirst; to be experienced; (of an animal) to be trained; to be worldly wise; to work very hard’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    qatal‑ قَتَلَ 
    ID 679 • Sw 62/82 • BP 639 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QTL 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    QṮː (QṮṮ) قثّ / قثث 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QṮː (QṮṮ) 
    “root” 
    ▪ QṮː (QṮṮ)_1 ‘cucumber’ ↗qiṯṯāʔ
    ▪ QṮː (QṮṮ)_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ QṮː (QṮṮ)_3 ‘…’ ↗

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘cucumbers, cucumber plantation, to grow cucumbers’ 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    … 
    qiṯṯāʔ قِثّاء , var. quṯṯāʔ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QṮː (QṮṮ) 
    n.coll. (n.un. ة) 
    cucumber – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘cucumber’) Akk qiššu, Hbr qiššūʔā, Syr (qaṭṭūṯā), Gz qʷesseyā́t.
     
    … 
    … 
    … 
    QṮR قثر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 28Oct2021
    √QṮR 
    “root” 
    ▪ QṮR_1 (QYṮR) ‘guitar; lute’ ↗qīṯāraẗ
    ▪ QṮR_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    … 
    … 
    … 
    – 
    QḤM قحم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Apr2023
    √QḤM 
    “root” 
    ▪ QḤM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QḤM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QḤM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to rush, plunge, burst into, embark boldly; hardship; to scorn; to pass over; to be aged’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    QDː (QDD) قدّ/قدد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Apr2023
    √ QDː (QDD) 
    “root” 
    ▪ QDː (QDD)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QDː (QDD)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QDː (QDD)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to cut lengthwise, split up, carve out; faction; dried meat; leather strap; height, stature, figure’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    QDḤ قدح 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Apr2023
    √QDḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ QDḤ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QDḤ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QDḤ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘arrow shaft, flint, steel; drinking cup; to strike fire, spark, to spark; to bore, pierce; to censure, reproach’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    QDR قدر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QDR 
    “root” 
    ▪ QDR_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ QDR_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘power, strength, ability, to have power; fate, to decree, to pre-ordain; to reckon, to measure; extent, worth, sum; destruction, to strain, to straiten; cooking-pot’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    qadar قَدَر 
    ID 680 • Sw – • BP 1939 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QDR 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    qidr قِدْر , pl. qudūr 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QDR 
    n.f. (also m.) 
    cooking pot; kettle – Wehr/Cowan 1979 
    Probably a loan-word from Aram qidrā, Syr qedrā ‘pot’, which is perhaps akin to Hbr qāḏar ‘to be dark, be gloomy’ (which in turn seems to be akin to Ar ↗qaḏira ‘to be dirty’). Zimmern considered it »wahrscheinlich« (likely) that the Aram words depend (with metathesis) on Akk diqāru, a kind of ‘bowl with round bottom, for serving and heating’ (CAD). Others do not mention this idea, reconstruct a Sem *ḳidr‑ ‘earthenware’ and, on account also of some (though doubtful) ECh ‘cognates’, reconstruct AfrAs *ḳ˅dur‑ with the likely meaning of ‘clay vessel’ as the word’s ultimate origin. The latter, however, may be related to a hypothetical AfrAs *ḳ˅ḏa/ur‑ ‘to be dirty’ (the cooking pot being called after its bottom which is ‘dirty’ from the fire). 
    ▪ eC7 Q 34:13 yaʕmalūna la-hū mā yašāʔu min maḥārība wa-tamāṯīla wa-ǧifānin ka-’l-ǧawābi wa-qudūrin rāsiyātin ‘they made for him whatever he wanted: palaces and statues, basins as large as water troughs, and cauldrons hard to move’ 
    ▪ Zimmern 1914: Akk diqāru ‘(bowl with round bottom, for serving and heating)’, Aram qidrā, qedrā ‘pot’.
    ▪ In addition to the items given by Zimmern 1914, Zammit 2002 mentions also Hbr qādēr ‘pot’.
    ▪ Orel/Stolbova 1994 #1618 (and Militarev/Stolbova 2007 #277): Hbr qədērā, Aram qidrā, Ar qidr, Ḥrs qeder, Mhr qāder. – Outside Sem: gǝ̀dǝ̀ryá ‘clay pot’, gùdùr ‘big pot’ in 2 in ECh languages. – Cf. also Orel/Stolbova 1994 #1630: Ar qḏr IPFV a, u, with outside Sem cognate in goder ‘faeces, silt’ in 1 ECh language (no longer listed in Militarev/Stolbova 2007). 
    ▪ Zimmern 1914 thinks that Akk diqāru is »probably« the source of Aram qidrā, qedrā, which was borrowed into Ar as qidr, qidraẗ.
    ▪ Klein 1987 lists (all post-BiblHbr) qᵊḏērāh ‘pot’ (from this the dimin. nHbr qᵊḏērîṯ ‘small pot’), qaḏrâ ‘pot’ (from Syr qaḏrâ, related to Hbr qᵊdērāh), qaddār ‘potter’ (n.prof., properly back formation from qᵊdērāh; from qaddār is qaddārûṯ ‘potter’s craft, pottery’). Perhaps akin to Hbr qāḏar ‘to be dark, be gloomy’ (related to Ar ↗qaḏira ‘to be dirty’).
    ▪ Orel/Stolbova 1994 #1618: From the evidence in Sem, the authors reconstruct Sem *ḳidr‑ ‘earthenware’; from the ECh items they derive from ECh *gudur‑ ‘(big/clay) pot’; as an ancestor of both they suggest AfrAs *ḳüdur‑ ‘vessel’. In the internet version in StarLing (The Tower of Babel), Militarev/Stolbova 2007 #277 retain the reconstruction of Sem *ḳidr‑ ‘earthenware’ but add the remark »correspondences doubtful« and set a question mark behind their (slightly modified) reconstruction of AfrAs *ḳ˅dur‑ ‘clay vessel’.
    ▪ Orel/Stolbova 1994 #1630 relates Hbr qdr ‘to be dark to the Ar qḏr (IPFV a, u) ‘to be dirty’, on account of which they hypostasize Sem *ḳ˅ḏar‑ / *ḳ˅ḏur‑ ‘to be dirty’. The latter, they say, is cognate with ECh *g˅ǯwar‑ ‘faeces, silt’. On account of the Ar and the ECh items they reconstruct AfrAs *ḳ˅ǯor‑ ‘dirt, to be dirty’. In the updated internet version, there are no longer AfrAs reconstructions, but only #950 Sem *ḳ˅d˅r‑ ‘to be dirty’ (on account of Hbr qdr ‘to be dark’) and #1793 Sem *ḳ˅ḏar‑ / * ḳ˅ḏur‑ ‘to be dirty’. 
    – 
    qidraẗ, pl. qidar, n., pot; jug: clearly related to qidr, but perhaps borrowed directly from Aram qidrā, Syr qedrā ‘pot’ rather than derived from Ar qidr
    QDS قدس 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QDS 
    “root” 
    ▪ QDS_1 ‘…’ ↗, ‘purity, sanctity…’ ↗qudus
    ▪ QDS_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to go far in the land; holiness, to be holy, blessed, or sacred; to venerate, to be pure, cleanliness’ 
    ▪ From protSem *√QDŠ ‘to be(come) holy, sacred’ – Huehnergard2011.
    … 
    – 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘(ints) to clean, purge, sanctify’) Akk qdš, Hbr qdš, Syr qdš, Gz qds.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Kaddish, from Aram qaddiš ‘holy, sacred’, from qᵊdaš ‘to be(come) holy, sacred’ (so called after the first words of the prayer: yitgaddal wᵊ-yitqaddaš šᵊmeh rabbā ‘may His (God’s) great name be exalted and kept holy’), akin to Ar √QDS. 
    – 
    qudus 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 2Jun2023
    √QDS 
    n. 
    purity, sanctity – Jeffery1938 
    ▪ … 
    eC7 Q ii, 81, 254; v, 109; xvi, 104 
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »We also find al-quddūs an epithet for God, lix, 23; lxii, 1; qaddasa ‘to bless, sanctify’, ii, 28; muqaddas and muqaddasaẗ ‘holy’, ‘sacred’, v, 24; xx, 12; lxxix, 16. / The root is common Sem and would seem to have meant primitively ‘to withdraw, separate’,620 and some of the philologers would derive the meaning of the Qurʔānic words from this sense (cf. Bayḍ. on ii, 28). It has long been recognized, however, that as a technical religious term, this sense is a NSem development, and occurs only as a borrowed sense of the root in SSem.621 Thus Eth [Gz] qaddasa in the sense of ‘holy’ (i.e. qəddus) is a borrowing from Aram, as Nöldeke, Neue Beiträge, 35, shows, and there can be little doubt that Fraenkel, Vocab, 20; Fremdw, 57, is correct in tracing the Ar word to a similar source. Hirschfeld, Beiträge, 39 ff., thinks the Ar use developed under Jewish influence, but the Qurʔānic use is more satisfactorily explained from Christian Aram,622 particularly the rūḥ al-qudus from Syr rūḥā d-qūdšā; while the form quddūs may have come from the Eth [Gz] qəddus (Horovitz, JPN, 218).623 « 
    muqaddas مُقَدَّس 
    ID 681 • Sw – • BP 1639 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QDS 
    adj. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    QDM قدم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QDM 
    “root” 
    ▪ QDM_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ QDM_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘foot; position, rank, leader, to lead; to come, to arrive; front, to advance, fore, in the front; brave, courageous; to precede, to be old, ancient, eternal; to submit’ 
    ▪ From protSem *qadm‑ ‘front, east, earlier time’, with denom. vb., ‘to precede, be in front’ – Huehnergard2011.
    … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘to proceed, precede’) Akk (qudmu ‘past’), Hbr (ints) qdm, Syr qdm a (u), Gz qdm a (e).
    … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl cadmium, Cadmus, from Grk Kadmos, from Phoen *qadm ‘front, east’, akin to Ar √QDM. 
    – 
    qadam قَدَم 
    ID 682 • Sw –/56 • BP 627 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QDM 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    qadīm قَديم 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 499 • APD … • © SG | created 8Jun2023
    √QDM 
    adj. 
    ▪ … 
    taqaddum تَقَدُّم 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 759 • APD … • © SG | created 8Jun2023
    √QDM 
    n. 
    ▪ vn., V 
    QḎF قذف 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Apr2023
    √QḎF 
    “root” 
    ▪ QḎF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QḎF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QḎF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to cast away, throw, shoot; to be fast, run quickly; side, protrusion’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    QRː (QRR) قرّ/قرر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1May2023
    √ QRː (QRR) 
    “root” 
    ▪ QRː (QRR)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QRː (QRR)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QRː (QRR)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘cold, chilliness, to be cold; to abate, settle down, urban areas; to deposit, container, sedimentation; bottom of a ravine, abyss; basis, to decide, decision; to become carefree, become tranquil’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    QRʔ قرأ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QRʔ 
    “root” 
    ▪ QRʔ_1 ‘…’ ↗, ‘reading scripture, Koran’ ↗qurʔān
    ▪ QRʔ_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ QRʔ_3 ‘…’ ↗qrʔ
    ▪ QRʔ_4 ‘…’ ↗qrʔ

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘period, time span, cycle, appointed time; menstruation, menstrual period; to become with child; to add, gather together; to hold, hold in; to recite, read; to match in length’ 
    ▪ From protSem *√QRʔ ‘to call (out), read, summon’ – Huehnergard2011.
    … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl Koranqurʔān
    – 
    qurʔān القُرْآن 
    ID 683 • Sw – • BP 837 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last update 3Jun2023
    √QRʔ 
    n. 
    ▪ a reading from Scripture (Jeffery1938)
    ▪ … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Occurs some seventy times in the Q, e.g. ii, 181; v, 101; vi, 19 – Jeffery1938.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »The root QRʔ in the sense of ‘proclaim, call, recite’ does not occur in Akk nor in SSem as represented by the SAr and Eth [Gz], which leads one to suspect that qaraʔa is a borrowing from the Can-Aram area.624 The root is found in Hbr and Phoen but it is most widely used in the Aram dialects, being found both in the oAram and the EgAram, and in the Nab and Palm inscriptions, as well as in JudAram and Syr.
    The verb qaraʔa is used fairly often in the Qurʔān, and with four exceptions, always in reference to Muḥammad’s own revelation. Of these exceptions in two cases (x, 94; xvii, 95), it is used of other Scriptures, and in two cases (xvii, 73; lxix, 19), of the Books of Fate men will have given them on the Day of Judgment. Thus it is clear that the word is used technically in connection with Heavenly Books.625
    The sense of qaraʔa also is ‘recite’ or ‘proclaim’, that of read only came later.626
    The usual theory is that qurʔān is a verbal noun from this qaraʔa. It is not found earlier than the Qurʔān, so the earlier group of Western scholars was inclined to think that Muḥammad himself formed the word from the borrowed root.627 There is some difficulty about this, however. In the first place the form is curious, and some of the early philologers, such as Qatāda and Abū ʕUbayda derived it from qarana ‘to bring together’, basing their argument on lxxv, 17.628 Others, al-Suyūṭī tells us, were unsatisfied with both these derivations, and said it had no root, being a special name for the Arab’s Holy Book, like Taurah for the Jews or Injīl for the Christians.629 It thus looks as though the word is not native, but an importation into the language.
    Marracci, 53, looked for a Jewish origin, suggesting that it was formed under the influence of the Hbr miqrāʔ in its late sense of ʼreadingʼ, as in Neh. viii, 8, and frequently in the Rabbinic writings. Geiger, 59, supports this view, and Nöldeke in 1860, though inclining to the view that it was a formation from qaraʔa, yet thought that it was influenced by the use of miqrāʔ.630 The tendency of more recent scholarship, however, has been to derive it from the Syr qeryānā which means ‘the Reading’ in the special sense of ‘Scripture lesson.’ In Syr writings it is used in the titles for the Church lessons, and the Lectionary itself is called kᵊtāḇā d-qeryānā. This is precisely the sense we need to illustrate the Qurʔānic usage of the word for portions of Scripture, so there can be little doubt that the word came to Muḥammad from Christian sources.631 «
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Koran, from Ar (al‑)qurʔān ‘(the) reading; Koran’, from qaraʔa ‘to read, recite’. 
     
    QRB قرب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QRB 
    “root” 
    ▪ QRB_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ QRB_2 ‘sacrifice, gift offered to God’ ↗qurbān
    ▪ QRB_3 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘closeness; proximity; to be, or become near; to moderate; kinship, relatives, companions; to hurry; to seek, seek water sources, drive livestock to water sources, waterskin; scabbard, sheath; small boat; sacrifice’. 
    ▪ From protSem *√QRB ‘to be(come) near, draw near’ – Huehnergard2011.
    qurbān, an offering, could be an early borrowing from Syr – BAH2008.
     
    – 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘to approach’) Akk qrb (i/u), Hbr qrb e (a), Syr qrb e (u), Gz qrb – (a).
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    qurbān قُرْبان 
    ID 684 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last update 3Jun2023
    √QRB 
    n. 
    ▪ a sacrifice, gift offered to God – Jeffery1938
    ▪ … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q iii, 179; v, 30.[(cn :: In xlvi, 27, it means ‘favourites of a Prince’ and not sacrifice.) – Jeffery1938.]
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »Both passages have reference to O.T. events, the former to the contest between Elijah and the priests of Baal, and the latter to the offerings of Cain and Abel. Both passages are Madinan. / The Muslim authorities take the word as genuine Arabic, a form fuʕlān from qaraba ‘to draw near’ (Rāġib, Mufradāt, 408). Undoubtedly it is derived from a root QRB ‘to draw near, approach’, but in the sense of oblation it is an Aram development, and borrowed thence into the other languages. In OAram we find qrb in this sense, and the Targumic qrbnʔ, Syr qurbānā are of very common use. From the Aram it was borrowed into Eth [Gz] as qʷərbān (Nöldeke, Neue Beiträge, 37), and the [SAr] qrbn of the SAr inscriptions is doubtless of the same origin.632 / Hirschfeld, Beiträge, 88, would derive the Ar word from the Hbr,633 but Sprenger, Leben, i, 108, had already indicated that it was more likely from the Aram and the probabilities seem to point to its being from the Syr.634 It must have been an early borrowing as it occurs in the early literature.«
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    QRḤ قرح 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1May2023
    √QRḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ QRḤ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QRḤ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QRḤ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘wound, sore, ulcer, skin eruption, abscess; to invent, initiate, suggest; intellect, the innate disposition; pure’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    QRD قرد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1May2023
    √QRD 
    “root” 
    ▪ QRD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QRD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QRD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘balls of tangled wool, to coagulate; ticks, to remove ticks; to deceive; to subdue, humiliate; monkey; to earn one’s living’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    QRŠ قرش 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QRŠ 
    “root” 
    ▪ QRŠ_1 ‘to gnash, grind (one’s teeth); to nibble, crunch, chew’ ↗¹qaraša
    ▪ QRŠ_2 ‘to assemble; rich, well-to-do’ ↗²qaraša
    ▪ QRŠ_3 ‘cottage cheese’ ↗qarīšaẗ, ↗²qaraša
    ▪ QRŠ_4 ‘shark’ ↗¹qirš
    ▪ QRŠ_5 ‘piaster’ ↗²qirš
    ▪ QRŠ_6 ‘(the tribe of) Quraysh’ ↗Qurayš

    Other values, now obsolete, include:
    • QRŠ_7 ‘(esp.) gladiolus, kind of reed or cane’: qarīš – Dozy 1881
    • QRŠ_.. ‘…’:

    BAH2008: ‘1 to crunch, gnash, fracture; (1b?) to partake of fook sparsely; 2 gathering, to earn money, make a living; (2b?)3 to duel, stabbing; 4 shark’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    qaraš‑ قَرَشَ (disambig.) 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QRŠ 
    “root” 
    ▪ qaraša_1 ‘to gnash, grind (one’s teeth); to nibble, crunch, chew’ ↗qaraša_1
    ▪ qaraša_2 ‘to gather, assemble; rich, well-to-do’ ↗qaraša_2
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ¹qaraš‑ قَرَشَ , i , u (qarš
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QRŠ 
    vb., I 
    to gnash, grind (one’s teeth); to nibble, crunch, chew – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    … 
    ²qaraš‑ قَرَشَ , i (qarš
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QRŠ 
    vb., I 
    to earn money, make a living – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    … 
    qirš قِرْش (disambig.) 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QRŠ 
    n. 
    ▪ qirš_1 ‘shark’ ↗¹qirš
    ▪ qirš_2 ‘piaster (0,01 £E)’ ↗²qirš
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    … 
    ¹qirš قِرْش 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QRŠ 
    n. 
    1 shark (zool.); 2qirš_2 – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    ²qirš قِرْش , pl. qurūš 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QRŠ 
    n. 
    1 ↗¹qirš . – 2 piaster – WehrCowan1979. 
    The Ar sg. qirš is a secondary formation from what was interpreted as a pl., namely qurūš, the standard unit of currency in the Ottoman Empire until 1844 (Tu ḳurūş). Originally, this word was not a pl. but a sg., derived from (Bohemian) G Groschen < Chech groš < lLat (dēnārius) grossus ‘thick dinar’ (> It grosso, Fr gros) (EI¹, Kluge2008). In the Ottoman Empire, the thick silver coin replaced the earlier akçe during the reign of Mustafa II. (1686-1697) (Nişanyan 23Dec2014). When also the ḳurūş was devaluated, it was made into a sub-devision of the ↗līraẗ (1 ₤ equalling 100 ḳurūş). 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
    qarraša, vb. II: ~ al-darāhim, compter les piastres (qurūš) qui se trouvent parmi l’argent (Dozy 1881): denom.; cf., however, also s.v. ↗qaraša_2.
     
    qarīš قَرِيش , var. qarīšaẗ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QRŠ 
    n. 
    ǧibn qarīš (EgAr): a kind of cottage cheese – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    … 
    Qurayš قُريْش 
    ID 685 • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QRŠ 
    n.prop.gent. 
    Koreish, name of an Arab tribe in ancient Mecca – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q 106:1 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »The philologers differ considerably among themselves over the origin of the name of this tribe. The popular etymology was that they were so called from their trading and profiting (cf. Zam. on the verse and Ibn Hishām, 60). Others derived it from a vb. taqarraša ‘to gather together’ [cf. ↗qaraša_2 ], holding that they were so called from their gathering or assembling at Mecca (cf. LA, viii, 226; Yāqūt, Muʕjam, iv, 79). Another theory derived the name from a tribal ancestor, Qurayš b. Maḫlad, but as it does not explain this name it does not help us much.635 – The most satisfactory theory is that which derives the word from qarš ‘shark’636 [↗qarš_1 ], cf. Zam. on the verse and LA, viii, 226. This is scoffed at by Yāqūt, but is accepted by al-Ṭabarī and al-Damīrī,637 and it may well have been a totemistic tribal name. Nöldeke, Beiträge, 87, accepts this qarš theory, and links the word with the Aram כרשא which occurs in the Talmud, Baba bathra, 74a, for a kind of fish, which Lewysohn thinks means the ‘sun-fish’,638 and would derive from the Pers ḫôršîd. It is true that Pers ḫôreš means ‘something eatable’, but ḫôršîd is from the Av hvārə-ḫšaetəm, meaning ‘sol-splendidus’,639 and has apparently nothing to do with fish of any kind. Nöldeke suggests with much more probability that it is a shortened form of the Grk karḫarías,640 a word which is used for a kind of small shark with pointed teeth, and which Nicander the Colophonian641 said was used also for a lamia or a squill.«
    ▪ … 
    – 
    qurašī, adj., of, pertaining to, or belonging to the Koreish tribe; Koreishite: nsb-adj.
     
    QRṢ قرص 
    ID.. • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QRṢ 
    “root” 
    ▪ QRṢ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ QRṢ_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ QRṢ_3 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ QRṢ_4 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ QRṢ_.. ‘prunes (EgAr); small, black plums (syr.)’ ↗qarāṣiyaẗ
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘to pinch, tweak’) Akk (krṣ (i)), Hbr qrṣ, Syr qrṣānē ‘frost’, Gz qrṣ a (e) ‘to cut, incise’.
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    qarāṣiyaẗ قَراصِيَة , var. qarāṣiyā (eg. also qarāsiyā
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QRṢ, QRāṢY 
    n.f. 
    n. prunes (EgAr); small, black plums (syr.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Rolland2015: Ar qa/urāṣiyaẗ ‘small plum, cherry, cornel cherry’ (meaning varies acc. to region and author) is probably from Grk kerásion ‘cherry’, discussed in entry ↗karaz ‘cherry’. 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    See section CONCISE, above. 
    – 
    – 
    QRḌ قرض 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1May2023
    √QRḌ 
    “root” 
    ▪ QRḌ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QRḌ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QRḌ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘cutting, clipping, to cut; to become extinct; to gnaw, nibble; shavings, sawdust; loan, to loan; to slander; to skirt, avoid; poetry, to make poetry’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    QRṬS قرطس 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1May2023, last update 17May2023
    √QRṬS 
    “root” 
    ▪ QRṬS_1 ‘paper’ ↗qirṭās
    ▪ QRṬS_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QRṬS_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘paper, parchment; strong young she-ʕamel; tall, fair young woman; to hit the mark’ 
    ▪ [v1] BAH2008: It has been suggested that qirṭās came to Ar through Gz and Syr. In contrast, Rolland2014 (s.v. ḫarīṭaẗ) thinks the item is from Grk χártēs ‘papyrus role’ [perh., with metathesis, from Eg sḫr.t ‘bundle of papyrus roles, scroll’ – S.G.]
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    qirṭās قِرْطاس , pl. qarāṭīsᵘ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1May2023, last update 17May2023
    √QRṬS 
    n. 
    1 paper; 2 sheet of paper; 3 paper bag – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ Rolland2014 (s.v. ḫarīṭaẗ) : ḫarīṭaẗ ‘carte (de géographie)’ et q˅rṭās ‘cahier, feuille, papier’ « [s]eraient tous deux issus – directement ou via les formes latinisées carta et chart – du Grk χártēs ‘rouleau de papyrus’ [perh., with metathesis, from Eg sḫr.t ‘bundle of papyrus roles, scroll’ – S.G.]. C’est l’opinion de Rajki, confirmé par Nişanyan. [Cette voie d’] emprunt semble avéré pour qarṭās […] ».
    ▪ For a more detailed, and prob. more accurate, view, see Jeffery1928 in section DISC, below.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »In both passages [Q 6:7, 91] the reference is to the material on which the Divine revelations were written down. The Muslim authorities make little effort to explain the word. Some recognized it as a foreign word,642 a fact which indeed is apparent from the uncertainty that existed as to its spelling.643 It was evidently an early borrowing, for it occurs in the old poetry, and probably came to the Arabs from their more cultured Northern neighbours. Von Kremer suggested that it was from the Grk χártē,644 but Sachau645 and Fraenkel646 are nearer the mark in thinking that χártēs is the form behind qirṭās, especially as this form is found also in the Arm k‘artēs647 and the Aram qarṭīsā.648 / It is not likely that the word came directly from the Grk, and Fraenkel, Fremdw, 245, thought that it came through the Aram649 meaning a paper or document, as in Levit. Rabba, 34. / Mingana, Syriac Influence, 89, prefers to derive it through the Syr qarṭīsā which occurs beside karṭīsā, the source of the Eth [Gz] kərtās. It is really impossible to decide, though the fact that Ṭarafaẗ, in his Muʕallaqaẗ, 1.31, seems to look on qirṭās as something peculiarly Syrian, may count in favour of Mingana’s claim.« 
    qarṭas, n., 1 paper; 2 sheet of paper 
    QRʕ قرع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1May2023
    √QRʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ QRʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QRʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QRʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘boldness; to knock, strike; to reproach; to fight; to cast a lot, calamity, disaster and adversity; pumpkin’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    QRF قرف 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1May2023
    √QRF 
    “root” 
    ▪ QRF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QRF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QRF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘tree bark, to peel off the bark; to kill, eradicate; to earn, earnings; to commit a sin, commit a crime, slander, accuse; to be worthy of s.th.; to be loatsome’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    QRMZ قرمز 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QRMZ 
    “root” 
    ▪ QRMZ_1 ‘kermes; crimson, carmine; scarlet’ ↗qirmiz
    ▪ QRMZ_2 ‘…’ ↗…
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Cf. ↗qirmiz
    – 
    qirmiz قِرْمِز 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QRMZ 
    n. 
    kermes (the dried bodies of the female kermes insect, coccus ilicis, which yield a red dyestuff) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ From Skr kṛ́mi-jā ‘(red dye) produced by a worm’, composed of kṛ́mi-ḥ ‘worm’ (from IE *kʷrmi‑ ‘worm’) and ‑jā‑ ‘produced’ (from IE *gene‑).
    ▪ The Ar word is (via mLat and It) at the origin of Engl kermes and crimson as well as related words in many other Eur langs.
    ▪ The shield-louse was esteemed »from ancient times as a source of red and scarlet dye. The dye is harvested from pregnant females, which in that state resemble small roundish grains about the size of peas and cling immobile to the tree on which they live« (a species of oak, the kermes oak). »Cloths dyed with kermes are of a deep red colour; and though much inferior in brilliancy to the scarlet cloths dyed with real Mexican cochineal, they retain the colour better and are less liable to stain. The tapestries of Brussels and other parts of Flanders, which have scarcely lost any thing of their original brilliancy, even after a lapse of 200 years, were all dyed with kermes«118EtymOnline
    ▪ … 
    … 
    Rolland2014a: Ar qirmiz ‘carmin, cramoisi; kermès, alkermès’, from Skr kṛ́mi-jā »‘né du ver’ qui, selon la sorte de ver, désigne la soie ou la couleur rouge issue de la cochenille’« < IE *kʷrmi- ‘worm’ 
    ▪ Ar qirmiz ‘kermes’ was loaned into mLat as cremesinus ‘id.’, whence it spread into several Eur langs, cf. It carmesino, cremisino, carminio, Fr cramoisi, carmin, Span carmesí, carmín, quérmes, Port carmesim, carmim, Rum cărmîz (forms in -in under the influence of Lat minium); Du karmezijn, karmozijn, karmijn, Engl kermes ‘shield louse’, Ge karmin; Ru karmin, karmazin, Pol karmazyn ‘scarlet-red’, kiermes, alkiermes ‘ kermes, cochenille’, Cz karmazin, Ukr karmazyn, Serb grimiz ‘purpur red’, Bulg kъrmъz, Lokotsch1927#1219.
    ▪ Engl kermes (n.) ‘shield louse’, c1600, of the insect preparation used as a dye, etc.; 1590 s of the species of oak on which the insects live. »Kermes dyes have been found in burial wrappings in Anglo-Scandinavian York, but the use of kermes dyes seems to have been lost in Europe from the Dark Ages until eC15. It fell out of use again with the introduction of cochineal from the New World« –
    .
    ▪ Engl crimson (n.), eC15, ‘deep red color’, from oSpan cremesin ‘of or belonging to the kermes’ (the shield-louse insects from which a deep red dye was obtained), from mLat cremesinus (see kermes). For similar transfer of the dye word to generic use for ‘red’, compare oChSlav čruminu, Ru čermnyj ‘red’, from the same source –
    .
    ▪ Cf. also Tu kırmızı (first mentioned 1303 as cremizi in the Codex Cumanicus) – NişanyanSözlük (03Aug2015). 
    Medieval Ar dictionaries “present [for the root qrns/ṣ ] a bewildering jumble of meanings with no common denominator” (Heinrichs1997) and no relation to architecture. Cf. Kazimirski1860 [practically identical with Freytag1835]: qarnas 1) ‘muer (se dit d’un oiseau de proie)’. 2) ‘Courir avec rapidité pour fuir, et avoir alors les plumes du collier en désordre (se dit d’un coq au retour d’und combat)’. 3) ‘Avoir le chaperon sur les yeux, avoir les yeux bandés (se dit d’un oiseau de proie avant qu’on le lance sur la proie)’. qirnis = qirnās 2. – qirnās 1) ‘rocher saillant et formant une fointe de terre’. 2) ‘Qui a les côtés du ventre très-saillants (chamelle)’. [3) Freytag1835: ‘Locus ubi deciduum gossipium in fila ducitur’. Kam. ] – qarānīsᵘ pl. ‘Les premiers flots du torrent qui arrivent charriant des débris et des fétus’. – muqarnas ‘Qui forme des retraits, qui est en étagère, en escalier (toit, etc.)’. [Freytag1835: ‘Scalae formam habens tectum. Kam. (Quod in quibusdam Kamusi exemplaribus sayf gladius pro saqf legitur, vitiosum est. ]’ // qarnaṣ‑ 1) = qarnas‑2. 2) ‘Se procurer, acheter un faucon pour la chasse’. 3) ‘Être acheté pour la chasse (se dit d’un faucon)’. – qurnūṣ pl. qarānīṣᵘ 1) ‘Couture à l’empeigne de la bottine’. 2) ‘La partie antérieure, le devant d’une bottine’. – Of these, Lane vii (1885) has only qarnaṣa al-bāzī [acc] ‘he acquired for himself, permanently, for the chase, the hawk, or falcon (Ṣ, Ḳ, TA), by tying it up in order that its feathers might drop off (TA)’; [intrans.] q. al-bāzī [nom] ‘the hawk, or falcon, became a permanent acquisition’; bāz muqarnaṣ ‘a hawk, or falcon, permanently acquired for the chase (Ṣ, TA), by the means mentioned under qarnaṣ‑’. – Dozy gives also qurnās (aram. qôrnēs) ‘marteau’. – muqarnas ‘sorte de faucon’. – qaranṣaẗ (esp.) ‘pointe de fer longue et aiguë qu’on met aux colliers des gros chiens’ 
    ▪ C5 (‘cloves’) Imruʔ al-Qays (describing the smell of his beloved) ʔiḏā qāmatā taḍawwaʕa l-misku min-humā * nasīma ṣ-ṣabā, ǧāʔat bi-rayyā l-qaranfuli.
    ▪ …
     
    – (loanword) 
    ▪ See above, section CONC, and below, section WEST.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Tu karanfil ‘clove; carnation’: first attested as (‘cloves’) in 1069 [Kutadgu Bilig],21 later also as name of the flower (‘carnation’): 1680 [Meninski, Thesaurus]: »ḳarenfil, ḳarenfül = Caryophyllum; item flos caryophyllus, leucoion«. Tietze iv 2016 assumes an origin of the Tu word in Grk karyópʰyllon, but Nişanyan’s version sounds more plausibleː he thinks it is from Ar~Pers qaranful (1) ‘clove’, name of a spice originating from East Indian islands, syzygium aromaticum’; (2) ‘carnation’, name of a plant/garden flower (dianthus caryophyllus) whose smell and petals remind of cloves’, [ultimately] from some Ind language – NişanyanSözlük (14Mar2020).
    ▪ According to Nişanyan, Grk karyóphyllon ‘clove’ (from which many Eur words for ‘cloves’ and ‘carnation’ seem to have been borrowed) is either directly from an Ind language or was transmitted via Pers. Following LiddellScott, Nişanyan gives “C6” as earliest attestation of the Grk term. As a flower, carnation came to Europe after 1270 via Arab countries.
    ▪ Lokotsch1927 #1085 considers Pers karanfīl ‘cloves’ (which, accord. to the author, prob. is from Skr) as the source (with popular etymological re-interpretation) of Grk karyópʰyllon [*nut-tree leaves].22 The Grk term gave It garofano, Sic galofaru ‘carnation’, Fr girofle ‘id.’, giroflée ‘stock, gillyflower’, Prov Cat Span girofle, Port girofre ‘carnation’, Rum garoufă, carofil, garofil, Bulg kalamfir, karamfil, Serb karamfil. From Fr girofle emerged Engl gilliflower (with interpretation of the second component as flower), and even Juliflower (with misinterpretation of gilli‑ as July‑). In Ge, the Aachen dial. knows Groffelsnagel for ‘cloves’ (with -nagel likening the form of cloves to small ‘nail’s).
    ▪ Fr girofle: C12 gerofle (Gloss. de Tours, “gariofilum = g.”), 1165 girofle, 1225-30 (clos de) girofle, from Lat caryophyllum (-on) ‘giroflier, clou de girofle’, transcription of Grk χαρυόφυλλον ‘clou de girofle’, « qui était peut-être une adaptation d’un terme exotique, v. Chantraine, s.v. χάρυον), également attesté sous la forme gariofilum (C6), gariofolum; le développement phon. irrég. du mot peut sexpliquer par le fait que ce terme, avec l’épice qu’il désignait, s’est très largement répandu à travers les pays par l’intermédiaire des marchands » – https://www.cnrtl.fr/etymologie/girofle
    ▪ Is also Engl carnation related? EtymOnline does not mention any connection with Grk karyópʰyllon: »common name of the Dianthus Caryophyllus or ‘pink’, a herbaceous perennial flowering plant; 1530s, a word of uncertain origin. The early forms are confused; perhaps (on evidence of spellings) it is a corruption of coronation, from the flower’s being used in chaplets or from the toothed crown-like look of the petals. Or it might be called for its pinkness and derive from Fr carnation ‘person’s colour or complexion’ (C15), which probably is from It dialectal carnagione ‘flesh colour’, from lLat carnationem (nom. carnatio) ‘fleshiness’, from Lat caro ‘flesh’ (originally ‘a piece of flesh’, from IE root ¹*sker- ‘to cut’). OED points out that not all the flowers are this colour. This Fr carnation had been borrowed separately into Engl as ‘colour of human flesh’ (1530s) and as an adj. meaning ‘flesh-coloured’ (1560s; the earliest use of the word in Engl was to mean ‘the incarnation of Christ’, mC14). It also was a term in painting for ‘representation of the flesh, nude or undraped parts of a figure’ (1704). / The flowering plant is native to southern Europe but was widely cultivated from ancient times for its fragrance and beauty, and was abundant in Normandy« – EtymOnline. Nevertheless, we would suspect an involvement of Grk karyópʰyllon, prob. corrupted and re-interpreted according to what sounded plausible and at the same time exotic enough.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    QRW قرو 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QRW 
    “root” 
    ▪ QRW_1 ‘water trough’ ↗qarw
    ▪ QRW_2 ‘to follow up, investigate, check’ ↗taqarrà, ↗ĭstaqrà

    In addition to these values, ClassAr has also:

    ▪ QRW_3 ‘to approach s.o.; to betake o.s., wend o.’s way, turn to’
    ▪ QRW_4 ‘back’ (n.)
    ▪ QRW_5 ‘manner, mode; custom’
    ▪ QRW_6 ‘to collect, store’
    ▪ QRW_7 ‘hydrocele, hernia, orchiocele/scrotal hernia’.

    Partial overlap with ↗QRY.

    Not related but loanword: ↗qayrawān ‘caravan’. 

    ▪ The two main/basic values of QRW seem to be [v3] ‘to approach, turn to’ and [v4] ‘back’ (n.), both obsolete in MSA. The other values probably either depend on one of these two, or on a value of ↗QRY (with which QRW items often overlap).
    ▪ [v1] ‘water trough’ : probably from ↗QRY rather than QRW.
    ▪ [v2] ‘to follow up, investigate, check’ : probably dependent on [v3] ‘to approach, turn to’, but perhaps also from QRY_2 ‘settlement’ (↗qaryaẗ) or from QRY_4 ‘to flow together’ (*‘to range the country in search of a standpost’ > ‘to check out’, ↗QRY).
    ▪ Any connection between [v3] ‘to approach, turn to’ and [v4] ‘back’ (n.) which are likely to be the primary values of √QRW ?
    ▪ [v4] ‘back’ (n.) and [v5] ‘manner, custom’ obviously have no successor MSA.
    ▪ The same holds true for [v6] ‘to collect, store’ and [v7] ‘hydrocele, hernia, orchiocele’. In addition, these two derive from ↗QRY rather than from QRW. 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ [v1] ‘water trough’ probably belongs to the notion of ‘flowing together, collecting’ (of water, sap, etc.), treated under ↗QRY, rather than to any of the QRW values. Especially, it could also be thought to be at the origin of ↗qarà ‘to receive hospitably, treat as a guest’ (< give to drink to the animals from a trough, or to the guest from a cup or bowl).
    ▪ [v2] ‘to follow’ is usually thought to derive from [v3] ‘to approach, turn to’ and grouped here accordingly (as also in many dictionaries of MSA and ClassAr) under QRW. But since forms V and X of 3ae inf. vb.s do not distinguish between w and y as R3, 650 these items may just as well be denom. from ↗QRY_2 ‘settlement’ (*‘to turn from one ↗qaryaẗ to the next’) or from ↗QRY_4 ‘to flow together’ (*‘to range the country in search of a standpost’ > ‘to check out’).
    ▪ [v3] ‘to approach s.o.; to betake o.s., wend o.’s way, turn to’ is mentioned as the first value of vb. I qarā, u, in ClassAr dictionaries. Cf., however, also the vb. I qarà, i, ‘to travel from land to land’, traditionally grouped under QRY.
    ▪ [v4] ‘back (of an animal etc.)’ has become obsolete in MSA, but is represented in ClassAr by items like qaran قرا (det. ‑ā, pl. ʔaqrāʔ ‘back’, vb. IV ʔaqrà ‘to to have pain in the back; to keep the saddlecloth on the back of an animal’, qarawān ‘back, middle part of the back’, qarwāʔᵘ ‘qui a le dos très-long; qui a la bosse très-allongée (chamelle); derrière, fesses’. Relation to [v3] ‘to approach s.o.; to betake o.s., wend o.’s way, turn to’ unclear.
    ▪ [v5] ‘manner, custom’: obsolete in MSA, but cf. ClassAr qarw ‘manière, façon, mode’ (as in raʔaytuhum ʕalà qarwin wāḥidin ‘je les ai trouvés suivant tous les mêmes usages (ou la même manière de vivre)’, qarwāʔᵘ ‘habitude, coutume’. Related to [v3] ‘to follow up, search’ (in the sense of ‘to follow s.o.’s habits’? Relation to [v4] ‘back’ seems unlikely.
    ▪ [v6] ‘to collect, to store’ (as in qaran, det. ‑ā, pl. ʔaqrāʔ, n., ‘courge vidée dans laquelle on conserve des mets’) is treated under QRY.
    ▪ [v7] ‘hydrocele, hernia, orchiocele/scrotal hernia’ [ClassAr qarw ‘gonflement du scrotum’; vb. I qarā, u, ‘se gonfler, être enflé (se dit du scrotum affecté d’un hydrocèle ou d’un sarcocèle)’, vb. X ĭstaqrà ‘être rempli, gonflé de pus (se dit d’un abcès)’] obviously builds on the notion of ‘collecting, flowing together’ and is therefore treated under QRY. 
    – 
    – 
    qarw قرْو , pl. quruww 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QRW 
    n. 
    watering trough – WehrCowan1979. 
    It seems that the original meaning is *‘place where water (etc.) collects’, flowing together and “meeting” in some vessel. Should this be correct, then the word belongs to other items treated under ↗√QRY, not ↗√QRW (where it is usually grouped). Thus, it may be akin to ‘hospitality’ (↗qarà) and ‘village, town’ (↗qaryaẗ). 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ The main/original values of √QRW under which the word usually is grouped seem to be ↗[QRW_3] ‘to approach s.o.; to betake o.s., wend o.’s way, turn to’ and ↗[QRW_4] ‘back’ (n.). qarw ‘watering trough’ does not seem to belong to any of these two.
    ▪ In ClassAr, the word also means (inter al.) ‘aquae receptaculum longum, ad quod cameli veniunt (e quo pulli potantur) / abreuvoir, bassin / water vessel for the camel foals; via s[ive] canalis, per quem succus uvarum expressus effluit e torculare / tuyau ou conduit par lequel s’écoule le suc du raisin exprimé dans le pressoir; inferior pars palmae quae perforatur, ut in ea vinum paretur / tronc de palmier creusé dans lequel on fait du vin; espèce d’ auge faite d’un tronc de palmier; crater potui inserviens / vase h boire, coupe; poculum, […] vas parvum; magnitudo scrotorum ob ventum aliave de causa (hernia) / gonflement du scrotum / hydrocele, rupture of the testicles’; 651 All of these have the notion of water (juice, etc.) collecting, i.e., flowing together and “meeting”, in some place. Should this be correct, then the word belongs to what is treated under ↗√QRY, not ↗√QRW.
    ▪ If belonging to √QRY, which with all likelihood is from a WSem *QR(Y) ‘to meet’, then qarw is probably akin to ‘hospitality’ (↗qarà) and ‘village, town’ (↗qaryaẗ).
    ▪ The vb. ↗qarà, i, ‘to receive hospitably, treat as a guest’ may even be denominative from qarw in the meaning of ‘drinking bowl, pot’. 
    – 
    ḫašab qarw, n., oak (wood)  
    taqarrà تَقَرَّى , taqarray‑ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QRW 
    vb., V 
    to follow up, investigate, inquire (into); to check, verify – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Together with vb. X (↗ĭstaqrà), the vb. V taqarrà is one of the last remnants of what in ClassAr is still a larger semantic complex (‘to follow up, search, investigate’), which may be fig. use of an original value ‘to travel across the country, strive from place to place’ (in search for water?).
    ▪ Relation to other items of ↗√QRW and/or ↗√QRY not clear. 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ Dictionaries are not clear about where vbs. V and X belong. Some group them under QRW, others under QRY, yet others show a doubling.
    ▪ EtymArab follows Wehr (and the majority of ClassAr dictionaries) in making the item dependent on ↗QRW_3 ‘to approach s.o.; to betake o.s., wend o.’s way, turn to’, as attested in ClassAr qarā, u (qarw) ‘to tend to, go to; travel from one country to another; follow up a thing with perseverance’ and vb. VIII ĭqtarà ‘to strive after with perseverance’.
    ▪ However, semantics would not exclude a derivation from ↗QRY_2 ‘village, small town’ (↗qaryaẗ) or ↗QRY_4 ‘to flow together; place where water (or juice etc.) flows together; bassin, reservoir, pool, etc.’ (both ultimately from a WSem *QR or *QRY ‘to come together, meet’). If from qaryaẗ, the original meaning would be ‘to travel from one settlement to another’, perhaps in search of a place where one might be received hospitably (↗QRY_1). If from ‘to flow together’, it would be derived as ‘to strive the country in search of places where water collects’. 
    – 
     
    ĭstaqrà اِسْتَقْرَى , ĭstaqray‑ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QRW 
    vb., X 
    to follow (s.th.); to pursue (e.g., a problem); to examine, study, investigate; to explore – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Together with vb. V (↗taqarrà), the vb. X ĭstaqrà and its derivations are the last remnants of what in ClassAr is still a larger semantic complex (‘to follow up, search, investigate’) which may be fig. use of an original value ‘to travel across the country, strive from place to place’ (in search for water?).
    ▪ Relation to other items of ↗√QRW and/or ↗√QRY not clear. 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ Dictionaries are not clear about where vbs. V and X belong. Some group them under QRW, others under QRY, yet others show a doubling.
    ▪ EtymArab follows Wehr (and the majority of ClassAr dictionaries) in making the item dependent on ↗QRW_3 ‘to approach s.o.; to betake o.s., wend o.’s way, turn to’, as attested in ClassAr qarā, u (qarw) ‘to tend to, go to; travel from one country to another; follow up a thing with perseverance’ and vb. VIII ĭqtarà ‘to strive after with perseverance’.
    ▪ However, semantics would not exclude a derivation from ↗QRY_2 ‘village, small town’ (↗qaryaẗ) or ↗QRY_4 ‘to flow together; place where water (or juice etc.) flows together; bassin, reservoir, pool, etc.’ (both ultimately from a WSem *QR or *QRY ‘to come together, meet’). If from qaryaẗ, the original meaning would be ‘to travel from one settlement to another, strive the country for places’, perhaps in search of a place where one might be received hospitably (↗QRY_1). If from ‘to flow together’, it would be derived as ‘to strive the country in search of places where water collects’. 
    – 
    ĭstiqrāʔ, n., study (of s.th.), investigation, exploration: vn. X; induction (philos.): specialization as term.techn.; see also under ↗qaraʔa.
    ĭstiqrāʔī, adj., inductive (philos.): nsb-adj from vn. X in its specialized meaning.
     
    QRY قري 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QRY 
    “root” 
    ▪ QRY_1 ‘to receive hospitably, entertain’ : ↗qarà
    ▪ QRY_2 ‘village, small town’ : ↗qaryaẗ
    ▪ QRY_3 ‘yard (naut.)’ : ↗qariyyaẗ

    In addition to these values, ClassAr has also:

    QRY_4 ‘to flow together; place where water (or juice etc.) flows together; bassin, reservoir, pool, trough, cup’
    QRY_5 ‘(kind of auspicious bird); hence good omen; generous person’
    QRY_6 ‘to collect, store’
    QRY_7 ‘to travel across the country, perambulate (in search or pursuit of s.th.)’
    QRY_8 ‘to follow with o.’s eyes, observe’
    ▪ There is also partial overlapping with ↗QRW.

    Not related but loanword:
    qayrawān ‘caravan’.

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘hole in the root of a palm tree where the sap collects; to offer hospitality; to travel; to investigate; to collect, to store; village, town, city’ 
    ▪ With Huehnergard2011, we tend to trace [v1] through [v6] back to a WSem *QR(Y) ‘to come together, meet’, while [v7] and [v8] seem to depend more on Ar √QRW ‘to approach, turn to, follow’. But given the many overlappings of QRW and QRY, the situation is not at all clear. QRY_2 ‘village, small town’ (qaryaẗ) and QRY_3 ‘yard (naut.)’ (qariyyaẗ) may be inner-Sem borrowings (Ar < Syr). 
    – 
    ▪ BDB1906: Hbr qārā ‘to encounter, meet, befall’, cf. also qārā̈h ‘chance, accident’, qərī ‘misfortune, (specif.) (nightly) pollution’ (so also Aram qiryūṯā, Syr qeryā). 
    ▪ Previous research regards both Ar qaryaẗ ‘village, small town’ [v2] and qariyyaẗ ‘yard (naut.)’ [v3] as loans from Syr, while it remains silent on the complex of ‘treating a guest, receiving hospitably’ [v1].
    ▪ A look into dictionaries of ClassAr makes clear that given the large semantic variety within √QRY (and the partially overlapping ↗√QRW), we are obviously dealing with a very old root and therefore have to reckon with a high degree of diversification and complexity.
    ▪ Treating items of [v2], Huehnergard2011 suggested the meaning ‘to meet’ as the basic value of a WSem vb. *qr or *qry, cf. Hbr qārā ‘to encounter, meet, befall’. BDB connects the latter to ClassAr qarā, u, ‘to go, seek earnestly’ (↗QRW, ↗taqarrà, ↗ĭstaqrà) as well as to qarà, i, ‘to receive hospitably (as a guest)’ (and also Gz ʔaqāraya ‘to present, offer as a sacrifice’). Should this be correct, then both [v1] and [v2] would derive from this notion of ‘meeting, coming together’: ‘hospitality’ as s.th. that is (to be) applied when people ‘meet’, and ‘village, town’ as a place where people come together. [v3] ‘yard’ (of a sailship), too, has been interpreted as ultimately going back to the idea of beams or planks ‘meeting’ each other (↗qariyyaẗ).
    ▪ ClassAr also has the notion of ‘to meet’, though only in the specialized form of [v4] ‘water running down a hill and collecting (= meeting) in a meadow’, or ‘hole in the root of a palm tree where the sap collects (i.e., meets)’. Cf. also:652 qarà, i, ‘to collect water in a reservoir’, qiran, ‑à, ‘eau recueillie et ramassée dans le réservoir’, muqtarin, ‑ī, ‘s.o. who collects water in a reservoir’653 , qariyy (pl. quryān) ‘endroit au bas d’une hauteur où s’amasse l’eau qui descend des hauteurs; canal, ruisseau par lequel l’eau descend des collines’,654 maqran, ‑à, ‘lieu où l’on ramasse l’eau, réservoir’, miqrāẗ ‘grand réservoir d’eau’. To this complex belongs also (usually assigned to ↗QRW, not QRY) the n. qarw (pl. ʔaqrāʔ, ʔaqrin / ‑ī, ʔaqruwaẗ, quriyy) ‘abreuvoir, bassin; long water vessel approached by camels / for camel foals;655 tuyau ou conduit par lequel s’écoule le suc du raisin exprimé dans le pressoir / outlet of a wine-press; tronc de palmier creusé dans lequel on fait du vin; espèce d’ auge faite d’un tronc de palmier; vase à boire, coupe; petite auge dans laquelle on donne à boire aux chiens / trough to feed dogs’, and perhaps also [v5] qāriyaẗ, qāriyyaẗ ‘sorte d’oiseau aux jambes courtes, au bec long et au plumage du dos vert, qui présage la pluie’ (= *‘the one making the clouds meet and rain’?).656 . As another kind of ‘flowing together’ (= meeting) could be conceived the n. qarw ‘gonflement du scrotum / hydrocele, hernia, orchiocele/scrotal hernia’.657
    ▪ From the intr. ‘flowing together / meeting’ may be the more general trans. [v6] *‘to collect, store’, as in the vb. qarà, i, ‘to chew the cud, have an inflated cheek from storing the cud in the mouth (camel)’ and the n. (usually derived from QRW) qaran, ‑ā (pl. ʔaqrāʔ) ‘courge vidée dans laquelle on conserve des mets’.
    ▪ ClassAr also has the PA I f. qāriyaẗ with the meaning ‘settlement’ and this is explained as al-miṣr al-jāmiʕ ‘the city/town that brings together, collects, unites (sc. people)’, i.e., derived from [v6]. Should this be, against all previous assumptions, the etymon of qaryaẗ (qāriyaẗ > *qā̆ryaẗ > qaryaẗ)? The same would of course be thinkable if qāriyaẗ was not *‘the one (sc. settlement) that brings together’ but (from [v1]) *‘the hospitable one, (settlement) that receives strangers hospitably’.
    ▪ [v1] ‘hospitality’ itself is perhaps not from [v4] *‘to meet’ but from ‘bowl’ (i.e., *‘to entertain a guest with s.th. to drink, offered to him in a bowl’).
    ▪ [v7] and [v8] are treated as belonging to ↗QRW_3 rather than to QRY. 
    ▪ Engl n.geogr. Carthageqaryaẗ) (and ↗ḥadīṯ). 
    – 
    qarà قَرَى , qaray‑ , i (qiran , det. al-qirà
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QRY 
    vb., I 
    to receive hospitably, entertain – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ It seems that, ultimately, the word goes back to a WSem *QR(Y) ‘to meet’—either derived directly from there (hospitable reception as what happens when people meet), or possibly (denom.) via ↗qarw ‘drinking trough’ (for animals) or ‘bowl, drinking cup’, which may have become synonymous with what strangers find (for their animals, or themselves) in a place they approach for hospitality.
    ▪ Given that the PA I qārin also means ‘villager’ (and in ClassAr, its f. qāriyaẗ also is lexicalized as ‘village’) makes it appear thinkable that qaryaẗ ‘village’, unless loaned from Aram (as is usually assumed), is based on the notion of ‘receiving hospitably’. On the other hand, qārin means also ‘s.o. who arrives at a village’, a fact that would suggest the PA (and the corresponding vb.) to be itself dependent on qaryaẗ
    lC6 ʕAntara b. Šaddād 52,3 lam yaqri ’l-ḍuyūfa ʔiḏā ʔatawhu, ▪ eC7 Ḥuṭayʔa 117,7 qarāhā fa-lam yabḫal wa-lam yataʕallali ‘to receive hospitably, treat as a guest’ (Polosin1995)
    ▪ (qiran :) lC6 ʕAntarah b. Šaddād 133,5; ▪ eC7 Ḥuṭayʔa 9,10; 16,13 fa-man▪ … laysa li-ʔidmāni ’l-qirà bi-malūlī, etc.; lC6 ʕUrwa b. al-Ward 17,2 ʔuḥaddiṯuhū ʔinna ’l-ḥadīṯa min al-qirà (Polosin1995).
    ▪ In ClassAr, the vb. VIII ĭqtarà can also mean ‘to ask for hospitality;14 to suffice and refresh (food)’ 
    … 
    ▪ It seems that, ultimately, the word goes back to a WSem *QR(Y) ‘to meet’.
    ▪ But it is not clear whether it is a direct derivation from there, or whether it is not possibly based on ↗qarw in the meaning of ‘drinking trough’ (for animals) or ‘bowl, drinking cup’ (which belongs to ↗QRY_4 ‘to flow together; place where water (or juice etc.) flows together; bassin, reservoir, pool, trough, cup’).
    ▪ Given that the PA I qārin also means ‘villager’ (and in ClassAr, its f. qāriyaẗ also is lexicalized as ‘village’, as opposite of bādiyaẗ ‘desert’) makes it appear thinkable that qaryaẗ ‘village’, unless loaned from Aram (as is usually assumed) is based on the notion of ‘receiving hospitably’.
    ▪ ClassAr also has qārāẗ, synonymous with qāriyaẗ ‘village’.
    ▪ The fact that, in ClassAr, the PA I qārin is not only ‘villager’ but also ‘s.o. arriving at a village’ would make the vb. qarà look denominative from qaryaẗ
    – 
    ĭqtarà, vb. VIII, = I: in MSA reduced to ‘receiving’ as a guest, i.e., ‘to invite s.o. to be o.’s guest’, while in ClassAr it can still also mean ‘to ask for hospitality’.

    qiran, det. al-qirà, n., hospitable reception, entertainment (of a guest): vn. I; meal served to a guest: synekd. use of vn. I.
    BP#665qaryaẗs.v.
    qarawī: ↗qaryaẗ; from Kairouan, inhabitant of K.; a member of al-Qarawiya College in Fès (Morocco): nsb-adj.
    qarawiyyaẗ: ↗qaryaẗ
    miqran, det. al-miqrà, adj., very hospitable: ints.
    miqrāʔ, adj., very hospitable: ints.
    qārin, det. al-qārī, n., villager: PA I (?)

    Is also qariyyaẗ, pl. qarāyā, n., yard (naut.) related ?
     

    qaryaẗ قَرْيَة , pl. quraⁿ , det. al-qurà 
    ID 690 • Sw – • BP 665 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QRY 
    n.f. 
    village; hamlet; small town; rural community – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Although the root QRY exists in Ar, the common opinion is that qaryaẗ, like other administrative terms (cf., e.g., ↗bāb, ↗madīnaẗ, ↗ḥiṣn, ↗sulṭān), is borrowed from Aram/Syr. The word is found also in other WSem langs where it signified a fortified settlement as opposed to a ‘village’ in the countryside (ComSem *kapar‑, see Ar ↗kafr).
    ▪ According to Huehnergard2011, the WSem root *QR(Y) to which the etymon of Ar qaryaẗ belongs, meant ‘to meet’, so that the proper meaning of the WSem n. *qart‑, *qary(at)‑, *qiryat‑ ‘village, town’ probably was *‘meeting place’ (as suggested in BDB1906 as possible etymology of Hbr qiryāh).
    ▪ The question whether or not qaryaẗ is in any way akin to ‘hospitality’ (QRY_1) and/or the nautical term ‘yard’ (QRY_3) is not completely clear yet and needs further research, though it seems likely that, ultimately, all three go back to the same WSem ‘to meet’, cf. ↗QRY.
    ▪ Meanwhile, Orel&Stolbova reconstructed Sem *ḳary‑ ‘town, village’ and suggested a derivation of the latter from AfrAs *ḳer‑ ‘dwelling’ ~ *ḳor‑ ‘house, place’. 
    ▪ eC7 ‘settlement’ (селение) ▪ eC7 Ḥuṭayʔa 38,1 raʔà ʔanna ʔaryāfa ’l-qurà muniʕat; 72,4 nuqātilu ʕan qurà Ġaṭafāna lammā ḫašīnā ʔan taḏilla wa-ʔan tubāḥā
    ▪▪ eC7 Occurs some fifty-seven times in the Q, both in sg. and pl. forms, all meaning ‘town, city, township, village, dwelling’, e.g., 16:112 wa-ḍaraba ’ḷḷāhu maṯalan qaryatan kānat ʔāminatan muṭmaʔinnatan ‘God presents the parable of a city that was secure and at ease’.
    ▪ Cf. also Fück1950: 110 fn4.
    ▪▪ … 
    ▪ Jeffery1938: 236 : Hbr qiryāh, Syr qerīṯā ‘town, city’; cf. also Hbr qǟrǟṯ, Phn qrt, Ras Shamra qr, qrt, Moab qr. – To this, Pennacchio2014: 90-1 adds also Ug qr and JA qiryā.
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1568: Ug qr-t, qry-t, Hbr qiryā, JudAram qurəyātā, Syr qerī-t‑ ‘town’, Ar qary-at‑ ‘village’, SAr qr, Jib ṣ-írɛ́-t ‘town’. – Outside Sem: kerī ‘house’ in 1 ECh lang; ḳera ‘house, dwelling’ in 1 Omot lang. In StarLing2007 the authors add also [Berb] Ghad ta-ɣurǝmt ‘lieu-dit’, Ayr a-ɣrǝm, pl. i-ɣǝrm-an, Ahag a-ɣrem, pl. i-ɣerm-ân, Taw a-ɣrǝm, pl. i-ɣǝrm-an ‘town’. – Cognates outside Sem to the Ar pl. qur-an ‘villages’: kwaro ‘hut’ in 1 WCh lang,173 kwókwár (partial redupl.) ‘world, region’ in 1 CCh lang; kūr, kɔrr ‘place’ in ECh langs; Or qoroo ‘block’; qoori ‘brick house’ in 1 Rift lang.
    ▪ Cohen1969 #240 viewed (Sem) Hbr qiryā(h) ‘ville’ and Ar qiryaẗ ‘hameau, bourg’ (and also modSAr qaʕər ‘maison’) together with (Cush) Ag Bil Sa qaʕrat, Bed gaʔra ‘enclos, cour’, Som gūri ‘maison, hutte’ (gār ‘maison’ in some SEth languages), as well as (Chad) Ha gari ‘ville’.
    ▪ Wellnhofer (pers. communication, Feb. 2016) suggests to add also Tña qäräyä / Amh qärrä ‘to stay, to remain, (to sojourn)’ as cognates.
    ▪ Cf. also ↗QRY and ↗qarà ‘to receive hospitably’. 
    ▪ Jeffery1938: 236 : » Hbr qiryāh is a poetical synonym for ʕīr, a ‘town’ or ‘city’, and it is a question whether it and the related qǟrǟṯ; Phoen qrt (cf. Carthage); Ras Shamra qr, qrt; and Moab qr (Mesha Inscription, 11, 12, 24) are not really related to the Hbr ʕīr and derived from the Sumerian uru, a ‘state’.658 In any case the Hbr qiryāh is parallel with the Syr qerīṯā, a ‘town’ or ‘village’, and from the Syr came the Ar qaryaẗ, as Zimmern, Akk Fremdw, 9, notes. (Cf. Nöldeke, Beiträge, 61 ff., and Neue Beiträge, 131.)«
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1568 reconstruct Sem *ḳʷary‑ ‘town, village’, Berb a-ɣaram, ECh *kyar‑, Omot *ḳer‑ ‘house, dwelling’), all from AfrAs *ḳer‑ ‘dwelling’. The latter, the authors say, is a morphophonological variant of (#1589) AfrAs *ḳor‑ ‘house, place’ [StarLing2007: *ḳʷar‑ ‘block of houses, settlement, town’] which appears as Sem *ḳur-an‑ ‘villages’ (pl., with suffix ‑an‑), WCh *ḳwar‑ ‘hut’, CCh *kwa-kwar‑ (partial redupl.) ‘town’), ECh *kwaru‑ ‘place’, LEC *ḳor‑ ‘block’, Rift *ḳor‑ ‘brick house’.
    ▪ Is the ‘settlement’ (town, village) connected to the notion of ‘hospitality’ so that ‘to receive hospitably’ (↗qarà) could be seen as denominative, properly *‘to grant the protection (and comfort) of a (fortified) settlement’?
    ▪ ClassAr has also qāriyaẗ (the PA I f. of ↗qarà) with the meaning ‘settlement’ and this is explained as al-miṣr al-jāmiʕ ‘the (fortified) settlement that brings together, collects, unites (sc. people)’, i.e., derived from QRY_6. Should this be, against all previous assumptions, the proper etymon of qaryaẗ (qāriyaẗ > *qā̆ryaẗ > qaryaẗ)? The same would of course be thinkable if qāriyaẗ was not *‘the one (sc. settlement) that brings together’ but (from QRY_1) *‘the hospitable one, (settlement) that receives strangers hospitably’.
     
    ▪ Not from Ar but from the related Pun word is the name of the capital Carthage < Lat Carthāgō < Pun *qart-ḥadašt ‘new town’. 
    al-qaryatān, n.du., Mecca and Taif; Mecca and Medina.
    ʔumm al-qurà, n., Mecca.

    qarawī, adj., village-, country- (in compounds), rustic, rural; peasant (adj.): nsb-adj; (pl. ‑ūn) villager, rustic, countryman, inhabitant of the country: nominalized nisba.
    qarawiyyaẗ, n.f., countrywoman, peasant woman: nominalized nisba. 

    qariyyaẗ قَرِيَّة , pl. qarāyā 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QRY 
    n.f. 
    yard (naut.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Probably via Syr qarīṯā ‘beam, plank’ from Akk qarītu ‘storeroom, granary’ (properly ‘beams, woodwork’). The term seems to have come out of wider use in the course of time, surviving into MSA only in the specialized meaning of a nautic technical term.
    ▪ If the Akk or Hbr/Aram terms have anything to do with the notion of ‘to meet’, then qariyyaẗ is also, ultimately, akin to other items of ↗√QRY, esp. ↗qarà ‘to receive hospitably, entertain as a guest’ and/or ↗qaryaẗ ‘village’. 
    In ClassAr, the word had still a broader meaning, as evidenced, for instance, by the entry in Kazimirski1860: 1 bâton, 2 poutre dans laquelle on emboîte les piliers qui supportent la maison, [▪ …] 4 vergue.15 It seems then that its use became limited to the specific sphere of sailing where it survived as a term.techn. for the ‘yard’ of sailing vessels (Kazimirski’s no. 4). 
    ▪ Zimmern1917: 31 Akk qarītu [var. qirītu ] ‘Kornboden’ [CAD: storeroom, granary], probably properly ‘woodwork’: from this (?) > Hbr qōrāh, Aram qarītā ‘rafter, beam’.
    ▪ BDB1906: Hbr qōrāh ‘rafter, beam’ (prop. a thing meeting, fitting into, another), whence denom. Pi ‘to lay the beams of, furnish with beams’. 
    ▪ Fraenkel1886: 10-11 is ‘pretty sure’ that the word is from Syr qarīṯā.
    ▪ BDB1906 explains Hbr qōrāh ‘rafter, beam’ as related to Hbr qārā ‘to meet’. If this is true the word may be akin to WSem *QR or *QRY ‘to meet’, which is also the origin of ↗qarà ‘to receive hospitably, entertain as a guest’ and (via Syr) ↗qaryaẗ (see also ↗QRY).
    ▪ Zimmern1917: 31 thinks that the Akk qarītu ‘storeroom, granary’, which accord. to him properly means ‘beams, woodwork, entablature’, is at the origin of both Hbr qōrāh and Aram qarīṯā ‘beam, plank’, whence Ar qariyyaẗ
    – 
    – 
    QSː (QSS) قسّ/قسس 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1May2023
    √ QSː (QSS) 
    “root” 
    ▪ QSː (QSS)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QSː (QSS)_2 ‘priest’ ↗qissīs
    ▪ QSː (QSS)_3 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QSː (QSS)_ ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘wise people; seasoned camel drivers; to seek s.th. in the dark, go after, enquire; to listen in, a learned person, a priest’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    qissīs قِسّيس , pl. -ūn 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Jun2023
    √QSː (QSS)
     
    n. 
    (pl.) priests – Jeffery1938 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q v, 85 – Jeffery1938.
     
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »From the passage it is clear that it refers to Christian teachers, and though one would not care to press the point, its occurrence alongside ruhbān may indicate that it referred to the ordinary clergy as distinct from the monks.
    It was generally considered by the philologers as a genuine Ar word659 derived from qassa ‘to seek after’ or ‘pursue a thing’, so that a qasīs is so called ‘because he follows the Book and its precepts’, al-Siǧistānī, 259. Obviously the word is the Syr qašīšā = [Grk] presbúteros, as has been generally recognized by Western scholars.660 This word could hardly fail to be known to any Arab tribes which came into contact with the Christians of the North and East, and, as a matter of fact both forms of the word were borrowed into Ar, qaššā (cf. Aram qšʔ) as qass, and qašīšā as qassīs, while the Ḥadīṯ lā yuġayyir qassīs min qassīsiyyaẗ shows that they were not unacquainted with the abstract noun [Sur] qašīšūṯā. / We meet with the word in the early poetry,661 which shows it must have been an early borrowing, and as a matter of fact it occurs as a borrowing both in Eth [Gz] qasīs662 and in the SAr inscriptions (e.g. Glaser, 618, 67 – kbhw qssm ḏbmstlh),663 the ground of which Grimme, ZA, xxvi, 162, would take the word to be from a SAr source, though with little likelihood.«
     
    – 
    – 
    QSR قسر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1May2023
    √QSR 
    “root” 
    ▪ QSR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QSR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QSR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr(acc. to BAH2008): ‘to compel, force; lion, hunter, archer, brave; first part of the night; sturdy camels. 
    ▪ (BAH2008:) The word for ‘lion’ is recognised by some philologists as a borrowing from Gz. 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    QSṬ قسط 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1May2023
    √QSṬ 
    “root” 
    ▪ QSṬ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QSṬ_2 ‘justice, equity’ ↗qisṭ
    ▪ QSṬ_3 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QSṬ_4 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘justice, equity, to do justice, deny justice; balance, measure, share; instalment, to pay by instalments’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    qisṭ قِسْط 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Jun2023
    √QSṬ
     
    n. 
    justice, equity – Jeffery1938 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q iii, 16, 20; iv, 126, 134; v, 11, 46; vi, 153; vii, 28; x, 4, 48, 55; xi, 86; xxi, 48; lv, 8; lvii, 25 – Jeffery1938.
     
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »It would seem on the surface to be a derivative from qasaṭa which occurs in iv, 3; lx, 8; xlix, 9, and of which other derivatives are found in ii, 282; xxxiii, 5; lxxii, 14, 15. This qasaṭa, however, may be a denominative and al-Suyūṭī, Itq, 323; Mutaw, 49, tells us that some early authorities thought qisṭ was a borrowing from Grk.664
    The root QŠṬ is widely used in Aram but occurs elsewhere apparently as a loan-word. Thus [Aram] qšwṭ, qwšṭʔ, like Syr qūštā, means ‘truth, right’665 ; Mand qšṭ is ‘to be true’, and Palm qšṭ ‘to succeed’, while in the ChrPal dialect we find qšṭʔ ‘true’.666 The Hbr qošṭ is an Aramaizing, as Toy pointed out in his Commentary on Proverbs, and Fraenkel is doubtless correct in taking the Arab qisṭ as also of Aram, probably of ChrAram origin.667 «
     
    – 
    – 
    QSṬS قسطس 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Jun2023
    √QSṬS 
    "root" 
    ▪ QSṬS_1 ‘balance (n.)’ ↗qisṭās
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    qisṭās قِسْطاس 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Jun2023
    √QSṬS
     
    n. 
    a balance – Jeffery1938 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q xvii, 37; xxvi, 182 – Jeffery1938.
     
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »There was practical agreement among the early authorities that the word means primarily ‘a balance’, and then metaphorically ‘justice’ (cf. Rāġib, Mufradāt, 413; LA, viii, 59). It was also very generally recognized as a loan-word. Some considered it as a genuine Ar word, a variant of ↗qisṭ,668 but the weight of the authorities as we see from al-Suyūṭī, Itq, 323; Muzhir, i, 130; al-Ǧawālīqī, Muʕarrab, 114; al-Ṯaʕālibī, Fiqh, 318, and al-Siǧistānī, 257, was in favour of its being taken as a borrowing from Grk.669 Its foreign nature is indeed indicated by the variety of spellings we find.670
    It was evidently an early borrowing, for it occurs in verses of ʕAdī b. Zayd, al-Nābigha,671 and others. The origin of the word, however, is not easy to settle. Sachau in his notes to the Muʕarrab, p. 51, quotes Fleischer as suggesting that it goes back to the Lat constans as used of the libra.672 Fraenkel, Fremdw, 282, suggests a hypothetical [Grk] *koústōs as a possible origin, and in WZKM, vi, 261, would interpret it from zugostasía. Vullers, Lex, ii, 725, thought that it was probably a mangling of the Grk zeûgos ‘yoke’, and Dvořák, Fremdw, 77 ff., would derive it from xéstēs from the Lat sextarius used as a measure of fluid and dry materials.
    All these suggestions seem to be under the influence of the theory of the philologers that the word is of Grk origin. It would seem much more hopeful to start from the Aram qsṭʔ, qysṭʔ, qwsṭʔ meaning ‘measure’, or the Syr qsṭā. The final s here [in Ar], however, presents a difficulty, and Vollers, ZDMG, 1, 633,673 suggests that it is from the Grk dikastḗs ‘judge’, which in Syr is dīqasṭōs (BB, in PSm, 891), and with the d- taken as the genitive particle, would give us qasṭōs. This, influenced by the similar dqasṭā also = dikastḗs, would give us qisṭās. This is very ingenious and may be true, but Mingana, Syr Influence, 89, thinks it simpler to take it from [Syr] qsṭā representing xéstēs in some form in which the final -s had survived.«
     
    – 
    – 
    QSM قسم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1May2023
    √QSM 
    “root” 
    ▪ QSM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QSM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QSM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to divide, partition, share out; portion, section; to divine, seek to know the future, ponder; to swear, oath; truce, allies; countenance, good looks, features; market place’ 
    ▪ From WSem *√QSM ‘to divide, distribute, assign, ordain, practice divination’, noun *qasm‑, *qism‑ ‘divination’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl kismet, from Ar ↗qismaẗ ‘portion, lot, destiny, fate’, from ↗qasama, vb. I, ‘to divide, distribute, assign, foreordain’. 
    – 
    QSW/Y قسو/ي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1May2023
    √QSW/Y 
    “root” 
    ▪ QSW/Y_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QSW/Y_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QSW/Y_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘hardness, harshness, severity; to be solid, be hard, be cruel, suffer, be harsh’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    QŠʕR قشعر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1May2023
    √QŠʕR 
    “root” 
    ▪ QŠʕR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QŠʕR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QŠʕR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘shudder, tremor, shiver; to tremble, shudder; (of earth) to dry and crack up, (of skin) to become rough and hard, become wrinkled; cucumber’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    *QṢ‑ قصـ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √*QṢ- 
    2-cons. "root nucleus" 
    to clip – Ehret1989#42. 
    According to Ehret1989, this is the Ar reflex of a bi-consonantal »pre-Proto-Semitic« (pPS, i.e. preSem) root *ḲṢ- ‘to clip’. For 3-radical extensions see section DERIV below. 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ Cf. also ↗*QṬ- ‘to cut’ and extensions. 
    – 
    According to Ehret1989#42, 3-radical extensions from the bi-consonantal "root nucleus" include:

    + Ø (gemination of R2) => ↗qaṣṣa ‘to cut off, clip (with scissors)’
    + »extendative« *‑b => ↗qaṣaba ‘to cut, cut off, dissect, cut up, carve up (a slaughtered animal)’
    + »modifier suffix« *‑r => ↗qaṣura ‘to be(come) short(er)’13
    + »sunderative« *‑ʕ => ↗qaṣaʕa ‘to grind, crush, bruise, squash, mash, (Ehret1989: to kill a louse between the nails, i.e. to pinch off)’
    + »finitive« *‑l => ↗qaṣala ‘to cut off, mow off’
    + »noun suffix« (vb. < n.) *‑m => ↗qaṣama ‘to break, shatter (Ehret1989: break entirely, fragment, piece)’.
     
    QṢː (QṢṢ) قصّ / قصص 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QṢː (QṢṢ) 
    “root” 
    ▪ QṢː (QṢṢ)_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ QṢː (QṢṢ)_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to cut, clip, cut off, shear, curtail, scissors, chips, cuttings; to match, retaliate, reprisal; to follow up, settle accounts on both sides; to relate, story, narrative, tale; to track, tracker; breastbone’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    qaṣaṣ قَصَص 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 8Jun2023
    √QṢː (QṢṢ) 
    n. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    qiṣṣaẗ قِصَّة 
    ID 691 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 414 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QṢː (QṢṢ) 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    QṢD قصد 
    ID 687 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QṢD 
    “root” 
    ▪ QṢD_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ QṢD_2 ‘…’ ↗
    q-ṣ-d

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to proceed straight away, to intend; to be middle of the road; endeavour, intention, design; poem, to write a poem; bone marrow; wick; killing, to compel’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ĭqtiṣād اِقْتِصاد 
    ID 692 • Sw – • BP 969 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QṢD 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ĭqtiṣādī اِقْصِداديّ 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 331 • APD … • © SG | created 8Jun2023
    √QṢD 
    adj. 
    ▪ nsb-formation, based on ĭqtiṣād, vn. VIII 
    QṢR قصر 
    ID 687 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QṢR 
    “root” 
    ▪ QṢR_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ QṢR_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be short, brief or small; incapability; negligence; curtailment, confinement, to shorten, to fail to accomplish; chaff; base of the neck, disease paralysing the neck; trunk of a great tree’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    qaṣr قَصْر 
    ID 693 • Sw – • BP 1269 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QṢR 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
     
    QṢF قصف 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1May2023
    √QṢF 
    “root” 
    ▪ QṢF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QṢF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QṢF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to break, shatter, smash, snap; to thunder, rumble, thunder, gale, storm; to rush in, crowd’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    QṢM قصم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1May2023
    √QṢM 
    “root” 
    ▪ QṢM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QṢM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QṢM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to break, shatter, snap; to be brittle; catastrophe’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    QṢW/Y قصو/ي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1May2023
    √QṢW/Y 
    “root” 
    ▪ QṢW/Y_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QṢW/Y_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QṢW/Y_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be far, distant or remote; to send far away, segregate; to penetrate; to boycott’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ĭstiqṣāʔī اِسْتِقْصائيّ 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 8Jun2023
    √QṢW/Y 
    adj. 
    ▪ nsb-formation, based on ĭstiqṣāʔ, vn. vb. X, ĭstiqṣà, … 
    QḌː (QḌḌ) قضّ/قضض 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1May2023
    √ QḌː (QḌḌ) 
    “root” 
    ▪ QḌː (QḌḌ)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QḌː (QḌḌ)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QḌː (QḌḌ)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to swoop down, descend, charge; to collapse, tumble; pebble, to be pebbled; to pierce, bore; to become dusty; to be rough’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    QḌB قضب 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1May2023
    √QḌB 
    “root” 
    ▪ QḌB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QḌB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QḌB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to cut off, prune; branch, twig, vegetation; to abridge, condense; flesh; soft’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    QḌY قضي 
    ID 687 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QḌY 
    “root” 
    ▪ QḌY_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ QḌY_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘judgement, verdict, to judge, decree, ordain; case, fate; to decide, plan, entrust with; to fashion, cut; to inform, relate; to consummate, complete, carry out, to meet an obligation; death, to die, expire; to annihilate, demolish’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl alcaldeqāḍin
    – 
    qāḍiⁿ قاضٍ , det. qāḍī 
    ID 694 • Sw – • BP 1221 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QḌY 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ From WSem *√QṢ́Y ‘to judge, decree, rule’ – Huehnergard2011.
    … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl alcalde, from Ar al-qāḍī ‘the decisive one, judge’, PA of qaḍà, vb. I, ‘to settle, decree, judge’. 
     
    qaḍiyyaẗ قَضِيَّة 
    ID 695 • Sw – • BP 202 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QḌY 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    *QṬ‑ قطـ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √*QṬ- 
    2-cons. "root nucleus" 
    to cut 
    According to Ehret1995, this is the Ar reflex of a bi-consonantal »pre-Proto-Semitic« (pPS, i.e. preSem) root *ḲṬ- ‘to cut’, which in turn is from AfrAs AfrAs *k'âť‑ ‘to cut’. For 3-rad. extension see section DERIV below. 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    According to Ehret1995#431, 3-radical extensions from the bi-consonantal "root nucleus" include:

    + »extendative« *‑b => ↗QṬB ‘to cut’
    + »finitive« *‑l => ↗qaṭala ‘to cut off, amputate, behead’
    + »partive« *‑ʕ => ↗qaṭaʕa ‘to cut, cut off, lop, amputate’ 
    QṬː (QṬṬ) قطّ / قطط 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QṬː (QṬṬ) 
    “root” 
    ▪ QṬː (QṬṬ)_1 ‘to cut, carve, trim, nib, sharpen’ ↗qaṭṭa
    ▪ QṬː (QṬṬ)_2 ‘(n)ever’ ↗qaṭṭᵘ
    ▪ QṬː (QṬṬ)_3 ‘cat’ ↗qiṭṭ
    ▪ QṬː (QṬṬ)_4 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to snip, clip, rip; edge of a cliff, rim of a hoof; to abate; enough, share, lot; written record; cat; drizzle’ 
    ▪ QṬː (QṬṬ)_1 : According to Ehret1995#431, qaṭṭa ‘to cut, carve, trim, nib, sharpen’ is an unextended form based on a bi-consonantal »pre-Proto-Semitic« (pPS, i.e. preSem) root *ḲṬ- ‘to cut’, which in turn is from AfrAs *k'âť‑ ‘to cut’.
    ▪ QṬː (QṬṬ)_2 : qaṭṭᵘ ‘(n)ever’ seems to be akin to QṬː (QṬṬ)_1 ‘to cut, carve, trim, nib, sharpen’. For details ↗s.v..
    ▪ QṬː (QṬṬ)_3 : qiṭṭ ‘cat’ is probably from the same source as Engl cat and its many cognates in European and other langs.
    ▪ QṬː (QṬṬ)_4 ‘…’ ↗
     
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    Cf. also ↗*QṢ- ‘to cut off, clip’ and extensions. 
    – 
    – 
    qaṭṭ‑, qaṭaṭ‑ قَطّ / قَطَطْـ , u (qaṭṭ
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QṬː (QṬṬ) 
    vb., I 
    to carve; to cut, trim, clip, pare; to mend the point (DO of a pen), nib, sharpen – WehrCowan1979. 
    According to Ehret1995#431, the vb. represents the basic, unextended form of a bi-consonantal »pre-Proto-Semitic« (pPS, i.e. preSem) root *ḲṬ- ‘to cut’, from AfrAs *k'âť‑ ‘to cut’. 
    ▪ … 
    qaṭṭa
    ▪ Ehret1995#431: from a bi-consonantal »pre-Proto-Semitic« (pPS, i.e. preSem) root *ḲṬ- ‘to cut’, from AfrAs *k'âť- ‘to cut’. – Other extensions from the same pre-Sem root: ↗QṬB, ↗qaṭaʕa, ↗qaṭala.
    ▪ Cf. also *QṢ-, unextended form ↗qaṣṣa ‘to cut off, clip (with scissors)’, and extensions like ↗qaṣaba ‘to cut, cut off, dissect, cut up, carve up (a slaughtered animal)’, ↗qaṣura ‘to be(come) short(er)’, ↗qaṣaʕa ‘to grind, crush, bruise, squash, mash, (Ehret1989: to kill a louse between the nails, i.e. to pinch off)’, ↗qaṣala ‘to cut off, mow off’, ↗qaṣama ‘to break, shatter (Ehret1989: break entirely, fragment, piece)’. 
    – 
    qaṭṭaṭa, vb. II, to carve, turn (wood): D-stem, ints.
    ĭqtaṭṭa, vb. VIII, to sharpen, nib (a pen): t-stem, almost = G.

    qaṭṭ, adj., short and curly (hair):…
    BP#2998qaṭṭu, adv./particle (chiefly with the past tense in negative sentences) never; ever, at all: archaic adv. ending.
    BP#274fa-qaṭ, part., see ↗s.v..
    qaṭṭāṭ, n., turner: n.prof. 
    qaṭṭᵘ قَطُّ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 2998 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QṬː (QṬṬ) 
    adv., part. 
    (chiefly with the past tense in negative sentences) never; ever, at all – WehrCowan1979. 
    Particle with archaic adv. ending, probably akin to ↗qaṭṭa, vb. I, ‘to carve, cut, trim, clip’, expressing decisiveness. – Cf. also ↗faqaṭ (= fa-qaṭ) ‘only, exclusively’. 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    qiṭṭ قِطّ , pl. qiṭaṭ , qiṭāṭ , qiṭaṭaẗ 
    ID 696 • Sw – • BP 3103 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QṬː (QṬṬ) 
    n. 
    male cat, tomcat – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Perhaps from lLat cattus ‘cat’, of unknown origin. More likely, however, the Lat and the Ar words both have the same ancestor in an older Eastern culture. Littmann1924: 14 thinks most probably this is Ancient Egypt, because of the prominent position cats had in Eg culture. (Recent archeozoological findings indeed support the thesis that Europe came to know domesticated cats through the Romans, who imported them from Egypt.) The domestication process itself, however, seems to have taken place, for the first time, somewhere in the Fertile Crescent region.120 This would support the thesis, put forward by Rolland2014a, that the origin of the word probably has to be looked for in a Mesopotamian, Iranian, or Sem lang.
    ▪ Klein1966 and EtymOnline even do not exclude the possibility of an AfrAs origin (cf. Nub kadīs, Berb kadiska ‘cat’).
    ▪ For other terms for ‘cat’, cf. ↗hirr (ultimately onomatop.) and ↗bass (from Eg). 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Not from Ar qiṭṭ but probably from the same source are most Eur words for ‘cat’, e.g., Engl cat, oEngl catt (c. 700), from WGerm (c. 400-450), from protGerm *kattuz (cognates: oFris katte, oNor köttr, Dutch kat, oHGe kazza, Ge Katze), from lLat cattus. – The near-universal Eur word now appeared in Europe as Lat catta (Martial, c. 75), ByzGrk katta (c. 350) and was in general use on the continent by c. 700, replacing Lat felesEtymOnline
    qiṭṭ al-zabād, n., civet cat

    qiṭṭaẗ, n.f., female cat: f. of qiṭṭ.
    quṭayṭaẗ, n.f., kitten: dimin.
     
    QṬR قطر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QṬR 
    “root” 
    ▪ QṬR_1 ‘to fall or flow in drops, drip, dribble, trickle; drops (hence also: a little bit); pipette’ ↗qaṭara
    ▪ QṬR_2 ‘to filter, filtrate; to refine; to distill’ ↗qaṭṭara
    ▪ QṬR_3 ‘file, train (of camels), caravan; (railroad) train; railroad; long series (e.g., of occurrences); to line up (camels in single file and connect them with halters, form a train (of camels); to couple (vehicles); to tow (ship, trailer, glider)’ ↗qiṭār
    ▪ QṬR_4 ‘to come in successive groups, crowd, throng, flock (ʔilà or ʕalà to s.o., to a place)’ ↗taqāṭara
    ▪ QṬR_5 ‘region, quarter; district, section; tract of land; zone; country, land’ ↗¹quṭr
    ▪ QṬR_6 ‘diameter (of a circle); diagonal; calibre, bore (of a tube)’ ↗²quṭr
    ▪ QṬR_7 ‘Qatar (country in eastern Arabia)’ ↗Qaṭar
    ▪ QṬR_8 ‘aloes-wood; censer’ ↗quṭ(u)r
    ▪ QṬR_9 ‘tar, pitch’ ↗qaṭrān
    ▪ QṬR_10 ‘stocks (device for punishment)’ ↗miqṭaraẗ
    ▪ QṬR_11 ‘Qattara (depression in the Eg W desert)’: munḫafaḍ al‑Qaṭṭāraẗ

    Other meanings, now obsolete or dialectal only, include (unmarked: Hava1899, BK = de BibersteinKazimirski1860, Bu = Bustānī1869, St = Steingass1884, L = Lane vii 1885):

    QṬR_12 ‘to overthrow violently\with vehemence, throw s.o. down on one of his sides’: qaṭara, qaṭṭara, ʔaqṭara
    QṬR_13 ‘to sew (a garment, piece of cloth)’: qaṭara
    QṬR_14 ‘(H) to run away, (St) travel fast’, (L) qaṭara fī ’l-ʔarḍ ‘to go away into the country, and hasten’: qaṭara (quṭūr), ? (BK) ‘enlever qc tout à coup et se sauver’, expr. mā ʔadrī man qaṭara-hū\bi-hī ‘je ne sais qui l’a emporté’
    QṬR_15 ‘to begin to dry (plant), (BK) commencer à sécher sur pied’: ĭqṭarra, ĭqṭārra
    QṬR_16 ‘to be(come) angry (s.o.)’: ĭqṭarra, ĭqṭārra
    QṬR_17 (BK) ‘to be in foal (she-camel) and show this by raising the tail and the head (she-camel)’: ĭqṭarr‑at; (BK) ‘se sauver, s’enfuir (se dit d’une chamelle, quand elle fuit levant la queue et la tête)’: ĭqṭārr‑at
    QṬR_18 ‘(molten) brass, copper’: qiṭr
    QṬR_19 ‘in a lump, in bulk’: quṭr, qaṭar
    QṬR_20 ‘striped stuff’: qiṭr, (St, BK) qiṭrī, qiṭriyyaẗ
    QṬR_21 ‘sailing-boat’: EgAr qaṭīraẗ
    QṬR_22 ‘blackish and poisonous\venomous snake’: quṭārī, quṭāriyyaẗ
    QṬR_23 ‘calamint (plant)’: (Bu) qaṭūrāʔᵘ, (H) LevAr qaṭriyyaẗ
    QṬR_24 ‘mule’: (St) qāṭir
    QṬR_25 ‘whore, hooker’: EgAr maq͗ṭūraẗ
    QṬR_26 ‘savage\vicious dog’: ³quṭr

    ▪ BAH2008: ‘1 to drip, dribble, trickle; 2 to travel around; 3 molten copper; 4 gum from a certain tree; 5 tar; 6 to come in successive groups, crowd, flock; 7 train of camels, caravan; 8 quarter, district, region, land’
     
    General remarks
    The etymology of the lexemes that traditionally are grouped within the Ar root √QṬR is difficult, or even impossible, to disentangle, not only because the exact meaning of many of the respective items has not yet been established and obvious cognates from other languages are lacking, but also because there seems to be zones of semantic convergence, overlapping, or merging even between those values that previous research has been able to reveal so far as the 5-7 basic, or at least most prominent, semantic clusters in the root: ‘to drip, drop, trickle’, perh. to be seen together with ‘to tie together, line up in a row’; ‘smoke, to fumigate’ (originally prob. *QTR); ‘side, flank, region, zone’, perh. related to ‘diameter’; ‘to run away, hasten’; ‘mule’. Given the scarcity of data and the semantic fuzziness especially within the three first-mentioned complexes (which seem to be genuine Sem, perh. *ḲṬR, *ḲṮR, and *ḲTR), the following outline can only be a preliminary tentative approach, to be adjusted, corrected, or, as the case may be, completely discarded whenever new evidence should bring additional light into the matter.
    Tentative grouping
    A.1 #‘to drip, drop, trickle’ (Dolgopolsky2012: < WSem *ḲṬR) – This value may be the source from which also the following group originated, but there is no other evidence for this than the pure speculation that A.2 ‘lining up in a row, one after the other’ could be a possible development from ‘to fall in drops’. There is also some overlapping between A.1 and B in that ‘resin (of a certain tree), incense’ is a substance which is both dropping from certain trees and was typically burnt as sacrificial offering and used for fumigation (smoke). We keep complexes I and B apart from each other nevertheless, for systematical reasons and because B perh. goes back to Sem *ḲTR rather than *ḲṬR. – Individual values that seem to belong to group A.1 include:
    • QṬR_1 ‘to fall or flow in drops, drip, dribble, trickle; drops (hence also: a little bit); pipette’
    • QṬR_2 ‘to filter, filtrate; to refine; to distill’
    • QṬR_9 ‘resin (of a certain tree); tar, pitch’: lit., *‘viscous, dripping substance’?
    • ?QṬR_4 ‘to come in successive groups, crowd, throng, flock’: could either belong here (groups *‘dropping in’), or in group A.2 (*‘to tie together’), or C.1 (*‘side, flank, region, etc.’) (see below).
    • ?QṬR_7 ‘Qatar (country in eastern Arabia)’: so called due to the occurrence of tar pitches [v9], or to incense trade (see group B, below)? – QṬR_20 ‘striped stuff’ may belong here, too, as it is specified by BK as tissue ‘fabriquée à Qaṭar, endroit d’Oman (en Arabie).’
    • ? QṬR_11 ‘Qattara (depression in the Eg W desert)’: so called (like [v7], Qaṭar) due to the occurrence of tar pitches, or to incense trade (B), or rather the production of pitch, or incense?
    • ?QṬR_18 ‘(molten) brass, copper’: lit., *‘dripping like pitch’?
    • ?QṬR_22 ‘blackish and poisonous\venomous snake’: called quṭārī, quṭāriyyaẗ due to the poison ‘dripping’ from the animal’s mouth? (Some lexicographers explain it this way.) For another suggestion see below, F, [v15]).
    ?A.2 #‘to tie together, line up in a row ’ (Leslau2006 et al.: < Sem *ḲṮR) – The Ar lexemes belonging to this group seem to have a few cognates in Aram, and perh. Hbr. It could be a borrowing from some Aram language. But the meaning ‘to tie together, line up in a row’ may also be linked to that of group A.1, see above (lines\rows looking like rain drops or the like), or perh. also to group B ‘smoke’, see below (clouds of smoke forming, gathering)… – Individual values that seem to belong to group A.2 include:
    • QṬR_3 ‘file, train (of camels), caravan; (railroad) train; railroad; long series (e.g., of occurrences); to line up (camels in single file and connect them with halters, form a train (of camels); to couple (vehicles); to tow (ship, trailer, glider)’
    • ?QṬR_4 ‘to come in successive groups, crowd, throng, flock’: could either belong here (*groups forming a row), or in group A.1 (*dropping in), or B (*forming like clouds of smoke), or C.1 (*assembling on one side).
    • QṬR_10 ‘stocks (device for punishment)’: so called because the device ties the culprits together (by their feet) and lines them/the feet up in a row.
    • QṬR_13 ‘to sew (a garment, piece of cloth)’: lit., *‘to tie’ the pieces together.
    • QṬR_25 ‘whore, hooker’: lit. prob. *‘trailer’, attached to a man (pimp? customers?).
    B #‘smoke, to fumigate ’ (< Sem *ḲṬR or, acc. to Dolgopolsky and others, assimilated form of ↗QTR < Sem *ḲTR) – Cognates in Sem abound for items meaning ‘smoke, to fumigate’, but the Ar lexemes that most researchers group here are not from √QṬR but from ↗√QTR. Some reconstruct Sem *ḲṬR, regarding the forms with /t/ as the result of deemphatization and/or dissimilation; in contrast, Dolgopolsky2012 (and others) posit Sem *ḲTR as the primary form out of which the forms with /ṭ/ would have emerged by partial assimilation, i.e., emphatization due to the influence of preceding Ḳ/Q, thus falling together with *ḲṬR ‘to drip’, which has original /ṭ/. – MSA lexemes showing /t/ instead of /ṭ/ are ↗qataraẗ ‘dust’ and ↗qutār ‘aroma, smell (of s.th. fried or cooked)’. Previous research generally groups the latter together with the Sem items designating ‘smoke, fumigation’. However, most sources regard also
    • QṬR_8 ‘aloes-wood’ as belonging here (as there is no ‘dripping, dropping’ involved). – Wherever the material used to produce smoke is not wood but ‘incense ’ (cf. QṬR_9), Dolgopolsky2012 thinks we are dealing with the result of a root merger between the ‘dripping’ (A.1) of the aromatic resin and its use for ‘fumigation’ (B). – An overlapping between groups A.1 and B can also be observed in QṬR_2 as ‘distillation’ needs boiling, where steam is produced, resembling smoke…
    • ?QṬR_7 ‘Qatar (country in eastern Arabia)’: Unless the name of the peninsula should be linked to petroleum, natural tar pits, or the like (see group A.1, above), it may have s.th. to do with ancient incense trade. – Some sources would see QṬR_20 ‘striped stuff’ dependent on [v7] ‘Qaṭar’, explaining it as ‘sorte d’étoffe rayée fabriquée à Qaṭar, endroit d’Oman (en Arabie)’ (BK); but the words used for this type of tissue – qiṭr, qiṭrī, qiṭriyyaẗ – point to a dependence on qiṭr ‘(molten) copper, brass’ rather than to one on Qaṭar.
    • ?QṬR_11 ‘Qattara (depression in the Eg W desert)’: so called (like Qaṭar?) on account of the occurrence of tar pits, or of incense trade, or rather the production of pitch, or incense?
    C.1 #‘side, flank, region, zone ’ – of obscure origin; no cognates in Sem; the Ar word for this value is quṭr, the same as for ‘diameter’ (C.2); thus, there might be a relation betw. the two, however problematic to explain. – Individual values that seem to belong to group C.1 include:
    • QṬR_5 ‘region, quarter; district, section; tract of land; zone; country, land’: originally ‘side, flank’?
    • ? QṬR_12 ‘to overthrow violently\with vehemence, throw s.o. down on one of his sides’: denominative?
    • ?QṬR_4 ‘to come in successive groups, crowd, throng, flock’: could either belong here (*groups forming by sticking to one side?), or in group A.1 (*to drop in), or A.2 (*to be tied together), or even B (*groups forming like clouds of smoke).
    ?C.2 #‘diameter ’ – of obscure etymology; no cognates in Sem; the Ar word for this value is quṭr, the same as for ‘region, section, zone’, ‘side, flank’ etc.; thus, there might be a relation (see C.1 above), however problematic to explain. A bold hypothesis: from Grk kéntron ‘centre (of a circle)’, with elision of n? – The only lexeme representing this value is:
    • QṬR_6 ‘diameter (of a circle); diagonal; calibre, bore (of a tube)’.
    D #‘to run away, hasten ’ – of obscure etymology; no cognates in Sem; perh. fig. use of A.1 ‘to drip, drop, trickle’ or B ‘smoke’ (*‘to volatilise, dissolve like smoke’), but sources remain silent about the character of such a possible dependence. – Individual values that seem to belong to group D include:
    • QṬR_14 ‘(H) to run away, (St) travel fast’, (L) ‘to go away into the country, and hasten’, (BK) ‘enlever qc tout à coup et se sauver’. The addition ‘into the country’ in L may suggest a relation with C.1.
    E #‘mule ’ – loanword
    • QṬR_24 ‘mule’: prob. from OttTu (which has it from an Ir source).
    F (unclassified)
    • QṬR_15 ‘to begin to dry (plant), (BK) commencer à sécher sur pied’: May belong together with [v16] and [v17] since all three are expressed through the same vb. forms IX (ĭqṭarra) and the rare XI (ĭqṭārra). But the exact nature of this possible relation remains unclear. – ? ▪ QṬR_22 ‘blackish and poisonous\venomous snake’: more likely belonging to group I (see above), but explained by some lexicographers not with reference to the poison ‘dripping’ from the snake’s mouth but from the fact that it lingers around the ‘feet’ of trees, cf. the addition ‘sur pied’ listed by BK as a specification of ‘to begin to dry (plant)’.
    • QṬR_16 ‘to be(come) angry (s.o.)’: see [v15].
    • QṬR_17 (BK) ‘to be in foal (she-camel) and show this by raising the tail and the head (she-camel)’; (BK) ‘se sauver, s’enfuir (se dit d’une chamelle, quand elle fuit levant la queue et la tête)’: see [v15].
    • QṬR_21 ‘sailing-boat’: value given only by Hava1899 for an EgAr qaṭīraẗ (H only); no plausible etymology. Any relation to Engl cutter (> Ru káter ‘motorboat’)? Or dependence on [v3] ‘to tie together, tow (a ship)’ (group A.2), as *‘the towed one’?
    • QṬR_23 ‘calamint (plant)’: value given for qaṭūrāʔᵘ (Bu) or LevAr qaṭriyyaẗ (H); etymology obscure.
    • QṬR_26 ‘savage\vicious dog’: value given only by Ḍinnāwī2004; probably flawed data.
    Individual values
    ▪ QṬR_1: The value is represented by many items in Ar and therefore seems to be a rather basic theme. However, no obvious cognates are found in Sem – unless, however, [v9] ‘resinous oil from the juniper, savin, pine, or cedar tree; tar, pitch’ is dependent on ‘to drip, drop, trickle’ (if this is the case, then [v1] may have some indirect cognates, see below apud [v9]). – From an exclusively Ar perspective it could seem that not only [v2] ‘to filter, refine, distill’ is derived from ‘dropping, dripping, trickling’ but also [v3] ‘file, train, row; to line up (camels), tow (ships, etc.)’ (rows\lines looking like chains of rain\resin drops, or the like). But [v3] probably has a few Sem cognates, so that a derivation of [v3] from [v1] is not very likely. Despite the lack of non-Ar Sem cognates of [v1], Dolgopolsky2012 posits a WSem *ḲṬR #‘to drip, drop, trickle’ as hypothetical ancestor of the Ar items. – A direct derivation from the vb. qaṭara ‘to drip, drop, trickle’ is certainly the qaṭṭāraẗ ‘pipette’. Semantic variation within [v1] includes figurative use of ‘drops’ in the sense of †‘a little bit’, hence also ‘trifle, paltry things, objects of little or no value’; of *‘dropping behind/after (ʕan) s.o.’ in the sense of ‘lagging behind’, and of *‘dropping on (ʕalà) s.o.’ in the sense of ‘to drop in, appear unexpectedly’; in the expression *‘he pours in for me with the pipette’, meaning ‘he’s very stingy with me’ in EgAr, the semantics of q͗aṭara (with /ṭ/) overlap with that of ↗qatara (with non-emphatic /t/) ‘to be stingy’. According to some lexicographers, also a type of ‘blackish and poisonous\venomous snake’ [v22] is based on ‘to drip’ as it signifies a ‘snake the poison of which drips from its mouth through its excessive quantity’ (R). – For other possible relations, cf. the above overview (Group A.1) and comments on the individual values [v7] ‘Qatar’ (?, and [v20] ‘striped stuff’), [v11] ‘Qattara (depression)’, and [v18] ‘(molten) brass, copper’ (Qur’anic). – Is the similarity with Grk katarrʰ‑eîn ‘to flow down, fall down, sink’ or katarʰátt‑ein ‘to swoop, rush down’ purely coincidential? Cf. perh. also Grk kédros ‘cedar, juniper’, kedría ‘cedar-oil’, see [v9], below. – Dolgopolsky2012#963 reconstructs (on an exclusively Ar basis!) WSem *ḲṬR ‘to drip; pitch’ (see [v9], below), juxtaposes this (among others) with a hypothetical NaIE *gʷetu ‘pitch’, and suggests a common origin in Nostr *koṭû ‘to drip, exude liquid’ > ‘sap, pitch’.
    ▪ QṬR_2: In its essence, ‘to filter, filtrate; to refine; to distill’ is a causative formed from [v1] ‘to drip, drop, trickle’. Given that the process of *‘causing s.th. to drip, drop’ usually involves heating where also steam is produced, there is some resemblance with the burning of solid substances and the emission of smoke. Therefore, overlapping with [v8] ‘smoke, to fumigate’ seems natural.
    ▪ QṬR_3: An exclusively inner-Ar approach would probably tend to derive ‘file, train, row; to line up (camels in single file and connect them with halters), to tow (a ship, etc.)’ from [v1] ‘to drip, trickle, fall in drops’, by a transfer of meaning from s.th. dripping\dropping (resin, a liquid, rain, etc.) to animals etc., both producing a file\line\chain\row of uniform elements following each other. However, in light of the wider Sem evidence, [v3] rather seems to be a borrowing from Aram QṬR ‘to tie, bind together; knot, joint, chain’ etc. The Aram forms, in their turn, are likely borrowed from Hbr QŠR ‘to tie, bind together’, from a hypothetical Sem *ḲṮR ‘id.’ (for details, see below, section DISC). From the primary sense ‘to tie, bind together’, several new meanings very derived, such as ‘train’, ‘trailer’, ‘stock (for punishment)’, ‘to sew together’, ‘to track s.o.’, etc. (see group A.2, above), perh. [v21] ‘sailing-boat’ The fact that the Akk kaṣāru ‘to tie, knot; to gather’ is also used to describe the ‘gathering, forming’ of clouds or smoke may even make one think of a possible connection betw. [v3] and [v8]~[v9], i.e., ‘smoke, fumigation’~‘incense’ (resin of certain trees) (group B).
    ▪ QṬR_4: A case of etymological ambiguity: Should ‘to come in successive groups, crowd, throng, flock’ be derived from [v3] *‘to tie, bind together (and thus form groups)’, or rather be regarded as dependent on [v1] ‘to drop, come in drops’ (people “dropping in” in groups), or on [v5] ‘side’ (from *‘to walk side by side’, thus forming groups), or even on [v8] ‘smoke’ (groups forming like clouds of smoke)? The associative-intransitive meaning of the Lt-stem (vb. form VI, taC₁āC₂aC₃a) allows for any of these alternatives.
    ▪ QṬR_5: The primary value seems to be ‘side, flank’, attested as such in ClassAr, and reappearing in – apparently denom. – derivatives like qaṭṭara or ʔaqṭara in the sense of ‘to overthrow violently\with vehemence, throw s.o. down on one of his sides’ [v12]. Any relation to [v6] ²quṭr ‘diameter (of a circle); diagonal’? Etymology obscure, also due to lack of cognates in Sem and outside.
    ▪ QṬR_6: Any relation to [v5] ¹quṭr ‘side, flank; region, zone’, a ‘diameter, diagonal’ seen as the line that cuts a circle into two sides, or zones? Or to Grk kéntron ‘centre (of a circle)’?
    ▪ QṬR_7: As the meaning of the n.geogr. remains unclear, it is impossible to connect it with certainty to any of the QṬR (or other) values. Most likely, it has s.th. to do with either ‘pitch’ (↗qaṭrān) or ‘incense’ (↗quṭ(u)r). For more details, see entry ↗Qaṭar.
    ▪ QṬR_8: ‘Smoke; to fumigate’ is the best documented value of all within Sem. Some researchers reconstruct Sem *ḲṬR, others *ḲTR (the forms with /ṭ/ being the result of partial assimilation, due to preceding ‘emphatic’ /ḳ/). Ar has representatives both within √QṬR (↗quṭr~quṭur ‘aloes-wood’, miqṭar, ‑aẗ ‘censer’) and √QTR (esp. ↗qutār ‘aroma, smell of s.th. fried or cooked’). Dolgopolsky2012 regards ‘smoke; to fumigate’ as original only as long as these remain connected to the burning of wood, coal, etc.; as soon as ‘incense’ or other resins etc. [v9] are involved, he thinks that we are dealing with the result of a root merger between [v1] ‘to drip, drop, trickle’ (group A.1, acc. to Dolgopolsky from Sem *ḲṬR) and [v8] ‘smoke, fumigation’ (group B, acc. to Dolgopolsky from Sem *ḲTR). – A similar overlapping can be observed in [v2] ‘distillation’. – Dolgopolsky2012#1219 sees also a Nostr dimension: In his opinion, Sem *ˈḳut˅r‑ ~ *ˈḳit˅r‑ ‘smoke’ can be compared to NaIE *k˻ʷ˼ed‑ ‘smoke, to emit smoke’ (cf., e.g., *Slav kadi‑ti‑ ‘to emit smoke\fume’ > Ru kadí‑t’ ‘to emit fume, burn incense’, Cz kadi‑ti ‘to fumigate, emit fume’, etc.), both evolved from a hypothetical Nostr *Ḳot˅ (R˅) ‘smoke’. – In Akk, the formation or ‘gathering’ of clouds of smoke can be described with the vb. kaṣāru ‘to tie, knot; to gather’, a fact that may suggest a connection betw. [v8] ‘smoke, fumigation’ (and related [v9], see below) with the idea of [v4] ‘forming groups’ and [v3] ‘binding together’ (group A.2).
    ▪ QṬR_9: To the modern meaning of qaṭrān – mostly ‘tar’ – two older values have to be added: ‘pitch’ and ‘resinous oil from the juniper, savin, pine, or cedar tree’. Following earlier suggestions, Jeffery1938 confirmed that the Qur’anic variant, qaṭirān ‘pitch’, is likely a borrowing from Aram (EmpAram ʕiṭrān, Syr ʕeṭrānā ‘pitch’). Pointing to the fact that EmpAram /ʕ/ corresponds to oAram /q/, Pennacchio2014 specified that the stage of Aram in which the borrowing must have happened, was oAram. – With its oAram etymon, qaṭ(i)rān~qiṭrān may originally be *‘the (viscous) dripping substance’, whence the overlapping with ‘resin, resinous oil’ (cf. qaṭr Makkaẗ ~ al-qāṭir al-Makkī ‘resinous juice of the dragon’s blood used to treat mangy camels’). As such a dripping substance, ‘incense’ (involved, e.g., in miqṭar, ‑aẗ ‘censer’) may therefore also be grouped here, under [v9], rather than under [v8]; as mentioned above, Dolgopolsky2012 solved the ambiguity by regarding ‘incense’ etc. as the result of a root merger between Sem *ḲṬR ‘to drip, drop, trickle’ and Sem *ḲTR ‘smoke; to fumigate’. – Any relation to Grk kédros ‘cedar, juniper’? See below, section DISC.
    ▪ QṬR_10: The meaning ‘stocks’ (a device for punishment and public humiliation) of miqṭaraẗ can be interpreted as that of a n.instr.f., formed from qaṭara, vb. I, thus originally signifying a *‘tool to tie together (and line up in a row)’, sc. the culprits and their feet; related to [v3].
    ▪ QṬR_11: Has the Qattara depression in the Eg W desert its name from incense or the like? If so, then it is related to [v8]. But this is highly doubtful, and the etymology therefore obscure.
    QṬR_12: From [v5] *‘side’.
    QṬR_13: Specialised use of [v3] ‘to tie, bind together’.
    QṬR_14: Dependent on [v1] ‘to drop’?
    QṬR_15-17: Probably interrelated (all values expressed by form IX and XI vb.s), but nature of relation among the three as unclear as their relation with other items of √QṬR.
    QṬR_18: The interpretation of qiṭr as ‘(molten) brass, copper’ is due to two or three Qur’anic verses (Q 34:12, 18:96, in one reading also 14:50). But the basic meaning is probably simply ‘anything that drops or flows’ and the value a simple specification of [v1] ‘to drop’.
    QṬR_19: Dependent on [v14] ‘to run away’ (which in turn is from [v1] ‘to drop’?)?
    QṬR_20: Allegedly from [v7] ‘Qaṭar’, but perh. rather from [v18] and thus, ultimately, from [v1].
    QṬR_21: No obvious connection with any other item in the root. – Cf./from Engl cutter? Or dependent on [v3] as *‘the towed one (boat)’, or *‘(boat) with many ropes’? The C₁aC₂īC₃aẗ pattern allows a reading as PP I or ints.adj.
    QṬR_22: Either from [v1] ‘to drip’ (< *poison dripping from the mouth of the snake) or akin to [v15] (< *lingering around at the ‘foot’ of a tree’).
    QṬR_23: Plant-name of obscure etymology, relation to other items of √QṬR unclear.
    QṬR_24: From Tu katır ‘mule’ (perh. from Sogd χartarē ‘dto.’ < ? Sogd χar ‘donkey’).
    QṬR_25: Probably coarse use of EgAr maq͗ṭūraẗ ‘trailer’, to describe a prostitute depending of a pimp, or attaching herself to the feet of her customers.
    QṬR_26: Value given only by Ḍinnāwī2004, probably flawed data.
     
    NB: Attestations in this section will be given only for values that have become obsolete (no longer in WehrCowan1979). For still valid values see s.v.

    QṬR_12 qaṭṭara (‘to throw down vehemently’) 560 CE al-Mutanaḫḫil al-Huḏalī (pre-Islamic poet): fa-qad ʕaǧibtu wa-mā bi’l-dahri min ʕaǧabin / ʔannà qutilta wa-ʔanta ’l-ḥāzimu ’l-baṭalu // wa’l-tāriku ’l-qirna muṣfarran ʔanāmiluhū / ka-ʔannahū min ʕuqārin qahwaẗin ṯamilu // muǧaddalan yatalaqqà ǧilduhū damahū / kamā yuqaṭṭaru ǧiḏʕu ’l-naḫlaẗi ’l-quṭuluHDAL_3Jul2020.16
    QṬR_13 qaṭara ‘to sew (a garment, piece of cloth)’: ▪ …
    QṬR_14 qaṭara (quṭūr) ‘(H) to run away, (St) travel fast’, (L) qaṭara fī ’l-ʔarḍ ‘to go away into the country, and hasten’, (BK) ‘enlever qc tout à coup et se sauver’, expr. mā ʔadrī man qaṭara-hū\bi-hī ‘je ne sais qui l’a emporté’: ▪ …
    QṬR_15 ĭqṭarra, ĭqṭārra ‘to begin to dry (plant), (BK) commencer à sécher sur pied’: ▪ …
    QṬR_16 ĭqṭarra, ĭqṭārra ‘to be(come) angry (s.o.)’: ▪ …
    QṬR_17 (BK) ĭqṭārr‑at ‘to be in foal (she-camel) and show this by raising the tail and the head (she-camel)’: ĭqṭarr‑at; (BK) ‘se sauver, s’enfuir (se dit d’une chamelle, quand elle fuit levant la queue et la tête)’: ▪ …
    QṬR_18 qiṭr ‘(molten) brass, copper’: eC7 qiṭr (molten copper) Q 18:96 ʔātū-nī zubara ’l-ḥadīdi ḥattà ʔiḏā sāwà bayna ’l-ṣadafayni qāla ’nfuḫū ḥattà ʔiḏā ǧaʕala-hū nāran qāla ’ʔtū-nī ʔufriġ ʕalayhi qiṭran ‘“Bring me lumps of iron!” Then, when he had made even the space between the two sides of the mountain, he said [to them], “Blow!”, till when he made it a fire, he said, “Bring me molten copper to pour over it!”’; Q 34:12 wa-li-Sulaymāna ’l-rīḥa ġuduwwuhā šahrun wa-rawāḥuhā šahrun, wa-ʔasalnā lahū ʕayna ’l-qiṭri, wa-min-a ’l-ǧinni man yaʕmalu bayna yadayhi bi-ʔiḏni rabbihī ‘And unto Solomon (We gave) the wind, whereof the morning course was a month’s journey and the evening course a month’s journey, and We caused the fount of copper to gush forth for him, and (We gave him) certain of the jinn who worked before him by permission of his Lord’. – ? 552 CE (fig. use?: s.th. terrible, a calamity) Ḥāǧiz b. ʕAwf al-ʔAzdī (pre-Islamic poet): lawlā Mālikun wa-ʔAbū ʔAnīsin / lafaftu ’l-nāsa fī šahbāʔa qiṭrī ‘Hadn’t there been Malik and Abu Anis I would have brought a terrible calamity [lit., white-glowing qiṭr?] over the people’ – HDAL_3Jul2020.17
    QṬR_19 quṭran, qaṭaran ‘in a lump, in bulk’: ▪ …
    QṬR_20 qiṭr, (St, BK) qiṭrī, qiṭriyyaẗ ‘striped stuff, (BK) sorte d’étoffe rayée fabriquée à Qaṭar, endroit d’Oman (en Arabie)’: 604 CE qiṭr (sort of Yemeni clothes made from coarse cotton) Ḥassān b. Ṯābit (on gazelle-like women): ʕasaǧna bi-ʔaʕnāqi ’l-ẓibāʔi, wa-ʔabrazat / ḥawāšī burūdi ’l-qiṭri wašyan munamnamāHDAL_3Jul2020.18
    QṬR_21 EgAr qaṭīraẗ ‘sailing-boat’: ▪ …
    QṬR_22 quṭārī, quṭāriyyaẗ ‘blackish and poisonous\venomous snake’: ▪ … . – For (underlying?) quṭār, see section DISC, below.
    QṬR_23 (Bu) qaṭūrāʔᵘ, (H) LevAr qaṭriyyaẗ ‘calamint (plant)’: ▪ …
    QṬR_24 (St) qāṭir ‘mule’: ▪ … – In oTu, the word is attested for the first time in 1073 in Kāşġarī’s Dīvān-i Luġāti’t-Türk – Nişanyan_25Jun2015.
    QṬR_25 EgAr maq͗ṭūraẗ ‘whore, hooker’: ▪ ….
    QṬR_26 ³quṭr ‘savage\vicious dog’: ▪ ….
     
    ▪ QṬR_1: No obvious cognates outside Ar. Within Ar, related/dependent lexemes are those of group A.1 (see section CONC, above) and (the probably special uses of) [v14], [v16], [v17], [v22]. Some scholars would maintain that also group A.2 (with the basic value [v3]) is from [v1], although [v3] seems to have Sem cognates that can point to a distinct origin. – Dolgopolsky2012, who sees [v1] and [v9] as essentially one value, does not list any Sem cognates, but suggests to link the Ar ‘to drop’ and ‘tar, pitch’ with lexemes in non-Sem langs, e.g., oInd ˈjatu ‘lac, gum’, oHGe quiti, cuti ‘glue, resin’ (> mHGe küt(e) > early nHGe kütt, nHGe Kitt ‘cement, mastic cement’, AngloSax cwidu, cwiodu, cwudu ‘mastic’, nEngl cud; with apophony: oNo kváða, Swed kåda ‘pitch’, oDan kvade, No kvæde ‘birch sap’, kōda, kvæda ‘beestings’).
    ▪ QṬR_2: Dependent on [v1] (and [v9]?), perh. also on [v8].
    ▪ QṬR_3: (?Hbr qāṭar ‘to shut in, enclose’ – dubious), TargAram Syr qᵊṭar, Mnd gṭar ‘to tie, bind together’, BiblAram qᵊṭar (pl. qiṭrīn) ‘knot, joint; difficult problem’, Syr qeṭrā ‘chain’, qᵊṭīrā ‘compulsion, force’, qᵊṭīrānīṯ ‘by force’, JudPal qṭr ‘to tie, harness’, Ar qaṭara ‘to tie the halters of camels to dispose them in a file; to tow (ship, trailer, glider)’, qiṭār ‘file, train (of camels), caravan; (railroad) train’. – If Brockelmann1908 is right, one should compare Hbr qāšar ‘to bind’, an idea supported also by Leslau (Hebrew Cognates in Amharic, 1969: 65).174 It seems that these scholars would derive the Aram forms from Hbr qāšar (and then regard Ar qaṭara ‘to tie, tow’ as a borrowing from Aram). – According to Leslau2006, the root is also related to SAr qṣr ‘to bring in harvest’, Hbr qāṣar ‘to reap, harvest’ (from *‘to tie the sheaves’), pBiblHbr qṣr ‘to bind’, Akk kaṣāru (by dissimilation, from *qaṣāru) ‘to tie, bind together, join; to assemble, gather (troops, animals, goods), compose (a literary work), organize (work, protection, a battle); to cluster, concentrate, be\make compact, consolidate; to gather, form (clouds, smoke)’, Gz qʷaṣara ‘to bind, bind up, bind together, tie up, knot, enclose; (fig.) to ensnare, contrive, conspire’, Tña qʷäṣärä, Amh qʷaṭṭärä, Arg qʷaṭṭära, Gur qaṭärä, Har qaṭära ‘knot’. – Outside Sem: (Cush) Bil qʷäšär, Kham qʷaṣär, Sa qʷasar ‘to tie, knot’.
    ▪ QṬR_4: Depending on what the value ‘to come in successive groups, crowd, throng, flock’ is seen dependent on, the cognates are either those of [v1] ‘to drop, come in drops’, or of [v3] *‘to tie, bind together’, or [v5] ‘side’.
    ▪ QṬR_5: Related to ²quṭr ‘diameter (of a circle); diagonal’ [v6]? No cognates in Sem or outside. A loanword/calque?
    ▪ QṬR_6: Related to ¹quṭr ‘side, flank; region, zone’ [v5]? No cognates in Sem or outside. A loanword/calque?
    ▪ QṬR_7: Depending on what the name ‘Qatar’ actually means, cognates will probably either be those of [v9] ‘tar, pitch’ (from [v1] ‘to drip, drop, trickle’) or [v8] ‘smoke; to fumigate’ (ó incense trade).
    ▪ QṬR_8: Dolgopolsky2012#1219 and Kogan2015 seem to agree that the basic notion is expressed in the n. ‘smoke’. According to Kogan, the latter is preserved only in Akk qutru and Ug qṭr /quṭru/, while JBA ḳuṭrā and Mnd guṭra ‘smoke’ are prob. owed to an Akk substratum; Dolgopolsky does not make this distinction and instead includes the Aram forms in the list of basic cognates, adding also Ar qutraẗ ‘tas de fumier’, and perh. Amr ḳatarum ‘smoke; incense’. Among the derivatives of ‘smoke’, Kogan mentions that ‘to fumigate’ is well attested throughout Sem: Akk √qtr (D) ‘to make (s.th.) smoke, burn (incense etc.), fumigate (with incense)’, BiblHbr (D) qiṭṭēr, (*Š) hiqṭîr ‘to make a sacrifice smoke, send s.th. up in smoke’, Mnd gṭr ‘to fumigate’, Ar qatara ‘to exhale a scent; to smoke’, quṭr ‘aloe-wood with which one fumigates’, Sab mqṭr ‘incense-altar’, Gz qatara ‘to fumigate’. Dolgopolsky distinguishes between the nominal and verbal derivatives: ‘fumigant’ (n.) is represented in Akk qutār‑ ‘fumigant’, Ebl ḳutāri (gú-da-rí-im) ‘?’ (in a proper name), Ar qutār ‘smell of cooked meat \ of aloes wood’, Gz qəttār, qəttārē ‘incense, fumigation’, ? BiblHbr qīˈṭōr ‘smoke, thick fog’ (the irregular ī suggests that it is a loan from a different Sem lang.); the (denom.) vb.s include Akk qatāru ‘to rise, billow’ (of fog, smoke) and deriv.s, BiblHbr (D) qiṭṭēr, (*Š) hiqṭîr (see above), JA (*Š) ʔaqṭar ‘to burn incense, let the incense rise’, JEA √qṭr (*Š) ‘to burn on the altar’, Ar qatara (√QTR) (see above), qaṭṭara (√QṬR) ‘to perfume (clothes) with the smoke of burning aloeswood’, Gz qattara ‘to fumigate’; cf. also BiblHbr qəˈṭoräṯ ‘smoke\odour of burning sacrifice, incense’, JA qəṭurˈt‑ā ‘incense’; Sab mqṭr ‘incense altar’; (Leslau2006) Te qətare ‘fragrance, spice’, Amh qäṭṭärä ‘to bath in steam or in incense smoke’.
    ▪ QṬR_9: No direct cognates in Sem. But Dolgopolsky2012#963 sees [v9] together with [v1] when he juxtaposes Ar qaṭara ‘to drip’ and qaṭraẗ ‘drop’, on the one hand, and, on the other, qaṭr ‘resinous juice of the dragon’s blood’, qāṭir ‘dripping; gum’ and qaṭrān ~ qiṭrān ‘wood tar’ (> Syr qāṭrān ‘oleum picinum’, Soq qaṭrān, Gz qəṭrān, [Leslau2006 adds:] Te Tña Amh qəṭran, Fr goudron ‘tar, pitch’). Earlier research (Fraenkel1886, Zimmern1914, Jeffery1938) regarded Ar qaṭ(i)rān~qiṭrān (at least in the Qur’anic sense of ‘tar, pitch’) as a borrowing from Aram (Pennacchio2014: oAram) and thus only indirectly cognate to ‘to drip, drop, trickle’. – Outside Sem: For [v1]~[v9], Dolgopolsky sees cognates in (among other lang.s) oInd ˈjatu ‘lac, gum’, oHGe quiti, cuti ‘glue, resin’ > mHGe küt(e) > early nHGe kütt, nHGe Kitt ‘cement, mastic cement’; AngloSax cwidu, cwiodu, cwudu ‘mastic (a gum)’, nEngl cud; with apophony: oNo kváða, Swed kåda ‘pitch’, oDan kvade, No kvæde ‘birch sap’. Cf. also (Kluge2002 #Kitt): mIr beithe ‘box tree’, Cymr bedw ‘birch’ (on account of the resin), (Celt >) Lat bitūmen ‘bitumen’ (> Fr béton), akin to (Celt >) Lat betula ‘birch’.
    ▪ QṬR_10: See [v3].
    ▪ QṬR_11: Cf. probably [v8] or perh. also [v9] < [v1].
    QṬR_12: See [v5].
    QṬR_13: Specialised use of [v3].
    QṬR_14: Cf. [v1]?
    QṬR_15-17: ?
    QṬR_18: Cf. prob. [v1]. – Zammit2002: Qur’anic qiṭr ‘molten brass’ is without cognates in Sem.
    QṬR_19: ?
    QṬR_20: allegedly from [v7].
    QṬR_21: a borrowing?
    QṬR_22: Cf. prob. [v1].
    QṬR_23: ?
    QṬR_24: borrowed from Tu.
    QṬR_25 See [v3].
    QṬR_26: ?
     
    NB: Older meanings, now obsolete, or dialectal words are marked BH for BadawiHinds1886, BK for deBibersteinKazimirski1860, Bu for Bustānī1869, H for Hava1899, R for Redhouse1890, and St for Steingass1884.

    ▪ QṬR_1 ‘to fall or flow in drops, drip, dribble, trickle’: qaṭara; cf. also qaṭraẗ, pl. qaṭr, quṭraẗ, (dimin.) quṭayraẗ ‘drop; (fig.) a little, a bit; trifle, paltry thing, (BK) objet de nulle valeur’; qaṭṭāraẗ ‘pipette’. – Cases of fig. use seem to be: the expr. mā qaṭara‑ka [acc. to others: bi-ka] ʕalaynā ‘what has poured thee (lit., made you drop / came dripping with you) upon us?’; the form V vb. taqaṭṭara ʕan (H) ‘to lag behind’ (? lit., *‘to arrive in drops, i.e., dribs and drabs, after s.o.’); and the EgAr expr. (BH) bi-yq͗aṭṭar-li bi’l-q͗aṭṭāraẗ (lit., *‘he pours in for me with the pipette’ =) ‘he’s very stingy with me’ (overlapping with ↗qatara ‘to be stingy’, from √QTR!). Unclear, but perh. some kind of specialized fig. use as well are: qaṭara (quṭūr) in the sense of [v14] ‘(H) to run away, (BK) enlever qc tout à coup et se sauver, (St) travel fast’, (L) qaṭara fī ’l-ʔarḍ ‘to go away into the country, and hasten’; and the value [v19] ‘in a lump, in bulk’ (mostly in adverbial quṭran, qaṭaran). Partly plausible sounds a derivation of [v22] ‘blackish and poisonous\venomous snake’ from [v1]: Some lexicographers explain the name of the animal as referring to the poison dripping from its mouth. One can perh. argue similarly for [v16] ‘to be(come) angry’ (< *‘to foam at the mouth out of rage’?), and [v17] ‘to be in foal (she-camel) and show this by raising the tail and the head’ (< *‘dripping from the vagina’?). – Essentially *‘dripping\dropping substances’ are prob. also [v18] the Qur’anic qiṭr ‘(molten) brass, copper’ (*‘dripping like pitch’?) and [v9] in both its varieties, the Qur’anic qaṭirān (MSA qaṭrān) ‘tar, pitch’ and the ‘resin, resinous juice made by cooking wood from the cedar, juniper, savin, pine or dragon blood tree’ (qaṭrān, qaṭr Makkaẗ, al-qāṭir al-Makkī , *‘the viscous drops from Mecca’, typically used to treat the skin of scabby\mangy camels). Dolgopolsky2012#963 treats [v1] and [v9] as essentially one and reconstructs WSem *ḲṬR ‘to drip; pitch’, juxtaposing it to NaIE *gʷetu ‘pitch’ and deriving both from a hypothetical Nostr *koṭû *‘sap, pitch’ < ‘to drip, to exude liquid’. However, his reconstruction of the WSem form is based exclusively on the Ar evidence and therefore not particularly strong. Therefore, it may be allowed to ask whether one should not perh. assume a connection betw. Ar √QṬR ‘to drip, drop, trickle’ and Grk κέ δρος kédros ‘cedar, juniper’. Dietrich (art. “Ḳaṭrān”, in EI²) mentions that Grk κεδρία kedría ‘cedar-oil’ was rendered in Ar not only as qadriyyaẗ, but also as qaṭrān. As neither the origin of Grk kédros ‘cedar, juniper’ nor that of Ar qaṭara or – to match the word class of kédros – Ar qaṭr or qiṭr are known,674 it may be worthwhile to try out both options: *(a) Grk kédros < Sem *ḲṬR (> Ar qaṭr\qiṭr), or *(b) Sem *ḲṬR > Ar qaṭr\qiṭr and Grk kédros. If any of the two should turn out to be reliable this would still leave the origin of the respective other item unsolved. Blažek2013 proposed to derive Grk kédros (via Hurrian?) from Akk qatru ‘smoky’ (smoke emitted from the burning of ‘drops’ of Akk qatrānu ‘cedar resin’; but the latter value is dubious and a relation betw. ‘smoke’ and ‘cedar resin’ cannot be taken for granted in Akk). However, a borrowing in the reverse direction, i.e., a dependence of Ar qaṭr\qiṭr (perh./prob. via another lang.) on Grk kédros does not seem impossible either. If it could be corroborated, then the Ar vb. qaṭara would be denom. from the n. denoting ‘resin’, and thus [v1] would depend in its entirety on [v9]. Yet, it goes without saying that, given the busy exchange of both goods and words along ancient trade routes, we cannot exclude the possibility of the Ar and the Grk having merged in a way that is impossible to disentangle from a modern perspective. – An unorthodox idea on the margin: Can perh. also Grk katarrʰ‑eîn ‘to flow down, fall down, sink’ or katarʰátt‑ein ‘to swoop, rush down’ have had played a role? Or is the phonological similarity a pure coincidence? – Additional aspects do not help to solve the riddle but either leave it as is or come with still more question marks: While [v2] ‘to filter, filtrate; to refine; to distill’ is rather unproblematic (a caus. of [v1]; but overlapping in some aspects with [v8] ‘to fumigate’ and [v9] ‘tar, pitch’, as these often are obtained by distillation!), a dependence of the A.2 complex (see section CONC, above), maintained by ClassAr lexicography, on [v1] is doubtful: [v3] ‘to tie together, line up in a row’, and with it [v4], [v10], [v13], and [v25], seem to have an etymology in their own right. The same holds true for the values of group B (*‘smoke; to fumigate’), with [v8] ‘aloes-wood’ as its main representative (plus perh. [v7 ] ‘Qaṭar’ and [v11] ‘Qaṭṭāraẗ’, due to incense trade?): Here, the Sem evidence seems to speak in favour of an origin that is distinct from [v1] ‘to drop’. If there should be an etymological relation between [v1] and [v8], it is via [v9] in the sense of ‘aromatic resin (*dripping sap) used for fumigation and sacrifices’. Dolgopolsky actually considers Sem ‘incense ’ (and deriv.s) as the result of a root merger betw. Sem *ḲṬR ‘to drop; sap, resin’ and Sem *ḲTR ‘smoke; to fumigate’, with the latter fallen together with the first. An unorthodox alternative would be a derivation also of ‘smoke; to fumigate’ from [v1] along the line: *‘to drop’\Grk ‘cedar’ > ‘aromatic resin’ > *‘to burn aromatic resin (to offer a sacrifice)’ > ‘smoke emitted by burnt resin (incense etc.)’ > ‘smoke; to fumigate’. Such a hypothesis would “degrade” the widely attested ‘smoke; to fumigate’ and make it dependent on ‘to drop’ via the ‘aromatic resin (*dripping sap)’ although [v1] ‘to drop’ is not attested in Sem outside Ar, except perh. via [v9]. Not impossible to imagine, but it would be difficult to prove…
    ▪ QṬR_2 ‘to filter, filtrate; to refine; to distill’: qaṭṭara; cf. also qaṭr ‘sirup’ – Cf. also Almkvist1891 for taqṭīraẗ and qaṭr in the sense of ‘sirup’ etc. (for details, see ↗qaṭṭara). – The value likely depends on [v1] but there is overlapping with [v8] ‘smoke; to fumigate’ and [v9] ‘resin (of certain trees); tar, pitch’, produced by “refining, distillation”.
    ▪ QṬR_3 ‘file, train (of camels), caravan; (railroad) train; railroad; long series (e.g., of occurrences); to line up (camels in single file and connect them with halters, form a train (of camels); to couple (vehicles); to tow (ship, trailer, glider)’: qiṭār, ²qaṭara; cf. also qāṭiraẗ ‘tractor, tractor truck; locomotive, engine’; in ClassAr, the meaning ‘to tie (camels, mules, etc.) in a file, to make (beasts) march in a row’ is attested also for qaṭara (vb. I), qaṭṭara (vb. II), and ʔaqṭara (vb. IV). In EgAr, ‘to tow’ is the basic meaning of vb. I, q͗aṭar (u) (BH). *‘To tow, tie, bind together’ may also represent the primary value of the underlying Sem root, which, acc. to Leslau2006, is perh. a Sem *ḲṮR. Following Dillmann1865, Nöldeke1886, Brockelmann1908, and after them also Leslau1969 and 2006, one would then have to assume a development along the line Sem *ḲṮR > Hbr QŠR > Aram (*QṮR >) QṬR675 > borrowed into Ar. – Thus, in light of the Sem evidence, a derivation of [v3] ‘to tie together, tow; train, file, row’ from [v1] ‘to drip, trickle, fall in drops’ (as transfer of meaning from a resin or a liquid to animals etc., both producing a chain\row of uniform elements following each other) appears rather unlikely, although it might be the first thing that comes to mind and could look plausible also in the light of the fact that ClassAr dictionaries sometimes list qiṭār as one of the pl.s of qaṭr ‘drop’, so that the idea of ‘many drops/animals’ following each other can easily come in addition to the derivational plausibility suggested by the C₁iC₂āC₃ pattern and its typically associative meaning. However, the frequency of inner-Sem cognates meaning ‘to tie, bind, etc.’ rather speaks in favour of the lectio difficilior, i.e., distinct origins of [v1] and [v3]; see, however, above. – The fact that Akk kaṣāru ‘to tie, knot; to gather’ is also used to describe, among other ideas, the ‘gathering, forming’ of clouds or smoke may let one think of yet another possible connection, namely betw. [v3] and [v8]~[v9], i.e., ‘smoke, fumigation’ ~ ‘incense’ (resin of certain trees) (group B). – The modern meaning ‘train’ of qiṭār is of course a neologism, and such are also qāṭiraẗ, calqued along the PA.f. pattern, lit. *‘the tracking one’, hence ‘tractor, tractor truck; locomotive, engine’ (and from there also ‘subway car; rail car, diesel’) and the corresponding PP.f. in EgAr maq͗ṭūraẗ, lit. *‘the attached one’, hence ‘trailer’ (and, probably also from here, the coarse use of ‘trailer’ in the sense of [v25] ‘whore, hooker’). Other cases of semantic specification include the use of vb. I qaṭara in the obsolete sense of [v13] ‘to sew (a garment, piece of cloth)’; the n.instr. miqṭaraẗ in the sense of [v10] ‘chains, stocks’, i.e., a device of punishment and public humiliation consisting of large wooden boards with hinges restraining the culprits’ feet, evidently called miqṭaraẗ because it puts the culprits and their feet in a row, ties them together. EgAr vb. I, q͗aṭar, has developed the sense of ‘to trail’ (ḥaddi q͗aṭar‑ak? ‘Did anyone follow you?’) alongside with ‘to hitch, couple’ and ‘to tow’. – Leslau2006 thinks that this *QṬR is akin to a *QṢR ‘to tie, bind, knot’ (both from Sem *ḲṮR?) that he finds in some Akk (cf. the above-mentioned kaṣāru), Hbr, SAr and EthSem forms (which also seem to have cognates in Cush Bil qʷäšär, Kham qʷaṣär, Sa qʷasar ‘to tie, knot’); no attempts made so far to reconstruct AfrAs proto-forms.
    ▪ QṬR_4 ‘to come in successive groups, crowd, throng, flock (ʔilà or ʕalà to s.o., to a place)’: dependent on [v3] *‘to tie, bind together’, or rather on [v1] ‘to drop, come in drops’, or [v8] ‘smoke’ (groups forming like clouds of smoke), or [v5] ‘side’? In ClassAr, taqāṭara is frequently attested with the meaning ‘to walk side by side’; thus, the forming of groups may be the result of such a ‘walking side by side’ and a dependence on [v5] the most probable etymology.
    ▪ QṬR_5 ‘region, quarter; district, section, part; tract of land; zone; country, land’: ¹quṭr (Lane vii 1885 mentions also the form qutr, with non-emphatic t, but classifies this as dialectal variant). For ClassAr also the meanings ‘side, flank’ (also ‘either side of a man’) and ‘climate, region’ are attested, and quṭr can not only signify a ‘zone, region’ on earth, but also a ‘celestial sphere’. [v12] ‘to overthrow violently\with vehemence, throw s.o. down on one of his sides’ is obviously dependent on [v5] in the meaning of ‘side, flank’. So, is this ‘side, flank’ perh. the primary value? quṭr can also mean the ‘diameter (of a circle); diagonal’ [v6]; but is this value related to ‘side, region, zone’ (a diagonal cutting a circle in two zones)? As there are no obvious cognates in Sem nor outside and the inner-Ar evidence is ambiguous, the etymology of quṭr remains rather obscure.
    ▪ QṬR_6 ‘diameter (of a circle); diagonal; calibre, bore (of a tube)’: ²quṭr. – Any relation to ¹quṭr ‘side, flank; region, zone’ [v5], a ‘diameter, diagonal’ seen as the line that cuts a circle into two sides, or zones? The identity of the terms seems to speak in favour of a semantic relation – but what could that be?
    ▪ QṬR_7 ‘Qatar (country in eastern Arabia)’: The n.pr.geogr. is attested in ancient sources (C1 Pliny the Elder, C2 Ptolemy) as Catara (the peninsula), Cadara (a settlement) and Catharrei (the inhabitants), but the sources do not tell us what the names may have meant etymologically. Given that trade with incense was an important business in the ancient Middle East one could be inclined to connect the name to this trade, on the same reasons that made Retsö2003 suggest an “incense etymology” for the Biblical name Qᵊṭûrāʰ. But it may also be from ↗qaṭrān ‘tar, resin’, »in reference to petroleum«, as EtymOnline proposes. However, as long as there are no cognates and we lack explanations from additional sources, we are left with pure speculation. Given that the root QṬR shows signs of overlapping/merging with others, esp. ↗QTR, this and other phonologically possible options (e.g., ↗QDR?) should be kept in mind.
    ▪ QṬR_8 ‘aloes-wood’: quṭ(u)r; miqṭar, miqṭaraẗ ‘censer’, (L) qaṭṭara ‘to fumigate\perfume (ṯawbahū one’s garment) with quṭ(u)r, i.e., aloes-wood’. For further discussion (origin in Sem *ḲTR/ḲTR ‘smoke’, etc.) see section CONC, above. – Influence (on ‘smoke’) also of ↗kadar ‘turbidity, muddiness (of liquids, etc.)’, ↗kadaraẗ ‘lump of earth, earth whirled up, dust’ (*opaqueness)?
    ▪ QṬR_9 ‘tar, pitch’: qaṭrān; in older texts, qaṭrān appears also in the sense of ‘resin, dragon’s blood, made by cooking cedar wood or the like, used to treat mangy camels’ (HDAL), ‘what exudes from the tree called ʔabhal [or juniper, or the species of juniper called savin (Juniperus Sabina), both of which have this name in the present day] and from the ʔarz [or pine-tree], and the like, when cooked, used for smearing [mangy] camels’ (Lane vii 1885), a sense that is close to (H) qaṭr Makkaẗ, al-qāṭir al-Makkī ‘resinous juice of the dragon’s blood’. With this spectrum of meanings, qaṭrān obviously covers the same domains as Lat pix and Grk πίσσα píssa (Attic πίττα pítta) ‘processed resin, wood tar or pitch’. »Resin was extracted by tapping conifers. The liquid collected was solidified or heated in order to obtain a tar-like product. However, it could also be used in its fresh and unprocessed state. Wood tar was manufactured through dry distillation of wood.«676 Thus, the common denominator is *‘viscous substance, originally processed by distillation ’. – On the Qur’anic qaṭirān, Jeffery1938 remarks: »This curious word occurs only in a passage descriptive of the torments of the wicked on the Last Day, where the pronunciation of the Readers varied between qaṭirān, qaṭrān, and qiṭrān. This last reading is supported by the early poetry and is doubtless the most primitive. / Zam[aḫšarī] tells us that it was an exudation from the ʔabhal tree used for smearing mangy camels, but from the discussion in LA, vi, 417, we learn that the philologers were somewhat embarrassed over the word, and we have an interesting tradition that Ibn ʕAbbās knew not what to make of it, and wanted to read qiṭrin ʔānin,677 which would make it mean ‘red-hot brass’, and link it with the qiṭr of 18:96, and 34:12. / The truth seems to be that it is the Aram ʕiṭrān, Syr ʕeṭrānā meaning ‘pitch’, which though not a very common word is an early one. Some confusion of /ʕ/ and /q/ must have occurred when the word was borrowed, but it is interesting that the primitive form qiṭrān of the poets preserved exactly the vowelling of the Aram.678 « On Jeffery’s caveat regarding an Aram etymology, Pennacchio2014 comments: »Nos prédécesseurs ne semblaient pas connaître le lien entre le /q/ arabe et le ʕayn /ʕ/ araméen, car A. Jeffery rapporte qu’il y aurait eu une ‘confusion entre le /ʕ/ et le /q/ lors de l’emprunt’ et que les poètes ont conservé la vocalisation entre la poésie qiṭrān et le Coran qaṭirān. L’arabe viendrait en fait de l’aram. ancien [oAram] qui marque un /q/ là où l’aram. d’empire [EmpAram] note un /ʕ/.«679 – The Qur’anic usage of the word may thus indeed be borrowed from, or at least have been influenced by, oAram usage. It may have come in addition to a – prob. older – usage in the sense of ‘resin, resinous juice (of various trees)’, attested not only for qaṭrān but also in the qaṭr Makkaẗ or al-qāṭir al-Makkī ‘resinous juice of the dragon’s blood’. A. Dietrich (in art. “Ḳaṭrān”, EI² online) explains that this substance was »obtained from several kinds of coniferous trees, especially the Cedrus Libani (Ar šaǧar al-šarbīn), but also from the Oxycedrus L. and various kinds of cypresses. The substance was already widely used in antiquity for many technical and therapeutic purposes and was not unknown in ancient Arabia: scabby animals were smeared with qaṭrān (see the references in M. Ullmann, Die Medizin im Islam, 1970: 217). […]. – ḳaṭrān smells strongly; as a medicine, it is hot and dry in the third degree; applied to the skin it kills lice and ticks, and is beneficial against scratches, itching, elephantiasis and dropsy. It is also of value against the sting of venomous serpents and promotes the growth of flesh in ulcers«. In accordance with the common denominator identified above – *‘viscous substance, originally processed by distillation’ – Dolgopolsky2012#963 is prob. right in grouping both, qaṭrān~qiṭrān ‘wood tar, pitch’ and qaṭr ‘resinous juice of the dragon’s blood’, qāṭir ‘dripping; gum’, together with [v1] qaṭara ‘to drip’, qaṭraẗ ‘drop’. For the not unlikely connection between [v1], [v9] and Grk κέδρος kédros ‘cedar, juniper’, κεδρία kedría ‘cedar-oil’, see above s.v. [v1] ‘to drip, drop, trickle’. Dolgopolsky assumes a Nostr dimension, juxtaposing hypothetically reconstructed WSem *ḲṬR ‘to drip; pitch’ and NaIE *gʷetu ‘pitch’, both from Nostr *koṭû *‘sap, pitch’ < ‘to drip, to exude liquid’. – Deriv.: (H) qaṭara ‘to smear (a camel) with qaṭirān, tar (St: pitch)’; (St) qaṭṭāraẗ, pl. qaṭāṭīrᵘ, ‘place where pitch is boiled’. Perhaps also: [v7] Qaṭar, [v11] Qaṭṭāraẗ. As Retsö2003 reports, there are good grounds, too, to connect the Biblical name Qᵊṭûrāh to ‘incense’). – Variants qiṭrān and qaṭirān influenced by ↗ʕiṭr ‘perfume’ and ʕaṭir ‘sweet-smelling, aromatic’? – Entries in BadawiHinds1886 show that EgAr q͗aṭrān (and the denom. vb. q͗aṭran) are also used figuratively, as in Eur langs: ḥaẓẓ-ī̆ ṭīn wi-q͗aṭrān ‘my luck is rotten (lit., dust\mud and tar)’, q͗aṭranit ʕī̆št-ī̆ ‘she’s ruined my life (lit., made it tarry)’. Old or due to European influence?
    ▪ QṬR_10 ‘stocks (device for punishment)’: related to [v3] (see above).
    ▪ QṬR_11 ‘Qattara (depression in the Eg W desert)’: Etymology obscure. Is the region named Qaṭṭāraẗ because it *‘produced pitch’? The n.f. qaṭṭāraẗ is attested in ClassAr (among other meanings) as ‘place where pitch is boiled’… In this case, the n.pr.topogr. would be akin to [v9] qaṭ(i)rān ~ qiṭrān ‘tar; pitch’
    QṬR_12 ‘to overthrow violently\with vehemence, throw s.o. down on one of his sides’: qaṭara, qaṭṭara, ʔaqṭara: qaṭṭara-hū farasu-hū, (St, L) ‘to throw s.o. down on one of his sides (said of a horse etc.)’, (H) ṭaʕana-hū fa-ʔaqṭara-hū ‘he thrusted\pierced him (with his spear) and threw\dashed him down on one of his sides’, taqaṭṭara (H) ‘to fall on the side; to throw o.s. down from an elevated place’, (St) ‘to throw (bi‑ s.o.) on his side’. – The fact that the meanings given by the dictionaries all include the specification ‘on one of his sides’ points towards a dependence on [v5].
    QṬR_13 ‘to sew (a garment, piece of cloth)’: related to [v3] (see above).
    QṬR_14 ‘(H) to run away, (St) travel fast’, (L) qaṭara fī ’l-ʔarḍ ‘to go away into the country, and hasten’: qaṭara (quṭūr): The specification, made in L, that the running takes place ‘into the country’ suggests dependence of the value on ¹quṭr in the sense of [v5] ‘region, country, land’. It seems that sometimes the ‘running away’ is preceded by a ‘taking away’, as in (BK) ‘enlever qc tout à coup et se sauver’, or the expr. (BK, H) lā ʔadrī man qaṭara-hū \ bi-hī ‘I do not know who has taken it \ run away with it’. Probably also [v19] (H) ʔaḫaḏa ’l-bāqiya quṭran ‘he took the rest in a lump’, (R) qaṭar ‘a buying in bulk by guess or estimation’ is identical with [v14].
    QṬR_15-17: The vb.s ĭqṭarra (form IX) and ĭqṭārra (form XI) can both express 3‑4 ideas that do not seem to have much in common: ‘to begin to dry (plant), (BK) commencer à sécher sur pied’; ‘to be(come) angry’; (used in the f.:) (BK) ĭqṭarr‑at ‘to be in foal (she-camel) and show this by raising the tail and the head (she-camel)’, (BK) ĭqṭārr‑at ‘se sauver, s’enfuir (se dit d’une chamelle, quand elle fuit levant la queue et la tête)’. What could be a common denominator that would justify the use of the same (rather rare!) forms for alle of these ideas? And, is there any semantic relation between any or all of them and one or more of the other values of QṬR? Form IX vb.s usually have a corresponding adj. denoting either a colour or a physical defect, but this rule does not seem to apply here: there is no *ʔaqṭarᵘ, f. *qaṭrāʔᵘ. – For the ‘head held high’, see also [v22] below.
    QṬR_18: According to Zammit2002, the Qur’anic qiṭr ‘(molten) brass, copper’ is without cognates in Sem. – The interpretation of qiṭr as ‘(molten) brass, copper’ is due to Q 34:12 and 18:96 and, according to one reading, also to Q 14:50 (where some exegetes interpret the more common reading sarābīluhum min qaṭirānin ‘their raiment of pitch’ as sarābīluhum min qiṭrin/qaṭirin ʔānin ‘their raiment of copper\brass in the utmost state of heat, or in a state of fusion’, to make it conform to the usual exegesis of 34:12 and 18:96). – Basic meaning: ‘anything that drops or flows’?
    QṬR_19 ‘in a lump, in bulk’: related to, or identical with, [v14]?
    QṬR_20 (H) qiṭr, (St, BK) qiṭrī, qiṭriyyaẗ ‘striped stuff’: ? identical with (BK) ‘sorte d’étoffe rayée fabriquée à Qaṭar, endroit d’Oman (en Arabie)’: The description in BK (‘fabriquée à Qaṭar’) as well as HDAL’s explaination of qiṭr as a kind of ‘Yemeni clothes’ both suggest that the word(s) should be derived from a certain place on the Arabian peninsula named Qaṭar (but not necessarily identical with the modern Qaṭar).
    QṬR_21: qaṭīraẗ, pl. qaṭāʔirᵘ, n.f., ‘sailing-boat’ is given only by Hava1899 and marked there as a specifically EgAr term. However, the item is not attested anywhere else, not even in BadawiHinds1986. No obvious connection with any other item in the root. – ? Cf./From Engl cutter ‘small to medium-sized vessel […], [h]istorically […] a smallish single-masted, decked sailcraft designed for speed rather than capacity’ – en.wiki (cf. also, e.g., Ru káter ‘motorboat’).
    QṬR_22 ‘blackish and poisonous\venomous snake’: The lexicons differ as to which of the values of √QṬR the snake termed quṭārī or quṭāriyyaẗ should be derived from. Two explanations can be found: either from [v1], on account of the poison ‘dripping’ from the reptile’s mouth, or from [v15] ‘to begin to dry from below (plant)’, referring to the snake’s habitude to hide at ‘feet’ of plants that have started to dry from below. Neither of the two options seems convincing, as it would be more plausible to analyse the words as what they are, namely nisba formations from *quṭār. The earliest attestation of the latter (acc. to HDAL_18Jul2020) is a verse (tentatively dated <609 AD in HDAL) in which the pre-Islamic poet Zuhayr b. Abī Sulmà mocks a member of another tribe by describing him as quṭār, explained in the commentary as ‘holding his head high, with the penis dripping due to sexual arousal’.680 This explanation contains both the notion of ‘dripping, dropping’ [v1] and that of the ‘head held high’ that also appears in some explanations of v15-17, se above.
    QṬR_23 ‘calamint (plant)’: (Bu) qaṭūrāʔᵘ, (H) LevAr qaṭriyyaẗ: calaminth => Acinos arvensis, known commonly as basil thyme and spring savory, now an ingredient in the spice mixture called ↗zaʕtar. qaṭūrāʔ => Cotula, a genus of flowering plant in the sunflower family (Asteraceae), includes plants known generally as water buttons or buttonweeds. Cotula is the largest genus found in the Southern Hemisphere of the tribe Anthemideae, section Cotula = largest section with about 40 species; mostly in South Africa, a few in North Africa and Australia.
    QṬR_24 ‘mule’: (St) qāṭir; deriv. qāṭirǧī ‘muleteer’. From Tu katır ‘mule’, according to Nişanyan_25Jun2015 perh. from Sogd χartarē ‘dto.’ (? < Sogd χar ‘donkey’). Nişanyan (referring to Doerfer sf. III.1395) remarks that it is highly probable that the word is loaned from an Iranian language.
    QṬR_25 ‘whore, hooker’: related to [v3] (see above).
    QṬR_26 The value ‘savage\vicious dog’ for ³quṭr is given only by Ḍinnāwī2004. According to the author, the item is of Tu origin. No details given. EtymArab doubts very much in the validity of Ḍinnāwī’s information; probably a mistake.
     
    ▪ QṬR_5 ‘region, quarter; district, section; tract of land; zone; country, land’: see ↗¹quṭr
    ▪ QṬR_9 ‘tar; pitch’: see ↗qaṭrān
    QṬR_24 ‘mule’: The old Tu word (which survived mostly in SW Az, Tkm, OttTu) has passed into Mong (kačir, with several reborrowings from there) and Pers – Clausen1972. From OttTu, it was also borrowed into several Slav/Balkan langs, Rum catîr (f. catîră), Bulg katъr, Serb katura, Ru (dial.) katjer ‘mule’ etc. – Lokotsch1927 #1131.
     
    – 
    qaṭar‑ قَطَرَ , u (qaṭr, qaṭarān
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QṬR 
    vb., I 
    1 to fall or flow in drops, drip, dribble, trickle; 2 (qaṭr) to tow (ship, trailer, glider) – WehrCowan1979. 
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    – 
    qaṭṭara, vb. II (qaṭr), 1 to let fall or flow in drops, drip, drop, dribble, infuse in drops or driblets: D-stem, caus.; 2qaṭṭara; 3qiṭār
    taqaṭṭara, vb. V, 1a to fall or flow in drops, drip, dribble, trickle; 1b to soak, percolate (ʔilà into), trickle (ʔilà in): Dt-stem, intr.
    ĭstaqṭara, vb. X, 1a to drip, drop, dribble; 1bqaṭṭara: *Št-stem

    qaṭr, n., 1 dripping, dribbling, dribble, trickling, trickle: vn. I; 2 (pl. qiṭār) drops, driblets: n.coll.; 3 rain: specification; 4qaṭṭara.
    BP #3127qaṭraẗ, pl. qaṭarāt, n.f., drop (also as a medicine): n.un. of qaṭr.
    quṭayraẗ, pl. -āt, n.f., droplet, driblet: dimin. of qaṭraẗ.
    qaṭṭāraẗ, n.f., 1 dropping tube, pipette, dropper: formed on intens. PA pattern for tools, professions, etc.; 2 Qaṭṭāraẗ
    qaṭrān, qiṭrān, qaṭirān, n., ↗s.v.
    taqṭīr, n., ↗qaṭṭara
    ĭstiqṭār, n., ↗qaṭṭara
    muqaṭṭarāt, n.f.pl., ↗qaṭṭara
    mustaqṭar, n., ↗qaṭṭara

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗taqāṭara, ↗¹quṭr, ↗²quṭr, ↗Qaṭar, ↗quṭ(u)r, ↗miqṭaraẗ, ↗Qaṭṭāraẗ, and, for the general picture (incl. earlier values, now obsolete), root entry ↗QṬR.
     
    qaṭṭar‑ قَطَّرَ (qaṭr, taqṭīr
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QṬR 
    vb., II 
    1qaṭara; 2a to filter, filtrate; 2b to refine; 2c to distill; 3qiṭār – WehrCowan1979. 
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    – 
    ĭstaqṭara, vb. X, 1aqaṭara; 1b to distill, extract by distillation: *Št-stem, desiderative, autobenefactive
    qaṭṭāraẗ, n.f., 1qaṭara; 2Qaṭṭāraẗ

    qaṭrān, qiṭrān, qaṭirān, n., ↗s.v.
    taqṭīr, n., 1a filtering, filtration; 1b refining; 1c distilling, distillation: vn. II.
    ĭstiqṭār, n., distilling, distillation: vn. X.
    muqaṭṭarāt, n.f.pl., 1a spirituous liquors, spirits; 1b distillates (chem.): PP II.
    mustaqṭar, n., distillate (chem.)ː PP X.

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗qaṭara, ↗qiṭār, ↗taqāṭara, ↗¹quṭr, ↗²quṭr, ↗Qaṭar, ↗quṭ(u)r, ↗miqṭaraẗ, ↗Qaṭṭāraẗ, and, for the general picture (incl. earlier values, now obsolete), root entry ↗QṬR.
     
    taqāṭar‑ تَقاطَر (taqāṭur
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QṬR 
    vb., VI 
    to come in successive groups, crowd, throng, flock (ʔilà or ʕalà to s.o., to a place) – WehrCowan1979. 
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    – 
    qaṭara, u (qaṭr, qaṭarān), vb. I, 1s.v.; 2 (qaṭr) ↗qiṭār
    qaṭṭara, vb. II (qaṭr), 1qaṭara; 2s.v.; 3qiṭār

    BP #2408qiṭār, pl. quṭur, quṭurāt, n., ↗s.v.

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹quṭr, ↗²quṭr, ↗Qaṭar, ↗quṭ(u)r, ↗qaṭrān, ↗miqṭaraẗ, ↗Qaṭṭāraẗ, and, for the general picture (incl. earlier values, now obsolete), root entry ↗QṬR.
     
    ¹quṭr قُطْر , pl. ʔaqṭār 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 4044 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QṬR 
    n. 
    1a region, quarter; 1b district, section; 1c tract of land; 1d zone; 1e country, land; 2 ↗²quṭr – WehrCowan1979. 
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    – 
    al‑quṭr al‑miṣrī, n., Egypt
    ʔarbaʕaẗ ʔaqṭār al-dunyā, n.pl., the four quarters of the world
    al-rawʕaẗ allatī taʔḫuḏunī min ǧamīʕ ʔaqṭārī, expr., the rapture which holds me completely enthralled, which pervades my heart through and through
    ʔaqṭār al-bayt, n.f.pl., the whole interior of the house

    quṭrī, adj., 1 regional; 2 ↗²quṭr: nisba formation.

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗qaṭara, ↗qaṭṭara, ↗qiṭār, ↗taqāṭara, ↗²quṭr, ↗Qaṭar, ↗quṭ(u)r, ↗qaṭrān, ↗miqṭaraẗ, ↗Qaṭṭāraẗ, and, for the general picture (incl. earlier values, now obsolete), root entry ↗QṬR.
     
    ²quṭr قُطْر , pl. ʔaqṭār 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QṬR 
    n. 
    1 ↗¹quṭr; 2a diameter (of a circle); 2b diagonal; 2c caliber, bore (of a tube) – WehrCowan1979. 
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    niṣf quṭr al-dāʔiraẗ, n., radius (of the circle)

    quṭrī, adj., 1 ↗¹quṭr; 2 diametral, diametrical: nisba formation.

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗qaṭara, ↗qaṭṭara, ↗qiṭār, ↗taqāṭara, ↗¹quṭr, ↗Qaṭar, ↗quṭ(u)r, ↗qaṭrān, ↗miqṭaraẗ, ↗Qaṭṭāraẗ, and, for the general picture (incl. earlier values, now obsolete), root entry ↗QṬR.
     
    Qaṭarᵘ قَطَرُ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QṬR 
    n.pr.geogr. 
    Qatar (country in eastern Arabia; official name: dawlaẗ Qaṭar, State of Qatar) – WehrCowan1979. 
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    … 
    BP #1847qaṭarī, n./adj., Qatari: nisba formation.

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗qaṭara, ↗qaṭṭara, ↗qiṭār, ↗taqāṭara, ↗¹quṭr, ↗²quṭr, ↗quṭ(u)r, ↗qaṭrān, ↗miqṭaraẗ, ↗Qaṭṭāraẗ, and, for the general picture (incl. earlier values, now obsolete), root entry ↗QṬR.
     
    quṭr قُطْر , var. quṭur 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QṬR 
    n. 
    agalloch, aloeswood – WehrCowan1979. 
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    miqṭar, pl. maqāṭirᵘ, n., censer: n.instr.
    miqṭaraẗ, pl. maqāṭirᵘ, n.f., 1 censer; 2s.v.: n.instr.f.

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗qaṭara, ↗qaṭṭara, ↗qiṭār, ↗taqāṭara, ↗¹quṭr, ↗²quṭr, ↗Qaṭar, ↗qaṭrān, ↗Qaṭṭāraẗ, and, for the general picture (incl. earlier values, now obsolete), root entry ↗QṬR.
     
    qiṭār قِطار , pl. quṭur, quṭurāt 
    ID 697 • Sw – • BP 2408 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QṬR 
    n. 
    1a file, train (of camels); 1b (railroad) train; 1b.1 railroad; 1c single file (mil.); 1d long series (e.g., of occurrences) – WehrCowan1979. 
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    qiṭār al-biḍāʕaẗ, n., freight train, goods train
    qiṭār ḥadīdī, n., railroad train
    qiṭār ḫāṣṣ\maḫṣūṣ\ḫuṣūṣī, n., special train
    qiṭār al-rukkāb, n., passenger train
    qiṭār sabbāq, n., fast train, express train
    qiṭār sarīʕ, n., express train
    qiṭār waqqāf and (EgAr) qiṭār qaššāš, n., slow train, local train

    qaṭara, u (qaṭr, qaṭarān), vb. I, 1s.v.; 2 (qaṭr) to tow (ship, trailer, glider): probably specialized meaning of the actual etymon, *‘to tie’, see sections CONC and DISC.
    qaṭara, vb. I, and qaṭṭara, vb. II (qaṭr), 1s.v.; 2qaṭṭara; 3a to line up camels in single file and connect them with halters, form a train (of camels); 3b to couple (vehicles): meaning closest to actual etymon, *‘to tie’, see sections CONC and DISC.
    taqāṭara, vb. VI, to come in successive groups, crowd, throng, flock (ʔilà or ʕalà to s.o., to a place): Lt-stem, recipr.; related to *‘to tie, bind together’, or rather dependent on ↗¹qaṭara ‘to drop, come in drops’ or ↗¹quṭr ‘side’ (< *‘to walk side by side’, thus forming groups), or on the idea of *‘smoke’ (↗quṭ(u)r) forming clouds, i.e., *‘grouping’ themselves?

    (EgAr) q͗aṭr, pl. quṭūrāt, n., (railroad) train: lit., the file of wagons tied together.
    (EgAr) q͗aṭargī, pl. -iyyaẗ, n., shunter, switchman (railroad): composed of q͗aṭr ‘train’ and the Tu suffix ‑ǧī for professions.
    miqṭaraẗ, pl. maqāṭirᵘ, n.f., 1quṭ(u)r; 2 stocks (for punishment): n.instr.f., from qaṭara, vb. I, lit. *‘tool used to tie together (and line up in a row)’, sc. the culprits and their feet; ↗s.v.
    qāṭiraẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., 1a locomotive, engine; 1b tractor; 1c tractor truck; 1d subway car; 1e rail car, diesel: neolog. (semantic loan, calqued on a PA.f. pattern, to render tractor), lit. *‘the tracking (machine)’.
    maqṭūr: ʕarabaẗ maqṭūraẗ = maqṭūraẗ.
    maqṭūraẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., trailer (e.g., of a streetcar, bus or truck): PP.f., from vb. I, lit. *‘the attached one (car, etc.)’.

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹quṭr, ↗²quṭr, ↗Qaṭar, ↗quṭ(u)r, ↗qaṭrān, ↗miqṭaraẗ, ↗Qaṭṭāraẗ, and, for the general picture (incl. earlier values, now obsolete), root entry ↗QṬR.
     
    qaṭrān قَطْران , var. qiṭrān, qaṭirān 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QṬR 
    n. 
    tar – WehrCowan1979. 
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    qaṭrana, vb. I, to tar, smear or coat with tar: denom., forming a new, 4-rad. root, ↗√QṬRN.

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗qaṭara, ↗qaṭṭara, ↗qiṭār, ↗taqāṭara, ↗¹quṭr, ↗²quṭr, ↗Qaṭar, ↗quṭ(u)r, ↗miqṭaraẗ, ↗Qaṭṭāraẗ, and, for the general picture (incl. earlier values, now obsolete), root entry ↗QṬR.
     
    miqṭaraẗ مِقْطَرَة , pl. maqāṭirᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QṬR 
    n.f. 
    1quṭ(u)r; 2 stocks (device for punishment) – WehrCowan1979. 
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    – 
    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗qaṭara, ↗qaṭṭara, ↗qiṭār, ↗taqāṭara, ↗¹quṭr, ↗²quṭr, ↗Qaṭar, ↗quṭ(u)r, ↗qaṭrān, ↗Qaṭṭāraẗ, and, for the general picture (incl. earlier values, now obsolete), root entry ↗QṬR.
     
    Qaṭṭāraẗ قَطَّارة 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QṬR 
    n.pr.f.geogr. 
    1qaṭara; 2 munḫafaḍ al-Qaṭṭāraẗ, the Qattara depression (in the Eg W desert) – WehrCowan1979. 
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    … 
    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗qaṭara, ↗qaṭṭara, ↗qiṭār, ↗taqāṭara, ↗¹quṭr, ↗²quṭr, ↗Qaṭar, ↗quṭ(u)r, ↗qaṭrān, ↗miqṭaraẗ, and, for the general picture (incl. earlier values, now obsolete), root entry ↗QṬR. 
    QṬRB قطرب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QṬRB 
    “root” 
    NB: For reasons of convenience, paragraphs QṬRB_1-3 try to group several interrelated values attached to the root under three overarching meanings; but these “parent” values are all derived from one, see ↗quṭrub and sections CONC and DISC, below.

    QṬRB_1 ‘(a certain) wolf (whose hair has fallen off, scanty, mischievous, malignant)’.
    QṬRB_2 ‘to rove around by night, without sleeping’: 2.1 a bird that does so (owl; strix); 2.2 insects (esp. glowworms); 2.3 thief who is skilful, active, in thievishness; 2.4 rat, mouse; 2.5 a demon: 2.5.1 male demon called ġūl (= suʕlāẗ), 2.5.2 young, or little, jinnee, 2.5.3 young, little dog, puppy; 2.6 restlessness: 2.6.1 never-resting insect, going about quickly, moving about on the surface of water; to hasten, speed, go quickly; 2.6.2 to move about one’s head; 2.6.3 light, active.
    QṬRB_3 ‘possession’: 3.1 mental disorder, demoniacal possession, melancholy: 3.1.1 mélancolie qui fait fuir la société des hommes (BK), vitiating, or disordering, the intellect, contracting the face, causing to wander about in the night (etc.), lycanthropy | werewolf (St); 3.1.2 ignorance, stupidity: ignorant person, boasting by reason of his ignorance; light-witted | stultus (F), imbécile (BK); 3.1.3 cowardice, cowardly; 3.2 to throw o.s. down, prostrate on the ground, by reason of diabolical possession or wrestling | epilepsia correptus (F), homme qui tombe du haut-mal (BK).

    Other meanings attached to the root (but apparently/seemingly unrelated to any of the preceding ones) include:

    QṬRB_4 ‘flag’ (?): qiṭrīb
    QṬRB_5 ‘slippers | mules, chaussure sans quartier’: qaṭārib (pl.)
    QṬRB_6 ‘burdock plant, arctium | bardane, glouteron’: quṭrub
    QṬRB_7 ‘peg by which the oxen are tied to a plough, plough-peg’: qaṭrīb or qiṭrīb
    ▪ …
     
    QṬRB_1-3: The “parent values” [v1]–[v3] of √QṬRB can serve as a fine example of the surprising semantic diversity that may arise from one single borrowing: all the respective values go back to Grk lukánθrōpos ‘wolf-man’, a word that entered Ar via Syr qanṭropos.
    QṬRB_4 qiṭrīb ‘flag’: semantics unclear.
    QṬRB_5 qaṭārib ‘slippers | mules, chaussure sans quartier’: semantics unclear.
    QṬRB_6 quṭrub ‘burdock plant, arctium | bardane, glouteron’: semantics unclear; connected to [v7]?
    QṬRB_7 qaṭrīb, qiṭrīb ‘peg by which the oxen are tied to a plough, plough-peg’: related to [v6]? The word may have a cognate in postBiblHbr and Aram; perh. based on Sem *QṬR ‘to tow, tie, bind’?
     
    – 
    QṬRB_1-3: Syr qanṭropos (< Grk) ‘wolf-man, lycanthrope’.
    QṬRB_4: ?
    QṬRB_5: see perh. [v1]-[v3]?
    QṬRB_6: cf. perh. [v7]?
    QṬRB_7: postBiblHbr qēṭrāḇ ‘cotter-pin, crosspiece of a yoke’, Aram qeṭrabâ.
     
    QṬRB_1-3: When Grk lukánθrōpos ‘wolf-man’ entered Ar via the Syr qanṭropos it must have meant a person possessed by a demon, looking (or believing to look) like a wolf, restlessly roving around at night. From the three main ideas attached to this being – the scary, wolf-like shape, its restless roving about by night, and its possession – a large variety of derived values developed, all expressed by the word quṭrub or the (denom.) vb.s qaṭraba (I) and taqaṭraba (II). For details see ↗quṭrub.
    QṬRB_4 qiṭrīb ‘flag’: The value is given only by al-Zabīdī in his Tāǧ (explained there as »ʕalam«).
    QṬRB_5 qaṭārib ‘slippers | mules, chaussure sans quartier’: value given only by Dozy1881. The form qaṭārib is obviously a pl. of quṭrub, but in which of the latter’s many senses? Perh. ironical use of [v2], slippers being called the sandals with which one *‘roves around in the night’?
    QṬRB_6 quṭrub ‘bardane, glouteron’ (burdock plant, arctium): value reported by Dozy1881; semantics perh. related to [v7] as *‘plant that remains sticked (tied, towed) to s.o.’?
    QṬRB_7 qaṭrīb or qiṭrīb ‘peg by which the oxen are tied to a plough, plough-peg’: value reported by Dozy1881 as well as Hava1899 (where it is marked as »LevAr«). Semantically, one is tempted to connect postBiblHbr qēṭrāḇ ‘cotter-pin, crosspiece of a yoke’ and Aram qeṭrabâ ‘dto.’, which both are of uncertain origin (Klein1987).681 This QṬRB may be based on 3-rad. ↗√QṬR ‘to tow (ship, trailer, glider)’, Syr qṭar ‘to bind’, qeṭrā ‘chain’, Ar ↗qiṭār ‘train’ etc.

    ▪ None of the values is in any way related to Qurṭubaẗ ‘Córdoba’, which not only shows ‑rṭ‑ instead of ‑ṭr‑, but also has a completely different etymology: from Lat Corduba, from Grk Κορδύβη ~ Κορδυβά, from an earlier Old Iberian name.682
     
    ▪ See ↗quṭrub
    – 
    quṭrub قُطْرُب , pl. qaṭāribᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QṬRB 
    n. 
    quṭrub_1-3 (for details of this grouping see below, section DISC; the following is a concise version of the entry in Lane vii 1885): A certain bird (species of owl; a bird that roves about by night and does not sleep; and hence strix); insects that emit light at night, glow like a candle (B); certain insect that rests not all the day, going about, or going about quickly, or, that never rests, moving about on the surface of water; light, active; [hence, app.] thief who is skilful, active, in thievishness; rat, mouse; male of the kind of demon called ġūl (= suʕlāẗ); young, or little, jinnee | sorte de petits démons, lutins, farfadets (BK); young, little dog, puppy; (certain) wolf (called ʔamʕaṭ, i.e. whose hair has fallen off, part after part, or who has become scanty, or mischievous, or malignant) | lupus glabro corpore (F); ignorant person, boasting by reason of his ignorance; coward(ly) | pusillanimous (F); light-witted | stultus (F), imbécile (BK); thrown down, prostrated on the ground, by reason of diabolical possession or wrestling | epilepsia correptus (F), homme qui tombe du haut-mal (BK); a species of melancholia | melancholy, demoniacal possession (St), mélancolie qui fait fuir la société des hommes (BK); a well-known disease, arising from the black bile, mostly originating in the month of šubāṭ, vitiating, or disordering, the intellect, contracting the face, occasioning continual unhappiness, causing to wander about in the night, and rendering the face ʔaḫḍar [here: dark, ashy, dust-coloured], the eyes sunken, and the body emaciated | werewolf (St). [A more ample description is given by Ibn Sīnā in Book iii, pp. 315 sq. SM states that he had not found this in any other lexicon than the Qāmūs. Golius explains the word as signifying lycanthropia, on the authority of al-Rāzī] | lycanthropia (F), maladie appelée lycanthropie (BK) – Lane vii (1885), with additions from Freytag1837 (F), Kazimirski1960 (BK), Bustānī1869 (B), Steingass1894 (St), Hava1899 (H).

    Other attested meanings:

    quṭrub_4: burdock plant, arctium | bardane, glouteron
    quṭrub_5 (pl. qaṭārib): slippers | mules, chaussure sans quartier
     
    quṭrub_1-3: from Syr qanṭropos, from Grk lukánθrōpos ‘wolf-man’ (composed of lúkos ‘wolf’ and ánθrōpos ‘man’). Syr shows already apocope of the first syllable of the Grk original, while Ar adapted the Syr form to the FuʕLuL pattern common for animals (cf. ↗ǧundub, furʕul, ↗qunfuḏ) – Ullmann1976.
    quṭrub_4-5: etymology unclear.
     
    Earliest attestations in HDAL:
    653 CE (restless) in a verse by ʕAbd Allāh b. Masʕūd al-Huḏalī: lā ʔulfiyanna ʔaḥadakum ǧīfaẗa laylih, quṭruba nahārih.
    778 CE (male ġūl) in a verse by ʔAbū Dulāmaẗ describing an old woman: mahzūlaẗu ’l-laḥyayni, man yara-hā yaqul: ʔabṣartu ġūlan ʔaw ḫayāla ’l-quṭrubi.
    783 CE (restless insect, producing light at night) in a verse by Baššār b. Burd, on not finding sleep when even a quṭrub would fall asleep: yā bāna, ṭabbuki lā yanāmu, wa-qad yanāmu ’l-quṭrubu.
     
    quṭrub_1-3: Syr qanṭropos (< Grk) ‘wolf-man, lycanthrope’.
    quṭrub_4: cf. perh. ↗QṬRB_7.
    quṭrub_5: ironical use of quṭrub_2 ‘roving about at night’?
     
    ▪ Ullmann1976: »Rudolf Geyer683 hatte angenommen, daß die erste Silbe des Wortes [Grk] lukánθrōpos von den Arabern als Artikel aufgefaßt, daß al-quṭrub demnach analog zu [Grk] Aléxandros ~ [Ar] al-Iskandar, [Grk] limḗn ~ [Ar] al-mīnā usw. gebildet worden sei. Das ist schwerlich richtig, denn dann müßte al-quṭrub unmittelbar auf [Grk] lukánθrōpos zurückgehen. Das arabische Work hat aber in qanṭropos [Brockelmann1895: [Grk] lukánθrōpos, daemon nocturnus] eine syrische Vorstufe, wie schon Georg Hoffmann684 und Rubens Duval685 nachgewiesen haben. Bereits im Syrischen ist die erste Silbe apokopiert, und ebenso findet sich dort bereits die regelwidrige – wenn auch nicht ganz ungewöhnliche – Wiedergabe des griechischen θ durch . Qanṭropos ist von den Arabern dann zu quṭrub weiterentwickelt worden, wobei die noch erinnerte ursprüngliche Wortbedeutung die Angleichung an ein Morphem befördert haben mag, das für viele Tiernamen gilt, z.B. furʕul ‘junge Hyäne’, qunfuḏ ‘Igel’, ǧundub ‘Heuschrecke’.«
    ▪ When Grk lukánθrōpos > Syr qanṭropos entered Ar it must have meant a person possessed by a demon, looking (or believing to look) like a wolf, restlessly roving around at night. From the three main ideas attached to this being – 1 the scary, wolf-like shape, 2 its restless roving about by night, and 3 its possession – a large variety of secondary values were derived in the course of time, all expressed by the n. quṭrub or the (denom.) vb.s qaṭraba (I) and taqaṭraba (II). Semantics may have developed along the following lines:

    quṭrub_1 ‘(a certain) wolf (whose hair has fallen off, scanty, mischievous, malignant)’.
    quṭrub_2 ‘roving around by night, without sleeping’:
    2.1 bird that does so = ‘owl; strix’
    2.2 insect that does so = esp. ‘glowworm’ (emitting light like the glowing eyes of the wolfman?)
    2.3 man who does so = ‘thief’ (actively, skilfully moving around)
    2.4 animal that does so = ‘rat, mouse’
    2.5 other nightly creatures, esp. demons:
    2.5.1 ‘male ↗ġūl (= suʕlāẗ)’
    2.5.2 ‘young, or little, jinnee’ > hence also 2.5.2a ‘young, little dog, puppy’
    2.6 restlessness:
    2.6.1 ‘never-resting insect, going about quickly, moving about on the surface of water’ > hence also the generalizing 2.6.1a ‘to hasten, speed, go quickly’
    2.6.2 ‘to move about one’s head’
    2.6.3 ‘light, active’ (overlapping esp. with 2.3 ‘thief’)
    quṭrub_3 ‘possessed (by a demon)’:
    3.1 mental disorder, demoniacal possession, melancholy:
    3.1.1 a species of melancholia: ‘mélancolie qui fait fuir la société des hommes (BK), a well-known disease, arising from the black bile, mostly originating in the month of šubāṭ, vitiating, or disordering, the intellect, contracting the face, occasioning continual unhappiness, causing to wander about in the night and rendering the face ↗ʔaḫḍar [here: dark, ashy, dust-coloured], the eyes sunken, and the body emaciated; lycanthropy | werewolf (St)’
    3.1.2 result of disordered intellect = ignorance, stupidity, hence: ‘ignorant person, boasting by reason of his ignorance; light-witted | stultus (F), imbécile (BK)’
    3.1.3 result of melancholy that makes afraid of people = cowardice, hence: ‘coward, cowardly’
    3.2 concomitant action / physical indication of possession: ‘to throw o.s. down, prostrate on the ground, by reason of diabolical possession or wrestling | epilepsia correptus (F), homme qui tombe du haut-mal (BK)’

    quṭrub_4 ‘burdock plant, arctium | bardane, glouteron’: value reported by Dozy1881; semantics perh. related to ↗QṬRB_7 qaṭrīb or qiṭrīb ‘peg by which the oxen are tied to a plough, plough-peg’ (cf. postBiblHbr qēṭrāḇ, Aram qeṭrabâ ‘cotter-pin, crosspiece of a yoke’, both of uncertain origin – Klein1987); if so, quṭrub_4 may originally have been the *‘plant that remains sticked (tied, towed) to s.o.’
    quṭrub_5 ‘slippers | mules, chaussure sans quartier’: value given only by Dozy1881. The form qaṭārib is obviously a pl. of quṭrub, but in which of the latter’s many senses? Perh. ironical use of [v2], slippers being called the sandals with which one *‘roves around at night’?
     
    qaṭraba, vb. I, to hasten, speed, go quickly; to throw down, prostrate (s.o.) on the ground – Lane vii (1885): denom.
    taqaṭraba, vb. II, to move about one’s head; to make o.s. resemble the quṭrub, become like a quṭrub – Lane vii (1885): Gt-stem, denom.
     
    QṬRMZ قطرمز 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QṬRMZ 
    “root” 
    ▪ QṬRMZ_1 ‘(large) glass bottle or jar’ ↗qaṭramīz 
    qaṭramīz 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    qaṭramīz قَطْرَميز 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QṬRMZ 
    n. 
    (large) glass bottle or jar – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ While both Steingass1884 and Redhouse1890 mark qaṭar(i)mīz ‘large bottle’ as a Tu word, Ḍannāwī2004 suggests a ByzGrk origin. None with further details.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Ḍannāwī2004: ‘large glass vessel (qullaẗ)’, perh. from ByzGrk.
    ▪ Steingass1884: qaṭarimīz ‘large bottle’, Tu word.
    ▪ Redhouse1890: qaṭarmīz ‘very large glass bottle or vase used by apothecaries or confectionaries as a show-vase’, Tu word.
    ▪ … 
    … 
    – 
    QṬʕ قطع 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QṬʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ QṬʕ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ QṬʕ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to sever, cut off, scatter; part, piece; to boycott; the edge, the end; to be out of season, be scarce; to be out of breath, suffocate; to buy off; to grant, allot; to cover a distance’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    qaṭaʕ‑ قَطَعَ 
    ID 698 • Sw –/25 • BP 1030 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QṬʕ 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    QṬF قطف 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1May2023
    √QṬF 
    “root” 
    ▪ QṬF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QṬF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QṬF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to pluck off, harvest, fruits on the tree, bunches of grapes; velvet’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    QṬMR قطمر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1May2023
    √QṬMR 
    “root” 
    ▪ QṬMR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QṬMR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QṬMR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘the cleft in the date stone, the membrane enveloping a date stone, a tiny hole in the back of a date stone’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    QṬN قطن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QṬN 
    “root” 
    ▪ QṬN_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ QṬN_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ QṬN_3 ‘gourd’ ↗yaqṭīn (arranged s.r. ↗√YQṬN)
     
    ▪ From protSem *√QṬN ‘to be(come) thin, fine, small’ – Huehnergard2011.
    … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl cottonquṭn
    – 
    quṭn قُطْن 
    ID 699 • Sw – • BP 4532 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QṬN 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl cotton, from Ar quṭn, quṭun ‘cotton’, perh. akin to Akk qatānu ‘to be(come) thin, fine (of textiles)’, or perh. borrowed from an unknown source. 
     
    QʕD قعد 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QʕD 
    “root” 
    ▪ QʕD_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ QʕD_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to sit down, take a seat; to abide, lie in wait; to refrain; (of women) to grow old; to serve; saddle, cushions; young camel; companion, wife; foundations; weight-bearing pillars, cowardly person’ 
    ▪ From CSem *√QʕD ‘to bend, sit’ – Huehnergard2011.
    … 
    – 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ …
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    ▪ Engl ↗al-Qaeda qāʕidaẗ
    – 
    qāʕidaẗ قاعِدَة 
    ID 700 • Sw – • BP 630 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QʕD 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl al-Qaeda, from Ar al-qāʕidaẗ ‘the foundation, the base’, from qaʕada, vb. I, ‘to sit’. 
     
    QʕR قعر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1May2023
    √QʕR 
    “root” 
    ▪ QʕR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QʕR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QʕR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘bottom, depth, to excavate, pierce, uproot; to hollow; to knock down’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    QFL قفل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1May2023
    √QFL 
    “root” 
    ▪ QFL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QFL_2 ‘lock’ ↗qufl
    ▪ QFL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to return; caravan; to dry up, dried timber; bolt, to lock up; miserly person’ 
    ▪ From WSem *√QPL ‘to close, enclose’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    – 
    qufl قُفْل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Jun2023
    √QFL
     
    n. 
    lock – Jeffery1938 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q xlvii, 26 – Jeffery1938.
     
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »Only in the pl. ʔaqfāl, where al-Ǧawālīqī, Muʕarrab, 125, says it is a borrowing from Pers.686 / The verb qaffala is denominative687 and the word cannot be derived from an Ar root. It is probably the Aram qwplʔ ‘a fetter’, or Syr qplā, which translates the Grk kleîθron, and would have been an early borrowing.688 «
     
    – 
    – 
    QFW قفو 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1May2023
    √QFW 
    “root” 
    ▪ QFW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QFW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QFW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘back of the neck, nape, back of the head, the reverse; to follow, track, send after; to rhyme, poem; to slander, slander; advantage, hospitality’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    QLː (QLL) قلّ / قلل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 06Jun2021
    √QLː (QLL) 
    “root” 
    ▪ QLː (QLL)_1 ʻ(to be\become) little, small, few, insignificant; (to be) rare, scarce; to decrease, diminish, grow less; (to be) inferior’ ↗¹qalla (qill, qull, qillaẗ)
    ▪ QLː (QLL)_2 ʻto pick up, raise, lift, carry’ ↗²qalla (qall)
    ▪ QLː (QLL)_3 ʻto rise; to be independent; to possess alone; to board (s.th., e.g., a ship)’ ↗ĭstaqalla
    ▪ QLː (QLL)_4 ʻtremor’ ↗qill
    ▪ QLː (QLL)_5 ʻrecovery, recuperation; restoration of prosperity’ ↗qallaẗ
    ▪ QLː (QLL)_6 ʻhighest point; top, summit; apex; vertex’ ↗¹qullaẗ
    ▪ QLː (QLL)_7 ʻ(cannon) ball’ ↗²qullaẗ
    ▪ QLː (QLL)_8 ʻjug, pitcher’ ↗³qullaẗ
    ▪ QLː (QLL)_9 ʻcompletely, wholly, entirely’ (adv.): bi- ↗¹qilliyyati-h
    ▪ QLː (QLL)_10 ʻcell; closet; residence of a bishop’ ↗²qilliyyaẗ, qillāyaẗ~qallāyaẗ

    Other values, now obsolete (Hava1899):

    QLː (QLL)_11 : qill ʻlow wall’
    QLː (QLL)_12 : muqallal ʻadorned with a stud (sword)’
    QLː (QLL)_13 : ĭstaqalla ʻto become angry; to seize s.o. (fear)’

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be, or become little, small, or few; to trifle with; to lift up; to accompany; summit of a mountain; to travel around, be agile’ 
    ▪ Semantic relations within the root are still rather obscure. There seem to be two larger complexes ([v1] *‘to be little, small, insignificant, rare, inferior’, attested also in other Sem langs, and [v2][v3][v6] *‘summit; to be high, rise; to raise, lift’) as well as at least two loanwords ([v8] ³qullaẗ ‘jug, pitcher’ and [v10] qilliyyaẗ ~ qillāyaẗ ʻcell; closet’). Some of the other values may be related to, or derived from, the aforementioned, others are hard to connect. Leaving loanwords aside, the question is whether the remaining values all depend on [v1] as Ar idiosyncrasies, or whether they have other etymologies, or whether, perhaps, Ar has preserved in them some more original value, lost in other Sem langs, on which [v1] itself might be based.
    ▪ [v1] ¹qalla (qill, qull, qillaẗ) ʻ(to be\become) little, small, few, insignificant; (to be) rare, scarce; to decrease, diminish, grow less; (to be) inferior’: from Sem *QLL ‘light, little, fast’ – Bergsträsser1928. – Is [v11] qill ʻlow wall’ directly akin to [v1]? – Should we also connect [v2] and [v3], regarding the notion of *‘rising, raising’ implied in them as the result of *‘being light’? But there are other suggestions, see below.
    ▪ [v2] ²qalla (qall) ʻto pick up, raise, lift, carry’: based on [v1] (see preceding), or rather forming a semantic complex with [v3] and [v6], based on *‘highest point, top’? – LandbergZetterstein1942 suggested that it is a development from ↗√QNː (QNN) ‘to be high, elevated’, with n > l.
    ▪ [v3] ĭstaqalla ʻto rise; to be independent; to possess alone; to board (s.th., e.g., a ship)’: Similar to [v2], the value is of obscure etymology. The basic meaning seems to be *‘to separate o.s., stand out’, which could be a development from [v1], as form X is desiderative and could thus express a *‘wish/effort to appear singular, look small, little (as compared to the rest from which one separates/distances o.s.)’. But it could also be based on [v6] ʻhighest point, top’, the desiderative form X expressing a *‘wish/effort to reach the top of s.th., look as if standing on the top, being exceptional’. Wahrmund II 1887 has also an obsolete qull ʻeinsam, vereinzelt’ (not mentioned elsewhere though) that would fit as a base to derive the meaning of *‘separating o.s., wishing to stand out, look exceptional’ from.
    ▪ [v4] qill ʻtremor’: etymology obscure. A secondary semantic development, based on [v13] ʻto become angry; to seize s.o. (fear)’ (which in turn may be from [v6])?
    ▪ [v5] qallaẗ ʻrecovery, recuperation; restoration of prosperity’: etymology obscure; perh. from [v3] ‘to rise’?
    ▪ [v6] ¹qullaẗ ʻhighest point; top, summit; apex; vertex’: etymology obscure. – LandbergZetterstein1942 suggested that it was a phonetic variant of/development from ↗qunnaẗ ‘mountaintop, summit, peak’, with n > l (cf. also ↗qimmaẗ, with m); see also [v2] and [v3] above, which may be based on [v6]. – See also below, section DISC.
    ▪ [v7] ²qullaẗ ʻ(cannon) ball’: etymology obscure. Could be a foreign word; cf. perh. Engl cannon (< oFr canon < It cannone ʻlarge tube, barrel’, augmentative of Lat canna ʻreed, tube’; cf. ↗qanāẗ, ↗qānūn, ↗qinnīnaẗ).
    ▪ [v8] ³qullaẗ ʻjug, pitcher’: from Aram qwltā (Zimmern1914: qullətā), Syr qūltā ʻwine jar’ – Fraenkel1886.
    ▪ [v9] ¹qilliyyaẗ, in bi-qilliyyati-h ʻcompletely, wholly, entirely’ (adv.): Obscure semantics, can hardly be connected to any of the main values ([v1] *ʻlittle, small, light’, [v2][v3][v6] *ʻto rise, raise, be high, top, peak’) nor to that of the homonymous ↗²qilliyyaẗ ʻcell; closet’ ([v10]).
    ▪ [v10] ²qilliyyaẗ, also qallāyaẗ ~ qillāyaẗ ʻcell; closet; residence of a bishop’: via Syr qellītā from Lat cella ʻsmall chamber, cell’ < IE *kel- ʻto cover, hide’ – Rolland2014.
    [v11] : qill ʻlow wall’: akin to [v1] ?
    [v12] : muqallal ʻadorned with a stud (sword)’: perh. < *ʻadorned with a peak, with s.th. standing out/protruding’, from [v6] ¹qullaẗ ʻhighest point, top’?
    [v13] : ĭstaqalla ʻto become angry; to seize s.o. (fear)’: perh. metaphorical *ʻto seek to overwhelm, sit on top of, overcome s.o.’, from [v6] ¹qullaẗ ʻhighest point, top’?

    ▪ …
     
    (Hava1899):
    ▪ [v1] : cf. also vb. III qālla lahu 'l-ʕaṭāʔ ʻhe gave him very little’, IV ʔaqalla ʻto possess little’, VI taqālla ʻto find s.th. small, little, few’, X ĭstaqalla ʻto make little of’, qill, qull, ʻexiguity, small number; poverty’, raǧul qull ʻlonely, helpless man’, qulul ʻscattered people from various tribes’, qulal ʻpeople gathered from various places’
    ▪ [v3] : cf. also VI taqālla ʻto rise high (sun)’, VI ĭstaqalla ʻto rise in its flight (bird); to raise o.s.; to grow (plant)’, ĭstaqalla ʕan ʻto go away from (the tents: people)’, ĭstaqalla bi’l-wilāyaẗ ʻto be independent, absolute (governor)’, ĭstaqalla bi-raʔyi-h ʻhe is alone in his opinion’, ĭstiqlāl ʻindependence; absolutism’, mustaqill ʻindependent (sovereign)’. – Wahrmund II 1887 has also qull ʻeinsam, vereinzelt’, not mentioned elsewhere though.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ [v1] Bergsträsser1928: (*‘light, little, fast’) Akk qallu, Hbr qal, Syr (vb. qal, ipfv. neqqal), Gz (qalī́l).
    ▪ [v1] Zammit2002, Leslau2006: Akk qalālu ʻto be(come) light, little, few’, Ug qlt ʻshame’, ql ʻfallen (zu Füssen); to humiliate’, Hbr Phoen qālal ʻto be slight, swift, trifling’, qal ʻlight, easy’, Aram qᵊlal ʻto be light; be reduced’, Syr qal ʻto diminish, lessen, be lightened’, Mnd qalil ʻlight’, SAr qll ʻa little, small quantity’, Soq qel(l) ʻto be small, Gz qalla, qalala ʻto be light, easy, slight, swift, rapid’, ʔaqlala ʻto vilify’ (< ʻto be little’), Tña Gur qälälä ʻto be light’, Te qälla, Har qäläla, Amh qällälä, Arg qälläla, Gaf qälliyä ʻlight’.
    ▪ [v7] Fraenkel1886: Ar qullaẗ < Aram qwltā, Syr qūltā ʻwine jar’; cf. also Zimmern1914: Akk qallu ʻlarge jar’ [not in CAD] > prob. JudAram qallā.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ [v1] Bergsträsser1928: Sem *qll ‘light, little, fast’.
    ▪ [v2] LandbergZetterstein1942: ClassAr qalla ʻporter, soulever, supporter’, DaṯAr ʕUmAr ʻdresser, aufrecht stellen’ < √QNN ʻêtre haut’, avec n > l; DaṯAr ĭqtall ʻmonter en haut, se dresser’ = ClassAr ĭqtanna; DaṯAr qullaẗ ʻsommet’ = ClassAr qunnaẗ, cf. also qimmaẗ.
    ▪ [v6] Ḍinnāwī2004 gives also qilālaẗ as a synonym of ¹qullaẗ and claims that the two be from Pers kullaẗ [should be: kalle] ‘head of s.th., top’, which, accord. to the author, in turn goes back to an Akk kullutuwwu [sic!] – untenable for phonological reasons.
    ▪ [v7] Zimmern1914 suggests also: Akk gullatu prob. kind of jar (CAD: ‘ewer’) > perh. Hbr gullā ʻoil jar’; cf. perh. also Aram qullətā ʻwine jar’ (> Ar qullaẗ), as well as perh. Lat culullus (Horace). – However, against such a hypothesis, cf. DRS #GLL-2 Akk gullat- ‘bassin, aiguière’, ? gull- un contenant, Ug gl ‘coupe, cuvette’, Hbr gullā ‘bassin, cuvette’, Ar ǧullaẗ ‘panier fait de feuilles de palmier’; Syr gūllīnā ‘tour de potier’.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    ¹qall‑ / qalal‑ قَلّـ/قَلَلْـ , i (qill, qull, qillaẗ
    ID … • Sw – • BP 447 • APD … • © SG | 06Jun2021
    √QLː (QLL) 
    vb., I 
    1a to be or become little, small, few (in number or quantity), trifling, insignificant, inconsiderable, scant, scanty, sparse, spare, meager; b to decrease, diminish, wane, grow less; c to be or become less, littler, smaller, fewer (in number or quantity), more trifling, less significant, less considerable, scanter, scantier, sparser (ʕan than); 2 to be second, be inferior (ʕan to s.o.); 3a to be rare, scarce; b to be of rare occurrence, happen seldom – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ From Sem *QLL ‘light, little, fast’ – Bergsträsser1928.
    ▪ Does also the obsol. qill ʻlow wall’ belong here?
    ▪ Should one also connect the semantic complexes treated s.v. ↗²qalla (qall) ʻto pick up, raise, lift, carry’ and ↗ĭstaqalla ʻto rise; to be independent; to possess alone; to board (s.th., e.g., a ship)’, regarding the notions of *‘rising, raising’ implied in them as the result of *‘being light’?
    ▪ Cf. also the obsolete vb. IV, ʔaqalla = II; ‘arm werden; etw wenig finden; wenig bringen’.
    ▪ If the obsolete qull ʻeinsam, vereinzelt’, mentioned by Wahrmund II 1887 (but not elsewhere) is reliable, it may belong here, but also to the complex of ↗ĭstaqalla in the sense of ʻto possess alone’.
    ▪ For a discussion of the whole picture, see root entry ↗√QLː(QLL).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Cf. also vb. III qālla lahu ’l-ʕaṭāʔ ʻhe gave him very little’, IV ʔaqalla ʻto possess little’, VI taqālla ʻto find s.th. small, little, few’, X ĭstaqalla ʻto make little of’, qill, qull, ʻexiguity, small number; poverty’, raǧul qull ʻlonely, helpless man’, qulul ʻscattered people from various tribes’, qulal ʻpeople gathered from various places’ – Hava1899.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘light, little, fast’) Akk qallu, Hbr qal, Syr (vb. qal, ipfv. neqqal), Gz (qalī́l).
    ▪ Zammit2002, Leslau2006: Akk qalālu ʻto be(come) light, little, few’, Ug qlt ʻshame’, ql ʻfallen (zu Füssen); to humiliate’, Hbr Phoen qālal ʻto be slight, swift, trifling’, qal ʻlight, easy’, Aram qᵊlal ʻto be light; be reduced’, Syr qal ʻto diminish, lessen, be lightened’, Mnd qalil ʻlight’, SAr qll ʻa little, small quantity’, Soq qel(l) ʻto be small, Gz qalla, qalala ʻto be light, easy, slight, swift, rapid’, ʔaqlala ʻto vilify’ (< ʻto be little’), Tña Gur qälälä ʻto be light’, Te qälla, Har qäläla, Amh qällälä, Arg qälläla, Gaf qälliyä ʻlight’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ʔillā mā qalla wa-nadara, expr., but for a few exceptions, with a few exceptions only
    qalla ṣabru-h, to be impatient, lose one’s patience

    BP#3325qallala, vb. II, to make little or less, diminish, lessen, decrease, reduce, do seldom or less frequently: D-stem, caus.
    ʔaqalla, vb. IV, 1 = II; 2 to do or give little (min in or of): *Š-stem of ¹qalla. — 3 ↗²qalla.
    taqālla, vb. VI, to think little (of), scorn, disdain, despise: Lt-stem.
    ĭstaqalla, vb. X, 1a to find (s.th.) little, small, inconsiderable, insignificant, trifling; b to esteem lightly, undervalue, despise; c to make light (of), set little store (by), care little (for); *Št-stem of ¹qalla. — 2 ↗²qalla; 3-6 ↗¹qullaẗ and ↗ĭstaqalla.

    BP#4868qalla-mā, conj., 1a seldom, rarely; b scarcely, barely, hardly.
    ²qill, qull, n., 1 littleness, smallness, fewness; 2 insignificance, inconsiderableness, triviality, paucity, paltriness, scarceness, sparseness, scantiness, insufficiency; 3 a little, a small number, a small quantity, a modicum.
    BP#1772qillaẗ, pl. qilal, n.f., 1 littleness, fewness; 2 smallness, inconsiderableness, insignificance, triviality; 3 paucity, paltriness, scantiness, sparseness; scarceness, rareness, rarity; 4 minority; 5 lack, want, deficiency, insufficiency, scarcity | qillaẗ al-ʔiḥsās, n.f., insensitivity, obtuseness; qillaẗ al-ḥayāʔ, n.f, shamelessness, impudence, insolence, impertinence; qillaẗ al-ṣabr, n.f., impatience; qillaẗ al-wuǧūd, n.f., scantiness, scarcity; rareness, rarity; ǧamʕ al-qillaẗ (gram.), plural of paucity (for persons or things whose number is between three and ten).
    BP#376qalīl, pl. ʔaqillāᵘ, qalāʔilᵘ, qilāl, adj., 1a little; few; b a small number, a small quantity, a modicum, a little (min of); c qalīlan, adv., a little, somewhat; seldom, rarely 2a insignificant, inconsiderable, trifling; b small (in number or quantity), scant, scanty, spare, sparse, meager, insufficient; 3 scarce, rare. | qalīlan mā, seldom, rarely; qalīlan qalīlan, adv., by and by, slowly, gradually; al-kull ʔillā qalīlan, NP, almost everything, nearly all; baʕda qalīl, adv., a little later, some time later on, shortly afterward; shortly, before long; ʕan qalīl or ʕammā qalīl, adv., soon, before long, shortly; laysa min-hu lā bi-qalīl wa-lā bi- kaṯīr, expr., to have absolutely nothing to do with s.th.; qalīl al-ʔadab, adj., uncivil, impolite, rude, uncouth; qalīl al-ḥayāʔ, adj., shameless, brazen, impudent, insolent, impertinent; qalīl al-ĭrtifāʕ, adj., low; qalīl al- ṣabr, adj., impatient; qalīl al-wuǧūd, adj., scanty, scarce; rare
    BP#446ʔaqallᵘ, adj., 1a less; fewer; b smaller; c rarer; al-ʔaqallᵘ, the least, the minimum: elat. formation | ʕalà 'l-ʔaqall or bi'l-ʔaqall, adv., at the very least; at least; ʕalà ʔaqall taqdīr, adv., at the lowest estimate = ʕalà 'l-ʔaqall; lā ʔaqallᵃ min ʔan …, expr., the least one can do is to …; I (you, etc.) could at least …; ʔaqall min al-qalīl, adj., quite insignificant, all but negligible; wa-ʔaqall min hāḏā wa-ḏālika ʔanna …, expr., let alone that …, not to mention that … , to say nothing of …
    BP#4241ʔaqalliyyaẗ, n.f., smaller number, numerical inferiority; (pl. -āt) minority: abstr. formation in iyyaẗ, from ʔaqallᵘ.
    BP#3303taqlīl, n., decrease, diminution, reduction: vn. II.
    ʔiqlāl, n., decrease, diminution, reduction: vn. IV.

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗²qalla, ↗ĭstaqalla (and ↗ĭstiqlāl), ↗qill, ↗qallaẗ, ↗¹qullaẗ, ↗²qullaẗ, ↗³qullaẗ, ↗¹qilliyyaẗ, and ↗²qilliyyaẗ, as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√QLː (QLL). 
    ²qall‑ / qalal‑ قَلّـ/قَلَلْـ , i (qall
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 06Jun2021
    √QLː (QLL) 
    vb., I 
    1a to pick up, raise, lift (s.o./s.th., ʕan from the ground); b to carry – WehrCowan1976.
     
    ▪ Alongside with *‘small, little, light’ (↗¹qalla), the value complex *‘(to be) high, to rise; summit; to raise, lift’ is rather prominent in the Ar root ↗√QLː(QLL). As there are no parallels of the latter in Sem, it seems to be peculiar to Ar.
    ▪ Perhaps a development from *‘highest point, top’ (↗ĭstaqalla, ↗¹qullaẗ)? – For the latter, LandbergZetterstein1942 suggested that it may be a phonetic variant of/development from ↗qunnaẗ ‘mountaintop, summit, peak’, with n > l (cf. also ↗qimmaẗ, with m).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Historically, the value is not only attested for form I, but also for form IV, ʔaqalla ʻto lift\raise s.th. from the ground, and carry it’ (Lane Suppl. 1893) / ‘aufheben u. tragen; emporheben (Wind die Wolke)’ (Wahrmund II 1887), and form X, ĭstaqalla ‘aufheben u. tragen (bi die Last, den Wasserkrug), auf die Schulter heben u. tragen (ĭstaqalla bi’l-ḥaml)’ (Wahrmund II 1887).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC, and below, section DISC.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ LandbergZetterstein1942: ClassAr qalla ʻporter, soulever, supporter’, DaṯAr ʕUmAr ʻdresser, aufrecht stellen’ < √QNN ʻêtre haut’, avec n > l; DaṯAr ĭqtall ʻmonter en haut, se dresser’ = ClassAr ĭqtanna; DaṯAr qullaẗ ʻsommet’ = ClassAr qunnaẗ, cf. also qimmaẗ.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ʔaqalla, vb. IV, 1 and 2 ↗¹qalla. — 3a to pick up, raise, lift (s.o.\s.th. ʕan from the ground); b to be able to carry (s.o., s.th.); c to carry, transport, convey: *Š-stem, from ²qalla.
    ĭstaqalla, vb. X, 1 ↗¹qalla. — 2a to pick up, raise, lift (s.o., s.th.); b to carry, transport, convey (s.o., s.th.): Št-stem | ĭstaqalla bi-ḥaml, to assume a burden; ĭstaqalla bi-muhimmaẗ\wāǧib, to assume a task (or duty). – 3-6 ↗¹qullaẗ and ↗ĭstaqalla.

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹qalla, ↗ĭstiqlāl, ↗qill, ↗qallaẗ, ↗²qullaẗ, ↗³qullaẗ, ↗¹qilliyyaẗ, and ↗²qilliyyaẗ, as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√QLː (QLL). 
    ĭstaqall‑ / ĭstaqlal‑ اِسْتَقَلّـ / اِسْتَقْلَلْـ (ĭstiqlāl
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 06Jun2021
    √QLː (QLL) 
    vb., X 
    1a to find (s.th.) little, small, inconsiderable, insignificant, trifling; b to esteem lightly, undervalue, despise; c to make light (of), set little store (by), care little (for); — 2a to pick up, raise, lift (s.o., s.th.); b to carry, transport, convey (s.o., s.th.); 3 to board (s.th., e.g., a ship, a carriage, or the like); 4 to rise; 5 to be independent; 6 to possess alone (bi‑ s.th.) – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ [v1] : *Št-stem of ↗¹qalla ʻ(to be\become) little, small, rare, to decrease, diminish, (be\come) insignificant, or inferior’, based on Sem *QLL ‘light, little, fast’.
    ▪ [v2] : *Št-stem of ↗²qalla ‘to raise, lift, carry’ (of obscure etymology, perh. akin to, or even a phonetic development from, √QNː(QNN) ‘to be high’, cf. also ↗¹qullaẗ ‘peak, summit’, in itself perh. akin to ↗¹qimmaẗ). The meanings of G-stem and *Št-stem are almost identical in this case, with the *Št-stem prob. accentuating the causative (*Š-) and the self-referential (-t-) constituents (< *‘make rise for o.s.’).
    ▪ [v3]-[v6] : *Št-stem, perh. denom. from ↗¹qullaẗ ‘highest point, top’, thus expressing a basic *‘wish to reach the top\peak of s.th., desire\effort to make o.s. look as if standing on the top, being exceptional, to separate o.s. and stand out, look singular’. – If the obsolete qull ʻsingular, lonely, alone’, mentioned by Wahrmund II 1887 (but not elsewhere) is reliable, it may belong here, but also to the complex of ↗ĭstaqalla in the sense of ʻto possess alone’.
    [v7] : Historically, also the value ‘to take hold of, seize, come over s.o.’ is attested, e.g., ‘to take hold of s.o. (fear); to be(come) angry’ (ġaḍiba)’ – e.g., Bustānī1869. This value can perh. be interpreted as deriving from ↗¹qullaẗ ‘highest point, summit, top’ (fig. use, *ʻto seek to overwhelm, sit on top of, overcome s.o.’) or from ↗¹qill ‘tremor’ (unless the latter is a back-formation).
    [v8] : Another historically attested value is ‘se rétablir et se lever (se dit d’un malade)’ (Kazimirski1860), from ↗qallaẗ ‘recovery, recuperation; restoration of prosperity’ (which is of uncertain origin). [v8] could also be a specialization of [v4] ‘to rise’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ [v1]: ‘to regard as few/little/insignificant)’ – Bustānī1869.
    ▪ [v2]: ‘to lift, carry | hisser sur ses épaules ou sur sa tête et porter (p.ex., une cruche); to raise, grow (plants) (ʔanāqa)’ – Kazimirski1860, Bustānī1869, Hava1899. – Earliest attestations: 538 ĭstaqalla bi-’l-šayʔ ʻto take upon o.s., bear, tolerate’ – a pre-Isl. poet, in ʔAmālī al-Qālī (https://dohadictionary.org/dictionary/استقل); 694 mustaqill ʻtaking up and carrying away’ – al-ʔAḫṭal (https://dohadictionary.org/dictionary/مستقل).
    ▪ [v3]: ‘to fly high (bird); (people) to start, begin a travel, go away (ʕan from, e.g., the tents) | partir, s’en aller’ – Kazimirski1860, Bustānī1869.
    ▪ [v4]: ‘to fly high, rise in its flight (bird)’ – Bustānī1869, Hava1899; cf. also ‘être haut, sublime, bien haut au-dessus de nos têtes (en parlant de la voûte des cieux, etc.); grandir (se dit des plantes); s’élever très-haut ( dans les airs, se dit d’un oiseau); (fig.) s’enorgueillir, s’élever au-dessus de ses semblables (se dit d’un homme fier)’ – Kazimirski1860.
    ▪ [v5]: ĭstaqalla ‘s’emparer exclusivement de qc (p.ex. du pouvoir), et de là, être souverain indépendant’ – Kazimirski1860. – ĭstaqalla bi-raʔyi-h ‘= ĭstabadda bi-h; (a wālī) to rule alone (tafarrada bi’l-wilāya), do not share power with anybody, not allow to participate (lam yušrik-hu fī-hā ġayru-h)’ – Bustānī1869. – mustaqill bi-ʔamri-h ʻindépendant (souverain)’ – Kazimirski1860. – OttTu ĭstiḳlāl ‘pouvoir absolu, indépendance, souveraineté; plein pouvoir; persévérance, intrépidité, vigueur | Machtvollkommenheit, unumschränkte Macht; Selbständigkeit, Unabhängigkeit; Unerschrockenheit, Entschlossenheit, Ausdauer, Beharrlichkeit, Kraft’; ~ bulmak ‘ parvenir à la souveraineté | zur Oberherrschaft, Alleinherrschaft gelangen’, ĭstiḳlālī ‘commissaire spécial, revêtu de pleins pouvoirs | Bevollmächtigter’, ĭstiḳlāliyya ‘indépendance | Unabhängigkeit’ – Zenker1866.
    ▪ [v6]: ĭstaqalla ‘s’emparer exclusivement de qc (p.ex. du pouvoir), ĭstaqalla bi-raʔyi-h ʻhe is alone in his opinion’ – Hava1899. – OttTu ĭstiḳlāl ‘action de s’emparer exclusivement de qc | das ausschliesslich haben, ungetheilt mit anderen’ – Zenker1866.
    [v7]: ĭstaqallat-hu ’l-raʕdaẗ ‘to take hold of s.o. (fear) | saisir qn (se dit d’un tremblement); (intr.) être saisi d’un tremblement; se mettre en colère | to be angry’ (ġaḍiba)’ – Kazimirski1860, Bustānī1869. – First attested in 678 ĭstaqallat-hu ’l-raʕdaẗ ʻanger took hold of him, seized him’ – ʕĀʔišaẗ bt. ʔAbī Bakr, in Musnad ʔA. b. Ḥanbal – https://dohadictionary.org/dictionary/استقل ).
    [v8]: ĭstaqalla ‘se rétablir et se lever (se dit d’un malade)’ – Kazimirski1860.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ [v1]: ↗¹qalla.
    ▪ [v2]: ↗²qalla.
    ▪ [v3]-[v6]: ↗¹qullaẗ.
    [v7]: ↗²qalla or ↗¹qill.
    [v8]: ↗qallaẗ.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ [v1] Bergsträsser1928: Sem *qll ‘light, little, fast’.
    ▪ [v2] LandbergZetterstein1942: ClassAr qalla ʻporter, soulever, supporter’, DaṯAr ʕUmAr ʻdresser, aufrecht stellen’ < √QNN ʻêtre haut’, avec n > l; DaṯAr ĭqtall ʻmonter en haut, se dresser’ = ClassAr ĭqtanna; DaṯAr qullaẗ ʻsommet’ = ClassAr qunnaẗ, cf. also qimmaẗ.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ĭstaqalla bi-ḥaml, to assume a burden
    ĭstaqalla bi-ṣanʕi-h, he alone made it, he was the only one who made it
    ĭstaqalla bi-nafsi-h, to be entirely self-reliant, be left to one’s own devices; to be independent, manage without others, get along by oneself
    ĭstaqalla bi-muhimmaẗ\wāǧib, to assume a task (or duty).

    BP#1898ĭstiqlāl, n., independence: vn. X, from [v5]; see also s.v.
    ĭstiqlālī, 1a adj., of or pertaining to independence, independence (used attributively); b n., proponent of independence: nisba formation, from ĭstiqlāl [v5].
    BP#1479mustaqill, adj., independent; autonomous; separate, distinct, particular: PA X, from [v5] and [v6].

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹qalla, ↗²qalla, ↗qill, ↗qallaẗ, ↗¹qullaẗ, ↗²qullaẗ, ↗³qullaẗ, ↗¹qilliyyaẗ, and ↗²qilliyyaẗ, as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√QLː (QLL). 
    ¹qill قِلّ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 06Jun2021
    √QLː (QLL) 
    n. 
    tremor – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Etymology obscure. Any relation to any of the main values attached to the root √QLː (QLL), like *‘small, few, insignificant’ (↗¹qalla), *‘to lift, carry’ (↗²qalla), and *‘highest point, summit (↗¹qullaẗ), to rise, separate o.s., seek to stand out’ (↗ĭstaqalla)?
    ▪ In ClassAr, form X (↗ĭstaqalla) can, among others, also take the value ʻto become angry; to seize s.o. (fear)’, which seems to be based on ↗¹qullaẗ ʻhighest point, top’, expressing (fig.) usage in the sense of *ʻto seek to overwhelm, sit on top of, overcome s.o.’. So, perh., qill ʻtremor’ is a secondary development, a deverbal back-formation based on ĭstaqalla in the mentioned sense? A denom. derivation of form X ʻto become angry; to seize s.o. (fear)’ from qill ʻtremor’ would certainly reflect a more usual practice, but given that qill does not seem to have any cognates in Sem nor produced any derivations in Ar, a back-formation from ĭstaqalla is perh. not completely unconceivable.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ If qill is a back-formation from ĭstaqalla, then the value is attested already very early (via the form X vb.): DHDA gives ĭstaqallat-hu ’l-raʕdaẗ ʻhe was taken by rage, rage came over him’ as the earliest attestation (678 CE) in this sense (allegedly in the words of ʕĀʔišaẗ bt. Abū Bakr as transmitted in A. b. Ḥanbal’s Musnad). For ClassAr cf. also Kazimirski1860: ʻ[…] 10 être saisi d’un tremblement; 11 se mettre en colère; 12 saisir qn (se dit d’un tremblement); […]’, and Bustānī1869: ‘to be angry’ (ġaḍiba); ‘to take hold of s.o. (fear)’. Wahrmund II 1887 has also qill, pl. qilal, ‘Zittern das Einen ergreift’; Lane (Suppl. 1893) adds (pass.) ŭstuqilla ġaḍaban ʻto become affected with a tremor\trembling by anger’. In addition, Lane Suppl. 1893 lists a form IV vb., ʔaqalla-hu ’l-ġaḍab ʻanger disquieted\flurried him’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ? – See perh. ↗ĭstaqalla (< ↗¹qullaẗ?)
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹qalla, ↗²qalla, ↗ĭstaqalla (and ↗ĭstiqlāl), ↗qallaẗ, ↗¹qullaẗ, ↗²qullaẗ, ↗³qullaẗ, ↗¹qilliyyaẗ, and ↗²qilliyyaẗ, as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√QLː (QLL). 
    qallaẗ قَلّة 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 06Jun2021
    √QLː (QLL) 
    n.f. 
    1a recovery, recuperation; b restoration of prosperity – WehrCowan1976.
     
    ▪ Etymology obscure. Any relation to any of the main values attached to the root √QLː (QLL), like *‘small, few, insignificant’ (↗¹qalla), *‘to lift, carry’ (↗²qalla), and *‘top, summit, to rise, separate o.s., seek to stand out’ (↗¹qullaẗ, ↗ĭstaqalla)? Perhaps akin to ↗ĭstaqalla in the sense of ‘to rise’ (> * ‘to rise again, recover’?).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ?
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹qalla, ↗²qalla, ↗ĭstaqalla (and ↗ĭstiqlāl), ↗qill, ↗¹qullaẗ, ↗²qullaẗ, ↗³qullaẗ, and ↗qilliyyaẗ, as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√QLː (QLL). 
    ¹qullaẗ قُلّة 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 06Jun2021
    √QLː (QLL) 
    n.f. 
    1a highest point; b top, summit; c apex; d vertex – WehrCowan1976.
     
    ▪ Etymology obscure. – LandbergZetterstein1942 suggested that it is a phonetic variant of/development from ↗qunnaẗ ‘mountaintop, summit, peak’, with n > l (cf. also ↗qimmaẗ, with m); see also ↗²qalla ʻto pick up, raise, lift, carry’ and ↗ĭstaqalla ʻto rise’, which may be based on ¹qullaẗ. – See also below, section DISC.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ?
     
    ▪ Ḍinnāwī2004 gives also qilālaẗ as a synonym of ¹qullaẗ and claims that they be from Pers kullaẗ [should be: kalle] ‘head of s.th., top’, which in turn is said to go back to an Akk kullutuwwu – untenable for phonological reasons.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ĭstaqalla, vb. X, 1 ↗¹qalla. – 2 ↗²qalla. – 3 to board (s.th., e.g., a ship, a carriage, or the like); 4 to rise; 5 to be independent; 6 to possess alone (bi‑ s.th.): *Št-stem, denom. (?). | ĭstaqalla bi-ṣanʕi-h, expr., he alone made it, he was the only one who made it; ĭstaqalla bi-nafsi-h, expr., to be entirely self-reliant, be left to one’s own devices; to be independent, manage without others, get along by oneself.

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹qalla, ↗²qalla, ↗ĭstaqalla (and ↗ĭstiqlāl), ↗qill, ↗qallaẗ, ↗²qullaẗ, ↗³qullaẗ, ↗¹qilliyyaẗ, and ↗²qilliyyaẗ, as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√QLː (QLL). 
    ²qullaẗ قُلّة 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 06Jun2021
    √QLː (QLL) 
    n.f. 
    (cannon) ball – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Etymology obscure. Could be a foreign word; cf. perh. Engl cannon (< oFr canon < It cannone ʻlarge tube, barrel’, augmentative of Lat canna ʻreed, tube’; cf. ↗qanāẗ, ↗qānūn, ↗qinnīnaẗ).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ?
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ … 
    … 
    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹qalla, ↗²qalla, ↗ĭstaqalla (and ↗ĭstiqlāl), ↗qill, ↗qallaẗ, ↗¹qullaẗ, ↗³qullaẗ, ↗¹qilliyyaẗ, and ↗²qilliyyaẗ, as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√QLː (QLL). 
    ³qullaẗ قُلّة , pl. qulal 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 06Jun2021
    √QLː (QLL) 
    n.f. 
    jug, pitcher – WehrCowan1976.
     
    ▪ From Aram qwltā (Zimmern1914: qullətā), Syr qūltā ʻwine jar’ – Fraenkel1886.
    ▪ See also DISC below.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Fraenkel1886: Aram qwltā (Zimmern1914: qullətā), Syr qūltā ʻwine jar’
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Zimmern1914 suggests also: Akk gullatu, prob. kind of jar, > perh. Hbr gullā ʻoil jar’; cf. perh. also Aram qullətā ʻwine jar’ (> Ar qullaẗ), as well as perh. Lat culullus (Horace). – Cf., however, against an Akk origin, DRS #GLL-2: Akk gullat- ‘bassin, aiguière’, ? gull- un contenant, Ug gl ‘coupe, cuvette’, Hbr gullā ‘bassin, cuvette’, Ar ǧullaẗ ‘panier fait de feuilles de palmier’; Syr gūllīnā ‘tour de potier’.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹qalla, ↗²qalla, ↗ĭstaqalla (and ↗ĭstiqlāl), ↗qill, ↗qallaẗ, ↗¹qullaẗ, ↗²qullaẗ, ↗¹qilliyyaẗ, and ↗²qilliyyaẗ, as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√QLː (QLL). 
    ¹qilliyyaẗ قِلِّيّة 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 06Jun2021
    √QLː (QLL) 
    n.f. 
    Only in bi-qilliyyati-h, adv., completely, wholly, entirely – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Obscure semantics that can hardly be connected to any of the main values (*ʻlittle, small, light’ ↗¹qalla, *ʻto lift, carry’ ↗²qalla, *‘summit, peak; to be high, rise’ ↗¹qullaẗ, ↗ĭstaqalla) nor to that of the homonymous ↗²qilliyyaẗ ʻcell, closet; residence of a bishop’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ?
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ … 
    … 
    raḥalū bi-qilliyyati-him, expr., they set out all together or with bag and baggage.

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹qalla, ↗²qalla, ↗ĭstaqalla (and ↗ĭstiqlāl), ↗qill, ↗qallaẗ, ↗¹qullaẗ, ↗²qullaẗ, ↗³qullaẗ, and ↗²qilliyyaẗ, as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√QLː (QLL). 
    ²qilliyyaẗ قِلِّيّة , var. qallāyaẗ ~ qillāyaẗ, pl. āt, qalālī 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 06Jun2021
    √QLː (QLL) 
    n.f. 
    (Chr.) 1a monk’s cell; b closet; 2 residence of a bishop – WehrCowan1985. 
    ▪ Via Syr qellītā from Lat cella ʻsmall chamber, cell’ < IE *kel- ʻto cover, hide’ – Rolland2014.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ?
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ … 
    … 
    qallāyaẗ al-ʔaqbāṭ, n.f., residence of the Coptic patriarch

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹qalla, ↗²qalla, ↗ĭstaqalla (and ↗ĭstiqlāl), ↗qill, ↗qallaẗ, ↗¹qullaẗ, ↗²qullaẗ, ↗³qullaẗ, and ↗¹qilliyyaẗ, as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√QLː (QLL). 
    ĭstiqlāl اِسْتِقْلال 
    ID 701 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 1898 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QLː (QLL) 
    n. 
    independence – WehrCowan1976. 
    ĭstiqlāl is a vn. of the form X vb. ↗ĭstaqalla, *Št-stem of ↗²qalla. In modern usage, it is lexicalized with the meaning ‘independence’ (but continues to function also as gerund of ĭstaqalla which still displays a broader semantic spectrum, with derivations also from ↗¹qalla).
    ▪ The meaning ‘independence’ seems to have developed, ultimately, from an original *‘to wish to stand out, separate o.s.’ (↗ĭstaqalla, values [v3]-[v6]), perh. itself based on ↗¹qullaẗ ‘highest point, peak, summit’ or (if Wahrmund II 1887 is reliable) on a (now obsol.) adj. qull ‘lonely, alone, standing apart’. In the meaning ‘independence’, first attested around 1850, ĭstiqlāl is prob. a calque, rendering Fr indépendance. The term seems to have suggested itself as it had been used, in Ottoman administrative language, for the unlimited, unrestricted, sovereign power of a provincial gouvernor, military commanders, etc., almost synonymous to ↗ĭstibdād ‘absolute rule; (> despotism)’. Another attestation of the modern meaning is the Foreword of Ḫalīl al-Ḫūrī’s novel-cum-epistle, Way, ʔiḏan lastu bi-ʔIfranǧī! (first installments 1859), where the author-narrator pleads for an ĭstiqlāl ḏātī ‘independence of the self’, meaning first and foremost creative freedom and freedom of expression, but also an independent local/regional/‘national’ identity.
    ▪ …
     
    538 (a pre-Islamic poet, in ʔAmālī al-Qālī) ĭstaqalla bi-’l-šayʔ ʻto take upon o.s., shoulder a burden, bear’ – DHDA.
    678 (ʕĀʔišaẗ bt. ʔAbī Bakr, in Musnad ʔA. b. Ḥanbal) ĭstaqallat-hu ’l-raʕdaẗ ʻhe was overcome by anger, anger took hold of him’ – DHDA.
    694 (al-ʔAḫṭal) mustaqill ʻtaking s.th. up and carrying it away’ – DHDA.
    ClassAr (Kazimirski1860) ĭstaqalla ʻ[…]; 3 partir, s’en aller (se dit des hommes); 4 hisser sur ses épaules ou sur sa tête et porter (p.ex., une cruche); 5 être haut, sublime, bien haut au-dessus de nos têtes (en parlant de la voûte des cieux, etc.); 6 grandir (se dit des plantes); 7 s’élever très-haut ( dans les airs, se dit d’un oiseau); 8 s’enorgueillir, s’élever au-dessus de ses semblables (se dit d’un homme fier); 9 se rétablir et se lever (se dit d’un malade); 10 être saisi d’un tremblement; 11 se mettre en colère; 12 saisir qn (se dit d’un tremblement); 13 s’emparer exclusivement de qc (p.ex., du pouvoir), et de là, être souverain indépendant’; ĭstiqlāl 1 vn. X; 2 ʻindépendance, pouvoir indépendant d’un souverain’; mustaqill bi-ʔamri-h ʻindépendant (souverain)’.
    1850 ‘sovereign independence’, specifically cited in a British consular dispatch of 1858 from Jerusalem – Lewis 1988.
    1859 (Ḫ. al-Ḫūrī, foreword to Way, ʔiḏan lastu bi-ʔIfranǧī!): ĭstiqlāl ḏātī ‘independence of the self’.
    1860s (Zenker1866) OttTu ĭstiḳlāl ‘action de s’emparer exclusivement de qc, pouvoir absolu, indépendance, souveraineté; plein pouvoir; persévérance, intrépidité, vigueur | das ausschliesslich haben, ungetheilt mit anderen, Machtvollkommenheit, unumschränkte Macht; Selbständigkeit, Unabhängigkeit, Unerschrockenheit, Entschlossenheit, Ausdauer, Beharrlichkeit, Kraft’; ĭstiḳlālī ‘commissaire spécial, revêtu de pleins pouvoirs | Bevollmächtigter’; ĭstiḳlāliyya ‘indépendance | Unabhängigkeit’. – (Bustānī1869) ĭstaqalla bi-raʔyi-hĭstabadda bi-h; ĭstaqalla (ruler, gouvernor, wālī) ‘tafarrada bi’l-wilāyaẗ (to rule alone), lam yušrik-hu fī-hā ġayru-h (nobody else sharing him power with him)’
    1880s (Wahrmund II 1887) ĭstaqalla ‘[…]; unabhängig sein, für sich handeln (Gouverneur, s. mustaqill); […]’; mustaqill ‘frei für sich bestehend, selbstständig, besonder, unabhängig, frei verfügend, absolut gebietend, absolut; fest, ausdauernd; hoch (Himmel)’; mustaqillan ‘besonders, eigens, absolut’, mustaqillāt ‘Besonderheiten’; ĭstiqlāl ‘absolute Herrschaft od. Vollmacht’; ĭstiqlālī ‘mit Vollmacht bekleidet’
    1890s (Lane Suppl. 1893) ĭstaqalla ʻto be independent, alone, absolute, with none to share or participate’; ~ bi-nafsi-h ‘dto.; to manage o.’s affairs alone, thoroughly, soundly, vigorously’; huwa lā yastaqillu bi-hāḏā ʻhe is not able to do this (by himself)’
    ▪ … 
    ▪ ↗ĭstaqalla, ↗¹qullaẗ.
    ▪ … 
    ĭstiqlāl can hardly be connected to the meaning *‘small, little, light’ that is one of the main values attached to ↗QLː(QLL), appearing, among others, in one of the meanings of vb. X, ĭstaqalla, namely [v1] ‘to find (s.th.) little, small, inconsiderable, insignificant, trifling; to esteem lightly, undervalue, despise; to make light (of), set little store (by), care little (for)’. This value is based on ↗¹qalla. In contrast, the meaning ‘independence’ is prob. akin to other meanings of ĭstaqalla like [v2] ‘to pick up, raise, lift; to carry away; [v3] to board (a ship, or the like); [v4] to rise; [v6] to possess alone’. Prob. all of these have a basic *‘to be high, excel, (wish to) stand out, separate o.s.’ in common (in itself perh. based on ↗¹qullaẗ ‘highest point, peak, summit’). Earliest reflexes of the old basic idea of ‘separating o.s., acting alone, wishing to stand out’ can be found in the value ‘to set out, leave, start traveling’ of vb. X, ĭstaqalla (accord. to DHDA first attested around 517 CE) and in ĭstaqalla ‘to rise, be visible high up in the sky (stars, etc.)’ and the PA X mustaqill ‘elevated, high, sublime’, ascribed to Imruʔ al-Qays (DHDA: ca. 544 CE). However, it is only since, roughly, the 1850s that ĭstiqlāl appears in the modern sense of ‘sovereign independence’, as a loan translation (calque), rendering Fr indépendance. The reason why ĭstiqlāl was chosen to translate the Fr term goes probably back to Ottoman administrative usage, where the term was used to express the sovereign power and unlimited discretion of high Ottoman officials, esp. military commanders and province gouvernors (at the time, the meaning of ĭstiqlāl was nearly identical with that of ↗ĭstibdād, which would develop into an equivalent of ‘absolutism’, then also ‘despotism’). »By the late nineteenth century, the use of ĭstiqlāl in the sense of ‘political sovereignty’ or ‘independence’ was general in both Turkish and Arabic. Together with ‘freedom’, it came to express the ultimate objective of political struggle against oppressive rule in the period of European imperial domination, and the somewhat longer period of European intellectual influence« (Lewis 1988: 112). Alongside with the political meaning also a more general, personal meaning can already be sensed in Ḫalīl al-Ḫūrī’s foreword to his novel-cum-epistle, 1859 Way, ʔiḏan lastu bi-ʔIranǧī! (‘Woe, so I am not a European then!’, first installments 1859 in the author’s own Ḥadīqaẗ al-ʔaḫbār). In this foreword, al-Ḫūrī appeals to his readers to always remain aware of al-ĭstiqlāl al-ḏātī ‘the independence of the self’ and their freedom: »Nobody should allow another person to (ab)use him as an instrument to fulfil the other’s wishes or goals« (al-Ḫūrī 1860: 20-21 / ed. Dāġir 2009: 64).
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ĭstiqlālī, 1a adj., of or pertaining to independence, independence (used attributively); b n., proponent of independence: nisba formation, from ĭstiqlāl.
    BP#1479mustaqill, adj., independent; autonomous; separate, distinct, particular: PA X.

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹qalla, ↗²qalla, ↗ĭstaqalla, ↗qill, ↗qallaẗ, ↗¹qullaẗ, ↗²qullaẗ, ↗³qullaẗ, ↗¹qilliyyaẗ, and ↗²qilliyyaẗ, as well as, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√QLː (QLL). 
    QLB قلب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QLB 
    “root” 
    ▪ QLB_1 ‘heart; middle, centre; core; mind, soul, spirit’ ↗qalb
    ▪ QLB_2 ‘to turn around, turn up(ward), invert, reverse, etc.; intrigue’ ↗qalab-, maqlab
    ▪ QLB_3 ‘palm pith, palm core’ ↗¹qulb (probably belonging to ¹QLB)
    ▪ QLB_4 ‘bracelet, bangle’ ↗²qulb
    ▪ QLB_5 ‘form, mold, model, matrix’ ↗qālib
    ▪ QLB_6 ‘well (n.)’ ↗qalīb
    ▪ QLB_7 ‘refuse dump, dump pile’ (Eg.) ↗maqlab

    BadawiAbdelHalim2008: ‘[QLB_1] brains, heart, inner part, essence; [QLB_2] to turn over, around, upside down or inside out; to reverse, twist; to waver, dissuade; to investigate; to revert to; [QLB_5] form, mould; [QLB_6] well (in particular, an unlined well)’. 
    ▪ While [v5] is a loan from Syr,
    ▪ there may be a relation between [v1] and all other values (except [v5]). 
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    – 
    qalab‑ قَلَبَ , i (qalb
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QLB 
    vb., I 
    to turn around, turn about, turn up(ward), upturn; to turn, turn over; to turn face up or face down; to turn inside out or outside in; to turn upside down; to tip, tilt over, topple over; to invert, reverse; to overturn, upset, topple; to capsize; to roll over; to subvert, overthrow (a government); to change, alter, turn, transform, convert, transmute; to transpose; to exchange (s.th. for s.th.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Zammit2002: Ar qalaba ‘to turn; to return’ (> Gz qalaba ‘vertere, versare horsum prorsum’), SAr qlb ‘to till, turn over (soil prior to cultivation)’ […175
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    qalaba-hū raʔsan, vb. I, to turn s.th. upside down.
    qalaba la-hū ẓahra ’l-miǧann, vb. I, to show s.o. the back of the shield, i.e., to give s.o. the cold shoulder, become hostile to s.o..

    qallaba, vb. II, to turn, turn around, turn about, turn up(ward), upturn, turn over; to turn face up or face down; to turn inside out or outside in; to turn upside down; to tip, tilt over, topple over; to invert, reverse; to overturn, upset, overthrow, topple; to capsize; to roll over; to turn, turn over (pages); to rummage, ransack, rake; to roll; to stir; to examine, study, scrutinize, investigate (s.o., s.th.); to change, alter, turn, transform, convert, transmute (s.th. to or into s.th.): ints. (?) | ~-hū bi-ʕaqlih, to turn s.th. over in one’s mind, reflect on s.th., ponder s.th., brood over s.th.; ~ kaffaihi, to repent, be grieved; to be embarrassed; ~ fī-hi ’l-baṣar/naẓar, to scrutinize, eye, regard s.th.
    taqallaba, vb. V, to be turned around, be turned over, be reversed, be inverted; to be overturned, get knocked over (e.g., a glass); to toss and turn, toss about; to writhe, twist, squirm, wriggle; to be changed, be altered, change; to fluctuate (prices); to be changeable, variable, inconstant, fickle ( in s.th.); to move (about), live, be at home ( in); to dispose ( of), have at one’s diaposal ( s.th.): pass./refl. of II | ~ fī ’niʕmaẗ / fī ʔaʕṭāf al-ʕayš al-nāʕim, to lead a life of ease and comfort, live in prosperity; ~ fī ramḍāʔi ’l-buʔs, to live in utmost misery.
    ĭnqalaba, vb. VII, to be turned, be turned around, be turned about, be turned up(ward), be upturned, be turned over; to be reversed, be inverted; to be turned inside out or outside in; to be turned upside down, be toppled, get knocked over; to be overturned, be upset, be overthrown; to be rolled over; to overturn, somersault; to capsize; to be changed, be altered, be transformed, be converted, be transmuted; to change, turn ( or ʔilà into s.th.), become; to turn (ʕalà against; ʔilà to); to return; (with foll. ipfv) to proceed suddenly to do s.th., shift instantly to s.th., change over to s.th.: pass./refl. | ~ ʕalà ’l-huǧūm, to take the offensive.

    qalb, n., reversal, inversion; overturn, upheaval; conversion, transformation, transmutation; transposition (of letters), metathesis (gram.); perversion, change, alteration; overthrow (of a government): vn. I.
    qullab, adj., tending to change; agile, adaptable, resourceful; versatile, manysided, of varied skills or talents: ints.adj.
    qalūb, adj., tending to change; agile, adaptable, resourceful; versatile, manysided: ints.adj.
    qallāb, adj., changeable, variable, unsteady, inconstant, fickle, wavering, vacillating; reversible, tiltable: ints.adj.; n., dumper; tip wagon, skip: nominalized adj. | ʕarabaẗ ~aẗ, n., tipcart; ~ ḫallāṭ, n., rotary mixer.
    qallābaẗ, n.f., agitator, stirring machine: lexicalized nominalized adj., with f. ending for machines.
    maqlab, pl. maqālibᵘ, n., (eg.) refuse dump, dump pile, dump; intrigue, scheme, plot; April fool’s joke: n.loc. of vb. I, or belonging to another etymon, or 2 values from 2 etymons? See s.v.
    miqlab, pl. maqālibᵘ, n., hoe: n.instr.
    taqlīb: ʕinda ~ al-naẓar, adv., on closer inspection or examination, when examined more closely: prep.phr. with prep. and vn. II.
    taqallub, pl. ‑āt, n., alteration, transformation, change; variation; fluctuation (of prices); changeableness, variableness, unsteadiness, inconstancy, fickleness: vn. V; pl. vicissitudes, ups and downs | ~ ǧawwī, n., change of weather; sarīʕ al-~, adj., very changeable, very fickle, capricious.
    ĭnqilāb, n., upheaval; revolution, overthrow, bouleversement; alteration, transformation, change; solstice: vn. VII | dāʔiraẗ al-~, n., tropic (geogr.). See also ↗s.v.
    maqlūb, adj., turned over, turned upside down, turned about, inverted, inverse, reverse(d), etc.; infolded (bem, seam); reciprocal (math.): PP I | bi’l-~, adv., topsyturvy; upside down; wrong side out; the other way round, reversely, conversely, vice versa.
    mutaqallib, also ~ al-ʔadwār, adj., wavering, vacillating, changeable, variable, inconstant, unsteady, fickle, capricious: PA V.
    munqalab, n., (place of overthrow, i.e.) the hereafter, the end one meets in death, the way of all flesh, final destiny; tropic: n.loc. VII | ~ šatawī, n., Tropic of Capricorn; ~ ṣayfī, n., Tropic of Cancer

    For other items of the root √QLB (some of which may be related to qalab ‘to turn’) cf. ↗QLB. 
    qalb قَلْب , pl. qulūb 
    ID 703 • Sw 52/70 • BP 110 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QLB 
    n. 
    heart; middle, centre; core, gist, essence; marrow, medulla, pith; the best or choicest part; mind, soul, spirit – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Etymology unclear. On account of the Akk evidence, a reconstruction of protSem *ḳalb‑ / *ḳabl‑ is not impossible, but litte reliable (based only on Akk and Ar, with metathetical forms).
    ▪ Sivkov2014 relates also the complex ‘to come near, approach’ treated under ↗qariba / qaruba, saying that it may be derived from ‘heart, inner part, middle’.
    ▪ Sivkov2014 also considers the possibility of the complex ‘to turn’ to be denominative from ‘heart’, cf. ↗qalaba.
    ▪ Kogan2011: The fact that qalb is the basic term for ‘heart’ in Ar is a deviation from the general picture in Sem where most other langs use reflexes of protSem *libb‑ ‘heart’ (preserved also in Ar, cf. ↗lubb).
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Zammit2002: Akk qablu ‘hip; waist’,176 Ar qalb ‘heart’ (> Gz qalb ‘thought, wish’)
    ▪ Cf. also ↗qulb_1 ‘palm pith, palm core (edible tuber growing at the upper end of the palm trunk)’.
    ▪ For cognates from QRB ‘to be(come) near, close’, which is perhaps related, cf. ↗qaruba.
     
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    qalb al-ʔasad, n., Regulus (star α in the constellation Leo; astron.).
    qalb al-huǧūm, n., center forward (soccer).
    suwaydāʔ al-qalb, n., the innermost of the heart, the bottom of the heart.
    ʕan ẓahri ’l-qalb, adv., by heart.
    qalban wa-qālaban, adv., with heart and soul; inwardly and outwardly.
    qulūbāt (al-sukkar), n.pl., small candies, lozenges.

    qulb, qalb, qilb, n., palm pith, palm core (edible tuber growing at the upper end of the palm trunk): belonging to qalb, or to ↗qalab‑ ‘to turn’, or an item in its own right?
    qalbī, adj., of or pertaining to the heart, heart (in compounds), cardiac, cardiacal; cordial, hearty, warm, sincere; qalbiyan, adv., cordially, heartily, warmly, sincerely: nsb-adj. 
    ¹qulb فُلْب , var. qalb, qilb 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QLB 
    n. 
    palm pith, palm core (edible tuber growing at the upper end of the palm trunk) – WehrCowan1979. 
    Probably related to ↗qalb ‘heart’.121
    ▪ For cognates from QRB ‘to be(come) near, close’, which is perhaps related, cf. ↗qaruba.
     
    ▪ … 
    qalb 
    qalb 
    – 
    – 
    ²qulb فُلْب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QLB 
    n. 
    bracelet, bangle – WehrCowan1979. 
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    – 
    qalbaẗ قَلْبة 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QLB 
    n.f. 
    (EgAr) lapel; (pl. ‑āt), a measure of capacity (Tun. ; = 20 l) – WehrCowan1979. 
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    qālib قالِب , var. qālab , pl. qawālibᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QLB 
    n. 
    form; mold; cake pan; model; matrix; last, boot tree, shoe tree – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Rolland2014: from Grk kalópous, kalápous ‘last, wooden model for shoes’, from Grk kâlon ‘wood’ and poús ‘foot’, probably via mPers kal-pād and Pers kāleb ‘id.’.
    ▪ The Ar word gave our word calibre
    ▪ … 
    … 
    Before Rolland2014, Fraenkel1886 gave the same from Grk kalopódion as etymon, but proposed Syr qalbīḏ (or, rather, qalbūḏ) (rather than Rolland’s mPers) as the intermediary between Grk and Ar. In contrast, Syr qalbā ‘last, mould’ is probably from the Ar qālib rather than vice versa, cf. the var. Syr qāleb
    ▪ Engl caliber, calibre ‘degree of merit or importance’ : 1560 s, »a figurative use from mFr calibre (late C15), apparently ultimately from Ar qālib ‘mold for casting’. Ar also used the word in the sense ‘mold for casting bullets’, which is the oldest literal meaning in Engl. Meaning ‘inside diameter of a gun barrel’ is attested from 1580 s. Barnhart remarks that Span calibre, Ital calibro “appear too late to act as intermediate forms” between the Ar word and the Fr« – EtymOnline.24  
    qālib ǧubn, n., a chunk or loaf of cheese.
    qālib sukkar, n., sugarloaf.
    qālib ṣābūn, n., a cake or bar of soap.
    qalban wa-qāliban, adv., with heart and soul; inwardly and outwardly: adv.acc.
     
    qālibī قالِبيّ 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 8Jun2023
    √QLB 
    adj. 
    ▪ …nsb-formation, from qālib 
    qalīb قَليب , pl. ʔaqlibaẗ , qulub , qulbān 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QLB 
    n., m. and f. 
    well – WehrCowan1979. 
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    … 
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    – 
    maqlab مَقْلَب , pl. maqālibᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QLB 
    n. 
    (EgAr) refuse dump, dump pile, dump; intrigue, scheme, plot; April fool’s joke – WehrCowan1979. 
    separate value or derived from vb. I ↗qalaba
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    – 
    ĭnqilāb اِنْقِلاب 
    ID 702 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 2832 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QLB 
    n. 
    upheaval; revolution, overthrow, bouleversement; alteration, transformation, change; solstice – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ vn. VII, from ĭnqalaba, vb. VII, pass. of ↗qalaba , vb. I, ‘to turn around, turn up(ward), invert, reverse, etc.’
    ▪… 
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    – 
    dāʔiraẗ al-ĭnqilāb, n., tropic (geogr.) 
    QLD قلد 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QLD 
    “root” 
    ▪ QLD_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ QLD_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ QLD_3 ‘key’ ↗miqlād

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘water store; to overwhelm; to twist metal together, braided bracelet; key, treasure, safe; neckband, to adorn with a necklace, to honour, (of animals) to mark with a neckband; to entrust with a task, appoint, undertake a task; cream; share; to emulate, follow blindly’ 
    ʔiqlīd ‘key’ is described by some philologists as a possible borrowing – BAH2008 
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    taqlīd تَقْلِيد 
    ID 704 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 2023 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QLD 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ vn. of vb. II, qallada, D-stem 
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    – 
     
    miqlād مِقْلاد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Jun2023
    √QLD
     
    n. 
    key – Jeffery1938 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q xxxix, 63; xlii, 10 – Jeffery1938.
     
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »Only in the plural form maqālīdᵘ in the phrase ‘His are the keys of heaven and earth’, where the use of mafātīḥᵘ in the similar phrase in vi, 59, proves that it means ‘keys’, though in these two passages many of the Commentators want it to mean ḫazāʔinᵘ ‘storehouses’.689
    It was early recognized as a foreign word, and said by the philologers to be of Pers origin.690 The Pers kelīd to which they refer it is itself a borrowing from the Grk kleís, kleîda (Vullers, Lex, ii, 876), which was also borrowed into Aram ʔqlydʔ, Syr qulīḏā or ʔaqlīḏā. In spite of Dvořák’s vigorous defence of the theory that it passed directly from Pers into Arab691 we are fairly safe in concluding that the Ar ʔaqlīd is from the Syr ʔaqlīḏā,692 and the form miqlād formed therefrom on the analogy of miftāḥ, etc.693 «
     
    – 
    – 
    QLʕ قلع 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QLʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ QLʕ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ QLʕ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to pull out, uproot, remove; castle, stronghold; to cease, desist, to abstain, abandon; sail, to sail; fever, ulcerated stomach’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    qalʕaẗ قَلْعَة 
    ID 705 • Sw – • BP 3691 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QLʕ 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    QLQ قلق 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QLQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ QLQ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ QLQ_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    qaliq‑ قَلِقَ 
    ID 707 • Sw – • BP 5631 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QLQ 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    qaliq قَلِق 
    ID 706 • Sw – • BP 3626 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QLQ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    QLM قلم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QLM 
    “root” 
    ▪ QLM_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ QLM_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to cut, clip; reed, pen’. The word qalam ‘pen’, is recognised as an early borrowing from Grk. 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    qalam قَلَم , pl. ʔaqlām 
    ID 708 • Sw – • BP 1021 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QLM 
    n. 
    reed pen; ‎pen; pencil; crayon; style, pistil (bot.) writing, script, calligraphic style, ductus; handwriting; style; ‎office, bureau, agency, department; window, counter; item, entry (com.); (EgAr) stripe, streak, ‎line; (EgAr) slap in the face – WehrCowan1979. 
    The word, central to the idea of a ‘written’ revelation and hence scriptuality, is ‎one of only 17 words in the Q which, ultimately, are of Grk origin. 
    Q 68:1, 96:4, and (in the pl. ʔaqlām) 31:27, 3:44 ‘pen’, or ‘the reed from which pens were made’ (Jeffrey 1938) 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ‎‎▪ Jeffery1938, 242-43: »It means a ‘pen’ in all the passages save iii, 39, where it refers to the ‎reeds which were cast to decide who should have care of the maiden Maryam, and where the ‎ʔaqlām, of course, stands for the ῥάβδοι rhábdoi, of the Protev. Jacobi, ix.694 – The native authorities take the word ‎from qlm ‘to cut’ (cf. LA, xv, 392), but this is only folk-etymology, for the word is the ‎Grk kálamos, a ‘reed’ and then a ‘pen’,695 though ‎coming through some Sem form. kálamos was borrowed into Aram, where we find ‎קולםוס ‏‎, Syr ‎‎qlmā, but it was from the Eth [Gz] qalam, as Nöldeke, Neue Beiträge, 50, has shown, that the ‎word came into Ar. It was an early borrowing, for it is found both in the old poetry and in the ‎SAr inscriptions (Rossini, Glossarium, 232, for qlm as calamus odoratus).«
    EALL (Gutas, ‎‎“Greek Loanwords”): a loan (from ???) that goes back to Greek kálamos
    … 
    ‏‎qalamī, adj., penned, handwritten: nsb-adj.
    miqlamaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., pen ‎case: n.instr. 
    QLW/Y قلو/قلي 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QLW/Y 
    “root” 
    ▪ QLW/Y_1 ‘to fry, bake, roast’ ↗¹qalā; ‘alkali, base, lye (chem.)’ ↗qilw; ‘taqliya, sauce made of garlic, coriander and melted butter’ (Eg) ↗EgAr taq͗liyyaẗ.
    ▪ QLW/Y_2 ‘to hate, loathe, detest’ ↗²qalā
    ▪ QLW/Y_3 ‘…’ ↗

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): [√QLW/Y] ‘to dislike, to hate, to shun, to desert, to boycott; to roast; to toss about; to climb’ 
    ▪ QLW/Y_1 : From protSem *√QLY ‘to burn, roast’ (Huehnergard2011), *ḳ˅l˅w‑ ‘to roast’, prob. based on protSem *ḳ˅l‑, from AfrAs *ḳol‑ ‘to be hot, to burn’ (Orel&Stolbova1994#1584).
    ▪ QLW/Y_2 : …
    ▪ QLW/Y_3 : …
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Any relation betw. QLW/Y_1 ‘to burn, fry, roast’ and QLW/Y_2 ‘to hate, loathe, detest’? 
    ▪ Engl alkali, hyperkalemia, hypokalemia ↗¹qalà, ↗qilw
    … 
    ¹qalā / qalaw‑ قَلا / قَلَوْـ , u (qalw), and
    ¹qalà / qalay‑ قَلَى / قَلَيْـ , i (qaly
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QLW/Y 
    vb., I 
    to fry, bake, roast – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1584: from protSem *ḳ˅l˅w‑ ‘to roast’, prob. based on protSem *ḳ˅l‑, from AfrAs *ḳol‑ ‘to be hot, to burn’.
    ▪ Any relation to ↗²qalā ‘to hate, loathe, detest’? 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘to roast’) Akk iqlū ‘to burn’, Hbr qālā (ē), Syr qlā (ē), Gz qaláwa (ū).
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1584: Akk qalû, Ar qlw. – Outside Sem: (CCh) kwul‑ in 1 CCh lang.
     
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1584: protSem *ḳ˅l˅w‑ ‘to roast’ (Akk, Ar), prob. based on *ḳ˅l‑, protCCh *kwalu‑ ‘hotness’ (reconstructed on the basis of 1 CCh lang), both from hypothetical AfrAs *ḳol‑ ‘to be hot, to burn’.
    ▪ Any relation to ↗²qalā ‘to hate, loathe, detest’? 
    ▪ Engl alkali, hyperkalemia, hypokalemia, from Ar (al‑)qily ‘the ashes, lye, potash’, from qalà ‘to fry, roast’ – Huehnergard2011. 
    qilw, qilan, qily, n., alkali, base, lye (chem.)
    qilwī, adj., alkaline, basic: nisba formation of qilw | al‑qilwiyyāt, n.nhum.pl., the bases (chem.)
    qallāyaẗ, n.f., frying vessel: ints. formation.
    miqlan, det. miqlà, n., and miqlāẗ, pl. maqālin, det. maqālī, n.f., frying pan: n.instr.
    taqliyaẗ, n.f., alcalization (chem.): vn. II.
    EgAr taq͗liyyaẗ, n.f., sauce made of garlic, coriander and melted butter and served as a condiment.
     
    ²qalā / qalaw‑ قَلا / قَلَوْـ , u (qilaⁿ, det. qilà; qalāʔ),
    ²qalà / qalay‑ قَلَى / قَلَيْـ , i (qaly), and
    qaliy‑ قَلِيَ , a (qilan, det. qilà; qalāʔ, maqliyaẗ
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QLW/Y 
    vb., I 
    to hate, loathe, detest – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Any relation to ↗¹qalā, vb. I, ‘to fry, bake, roast’? 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ Any relation to ↗¹qalā, vb. I, ‘to fry, bake, roast’? 
    … 
    … 
    qilw قِلْو , var. qilaⁿ, qily 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QLW/Y 
    n. 
    alkali, base, lye (chem.) – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Orig., *‘roasted mineral, potashes’, from ↗¹qalā, vb. I, ‘to fry, bake, roast’. 
    ▪ … 
    Cf. also ↗¹qalā
    … 
    ▪ Engl alkali, lC14, ‘soda ash’, from mLat alkali, from Ar al-qaliy ‘the ashes, burnt ashes’ (of saltwort, which abounds in soda due to growing in alkaline soils), from qalà ‘to roast in a pan’. Later extended to similar substances, natural or manufactured. The modern chemistry sense is from 1813 – EtymOnline (as of 18Sep2020). ▪ Engl alkali, hyperkalemia, hypokalemia, from Ar (al‑)qily ‘the ashes, lye, potash’, from qalà ‘to fry, roast’ – Huehnergard2011. 
    qilwī, adj., alkaline, basic: nisba formation of qilw | al‑qilwiyyāt, n.nhum.pl., the bases (chem.)
    taqliyaẗ, n.f., alcalization (chem.): vn. II.
     
    EgAr taq͗liyyaẗ تَقْلِيّة 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QLW/Y 
    n.f. 
    sauce made of garlic, coriander and melted butter and served as a condiment – WehrCowan1976.
     
    ▪ Rare taFʕīLaẗ formation, meton. use of vn. II), from ↗¹qalā, vb. I, ‘to fry, bake, roast’ (or rather an obs. *qallà, D-stem, ints. formation of G-stem). 
    ▪ … 
    See ↗¹qalā
    See above, section CONC. 
    … 
    … 
    QMː (QMM) قمّ / قمم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QMː (QMM) 
    “root” 
    ▪ QMː (QMM)_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ QMː (QMM)_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    qimmaẗ قِمَّة 
    ID 709 • Sw – • BP 798 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QMː (QMM) 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Akin to Ge Halm etc. 
     
    QMḤ قمح 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QMḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ QMḤ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ QMḤ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to twist the neck; to be humbled, debased or forced into submission; (said of animals) to refuse to drink, to drink one’s fill’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    qamḥ قَمْح 
    ID 710 • Sw – • BP 3489 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QMḤ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *ḳamḥ‑ ‘flour’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘flour’) Akk qēmu, Hbr qémaḥ, Syr qamḥā, Gz qamḥ ‘fruit’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    QMR قمر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QMR 
    “root” 
    ▪ QMR_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ QMR_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘moon, moonlight; whiteness, greyness; to hunt; to win in gambling, to stake; to deceive’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    qamar قَمَر 
    ID 711 • Sw 73 • BP 1081 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QMR 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: of unclear etymology; protSem *war(i)ḫ‑ ‘moon’ is lost completely in Ar.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    QMŠ قمش 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QMŠ 
    “root” 
    ▪ QMŠ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ QMŠ_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    qumāš قُماش 
    ID 712 • Sw – • BP 3508 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QMŠ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    QMṢ قمص 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QMṢ 
    “root” 
    ▪ QMṢ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ QMṢ_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ QMṢ_3 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ QMṢ_4 ‘small insects on the surface of stagnant water; small locusts’’ ↗qamaṣ

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘shirt, garment, inner garment, dress, gown, wrap, shield, to wear a shirt, to masquerade; to quake, to be jumpy, to be agile, to gallop’. It has been suggested that qamīṣ may be a borrowing from Grk through Syr or Gz. 
    ▪ [v1] ▪ From CSem *√QMṢ ‘to enclose’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ [v2] …
    ▪ [v3] …
    ▪ [v4] Kogan2011: from protWSem *ḳ˅m˅ṣ‑ ‘(a kind of harmful insect)’; cf. also ↗ qaṣam ‘eggs of locust’, ↗qaṣām ‘locust’.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl camise, camisole, chemise, chemisette, kameezqamīṣ
    – 
    qamīṣ قَمِيص 
    ID 713 • Sw – • BP 4630 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QMṢ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl camise, from Ar qamīṣ ‘shirt’.
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl camisole, chemise, chemisette, kameez, from lGrk kamision, prob. from a Sem source akin to Ug qmṣ, a garment, Ar qamīṣ ‘shirt’, both akin to Hbr qāmaṣ ‘to enclose with the hand, grasp’. 
     
    QMṬR قمطر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3May2023
    √QMṬR 
    “root” 
    ▪ QMṬR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QMṬR_2 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a sturdy, strong, fast-moving camel, short strong man; to reach a crisis; to scowl, look angry; to pull tight the mouth of a water skin’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    QMʕ قمع 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QMʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ QMʕ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ QMʕ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to subdue, vanquish, tame, bridle; to abate; earlobes, heads; sty on the eye; dust storm; curved iron rod’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    qamʕ قَمْع 
    ID 714 • Sw – • BP 3793 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QMʕ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    QML قمل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3May2023
    √QML 
    “root” 
    ▪ QML_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QML_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QML_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘lice, to become louse-infested, dirty, (of people, plants and animals) become blackened; to increase in population; to be insignificant; grasshopper’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    QNː (QNN) قنّ / قنن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QNː (QNN) 
    “root” 
    ▪ QNː (QNN)_1 ‘chicken coop’ ↗qunn
    ▪ QNː (QNN)_2 ‘slave, serf’ ↗qinn
    ▪ QNː (QNN)_3 ‘galbanum (bot.)’ ↗qinnaẗ
    ▪ QNː (QNN)_4 ‘mountaintop, summit, peak’ ↗qunnaẗ
    ▪ QNː (QNN)_5 ‘bottle, flask’ ↗qinnīnaẗ
    ▪ QNː (QNN)_6 ‘canon, rule, prescript, law’ ↗qānūn
     
    See section DISC below. 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ QNː (QNN)_1: Ar qunn ‘chicken coop’ is obviously akin to Akk qinnu ‘nest, lair; (hence also:) family, clan, kinsman’, from Sem *qinn‑ ‘nest’.
    ▪ QNː (QNN)_2: Does Ar qinn ‘slave, serf’ belong to the idea expressed in Akk qinnu ‘nest, lair; family, clan, kinsman’ (slaves, serfsmen being considered part of a household, a ‘nest’)? If so, qinn is akin to Ar qunn ‘chicken coop’, i.e., QNː (QNN)_1. — But perhaps the item is related to Ar ↗qanā / qanà (√QNW/Y) ‘to buy, acquire; to possess’ (slaves seen as ‘purchased and owned’ items) rather than to QNN.
    ▪ QNː (QNN)_3: Although Ar qinnaẗ ‘galbanum’ shows /nː/ rather than a long final vowel, it is tempting to relate it to Akk qanû ‘fragrant reed’ (cf. ↗QNW). If this relation could be confirmed, qinnaẗ would be akin to Ar ↗qanāẗ and ↗qānūn.
    ▪ QNː (QNN)_4: Ar qunnaẗ ‘mountaintop, summit, peak’ seems to be completely isolated. Neither can it be connected to any of the other values attached to √QNː (QNN), nor to those of √QNW/Y.
    ▪ QNː (QNN)_5: qinnīnaẗ ‘bottle, flask’ is probably from Aram qanīntā or what seems to be the latter’s origin, Grk káneon, káneion ‘basket; bowl’, from Grk kánna ‘reed, cane’, cf. Ar ↗qanāẗ and ↗qānūn. In Eur langs, the value ‘can’ is usually believed to have developed from the same Grk kánna, via Lat canna ‘reed, cane; tube, pipe’, then also used in Roman pottery in the specific sense of earthen vessels having a tube.
    ▪ QNː (QNN)_6: The direct ancestor of Ar qānūn is Grk kanṓn, which however ultimately goes back to a Sem word for ‘reed’ (Sem *qanaw‑). The most probable source of borrowing is Akk qanû ‘reed, cane, shaft; (hence also, among other values:) measuring rod; (a measure of length)’. For details, cf. Ar ↗qanāẗ and ↗qānūn.
     
    – 
    – 
    qunn قُنّ , pl. qinān 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QNː (QNN) 
    n. 
    chicken coop, chicken house – WehrCowan1979. 
    From Sem *qinn‑ ‘nest’ (Dolgopolsky2012). The specialisation of meaning in Ar is not found in other Sem langs. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ BDB1906: Akk (CAD) qinnu ‘nest (of a bird, snake), lair; family, clan, kinsman’ (cf. also: qanānu ‘to make a nest, nest, establish a homestead’), Hbr qēn (pl. qinnīm) ‘nest; cells (like nests)’, Aram qinnâ, Syr qennā, Mand qina ‘nest’ 
    ▪ Dolgopolsky2012#1O96 reconstructs Sem *qinn‑ ‘nest’.
    ▪ Does also Ar qinn ‘slave, serf’ belong to the idea of qinnu ‘nest; (hence also, in Akk:) family, clan, kinsman’ (slaves, serfsmen being considered part of a household, a ‘nest’)?
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    qinn قِنّ , pl. ʔaqnān , ʔaqinnaẗ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QNː (QNN) 
    n. 
    slave, serf – WehrCowan1979. 
    Perhaps akin to Akk qinnu ‘nest, lair; (hence also:) family, clan, kinsman’, from Sem *qinn‑ ‘nest’ (slaves being looked at as belonging to one’s family, or clan)? Another suggestion is to relate it to ↗qanā / qanà ‘to buy, acquire; to possess’ (slaves as ‘purchased and owned’ items?).
     
    ClassAr also qinniyyaẗ ‘slavery, serfdom’ (Lane) 
    … 
    ▪ Does qinn ‘slave, serf’ belong to the idea expressed in Akk qinnu ‘nest, lair; (hence also:) family, clan, kinsman’ (slaves, serfsmen being considered part of a household, a ‘nest’)? If so, qinn is akin to ↗qunn ‘chicken coop’.
    ▪ But perhaps the item is related to ↗qanā / qanà ‘to buy, acquire; to possess’ (slaves seen as ‘purchased and owned’ items) rather than to QNː(QNN).
    ▪ … 
    qunūnaẗ, n.f., slavery, serfdom 
    qinnaẗ قِنّة 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QNː (QNN) 
    n.f. 
    galbanum (bot.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    Although qinnaẗ shows a long /nː/ rather than a long final vowel, it is tempting to relate it to Akk qanû ‘fragrant reed’ (from Sem *qanaw‑ ‘reed’, cf. also ↗QNW for the more general context). If this relation could be confirmed, qinnaẗ would be akin to Ar ↗qanāẗ and ↗qānūn.
     
    ▪ … 
    … 
    Cf. section CONCISE above. 
    – 
    – 
    qunnaẗ قُنّة , pl. ‑āt , qunan , qinān , qunūn 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QNː (QNN) 
    n.f. 
    mountaintop, summit, peak – WehrCowan1979. 
    The word seems to be completely isolated within the root QNː(QNN), neither can it be connected to any of the values attached to √QNW/Y. 
    ClassAr ‘isolated mountain’ (Lane) 
    … 
    See CONCISE above. 
    – 
    – 
    qinnīnaẗ قِنّينة , pl. qanāʔinᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QNː (QNN) 
    n.f. 
    bottle, glass bottle; flask, flacon, vial – WehrCowan1979. 
    qinnīnaẗ ‘bottle, flask’ is probably from Aram qanīntā or what seems to be the latter’s origin, namely Grk káneon, káneion ‘basket; bowl’ (from Grk kánna ‘reed, cane’, cf. Ar ↗qanāẗ and ↗qānūn). In Eur langs, the value ‘can’ is usually believed to have developed from the same Grk kánna, via Lat canna ‘reed, cane; tube, pipe’, then also used in Roman pottery in the specific sense of earthen vessels having a tube.
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ EgAr qananiyyaẗ, qaniniyyaẗ ‘bottle; glass drinking-bowl’ – BadawiHinds1986
    ▪ Probably from Aram qanīntā, Grk káneon, káneion ‘basket; bowl’, from Grk kánna ‘reed, cane’ (cf. Fraenkel1886:75, quoting Nöldeke, Mand.Gramm., p. 125, fn. 2), cf. ↗qanāẗ, ↗qānūn 
    ▪ …
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    – 
    – 
    qānūn قانُون , pl. qawānīnᵘ 
    ID 715 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 232 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QNː (QNN) 
    n. 
    1a canon; b established principle, basic rule, axiom, norm, regulation, rule, ordinance, prescript, precept, statute; c law; d code; e tax, impost; f (Tun.) tax on olives and dates. – 2 a stringed musical instrument resembling the zither, with a shallow, trapezoidal sound box, set horizontally before the performer14 – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ [v1] »from Grk κανών [kanṓn ], which meant firstly ‘any straight rod’, later ‘a measure or rule’, and finally (in the papyri of the 4th and 5th centuries A.D.) ‘assessment for taxation’, ‘imperial taxes’, ‘tariff’.122 The word was adopted into Ar presumably with the continuation, after the Muslim conquest of Egypt and Syria, of the pre-Islamic tax system.123 Whilst the word preserved in Islamic states in general its special meaning as a financial term belonging to the field of land-taxes, it acquired also the sense of ‘code of regulations’, ‘state-law’ (sc. of non-Muslim origin).« – Y. Linant de Bellefonds, art. “ḳānūn”, in EI².
    ▪ [v2] According to Lane, Manners and Customs, the name of the musical instrument also is »from the Grk κανών [kanṓn ], or from the same origin; and has the same signification—that is, ‘rule’, ‘law’, ‘custom’.« 
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    ▪ Not a loan from Ar, but going back to the same Grk kanṓn that probably is from (or from a Sem word akin to) Akk qanû, is Engl canon ‘church law; (hence also:) rule, prescription’ (and similar words in many other Eur langs). The Engl word can be traced back to oEngl canon, which is from oFr canon or directly from lLat canōn ‘church law’, a specialised meaning of what in classLat (canōn) still was ‘measuring line, rule, prescription’ in general, from Grk kanṓn ‘any straight rod or bar; (and by extension also:) straightedge; rule (etc.); standard of excellence’. The latter is perhaps (by semantic extension) from, or belongs to, Grk kánna ‘reed; tube, pipe’ (cf. Ar ↗qanāẗ). After having taken on the specifically ecclesiastical sense for ‘decree of the Church’, the word later (c1600) again developed the general sense of ‘standard of judging’. The meaning ‘catalogue of approved authors, composers, etc.’ is probably from mC18EtymOnline
    al-qānūn al-ʔasāsī, n., basic constitutional law; statutes.
    qānūn al-taʔsīs, n., statutes, constitution.
    al-qānūn al-ǧināʔī, n., criminal law, penal law.
    qānūn al-ʔaḥwāl al-šaḫṣiyyaẗ, n.f., personal statute.
    al-qānūn al-dustūrī, n., constitutional law.
    al-qānūn al-duwalī, n., international law.
    al-qānūn al-murāfaʕāt, n., code of procedure (jur.; Eg.).
    qānūn ʔuṣūl al-murāfaʕāt al-ḥuqūqiyyaẗ, n., (Syr.) dto.
    qānūn al-silk al-ʔidārī, n., administrative law.
    qānūn (kīmāwī), chemical formula.
    al-qānūn al-madanī, n., civil law

    qannana, vb. II, to make laws, legislate; to determine, fix: caus., denom.

    BP#1158qānūnī, adj., canonical; legal, statutory; lawful, legitimate, licit, accordant with law or regulations, valid, regular: nsb-adj.; n., legist, jurisprudent, jurist: nominalized nsb-adj. | ġayr ~, adj., illegal
    qānūniyyaẗ, n.f., legality, lawfulness: abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ.
    taqnīn, n., legislation, lawmaking; codification (jur.); regulation by law; rationing: vn. II.
    muqannin, adj., legislative, lawmaking: PA II; lawgiver, lawmaker, legislator: nominalized PA II.
    muqannan, adj., determined, fixed; rationed; standard (in compounds), standardized: PP II.
     
    QNʔ قنأ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QNʔ 
    “root” 
    ▪ QNʔ_1 ‘deep(-red), blood(-red)’ ↗qāniʔ (√QNʔ), ↗qān(in) (√QāN, QNY)
    ▪ QNʔ_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
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    – 
    qāniʔ قانئ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QNʔ 
    adj. 
    blood-red, deep-red (= qānin) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ From, or contaminated with, Tu kan ‘blood’?
    ▪ Cf. ↗qān(in). ▪… 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ …
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    – 
    – 
    QNBR قنبر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QNBR 
    “root” 
    QNBR_1 ‘bast rug, bast runner’ ↗(IrqAr) qunbār
    QNBR_2 ‘lark (zool.)’ ↗qunbur
    QNBR_3 ‘bomb’ ↗qunburaẗ
    QNBR_4 ‘hump, hunch’ ↗qunbūr
     
    QNBR_1 : …
    QNBR_2 : prob. named after the little crest on its head, cf. ↗qunbūr (MSA: ‘hump, hunch’, see QNBR_4). - Variant: ↗qubbar.
    QNBR_3 : var. of ↗qunbulaẗ
    QNBR_4 : …
     
    ▪ … 
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    … 
    … 
    … 
    (IrqAr) qunbār قُنْبار
     
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QNBR 
    n. 
    bast rug, bast runner – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    … 
    For other items of the root, cf. also ↗qunbur, ↗qunburaẗ, and ↗qunbūr, as well as, for the overall picture, ↗√QNBR.
     
    qunbur قُنْبُر , pl. qanābirᵘ
     
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QNBR 
    n.coll. (n.un. ة) 
    lark (zool.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ The lark seems to have its name, qunbur, from the little crest (qunburaẗ, ↗qunbūr) that sometimes shows on its head.
     
    ▪ BK ii 1860, LandbergZetterstein1942 qunbaraẗ ‘crête de coq’ (coxcomb, crest of a bird)
    ▪ For var. qubbar (s.r. QBR), cf., e.g., Lane vii 1885: qubbar, qubar, qunburāʔᵘ, qunbur ‘lark’.
     
    … 
    ▪ Many ClassAr lexica list qunbur s.r. QBR, claiming that the var. with ‑n‑ is the weaker one, cf., e.g., Lane vii 1885 (as in section HIST, above).
     
    ▪ Akin (with metathesis) to Grk κορυδαλλός koruδallós and/or Ru жа́воронок žávoronok ‘lark’?
     
    For other items of the root, cf. also ↗(IrqAr) qunbār, ↗qunburaẗ, and ↗qunbūr, as well as, for the overall picture, ↗√QNBR.
     
    qunburaẗ قُنْبُرة , pl. qanābirᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QNBR 
    n.f. 
    bomb – WehrCowan1979. 
    Var. of ↗qunbulaẗ
    ▪ … 
    … 
    See above, section CONC. 
    … 
    For other items of the root, cf. also ↗(IrqAr) qunbār, ↗qunbur, and ↗qunbūr, as well as, for the overall picture, ↗√QNBR.
     
    qunbūr قُنْبور 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QNBR 
    n. 
    hump, hunch – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    … 
    ʔabū qunbūr, n., hunchback.

    For other items of the root, cf. also ↗(IrqAr) qunbār, ↗qunbur, and ↗qunburaẗ, as well as, for the overall picture, ↗√QNBR. 
    QNBL قنبل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QNBL 
    “root” 
    ▪ QNBL_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ QNBL_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
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    ▪ …
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    qunbulaẗ قُنْبُلَة , pl. qanābilᵘ 
    ID 716 • Sw – • BP 1822 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QNBL 
    n.f. 
    bomb, bombshell – WehrCowan1979. 
    Accord. to Rolland2014, probably from Pers ḫum-bara ‘small earthen vase’ and Tu humbara [~ḳumbara ] ‘money-box; bombshell’. 
    ▪ Tu ḳumbara ‘humbara, barut ve metal parçalarıyla doldurulmuş demir top’ [Câmiʕ-ül Fürs, 1501], ‘küçük para kasası’ [Filippo Argenti, Regola del Parlare Turco, 1533] – Nişanyan (21Jul2012)
    ▪ Tu humbara ‘demirden yapılarak içine patlayıcı maddeler doldurulan mermi’ : <1600 – Nişanyan (21Jul2012) 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ Nişanyan_21Jul2012 suggests: Tu humbara ‘money-box; bombshell’, from ḫumbare, from < Pers ḫum / ḫumb = Av ḫumba‑ ‘small pot, vase’ 
    – 
    qunbulaẗ ḏarriyyaẗ, n.f., atomic bomb, A bomb.
    qunbulaẗ yadawiyyaẗ, n.f., hand grenade.

    qanbala, vb. I, to bomb: denom.
    (ṭāʔiraẗ) muqanbilaẗ, n.f., bomber: PA I, denom. 
    QNṬ قنط 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3May2023
    √QNṬ 
    “root” 
    ▪ QNṬ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QNṬ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QNṬ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to stop talking; to be obedient, submissive, humble (before God), devoutness, piety, to ask God in prayer, pray’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    QNṬR قنطر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QNṬR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ¹QNṬR ‘arched bridge, arch, vault, arcade, viaduct, dam’ ↗qanṭaraẗ
    ▪ ²QNṬR ‘kantar, weight of 100 raṭl; tremendous riches’ ↗qinṭār
    ▪ ³QNṬR ‘centaury (Erythrea centauricum; bot.)’ ↗qinṭāriyūn

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘1 to tie together, arch; 2 to leave the desert and live in urbanized areas; 3 large amounts of money, sums and/or weights of various measures; 4 cunning person’ 
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    ¹QNṬR قنطر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QNṬR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ¹QNṬR_1 ‘arched bridge, arch, vault, arcade, viaduct, dam’ ↗qanṭaraẗ 
    qanṭaraẗ 
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    – 
    qanṭaraẗ قَنْطَرة , pl. qanāṭirᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QNṬR 
    n.f. 
    1 arched bridge, stone bridge; 2 vault, arch; 3 archway, arcade; 4 arches, viaduct, aqueduct (esp. pl.); 5 dam, weir – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Etymology obscure. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Rolland2014: »Diverses origines ont été proposées à partir du Lat ou du Grk, notamment le Grk kéntron ‘centre d’un cercle’, hypothèse retenue par le DRAE,696 plausible au vu de l’importance de la voûte dans l’architecture des ponts antiques. Du Grk proviennent la forme latinisée centrum et quelques dérivés techniques dont centrātus ‘central, placé au centre’, qui est la forme la plus proche de l’Ar. Même si ce mot n’est pas l’étymon que nous recherchons, il est vraisemblable que le terme désignant le pont ait été – comme ↗sirāṭ – emprunté à la langue de ces grands bâtisseurs qu’ont été les Romains.«
    ▪ … 
    … 
    qanṭaraẗ muwāzinaẗ, n.f., regulator, regulating device (at a canal, esp. in the Eg irrigation system).
    al-Qanāṭir al-ḫayriyyaẗ, n.f.pl., the Barrages, at the entrance of the Nile delta, about 15 miles north of Cairo.

    qanṭara, vb. I, to arch, span, vault (s.th.): denom.

    qanṭarī, adj., bridgelike, like the arch of a bridge: nisba formation.
    muqanṭar, adj., vaulted, arched, arcaded: PP I.
     
    ²QNṬR قنطر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QNṬR 
    “root” 
    ▪ ²QNṬR_1 ‘kantar, a varying weight of 100 raṭl’ ↗qinṭār 
    qinṭār 
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    – 
    qinṭār قِنْطار , pl. qanāṭīrᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QNṬR 
    n. 
    kantar, a varying weight of 100 raṭl (in Eg = 44.93 kg, in Tunisia = 53.9 kg, in Syria = 256.4 kg) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Rolland2014: < lGrk kentēnárion < lLat centēnārium ‘containing a hundred’ (centum ‘hundred’).
    ▪ Jeffery1938: via Syr qᵊnṭīnārā, short qentᵊrā, from Grk kentēnárion, from Lat centēnārium
    ▪ eC7 (measure of weight and/or measure) Q 3:14 zuyyina li’n-nāsi ḥubbu ’l-šahawāti min-a ’l-nisāʔi wa’l-banīna wa’l-qanāṭīri ’l-muqanṭaraẗi min-a ’l-ḏahabi wa’l-fiḍḍaẗi wa’l-ḫayli ’l-musawwamaẗi wa’l-ʔanʕāmi wa’l-ḥarṯi ‘Beautified for mankind is love of the joys (that come) from women and offspring; and stored-up heaps of gold and silver, and horses branded (with their mark), and cattle and land’; muqanṭar (stacked up in heaps) Q 3:75 wa-min ʔahli ’l-kitābi man ʔin taʔmanhu bi-qinṭārin yuʔaddi-hī ʔilayka ‘Among the People of the Scripture there is he who, if thou trust him with a weight of treasure, will return it to thee’ 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »It was recognized by the philologers as of foreign origin, and though some, like Sībawaih, held to an Arabic origin, ʔAbū ʕUbaydaẗ (LA, vi, 432) expressly states that the Arabs did not know the meaning of the word.697 Some said it was a Berb word (al-Suyūṭī, Itq, 323), others that it was Syr (al-Suddī in Muḫaṣṣaṣ, xii, 266), but the majority were in favour of its being Grk (al-Thaʕālibī, Fiqh, 318; al- Suyūṭī, Muzhir, i, 134). / Undoubtedly it is the Grk kentēnárion, which represents the Lat centenarium, and passed into Aram as qᵊnṭînār, Syr qᵊnṭīnārā.698 It was from the Aram, as Fraenkel, Vocab, 13; Fremdw, 203, shows, that the word came into Ar, and in all probability from the shortened Syr form qentᵊrā.699 «
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl quintal ‘a weight of a hundred pounds’: c. 1400, from oFr quintal ‘hundredweight’, and directly from medLat quintale, from Ar qinṭār, from lGrk kentēnárion, from lLat centēnārius ‘containing a hundred’ (< centum ‘hundred’) – EtymOnline (15Jul2020).
    ▪ Ge Zentner ‘a weight of a hundred pounds’: C11, from mHGe zentenære, zentner, oHGe zentenāri, from Lat centēnārius ‘belonging to a hundred’ – Kluge2002. 
    qanāṭīrᵘ muqanṭaraẗ, n.pl.f., accumulated riches; tremendous sums: Qur’anic phrase.

    qanṭara, vb. I, to possess tremendous riches: denom.
     
    qinṭāriyūn قِنْطارِيون , var. qinṭāriyyūn 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QNṬR 
    n. 
    centaury (Erythrea centauricum; bot.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Rolland2014: qinṭāriyūn ‘centaurée’, from Grk κενταύρειον kentaúreion ‘centaur-like, wild’, from kéntauros ‘centaur’, of unknown origin. 
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    QNʕ قنع 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QNʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ QNʕ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ QNʕ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be content; to be convinced, to persuade, temperance; greed; to crane the neck in submission; camel hump; mask, veil, to mask’ 
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    qanāʕaẗ قَناعَة 
    ID 718 • Sw – • BP 3171 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QNʕ 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    – 
     
    ʔiqnāʕ إِقْناع 
    ID 717 • Sw – • BP 3301 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QNʕ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    muqtaniʕ مُقْتَنِع 
    ID 719 • Sw – • BP 4523 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QNʕ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    QNF قنف 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3May2023
    √QNF 
    “root” 
    ▪ QNF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QNF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QNF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘despair, to fall into despair, be despondent’ 
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    QNFḎ قنفذ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QNFḎ 
    “root” 
    ▪ QNFḎ_1 ‘hedgehog’ ↗qunfuḏ
    ▪ QNFḎ_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ See ↗qunfuḏ
     
    – 
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    qunfuḏ قُنْفُذ , pl. qanāfiḏᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QNFḎ 
    n. 
    hedgehog – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan 2011 reconstructs protWSem *ḳunpuḏ‑ ‘hedgehog’. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ MilitarevKogan2005#133, Kogan 2011: Ebl ḳì-pá-šúm/šum (= Sum ‘PÉŠ’), Hbr qippōd ‘hedgehog’, Syr qupdā (quppədā), Ar qunfuḏ, Gz qʷənfəz ‘hedgehog, porcupine’. 
    ▪ Kogan 2011 reconstructs pWSem *ḳunpuḏ- ‘hedgehog’, based on the Hbr, Syr, Ar and Gz forms. The form ḳì-pá-šum/šúm found in Ebl may suggest an original presence of the word also in ESem. 
    – 
    qunfuḏ al-baḥr or qunfuḏ baḥrī, n., sea urchin (Echinus; zool.); porcupine fish (Diodon; zool.)

     
    QNW قنو 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QNW 
    “root” 
    ▪ QNW_1 ‘spear, lance; shaft; tube, pipe; canal; channel’ ↗qanāẗ
    ▪ QNW_2 ‘to acquire, appropriate’ ↗qanā (var. qanà, √QNY)
    ▪ QNW_3 ‘bunch of dates’ ↗qunw, var. qinw
    ▪ QNW_4 ‘deep(-red), blood(-red)’ ↗qān(in) (√QāN, QNY), qāniʔ (√QNʔ)
    ▪ QNW_5 ‘technique’ ↗tiqn (√TQN)

    Cf. BAH2008#QNW/Y: ‘to acquire livestock primarily for breeding, to possess; to cause to acquire wealth, to be content; rivulet; a spear shaft, branch, stalks of dates with or without the dates’ 
    ▪ The origin of QNW_1 is, with all probability, the Akk qanû ‘reed’, from protSem *qanaw‑ ‘reed’ (Huehnergard2011).
    ▪ QNW_2 ‘to acquire, appropriate’ and QNW_3 ‘bunch of dates’ both seem to depend on QNW_1: the bunch of dates because of its similarity with stalks of reed, the vb. ‘to acquire, appropriate’ being taken from the meaning of ‘measuring rod’, and hence also ‘scales’, of the n.
    ▪ QNW_4 : from Tu kan ‘blood?’
    ▪ QNW_5 : unrelated to √QNW.
    ▪ Taken from the same source as corresponding Sem items, many European words, like Engl cane, can, canister, canal, channel, canyon, canon, cannon, are indirectly related to Ar words from this root, cf. ↗qanāẗ and ↗qānūn
    – 
    ▪ QNW_1 : Akk qanû ‘reed; (a fragrant reed); arrow; tube, pipe; measuring rod; (a measure of length); plot of land’, Hbr qānêʰ ‘tube, pipe; scales’, Ar qanāẗ ‘spear, lance; shaft; tube, pipe; canal; channel’
    ▪ QNW_2 : Akk qanû, Hbr qānāʰ, Aram qənā, Ar qanā, SAr qny, Gz qanaya ‘to buy, acquire’.
    ▪ QNW_3 : probably as QNW_1.
    ▪ QNW_4 : ↗qān(in) (√QāN, QNY), qāniʔ (√QNʔ)
    ▪ QNW_5 : ↗tiqn (√TQN)
     
    ▪ QNW_1 : Zimmern1914 thinks that the Hbr, Aram, and Ar forms all go back to the Akk n. qanû with the basic meaning (accord. to CAD) of 1 ‘reed’, and hence also 2 a type of fragrant reed (cf. Ar ↗qinnaẗ),700 3 an arrow, 4 a tube or pipe, 5 a measuring rod, hence also 6 a measure of length, and 7 a plot of land. The Akk term may itself be a borrowing from Sum gi, but others reconstruct Sem *qanaw‑ ‘reed’. — The borrowing of Akk qanû into Hbr as qānêʰ, meaning not only ‘reed’ but again also a specific type of aromatic reed, ‘tube, pipe’, a measure of length of 6 cubits, a ‘beam of scales’, and hence ‘scales’, is, accord. to Zimmern, secured. — The same Akk qanû (or the Hbr word) was probably also loaned into Grk, from where it passed, via Lat, into many European languages, see WESTLANG below.
    ▪ QNW_2 : Zimmern1914 takes a dependence (as denominative formation) of ‘to buy, acquire’ on QNW_1 in the specialised sense of ‘scales’ for granted. The only thing that is not clear to him is whether the non-Akk vb.s are directly from the Akk n. or only via the n.s that are borrowed from the Akk one. Against this direct borrowing speaks the fact that, accord. to the author, Akk qanû, unlike Hbr qānêʰ, usually does not mean ‘scales’, but only ‘measuring rod’. There is, however, also the Akk vb. qanû ‘to buy, acquire’. But this is attested not earlier than in nAss and thus may itself be a (re-)borrowing from WSem.
    ▪ QNW_3 : Probably dependent on Ar qanāẗ : ‘shaft’ > ‘shaft with dates’ > ‘bunch of dates’.
     
    ▪ A number of words in European languages (e.g., Engl cane, can, canister, canal, channel, canyon, canon, cannon) go back to the Sem word for ‘reed; (and hence also:) tube, pipe’ (QNW_1). For details cf. ↗qanāẗ and ↗qānūn
    – 
    qanā / qanaw‑ قَنا، قَنَوْـ , u (qanw , qunūw , qunwaẗ , qunwān)
    qanà, qanay‑ قَنَى، قَنَيْـ , i (qany , qunyān
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QNW, QNY 
    vb., I 
    qanā : to acquire, appropriate, make one’s own; to possess, own, have;
    qanà : to acquire, gain
    – WehrCowan1979. 
    The Sem verbs listed below in the COGNATES section may all depend on a n. (perhaps the Akk qanû or Sem *qanaw‑) with the basic meaning of ‘reed, cane’, which also came to be employed in the sense of ‘measuring rod’, and hence also ‘scales’. (The same word is at the origin of Ar ↗qanāẗ and ↗qānūn as well as items like cane, can, canister, canal, channel, canyon, canon, cannon in Engl, with correspondances in many other Eur langs.) 
    ▪ eC7 (ʔaqnà, vb. IV, to cause to possess, to cause to have property; to cause to be content) Q 53:48 wa-ʔanna-hū huwa ʔaġnà wa-ʔaqnà ‘that it is He who enriches and causes to possess/to be content’ 
    ▪ BDB1906: Akk qanû ‘to gain, acquire’, Hbr qānāʰ ‘to get, acquire’, Ar qanā, qanà ‘to acquire, procure’, Sab qny ‘to acquire, possess; property’, Gz qanaya ‘to acquire, subjugate’, Aram Syr qᵊnâ ‘to acquire’ 
    ▪ Zimmern1914 takes a dependence (as denominative formation) of ‘to buy, acquire’ on QNW_1 in the specialised sense of ‘scales’ for granted. The only thing that is not clear to him is whether the non-Akk vb.s are directly from the Akk n. or via the n.s that are borrowed from the Akk one. Against a direct borrowing from the Akk n. speaks the fact that, accord. to the author, Akk qanû, unlike Hbr qānêʰ, usually does not mean ‘scales’, but only ‘measuring rod’. There is, however, also the Akk vb. qanû ‘to buy, acquire’. But this is attested not earlier than in nAss times and thus may itself be a (re-)borrowing from WSem.
     
    – 
    ĭqtanà, vb. VIII, to acquire; to get, procure, purchase: autobenefactive.

    qunwaẗ, qinwaẗ, n.f., appropriation, acquisition: vn. I (QNW); property in livestock, wealth, fortune, possessions, property: by semantic extension.
    qunyaẗ, qinyaẗ, n.f., acquisition, property: vn. I (QNY), and with meaning extended from vn. to its object.
    ĭqtināʔ, n., purchase, acquisition: vn. VIII.
    qānin, det. qānī, pl. qāniyaẗ, n., possessor, owner: nominalized PA. — See also ↗qān(in) .
    muqtanan, det. muqtanà, pl. muqtanayāt, n., thing acquired, acquisition: PP VIII. 
    qanāẗ قَناة , pl. qanan (det. qanà), quniyy , qināʔ , qanawāt , qanayāt 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 844 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QNW 
    n.f. 
    spear, (bamboo) lance; shaft; tube, duct, pipe; — (pl. ʔaqniyaẗ, qanawāt) canal; stream, waterway – WehrCowan1979. 
    From Sem *qanaw‑ ‘reed’. 
    ▪ … 
    BDB1906, Huehnergard2011: Akk qanû ‘reed’, Hbr qānǟʰ, Aram Syr qanyā ‘stalk, reed’, Ar qanāẗ ‘spear-shaft’, Gz qanot ‘goad’ 
    ▪ Huehnergard2011 reconstructs Sem *qanaw- ‘reed’. 
    ▪ DUDEN1963, Kluge2002, Huehnergard2011, DeCaprona2013, EtymOnline: The same Akk qanû to which Ar qanāẗ is akin, was taken into Grk as kánna ‘pipe, reed’. The latter produced also the derivative Grk kánistron (also kánystron, kánastron) ‘basket made from reed’, which we find again in Lat canistrum ‘wicker basket (for bread, fruit, flowers, etc.)’ (> Engl canisterlC15 basket; 1711 metal receptacle’; Ital canestro ‘basket’ > Ge KanisterC18 basket, C19 canister’;25 Ge Knaster, a word that seems to have taken the modern meaning of ‘low-quality tobacco’ in C18 student circles, was originally, when it entered Ge in c1700, probably a word for ‘fine tobacco’ shipped in a small reed basket, probably came in via Span canastro, from Grk kánastron ‘basket made of reed’ – Kluge2002). — Either directly from the Sem source or a modification of the same Grk kánna ‘pipe, reed’ is also Grk kanṓn ‘any straight rod; (later:) measure, rule; (finally, in the papyri of C4 and C5) assessment for taxation; imperial taxes; tariff’, cf. Ar ↗qānūn. — Grk kánna ‘reed; pipe’ was taken into Lat as canna, which became the main basis for further development and borrowing. One of the earliest such occasions may be the shift of meaning in lLat from canna ‘reed; pipe’ to ‘container, vessel’, inspired perhaps by a type, in Roman pottery, of cans that had a pipe (cf. also Ar ↗qannīnaẗ). lLat canna ‘container, vessel’ may then have passed into Germ-speaking regions, for which some etymologists reconstruct a protoGerm *kanna as the source of what now is Engl can (oEngl canne ‘a cup, container’), Ge Kanne (C11 oHGe channa, mHGe kanne), etc. (cf. oSax oNo Swed kanna, mDutch kanne, Dutch kan).26 — In its original form and meaning, Lat canna ‘reed, cane’ also passed into Span as cano ‘tube’, which produced the augmentative (Span) cañon ‘pipe, tube; deep hollow, gorge’ that in MexSpan was extended in meaning to encompass also a ‘narrow valley between cliffs’.1 27 The dimin. formation Fr cannelle ‘little pipe’ from Fr canne is the origin of the modNo kanel ‘cinnamon’ (so called after the cinnamon sticks).28 — The dimin. formation Lat cannula ‘small reed or pipe’, from Lat canna ‘reed, pipe’, lives on in Fr canule, which gave (C19) Ge Kanüle ‘cannula’ – Kluge2002. Engl cannula, canula, is attested already in the 1680 s in the modern surgical sense – EtymOnline. — Lat canna also lived on in Ital canna ‘reed; pipe, tube’ where an augmentative formation gave Ital cannone ‘large tube, barrel’. This cannone was taken, in C16 (Kluge2002), into Ge as Kanone, but already two centuries earlier (C14) into oFr as canon, hence Anglo-Fr canon and, finally (c1400), Engl cannon ‘tube for projectiles’. The meaning ‘large ordnance piece’, the main modern sense, is from 1520 s – EtymOnline. — Not an augmentative but a diminutive of Ital canna is Ital cannello ‘small thin tube, pipe’. Adding again the augmentative suffix ‑one to the diminutive in ‑ello, we get Ital cannellone ‘big thick tube, pipe’, the pl. of which, cannelloni, is used to designate a form of stuffed pasta. — Another group of European words can be traced back to the adj. formation, from Lat canna, of Lat canālis ‘formed like a pipe’ which, when used as noun, meant ‘water pipe, groove, channel’. In the latter meaning, the word was taken into Ital as canale, which in turn was loaned (in C15) into Ge as Kanal ‘canal, channel’ – DUDEN1963, Kluge2002. Engl canal came in (eC15) via Fr canal, chanel ‘water channel, tube, pipe, gutter’ (C12). Originally in Engl ‘a pipe for liquid’, its sense was transferred by the 1670 s to ‘artificial waterway’ – EtymOnline. Also from Fr chanel ‘bed of a waterway; tube, pipe, gutter’ is Engl channel (eC14) ‘bed of running water’, from oFr, from Lat canalis ‘groove, channel, waterpipe’. channel was given a broader, figurative sense (of ‘information, commerce, etc.’) in the 1530 s; the meaning ‘circuit for telegraph communication’ (1848) probably led to that of ‘band of frequency for radio or TV signals’ (1928) – EtymOnline
    qanāẗ Bānamā, n., Panama Canal
    qanāẗ al-Suwēs, n., Suez Canal.
    qanāẗ damʕiyyaẗ, n.f., lachrymal canal.
    qanāẗ al-ʕalam, n., flagpole; lānat qanātu-hū, vb. I, to soften, relent; to yield, give in.

    qannà, vb. II, to dig (a canal): denom.
    qanāyaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., small stream, rivulet, runnel, canal:…
    qunayyaẗ, n.f., cannula: dimin., neolog.
     
    qunw , qinw قُنْو، قِنْو , pl. ʔaqnāʔ , qunwān , qinwān , qunyān , qinyān 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QNW, QNY 
    n. 
    bunch of dates – WehrCowan1979. 
    Probably dependent on Ar ↗qanāẗ in the sense of ‘shaft’ > ‘shaft with dates’ > ‘bunch of dates’. qanāẗ itself is believed to go back either to Akk qanû ‘reed’, or to Sem *qanaw‑ ‘reed’.
     
    ▪ eC7 (qinwān, pl. of qinw, clusters of date-carrying stalks) Q 6:99 wa-min-a ’l-naḫli min ṭalʕi-hā qinwānun dāniyatun ‘and from the date palm, from its pollen, [spring] low-hanging clusters of dates’ 
    No direct cognates, but cf. ↗qanāẗ
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    QNY قني 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QNY 
    “root” 
    ▪ QNY_1 ‘to acquire, appropriate’ ↗qanā (√QNW), var. qanà (√QNY)
    ▪ QNY_2 ‘hooked, acquiline (nose)’ ↗ʔaqnà
    ▪ QNY_3 ‘deep(-red), blood(-red)’ ↗qān(in) (√QāN, QNY), qāniʔ (√QNʔ)
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    qanà / qanay‑ قَنَى / قَنَيْـ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QNY 
    vb., I 
    Variant of ↗qanā (√QNW). 
    qanā (√QNW). 
    ▪ … 
    qanā (√QNW). 
    qanā (√QNW). 
    – 
    qanā (√QNW). 
    ʔaqnà أقْنى 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QNY 
    adj. 
    bent, curved, crooked, hooked – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    qaniya a (qanan, det. qanà), vb. I, to be hooked, aquiline (nose): denom. (?) 
    qāniⁿ , det. qānī قانٍ/قاني 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QNY 
    adj. 
    qān(in) (√QāN). 
    qān(in) (√QāN). 
    ▪ … 
    qān(in) (√QāN). 
    qān(in) (√QāN). 
    – 
    – 
    QHR قهر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3May2023
    √QHR 
    “root” 
    ▪ QHR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QHR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QHR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to conquer, subjugate, compel, subdue; to be scanty’ 
    ▪ Ar root √QHR ‘to conquer, vanquish’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Cairo, from Ar al-qāhiraẗ ‘the conquering one’, PA f. of qahara, vb. I, ‘to conquer, vanquish’. 
    – 
    QHW قهو 
    ID 720 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QHW 
    “root” 
    ▪ QHW_1 ‘coffee; wine; milk; dark, dim, faint, dull; weak; bad breath; to show o.s. submissive, obedient’ ↗qahwaẗ .
    ▪ QHW_2 See also ↗√QH
    ▪ From CSem *√QHW, also *√KHW, ‘to be(come) weak, dim, dull, dark’ – Huehnergard2011.
     
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Any relation between √QHW and √QHY‑ ? Huehnergard2011 seems to regard Sem *QHW, *QHY, *KHW and *KHY as almost interchangeable. His lemma qhw starts with “Also [!] khw ” and continues saying that Ar qahwaẗ‑ ‘coffee’ < ‘wine’ (originally perhaps ‘dark stuff’) is “akin to” Ar kahiy‑ ‘to be(come) weak’, Aram kəhā, qəhā, Hbr kāhâ, qāhâ ‘to be(come) dim, faint, dull’. He reconstructs the value ‘to be(come) weak, dim, dull, dark’ for Central Sem. 
    ▪ Engl café, cafeteria, caffeine, coffeeqahwaẗ
    – 
    qahwaẗ قَهْوَة 
    ID 721 • Sw – • BP 1840 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QHW 
    n.f. 
    1 coffee. – 2 (pl. qahawāt and qahāwī) cafe, coffeehouse | q. sādaẗ coffee without sugar – WehrCowan1979. 
    “Of uncertain etymology […]. Originally a name for wine […], this word was transferred towards the end of the 8th/14th century in the Yemen to the beverage made from the berry of the coffee tree. The assumption of such a transference of meaning is not, it is true, accepted by some who consider ḳahwa—at least in the sense of coffee—as a word of African origin and seek to connect it with the alleged home of the coffee tree, Kaffa, although they also assume contamination with ḳahwa ‘wine’ […]. On the other hand, it should be noted that the holders of this view do not prove that coffee was exported from Kaffa as early as 1400, and do not quote a similar word in the languages of Ethiopia and adjoining lands, while the usual word for coffee there (būn for tree, berry and beverage […]) has passed in the form ↗bunn (in rhyme also būn) as a name of the tree and berry into Arabic. But as it is probable that the drinking of coffee spread in the Yemen out of Ṣūfī circles and a special significance was given to wine in the poetical language of the mystics, a transference of the poetic name for wine to the new beverage would not be at all impossible” – van Arendonk.
    From Kaffa in East Africa, coffee was exported to Southern Arabia (main port al-Muḫà, hence Mokka) on the Red Sea coast. By 1550 the first coffee-houses emerged in Istanbul. In Europe, coffee came to be known by the turn from lC16 to eC17 via Venetia where it had arrived in 1580 – Osman2002. 
    ▪ ….. 
    See DISC below. 
    ▪ Like van Arendonk1974, also Kaye1986 excludes a relation with Kaffa, the region in the highlands of southern Ethiopia where coffee was grown, mainly for two reasons: a) phonologically, a development from kafa‑ (as Kaffa is in Eth languages) to Ar qahwah‑ is highly unlikely, since there is no reason why /k/ and /f/ should have become /q/ and /w/, respectively; b) in the local languages, the word for ‘coffee’ is bunn‑ or būn (qawa‑ and ʔawa also occur, but these are loans from Ar).
    ▪ Kaye1986 reports that according to The Oxford English Dictionary, qahwaẗ “is said by certain Arab lexicographers to have originally meant ‘wine’ or ‘some kind of wine’, and to derive from a verbal root qahiya ‘to have no appetite’” [↗qahiya ], coffee like wine taking away the appetite. The author accepts the transfer of meaning ‘wine’ > ‘coffee’ (among Sufi circles in Yemen), but not the relation to qahiya. Instead he connects it to a “Proto-Central Semitic” *√qhh ‘dark’ which still occurs in Hbr qāhā(h), Aram Syr qehā ‘to be blunt, dull’, Hbr qehɛ(h) ‘dark’ as in kɔħol qehɛ(h) ‘dark blue’, wine being *‘the dark one’. In a similar vein, Huehnergard2011 thinks that Ar qahwaẗ ‘coffee, < wine’ “originally perhaps [was] ‘dark stuff’”. He sees a confusion of Sem *qhw and *khw (lemma starts: “qhw. Also khw [!]”) and connects qahwaẗ to Ar kahiy‑ ‘to be(come) weak’, Aram kəhā, qəhā, Hbr kāhâ, qāhâ ‘to be(come) dim, faint, dull’, all of which may go back to Central Sem *q/khw ‘to be(come) weak, dim, dull, dark’. 
    v1 From Ar, the word passed into Tu (kahve), from there via Venetian traders into Ital (caffè), and from there C17 into Fr (café), and via Fr into Ge. (Ru kófe is either from Engl coffee or Du koffie) – Kluge, EtDUD.
    v2 eC17 According to Osman2002, the oldest attestation of the use in Europe of the loan-word for a ‘coffee-house’ dates from 1601 (France). In this meaning, Fr café was loaned into Ge; however, the earliest attestation there is as late as 1833. 
    qahwātī, qahawātī, pl. ‑iyyaẗ, n., (syr.) coffeehouse owner : nsb-adj. made from pl.
    qahwaǧī, pl. ‑iyyaẗ, n., coffeehouse owner; coffee cook: n.prof.sfx ‑ǧī.
    maqhan, ‑à and maqhāẗ, pl. maqāhin, ‑ī, n., café, coffeehouse: n.loc.
    maqhāyaẗ, n., (yem.) café, coffeehouse: n.loc. 
    qahiy‑ قَهِيَ , a (qahaⁿ
    ID 722 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QHY 
    vb., I 
    [always:] q. min al-ṭaʕām to have little appetite – WehrCowan1979. 
    Etymology unclear. Related to ↗√QHW
    ▪ ….. 
    See DISC below. 
    ▪ The lexicons differ in their treatment of items with the root consonants QHW/Y. Some keep ↗√QHW disctinct from ↗√QHY, others treat all items under one root. Among those who keep the two apart, there is no unanimity as to the grouping of individual items either under QHW or QHY. There may also be overlapping with, or contamination by, ↗√KHY and ↗√KHH. As long as the situation remains such confused, it is impossible to decide what should be regarded as cognates.
    ▪ For the Arab lexicographers, the notion of ‘taking away o.’s appetite’ is the reason why wine, and then also coffee, were called ↗qahwaẗ. Therefore, they regard qahwaẗ‑ as a derivative of qahiy‑
    ▪ If qahwaẗ is dependent on qahiy‑, then the latter is the etymon also of our coffee
    ʔaqhā, vb. IV, min al-ṭaʕām = I : intensive (?) of I, or denominative from qāhin ?
    qāhin, adj., supplied with provisions: PA I 
    QWB قوب 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3May2023
    √QWB 
    “root” 
    ▪ QWB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QWB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QWB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to dig, hollow out, uproot, break open, peel off; short span, a distance, to be quite near, imminent’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    QWT قوت 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3May2023
    √QWT 
    “root” 
    ▪ QWT_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QWT_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QWT_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘food, sustenance, to feed, subsist; to sustain, guard over’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    QWD قود 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QWD 
    “root” 
    ▪ QWD_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ QWD_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ From WSem *√QWD ‘to lead’ – Huehnergard2011.
    … 
    –.. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    qād‑ / qud‑ قادَ / قُدْـ 
    ID 723 • Sw – • BP 1289 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QWD 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    QWS قوس 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QWS 
    “root” 
    ▪ QWS_1 ‘bow; arc (geom.); arch, vault (arch.); violin bow; (du.) parantheses; Sagittarius, the Archer (astron.); etc.’ ↗qaws
    ▪ QWS_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ QWS_3 ‘…’ ↗

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘bow, arch, to shoot a bow; to bend, to curve; hermitage; hard times’ 
    ▪ QWS_1 : From protSem *ḳawš‑ ‘bow’.
    ▪ QWS_2 : …
    ▪ QWS_3 : … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    … 
    qaws قَوْس , pl. ʔaqwās, qusiyy, qisiyy 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 4347 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QWS 
    n.m./f. 
    1 bow, longbow; 2 arc (geom.); 3 arch, vault (arch.; of a bridge); 4 violin bow, fiddlestick; 5 semicircular table; 6 qawsān, n.du., parantheses (punctuation marks); 7 al‑qaws, n.def., Sagittarius, the Archer (sign of the zodiac; astron.); 8 the ninth month of the solar year (Saudi Ar.; cf. ↗ḥamal – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ From protSem *ḳawš‑ ‘bow’.
    ▪ The entry suggests that qaws is the etymon proper, while the vb. is derived.
    ▪ In the course of time, the original meaning ‘bow’ has been transferred also to geometry (‘arc’), architecture (‘arch, vault’), music (‘violin bow’) and to other objects of a similar shape, among which also parantheses. While these meanings appear to be younger, the usages as an astronomical term (‘Archer’), or with a meteorological meaning (month in the solar year; rainbow) aren probably older.
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘bow’) Akk qaštu, Hbr qéšeṯ, Syr qeštā, Gz qast.
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1560: Akk qaštu, Hbr qešet, Gz qast. – Outside Sem: cognates in 2 CCh languages (kese ‘arrow'; kise ‘bow’) and perh. also in ECh forms like kēse, kese, kɛsɛ, which may however be borrowed from Ar. Cf. also the form ḳasa‑mato ‘arrow’ in a Rift idiom.
     
    ▪ All cognates in Sem show fem. ending.
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994 1560 reconstruct: protSem *ḳawš‑ ‘bow’, CCh *kyas‑ < *k[a]yas‑, perh. also ECh *kyas‑ < *k[a]yas‑ (unless borrowed from Ar), cf. perh. also Rift *ḳas‑ ‘arrow’. All from hypothetical AfrAs *ḳawaṣ‑ / *ḳayaṣ‑ ‘bow, arrow’.
     
    … 
    qaws qazaḥ, n., rainbow
    qaws al‑naṣr, n., triumphal arch
    lam yabqa fī qaws ṣabrī minzaʕ, expr., my patience is at an end (lit.: there is no arrow left for the bow of my patience)

    qawisa, a (qawas), vb. I, to be bent, curved, crooked: prob. denom.
    qawwasa, vb. II, 1 = I; 2 to bend, curve, crook; 3 to shoot: D‑stem.
    taqawwasa, vb. V, 1 = I; 2 to bend: Dt‑stem.
    qawwās, n., 1a bowmaker; 1b bowman, archer; 2 kavass, consular guard: n.ints./prof.
    quwaysaẗ, n.f., sage (bot.): dim.f., so called because of the shape of the leaves?
    muqawwas, adj., bent, crooked, curved, arched: PP II.
     
    quwaysaẗ قُوَيْسة 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QWS 
    n.f. 
    sage (bot.)– WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ dim.f., from ↗qaws ‘bow’, so called because of the shape of the leaves?
     
    ▪ … 
    See ↗qaws ‘bow’? 
    See above, section CONC. 
    … 
    … 
    QWʕ قوع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3May2023
    √QWʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ QWʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QWʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QWʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘lowland, plain or level land, marshland, bottom; courtyard’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    QWL قول 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QWL 
    “root” 
    ▪ QWL_1 ‘to speak, say, tell; utterance, saying, word; treatise, article’ ↗qāla, ↗qawl, ↗maqālaẗ
    ▪ QWL_2 ‘to fabricate lies, spread rumors’ ↗taqawwala
    ▪ QWL_3 ‘garrulous, talkative; itinerant singer and musician’ ↗qawwāl
    ▪ QWL_4 ‘category’ ↗maqūl
    ▪ QWL_5 ‘contractor, entrepreneur’ ↗muqāwil

    ▪ Cf. also ↗QYL.

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘1 speech, talk, to speak, say, tell, attribute; 2 to fabricate lies, gossip, spread rumours; 3 king, leader;15 4 to surmise; 5 to demand; 6 to exchange’ 
    ▪ Values QWL_2-5 are all dependent on QWL_1, which goes back to Sem *ḳawl- /*ḳāl- ‘voice’, *ḳwl ‘to say’ (Kogan2015), which in turn possibly can be traced to AfrAs *ḳa(wa)l- ‘to speak’ (Militarev2006). 
    – 
    ▪ Militarev&Stolbova1994#1541: Hbr qōl, Aram qāl, Gz qāl ‘voice, sound’. – Outside Sem: ya-kolo, ye-kuwələ ‘to cry, shout’; kol, kole ‘to speak, call’ in some ECh languages, and (SaAf:) Afar -ḳal- ‘to say, think’.
    ▪ Zammit2002: Ug Phoen ql ‘voice’, Hbr qōl ‘sound, voice’, BiblAram qāl ‘voice’, Syr qālā ‘voice, sound, noise, clamour’, SAr qwl ‘to be qayl over’, qwl, qyl ‘member of the leading clan in a šʕb ’, Gz qāl ‘vox, sonus’, Ar qāla ‘to say, speak’.
    ▪ Militarev2006#594 (in StarLing): Ug Phoen ḳl, Hbr ḳōl, Syr ḳāl-, Mand ḳala ‘voice’, Ar ḳwl [-u- ] ‘to speak’, SAr ḳwl ‘speaker’, Gz ḳāl ‘voice; saying, speech; word’, Te Tña Amh ḳal ‘word’, Gur ḳal ‘voice’. – Outside Sem: [2 WCh langs:] qwal ‘to say’, kwalala ‘war-cry’; [CCh] Buduma=Yedina ke-lakō ‘words, speech’, [ECh: forms like] ya-kóló ‘to cry’, ye-kuwǝlǝ ‘to speak’ [?], kwal, kel ‘words, speech’, kol, kol-, kòlè, kòlí ‘to call’, [SaAf] Af (Danakil) -ḳal- ‘to think, say’, [LEC] Or qaalii ‘word’.
    ▪ Kogan2015: Ug ḳl ‘voice, shout, cry’, Hbr ḳōl ‘voice’, Syr ḳālā ‘vox’, Ar qwl ‘to say’, qawl ‘the thing said’, Gz ḳāl ‘voice, word’. 
    ▪ Militarev&Stolbova1994#1541: from Sem *ḳūl- ‘to speak’ (related to Sem *ḳāl- ‘voice’). Together with reconstructed ECh *kawal- ‘to cry, shout; to speak, call’ and SaAf *ḳal-, the Sem word goes back to AfrAs *ḳal- /*ḳawal- ‘to speak’.
    ▪ Militarev2006#594 (in StarLing): Sem *ḳ˅w˅l- ‘voice; to say, speak; saying, speech; word’; WCh *ḳwal- ‘to say; war-cry’, CCh *kilakw- ‘words, speech’, ECh *ḳ˅wal- ‘to speak; to call; to cry; words, speech’, SaAf *ḳal- ‘to think, say’, LEC *ḳa[w]al- ‘word’, all from AfrAs *ḳa(wa)l- ‘to speak’.
    ▪ Kogan2015: from Sem *ḳawl- /*ḳāl- ‘voice,’ *ḳwl ‘to say.’ – »The widespread equation between this root and Akk ḳâlu ‘to become silent, stay quiet’ is hard to justify semantically.« 
    – 
    – 
    qāl‑ / qul‑ قالَ / قُلْـ 
    ID 724 • Sw 71/127 • BP 15 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QWL 
    vb., I 
    1 to speak, say, tell (s.th., li- to s.o.; s.th. ʕan, about or of), utter, voice (s.th.); 2 to speak of, deal with, treat of (ʕan); 3 to state, maintain, assert, propound, teach, profess, advocate, defend (bi‑ s.th.); 4 to support, hold (bi‑ a view), stand up (bi‑ for), be the proponent (bi‑ of a doctrine or dogma); 5 to allege (bi‑ s.th.); 6 with ʕalà : to speak against s.o., speak ill of s.o., tell lies about s.o. – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ From Sem *ḳawl- /*ḳāl- ‘voice’, *ḳwl ‘to say’ (Kogan2015), from AfrAs *ḳa(wa)l- ‘to speak’ (Militarev2006). 
    ▪ eC7 qāla 1 (to speak, say) Q 5:12 wa-qāla ’llāhu ʔinnī maʕa-kum ‘and God said, “I am with you”’; 2 (to testify, voice and opinion) Q 6:152 wa-ʔiḏā qultum fa-’ʕdilū wa-law kāna ḏā qurbà ‘and if you speak/testify, be just, even if he [the person you testify against/for] is kin’; 3 (to instruct, command) Q 24:30 qul lil-muʔminīna yaġuḍḍū min ʔabṣāri-him ‘[Prophet] command believing men to lower their gaze’; 4 (to inspire) Q 18:86 qulnā yā-ḏā ’l-qarnayni ʔimmā ʔan tuʕaḏḏiba wa-ʔimmā ʔan tattaḫiḏa fī-him ḥusnan ‘We inspired/said, “Dhū’l-Qarnayn, you may either punish or adopt [a policy of] good treatment with them”’; 5 (to submit, fall into a system) Q 41:11 ṯumma ’stawā ʔilà ’l-samāʔi wa-hiya duḫānun fa-qāla la-hā wa-lil-ʔarḍi ’tī-nā ṭawʕan ʔaw karhan qālatā ʔataynā ṭāʔiʕīna ‘then He turned to the sky, while it was smoke, and said to it and to the earth, “Come, willingly or unwillingly!” They submitted, “We come, obedient”’; 6 (to confess a belief in) Q 22:40 allaḏīna ʔuḫriǧū min diyāri-him bi-ġayri ḥaqqin ʔillā ʔan yaqūlū rabbu-nā ’llāhu ‘those who have been driven unjustly from their homes only for believing [declaring], “Our Lord is God”’; 7 (with li- : to describe, call or label as) Q 2:154 wa-lā taqūlū li-man yuqtalu fī sabīli ’llāhi ʔamwātun bal ʔaḥyāʔun wa-lākin lā tašʕurūna ‘and do not call those who are killed in the way of God “dead”; indeed, they are alive, only you do not perceive [it]’; 8 (with ʕalà : to attribute falsely, say something false against) Q 2:80 ʔam taqūlūna ʕalà ’llāhi mā lā taʕlamūna ‘or are you attributing to God things of which you have no knowledge?’. — taqawwala (to falsely attribute a statement to s.o., fabricate) Q 69:44 wa-law taqawwala ʕalay-nā baʕḍa ’l-ʔaqāwīli ‘if he [the Prophet] had attributed some fabrications to Us’. — qawl: ↗s.v.. — qīl (saying, speaking) Q 56:26 ʔillā qīlan salāman salāman ‘only agreeable speech [will they hear there] [lit., but saying “Peace, peace”]’. — qāʔil 1 (one who speaks) Q 33:18 qad yaʕlamu ’llāhu ’l-muʕawwaqīna min-kum wa’l-qāʔilīna li-ʔiḫwāni-him halummā ʔilay-nā wa-lā yaʔtūna ’l-baʔsa ʔillā qalīlan ‘God may know [take to task] the hinderers among you, those who say to their brothers, “Come join us,” and they come to battle but little’; 2 (speaker) Q 37:51 qāla qāʔilun min-hum ʔinnī kāna lī qarīnun ‘a speaker of them said, “I had a close companion [on earth]”’.
    ▪ Hava1899 still has some forms that seem to have come out of use during C20: qawwala, vb. II, ‘to attribute false reports to s.o., forge out false reports (ʕalà on)’; taqāwala, vb. VI, ‘to confer together ( upon)’; qawālaẗ, qawūl, qawwūl, tiqwalaẗ, tiqwālaẗ, miqwal, miqwāl (pl. maqāwīlᵘ) ‘loquacious, eloquent’; miqwal (pl. maqāwilᵘ) ‘tongue’. 
    ▪ Zammit2002: Ug Phoen ql ‘voice’, Hbr qōl ‘sound, voice’, BiblAram qāl ‘voice’, Syr qālā ‘voice, sound, noise, clamour’, SAr qwl ‘to be qayl over’,177 qwl, qyl ‘member of the leading clan in a šʕb ’,178 Gz qāl ‘vox, sonus’, Ar qāla ‘to say, speak’.
    ▪ Militarev2006#594 (in StarLing): Ug Phoen ḳl, Hbr ḳōl, Syr ḳāl-, Mand ḳala ‘voice’, Ar ḳwl [-u- ] ‘to speak’, SAr ḳwl ‘speaker’, Gz ḳāl ‘voice; saying, speech; word’, Te Tña Amh ḳal ‘word’, Gur ḳal ‘voice’. – Outside Sem: [2 WCh langs:] qwal ‘to say’, kwalala ‘war-cry’; [CCh] Buduma=Yedina ke-lakō ‘words, speech’, [ECh: forms like] ya-kóló ‘to cry’, ye-kuwǝlǝ ‘to speak’ [?], kwal, kel ‘words, speech’, kol, kol-, kòlè, kòlí ‘to call’, [SaAf] Af (Danakil) -ḳal- ‘to think, say’, [LEC] Or qaalii ‘word’.
    ▪ Kogan2015: Ug ḳl [Tropper2008: /qâlu/? < *qawalu, or /qôlu/ < *qawlu ] ‘voice, shout, cry’, Hbr ḳōl ‘voice’, Syr ḳālā ‘vox’, Ar qwl ‘to say’, qawl ‘the thing said’, Gz ḳāl ‘voice, word’. 
    ▪ Militarev&Stolbova1994#1541: from Sem *ḳūl- ‘to speak’ (related to Sem *ḳāl- ‘voice’). Together with reconstructed ECh *kawal- ‘to cry, shout; to speak, call’ and SaAf *ḳal-, the Sem word goes back to AfrAs *ḳal- /*ḳawal- ‘to speak’.
    ▪ Militarev2006#594 (in StarLing): Sem *ḳ˅w˅l- ‘voice; to say, speak; saying, speech; word’; WCh *ḳwal- ‘to say; war-cry’, CCh *kilakw- ‘words, speech’, ECh *ḳ˅wal- ‘to speak; to call; to cry; words, speech’, SaAf *ḳal- ‘to think, say’, LEC *ḳa[w]al- ‘word’, all from AfrAs *ḳa(wa)l- ‘to speak’.
    ▪ Kogan2015: from Sem *ḳawl- / *ḳāl- ‘voice,’ *ḳwl ‘to say.’ 
    ▪ Tu kalûbelâ ‘creation of the world, past eternity’: 1437 ʕÖmer b. Mezîd, Mecmūʕatü'n-neẓāyir. The expression is taken from Q 40:50 qālū ʔa-wa-lam taku taʔtī-kum rusulu-kum bi-’l-bayyināti qālū balà qālū fa-’dʕū wa-mā duʕāʔu ’l-kāfirīna ʔillā fī ḍalālin ‘They say: Came not your messengers unto you with clear proofs? They say: Yea, verily. They say: Then do ye pray, although the prayer of disbelievers is in vain’ – Nişanyan05Aug2015.
    ▪ Tu kilükal (OttTu also ḳıylükal) ‘gossip’: 1330 ʕĀşıḳ Paşa, Ġarīb-nāme : ne gerekdür mācerā vü ḳāl u ḳīl – Nişanyan27Apr2015. 
    qāla bi-raʔsi-hī, vb. I, to motion with the head, signal, beckon
    qīla fī ’l-maṯal, expr., the proverb says
    wa-lā yuqālu ʔinna…, expr., one cannot say that…, let no one say that…
    ʔaw qul, expr., or, or rather, or say even…
    wa-qul miṯla hāḏihī fī…, or wa-qul miṯla-hū fī…, or wa-ka-ḏālika qul fī…, expr., the same must be said about…, the same can be said of…, the same applies to…

    qāwala, vb. III, 1 to confer, parley, treat, negotiate (DO with s.o.); 2 to dispute, wrangle, argue; 3 to haggle, bargain (DO with s.o., about the price); 4 to make a contract; 5 to conclude a bargain, make a deal (DO with s.o.): L-stem, associative.
    taqawwala, vb. V, 1 to fabricate lies, spread rumors (ʕalà about s.o.); 2 to pretend, allege, purport: tD-stem, cf. ↗s.v.. | ~ al-ʔaqāwīl, vb. V, to talk foolishly.
    ĭstaqāla, vb. X, 1 to render (voice by radio): Št-stem, request./autoben.-caus. – 2ʔaqāla.
    qāl wa-qīl and qīl wa-qāl, expr., 1 long palaver; 2 idle talk, prattle, gossip: nominalized verbal expr., lit. *‘he/it said and was said’
    qālaẗ, n.f., speech, talk: resultative | sūʔ al-~, n., malicious gossip, backbiting, defamation.
    BP#320qawl, pl. ʔaqwāl, ʔaqāwīlᵘ, n., 1 word, speech, saying, utterance, remark; 2 statement, declaration; 3 report, account; 4 doctrine, teaching; 5 pl. ʔaqwāl also: testimony (in court); ʔaqāwīlᵘ : 6 sayings, locutions; 7 proverbs: vn. I, lexicalized in resultative, quasi-PP meaning (*‘what is said, uttered, stated’) | ~an wa-ʕamalan or bi’l-~ wa’l-fiʕl, expr., by word and deed; ʔaqwāl al-šuhūd, n.pl., testimonies, depositions, evidence; ʔaʕṭà ~a-hū, vb. I, to make one’s bid (at an auction); ~ maʔṯūr, n., proverb; al-~ bi’l-ʔiʕǧāz, n., doctrine of the inimitability of the Koran.
    qawlaẗ, n.f., 1 utterance, remark, word; 2 pronouncement, dictum: n.vic.
    quwalaẗ, n.f., garrulous, voluble, loquacious, talkative, communicative: quasi-ints., n.f. used as adj.
    qawwāl, adj., 1 garrulous, voluble, loquacious, talkative, communicative: ints.; 2 n., itinerant singer and musician: n.prof.
    miqwal, pl. maqāwilᵘ, n., phonograph, gramophone, talking machine: n.instr., neolog.
    BP#1022maqāl, n., 1 speech; 2 proposition, contention, teaching, doctrine; 3 article; 4 treatise; 5 piece of writing: quasi-n.loc., *‘place where s.th. is said, stated, etc.’
    BP#1022maqālaẗ, pl. -āt, n.f., 1 article; 2 essay; 3 treatise; 4 piece of writing: f. of maqāl, quasi-n.un. | ~ ĭftitāḥiyyaẗ, n.f., editorial, leading article
    muqāwalaẗ, n.f., 1 talk, conversation, parley, conference; 2 dispute; – (pl. -āt) 3 contractual agreement, mutual agreement (ʕalà on a job to be done); 4 agreement; 5 closing of a business deal: vn. III | bi’l-~, adv., by the job, by the contract, by piece (work).
    taqawwul, pl. -āt, n., talk, rumor, gossip: vn. V.
    BP#718qāʔil, pl. quwwal, 1 adj., saying, telling; 2 n., teller, narrator; 3 advocate, proponent (bi‑ of s.th.): PA I. — Cf. also ↗qaylūlaẗ.
    maqūl, pl. -āt, n., 1 that which is said, utterance, saying; 2 word(s), speech: PP I | al-~āt al-ʕašr, n.pl., the ten categories (philos.)14
    BP#3340maqūlaẗ, n.f., a word (= short talk or written statement about s.th.): PP I f.
    muqāwil, pl. -ūn, n., contractor, (specif.) building contractor: PA III.

    For the value ‘wing of an army, army corps’ see ↗qūl. – Cf. also ↗QYL. 
    taqawwala تَقَوَّلَ (taqawwul
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QWL 
    vb., V 
    1 to fabricate lies, spread rumors (ʕalà about s.o.); 2 to pretend, allege, purport – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ t-stem of obsol. D-stem qawwala ‘to attribute false reports to s.o., forge out false reports (ʕalà on)’ (Hava1899), from ↗qāla ‘to say’, or denom. from ↗qawl ‘word, saying, utterance’. 
    ▪ … 
    qāla
    qāla
    – 
    taqawwala al-ʔaqāwīl, to talk foolishly.

    taqawwul, pl. -āt, n., talk, rumor, gossip: vn. V.

    For other values of the root cf. ↗QWL and ↗qāla. Cf. also ↗QYL. 
    qawl قَوْل , pl. ʔaqwāl , ʔaqāwīlᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 320 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QWL 
    n. 
    1 word, speech, saying, utterance, remark; 2 statement, declaration; 3 report, account; 4 doctrine, teaching; 5 pl. ʔaqwāl also: testimony (in court); ʔaqāwīlᵘ : 6 sayings, locutions; 7 proverbs – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ vn. I, lexicalized in resultative, quasi-PP meaning (*‘what is said, uttered, stated’), from ↗qāla ‘to say’, from Sem *ḳawl- /*ḳāl- ‘voice’ (Kogan2015), perh. from AfrAs *ḳa(wa)l- ‘to speak’ (Militarev2006). 
    ▪ eC7 qawl 1 (s.th. said, what is said, statement) Q 24:51 ʔinna-mā kāna qawla ’l-muʔminīna ʔiḏā duʕū ʔilà ’llāhi wa-rasūli-hī li-yaḥkuma bayta-hum ʔan yaqūlū samiʕnā ‘the saying of the believers, when they are summoned to God and His messenger so that He may judge between them, is only, “We hear and we obey”’, Q 11:53 wa-mā naḥnu bi-tārikī ʔālihati-nā ʕan qawli-ka ‘and we will not forsake our gods [merely] on the strength of your word’; 2 (message, teachings) Q 73:5 ʔinnā sa-nulqī ʕalay-ka qawlan ṯaqīlan ‘We shall cast upon you a weighty message’; 3 (sentence, verdict) Q 11:40 qulnā ’ḥmil fī-hā min kulli zawǧayni ’ṯnayni wa-ʔahla-ka ʔillā man sabaqa ʕalay-hi ’l-qawlu ‘We said, “Carry on it a pair of each [species], and your own family—except those against whom the sentence has already been passed”’; 4 (punishment) Q 27:85 wa-waqaʕa ’l-qawlu ʕalay-him bi-mā ẓalamū fa-hum lā yanṭiqūna ‘indeed, the punishment will befall them because of their wrongdoing: so they will not speak’; 5 (opinion) Q 51:8 ʔinna-kum la-fī qawlin muḫtalifin ‘indeed, you are of opposing opinions’; 6 (pl. ʔaqāwīl : falsely fabricated statements) Q 69:44 wa-law taqawwala ʕalay-nā baʕḍa ’l-ʔaqāwīli ‘if he [the Prophet] had attributed some fabrications to Us’. 
    qāla
    qāla
    ▪ Tu kavil ‘agreement, accord; word, assertion’: 1069 Kutadgu Bilig : sözi çın kerek bolsa ḳavlı bütün ‘his word shall be right and what he says shall be comprehensive’ – Nişanyan02Apr2015. 
    qawlan wa-ʕamalan or bi’l-qawl wa’l-fiʕl, expr., by word and deed
    ʔaqwāl al-šuhūd, n.pl., testimonies, depositions, evidence
    ʔaʕṭà qawla-hū, vb. I, to make one’s bid (at an auction)
    qawl maʔṯūr, n., proverb
    al-qawl bi’l-ʔiʕǧāz, n., doctrine of the inimitability of the Koran.

    For other items, see ↗qāla
    qawwāl قَوَّال 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QWL 
    adj.; n. 
    1 adj., garrulous, voluble, loquacious, talkative, communicative; 2 n., itinerant singer and musician
     
    ▪[v1] can be regarded as an ints. formation, while one may interpret [v2] as a n.prof., both from ↗qāla ‘to say, speak’ or ↗qawl ‘word, saying, utterance’. 
    ▪ … 
    qāla
    qāla
    ▪ Tu kaval ‘shepherd’s pipe, flageolet’: 1680 Meninski, Thesaurus : ḳavvāl, ḳaval (…) çoban ḳavali = ‘fistula pastoris’ – Nişanyan11Nov2014. 
    – 
    maqālaẗ مَقالة , pl. ‑āt 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 1022 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QWL 
    n.f. 
    1 article; 2 essay; 3 treatise; 4 piece of writing – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ quasi-n.un. of maqāl, quasi-n.loc. of ↗qāla ‘to say’. 
    ▪ … 
    qāla
    qāla
    ▪ Tu makale 1 ‘speech, word’ 1432 Mercimek ʔAḥmed, Kābūsnāme terc.; 2 ‘article (in a newspaper, etc.) 1900 Şemseddīn Sāmī, Ḳāmūs-ı Türkī : maḳāle = ‘bir madde hakkında söylenilen veya yazılan şey – hıfzısıhha hakkında uzun bir maḳāle yazdı’. The latter (current) meaning seems to have emerged from usage in newspapers towards the end of the 19th c. – Nişanyan02Sept2014. 
    maqālaẗ ĭftitāḥiyyaẗ, n.f., editorial, leading article.

     
    maqūl مَقُول , pl. ‑āt 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QWL 
    n. 
    1 that which is said, utterance, saying; 2 word(s), speech; 3 (pl.) al-~āt al-ʕašr, the ten categories (philos.
    ▪ Morphologically a PP I, from ↗qāla ‘to say’.
    ▪ The ten categories are ↗ǧawhar ‘substance’, ↗kam ‘quantity’, ↗kayf ‘quality’, ↗ʔiḍāfaẗ ‘relation’, ↗ʔayn ‘place’, ↗matà ‘time’, ↗waḍʕ ‘collocation’, ↗milk ‘possession’, ↗fiʕl ‘action’, and ↗ĭnfiʕāl ‘passion’ – Hava1899. 
    ▪ … 
    qāla
    qāla
    ▪ Tu makule ‘sort, kind, (coll.) contemptible thing; (log.) category’: 1546 Laṭīfî, Teẕkīretü'ş-Şuʕarâ : Ṭabaḳāt-i şuʕarāda vasaṭ maḳūlesiydi ‘he was in the middle category of ranking among the poets’, from Ar maqūlaẗ, which translates the tech. term in logic, Grk katēgoría – Nişanyan25Sep2014. 
    – 
    muqāwil مُقاوِل , pl. ‑ūn 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QWL 
    n. 
    contractor, (specif.) building contractor – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Morphologically a PA, from qāwala, vb. III, in the meaning [v4] ‘to make a contract’, L-stem of ↗qāla ‘to say’ or denom. from ↗qawl ‘word, saying, utterance’, associative (*‘to exchange words, converse’). 
    ▪ … 
    qāla
    qāla
    ▪ Tu mukavele ‘mutually conversing and coming to an agreement; agreement; contract’: 1680 Meninski, Thesaurus : muḳāvelet = ‘condictio, compactum’ – Nişanyan04Nov2014. 
    Cf. also corresponding vb. and vn.:

    qāwala, vb. III, 1 to confer, parley, treat, negotiate (DO with s.o.); 2 to dispute, wrangle, argue; 3 to haggle, bargain (DO with s.o., about the price); 4 to make a contract; 5 to conclude a bargain, make a deal (DO with s.o.): L-stem, associative.
    muqāwalaẗ, n.f., 1 talk, conversation, parley, conference; 2 dispute; – (pl. -āt) 3 contractual agreement, mutual agreement (ʕalà on a job to be done); 4 agreement; 5 closing of a business deal: vn. III | bi’l-~, adv., by the job, by the contract, by piece (work).
     
    qūl , var. qōl قُول 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QWL 
    n. 
    wing of an army, army corps – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Rolland2014a: qūl ‘corps (d’armée)’, from Tu kol ‘bras, branche, corps (d’armée)’. 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    See above, section CONC. 
    – 
    ṣāġ/ṣōl qōl ʔaġāsī, n., (Tu sağ/sol kol ağası) ↗ṣāġ, ↗ṣōl.

    For other values of the root √QWL, cf. ↗QWL and ↗qāla (with DERIV). – Cf. also ↗QYL. 
    QWM قوم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QWM 
    “root” 
    ▪ QWM_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ QWM_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to stand, halt, stand up, rise; to revolt, resist, rebel; to erupt, outbreak; to set up, to reside, location, to be constant; to be straight, to estimate, value, justice; backbone, to support, pillar, substance, overseer, to guard over, guardian, leader’. al-Suyūṭī suggests that the word qayyūm might be a borrowing from Syr. 
    ▪ From WSem *√QWM ‘to (a)rise, stand (up)’ – Huehnergard2011.
    … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl sycamine (? and sycamore) ↗qāma
    – 
    qām‑ / qum‑ قامَ / قُمْـ 
    ID 725 • Sw 69/151 • BP 102 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QWM 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl sycamine, from Grk sūkámīnos ‘mulberry tree’, from a Sem source akin to Qat sqmt (prob. to be read *suqāmat ‘planted’ < *‘made to stand’, pass.adj.f. of *Š-stem of *qāma ‘to stand’, cf. Ar qāma), whence also Ar sawqām, a type of fig tree, and Aram šiqmâ and Hbr *siqāmâ ‘sycamore fig (Ficus sycomorus)’. – sycamore, from Grk sūkómoros ‘sycamore fig’, perh. folk-etymological alteration of a word borrowed from the same Sem source as above (influenced by Grk sûkon ‘fig’, and móron ‘black mulberry’). 
     
    qāwam‑ قاوَمَ 
    ID 726 • Sw – • BP 3708 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QWM 
    vb., III 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
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    – 
     
    qawmiyyaẗ قَوْمِيَّة 
    ID 727 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 4326 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QWM 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    qiyāmaẗ قِيامَة 
    ID 728 • Sw – • BP 2678 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QWM 
    n.f. 
    resurrection; tumult, turmoil, upheaval, revolution, overthrow; ‎guardianship – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Loaned from ChrPal QYāMtā, which is a calque for Grk anástasis
    ▪ eC7 Q : Occurs some seventy times, cf. 2:85. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »It occurs only in the expression yawm al-qiyāma, which is a technical eschatological term for the Last Day. – The Muslim authorities naturally relate it to the root √qāma ‘to stand’ or ‘rise’, but it has been pointed out many times, that as an eschatological term it has been borrowed from Christian Aramaic.701 In the Edessene Syriac we find QYMā commonly used, but it is in the Christian-Palestinian dialect, where it translates [Grk] anástasis (Schwally, Idioticon, 82), that we find QYāMtā which provides us with exactly the form we want.« 
    – 
    – 
    muqāwamaẗ مُقاوَمَة 
    ID 729 • Sw – • BP 567 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QWM 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ …
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    – 
     
    QWY قوي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3May2023
    √QWY 
    “root” 
    ▪ QWY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QWY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QWY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘strength, to be, or become, strong; seriousness; barren land, to be without food or provision, be forsaken, be desolate’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    QYTR قيتر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 28Oct2021
    √QYTR 
    “root” 
    ▪ QYTR_1 ‘guitar; lute’: qītār, var. ↗qīṯāraẗ
    ▪ QYTR_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    … 
    … 
    … 
    – 
    QYṮR قيثر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 28Oct2021
    √QYṮR 
    “root” 
    ▪ QYṮR_1 ‘guitar; lute’ ↗qīṯāraẗ
    ▪ QYṮR_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    … 
    … 
    … 
    qīṯāraẗ قِيثارة , pl. qayāṯīrᵘ
    var. qītār, pl. qayātīrᵘ, and qīṯār, pl. qayāṯīrᵘ
     
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 28Oct2021
    √QTR, QṮR, QYTR, QYṮR 
    n.f.
    var. n.m. 
    1 guitar; 2 lyre – WehrCowan1979.
     
    ▪ There are only few direct borrowings in Ar from Grk in early times (e.g., ↗ʔiblīs, ↗burǧ, ↗sīmāʔ, ↗fulk, ↗qalam, ↗qamīṣ). Most other loanwords of ultimately Grk origin entered the language via Syr (e.g., ↗ʔusquf, ↗ʔazmīl, ↗barqūq, ↗EgAr buqsumāt, ↗¹siqālaẗ, ↗²siqālaẗ ~ saqqālaẗ, EgAr ↗ṭarabēẓaẗ, ↗mangalaẗ) or, later, via Mediterranean trade. Qīṯār(aẗ) goes back, via Syr qîṯāra, qîṯār ‘stringed instrument, harp, cithern, lyre’ (PayneSmith2003) (and/or a Romance form, in Andalusia?) to Grk κιθάρα kitʰára ‘cithara, lyre’. The Grk word may in its turn be related to (or borrowed from?) Pers setār (*seh tār) (or čahār tār?) ‘(instrument with) three (resp. four) strings’, and perh. even the Indian sitar. While Grk kitʰára passed into Syr and from there into Ar, it also gave rise to Lat cithara and, ultimately, Engl cither, Ge Zither, etc. The Ar word is either the origin of Span guitarra or, as others think, borrowed from there. In any case, Spain is the ‘home country’ of all Eur words for ‘guitar’.
    ▪ The differing opinions just mentioned can perh. be synthecized into one two-stringed history. In this, the Grk > Syr > Ar chain constitutes an early development in which Syr-Aramaic (and then Ar) borrowed the term for the original Grk lyre-like instrument (the word was used, e.g., to render Biblical terms for ‘lyre/harp’). Independently from this tradition, the Grk term also went into Lat and from there into the Romance languages. Thus, when the Arabs arrived in Southern Spain in mC8, their term met the Romance term, and the two melted again into one.
    ▪ It seems that the Andalusian qitāraẗ~qīṯāraẗ / guitarra then had to compete with the ↗ʕūd ‘lute’ that the Arab invaders brought with them. We may assume that the ʕūd was considered an instrument of the ruling elite and the palaces while the qiṯāraẗ/guitarra became associated with more popular culture. Some medieval paintings show a »guitarra morisca« (ʕūd-like, with rounded body and no bonds) competing with a »guitarra latina« (with a guitar-like “waist”, a flatter body, and bonds).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ In ClassAr dictionaries, the main form is given as qītār.
    ▪ Freytag1835: qītār ‘Hbr kinnôr19 organum (Genes. IV, 21)’; BK1860: qītār ‘cithare, guitare’; Lane: – ; Bustānī1869: main entry (s.r. √QYTR) qītār ‘stringed instrument for ṭarab’, var. qīṯār, qīṯāraẗ.
    ▪ Grk kitʰára appears in the Bible (NT) four times (1 Cor. 14:7, Rev. 5:8, 14:2 and 15:2), and is usually translated into English as ‘harp’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ PayneSmith2003: Syr qîṯāra, qîṯār ‘stringed instrument, harp, cithern, lyre’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Shiloah2012: »a musical instrument of the lyre family. It first appears in Arabic literature on music in the 3rd/9th c. to denote a Byzantine or Grk instrument of this type. It was made up of a richly-decorated rectangular sound box, two vertical struts fastened together by a yoke and strings which were left free at their greatest width«« (art. »Ḳit̲h̲āra, Ḳitarā [sic!]« in EI²). – Ibn Ḫurradāḏbih in K. al-Lahw and in his account appearing in Murūǧ al-ḏahab of al-Masʕūdī: »They (sc. the Byzantines) […] also have the qiṯāraẗ with twelve strings«; al-Ḫʷārazmī in Mafātīḥ al-ʕulūm: »the qitāraẗ is one of their instruments, and resembles the ṭunbūr (lute with a long neck)«. – The qiṯāraẗ was similar to the lūrā: two variations of the same instrument type en vogue since classical times and up to the first centuries of Islam. »The lūrā was a smaller instrument played by beginners and by amateurs, whereas the qiṯāraẗ was the instrument for professionals who towards the Islamic period used it to show off a virtuosity frequently displayed freely. […] It seems that, at a later period, the term is used to denote a different instrument, the guitar […]« (ibid.).
    ▪ Chantraine1968-80: the Grk kitʰára was a stringed instrument – « qui ne se distingue pas nettement de la λύρα, perfectionné par Terpandre qui aurait portée; le nombre des cordes à 7 […] ; la forme la plus anciennement attesté […], dont l’accentuation a été considérée comme eolienne […]«
    ▪ Accord. to Freytag1835, Ar qītār seems to have rendered the Hbr word for ‘harp, lyre’ in Ar translations of Gen. IV, 21.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Opinions differ as to the involvement of Ar as a mediator betw Grk kitʰára and Western words for ‘guitar’. While Littmann and others hold that the Eur words go back to Andalusian Ar, others (e.g., EtymOnline) would not exclude the reverse, i.e., a dependence of the Ar word on the Span one (< Lat < Grk). Details:
    ▪ Littmann1924, 90-91: Ge Gitarre, ultimately from Ar qīṯāra, qittāra (< Aram < Grk kitʰára). The Grk word, which prob. is related to an old Oriental Wanderwort, not only gave the Ar term, but also Ge Zither etc.
    ▪ DWDS (< W. Pfeifer1989–): Ge Gitarre (eC17) < Span guitarra < SpanAr qītāraẗ < Grk kitʰára ‘Zupfinstrument, eine Art Lyra’ (cf. Zither29 ). Early attestations such as Kitarre (1615), Chitarron (1619) and prob. also Chitarre (1824) are likely to go back to the Grk word, either directly or via It chitarra. In C18 and C19, the form Guitarre supersedes. From C18 until eC19, Gitarre is soften used in the sense of Zither.
    ▪ In contrast, EtymOnline reports that »[t]he Ar word is perh. from Span […], though often the relationship is said to be the reverse«. Accordingly, no Ar form is mentioned in the etymology of Engl guitar (1620s): from Fr guitare, which was altered by Span and Prov forms from oFr guiterre, earlier guiterne < Lat cithara < Greek kitʰára ‘cithara’, a triangular seven-stringed musical instrument related to the lyre, perh. from Pers sihtār ‘three-stringed’, from si ‘three’ (oPers tʰri‑, cf. Engl three) + tār ’string’, from protIndEur root *ten- ‘to stretch’ (cf. Engl tension). »In post-classical times, the ancient instrument developed in many varieties in different places, keeping a local variant of the old name or a diminutive of it. Some of these local instruments subsequently became widely known, and many descendants of kitʰára reached Engl in reference to various stringed, guitar-like instruments.«
    ▪ The two theories may be harmonized by assuming a development of two chains of borrowing that met again when the Arabs arrived in Spain – see above, section conc.
    ▪ Accord. to Kasha1968, the Grk kitʰára had only four strings when it was imported into Greece. In the author’s view, the etymon is not seh-tār (‘three strings’) but Pers čahār tār ‘four strings’.30
    ▪ The name of the North-African kwitra (kouitra, quitra), a 4-stringed plucked instrument in the lute family which »[t]oday […] is associated almost exclusively with the Arabo-Andalusī musical traditions […], particularly in schools in the border region between Algeria and Morocco«, originally means a ‘small qītāraẗ‘, from the dimin. quwaytiraẗ, »a Mozabarabic term for plucked, stringed instruments, which came to North Africa with Andalusian migrants«.31
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    QYRWN قيرون 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QYRWN 
    “root” 
    ▪ QYRWN_1 ‘caravan’ ↗qayrawān
    ▪ QYRWN_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
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    qayrawānᵘ قيْروانُ , pl. ‑āt 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QYRWN (*QRY, *QRW) 
    n. 
    caravan – WehrCowan1979. 
    From Pers kārbān ~ kārvān ‘caravan’ < mPers kārvān ‘do.’, perhaps from Akk ḫarrānu ‘highway, road, path; etc.’ 
    ▪ In ClassAr, the meaning was still more varied: 1. caravan, 2. army, camp, 3. market, fair. From these values, only the first has survived into MSA.
    ▪ In Tu, the word is first attested, as kârbān ~ kârvān, in ʕĀşıḳpaşa’s Ġarīb-nāme, 1330. 
    See DISC. 
    ▪ Not related to QRW or QRY, but
    ▪ a loan from Pers kārbān ~ kārvān ‘caravan’ or < mPers kārvān ‘do.’, which is perhaps from Akk ḫarrānu ‘highway, road, path; trip, journey, travel; business trip; caravan; business venture; business capital; military campaign, expedition, raid; expeditionary force, army; corvée work; service unit; (etc.)’ – NişanyanSözlük (as of 15Sept2014). The fact that the spectrum of meanings in ClassAr resembles very much the one in Akk, lets a direct loan seem not impossible.
    ▪ Lokotsch1927 #1075 supports the Pers background (kārvān, kärvān), but tends to make the latter dependent on Skr karabha ‘(young) camel’ (prop. ‘possessing celerity’). 
    In Engl, the word caravan is attested since the 1580 s. According to EtymOnline, it came in via mFr caravane < oFr carvane, carevane ‘caravan’ (C13) or mLat caravana, picked up during the Crusades from Pers kārvān ‘group of desert travelers’ (which Klein connects to Skr karabhah ‘camel’). In Ge it is attested since C16. According to Kluge2002, it is taken via Ital carovana from Pers kārvān (with additional vowels inserted probably for ‘euphonic’ reasons). 
    – 
    QYS قيس 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QYS 
    “root” 
    ▪ QYS_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ QYS_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
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    qiyās قِياس 
    ID 730 • Sw – • BP 2834 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QYS 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
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    QYḌ قيض 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3May2023
    √QYḌ 
    “root” 
    ▪ QYḌ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QYḌ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ QYḌ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘egg shells, to hatch, crack; to barter, compensate; to foreordain, destine; to assign, facilitate, prepare’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
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    QYL قيل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QYL 
    “root” 
    ▪ QYL_1 ‘princeling, chief’ ↗qayl
    ▪ QYL_2 ‘midday nap, siesta’ ↗qaylūlaẗ
    ▪ QYL_3 ‘to abolish, cancel, dismiss’ ↗ʔaqāla
    ▪ QYL_4 ‘hydrocele (med.)’ ↗qīlaẗ
    Other values, now obsolete, include:
    • QYL_ ‘’ :

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘the noon, siesta, to take a midday nap, a midday resting place; to annul; to help out of difficulty; chief’ 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
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    ʔaqāl‑ / ʔaqal‑ أقالَ / أقَلْـ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QYL 
    vb., IV 
    1 to abolish, repeal, annul; 2 to cancel, abrogate, rescind, revoke (s.th., esp. a sale); 3 to depose, dismiss, discharge (s.o.; also with min al-manṣib from his office); 4 to free, release, exempt (s.o., min from an obligation) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    – 
    ʔaqāla ’ḷḷāhu ʕaṯrata-ka, expr., may God regard your offense as undone
    ʔaqāla-hū min ʕaṯrati-hī, to steady one who has stumbled

    ĭstaqāla, vb. X, 1 to demand the cancellation, seek the abrogation (DO of a sale); 2 to ask (s.o.) for exemption, release, or annulment; 3 to request to be released from office, tender one’s resignation, resign (min or ʕan from an office); 4 to resign one’s commission, quit the service; 5 to ask s.o.’s (DO) pardon, apologize (to s.o.): Št-stem, requestative.
    ʔiqālaẗ, n.f., 1 cancellation, abrogation, rescission, revocation (esp. of a sale); 2 abolishment, abolition, repeal, annulment; 3 deposition, dismissal, discharge from an office: vn. IV.
    BP#3023ĭstiqālaẗ, n.f., 1 resignation, withdrawal (from office); 2 retirement; 3 (pl. -āt) withdrawal, voluntary elimination (sport): vn. X.
    mustaqīl, adj., resigned from office, retired, discharged: PA X. 
    qayl قَيْل , pl. ʔaqyāl 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QYL 
    n. 
    1 princeling; 2 chief, chieftain – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    – 
    … 
    qaylūlaẗ قَيْلولة 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QYL 
    n.f. 
    1 siesta; 2 midday nap – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    – 
    qāla, i (qayl, qāʔilaẗ, qaylūlaẗ, qīl), vb. I, 1 to take a midday nap; 2 to hold siesta: denom. (?).
    qayyala, vb. II, = I: D-stem, denom.

    maqīl, n., resting place, halting place: n.loc., from qāla ‘to take a midday nap, hold siesta’.
    qāʔilaẗ, n.f., 1 midday nap; 2 noon, midday: PA I, f., lit. *‘s.th. that makes stop, make halt, take a rest’. 
    qīlaẗ قِيلة , also ~ māʔiyyaẗ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √QYL 
    n.f. 
    hydrocele (med.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
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    – 
    kāf كاف 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ 
    R₁ 
    The letter k of the Arabic alphabet. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
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    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl kaph, from Hbr kap ‘kaph’; kappa, from Grk kappa ‘kappa’; both from Phoen *kapp ‘palm of the hand; eleventh letter of the Phoen alphabet’, cf. Ar ↗kaff
     
    KʔS كأس 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KʔS 
    “root” 
    ▪ KʔS_1 ‘cup’ ↗kaʔs

    ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): No verbal root. kaʔs is considered to be an early borrowing, perh. from Aram, wine, a cup or glass containing wine (not when it is empty). 
    ▪ … 
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    kaʔs كَأْس , var. kās , pl. kuʔūs , kiʔās , kaʔsāt 
    ID 731 • Sw – • BP 840 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KʔS 
    n., f. 
    cup (also victory trophy); drinking glass, tumbler; goblet; chalice, calix; calyx (bot.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q 37:45, 52:23, 56:18, 76:5,17, 78:34 ‘cup’. 
    DRS 10 (2012)#Kʔ/WS: Akk kās , Ug ks, Hbr kōs, Aram kāsā ‘coupe, gobelet’.
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1401: Akk kāsu ‘vessel for beer’, Hbr kōs ‘bowl’. – Outside Sem: Eg k3s ‘vessel’, Hausa kōc̣ō ‘kind of drum’, and CCh words like kwasa-ra, kwiči-te, kwes-tə, kwaʒa, koso-ro, kwoso-to, kwəʒa, kwāʒa.
    ▪ TB2007 #253: (Sem forms like in Orel&Stolbova1994). Outside Sem: (late) Eg k3s ‘vessel’; WCh: Hausa kṑc̣ó; CCh: kùčè-ta (in 3 languages), kwàʒa (3 lang.), kwaʒà (2 lang.), and kwǝšà-rà, gwâdǯa, kwǝ̀ǯa, kùsù-re, kóso-ró (1 lang. each); ECh: kɛ̀-kɛ́ɛsè ‘pot, mug’ (1 lang.) 
    DRS 10 (2012)#Kʔ/WS: »La forme étymologique est-elle kaʔs… ou kās ? Edzard a suggéré que kaʔs serait secondaire, analogique de raʔs.
    ▪ Jeffrey1938, 245-6: »It is found only in early passages in descriptions of the pleasures of Paradise. – This is not a SSem word, as it is entirely lacking in Eth [Gz] and without a root and of uncertain pl. in Ar. There can thus be little doubt of its Aram origin.702 – The Hbr word is kōs, while in the Ras Shamra texts we have ks, and in Aram kwsʔ, ksʔ, and kwzʔ (cf. Arab kūz), and Syr kāsā.703 As the Syr kāsā seems to be the source of the Pers kāseh 704 , we may take it as most probable that the Ar also was borrowed at an early period705 from the same source.«
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1401 reconstructs Sem *kaʔs‑ ‘vessel for beerbowl’, WCh *kwac‑ ‘kind of drum’ (contracted from *kaʔwac‑), CCh *kwac‑ (contraction from *kaʔwac‑ ?) ‘quiver’. As an AfrAs ancestor the authors reconstruct AfrAs *kaʔoc‑ ‘vessel’.
    ▪ TB2007 reconstruct: Sem *kaʔs- ¹‘vessel for beer’, ²‘bowl’, Eg k3s ‘vessel’, WCh *k˅ʔwac‑ ‘¹kind of a drum; ²gourd-dipper’, ECh *k˅-k˅s‑ ‘pot, mug’, all from AfrAs *kaʔ/wac- ‘vessel, receptacle’ 
    – 
    kaʔs al-ʕālam, n., world cup 
    KBː (KBB) كبّ/كبب 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
    √KBː (KBB) 
    “root” 
    ▪ KBː (KBB)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KBː (KBB)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KBː (KBB)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to overthrow, topple, knock to the ground; to apply o.s.; skein of wool; detachment of horses; crowdedness; hillock of rippled, moist sand’. – See also: ↗KBKB. 
    ▪ [v1] : From ESem *√KBB¹ ESem ‘to burn, char’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ [v2] : ▪ From WSem *√KBB² ‘to encircle, overturn’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl shish kebab, from Ar ↗kabāb ‘cooked meat in small pieces’, prob. from Aram kabbābā ‘burning, charring’, from kabbeb ‘to char, roast’, prob. from Akk kabābu ‘to burn, char’.
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl kibbeh, from Ar ↗kubbaẗ ‘ball, meatball’ (by association with kabāb kebab’. 
    – 
    KBāRīH كباريه 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KBʔRYH 
    “root” 
    ▪ KBʔRYH_1 ‘cabaret’ ↗kabārēh 
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    kabārēh كباريه , pl. ‑āt 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KBʔRYH, KBR 
    n. 
    cabaret – WehrCowan1979. 
    From Fr cabaret
    ▪ … 
    – 
    See CONC. 
    – 
    For other items of the “root” cf. ↗KBR, ↗kabīr, ↗kabar, ↗kūbrī, ↗kabūriyā
    KBT كبت 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
    √KBT 
    “root” 
    ▪ KBT_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KBT_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KBT_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘knocking down, to crush, to humiliate, to supress’ 
    ▪ … 
    KBD كبد 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KBD 
    “root” 
    ▪ KBD_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ KBD_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘liver, the interior, heart, centre, the zenith; content; the earth’s metals; hard boulder; great hardship, struggle, to suffer, to afflict’ 
    ▪ KBD_1 : (Kogan2015 Sw#48:) from protSem *kabid‑ ‘liver’ (SED I #141). Passim except Akk, Amh and some of Gur.
    ▪ KBD_2 : …
    ▪ KBD_3 : …
     
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    kabid كَبِد 
    ID 732 • Sw 53/91 • BP 3082 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KBD 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2015 (Sw#48): from protSem *kabid‑ ‘liver’ (SED I #141). Passim except Akk, Amh and some of Gur.
    ▪ …
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘liver’) Akk kabittu, Hbr kāḇēḏ, Syr kaḇdā, Gz kabd.
    ▪ … 
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    – 
     
    KBR كبر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KBR 
    “root” 
    ▪ KBR_1 ‘(to be) large, big, numerous, old (of age, person); (fig.) important, powerful, eminent, mighty; notable, chief, head’ ↗kabīr
    ▪ KBR_2 ‘capers’ ↗kabar
    ▪ KBR_3 ‘bridge’ ↗kūbrī
    ▪ KBR_4 ‘cabaret’ ↗kabārēh
    ▪ KBR_5 ‘crab’ ↗kabūriyā (eg.)
    ▪ KBR_6 ‘asafoetida, devil’s dung (pharm.)’: ʔabū kabīr, cf. perh. ↗kibrīt

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to grow big, to increase, to augment, to gain significance, to grow tall; majority, magnitude; to become old, to become infirm; honour, pride, to show pride; to become serious; to be awed; worst part of s.th., great sin, great crime; dignitaries, leaders, chiefs; praise, exaltation, glorification, deference, regard’ 
    ▪ Out of the 5 values listed for the Sem root KBR in DRS, only 1 is represented in Ar (#1 = KBR_1): ‘(to be) large, big, numerous, old (of age, person)’, hence the fig. use as ‘important, powerful, eminent, mighty; notable, chief, head’.
    ▪ Values KBR_2 to KBR_5 are clearly borrowings (from Grk, Tu, and Fr, respectively).
    ▪ The value KBR_6, appearing only in the name ʔabū kabīr for asafoetida, has perhaps to be put together with ↗kibrīt ‘sulfur’ due to the herb’s fetid smell. 
    – 
    DRS 10 (2012)#KBR-1 Akk kabāru ‘être gros, large, vigoureux, épais, gras’, Ebl kabar - ‘massif’, Hbr hikbīr ‘multiplier’, oAram kbr ‘multiplier’, ya. kbr ‘abonder’, hkbr ‘rendre nombreux’, Syr kᵉbar ‘être nombreux’, Mand kbar ‘être grand, puissant, dominer’, Ar kabura ‘être gros, grand’, Gz kabra ‘être honoré, glorieux’, Amh käbbärä ‘être honoré’, Arg akäbbärä ‘honorer, célébrer’, Gur käbbärä ‘devenir riche’, Tña käbärä ‘honorer’. – Sab kbr ‘rendre abondantes (les récoltes), rendre fertiles (les champs)’, kbr ‘richesse, abondance’, Mhr məkbīr ‘tas, pile’; Sab Qat kbr ‘magistrat’; Sab kbr ‘contrôler, superviser’, Qat ‘diriger, administrer’, Soq kber ‘regarder, aller voir, examiner; mettre’; Mhr əktēbūr, Jib əkətēr ‘se conduire de manière arrogante’.179 – Akk kabr - ‘gros, gras’; Hbr kabbīr ‘fort, puissant’, Ar kabīr-, Sab kbr ‘grand’, Jib kēr ‘cheikh, vieil homme’, Soq keber ‘vieillard’. – Aram kabbīrā ‘nombreux, grand’; Gz kəbūr ‘honoré, noble’, Amh kəbər, käbbärte, Arg kəbər ‘riche’. – Ar kābara ‘ravir, emporter par la force’. -? 2 Hbr kᵉbār, JP kᵉbar ‘déjà, depuis longtemps’, Syr kᵉbar, ʔakbar ‘déjà, depuis longtemps, peut-être, presque’, Mand kbar ‘déjà, auparavant’. -3 Akk kibarr - ‘sorte de bateau’, Hbr kābīr ‘entrelacs’, makᵉbbēr ‘natte’, mikᵉbbār ‘treillis’, ? kebārāh ‘tamis’, Mhr katber, Jib kōr ‘se blottir, se recroqueviller (de honte, de peur)’, kotber ‘s’enrouler autour’, Jib ekber, Śḥr kber ‘retourner de la ville à la montagne’. -4 Ar kabar, SudAr kəbūr, Gz kabaro, Te Tña Amh Gaf kabäro ‘tambour’. -5 Mhr kbūr ‘aller voir des gens pour boire du lait chez eux’, kber ‘aller voir, regarder, examiner’.
     
    ▪ KBR_1: Nişanyan (Sözlük 14.05.2015, #kebir) holds that Ar kab˅ra is related to Sem GBR706 ‘to be(come) strong, prevail, work’ (cf. Akk gabru ~ gapru ‘strong’, Aram gəbar ‘be strong, overpower’, Ar ↗ǧabr) – an idea that is not found elsewhere. – Outside Sem: According to DRS (#KBR-1), Cohen1969#179 »propose un rapprochement avec l’Eg čmʔ ‘être puissant’ […]. Le Cush connaît des formes apparentées: Af Sa kabaro, Bed kabūr, Ag kiriwi (voir Leslau EDG III /334)«.
    ▪ The non-Ar forms of KBR_1 have been connected to l’Eg čmʔ ‘to be powerful’ and some forms in Cush langs.
    ▪ KBR_2: < Grk káppari ‘capres’.
    ▪ KBR_3: < Tu köprü ‘bridge’.
    ▪ KBR_4: < Fr cabaret ‘cabaret’.
    ▪ KBR_5: perh. < Grk kaboúras ‘crawfish, crab, lobster’.
    ▪ KBR_6: perh. akin to Ar kabrīt (*stinking like sulphur).
     
    – 
    – 
    kibriyāʔᵘ كِبْرِياءُ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KBR 
    n. 
    1 grandeur, glory, magnificence, majesty; 2 pride, haughtiness, presumption, arrogance – WehrCowan1979. 
    Etymologically related to ↗kabīr etc., but itself (according to Jeffery1938) perhaps a loan from Gz kəbər ‘gloria, honor; magnificentia, splendor’. 
    ▪ eC7 (pride, greatness, glory) Q 45:37 wa-la-hu ’l-kibriyāʔu fī ’l-samawāti wa’l-ʔarḍi ‘true pride in the heavens an the earth is His’ 
    Cf. DISC and ↗kabīr 
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »The root is common Sem, cf. Akk kabāru ‘to become great’, Hbr hikbîr ‘to make many’, Aram kᵊḇar, Syr kᵊḇar, Eth [Gz] kabəra ‘to honour’, and cf. Sab kbr ‘large; prince’ (Hommel, Südarab. Chrest, 127; Rossini, Glossarium, 167). – The usual theory is that the Qurʔānic word is a development from the Ar kabura ‘to become great, magnificent’, but as it was in Eth [Gz] that the root developed prominently the meaning of ‘gloriosum, illustrum esse’, we may perhaps see in the Eth [Gz] kəbər, commonly used as meaning ‘gloria, honor’ (= [Grk] dóxa) and then ‘magnificentia, splendor’ (Dillmann, Lex, 846), the source of the word (cf. Ahrens, Christliches, 23; Muḥammad, 78).« 
    – 
    For other items of the root cf. ↗KBR, ↗kabīr, ↗kabar, ↗kūbrī, ↗kabārēh, ↗kabūriyā
    kabīr كَبير , pl. kibār , kubarāʔᵘ 
    ID 733 • Sw 13/11 • BP 65 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KBR 
    adj.; n. (nominalized adj.) 
    1 great, big, large, sizable; bulky, voluminous, spacious; extensive, comprehensive; 2 significant, considerable, formidable, huge, vast, enormous; 3 powerful, influential, distinguished, eminent; important; 4 old; 5 (with foll. gen.) head, chief (in compounds) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    eC7 kabura 1 (to be great, be awesome) Q 17:50-1 qul kūnū ḥiǧāratan ʔaw ḥadīdan ʔaw ḫalqan mim-mā yakburu fī ṣudūri-kum ‘say, “Be [as hard as] stone, iron, or any other substance that may inspire awe in your bosoms”’; 2 (with prep. ʕalà : to cause distress; to be burdensome, be intolerable, become too much to bear) Q 6:35 wa-ʔin kāna kabura ʕalay-ka ʔiʕrāḍu-hum ‘and if their turning away has greatly distressed you’. – kabīr I (quasi-PA) 1 (great, much) Q 2:219 yasʔlūna-ka ʕan-i ’l-ḫamri wa’l-maysiri qul fī-himā ʔiṯmun kabīrun ‘they ask you [Prophet] about intoxicants and gambling: say, “There is great sin in both”’; 2 (intense, grave, serious, heinous) Q 2:217 yasʔlūna-ka ʕan-i ’l-šahri ’l-ḥarāmi qitālin fī-hi qul qitālun fī-hi kabīrun ‘they ask you [Prophet] about fighting in the prohibited month; say, “Fighting in it is a grave offence”’; 3 (old infirm) Q 28:23 wa-ʔabū-nā šayḫun kabīrun ‘and our father is an old man’; II (n.pl., kubarāʔ, chief, leader, dignitary) Q 33:67 ʔin-nā ʔaṭaʕnā sādata-nā w-kubarāʔa-nā fa-ʔaḍallū-nā ’l-sabīlā ‘We obeyed our leaders and our nobility, so they led us astray from the guidance [lit. path]’. – kabīraẗ I (quasi-PA f.) 1 (great, much) Q 9:121 yunfiqūna nafaqatan ṣaġīratan wa-lā kabīratan wa-lā yaqṭaʕūna wādiyan ʔillā kutiba la-hum ‘and they do not spend a little or a lot [for God’s cause], nor traverse a mountain pass, but all is recorded to them [lit. the reward is credited to them]’; 2 (hard, difficult) Q 2:45 wa-’staʕīnū bi’l-ṣabri wa’l-ṣalāẗi wa-ʔinna-hā la-kabīraẗun ʔillā ʕalà ’l-ḫāšiʕīna ‘seek help with steadfastness and prayer—though this is hard, indeed, for anyone but the humble; II (n.pl., kabāʔir, great sin) Q 4:31 ʔin taǧtanibū kabāʔira mā tunhawna ʕan-hu nukaffir ʕan-kum sayyiʔāti-kum ‘if you avoid the great sins of the things We have forbidden you, We will wipe out your [minor] misdeeds’. – kibriyāʔ: see s.v. 
    DRS 10 (2012)#KBR-1 Akk kabāru ‘être gros, large, vigoureux, épais, gras’, Ebl kabar - ‘massif’, Hbr hikbīr ‘multiplier’, oAram kbr ‘multiplier’, ya. kbr ‘abonder’, hkbr ‘rendre nombreux’, Syr kᵉbar ‘être nombreux’, Mand kbar ‘être grand, puissant, dominer’, Ar kabura ‘être gros, grand’, Gz kabra ‘être honoré, glorieux’, Amh käbbärä ‘être honoré’, Arg akäbbärä ‘honorer, célébrer’, Gur käbbärä ‘devenir riche’, Tña käbärä ‘honorer’. – Sab kbr ‘rendre abondantes (les récoltes), rendre fertiles (les champs)’, kbr ‘richesse, abondance’, Mhr məkbīr ‘tas, pile’; Sab Qat kbr ‘magistrat’; Sab kbr ‘contrôler, superviser’, Qat ‘diriger, administrer’, Soq kber ‘regarder, aller voir, examiner; mettre’; Mhr əktēbūr, Jib əkətēr ‘se conduire de manière arrogante’.180 – Akk kabr - ‘gros, gras’; Hbr kabbīr ‘fort, puissant’, Ar kabīr-, Sab kbr ‘grand’, Jib kēr ‘cheikh, vieil homme’, Soq keber ‘vieillard’. – Aram kabbīrā ‘nombreux, grand’; Gz kəbūr ‘honoré, noble’, Amh kəbər, käbbärte, Arg kəbər ‘riche’. – Ar kābara ‘ravir, emporter par la force’. 
    ▪ Nişanyan (Sözlük 14.05.2015, #kebir) holds that Ar kab˅ra is related to Sem GBR707 ‘to be(come) strong, prevail, work’ (cf. Akk gabru ~ gapru ‘strong’, Aram gəbar ‘be strong, overpower’, Ar ↗ǦBR, ↗ǧabr) – an idea that is not found elsewhere. – Outside Sem: According to DRS (#KBR-1), Cohen1969#179 »propose un rapprochement avec l’Eg čmʔ ‘être puissant’ […]. Le Cush connaît des formes apparentées: Af Sa kabaro, Bed kabūr, Ag kiriwi (voir Leslau EDG III /334)«.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    kabīr al-ʔaṭibbāʔ, n., head physician
    kabīraẗ al-ḫadam, n.f., female head of the household staff
    kabīr al-ʔasāqifaẗ, n.f., archbishop
    kabīr al-sinn, adj., old
    kabīr al-quḍāẗ, n., chief justice, chief magistrate
    ʔabū kabīr, n., asafetida, devil’s dung (pharm.): perh. not belonging here but to ↗kibrīt.
    kull ṣaġīraẗ wa-kabīraẗ, expr., every single detail
    kibār al-ḍubbāṭ, n.pl., senior officers
    kibār al-muwaẓẓafīn, n.pl., senior officials
    kibār al-hayʔāt, n.pl., the leading personalities of public corporations

    kabara u (kabr) to exceed in age (bi‑ by), be older; — BP#1925kabura u (kubr, kibar, kabāraẗ) 1 to be or become great, big, large; to grow, increase, augment, become greater, bigger or larger; to become too great, too big, too large (ʕan for s.th.); 2 to become famous, gain significance, become important; 3 to disdain (ʕan s.th.); 4 to become too oppressive, too painful, too distressing, too burdensome; to appear intolerable (ʕalà to s.o.); to become too difficult, too hard (ʕalà for s.o.), appear insurmountable (ʕalà to s.o.): prob. denom. | kaburat nafsu-h, expr., he felt emboldened, he was, or became, proud and courageous.
    kabbara, vb. II, 1 to make great(er), big(ger), large(r), enlarge, magnify, enhance, aggrandize; to extend, expand, widen, amplify; to increase, augment; to intensify; 2 to exaggerate, play up; to aggravate, make worse; 3 to praise, laud, extol, exalt, glorify, celebrate: D-stem, caus.; 4 to exclaim allāhu akbar : denom. from ʔakbarᵘ.
    kābara, vb. III, 1 to treat haughtily, with disdain, with contempt (s.o.); 2 to seek to excel, try to surpass, strive to outdo (s.o.); to contend, vie, strive, contest with; 3 to oppose, resist, contradict; to renege, renounce, offend against, act contrary to; 4 to stickle, insist stubbornly on one’s opinion: L-stem, assoc.
    ʔakbara, vb. IV, 1 to consider great, deem significant, regard as formidable (s.th.); 2 to praise, laud, extol (s.o.); 3 to show respect, be deferential toward; 4 to admire: Š-stem, declar. | ʔakbara šaʔna-hū (or ~ min šaʔni-hī), expr., to extol s.o.
    takabbara, vb. V, and takābara, vb. VI, to be proud or haughty, give o.s. airs, swagger; to be overweening, overbearing (ʕalà toward s.o.): tD-stem, intr./refl. of II.
    ĭstakbara, vb. X, 1 to deem great or important (s.th.); 2 to be proud, haughty, display arrogance (ʕalà toward s.o.): Št-stem.

    BP#3569kibr, n., bigness, largeness, magnitude; greatness, eminence, grandeur; significance, importance; standing, prestige; nobility; pride, haughtiness, presumption, arrogance: quasi-vn., may itself be the etymon proper.
    kubr, n., 1 greatness, eminence, grandeur; bigness, largeness, magnitude; size, bulk, extent, expanse; 2 power, might; 3 glory, fame, renown, standing, prestige; 4 nobility; 5 main part, bulk: quasi-vn., may itself be the etymon proper.
    kibar, n., 1 bigness, largeness, magnitude; greatness, eminence, grandeur; 2 old age: quasi-vn., may itself be the etymon proper.
    kabraẗ, n.f., old age: vn.f., from kabura.
    kabīraẗ, pl. ‑āt, kabāʔirᵘ, kubur, n.f., great sin, grave offense, atrocious crime: nominalized adj. f., fig. use.
    kubār, kubbār, adj., very great, very big, huge: ints. formation (?).
    kibriyāʔᵘ, n.f., grandeur, glory, magnificence, majesty; pride, haughtiness, presumption, arrogance: etymologically related to kabīr etc., but itself perhaps a loan, cf. ↗s.v.
    BP#195ʔakbarᵘ, pl. ‑ūn, ʔakābirᵘ, f. kubrà, pl. kubrayāt, adj., greater, bigger, larger; older; senior-ranking: elat. | ~ sinnan, adj., older, more advanced in years; al-duwal al-kubrà, n.pl., the Big Powers; al-muftī al-~, n., grand mufti; ʔakābir al-qawm, n.pl., the leaders of the people; al-ʔakābir wa’l-ʔaʕyān, n.pl., the grandees and notables; al-ʔakābir wa’l-kubrayāt, n.pl., seniors (male and female), adult age class (sport; Tun.); ibn ʔakābir, f. bint ʔakābir, n., s.o. from a respected family.
    takbīr, n., 1 enlargement, increase, augmentation, magnification; enhancement, aggrandizement; intensification, amplification; exaggeration; 2 augmentative (gram.); 3 praise, laudation, extolment, exaltation, glorification; 4 the exclamation allāhu ʔakbar : vn. II.
    mukābaraẗ, n.f., 1 haughtiness, superciliousness, overweening, overbearingness; self-importance, pomposity; 2 stubbornness, obstinacy, self-will: vn. III.
    ʔikbār, n., admiration; deference, respect, regard, esteem: vn. IV.
    takabbur and takābur, n., pride, haughtiness, presumption, arrogance: vn. V.
    mukabbir, pl. ‑āt, n., amplifier (el.): nominalized PA II. | ~ al-ṣawt or ~ ṣawtī, n., loud-speaker (radio); megaphone; naẓẓāraẗ ~aẗ, n.f., magnifying glass.
    mukabbiraẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., magnifying glass: nominalized PA II f., short for naẓẓāraẗ ~aẗ.
    mukabbar, adj., enlarged, magnified: PP II. | ṣūraẗ ~aẗ, n.f., enlargement, blowup (phot.); bi-ṣūraẗ ~aẗ, adv., increasingly, on a larger scale, to an increasing degree.
    mukābir, adj., 1 presumptuous, arrogant, supercilious, haughty, overweening; 2 quarrelsome, contentious, cantankerous; 3 self-willed, obstinate, stubborn; stickler: PA III.
    mutakabbir, adj., proud, imperious, high-handed, haughty, supercilious, overweening: PA V.

    For other items of the root cf. ↗KBR, ↗kabar, ↗kūbrī, ↗kabārēh, ↗kabūriyā
    kabar كَبَر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KBR 
    n.coll. 
    capers; caper shrub – WehrCowan1979. 
    From Grk kápparis (of unclear origin) – Lokotsch1927, Kluge2008. 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Lokotsch1927#978: Ar kabbār (which is from Grk) gave (with art. al-) Span Port alcaparra, It caparra.
    ▪ The words for ‘capers’ in other Eur langs are akin to Ar kabar (~ kabbār), though not borrowed from the Ar word itself. Rather, they go back to Lat capparis (like the Ar term from Grk): Fr câpres; Engl capers, Ge Kapern, Kappern; Ru kapersy, Bulg kapari, Serb kapre, kapra, Cz kapary, kaparky, Pol kapary, kaparki [vgl. nGrk kapárr)].
     
    No derivates. – For other items of the root cf. ↗KBR, ↗kabīr, ↗kūbrī, ↗kabārēh, ↗kabūriyā
    kūbrī كُوبْري , var. kubrī , pl. kabārī 
    ID 734 • Sw – • BP 7046 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KBR, KWBRY, KBRY 
    n. 
    bridge; deck – WehrCowan1979. 
    From Tu köprü ‘bridge’. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ From Tu köprü ‘bridge’, first attested in Uygh Maniheaen texts, before 900, as oTu köprüg ‘bridge’, from oTu köpür- ‘to grow, become inflated, fat, increase’.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    For other items of the root cf. ↗KBR, ↗kabīr, ↗kabar, ↗kabārēh, ↗kabūriyā
    KBūRYā كبوريا 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KBūRYā 
    “root” 
    ▪ KBūRYā_1 ‘crab’ ↗kabūriyā 
    ▪ Perh. from nGrk kábouras ‘crayfish’. 
    – 
    – 
    ▪ KBWRYʔ_1: Perh. from nGrk kábouras ‘crayfish’ (but cf. also, with metathesis, nGrk karabída ‘freshwater lobster’; Got kárabos, Lat carabus ‘sea crab, lobster’, accord. to Kluge2002 from an unknown source, gave oNor krabbi, oEngl crabba > Engl crab). 
    – 
    For other items of the root cf. ↗KBR, ↗kabīr, ↗kabar, ↗kūbrī, ↗kabārēh
    kabūriyā كبوريا 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KBR, KBWRYʔ 
    n. 
    (eg.) crab (zool.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Perh. from nGrk kábouras ‘crayfish’ (but cf. also, with metathesis, nGrk karabída ‘freshwater lobster’; Got kárabos, Lat carabus ‘sea crab, lobster’, accord. to Kluge2002 from an unknown source, gave oNor krabbi, oEngl crabba > Engl crab). 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    For other items of the root cf. ↗KBR, ↗kabīr, ↗kabar, ↗kūbrī, ↗kabārēh
    KBRT كبرت 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KBRT 
    “root” 
    ▪ KBRT_1 ‘sulfur’ ↗kibrīt 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    kibrīt كِبْريت 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KBRT, KBR 
    n. 
    sulfur; matches – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ (Accord. to Zimmern1914) Via Aram kebrītā from Akk kibrītu (~ kubrītu) ‘sulphur’ (related to Akk kupru ‘bitumen’?). 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 10 (2012)#K/GB/PRT: Akk kibrīt-, kubrīt-, JP kubrētā, Syr kibrītā, Ar kibrīt, Soq kibrīt, Mhr kebrīt, Śḥr kirit, Hbr goprīt, Syr guprētā, Mand gubrutai, Gz kabarīt (forme de pl.) ‘soufre’. 
    ▪ Zimmern1914: 60: Akk kuprītu ‘sulphur’ prob. gave Hbr goprît and Aram guprītā, kuprītā, kebrītā, whence Ar kibrīt. According to the author, Akk kuprītu is perh. a development from Akk kupru ‘bitumen’ (> Hbr kōper, Aram kuprā > Ar kufr), which belongs to Akk kapāru ‘to wipe off; to smear on (a paint or liquid)’. According to Huehnergard2011, the latter is from Sem KPR ‘to wipe clean, polish, purify, cover’ (cf. Ar ↗kafara ‘to cover, hide’, Hbr yôm kippûr ‘Yom Kippur, day of atonement’, from kippā̈r ‘to cover over (fig.), pacify, atone, make propitiation’).
    ▪ Is also the plant-name ʔabū kabīr ‘asafoetida, devil’s dung’ (KBR_6 s.v. ↗KBR) related? There is no obvious semantic relation between the plant and the adj. ↗kabīr, but there is perh. one between the asafoetida herb’s fetid smell and sulfur. Given that the etymon of Ar kibrīt, Akk kuprītu, is likely to be based on Akk kupru ‘bitumen’, a relation between ʔabū kabīr and the source of kabrīt should perh. be considered.

     
    – 
    ʕūd kibrīt, n., matches, a match.
    kibrīt ʔamān, n., safety matches.

    kabrata, vb. I, to coat with sulfur; to sulfurize, sulfurate; to vulcanize: denom.
    kibrītaẗ, n.f., match, matchstick: n.un.
    kibrītī, adj., sulfureous, sulfurate, sulfurous, sulfuric: nsb-adj. | ḥammām ~, n., sulfur bath; yanbūʕ ~, n., sulfur spring.
    . kibrītāt, n., sulfate (chem.): neolog.
    kibrītīd, n., sulfide (chem.): neolog.
    kibrītīk: ḥāmiḍ ~, n., sulfuric acid (chem.): neolog. 
    KBKB كبكب 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
    √KBKB 
    “root” 
    ▪ KBKB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KBKB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KBKB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘(also see ↗KBː(KBB)) to throw s.th. face down, throw in a pit, throw on top of one another; to be wrapped up, be mixed up, a great number’ 
    ▪ … 
    KTB كتب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KTB 
    “root” 
    ▪ KTB_1 ‘to write; book; to prescribe, determine; to subscribe’ ↗kataba
    ▪ KTB_2 ‘(esp. Qur’anic) school’ ↗kuttāb
    ▪ KTB_3 ‘squadron’ (from ClassAr ‘to bring together, bind, draw together’) ↗katībaẗ
    ▪ KTB_4 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to gather together, layers of material; to put letters together (i.e. to write), to write down, book, letter, record; army regiment; to ordain, prescribed, decreed, to impose, to contract; a set amount’ 
    As Kerr2014 rightly states, »writing is a relatively new phenomenon in human history. Its first beginnings hearken back to S Mesopotamia of the fourth millennium BC, and then somewhat later in Egypt. Our own alphabet developed under Egyptian influence and its origins are to be found among Sem miners in the Sinai during the first half of the second millennium BC. Consequently, the original meaning of this root cannot logically have been ‘to write’.« Rather, the ComSem √KTB seems to have carried a meaning like *‘to prick, cut’ (Huehnergard2011: WSem *√KTB ‘to prick, cut; later, to write’) or *‘to draw together, bring together, conjoin’, preserved in several ClassAr derivations as well as in MSA katībaẗ [v3]. This KTB is possibly based on a biconsonantal root *KT ‘to be/make tight, tie together, conjoin’ etc. or (Bohas) an etymon {b,k}. Whether the notion of ‘writing’ [v1] is derived from this *KTB, and if so, how, is still not clear (but cf. suggestions in DISC, below). In any case, it seems to be a NWSem innovation which later was borrowed into Ar and SSem. If it is not a development from ‘to draw, bind together’, one can think of Akk takāpu ‘to pierce, puncture, stich; to cover with dots, spots’ as its most likely ancestor. – [v2] ‘school’ is traditionally seen to be derived from [v1] ‘to write’, as a transfer from the pl. of the PA I (‘the writing ones’) to the place where pupils sit and are tought how to write. But this seems doubtful and a derivation from ‘to draw, bind together’ (as in the case of katībaẗ) should not be excluded beforehand. 
    – 
    ▪ For v1 ↗kataba
    ▪ For v3 ↗katībaẗ 
    ▪ Nöldeke1905708 thought that “KTB ist ursprünglich wohl ‘stechen’, daher [v1] ‘einritzen, schreiben’ (wie [Gr] gráphein); Syr maḵtəbā ‘Pfriem’ (noch heute im Ṭūr ʕAbdīn üblich, Priem-Socin 132). Von ‘Stechen’ kommt man zum [v3] ‘Nähen’; daher das maghrebinische maktūb ‘Tasche’ (s. Dozy).”
    ▪ In a similar vein, Huehnergard2011 thinks the meaning of *KTB, which he classifies as a WSem root, was ‘to prick, cut’, and from there [v1] ‘to write’.
    ▪ [v3] Fleischer1927709 argues that a comparison of the roots KTː (KTT), KṮː (KṮṮ), KTB, KṮB, KTF, KṮF, KTM, KṮM, etc. unquestionably suggests, for the biconsonantal base KTː, KṮː, a basic meaning of ‘dicht sein und machen, anschließen, verbinden, zusammenhalten, zusammenbringen usw.’
    ▪ [v3] Bohas2012: ‘nouer et serrer fortement avec une ficelle ou une courroie l’orifice de l’outre; boucler une femelle, c.-à-d. lui mettre une boucle sur le derrière pour l’empêcher de recevoir le mâle’: from etymon {b,k}.
    ▪ On the question how [v1] ‘to write’ may have developed from [v3] ‘to draw together, bring together, conjoin’—Jeffery1938 mentions that already Buhl tried to connect the two values710 —, Rolland2014 suggests that it was »[p]robablement par un glissement de sens comparable à celui que nous avons relevé plus haut pour le latin lego et le grec λεγω [legô]. / Hasardons une explication: l’acte d’écrire se caractérise par le fait qu’il consiste à relier des lettres les unes aux autres, des mots les uns aux autres, des phrases les unes aux autres, pour constituer un texte, c’est-à-dire, littéralement, un tissu. Lorsque, plus tard, viendra le moment de relier les uns aux autres des feuillets écrits, on voit que la langue arabe aura deux bonnes raisons de recourir à la racine K-T-B pour désigner cette activité.«711
    ▪ However, it may be simpler to think of a book or another piece of writing as a ‘record’ in which the writer ‘(re-) collects’ information, thoughts etc. or where these are ‘brought/sewn together’.
    ▪ The problem poses itself differently, and can perhaps be solved in an easier (and more convincing?) way if we assume, with Nöldeke1905 and Huehnergard2011, that the original meaning of the root is ‘to prick, cut’ (for which we would also have to compare, with metathesis, Akk takāpu ‘to pierce, puncture, stich; to cover with dots, spots’). Should this be true then both [v1] ‘to write’ and [v3] ‘to sew (together)’ could be seen as developed from there, the first as ‘to prick’ > ‘to carve (signs into stone, wood, etc.)’ > ‘to write’; the second as ‘to prick’ > ‘to perforate (leather, textiles, etc.)’ > ‘to sew’ > ‘to sew together’ (whence, on yet another level, ‘to bind together, conjoin’ > ‘squadron’). 
    – 
    – 
    katab‑ كَتَبَ , u (katb , kitbaẗ , kitābaẗ
    ID 735 • Sw – • BP 357 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KTB 
    vb., I 
    1 to write, pen, write down, put down in writing, note down, inscribe, enter, record, book, register, (ʕanhu from s.o.’s dictation). – 2 to compose, draw up, indite, draft. – 3 to bequeath, make over by will (s.th. li‑ to s.o.). – 4 to give written orders (bi‑ to do sth.). – 5 to prescribe (s.th. ʕalà to s.o.). – 6 to foreordain, destine (s.th. li‑ or ʕalà to s.o.; of God) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ The traditional view, based on Jeffery’s analysis, sees the notion of ‘writing’ as a borrowing from Aram, perhaps (or probably) with kitāb ‘scripture’ as the primary borrowing from which all other related items derive.
    ▪ Within Sem, the meaning ‘to write’ of the root KTB seems to be WSem (Huehnergard) or, more specifically, a NW Sem invention. (It is found also in SSem—a fact that lets Pennacchio think it may be ComSem—but the SSem forms are with all probability loans from Ar.)
    ▪ Where the NW Sem value ‘to write’ had its origin is still unclear. While there have been attempts to derive it from ‘to draw together, bring together, conjoin’ (a meaning preserved in ClassAr), without however fully convincing explanations as to the semantic relation between both, Huehnergard2011 and before him Nöldeke1909, hold that it developed from an earlier meaning ‘to prick, cut’ (cf. ↗KTB).
    ▪ Should that be the case, this would be a nice bridge to yet another suggestion, which connects Ar kataba ‘to write’ with (by metathesis) Akk takāpu ‘to prick, puncture, perforate; to sew; to cut a cuneiform sign’.
    ▪ One could think of katībaẗ ‘squadron’ as derived from ‘to write’ (< ‘conscription’, or ‘to inscribe o.s. in an (army-) list of recipients of stipends and maintenance’), but this is generally rejected, see ↗katībaẗ.
    ▪ v2 through v6 are later specialisations and fig. use, developed from v1. 
    lC6 ‘to write’ already in pre-Islamic poetry (Polosin1995).
    ▪ eC7 Of frequent occurrence in the Q, always meaning ‘to write’. – »Besides the verb we should note the derived forms in the Qurʔān – kitāb a ‘book, writing’ (pl. kutub), kātib ‘one who writes’, maktūb ‘written, ĭktataba ‘to cause to be written’, and kātaba ‘to write a contract of manumission’.« (Jeffery1938) 
    DRS 10 (2012)#KTB: Ug ktb, Phn ktb, Hbr kātab, oEmpAram Palm Nab *ktb, JP kᵉtab.181
    ▪ Apart from a possible derivation from kataba in the extinct meaning of ‘to draw together, bring together, conjoin’, Rolland2014 mentions Akk takāpu ‘piquer, percer, perforer; coudre; imprimer un signe cunéiforme’ as “probable cognate, if not ancestor” of Ar kataba in the sense of ‘to write’. Cf. also CAD, s.v. tikpu ‘dot, spot’: tikip santakki ‘cuneiform writing’. 
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »The word appears to be a NSem development and found only as a borrowed term in SSem. Hbr kāṯaḇ, Aram kṯaḇ, Syr kṯaḇ, Nab ktb, and Phoen ktb all mean ‘to write’, and with them Buhl compares Ar kataba ‘to draw or sew together’.712 – The borrowing was doubtless from Aram,713 and Fraenkel, Fremdw, 249, thinks that the borrowed word was kitāb, which like Eth [Gz] kətāb came from Aram ktbʔ, Syr kətābā, and that then the verb and other forms developed from this. The borrowing may have taken place at al-Ḥīra, whence the art of writing spread among the Arabs,714 but as both nominal and verbal forms are common in Nab (cf. RES, ii, 464; iii, 443), it may have been an early borrowing from NArabia.«
    EALL (Retsö, »Aramaic/Syriac Loanwords«715 ): Ar katab‑ ‘to write’ loaned from synonymous Syr kᵉṯaḇ.
    ▪ Pennacchio2014 contends Jeffery’s view and holds that, given the wide distribution of the meaning ‘to write’ in Sem and its development in Ar, it may be Common Sem. In any case, if it is a borrowing it is pre-Islamic.
    ▪ If not from Aram but from Akk, (Mesopotamian cuneiform) ‘writing’ would originally have been addressed as the ‘dots, spots’ with which a clay tablet was ‘sprinkled’ (like, e.g., a skin of a leopard). The metathesis that we would have to assume in this case (Akk tkp > Ar ktb) is unproblematic since it is a common phenomenon (found already in Akk itself). 
    – 
    kataba kitābahū, vb. I, to draw up the marriage contract for s.o., marry s.o. (li‑ to): Given the fact that the vn. used in this connection is katb rather than kitābaẗ, the drawing up of a marriage contract may originally have had less to do with signing a written document but with bringing two people together (the older/other meaning of kataba, preserved in ClassAr, cf. ↗katībaẗ.)
    kutiba, vb. I pass., to be fated, be foreordained, be destined (li‑ to s.o.) | kutiba ʕalà nafsihī ʔan, vb. I pass., to be firmly resolved to…, make it one’s duty to…

    kattaba, vb. II, to make write: caus.; to form or deploy in squadrons (troops): denom. from ↗katībaẗ.
    kātaba, vb. III, to keep up a correspondence, exchange letters, correspond (‑hū with s.o.): assoc.
    ʔaktaba, vb. IV, to dictate, make (s.o.) write (s.th.): caus.
    takātaba, vb. VI, to write to each other, exchange letters, keep up a correspondence: recipr.
    ĭnkataba, vb. VII, to subscribe: *‘to write o.’s name (into a list), or denom. from ↗katībaẗ ?
    ĭktataba, vb. VIII, to write (s.th.); to copy (s.th.), make a copy (of s.th.): autobenefactive; to enter one’s name; to subscribe (li‑ for); to contribute, subscribe (bi‑ money li‑ to); to be entered, be recorded, be registered: from kataba or denom. from ↗katībaẗ ?
    ĭstaktaba, vb. X, to ask (s.o.) to write (s.th.); to dictate (s.th. to s.o.), make (s.o.) write (s.th.); to have a copy made (by s.o.): requestative.

    BP#196kitāb, pl. kutub, n., piece of writing, record, paper; letter, note, message; document, deed; contract (esp. marriage contract); book; al-kitāb, n.def., the Koran; the Bible: a loan from Aram/Syr? See DISC above. | ʔahl al-kitāb, n., the people of the Book, the adherents of a revealed religion, the kitabis, i.e., Christians and Jews; kitāb al-zawāǧ, n., marriage contract; kitāb al-ṭalāq, n., bill of divorce; kitāb taʕlīmī, n., textbook; kitāb al-ĭʕtimād credentials (dipl.); dār al-kitāb, n.f., library
    kutubī, pl. ‑iyyaẗ, n., bookseller, bookdealer: nsb-adj from kutub, pl. of kitāb.
    kitābḫānaẗ and kutubḫānaẗ, n.f., library; bookstore: composed of Ar kitāb ‘book’ + Pers ḫāne ‘house’.
    kuttāb, pl. katātībᵘ, n., kuttab, Koran school (lowest elementary school): ?
    kutayyib, pl. ‑āt, n., booklet: dimin. of kitāb.
    BP#966kitābaẗ, n.f., (act or practice of) writing; art of writing, penmanship; system of writing, script: lexicalized vn. I; inscription; writing, legend; placard, poster; piece of writing, record, paper: resultative; secretariat; written amulet, charm; pl. kitābāt, writings, essays; kitābatan, adv., in writing.
    kitābī, adj., written, in writing; clerical; literary; scriptural, relating to the revealed Scriptures (Koran, Bible); kitabi, adherent of a revealed religion; the written part (of an examination): nsb-adj from kitāb.
    BP#2711katībaẗ, pl. katāʔibᵘ, n., 1 squadron, brigade; battalion (Eg., Syr., Jord., mil.); corps; (Eg.) name of Islamic youth groups: from ‘to write’ or and earlier offspring? See separate entry ↗katībaẗ. – 2 (piece of) writing, record, paper, document; written amulet: pseudo-PP.f.
    katāʔibī, adj., pertaining to the Phalange Party (Leb.): nsb-adj from katāʔibᵘ, pl. of ↗katībaẗ (1), see above.
    BP#565maktab, pl. makātibᵘ, n., office; bureau; business office; study; school, elementary school; department, agency, office; desk: n.loc.
    maktabī, adj., office (in compounds) : nsb-adj from maktab, see above.
    BP#1830maktabaẗ, pl. ‑āt, makātibᵘ, n., library; bookstore; (writing) desk; literature: n.loc.
    miktāb, n., typewriter: n.instr.
    mukātabaẗ, n.f., exchange of letters, correspondence: vn. III.
    ĭktitāb, n., enrollment, registration, entering (of one’s name); — (pl. ‑āt) subscription; contribution (of funds): vn. VIII.
    ĭstiktāb, n.,dictation: vn. X.
    ĭstiktābī, adj.: nsb-adj from ĭstiktāb, see above | ʔālaẗ ĭstiktābiyyaẗ, n., dictaphone.
    BP#719kātib, pl. ‑ūn, kuttāb, katabaẗ, n., writer; scribe, scrivener; secretary; clerk typist; office worker, clerical employee; clerk, registrar, actuary, court clerk; notary; writer, author: nominalized lexicalized PA I.
    kātibaẗ, pl. ‑āt, woman secretary; authoress, writer: nominalized lexicalized PA I.f.
    BP#1835maktūb, adj., written, written down, recorded; fated, foreordained, destined (li‑ or ʕalà to s.o.); n., s.th. written, writing; — (pl. makātībᵘ) a writing, message, note; letter : PP I.
    mukātib, n., correspondent; (newspaper) reporter: nominalized lexicalized PA III.
    muktatib, n., subscriber: nominalized lexicalized PA VIII. 

    kuttāb كُتّاب , pl. katātībᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KTB 
    n. 
    kuttab, Koran school (lowest elementary school) – WehrCowan1979. 
    The traditional explanation as a figurative use of the pl. of the PA of ↗kataba —‘writing ones, writers’ > ‘place where people/pupils who write are to be found, school’—cannot be accepted without some hesitation. On the other side, the nominal pattern FuʕʕāL for a n. in the sg. is rare and would be difficult to explain. 
    lC8 Ḫalīl b. ʔAḥmad, K. al-ʕAyn : maǧmaʕ ṣibyān al-muʕallim, cf. also Asās 386 b 17f.; Ibn Saʕd III 2, 103, 7.9; Buḫ. IV 326, 1; etc. (WKAS). 
    … 
    ▪ Lane summarizes the Class lexicographers’ opinions as follows: »‘school, place where the art of writing is taught’; accord. to Mbr and F, the assigning this signification to the latter word is an error; it being a pl. of kātib and signifying, accord. to Mbr, the ‘boys of a school’: in the A it is said, this word is said to signify the boys, not the place: but al-Šihāb says, in the Šarḥ al-šifa, that it occurs in this sense in the classical language, and is not to be regarded as a postclassical word: it is said to be originally a pl. of kātib, and to be fig[uratively] employed to signify a ‘school’.«
    ▪ This explanation seems to be doubtful. But to regard the word as a genuine sg. of the FuʕʕāL type is not much more convincing either since the pattern is very rare and, alongside with kuttāb, there exists, with almost identical meaning, the n.loc. maktab. A plausible explanation would have to account for this parallelism and the choice of the FuʕʕāL pattern. In any case, if the traditional etymology should not be true, then one could think of a derivation, like that of katībaẗ, from kataba in the sense, now extinct, of ‘to draw together, bind together’ (similar to ǧāmiʕaẗ, lit. ‘the uniting one’, for ‘university’), see ↗katībaẗ
    – 
    – 
    katībaẗ كَتِيبَة , pl. katāʔibᵘ 
    ID 736 • Sw – • BP 2711 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KTB 
    n.f. 
    1 squadron, brigade; battalion (Eg., Syr., Jord., mil.); corps; (Eg.) name of Islamic youth groups – WehrCowan1979. – 2 For another meaning see DERIV of ↗kataba
    From kataba in the sense (now extinct) of ‘to draw together, bring together, conjoin’, cf. ↗KTB. 
    lC6 Huḏ. 38,9; 74,27; 143,1 etc. (WKAS). – ʕAntarah b. Šaddād 5,5: fawqa kulli katībatin liwāʔun; 7,8: nulāqī katībatan tuṭāʕinunā; 19,10; 23,13; 32,2: wa-katībatun labbastuhā bi-katībatin šahbāʔa bāsilatin; 32,12; 143, 22: law ʔannī laqītu katībatan sabʔīna ʔalfan mā rahibtu liqāhā; pl. 5,5; 19,10; 47,14: lā kuḥla ʔillā min ġubāri ’l-katāʔibi – (all): ‘group of warriors, horsemen’ (отряд воинов, всадников: Polosin1995). 
    ▪ ClassAr has preserved the older meaning of kataba (obsolete in MSA) of ‘to draw together, bring together, conjoin’. Besides the vb. I which is often used in connection with female camels or mules and then means ‘to conjoin the oræ of the mule’s vulva by means of a ring or a thong, to close the camel’s vulva (and put a ring upon it, conjoining the oræ, in order that she might not be covered’, ‘to sew (s.th.) together with two thongs, close (s.th.) at the mouth, by binding it round (with s.th.), so that nothing (of its contents) should drop from it’, cf. e.g., kattaba, vb. II, (al-nāqaẗ) to tie the udder of the camel; takattaba, vb. V, to gird o.s. and draw together o.’s garments upon o.s.’; ĭktataba (vn. ĭktitāb or kitbaẗ), vb. VIII, (inter al.), to be suppressed (urine); to be constipated, or costive, suffer from constipation’; kutbaẗ, pl. kutab, n., 1. thong with which one sews s.th., esp. also that with which the vulva of a camel (or a mule) is closed in order that she may not be covered; 2. seam, suture (in a skin or hide, made by sewing together two edges so that one laps over the other]; qirbaẗ katīb skin that is sewed with two thongs, closed at the mouth, so that nothing [of its contents] may drop from it (Lane vii). 
    Rolland2014716 : from kataba in the proper sense of ‘to draw together, bring together, conjoin’, cf. ↗KTB. “Comme la legio latine, [katībaẗ ] est une troupe dont les membres sont ‘reliés, attachés, liés’ les uns aux autres […], un groupe d’hommes fortement unis autour d’un chef, et avec un objectif commun”. 
    – 
    katībaẗ al-salām, n., Peace Corps.
    katībaẗ naǧdaẗ, n., military auxiliary corps.
    ḥizb al-katāʔib, n., the Phalange Party (Leb.).
    katāʔibī, adj., pertaining to the Phalange Party (Leb.): nsb-adj from katāʔibᵘ, pl. of katībaẗ.

    kattaba, vb. II, to form or deploy in squadrons (troops): denom. – For another meaning see ↗kataba.

    Perhaps also
    ĭnkataba, vb. VII, to subscribe: perhaps denom. from katībaẗ rather than pass. of ‘to write’. – For another meaning see ↗kataba.
    ĭktataba, vb. VIII, to enter one’s name; to subscribe (li‑ for); to contribute, subscribe (bi‑ money li‑ to); to be entered, be recorded, be registered: perhaps denom. from katībaẗ rather than refl. of ‘to write’? In ClassAr it has the meaning, among others, of ‘to register o.s. in the sultan’s army-list, or stipendiaries’. – For other meanings see ↗kataba.
    ĭktitāb, n., enrollment, registration, entering (of one’s name); — (pl. ‑āt) subscription; contribution (of funds): vn. VIII.
    muktatib, n., subscriber: nominalized lexicalized PA VIII. 

    maktabaẗ مَكْتَبَة 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 1830 • APD … • © SG | created 8Jun2023
    √KTB  
    n.f. 
    ▪ n.loc.f 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    KTM كتم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
    √KTM 
    “root” 
    ▪ KTM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KTM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KTM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to hide, to conceal; to restrain, to suppress, to smother; to be silent’ 
    ▪ … 
    KṮB كثب 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
    √KṮB 
    “root” 
    ▪ KṮB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KṮB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KṮB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘nearness, proximity, to approach; to heap up, to collect; sand dunes; small amount’ 
    ▪ … 
    KṮR كثر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KṮR 
    “root” 
    ▪ KṮR_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ KṮR_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to increase in number, to outnumber, to happen frequently; to show pride in wealth and/or children; to be rich, plentiful, abundance; river’ 
    ▪ From protSem *√KṮR ‘to succeed, achieve, be(come) suitable, proper’ – Huehnergard2011.
    … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl kosherkaṯīr
    – 
    kaṯīr كَثِير 
    ID 737 • Sw 10/95 • BP 55 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KṮR 
    adj. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl kosher, from Ashkenazic Hbr kóšer ‘proper’, from Hbr kāšēr ‘dto.’, from kāšēr ‘to succeed, be(come) proper, suitable’, akin to Ar ↗kaṯīr
     
    KḤL كحل 
    ID 738 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KḤL 
    “root” 
    ▪ KḤL_1 ‘(to be/make) dark, black; to blind; (to apply) antimony (to the eyelids); tar, pitch; horse of noblest breed; alcohol, spirit, essence; medial arm vein’ ↗kaḥ˅l‑ (kaḥl, kaḥal), kuḥl .
    ▪ KḤL_2 ‘to be infertile’ : ↗ kaḥl .
    ▪ KḤL_3 ‘black’ (sometimes ‘green; blue’) ↗ʔakḥalᵘ .
    ▪ KḤL_4 ‘a variety of blueweed (Echium cericeum V.; bot.) [Natterkopf]’ ↗kaḥlāʔ (EgAr).
    ▪ KḤL_5 ‘pointing, filling or grouting [Verfugung] of the joints [Fugen] (of a wall; masonry)’ ↗kuḥlaẗ (EgAr).
    ▪ KḤL_6 ‘anklebone’ ↗kāḥil
    – 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ The distinction made here between KḤL_1 and KḤL_3 follows DRS 10 (2012), s.v. kḥl, who separates the values ‘antimony; to apply antimony’ and ‘black; (sometimes also) green, blue’) as kḥl-1 and kḥl-2, respectively. Etymologically, however, the two may be related, or even essentially one item, given the fact that in earlier times kuḥl‑ was not necessarily a black substance but “a general term for any eye cosmetic” and, when denoting a mineral, referred to a lead ore or a mixture of several minerals, e.g., “galena, pyrolusite, brown ochre or malachite” (Wiedemann/Allan), rather than antimony sulphide, ↗kuḥl. – DRS does not mention the values ‘infertile’, ‘anklebone’, ‘blueweed’, and ‘pointing, filling or grouting the joints’. Semantic relation between KḤL_1 and these remains unclear.
    ▪ KḤL_2 is probably figurative use of KḤL_1 or KḤL_3, an infertile year being a ‘black/dark’ year.
    ▪ KḤL_4 may be related to the ‘dark colour’ of KḤL_1 or, more probably even, the ‘green‑, blueness’ of KḤL_3, the plant having its name from its colour (cf. also the morphological aspect: kaḥlāʔ is the f. of ʔakḥal).
    ▪ KḤL_5 and KḤL_6 may have the same etymon, *‘to connect (two or more parts), bridge (the gap between them)’. Any relation to KḤL_1 and/or KḤL_3? 
    ▪ Engl kohl, alcoholkuḥl
    – 
    kaḥ˅l‑ كحل , kaḥal‑ كَحَلَ : u , a (kaḥl); kaḥil‑ كَحِلَ : a (kaḥal
    ID 739 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KḤL 
    vb., I 
    kaḥal- u, a (kaḥl): to rub, paint or smear with kohl (the edges of the eyelids) – WehrCowan1979.; to put out, blind (an eye with a heated nail etc.), blind “en faisant passer entre ses paupières, après l’avoir fait rougir au feu, le poinçon d’argent […] que l’on emploie ordinnairement pour appliquer sur les yeux la galène ou sulfure de plomb, kuḥl, destinée à leur donner plus d’éclat et de brillant”1 – Dozy; to be infertile (year); to bring misery, harm the people (an infertile year) – Freytag.
    kaḥil- a (kaḥal): to have (by nature) black eyelids (or eyes) (that do not need to be coloured with kohl) – Lane.
    For other meanings ↗ʔakḥalᵘ
    Usually held to be denominative from ↗kuḥl. But while kaḥal‑ indeed is most likely to be dependent on kuḥl, the intransitive vb. kaḥil‑ is perhaps better to be connected to ↗ʔakḥalᵘ than to ↗kuḥl, a distinction inspired by the separation of kuḥl and ʔakḥalᵘ in DRS
    C6 ʕAntara b. Šaddād 78,2 lā kuḥilat ʔaǧfānu ʕaynī bi’l-karā (Polosin 413). 
    Cf. ↗kuḥl , ↗ʔakḥalᵘ
    Most dictionaries and relevant studies regard the verb(s) kaḥ˅l‑ as denominatives from ↗kuḥl. It is true that the modern transitive kaḥal-‑ seems to be very close to an intransitive kaḥil‑, now obsolete. Yet, while the former quite probably is such a denominative, the latter, though showing a great deal of semantic overlapping, may ultimately go back to a different etymon, ↗ʔakḥalᵘ. (often not ‘black’, but ‘blue’ or ‘green’).
    The semantic connection between the ‘blackness/darkness’ of kuḥl and the old values of kaḥal‑, noted by Dozy and Freytag, of ‘infertility’ and, hence, ‘misery, calamity’, is not explained in the dictionaries, but it seems unproblematic to assume figurative use of the language. 
    – 
    kaḥḥala II, vb. to rub, paint or smear with kohl (the edges of the eyelids): ↗kuḥl. – to prevent from seeing, blind s.o. : as a consequence of the application of kuḥl, or of the “poinçon d’argent” mentioned by Dozy (see above), or figurative use, i.e. *make (the world appear) black (for one’s eyes)?.
    takaḥḥala, vb. V, to color the edges of one’s eyelids with kohl, smear one’s eyelids with a salve of antimony, etc.; to have eyelids that are coloured with kohl : ↗kuḥl; to be refreshed, enlivened: ↗ʔakḥalᵘ; to be covered with freshly blossoming plants: ↗ʔakḥalᵘ, ↗kaḥlāʔᵘ.
    iktaḥala, vb. VIII: = V.
    (unless itself the etymon) kuḥl , n. antimony; kohl : ↗s.v.
    kaḥal, n. black coloring (of the edges) of the eyelids : vn. of kaḥil‑.
    kaḥil, adj., pl. kaḥlā, kaḥāʔilᵘ darkened with kohl, dyed black (eyelids) : deverbative, or from ↗kuḥl‑ ?.
    kuḥl, n. antimony, kohl : probably the etymon of kaḥal‑, perhaps also of kaḥil‑.
    kuḥlī, adj. dark blue, navy blue: nsb-adj. from ↗kuḥl‑.
    ʔakḥalᵘ, adj., f. kaḥlāʔᵘ, pl. kuḥl, black (eye); al-ʔakḥal n. medial arm vein: ↗s.v..
    kaḥīl, adj., pl. kaḥāʔilᵘ, kaḥlā, black, dyed black, darkened with kohl (eyelid): ints. adj.; n. horse of noblest breed: so called because of its blackness, or the blackness of its eyes?.
    kuḥūl, n. alcohol, spirit: ↗s.v..
    kuḥūlī, adj. alcoholic, spirituous: nsb-adj. from ↗kuḥūl.
    kuḥayl, n. tar, pitch (Wahrmund: Erdpech) (in the dialect of Ḥiǧāz: lane): *the dark black thing (?).
    kuḥaylī and kuḥaylān, adj.,n., pl. kuḥāl, kaḥāʔilᵘ horse of noblest breed: nominalized nsb-adj. and ints. formation, from ↗kuḥayl, i.e., < *the tarry one, or *the horse with the dark black eyes (?).
    kiḥāl, n. antimony powder, eye powder:.
    kaḥḥāl, n. eye doctor, oculist (old designation): n.prof. from ↗kuḥl‑.
    mikḥal and mikḥāl n. kohl stick, pencil for darkening the eyelids: n.instr. from ↗kuḥl‑.
    mukḥulaẗ, n.f., pl. makāḥilᵘ kohl container, kohl jar: ↗kuḥl; solar quadrant: ↗s.v.; (syr.) rifle, gun: ↗s.v..
    takḥīl II, vn. treatment of the eyes with kohl: ↗kuḥl
    kaḥl كَحْل 
    ID 740 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KḤL 
    n. 
    OBSinfertile year, year of draught, barrenness, dearth; hard year; calamity, misery. Lane, Wahrmund. – For ‘sky’ ↗ʔakḥalᵘ
    Distinct from ↗kaḥ˅l‑, ↗kuḥl, and ↗ʔakḥalᵘ, or going back to the same etymon? If the latter, kaḥl would be figurative use, an infertile year being a ‘black’ or ‘dark’ year. 
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    – 
    kaḥala, a, vb. I, to be infertile (year) and cause damage to the people: denominative? 
    kuḥl كُحْل , pl. ʔakḥāl 
    ID 741 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KḤL 
    n. 
    antimony; kohl, a preparation of pulverized antimony used for darkening (the edges of) the eyelids; any preparation for coloring the eyelids – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ The word is either a common Sem n. (Huehnergard2011: *kux̣l‑, *gux̣l‑powder of antimony’) or a WSem term (from which Akk guḫl‑ then would be a loan). Semantic relation with the colour adj. ↗ʔakḥal ‘black’ (sometimes also ‘green; blue’) is likely, but still rather unclear.
    ▪ The unclarity may stem from the usual identification of kuḥl with black, or dark, colour, which however is not necessarily the case, as Wiedemann/Allen1980 show in their entry in EI2. kuḥl, they say, is “synonymous in the Arabic and Persian geographical sources with ↗iṯmid and surma”, a mineral mined at the time mainly in Iran. Quite significantly, none of the geographical sites where antimony is mined today is identical with the places where the primary sources of kuḥl were located in the past. There is reason to believe, therefore, that kuḥl originally is not necessarily antimon, but something else, most probably some lead ore, or a mixture of several minerals. “In this connection it should be noted,” Wiedemann/Allen continue, “that while it had generally been assumed that eye-paint in ancient Egypt had an antimony base, A. Lucas (Ancient Egyptian materials and industries, revised by J. R. Harris, 1962, 195-9) showed by analysis that it in fact consisted of galena, pyrolusite, brown ochre or malachite, and only in one instance, of antimony sulphide.” Cf. also Dozy who, on the authority of a French source of 1849,124 defines kuḥl as: “la galène ou sulfure de plomb. […] C’est à tort que plusieurs auteurs ont traduit le mot […] par antimoine”.
    kuḥl “also had a specifically medical function as an eye unguent, particulars of which are to be found in Ibn al-Bayṭār and other such writers. From this function comes the idea of al-kaḥḥāl, ophthalmist” – Wiedemann/Allen1980.
    kuḥl is also the Arabic source of our alcohol. “From a fine powder used to stain the eyelids, it came by extension to mean any fine impalpable powder produced by trituration or sublimation, and hence was applied to fluids of the idea of sublimation—an essence, quintessence or ‘spirit’ obtained by distillation or rectification.”
    ▪ See also ↗kuḥūl
    C6 ʕAntara b. Šaddād 47,14: lā kuḥla ʔillā min ġubāri ’l-katāʔibi ’▪ …’ (Polosin 413). 
    DRS 10 (2012), s.v. kḥl‑1, groups the n. Hbr koḥel, kuḥlā, JP kōḥᵃlā, Ar kuḥl ‘fard pour les yeux’, Akk guḫl‑ ‘pâte d’antimoine’ and Mhr kēḥel, Ḥars eḥel, Soq keḥel ‘kḥol, antimoine’, together with the vb. Hbr kāḥal ‘se farder les yeux’, Te käḥala, Tña kʷäḥalä, Amh kʷalä ‘enduire ses paupières avec de l’antimoine’, but sees this value distinct from kḥl‑2, represented only by Ar ↗ʔakḥal ‘black’, sometimes also ‘green; blueʷ’ (and the f. ↗kaḥlāʔ , a ‘blueweed’). 
    ▪ While Huehnergard2011 holds that the word goes back to a Sem n. *kux̣l‑, also *gux̣l‑ ‘(powder of) antimony’, DRS 10 (2012) seems to regard it as a WSem term (from which the Akk form probably is a loan).
    ▪ In contrast, Halloran717 holds that Akk guḫlu is a loan from the Sum expression for ‘Evil Eye’ which is composed of igi ‘eye’ and ḫul ‘bad, evil; hated; hostile, malicious’, so that one could think of the Akk term as the result of a loan with transfer of meaning from ‘Evil Eye’ to the powder/substance that was used to protect against it. Should this be correct, the WSem words would be dependent on the Akk term. Difficult to proove. 
    ▪ Engl kohl ‘powder used to darken eyelids,’ 1799, from Ar kuḥl (EtymOnline).
    kuḥl is also the ultimate source of our alcohol. “From a fine powder used to stain the eyelids, it came by extension to mean any fine impalpable powder produced by trituration or sublimation, and hence was applied to fluids of the idea of sublimation—an essence, quintessence or ‘spirit’ obtained by distillation or rectification.”
     
    kaḥala, u, a (kaḥl), vb. I, to rub, paint or smear with kohl (the edges of the eyelids), and kaḥila, a (kaḥal), vb. I, to have eye(lid)s that are coloured with kohl: probably denominative. – For other meanings ↗kaḥl, ↗ʔakḥalᵘ.
    kaḥḥala, vb. II = I : denominative
    takaḥḥala, vb. V, to color the edges of one’s eyelids with kohl, smear one’s eyelids with a salve of antimony, etc.; have eye(lid)s that are coloured with antimony: reflexive of II; to be refreshed, enlivened: from kuḥl (*‘feel/look fresher, as a result of the application of antimony), or from kaḥl (a green plant) (↗ʔakḥalᵘ) (?)
    iktaḥala vb. VIII = V.
    kaḥil, adj., pl. kaḥlā, kaḥāʔilᵘ darkened with kohl, dyed black (eyelids): from kuḥl, or deverbative, from ↗kaḥVl‑ ?
    kuḥayl, n. tar, pitch (Wahrmund: Erdpech): *the little dark black thing (?), according to WKAS diminuitive (“ursprünglich humorist. Demin. zu kuḥlun, s. Fünf Moʿall. II 36 oben”).
    kuḥlī, adj. dark blue, navy blue: nsb-adj.
    kuḥaylī and kuḥaylān, adj.,n., pl. kuḥāl, kaḥāʔilᵘ horse of noblest breed: nominalized nsb-adj. and ints. formation, from ↗kuḥayl, i.e., < *the tarry one, or *the horse with the dark black eyes (?)
    kaḥḥāl, n. eye doctor, oculist [old designation]: denominative n.prof.
    mikḥal and mikḥāl, n. kohl stick, pencil for darkening the eyelids: n.instr.
    mukḥulaẗ, n.f., pl. makāḥilᵘ kohl container, kohl jar: n.instr.; solar quadrant: ↗s.v.; (syr.) rifle, gun: ↗s.v.
    takḥīl II, vn. treatment of the eyes with kohl’: denominative. 
    kuḥlaẗ كُحْلَة 
    ID 742 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KḤL 
    n.f. 
    (EgAr) pointing, filling or grouting of the joints (of a wall; masonry). WehrCowan1979. 
    Any connection with ↗kāḥil ‘anklebone’? 
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    Any connection with ↗kāḥil ? One could imagine the values ‘filling the joints (of a wall)’ and ‘anklebone’ being semantically related via the idea of connecting two separate items (bricks and bones, respectively) by some kind of “bridge”. 
    – 
    kaḥḥala, vb. II, to point, fill or grout the joints (of a wall; masonry) (Wahrmund): denominative. 
    kuḥūl كُحُول 
    ID 743 • Sw – • BP 6953 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KḤL 
    n. 
    alcohol, spirit – WehrCowan1979. 
    The word seems to be re-imported into Arabic during lC19 / eC20 from some European language, probably English, after it had been loaned from Ar (al‑)kuḥl into mLat and Span in Andalusia. 
    No entry in Freytag, Lane, Dozy, Wahrmund, Kazimirski. Cf. also the fact that Bocthor, in his Dictionnaire français–arabe (vol. 1, 1828), still suggests the descriptive rūḥ al-ʕaraq, obviously coined after Fr esprit de vin pur, which is given as the second meaning of alcohol while the first is still ‘poudre très-fin’ (rendered as kuḥl).
    lC19? First attestation in Ar still needed. 
    … 
    ▪ The word does not seem to be attested in Ar dictionaries before C20 and is therefore with all probability either a direct loan from a European language (Engl Fr alcohol ?) or an Ar creation, inspired by the European word, but made in awareness of the latter’s ultimately Ar etymology. The European words all go back to Ar (al‑) ↗kuḥl ‘(powdered ore of) antimony’ which was loaned into mLat and Span in Andalusia. While the original meaning is still preserved in mLat, the definition has already broadened in Span alcohol to ‘any fine powder produced by sublimation, powdered cosmetic’, and it is with this value that the word first appears in Engl in the 1540s (eC16 as alcofol). It broadened again in the 1670s “to ‘any sublimated substance, the pure spirit of anything’, including liquids.” The “modern sense of ‘intoxicating ingredient in strong liquor’ is first recorded 1753, short for alcohol of wine, which was extended to ‘the intoxicating element in fermented liquors.’ In organic chemistry, the word was extended 1850 to the class of compounds of the same type as this” – etymonline. When Ar kuḥl was replaced with kuḥūl is difficult to tell. In any case, Wiedemann/Allan think that “the more complicated process needed for the production of alcohol was probably introduced into the Islamic world from Europe, where it was first discovered in the 12th century.”
    ▪ According to Osman2002, the extension of meaning from ‘fine powder’ to ‘spirit of wine’ took place already “bei den arabischen Alchimisten in Spanien”, and the word is first attested in German with this meaning in 1616. From Wiedemann/Allan1980 we would have to infer that the extension had taken place already before lC10 in Andalusia, since “[s]ublimation and the distillation of drugs was known to K̲h̲alaf b. ʕAbbās al-Zahrawī (Abulcasis)”. Kluge2002, however, maintains that German Alkohol, when loaned from Span alcohol, still meant ‘fine powder’, and that it was Paracelsus (eC16) with whom it is first attested, initially as ‘s.th. fine, subtle’, then ‘essence’, as in alcohol vini ‘spirit of wine’, from where it spread and became part of international terminology. 
    kuḥūlī alcoholic, spirituous : nsb-adj. 
    ʔakḥalᵘ أَكْحَلُ , f. kaḥlāʔᵘ , pl. kuḥl 
    ID 744 • Sw –/14 • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KḤL 
    adj. 
    black (eye); al-ʔakḥal the medial arm vein16 – WehrCowan1979. 
    Etymology not clear: derived from ↗kuḥl, or a distinct item? Probably the latter. – The ‘medial arm vein’ seems to have got its name after its dark colour. 
    C6 ʕAntara b. Šaddād 54,16 ʔaḥwaru ʔakḥalu ʔazaǧǧu, 113,7 ʔan yabīta ʔasīra ṭarfin ʔakḥalī (Polosin1995: 413) 
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    DRS 10 (2012) separates this value (as kḥl-2) as distinct from ‘(to apply) antimony (to one’s eyelids’ (as kḥl-1) (↗kaḥ˅l‑, kuḥl), obviously on account of the fact that ʔakḥal often also is ‘green; blue’. Cf. also kaḥil‑ vb. I (and also IV, V, VIII, XI) ‘mit eben grünenden Pflanzen bedeckt sein’, the f. ↗kaḥlāʔᵘ which denotes a (mostly) blue plant (a variety of the borage or forget-me-not family, Boraginaceae), as well as kuḥaylāʔᵘ ‘Ochsenzunge’ and kaḥl pl. ʔakāḥilᵘ ‘ein Grüngewürz’ (Wahrmund). Interesting also the old value ‘sky’ (ibid.). – Procházka2006 seems to take the relation ʔakḥal < kuḥl ‘antimony’ for granted (as did already Fischer1965: 60, fn. 4: “von kuḥl ‘schwarze Augenschminke’ abgeleitet”), and Wahrmund defines ʔakḥal in the first place as ‘wer die Augenlider mit kuḥl schwarz gefärbt […] hat’; but this may only be a secondary phenomenon, a result of semantic interference and/or overlapping. Wahrmund also has the more general meaning ‘schwarzäugig; schwarz’ which is not necessarily connected to kuḥl, and ‘chrysoprase’, which is a greenish mineral.
    The ‘medial arm vein’ seems to be called al-ʔakḥal on account of its colour (thus Fischer1965: 284).† 
    – 
    kaḥila, a (kaḥal), vb. I (and also forms IV, V, VIII, XI), to be covered with fresh green plants: denominative, or itself the etymon of ʔakḥal‑ ?
    ʔakḥala, vb. IV = kaḥila a (kaḥal) above.
    takaḥḥala vb. V = kaḥila a (kaḥal) above.
    iktaḥala vb. VIII = kaḥila a (kaḥal) above.
    ikḥālla vb. XI = kaḥila a (kaḥal) above.
    kaḥlāʔᵘ f. a variety of blueweed: *the (dark) blue one (plant) (?) ↗s.v.
    kuḥayl, n. tar, pitch (Wahrmund: Erdpech): *the dark black thing (?); dimin. from ʔakḥal, ↗kaḥVla, or ↗kuḥl ?
    kuḥaylī and kuḥaylān, adj.,n. horse of noblest breed: nominalized nsb-adj. and ints. formation, from ↗kuḥayl, i.e., < *the tarry one, or *(the horse) with the dark black eyes (?) 
    kaḥlāʔᵘ كَحْلاءُ 
    ID 745 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KḤL 
    n. 
    (EgAr) a variety of blueweed (Echium cericeum V.; bot.) [Natternkopf] – WehrCowan1979. [Wahrmund1887: Ochsenzunge] 
    Feminine of ʔakḥalᵘ, the plant being called after its colour. (The borage or forget-me-not family, Boraginaceae, tends to have bluish flowers.) 
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    The form is obviously a feminine form of the colour adj. ↗ʔakḥalᵘ, the plant being called after its (blue) colour. – Cf. also kaḥaylāʔᵘ ‘Ochsenzunge’ and kaḥl pl. ʔakāḥilᵘ ‘ein Grüngewürz’ (Wahrmund). 
    ▪ See DISC. 
    takaḥḥala, vb. V, to be covered with freshly blossoming plants (Wahrmund1887): rather from ↗ʔakḥalᵘ than from kaḥlāʔᵘ
    kāḥil كاحِل , pl. kawāḥilᵘ 
    ID 746 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KḤL 
    n. 
    anklebone – WehrCowan1979. 
    Etymology unclear. 
    ▪ ….. 
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    Any connection with other items of √KḤL ? 
    – 
    – 
    KḪY كخي 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KḪY 
    “root” 
    ▪ KḪY_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ KḪY_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
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    – 
    – 
    kāḫiyaẗ كاخِيَة , var. kiḫyaẗ , pl. kawāḫiⁿ 
    ID 747 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KḪY 
    n.f. 
    butler, steward – WehrCowan1979. 
    A loan (via Turkish ketḫüdā ?) from nPers katḫudā < mPers kat(ak)ḫwatāi, a village chief or representative of a landowner among the farmers. 
    ▪ ….. 
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    Via Turkish ketḫüdā (‘1. A steward in a great man’s household, also a manager of a farm or estate. 2. A warden of a guild. 3. A bailiff of a village or ward. 4. An officious meddler’ – Redhouse1890) from NPers katḫudā‑ < mPers kat(ak)ḫʷatāi, a ‘village chief, or representative of a landowner among the farmers’. Another chain of tradition, mentioned by Eilers1962, resulted in a form with h‑ rather than ḫ:‑kāhiyaẗ‑
    – 
    – 
    kiḫyaẗ كِخْيَة , var. kāḫiyaẗ , pl. kawāḫiⁿ 
    ID 748 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KḪY 
    n.f. 
    butler, steward – WehrCowan1979. 
    Short for kāḫiyaẗ, a loan (via Turkish ketḫüdā ?) from nPers katḫudā < mPers kat(ak)ḫwatāi, a village chief or representative of a landowner among the farmers. 
    ▪ ….. 
    ▪ …
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    kāḫiyaẗ‑
    – 
    – 
    KDḤ كدح 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
    √KDḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ KDḤ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KDḤ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KDḤ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to scratch or scrape off the skin; to bite; to scratch a living; hardship; drudgery’ 
    ▪ … 
    KDR كدر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KDR 
    “root” 
    ▪ KDR_1 ‘turbidity, muddiness’ ↗kadar
    ▪ KDR_2 (KāDR) ‘cadre’ ↗kādir
    ▪ KDR_3 ‘Agadir’ ↗ʔAkādīr
    ▪ KDR_4 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be muddy, grimy, dreary; to b-~ troubled; cloud of dust; to assail, to scatter’ 
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    kadar كَدَر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KDR 
    n. 
    1 turbidity, muddiness, cloudiness, opaqueness, roiledness; 2 worry, sorrow, grief, distress, vexation, irritation, annoyance – WehrCowan1979. 
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    – 
    kadura, u, and kadira, a (kadar, kadāraẗ, kudūra, kudūr, kudraẗ), vb. I, to be turbid, roily, muddy, roiled (liquid)
    kadira, a, vb. I, 1 (kadar, kudraẗ) to be muddy, cloudy, blackish, clingy, flat, swarthy, grimy (color); 2 (kadar, kudūraẗ) to be dreary, unhappy (life); 3 to be angry (ʕalà with s.o.)
    kaddara, vb. II, 1 to render turbid, to roil, muddy (s.th.), trouble, disturb, spoil, ruffle (s.th., ʕalà for s.o., e.g., s.o.’s peace of mind): D-stem, caus.; 2 to grieve, worry, trouble, vex, irritate, annoy, molest, disturb, distress: fig. use of [v1].
    takaddara, vb. V, 1 to be turbid, roily, muddy, roiled, troubled: Dt-stem, intr. of kaddara; 2 to be angry, be sore (min at s.th.), feel offended, be annoyed, be displeased (min by s.th.), be peeved (min at, about): fig. use of [v1].
    ĭnkadara, vb. VII, 1 to become turbid, muddy, dull, flat; 2 to swoop down (bird)

    kudrat ̈
    , n.f., 1a turbidity, muddiness, cloudiness, roiledness, impurity; 1b dingy color, dinginess: …
    kadaraẗ, n.f., clod of dirt, filth
    kadir and kadīr, adj., 1a turbid, muddy, roily, roiled; 1b dull, flat, dingy, grimy (color); 2 worried, troubled, disturbed
    ʔakdarᵘ, f. kadrāʔᵘ, pl. kudr, adj., dingy, swarthy, dark-colored
    takdīr, n., 1 roiling, troubling, ruffling; 2 offending, offense, affront, indignity: vn. II.
    mutakaddir, adj., angry, sore, peeved (min at), annoyed, irritated, offended (min by): PA V.
     
    kādir كادِر , pl. kawādirᵘ 
    ID 749 • Sw – • BP 2840 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KDR, KāDR 
    n. 
    1a (Fr cadre) cadre (of a military unit, of a governmental agency, of a corporation, etc.), skeleton organization; 1b qualified and politically trained staff of personel (party); 1c (EgAr) payroll group (of officials, employees); 1d (AlgAr) functionaires, administrative officers – WehrCowan1979. 
    Loanword, from Engl cadre, from Fr cadre (see section WEST, below). 
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    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Cf. Engl cadre, n., ‘permanently organized framework of a military unit’ (the officers, etc., as opposed to the rank-and-file), 1851; earlier ‘framework, scheme’ (1830); from Fr cadre, lit. ‘a frame of a picture’ (C16), so, ‘a detachment forming the skeleton of a regiment,’ from It quadro, from Lat quadrum ‘a square,’ which related to quattuor ‘four’ (from protIE root *kwetwer‑ ‘four’). The communist sense ‘group or cell of workers trained to promote the interests of the Party’ is from 1930EtymOnline 
     
    KDY كدي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
    √KDY 
    “root” 
    ▪ KDY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KDY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KDY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘big boulder; obstacle; to deny assistance, be mean, (of water or plants) to cease to give, be sluggish’ 
    ▪ … 
    KḎB كذب 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
    √KḎB 
    “root” 
    ▪ KḎB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KḎB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KḎB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to lie, to deceive; to refute, to accuse of lying, to give the lie to; to run away from battle; to be wrong, to be wasted on, to fail to be up to a job; to be compulsory’ 
    ▪ … 
    *K-R- كـ ــ رــ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22Jan2023
    √*KR- 
    2-cons. root nucleus 
    ▪ DRS: « Séquence biconsonantique representée dans plusieurs racines ayant parmi leurs valeurs celles de
    • (1) ‘être rond, tourner’: KWR, KRR, KRKR;
    • (2) ‘creuser’: KRB, KRW/Y, KRR, KWR, KMR;17
    • (3) la même sequence est à la base de racines exprimant des sons ou des cris;
    • (4) la séquence peut être relevée aussi dans des racines liées à des termes concernant les membres et des parties du corps attenantes ; ces racines se différencient sémantiquement, les unes caractérisant les membres supérieurs (KRN et ses variantes, v. s. KRN(ʕ)), les autres les membres inférieurs (KRʕ et ses variantes). »
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See above, section ENGL.
    ▪ …
    … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ▪ According to DRS, the 2-cons. sequence is at the basis of several 3-cons. extensions:
    • (1) ‘être rond, tourner’: ↗KRː (KRR), ↗KRKR, ↗KWR;
    • (2) ‘creuser’: ↗KRː (KRR), ↗KRB, ↗KRW/Y, ↗KMR, ↗KWR;
    • (3) racines exprimant des sons ou des cris: ↗KRKR;
    • (4) membres et parties du corps (membres supérieurs: ↗KRN et variantes; membres inférieurs: ↗KRʕ et variantes).
    ▪ …
     
    KRː (KRR) كرّ/كرر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22Jan2023, last update 2Feb2023
    √KRː (KRR) 
    “root” 
    ▪ KRː (KRR)_1 ‘to rattle in the throat’ ↗¹karra
    ▪ KRː (KRR)_2 ‘to turn around and attack; to return, come back, recur; one time’ ↗²karra
    ▪ KRː (KRR)_3 ‘to clarify, purify, refine’ ↗karrara
    ▪ KRː (KRR)_4 ‘hundred thousand’ ↗karraẗ
    ▪ KRː (KRR)_5 ‘pantry, storeroom; cellar’ ↗karār
    ▪ KRː (KRR)_6 ‘spool, bobbin, reel’ ↗kur(r)āriyyaẗ

    Other values, now obsolete, include (WKAS I 1970, Hava1899, BK1860)

    KRː (KRR)_7 ‘corde tressée de feuilles ou de fibres (līf) de palmier (BK); rope, cable (for ascending the palm-tree) | rope used as a ladder; en général, corde, cordage, câble | cable’: ²karr (pl. karār, kirār, kurūr, ? ʔakrār); cf. also (=?) ³karr, n., (pl. ʔakrār) ‘cord, thong which holds together the two extremities of the camel’s saddle’
    KRː (KRR)_8 ‘carpet, mat | natte, drap ou tapis sur lequel on fait la prière’: karr (pl. ʔakrār, kurūr)
    KRː (KRR)_9 ‘cistern, subterranean reservoir | well | terrain un peu encaissé, creux dans le sable où l’eau demeure stagnante; puits; vivier’: ¹kurr (var. karr; pl. kirār)
    KRː (KRR)_10 ‘(dry measure equal to 60 qafīz or 6 ass-loads)’: ²ᵃkurr (pl. kirār)’; hence (?) also ²ᵇkurr ‘ass foal’?
    KRː (KRR)_11 ‘(a kind of stuff, coarse linen) | vêtement’: ³kurr
    KRː (KRR)_12 ‘(burnt) camel’s dung into which coats of mail are put for protection against rust | fiente pourrie des bestiaux employée pour polir les cuirasses’: kurraẗ
    KRː (KRR)_13 ‘cowrie used as an amulet | boule ou coquillage porté en guise de charme pour fasciner et se concilier l’amour’: kirār (Hava1899) ~ karār (BK1860)
    KRː (KRR)_ ‘…’: krr

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr according to BAH2008: ‘to return, repeat, turn around, day and night; to assail; to be undecided; cough’ 
    ▪ [gnrl] : The values attached to root √KRː (KRR) display a rather varied mixture of related and unrelated items. We can prob. identify three major complexes: (a) an onomatopoetic (?) one, imitating the *‘sound of rattling in the throat’, etc. (see value [v1]); unless simply a phon. var. of similar items with initial ǧ- instead of k- (see complex (c)), this complex may have been influenced (with regard to the recurrence/repetition implied in the rattling etc.) by a second complex, one expressing the basic idea of (b) *‘repetition, reiteration, returning, circularity’ (see [v2] > [v3],[v4], ?[v6], ?[v13]); a third complex has to do with (c) a *‘cord’, or ‘rope’, and/or ‘knitting’ (see [v7], ?>[v6], ?[v8],[v11]). The other values seem to be either loanwords ([v5], [v10]) or variants of words with initial ǧ- (so perh. also (a)) or of items that generally are ascribed to √KRW, √KRW/Y, or √KRY (see, e.g., [v9], ?[v13]), or are of obscure etymology (if reliably attested at all) (see [v12]).
    ▪ [v1] : The sound of a ‘rattle in the throat’ is not only expressed by ¹karra but also by the reduplicated stem ↗²karkara (also ‘to rumble’, said of the stomach, and ‘to murmur’, said of running water); as onomatopoetic imitations of a certain type of sounds, ¹karra and ²karkara are also close to ↗ǧarǧara ‘to gargle, rumble, clatter’ and ↗ġarġara ‘to gargle, gurgle, simmer, bubble’. With such meanings, the root is attested in Ar and EthSem (see DRS #KRR-9) and classified by Leslau among roots expressing « la voix ».125
    ▪ [v2] : If DRS (#KRR-1) is right, this value, too, has cognates only in EthSem where the Ar meaning ‘revenir sur ses pas, revenir à la charge’ (cf. also Tham kr ‘ramener, revenir’) is paralleled by the notions of ‘rouler (vers le bas)’ (Te kärara), ‘être rond’ (Tña kärärä), and ‘échafauder, mettre l’un sur l’autre’ (Amh kʷärrärä). DRS thinks that ²karra etc. « est une forme qui appartient aux usages oraux » and that it prob. is a var. of items usually grouped under ↗KRW or ↗KWR. This might be true especially for Ar kurraẗ ‘ball’ (Te korit ‘balle’, Amh kʷärät ‘caillou’) which usually appears as ↗kuraẗ ‘id.’ and is grouped s.r. ↗KRW.
    ▪ [v3] ‘to clarify, purify, refine’: As a D-stem, karrara has as its basic meaning the caus. ‘to make come back, repeat, reiterate’, from [v2] ²karra ‘to come back, return’, thus particularly describing processes of clarifying through repeated filtering etc. In MSA, the item is mainly used in connection with oil (or water, sugar, etc.) refinery.
    ▪ [v4] : The value ‘hundred thousand’ (found only in WehrCowan, thus prob. peculiar to MSA as a rather recent development) seems to be based on the notion of *‘repetition’, thus dependent on [v2]. Nevertheless it is strange to observe that karraẗ, which usually only means ‘one time, once’ also can take value [v4]. One may imagine a development via adverbial use in karraẗᵃⁿ ‘one time, once’: *‘… > repeatedly > often > very frequently > [exaggerating] many many times > a hundred thousand times > a hundred thousand’.
    ▪ [v5] : loanword; the var. kalār leads to the etymon, modGrk kellári ‘pantry, storeroom; cellar’ (so also BadawiHinds1986).
    ▪ [v6] : WehrCowan1976 lists an EgAr word spelt kurrāriyyaẗ (with rrār ) meaning ‘spool, bobbin, reel’, which fits very nicely the meaning the vb. I karr (u, vn. karr, kararān) has in EgAr, namely ‘to unravel, unwind’ (BadawiHinds1986).126 These values look as if they could be related either to [v2] ‘to return, come back, repeat’ (implying a circular movement)127 or, perh. even more likely, to [v7] ‘rope, cable, cord’ (where it could be a nsb-formation based on the pl. kirār, with ki- > ka and an original meaning of *‘thing belonging to the ropes/cables/cords’). In contrast, BadawiHinds1986 also registered an EgAr kurā̆riyyaẗ (with rā̆r ) meaning ‘ball (of string, wool etc.)’. The latter meaning combines that of ‘roundness’ with that of ‘spooling, winding, etc.’
    [v7] : If ClassAr ²karr (pl. kurūr, ? ʔakrār, kirār) ‘rope, cable (for ascending the palm-tree) | rope used as a ladder’ and ³karr (pl. ʔakrār) ‘cord, thong which holds together the two extremities of the camel’s saddle | cable’ has cognates in Sem at all, then (according to DRS #KRR-10) perh. only in Amh kärrärä ‘to become hard, stiff; be tense, tight, taut’ and/or Amh Arg kərar ‘lyre with 5-6 strings’. As these are far from obvious and rather doubtful, ²karr may in fact be a development peculiar to Ar. Within Ar, however, it seems to be related to [v6] which, with EgAr kurrāriyyaẗ ‘spool, bobbin, reel’ and the corresponding vb., EgAr karr ‘to unravel, unwind’, has items that seem semantically close to ‘rope, cable’. – As ropes or cables are produced by twisting several strings into one, there might also be a distant connection to items showing reduplication of a 2-rad. root nucleus, such as karkara ‘to collect, pile up, heap up, blow into a ball (wind the clouds)’, karkara ‘to squash, grind’, etc. (see ↗KRKR_4), a notion that is also found in Amh kʷärrärä ‘to scaffold, put one over the other’ (see below, section COGN, DRS #KRR-1). Cf. also the next two items, [v8] ‘carpet, mat’ and [v9] ‘cistern, subterranean reservoir’.
    [v8] : If the attestation of karr as ‘carpet, mat’ in Hava1899 is reliable, the value may be related, like [v7] and [v9], to the basic idea of *‘collecting, piling up, heaping up, amassing’. But this is highly speculative. No cognates listed in DRS.
    [v9] : ¹kurr is reliably attested in several dictionaries as ‘cistern, subterranean reservoir | well | terrain un peu encaissé, creux dans le sable où l’eau demeure stagnante; puits; vivier’, but does not seem to have direct cognates in Sem. The initial description quoted in BK1860 – ‘terrain un peu encaissé, creux … où l’eau demeure stagnante’ – could hint to a connection either with ↗karā/à ‘to dig’ (√KRW/Y) or with the basic idea of *‘collecting, amassing’ encountered also in values [v7] ‘rope, cable, cord’ and [v8] ‘carpet, mat’, perh. also in [v6] ‘spool, bobbin, reel’.
    [v10] : According to Fraenkel1886: 207, the Ar word for a ‘dry measure equal to 60 qafīz or 6 ass-loads’ (DRS: « en usage en Iraq ») is from Aram kōrā, Hbr kōr ‘(a measure, usually dry)’, which, according to Zimmern1914, goes back to Akk kurru ‘ein Getreidemaß’128 (»wohl < Sum gur«).129 According to some scholars, the Hbr/Aram word was borrowed also into Grk as kóros ‘name of a measure of capacity for grain, flour, etc. (Beekes2016) | Maß von 6 attischen Medimnen (Gmoll1965)’; see also BDB1906.130DRS distinguishes this value (given as #KRR-7) from another one with the value ‘ass foal (Ar, YemAr), 6-year-old horse (MġrAr)’ (given as #KRR-8), assuming that ²ᵃkurr is from Aram kōrā ~ Hbr kōr while ²ᵇkurr ‘ass foal’ might be (as with Dozy thinks) from Pers ḫar ‘ass’.
    [v11] : ³kurr is registered in WKAS also as the word for ‘a kind of stuff, coarse linen’. The reference is with all probability reliable, though the value is not among those listed in DRS. Etymology obscure. The value that comes closest to ³kurr in DRS would be #KRR-11, with Akk karr indicating a ‘vêtement de deuil | ragged or dirty piece of apparel worn as a sign of mourning (CAD)’.
    [v12] : The value ‘(burnt) camel’s dung into which coats of mail are put for protection against rust’ for the n.f. kurraẗ is given in WKAS and thus prob. reliably attested. But its etymology remains obscure.
    [v13] ‘cowrie used as an amulet’: kirār (Hava1899) ~ karār (BK1860). – Ullmann (WKAS I 1970) lists the item as karāri and analyses it as a »concretized imperative ‘Bringback, one who brings back’, designation of a pearl, shell used as a love-charm in the spell yā karāri kurrī hi ʔin ʔadbara fa-ruddī hi«, quoted in BK1860 in a slightly extended version, as yā karāri kurrī-hi wa-yā hamraẗu ’hmirī-hi ʔin ʔaqbala fa-surrī-hi wa-ʔin ʔadbara fa-ḍurrī-hi ‘Ô boule! ramène-le; ô boule! amène-le; s’il vient, réjouis-le, et s’il se détourne, fais-lui du mal’. Ullmann’s reading suggests a derivation from [v2] ²karra ‘to (make) return, come back, etc.’, while de Biberstein Kazimirski (with his ‘ô boule!’) seems to see a connection rather with ↗kuraẗ ‘ball’.
    ▪ …
     
    …– 
    DRS #KRR-1 Ar karra ‘revenir sur ses pas, revenir à la charge’, karrara ‘répéter, réitérer’, Tham kr ‘ramener, revenir’, MġrAr karrar ‘répéter une leçon, repasser le Coran dans une recitation ininterrompue’, Sab kr ‘répéter (une action)’182 ; Te kärara ‘rouler (vers le bas)’, Tña kärärä ‘être rond’, Amh kʷärrärä ‘échafauder, mettre l’un sur l’autre’. - Ar kurraẗ, Te korit ‘balle’, Amh kʷärät ‘caillou’.183 -2 Te kärra ‘couvrir, tirer un rideau’. -3 Akk kerr-, kirr- ‘clavicule (et la région autour)’, Syr kᵊrā ‘articulation de l’épaule’, Arg kərra ‘bras, coude’, Har kuruʔ ‘coudée’, Gur kərrä ‘bras, coude’. -4 Akk kirr-, Ug kr ‘bélier’, Hbr kar ‘(jeune) bélier’. -5 ‘prairie, pâturage’; ? Akk kirū ‘verger’. -6 Hbr kar ‘bât (de chameau)’. -7 Hbr kor, Aram kōrā : mesure de capacité (pour les choses sèches), Ar kurr : mesure en usage en Iraq. -8 Ar kurr, YemAr karrūt ‘ânon’, MġrAr kārər ‘cheval de 6 ans’. -9 Ar karra ‘faire entendre un râle’, Te kərir bela ‘dire des inepties’, Tña kärärä ‘se mettre à chanter’, kärari ‘soliste’, Amh (an)kʷarrärä ‘parler d‘une voix forte’, Har kärära ‘bavarder sans arrêt’, Gur ənkʷarrärä ‘ronfler’. -10 Ar karr ‘corde (par exemple pour monter sur les palmiers)’, ? Amh kärrärä ‘se raidir, se racornir ; être tendu, serré (par exemple : lacet)’. - ? Amh Arg kərar : lyre à 5 ou 6 cordes. -11 Akk karr‑ : vêtement de deuil. ‑12 kār‑ ‘quai, port’. -13 YemAr karūr : sorte de pâtisserie.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
    ▪ …
     
    …– 
    …– 
    ¹karr- / karar- كَرَّ/كَرَرْـ, a (karīr
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 26Jan2023, last updated 6Feb2023
    √KRː (KRR) 
    vb., I 
    to rattle in the throat – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ The sound of a ‘rattle in the throat’ is not only expressed by ¹karra but also by the reduplicated stem ↗²karkara (also ‘to rumble’, said of the stomach, and ‘to murmur’, said of running water); as onomatopoetic imitations of a certain type of sounds, ¹karra and ²karkara are also close to ↗ǧarǧara ‘to gargle, rumble, clatter’ and ↗ġarġara ‘to gargle, gurgle, simmer, bubble’. With such meanings, the root is attested in Ar and EthSem (see DRS #KRR-9) and classified by Leslau among roots expressing « la voix ».131
    ▪ Is this value somehow related to that of ↗KRː (KRR)_2 ‘returning, repetition’, given the repetitive notion in the vibrations of rattling, rumbling, murmuring, etc.?
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
    ▪ …
     
    DRS #KRR-1-8 […]. -9 Ar karra ‘faire entendre un râle’, Te kərir bela ‘dire des inepties’, Tña kärärä ‘se mettre à chanter’, kärari ‘soliste’, Amh (an)kʷarrärä ‘parler d‘une voix forte’, Har kärära ‘bavarder sans arrêt’, Gur ənkʷarrärä ‘ronfler’. -10-13 […].
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    karīr, n., rattle in the throat: vn. I

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗²karra, ↗karrara, ↗karraẗ, ↗karār, and ↗kur(r)āriyyaẗ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗KRː (KRR). – Cf. also ↗KRKR, ↗KRW, ↗KRW/Y, and ↗KRY. 
    ²karr- / karar- كَرَّ/كَرَرْـ , u (karr, kurūr, takrār
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 26Jan2023, last update 6Feb2023
    √KRː (KRR) 
    vb., I 
    1 to turn around and attack (ʕalà s.o., s.th.); 2 to return, come back, recur; 3 to withdraw, retreat, fall back; 4 to attack (ʕalà), bear down (ʕalà upon) – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ If DRS (#KRR-1) is right, the value has cognates only in EthSem where the Ar meaning ‘revenir sur ses pas, revenir à la charge’ (cf. also Tham kr ‘ramener, revenir’) is paralleled by the notions of ‘rouler (vers le bas)’ (Te kärara), ‘être rond’ (Tña kärärä), and ‘échafauder, mettre l’un sur l’autre’ (Amh kʷärrärä). DRS thinks that ²karra etc. « est une forme qui appartient aux usages oraux » and that it prob. is a var. of items usually grouped under ↗KRW or ↗KWR. This might be true especially for Ar kurraẗ ‘ball’ (Te korit ‘balle’, Amh kʷärät ‘caillou’) which usually appears as ↗kuraẗ ‘id.’ and is grouped s.r. ↗KRW.
    ▪ The value of *‘ returning, repetition, reiteration, circularity’ etc. is the chief value attached to ↗√KRː (KRR). This basic notion may also be underlying the two other basic semantic complexes attached to the root, namely (a) *‘rattling in the throat’ (↗¹karra), and (b) *‘cord’, or ‘rope’ (²karr) and/or ‘knitting’ (karr ‘carpet, mat’), the common denominator being repetitivity (in the sound of rattling, murmuring, rumbling, etc., as well as in the way ropes are twisted or carpets knitted).
    ▪ Clearly based on ²karra ‘to come back, return’ is the D-stem ↗karrara. Its value ‘to clarify, purify, refine’ has developed from the basic caus. meaning ‘to make come back, repeat, reiterate’, describing particularly processes of clarifying through repeated filtering etc. (oil, water, sugar, etc.).
    ▪ See also below, section DISC.
    ▪ …
     
    makarr 1 ‘return; making to attack’: vn. I; 2 ‘place of attack, battle-field’: n.loc.; mikarr ‘violent in attacking, eager to attack’ – WKAS I 1970.
    ▪ …
     
    DRS #KRR-1 Ar karra ‘revenir sur ses pas, revenir à la charge’, karrara ‘répéter, réitérer’, Tham kr ‘ramener, revenir’, MġrAr karrar ‘répéter une leçon, repasser le Coran dans une recitation ininterrompue’, Sab kr ‘répéter (une action)’184 ; Te kärara ‘rouler (vers le bas)’, Tña kärärä ‘être rond’, Amh kʷärrärä ‘échafauder, mettre l’un sur l’autre’. - Ar kurraẗ, Te korit ‘balle’, Amh kʷärät ‘caillou’.185 -2-8 […]. -9 Ar karra ‘faire entendre un râle’, Te kərir bela ‘dire des inepties’, Tña kärärä ‘se mettre à chanter’, kärari ‘soliste’, Amh (an)kʷarrärä ‘parler d‘une voix forte’, Har kärära ‘bavarder sans arrêt’, Gur ənkʷarrärä ‘ronfler’. -10 Ar karr ‘corde (par exemple pour monter sur les palmiers)’, ? Amh kärrärä ‘se raidir, se racornir ; être tendu, serré (par exemple : lacet)’. - ? Amh Arg kərar : lyre à 5 ou 6 cordes. -11 Akk karr‑ : vêtement de deuil. ‑12-13 […].
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ Related to ‘returning, coming back, repetition’ may also be EgAr ↗kurrāriyyaẗ ~ kurā̆riyyaẗ ‘spool, bobbin, reel’ and perh. even ¹kurr ‘cistern, subterranean reservoir | terrain un peu encaissé, creux dans le sable où l’eau demeure stagnante; puits; vivier’, cf. ↗KRː (KRR)_9.
    ▪ The obsol. kirār (Hava1899) ~ karār (BK1860) ‘cowrie used as an amulet’ is given by Ullmann (WKAS I 1970) as karāri and analysed as a »concretized imperative ‘Bringback, one who brings back’, designation of a pearl, shell used as a love-charm in the spell yā karāri kurrī hi ʔin ʔadbara fa-ruddī hi«,718 which suggests a derivation from ²karra ‘to (make) return, come back, etc.’.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    BP#2635karrara, vb. II, 1a to repeat, reiterate, do again, do repeatedly; b to pose over and over again (a question, ʕalà to s.o.), ask (ʕalà s.o.) repeatedly (a question); 2a to rectify, purify; b to clarify, filter; c to refine (sugar, etc.): D-stem, caus. (and fig. use); see also s.v.
    BP#2489takarrara, vb. V, 1 to be repeated, be reiterated, recur; 2 to be rectified, be purified, be refined: tD-stem, quasi-pass. of vb. II
    ¹karr, n., attack, charge: vn. I | al-karr wa’l-farr, attack and retreat (in battle); bayna karr wa-farr, adv., alternately, intermittently, by fits and starts, by jerks; ʕalà karr al-duhūr\al-zaman, adv., in the course of time
    karraẗ, n.f., 1 attack; 2 return, comeback, recurrence; – 3 (pl. ‑āt) one time ( = ↗marraẗ); 4 a hundred thousand: n.vic. | karraẗᵃⁿ, adv., 1 once; 2 sometimes, at times; 3 at a time; karraẗᵃⁿ ʔuḫrà, adv., a second time, once more; karraẗᵃⁿ baʕdᵃ karraẗ, adv., repeatedly, time and again
    karār, n., see ↗s.v.
    kurūr, n., 1 return, comeback, recurrence; 2 succession, sequence, order: vn. I
    EgAr ku(r)rāriyyaẗ, n.f., pl. ‑āt, spool, bobbin, reel: nominalized nsb-adj., lit. *‘returner, belonging to the act of unwinding, unraveling’?; see also s.v.
    makarr, pl. ‑āt, n., reel: n.instr., see also ↗ku(r)rāriyyaẗ
    takrīr, n., 1 repetition, reiteration; 2a clarification, rectification, purification, refinement; b refining: vn. II | maʕmal takrīr al-sukkar, sugar refinery
    BP#2628takrār, n., repetition, reiteration: vn. I/II | takrārᵃⁿ, adv., repeatedly, frequently, quite often; mirārᵃⁿ wa-takrārᵃⁿ, adv., repeatedly, time and again
    mukarrar, adj., 1a repeated, reiterated; b following twice (number), bis (after a number); c a multiple; 2 rectified, purified, refined: PP II | sukkar mukarrar, refined sugar; ṣ. 37 mukarrar, page 37b
    BP#2829mutakarrir, adj., 1 recurring, recurrent, reiterated, reiterative; 2 repeated, frequent: PA V.

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹karra, ↗karrara, ↗karraẗ, ↗karār, and ↗kur(r)āriyyaẗ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗KRː (KRR). – Cf. also ↗KRKR, ↗KRW, ↗KRW/Y, and ↗KRY. 
    karrar- كَرَّرَ (takrīr
    ID … • Sw – • BP 2635 • APD … • © SG | 26Jan2023, last updated 6Feb2023
    √KRː (KRR) 
    vb., II 
    1a to repeat, reiterate, do again, do repeatedly; b to pose over and over again (a question, ʕalà to s.o.), ask (ʕalà s.o.) repeatedly (a question); 2a to rectify, purify; b to clarify, filter; c to refine (sugar, etc.) – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ [v1] : ↗²karra ‘to turn around and attack; to return, come back, recur; one time’
    ▪ [v2a-c] : As a D-stem, karrara has as its basic meaning the caus. ‘to make come back, repeat, reiterate’, from ↗²karra ‘to come back, return’, thus particularly describing processes of clarifying through repeated filtering etc. In MSA, the item is mainly used in connection with oil (or water, sugar, etc.) refinery.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ↗²karra.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    BP#2489takarrara, vb. V, 1 to be repeated, be reiterated, recur; 2 to be rectified, be purified, be refined: tD-stem, quasi-pass. of vb. II
    takrīr, n., 1 ↗²karra; 2a clarification, rectification, purification, refinement; 2brefining: vn. II | maʕmal takrīr al-sukkar, sugar refinery
    mukarrar, adj., 1 ↗²karra; 2 rectified, purified, refined: PP II | sukkar mukarrar, refined sugar

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹karra, ↗²karra, ↗karraẗ, ↗karār, and ↗kur(r)āriyyaẗ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗KRː (KRR). – Cf. also ↗KRKR, ↗KRW, ↗KRW/Y, and ↗KRY. 
    karraẗ كَرَّة , pl. ‑āt 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22Jan2023, last update 7Feb2023
    √KRː (KRR) 
    n.f. 
    1 attack; 2 return, comeback, recurrence; – 3 (pl. ‑āt) one time ( = ↗marraẗ); 4 a hundred thousand – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ [gnrl] : n.vic. of ↗²karra ‘to turn around and attack; to return, come back, recur; to withdraw, retreat, fall back; to attack, bear down (ʕalà upon)’.
    ▪ [v3] is originally *‘one instant of returning, one recurrence’, hence ‘once’.
    ▪ [v4] probably developed from adverbial use of [v3]: *‘once > every now and then > often > very frequently > [exaggerating] many many times > a hundred thousand times > a hundred thousand’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ eC7 karraẗ (turn, another chance, another time; assailment, overrunning an enemy) Q 17:6 ṯumma radadnā la-kum-u ’l-karraẗa ʕalay-him ‘then we returned the scales and allowed you a turn against them [lit., then We gave back the turn to you against them]’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ↗²karra
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    karraẗᵃⁿ, adv., 1 once; 2 sometimes, at times; 3 at a time
    karraẗᵃⁿ ʔuḫrà, adv., a second time, once more;
    karraẗᵃⁿ baʕdᵃ karraẗ, adv., repeatedly, time and again

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹karra, ↗²karra, ↗karrara, ↗karār, and ↗kur(r)āriyyaẗ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗KRː (KRR). – Cf. also ↗KRKR, ↗KRW, ↗KRW/Y, and ↗KRY. 
    EgAr ku(r)rāriyyaẗ كُراريّة , pl. ‑āt 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22Jan2023, last updated 7Feb2023
    √KRː (KRR) 
    n.f. 
    spool, bobbin, reel – WehrCowan1976 | ball (of string, wool etc.) – BadawiHinds1986 
    ▪ ? nominalized nsb-adj., lit. *‘returner, belonging to the act of unwinding, unraveling’ (cf. also the n.instr. makarr ‘reel’ which clearly is from ↗²karra), or based on ClassAr ²karr ‘rope, cable’ and/or ³karr ‘cord, thong’ ? In any case, the word seems to be dependent, in one way or other, on ↗²karra ‘to return’ (incl. ↗karrara ‘to repeat’, ↗karraẗ ‘one time’, and other related items). – See below, section DISC.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ↗²karra ▪ …
     
    ▪ WehrCowan1976 lists a (specifically EgAr) word meaning ‘spool, bobbin, reel’ as kurrāriyyaẗ (with -rrār-), while the (obviously same) word is spelt kurā̆riyyaẗ (with -rā̆r-) and said to mean ‘ball (of string, wool etc.)’ in BadawiHinds1986. The value ‘spool, bobbin, reel’ fits very nicely the meaning ‘to unravel, unwind’ given for the EgAr vb. I karr (u, vn. karr, kararān) in BadawiHinds1986.719 ‘Spool, bobbin, reel’ and ‘to unravel, unwind’ look as if they could be related either to ↗²karra ‘to return, come back, repeat’ (implying a circular movement, as also seems to be the case in the n.instr. makarr ‘reel’ which is s.th. like a fuṣḥà parallel to EgAr kur(r)āriyyaẗ)720 or, perh. even more likely, to the obsol. ²karr (pl. kurūr, ? ʔakrār, kirār) ‘rope, cable (for ascending the palm-tree) | rope used as a ladder’ and/or ³karr (pl. ʔakrār) ‘cord, thong which holds together the two extremities of the camel’s saddle | cable’. – In contrast, the value ‘ball (of string, wool etc.)’ given in BadawiHinds1986 for EgAr kurā̆riyyaẗ (with rā̆r ) may also point in the direction of the reduplicated 2-rad. root karkara ‘to collect, pile up, heap up, blow into a ball (wind the clouds)’ (see ↗KRKR_4), and ↗kuraẗ ‘ball’ in general (a notion, though, that one may also sense in ‘rope, cable, cord’ as well as in ‘carpet, mat’ and ‘cistern, subterranean reservoir’, see root entry ↗KRː (KRR), due to the folding, scaffolding, twisting, heaping up, gathering, etc. implied in these items).
    ▪ Cf. also the obsol. ClassAr karāri ‘cowrie used as an amulet’, analyzed by Ullmann (WKAS I 1970) as a »concretized imperative ‘Bringback, one who brings back’, designation of a pearl, shell used as a love-charm in the spell yā karāri kurrī hi ʔin ʔadbara fa-ruddī hi«, based on ↗²karra ‘to (make) return, come back, etc.’. BK1860 quotes the same spell in a slightly longer version, translating the initial yā karāri as ‘ô boule!’, thus insinuation a connection with ↗kuraẗ ‘ball’.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    makarr, pl. ‑āt, n., reel: n.instr., from ↗²karra.

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹karra, ↗²karra, ↗karrara, ↗karraẗ, and ↗karār, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗KRː (KRR). – Cf. also ↗KRKR, ↗KRW, ↗KRW/Y, and ↗KRY. 
    KRāR كرار 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 8Feb2023
    √KRāR 
    “root” 
    ▪ KRāR_1 ‘pantry, storeroom; cellar’ ↗karār
    ▪ … 
    ▪ [v1] : from Grk kellári ‘cellar’
     
    – 
    – (loanword) 
    – 
    ▪ cf. Engl cellar 
    – 
    karār كَرار , var. kalār, pl. ‑āt 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 26Jan2023
    √KRāR 
    n. 
    pantry, storeroom; cellar – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ BadawiHinds1986: from Grk kellári ‘id.’
    ▪ … 
    ▪ cf. EgAr proverb yiḥarras iI-quṭṭ ʕalà muftāḥ ik-karār ‘(lit., to make the cat the guardian of the storeroom key) appointing the fox to guard the chickens’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Cf. Engl cellar, eC13, "store room", from Anglo-Fr celer, oFr celier "cellar, underground passage" (C12, modFr cellier), from Lat cellarium "pantry, storeroom", lit. "group of cells", which is either directly from cella "small room, store-room" (from protIE root *kel- (1) "to cover, conceal, save"), or from noun use of neuter of adjective cellarius "pertaining to a storeroom", from cella. The sense "room under a house or other building, mostly underground and used for storage" gradually emerged in late mEngl and early modEngl -- EtymOnline. 
    For values attached to root KRː (KRR) under which karār is sometimes grouped, cf. ↗¹karra, ↗²karra, ↗karrara, ↗karraẗ, and ↗kur(r)āriyyaẗ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗KRː (KRR). – Cf. also ↗KRKR, ↗KRW, ↗KRW/Y, and ↗KRY.
    ▪ …
     
    KRB كرب 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
    √KRB 
    “root” 
    ▪ KRB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KRB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KRB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to twist together, tighten, enclose; to depress, oppress; grief, distress; supporting ropes; the broad base of palm tree leaves’ 
    ▪ … 
    KRTN كرتن 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √KRTN 
    “root” 
    ▪ KRTN_1 ‘to put under quarantine’ ↗kartana
    ▪ KRTN_2 ‘cardboard, carton’ ↗kartūn
    ▪ KRTN_ ‘...’ ↗...
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    kartan- كَرْتَنَ , -kartin- (kartanaẗ
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √KRTN 
    vb., I 
    to put under quarantine, to quarantine (s.o.) – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ denom. from karantīnaẗ ‘quarantine’, from Fr quarantaine ‘id.’, deriv. from quarante ‘forty’, from Lat quadraginta ‘forty’, lit. *‘four tens’, composed of quadra-, der. from quattuor ‘four’, and ginta, der. from decem ‘ten’, IE *kʷetwer + *dekm – Rolland2014. »The name is from the Venetian policy (first enforced in 1377) of keeping ships from plague-stricken countries waiting off its port for 40 days to assure that no latent cases were aboard« (EtymOnline, s.v. quarantine). 
    – (loanword) 
    takartana, vb. II, to be put under quarantine, be quarantined: t-stem, quasi-pass. 
    kartūn كَرْتون , var. kartōn, kārtūn, kārtōn, pl. karātīnᵘ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √KRTN 
    n. 
    1 cardboard, pasteboard; 2 carton – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ Rolland2014 (s.v. ḫarīṭaẗ) : < Fr carton < It cartone, augmentatif de carta ‘papier’ < Lat c(h)arta ‘id.’ < Grk χártē < χártēs ‘rouleau de papyrus’ (perh., with metathesis, from Eg sḫr.t ‘bundle of papyrus rolls, scroll’). – Cf. also ↗ḫarīṭaẗ, ↗qirṭās, and ↗ḫarṭūš(aẗ).
    ▪ … 
    – (loanword) 
    – 
    KRZ كرز 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KRZ 
    “root” 
    ▪ KRZ_1 ‘to hide, seek refuge’ ↗karaza
    ▪ KRZ_2 ‘preacher; to preach, spread (the Gospel)’ ↗kāriz
    ▪ KRZ_3 ‘cherries’ ↗karaz

    Other values, now obsolete or dialectal, include
    • KRZ_4 ‘to lean towards (Hava1899), to stoop, bend down, crouch (WKAS, DRS)’: karaza, i (kurūz).
    • KRZ_5 ‘verser, répandre (de l’eau); égorger un mouton’: EAr karazDRS.
    • KRZ_6 ‘shepherd’s bag, knapsack; (? hence also: worthless fellow, lazybone)’: kurz (pl. kirazaẗ). – Deriv: karraza ‘to sew the eyes of a falcon (DRS), to put the falcon during the moulting-season into the kurz (WKAS)’ (whence also: kurriza ‘to moult, cast o.’s feathers’ – WKAS, Freytag iv 1837), MġrAr karraz ‘to close, sew a full bag’ (DRS); karrāz, pl. karārīzᵘ, n., ‘ram carrying the ḫurǧ / kurz of the pastor, ram carrying the shepherd’s bag, or the bell’.
    • KRZ_7 ‘vile, worthless fellow, lazybone, miser; noble; intelligent, sharp-sighted, skilled, masterly, ingenious; falcon, hawk’: kurraz. Also kurrazī and mukarraz.
    • KRZ_8 ‘jug, narrow necked gugglet; flask, vial’: kurāz (pl. kirzān), karrāz, kurrāz.
    • KRZ_9 ‘sour cheese (Hava1899), curds, cottage cheese (WKAS)’: karīz. Hence: kariza, a (karaz), vb. I, ‘to eat much of the soft sour cheese called karīz or ʔaqiṭ ’.
    • KRZ_10 ‘carnival’: karīzaẗ.
    • KRZ_11 ‘outbreak, crisis’: EgAr kirīzaẗ (BadawiHinds1986)
    • KRZ_12 ‘woolen turban’: MġrAr kurziyyaẗ (WKAS).
     
    ▪ KRZ_1 karaza ‘to hide, seek refuge’: In ClassAr realized as vb. III, kāraza ‘to hurry towards, flee towards’, derived from vb. I, karaza in the sense, now obsolete, of ‘to stoop, bend down, crouch’ (KRZ_4). There is no obvious reason to treat this value (as does DRS) as etymologically distinct from KRZ_4. (Or should there be any link to Pers gurez, goriz ‘flying; flight’, from goriḫtan ‘to fly, flee, run away, escape’?)
    ▪ KRZ_2 kāriz ‘preacher’: (? via Aram kārôz ‘herald’) from Grk kêryx ‘herald, messenger’.
    ▪ KRZ_3 karaz ‘cherries’: according to Rolland2015 probably from the same Sem source as Grk kerásion and Akk girīṣu. For more details see main entry ↗karaz.
    ▪ KRZ_4 karaza ‘to lean towards (DRS, Hava1899), to stoop, bend down, crouch (WKAS)’: This is probably the primary value, now obsolete, of KRZ_1.
    ▪ KRZ_5 EAr karaz ‘verser, répandre (de l’eau); égorger un mouton’ (DRS): mentioned only in DRS; of unknown etymology.
    ▪ KRZ_6 kurz ‘shepherd’s bag, knapsack’: (via Aram kurzā ?) from Pers ḫurǧ ‘id.’ (cf. Lane vii 1885 on kurz : ‘double bag/sack called ḫurǧ ’; Fraenkel1886).132 – ClassAr karraza, vb. II, ‘to sew the eyes of a falcon (DRS), to put the falcon during the moulting-season into the kurz (WKAS)’ seems to be denom. from kurz. – The vb. II pass. kurriza ‘to moult’ thus is, literally, *‘to be put into a kurz (during the moulting-period)’, while MġrAr karraz ‘to close, sew a full bag’ (DRS) evidently is a generalization of the former. – Derived from kurz is also karrāz in the meaning of ‘ram carrying the ḫurǧ / kurz of the pastor, ram carrying the shepherd’s bag, or the bell (Hava1899)’.133 – According to Freytag iv 1837, kurz is also ‘worthless fellow, lazybone’, i.e., the same as kurraz (see next item); should this be correct, we would be dealing with fig. use here.
    ▪ KRZ_7 : In WKAS, the basic meaning of kurraz is given as ‘one or two year old (hunting-) falcon in moult’. These semantics suggest a relation to the pass. vb. II kurriza ‘to moult’ (which is from kurz = KRZ_6). But Ullmann follows Ǧawālīqī in assuming an origin in a Pers kurrah, without giving the meaning of the latter. According to Steingass1892, however, kurrah is not a ‘falcon’, but ‘colt of a horse, camel, or ass (one or two years old)’. Thus, if Ǧawālīqī is right, the tertium comparationis that made the shift of meaning ‘colt > falcon’ possible would be the age of the animal/bird. – Another theory assumes the value ‘falcon’ to be secondary, transferred to the bird from what originally is ‘cunning, wicked, sly, artful’. This value is listed in DRS as the primary one (without mentioning ‘falcon’ at all), and in Freytag1837 and WKAS as another value that comes in addition to ‘falcon’ (and the latter’s ‘sharp-sightedness’). This theory, too, assumes a Pers origin, either in a word written krw (not identfiable in my sources) or karaš (as the editor of Ǧawālīqī’s Muʕarrab, F. ʕAbd al-Raḥīm, has it – ʕAbdalraḥīm1990: 537). This does not seem unlikely, both from a phonological and a semantic point of view, since Pers karš, karaš, var. kuras, kurus, is (? originally ‘scurf, dirt of the body’, hence also) ‘deceit, meanness, baseness’ (Steingass1892). – Be that as it may, other values given in several sources in addition to those already mentioned, like ‘noble; intelligent’ (DRS), ‘skilled (fī ṣināʕati-hī, in one’s work)’ (Hava1899), ‘impeditus in sermone, non distincte loquens’ (Freytag iv 1837), are specific uses of either ‘falcon’ or ‘cunning, wicked, sly, artful’. – To the same semantic complex belong also kurraziyy and mukarraz, adj., ‘vile, contemptible (Hava1899), worthless fellow, miser (Wahrmund1887).
    ▪ KRZ_8 : DRS, though grouping the two items together as one etymological unit, makes a distinction between kurāz ‘flask’ and karrāz ‘jug, narrow-necked gugglet’. kurāz is also in WKAS (with the variants kurrāz and vulg. kurāzaẗ) ‘water-flask’ and classified as a borrowing from Aram karrāzā (as in PayneSmith1903, but meaning ‘earthen water-jar with narrow orifice’). Rolland2014 says kurāz ‘flask’ either is from a Pers kurāz ‘id.’ (which, however, is not to be found in Steingass1892 – SG), or it is the other way round. – karrāz ‘jug, etc.’ is missing from WKAS, but listed by Freytag iv 1837 and said to stem, again, from a Pers kurāz. As mentioned, the latter is not in Steingass1892, we only find Pers karrāz, meaning (among other things) both ‘jug’ and ‘flask’ and said to be of Ar origin!
    ▪ KRZ_9 karīz ‘sour cheese (Hava1899), curds, cottage cheese (WKAS)’: of unknown etymology; just a simple var. of karīṣ ‘fromage aigrelet et tendre mêlé d’herbes ṭarāṣīṣ et ḥ˅mṣīṣ ’ (Kazimirski),134 and/or related to qariṣa ‘to become sour (milk)’, or ↗qarīš ‘sour cheese, kind of cottage cheese’? – The vb. I kariza, a (karaz), ‘to eat much of the soft sour cheese called (Wahrmund1887: karīz or) ʔaqiṭ (Freytag iv 1837)’ is clearly denominative.
    ▪ KRZ_10 karīzaẗ ‘carnival’, karraza ‘to hold carnival’: only in Wahrmund1887; etymology unclear, but may be related to karaza ‘to preach’ (KRZ_2).135
    ▪ KRZ_11 EgAr kirīzaẗ ‘outbreak, crisis’: from Fr crise.
    ▪ KRZ_12 MġrAr kurziyyaẗ ‘woolen turban’: mentioned only in WKAS. 
    – 
    DRS 10 (2012)#KRZ–1 Ar karaza ‘s’incliner, se pencher, s’accroupir’. –2 EAr karaz ‘verser, répandre (de l’eau); égorger un mouton’. –3 Aram kurzā, kurstā, Ar kurz : sorte de sac, de besace, karraza ‘coudre les yeux d’un faucon’, MġrAr karraz ‘fermer, coudre un sac plein’, Te kärräza ‘coudre dans un sachet de cuir’. –4 Ar kāraza ‘fuir qn et se cacher’. –5 Ar kurraz ‘vil; noble; intelligent, sagace’. –6 Ar kurāz ‘flacon’, karrāz ‘cruche à goulot étroit’. –7 karaz ‘cerises’. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ KRZ_8 : Ar karrāz ‘jug, narrow-necked gugglet’ (to keep water fresh/cold), with preceding def.art. al-, gave Span Portug alcarraza ‘earthen jug, vessel used to cool water’ (as also albarrada is from Ar al‑barrād), which in turn gave Prov alcarazas, Fr alcarazas – Lokotsch1927#1101.32  
    – 
    karaz‑ كَرَزَ , i (kurūz
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KRZ 
    vb., I 
    to hide, seek refuge (ʔilà with) – WehrCowan1979. 
    What in MSA is the value of form I now was that of form III in ClassAr: karaza meant ‘to stoop, bend down, crouch’ (WKAS), and kāraza was, literally, the action expressed in vb. I, directed towards some place or person (associative). It seems that form I lost its proper meaning in the course of time and “took over” from form III, especially after the latter had increasingly been used with the directional preposition ʔilà instead of a DO. Note, however, that DRS seems to distinguish karaza ‘to stoop, bend down, crouch’ from kāraza ‘to flee from [sic!] s.o. and hide’ etymologically (no reason given). 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 10 (2012)#KRZ–1 Ar karaza ‘s’incliner, se pencher, s’accroupir’. –4 Ar kāraza ‘fuir qn [sic!] et se cacher’. 
    DRS 10 (2012) lists the modern value ‘to hide, seek refuge in’ as a value that is distinct from ‘to stoop, bend down, crouch’. But there is no reason for not considering the former a derivation from the latter.
    ▪ Or is Pers gurez, goriz ‘flying; flight’ (from goriḫtan ‘to fly, flee, run away, escape’) involved here in any way?
    ▪ If not, then the modern value ‘to hide, seek refuge’ has to be regarded as a secondary value, developed from earlier ‘to stoop, bend down, crouch’. 
    – 
    – 
    kāriz كارِز (var. kārūz – Hava1899) 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KRZ 
    n. 
    preacher – WehrCowan1979. 
    While the obs. var. kārūz seems to be directly from the Aram Syr n. kārôz ‘herald’ (which, according to most sources, is from Grk kêryx ‘herald, deputy, ambassador, public messenger, envoy, crier who makes proclamations’), the MSA form kāriz is probably a secondary formation, a PA from the vb. karaza ‘to preach, spread (the Gospel)’, itself probably denom. from the obsol. kārūz
    ▪ … 
    See DISC below. 
    ▪ The item is missing from DRS, probably on account of the fact that it is not of Sem origin (which in other cases however does not prevent DRS from listing “Semiticised” items).
    ▪ Hava1899 marks karaza ‘to preach the Gospel’, karz, kirāzaẗ ‘sermon’, and kāriz, var. kārūz, ‘preacher’ as LevAr forms, which would point to an origin of the Ar words in Aram/Syr.
    ▪ Freytag iv 1837 mentions a “Chald” vb. kᵊraz, which however is absent from PayneSmith1903, where only extended vb. stems (D-, tD-,…) are listed. The n. Syr karôz, kārôz ‘herald’ is nevertheless listed as a deriv., not made the main entry.
    ▪ Klein1987 (neither mentions Ar karaza nor kāriz, but) says that the lHbr vb. kāraz ‘to announce, proclaim’ is denom. from lHbr kārôz ‘herald’, which is a loan from BiblAram kārôzā, cf. Aram Syr kārôz.
    ▪ BDB1906 traces this Aram kārôz(ā) back to Grk kêryx ‘herald, deputy, ambassador, public messenger, envoy, crier (who makes proclamations)’, vb. (inf.) kērýss-ein ‘to be a kêryx ’.
    ▪ Rolland2015 makes karaza, vb. I, his main entry and says it is from Grk (1sg.prs) kērýss-ō ‘to be a herald, a public crier, to cry out aloud, make publicly known’, itself from Grk kêryx ‘herald, deputy, ambassador, public messenger, envoy, crier (who makes proclamations)’, a word that corresponds neatly to Skr kārú ‘singer, poet’, from IE *kar‑ ‘to praise, vaunt in a loud voice’.
    ▪ In contrast, Klein1987 thinks that Aram kārôz probably is borrowed from oPers krausa ‘caller’. 
    – 
    karaza i (karz), vb. I, to preach, spread (bi’l-ʔInǧīl the Gospel): denom. (unless itself the etymon proper from which kāriz is derived).

    karz and karāzaẗ (Hava1899: kirāzaẗ), n., sermon, preaching of the Gospel: vn. I | al-karāzaẗ al-marqusiyyaẗ, n., the missionary province of St. Mark, the Jurisdiction of the Coptic Patriarchate.
    takrīz, pl. takārīzᵘ, n., consecration, benediction (Chr.): vn. II, from an obsol. vb. II, *karraza
    karaz كَرَز 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KRZ 
    n.coll. (n.un. ‑aẗ
    cherry – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Rolland2015: probably from the same Sem source as Grk kerásion ‘cherry’ and Akk girīṣu (see DISC below). 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 10 (2012)#KRZ-7: Ar karaz ‘cerises’, without cognates in other Sem langs. 
    DRS 10 (2012)#KRZ-7, like many other sources, traces Ar karaz ‘cherry’ back to Grk kerásion ‘id.’.
    ▪ Rolland2015: Ar karaz ‘cherry’ and Grk kerásion ‘id.’ are probably from the same Sem source (as also Akk girīṣu 721 ).
    ▪ Hava1899 marks Ar karaz with a “T”, signaling Tu origin. According to Nişanyan (18Aug2014), Tu kiraz ‘cherry’722 is from Grk kerási ‘cherry’, from oGrk kerasós ‘bird cherry, hackberry’, from IE *ker-5 ‘cherry (or similarly red fruit)’.
    ▪ BadawiHinds1986: EgAr kirēz, kirēzaẗ, kirezāyaẗ ‘cherry’ are from Tu kiraz ‘id.’.
    ▪ Cf. also ↗qarāṣiyaẗ (var. qarāṣiyā, qarāsiyā). 
    ▪ Words for ‘cherry’ in Western langs (e.g. Engl cherry, which is from Fr cerise, Ge Kirsche, etc.), all go back, via Lat cerasus, to Grk kerásion. Not related to the n.prop.loc. Giresun. The Grk word is assumed to be of non-IE (Kluge2008) or Sem (Rolland2014) origin, or from a Thrak or oAnat lang (Nişanyan18Aug2014). 
    karazī, adj., cherry-red: nsb-adj. 
    KRSY كرسي 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KRSY 
    “root” 
    ▪ KRSY_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ KRSY_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008, s.r. KRS): ‘a mass of animal droppings, to stick together, multi-layered; to become matted; group; root; seat, throne’. The word kursiyy, which is derived by Arab philologists from this root, is considered to be a borrowing from either Aram or Syr. 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    kursiyy كُرْسِيّ 
    ID 750 • Sw – • BP 1749 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KRSY 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    KRŠ كرش 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KRŠ 
    “root” 
    ▪ KRŠ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ KRŠ_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    kirš كِرْش 
    ID 751 • Sw 49/10 • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KRŠ 
    adj. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *kariś‑ ‘stomach’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘belly’) Akk karšu, Hbr kārēś, Syr karsā, Gz karš.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    KRʕ كرع 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17Feb2023
    √KRʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ KRʕ_1 ‘foot, trotter (esp. of animals); leg; extremity’ ↗kurāʕ; cf. also ↗kāriʕ ‘foot, trotter; ankle, anklebone; pl. (EgAr) kawāriʕᵘ, dish prepared of sheep’s trotters’
    ▪ KRʕ_2 ‘to sip’ ↗karaʕa ~ kariʕa

    Other values, now obsolete, include (WKAS I 1970, Hava1899):

    KRʕ_3 ‘long, stony tract of land, slope’ ²kurāʕ
    KRʕ_4 ‘professional singer, dancer; loose woman’ : karrāʕaẗ
    KRʕ_5 ‘rain-water’ : ¹karaʕ
    KRʕ_6 ‘low, vulgar people; vile, contemptible (pl.)’ : ³karaʕ
    KRʕ_ ‘...’ : krʕ
     
    ▪ [gnrl] : All values in this root, except perh. [v6], may go back to [v1] which, originally, was the ‘shank, shinbone’. Closely associated with the shanks or shinbones was their ‘thinness’, hence prob. fig. use in [v3] ‘long, stony tract of land, slope’ (? *‘tract of land as thin as, or shaped like, a shank/shinbone’?) and [v4] ‘professional singer, dancer’ (? *‘the thin-legged one’?). – Ultimately, also [v2] ‘to sip’ perhaps developed from [v1], as many animals kneel down when drinking from a source of water. Yet, while the vb. kar˅ʕa ‘to sip’ could be denom. from kurāʕ ‘shank, shinbone’, the other value that has to do with ‘water’ and ‘drinking’ – [v5] ¹karaʕ ‘rain-water’ – does not look like a secondary development. – [v6] is homonymous with [v5] but there is no obvious semantic link between the two.
    ▪ [v1] : perh. the etymon of all other values (except [v6]?), cf. [gnrl], above; original meaning: ‘shank, shinbone’; accord. to SED (I #157) from protSem *kʷirāʕ ‘knee and shin-bone; lower leg (of animal)’ (cf., however, EthSem and modSAr with forms that make this reconstruction slightly doubtful). Closely associated with the shanks or shinbones was their ‘thinness’ (historically attested in Ar ²karaʕ ‘thinness of the shank’ and the adj. ʔakraʕᵘ ‘thin-legged, thin-armed’; semantically and phonologically close to ²kariya ‘to have thin and parted legs’ and karāⁿ ‘thinness of the shank’, cf. ↗KRY_5), hence prob. fig. use in [v3] and [v4]. – [v2] ‘to sip’ and [v5] ‘rain-water’ may be derived from [v1] via the idea of *‘kneeling down to drink from a water-source’.
    ▪ [v2] : ‘To sip’ is either denom. from [v5] ¹karaʕ ‘rain-water’ (so Ullmann in WKAS I 1970) or a development, together with the latter, from [v1] ‘shank, shinbone’ via the idea of *‘kneeling down to drink from a source of water’.
    [v3] ²kurāʕ ‘long, stony tract of land, slope’: prob. fig. use of [v1] ‘shank, shinbone’ (*‘tract of land as thin as, or shaped like, a shank/shinbone’).
    [v4] karrāʕaẗ ‘professional singer, dancer; loose woman’: prob. fig. use of [v1] ‘shank, shinbone’ (*‘woman with as thin as shanks/shinbones, or with thin shanks/shinbones’). Cf. also the name al-ǧarādatān ‘the two grass-hoppers’ (↗ǧarād) given to two well-known pre-Isl singing girls; here, too, singers/dancers are associated with thin legs.
    [v5] ¹karaʕ ‘rain-water’ : perh. the etymon of [v2] ‘to sip’, though itself perh. dependent on [v1], see above [gnrl], [v1], and [v2].
    [v6] ³karaʕ ‘low, vulgar people’ : etymology obscure; homonymous with [v5], but without obvious semantic relation.
     
    – 
    ▪ [gnrl] DRS #KRʕ-1 Ug krʕ ‘jarret, articulation’, Hbr kāraʕ ‘plier les genoux, s’agenouiller’, kᵊraʕ ‘jambe, péroné’, kᵊrāʕīm ‘pattes’, JudPalAram kᵊraʕ ‘se baisser, s’agenouiller’, karʕā ‘genou, jambe’, Mnd kraia ‘pied, jambe, patte’, Syr kᵊrāʕā ‘jambe’, Ar kurāʕ ‘pied de mouton ou de bœuf; bas de la jambe, tibia (chez l’homme)’, kirʕān ‘extrémités’, Sab krʕ ‘patte de chameau’, Jib kermoʕ (pl. kurūʕ) ‘talon’, Soq šerʕan, šerḥan, šerʕehan (pl.), Mhr śərayn (pl. śərōn). - ? 2 Ar karaʕa ‘boire sans le secours des mains ; boire (animal)’ ; EAr karraʕ ‘boire avec excès’, karʕaẗ ‘gorgée’, YemAr karaʕ ‘eau de pluie qui remplit les fossés et les creux’, karraʕ ‘répandre, disperser, disséminer’. -3 Ar kuraʕ ‘crête de montagne’, karaʕa ‘s’engager dans les montagnes, traverser les hauteurs’, Te kəräʕ ‘montagne, pré de montagne’.186 -4. Gz kʷarʕa, kʷarrəʕa ‘donner des coups de poing ou des soufflets à la tête, frapper violemment’, Tña kʷaraʕ ʔabälä ‘frapper sur la tête’.187 -5 Gz kʷarʕa ‘être fier, arrogant’, Tña kʷarʕa, Amh kʷärra ‘être fier, vaniteux’.
    ▪ [v1] MilitarevKogan2000 (SED I) #157: Akk kurītu ‘shin (of animals)’, Ug krʕ ‘jarrete, artejo’, Hbr kᵊrāʕayim (du.) ‘lower leg, fibula’, JudAram karʕā, krʕ, pl. krʕyn, kwrʕn ‘knee, leg’, Syr kᵊrāʕā ‘crus’, Mnd kraia ‘foot, leg’, Ar kurāʕ ‘partie la plus mince de la jambe entre le pied et le genou; os du tibia | shank, shinbone; leg’, DaṯAr kirʕān ‘tibia de l’homme et jambe de la bête’, Sab krʕ ‘leg of a camel’, Gz kʷərnāʕ ‘elbow, forearm’, Tña kʷərnaʕ ‘gomito’, Amh kərn ‘elbow, point of the elbow’, Arg kərra ‘arm, elbow’, kərn ‘elbow’, Har kuruʔ ‘cubit, arm’, Sel kəre, Wol həri, Zwy hərə ‘arm, cubit, arm below the elbow’, Gog Sod kərrä, Muh Msq ḫərrä, Cha ḫənä, Eža ḫənnä, Enn Gye ḫənʔä, Msq ḫənnä ‘id.’
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ [gnrl] DRS #KRʕ-1: «La racine KRʕ est à la base de plusieurs racines sur lesquelles sont construits divers termes liés à la désignation des membres inférieurs, voir sous KRR, KRSʕ, KRN, KRNʕ, KRN/R(ʕ).
    ▪ [v1] Comparer Ar ↗rakaʕa ‘s’incliner profondément, se courber’. – Les formes du modSAr manifestent une certaine complexité. Celle du singulier en Jib kermoʕ ‘talon’ comporte un -m- absent du pl. kuruʕ, lequel se rattache directement au radical krʕ ; en Soq alors que le sg. śab est relié à une autre racine (v. s. Šʔ/YP), les pl. šerʕan, šerḥan, šerʕehan, pourraient témoigner d’une prépalatalisation de la première consonne, mais reproduisent dans leur structure une forme analogue à celle de l’Ar kirʕān. Le sg. en Mhr s̃orayn ‘jambe’, s’il ne correspond pas à une racine qui ne nous est pas connue, peut être un fait (non évident) de dérivation régressive. SED 141 #157 propose une forme reconstruite *kʷirāʕ- ‘genou et tibia ; partie inférieure de la patte d’un animal’. Mais on ne peut pas ne pas tenir compte de l’existence en Sem d’une racine ŠRʔ/Y/W : Akk šerʔān-, šerḫān- ‘ligament, articulation, tendon, veine, artère’, Syr šārtītā ‘articulation’, šeryānā ‘articulation, artère’ > Ar ↗šaryān ‘artère’ ; Gz šerw ‘tendon, nerf, muscle’ signifie aussi ‘racine, origine, etc.’ ; c’est probablement la raison pour laquelle on l’a rattaché souvent à ŠRR, ŠRŠ (par exemple Leslau CDG 535); voir cependant sous ces racines.
    ▪ [v1] SED: »Note the widespread verbal root ↗RKʕ ‘to kneel’ (Hbr, Ar, Ug) that is likely related to this nominal root. ... -n- in some of the EthSem examples may be an old suffix incorporated into the stem (cf., however, modSAr). ... Cf. also Jib kɛrmóʕ, pl. kurūʕ, ‘heel’ with a plausible meaning shift (and -m- < *-n-?). Other modSAr forms possibly related to the present root with metathesis (and loss of ?) are: Mhr Qishn rḗkən ‘joint’ and Soq rékin ‘os | poignet; coude; épaule; phalange; articulation; os’ ....«
    ▪ [v2] DRS: « Lié probablement au précédent : ‘boire en se penchant sur l’eau courante’, la forme MġrAr karraʕ est définie par Beaussier 859 : ‘boire à même une rivière, une mare, étant penché, couché ou à genoux’.
    ▪ See also above, section CONC.
    ▪ ...
     

     

     
    kurāʕ كُراع, pl. ʔakruʕ, ʔakāriʕᵘ
     
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 17Feb2023
    √KRʕ 
    n.m./f.
     
    1a foot, trotter (esp. of sheep or oxen); b leg; 2 extremity – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ MilitarevKogan2000 (SED I #157) reconstruct protSem *kʷirāʕ- ‘knee and shin-bone; lower leg (of animal)’ as the “ancestor” of the Ar word and its cognates. Cf., however, EthSem and modSAr with forms that make this reconstruction slightly doubtful (see COGN and DISC).
    ▪ Closely associated with the shanks or shinbones was their ‘thinness’, cf. the historically attested n. ²karaʕ ‘thinness of the shank’ and the adj. ʔakraʕᵘ ‘thin-legged, thin-armed’. Semantically and phonologically close are also ²kariya ‘to have thin and parted legs’ and karāⁿ ‘thinness of the shank’ (cf. ↗KRY_5). The idea of ‘thinness’ is prob. the basis for fig. use in ²kurāʕ ‘long, stony tract of land, slope’ as well as karrāʕaẗ ‘professional singer, dancer; loose woman’.
    ▪ For ‘to sip’ as possible derivation (< *‘to kneel down on the kurāʕ to drink from a water-source’), see ↗karaʕa ~ kariʕa.
    ▪ Cf. also ↗rakaʕa ‘to bend the body, bow (esp. in prayer); to kneel down, drop to one's knees’. According to MilitarevKogan2000 (SED I), »the widespread verbal root ↗RKʕ ‘to kneel’ (Hbr, Ar, Ug) […]is likely related to this nominal root«.
    ▪ …
     
    ¹kurāʕ (f., also m.) ‘shank, shinbone; leg’, ²karaʕ ‘thinness of the shank’, karraʕa ‘to cut off s.o.’s shanks’, ʔakraʕᵘ ‘thin-legged, thin-armed’
    ▪ ...
     
    DRS #KRʕ-1 Ug krʕ ‘jarret, articulation’, Hbr kāraʕ ‘plier les genoux, s’agenouiller’, kᵊraʕ ‘jambe, péroné’, kᵊrāʕīm ‘pattes’, JudPalAram kᵊraʕ ‘se baisser, s’agenouiller’, karʕā ‘genou, jambe’, Mnd kraia ‘pied, jambe, patte’, Syr kᵊrāʕā ‘jambe’, Ar kurāʕ ‘pied de mouton ou de bœuf; bas de la jambe, tibia (chez l’homme)’, kirʕān ‘extrémités’, Sab krʕ ‘patte de chameau’, Jib kermoʕ (pl. kurūʕ) ‘talon’, Soq šerʕan, šerḥan, šerʕehan (pl.), Mhr śərayn (pl. śərōn) | Outside Sem: Dem gr.t ‘pied’, SCopt čra ‘jambe’. - ? 2 Ar karaʕa ‘boire sans le secours des mains ; boire (animal)’ ; EAr karraʕ ‘boire avec excès’, karʕaẗ ‘gorgée’, YemAr karaʕ ‘eau de pluie qui remplit les fossés et les creux’, karraʕ ‘répandre, disperser, disséminer’. -3-5 ....
    ▪ MilitarevKogan2000 (SED I) #157: Akk kurītu ‘shin (of animals)’, Ug krʕ ‘jarrete, artejo’, Hbr kᵊrāʕayim (du.) ‘lower leg, fibula’, JudAram karʕā, krʕ, pl. krʕyn, kwrʕn ‘knee, leg’, Syr kᵊrāʕā ‘crus’, Mnd kraia ‘foot, leg’, Ar kurāʕ ‘partie la plus mince de la jambe entre le pied et le genou; os du tibia | shank, shinbone; leg’, DaṯAr kirʕān ‘tibia de l’homme et jambe de la bête’, Sab krʕ ‘leg of a camel’, Gz kʷərnāʕ ‘elbow, forearm’, Tña kʷərnaʕ ‘gomito’, Amh kərn ‘elbow, point of the elbow’, Arg kərra ‘arm, elbow’, kərn ‘elbow’, Har kuruʔ ‘cubit, arm’, Sel kəre, Wol həri, Zwy hərə ‘arm, cubit, arm below the elbow’, Gog Sod kərrä, Muh Msq ḫərrä, Cha ḫənä, Eža ḫənnä, Enn Gye ḫənʔä, Msq ḫənnä ‘id.’
    ▪ Cf. also ↗rakaʕa.
    ▪ ...
     
    DRS #KRʕ-1 : « Les formes du modSAr manifestent une certaine complexité. Celle du singulier en Jib kermoʕ ‘talon’ comporte un -m- absent du pl. kuruʕ, lequel se rattache directement au radical krʕ ; en Soq alors que le sg. śab est relié à une autre racine (v. s. Šʔ/YP), les pl. šerʕan, šerḥan, šerʕehan, pourraient témoigner d’une prépalatalisation de la première consonne, mais reproduisent dans leur structure une forme analogue à celle de l’Ar kirʕān. Le sg. en Mhr s̃orayn ‘jambe’, s’il ne correspond pas à une racine qui ne nous est pas connue, peut être un fait (non évident) de dérivation régressive. SED 141 #157 propose une forme reconstruite *kʷirāʕ- ‘genou et tibia ; partie inférieure de la patte d’un animal’. Mais on ne peut pas ne pas tenir compte de l’existence en Sem d’une racine ŠRʔ/Y/W : Akk šerʔān-, šerḫān- ‘ligament, articulation, tendon, veine, artère’, Syr šārtītā ‘articulation’, šeryānā ‘articulation, artère’ > Ar ↗šaryān ‘artère’ ; Gz šerw ‘tendon, nerf, muscle’ signifie aussi ‘racine, origine, etc.’ ; c’est probablement la raison pour laquelle on l’a rattaché souvent à ŠRR, ŠRŠ (par exemple Leslau CDG 535); voir cependant sous ces racines. »
    ▪ MilitarevKogan2000 (SED I #157): » -n- in some of the EthSem examples may be an old suffix incorporated into the stem (cf., however, modSAr). ... Cf. also Jib kɛrmóʕ, pl. kurūʕ, ‘heel’ with a plausible meaning shift (and -m- < *-n-?). Other modSAr forms possibly related to the present root with metathesis (and loss of ?) are: Mhr Qishn rḗkən ‘joint’ and Soq rékin ‘os | poignet; coude; épaule; phalange; articulation; os’ ....«
    ▪ See also above, section CONC.
    ▪ ...
     

     
    ʔakāriʕ al-ʔarḍ (pl.), the remotest areas of the earth

    kāriʕ, pl. kawāriʕᵘ, n., 1a foot, trotter; b ankle, anklebone; c pl. (EgAr) dish prepared of sheep’s trotters
    takarraʕa, vb. V, 1 to wash one’s feet, perform the partial ablution of the legs (in preparation for prayer); 2 to belch, burp, eruct

    For other meanings attached to the root, cf. ↗karaʕa ~ kariʕa as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√KRʕ.
     
    kāriʕ كارِع, pl. kawāriʕᵘ
     
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 17Feb2023
    √KRʕ 
    n. 
    1a foot, trotter; b ankle, anklebone; c pl. (EgAr) dish prepared of sheep’s trotters – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ Var. of ↗kurāʕ, with slightly different spectrum of meanings. Possibly a secondary formation.
    ▪ …
     
    ¹kurāʕ (f., also m.) ‘shank, shinbone; leg’, ²karaʕ ‘thinness of the shank’, karraʕa ‘to cut off s.o.’s shanks’, ʔakraʕᵘ ‘thin-legged, thin-armed’
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ ↗kurāʕ.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ ...
     

     
    kurāʕ, n.m./f., pl. ʔakruʕ, ʔakāriʕᵘ, 1a foot, trotter (esp. of sheep or oxen); b leg; 2 extremity | ʔakāriʕ al-ʔarḍ, the remotest areas of the earth
    takarraʕa, vb. V, 1 to wash one’s feet, perform the partial ablution of the legs (in preparation for prayer); 2 to belch, burp, eruct

    For other meanings attached to the root, cf. ↗karaʕa ~ kariʕa as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√KRʕ.
     
    karaʕ- كَرَعَ and kariʕ- كَرِعَ , a (karʕ, kurūʕ)
     
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 17Feb2023
    √KRʕ 
    vb., I
     
    to sip – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ ‘To sip’ is either denom. from (now obsol.) ¹karaʕ ‘rain-water’ (so Ullmann in WKAS I 1970) or a development, together with the latter, from ↗kurāʕ ‘shank, shinbone’ via the idea of *‘kneeling down to drink from a source of water’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ (Hava1899:) kar˅ʕa ‘to lean upon (a vessel) for drinking’
    ▪ (WKAS I 1970:) ¹karaʕ ‘rain-water’; denom. karaʕa ‘to find rainwater, give (cattle) rainwater to drink’, ʔakraʕa ‘to let drink, sip’, makraʕ ‘water-hole’, kāriʕ ‘drinking; (pl.f. as a design. of palm-trees) standing at the edge of water’, mukraʕ, mukriʕ ‘having a water-hole, standing at the edge of water’
    ▪ ...
     
    DRS #KRʕ-1 Ug krʕ ‘jarret, articulation’, Hbr kāraʕ ‘plier les genoux, s’agenouiller’, kᵊraʕ ‘jambe, péroné’, kᵊrāʕīm ‘pattes’, JudPalAram kᵊraʕ ‘se baisser, s’agenouiller’, karʕā ‘genou, jambe’, Mnd kraia ‘pied, jambe, patte’, Syr kᵊrāʕā ‘jambe’, Ar kurāʕ ‘pied de mouton ou de bœuf; bas de la jambe, tibia (chez l’homme)’, kirʕān ‘extrémités’, Sab krʕ ‘patte de chameau’, Jib kermoʕ (pl. kurūʕ) ‘talon’, Soq šerʕan, šerḥan, šerʕehan (pl.), Mhr śərayn (pl. śərōn) | Outside Sem: Dem gr.t ‘pied’, SCopt čra ‘jambe’. - ? 2 Ar karaʕa ‘boire sans le secours des mains ; boire (animal)’ ; EAr karraʕ ‘boire avec excès’, karʕaẗ ‘gorgée’, YemAr karaʕ ‘eau de pluie qui remplit les fossés et les creux’, karraʕ ‘répandre, disperser, disséminer’. -3-5 ....
    ▪ ...
     
    ¹karaʕ ‘rain-water’ is perh. the etymon of kar˅ʕa ‘to sip’, unless itself dependent on ↗kurāʕ ‘shank, shinbone’.
    DRS #KRʕ, too, think that ‘to sip’ is possibly related to ‘shank, shinbone’. As an indication for this, they quote the definition of the vb. in some dictionaries as ‘boire en se penchant sur l’eau courante’ as well as MġrAr karraʕ which « est définie par Beaussier 859 : ‘boire à même une rivière, une mare, étant penché, couché ou à genoux’ ».
    ▪ See also above, section CONC.
    ▪ ...
     

     
    karʕaẗ, n.f., sipping, sip, swallow: n.vic.
    takrīʕaẗ, n.f., belching, eructation: n.vic. of vn. II.

    For other meanings attached to the root, cf. ↗kurāʕ and ↗kāriʕ as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√KRʕ. 
    KRKR كركر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9Feb2023
    √KRKR 
    “root” 
    ▪ KRKR_1 ‘to repeat, reiterate, do repeatedly’ ↗¹karkara
    ▪ KRKR_2 ‘to rumble (stomach); to laugh (loudly)’ ↗²karkara
    ▪ KRKR_3 ‘to tickle’ ↗³karkara

    Other values, now obsolete, include (WKAS, Hava1899):

    KRKR_4 ‘(tr.) to collect, blow into a ball (wind the clouds) | to pile up (s.th.); to heap up and drive the clouds (wind); (intr.) to withdraw, return’: karkara; cf. also karkara ‘to squash, grind’ and kirkiraẗ (pl. karākirᵘ) ‘callosity on the breast of the camel (and other hoofed animals); mass, crowd, troop of horsemen’
    KRKR_5 ‘a hot dish which is drunk (in the cold season to warm the body); soup’: kurkūr
    KRKR_ ‘…’ : krkr

    For other, presumably onomatopoetic meanings or values dependent on the idea of *‘repetition, reiteration, usw.’, see ↗¹karkara
    ▪ With the exception, perhaps, of [v5] (the etymology of which remains obscure), all values attached to the reduplicating root √KRKR in Ar seem to be related to two basic notions of the 2-cons. protSem nucleus ↗*KR-, namely *‘to be round, turn, return’ and *voice/crying (DRS)
    ▪ From among the 8 values listed s.v. KRKR in DRS, only the first (#KRKR-1) is relevant to the Ar evidence.
    ▪ [v1] seems to be an intensified version of ↗²karra ‘to return, come back, etc.’, similar to the reduplication in the latter’s D-stem, ↗karrara.
    ▪ [v2] : The values ‘to rumble (stomach); to laugh (loudly)’ are with all likelihood onomatopoetic imitations of sounds heard as repetition of a basic *kar-, (↗²karra), i.e., ↗²karkara (historically also the ‘murmuring’ of water, etc.); cf. also the – likewise onomatopoetic – 2-cons. ↗¹karra ‘to rattle in the throat’.
    ▪ [v3] : prob. same as [v2], although, if valid, the cause, ‘tickling’, would then fall together with its result, the ‘bursting out into laughter’.
    [v4] : The obsol. value ‘to collect, blow into a ball (wind: the clouds); to pile up; to heap up and drive the clouds (wind)’ is closest to the idea of ‘rolling’ expressed, among others, in ↗kuraẗ ‘ball’. Other obsol. items such as kirkiraẗ (pl. karākirᵘ) ‘callosity on the breast of the camel (and other hoofed animals); mass, crowd, troop of horsemen’ most likely belong here.
    [v5] : As long as we do not know details about the ‘hot dish, soup’ called kurkūr we cannot know which of its aspects may be responsible for the association of its name with the root √KR(KR). The pattern FuʕLūL (or rather FuʕFūʕ) indicates the intense presence of a quality expressed by √KR(KR) in this dish.
    ▪ …
     

     
    DRS #KRKR-1 Ug krkr ‘enrouler, entortiller; faire tournoyer (doigts)’, Hbr *kirkēr ‘aller rapidement, courir, bouger de ci de là, danser’, JudPalAram kirker ‘tourner autour’, Ar karkara ‘tourner (la meule), amasser, entasser (des objets)’, takarkara ‘hésiter’; MġrAr karkar ‘traîner derrière soi’ ; Gz ʔankʷarkʷara ‘rouler, tourner autour’, Tña kärärä, ʔənkʷərkʷər bälä, ʔankʷäraräyä ‘être rond’, Te kärkära ‘rouler’, ʔänkʷärkʷära ‘dégringoler’, Amh tänkʷäräkkʷärä ‘rouler’; kʷäräkkʷärä ‘fouiller avec le doigt dans l’oreille pour en retirer le cérumen’. - ? Te kärkär bela ‘faire du bruit’, Amh täkärakkärä ‘se quereller’. -2 Te kärkära ‘moudre grossièrement’, Gur (tä)kʷräkkʷärä ‘être grumeleux (farine)’. -3 Gz ʔankʷarkʷara ‘amincir’. -4 Amh käräkkärä ‘entailler, entamer, équarrir’. -5 Sab krkr ‘mesure de poids’. -6 Hbr kirkārāʰ ‘chamelle? char?’. -7 Amh kärkar ‘louage des bêtes de somme’. -8 Amh kärkärro, Arg karkaro ‘sanglier’.188
    ▪ Outside Sem: DRS #KRKR-1 : Gordon UT 423 #1034 rapproche Copt (B) skerker ‘s’enrouler’, (S) skorkr ‘rouler’, considérant ces forms comme des causatifs à préfixe s-, la base étant krkr, ce qui n’est pas l’interprétation habituelle. V. Vycichl, DELC 344. - En Cush, Sa et Bil présentent une forme karkar ‘être rond’ – Leslau EDG III: 349, CDG 292.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    ¹karkar- كَرْكَرَ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 26Jan2023
    √KRKR 
    vb., I 
    1 to repeat, reiterate, do repeatedly; 2 ↗²karkara; 3 ↗³karkara
     
    ▪ Reduplicating the 2-cons. nucleus of ↗²karra ‘to turn around and attack; to return, come back, recur’
    ▪ The latter is prob. also underlying the values (now obsolete; see below section HIST) of ‘detaining, withholding s.o.’ (< *‘successfully returning on s.o., attacking and thus detaining s.o.’) and ‘removing s.th. (ʕan from)’ (< *‘coming back on s.th.’), but also of ‘to hover (bird, cloud); to bestir one’s self ( in an affair)’ (< *‘to move to and fro’) and ‘to call (hens)’ (< *‘to repeat the call, imitate the clucking of hens’ – but this may also be from ↗²karkara ‘to rattle, rumble, murmur, etc.’).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ In addition to [v1] and [v2], dictionaries (here Hava1899 and BK1860) registered karkara with the values (now obsolete) ‘to collect, blow into a ball (wind: the clouds), pile up, heap up and drive the clouds (wind) | amonceler, entasser (se dit du vent qui entasse les nuages en les poussant de differents points sur un seul) ; ramasser, reunir’ (cf. ↗KRKR_4), ‘ faire aller, tourner (la meule, le moulin)’, ‘to detain, withhold s.o. | retenir qn (et l’empecher d’aborder qn)’, ‘to remove s.th. (ʕan from)’, ‘to call (hens) | appeler (les poules)’, and ‘to hover (bird, cloud); to bestir one’s self ( in an affair)’.
    ▪ …
     
    DRS #KRKR-1 Ug krkr ‘enrouler, entortiller; faire tournoyer (doigts)’, Hbr *kirkēr ‘aller rapidement, courir, bouger de ci de là, danser’, JudPalAram kirker ‘tourner autour’, Ar karkara ‘tourner (la meule), amasser, entasser (des objets)’, takarkara ‘hésiter’; MġrAr karkar ‘traîner derrière soi’ ; Gz ʔankʷarkʷara ‘rouler, tourner autour’, Tña kärärä, ʔənkʷərkʷər bälä, ʔankʷäraräyä ‘être rond’, Te kärkära ‘rouler’, ʔänkʷärkʷära ‘dégringoler’, Amh tänkʷäräkkʷärä ‘rouler’; kʷäräkkʷärä ‘fouiller avec le doigt dans l’oreille pour en retirer le cérumen’. - ? Te kärkär bela ‘faire du bruit’, Amh täkärakkärä ‘se quereller’. -2-8 […].
    ▪ Outside Sem: DRS #KRKR-1 : Gordon UT 423 #1034 rapproche Copt (B) skerker ‘s’enrouler’, (S) skorkr ‘rouler’, considérant ces forms comme des causatifs à préfixe s-, la base étant krkr, ce qui n’est pas l’interprétation habituelle. V. Vycichl, DELC 344. - En Cush, Sa et Bil présentent une forme karkar ‘être rond’ – Leslau EDG III: 349, CDG 292.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗²karkara and ↗³karkara as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗KRKR. – Cf. also ↗KRː (KRR), ↗KRW, ↗KRW/Y, and ↗KRY. 
    ²karkar- كَرْكَرَ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 26Jan2023, last update 9Feb2023
    √KRKR 
    vb., I 
    1 ↗¹karkara; 2 to rumble (stomach) | karkara fī ’l-ḍaḥk, to burst into loud laughter, roar with laughter; 3 ↗³karkara – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ onomatopoetic, imitating several types of sound: the rumbling of a stomach, roaring laughter, (obsol.) murmuring water, etc.; cf. also the 2-cons. ↗¹karra ‘to rattle in the throat’ and the obsol. karkara ‘to call (hens)’.
    ▪ Prob. related to the notion of ‘returning’, ‘repetition’ inherent in this type of sounds; if valid, ²karkara may be related to ¹karkara ‘to repeat, reiterate, do repeatedly’, itself based on ↗KRː (KRR).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Hava1899: karkara, (also:) ‘to murmur (water)’; karkaraẗ ‘stomach rumble, borborygmus’
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ↗¹karkara, ↗¹karra.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    karkaraẗ, n.f., 1 loud laughter; 2 rumbling (of the stomach): vn./n.vic.

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹karkara and ↗³karkara as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗KRKR. – Cf. also ↗KRː (KRR), ↗KRW, ↗KRW/Y, and ↗KRY. 
    ³karkar- كَرْكَرَ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 26Jan2023
    √KRKR 
    vb., I 
    1 ↗¹karkara; 2 ↗²karkara; 3 to tickle – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ Prob. simply extended use of ↗²karkara, esp. in the expression karkara fī ’l-ḍaḥk ‘to burst into loud laughter, roar with laughter’, hence (?) also ‘action producing laughter’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ↗²karkara
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹karkara and ↗²karkara as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗KRKR. – Cf. also ↗KRː (KRR), ↗KRW, ↗KRW/Y, and ↗KRY. 
    KRM كرم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KRM 
    “root” 
    ▪ KRM_1 ‘vine(yard), grapes’ ↗karm
    ▪ KRM_2 ‘(to be) noble, generous’ ↗karam
    ▪ KRM_3 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be generous, to be hiġ-minded, to be noble-hearted, to honour, to do favours, to treat with hospitality, obliging, beneficent, precious; (of land) to be fertile; thoroughbred, noble; vine and grapes’ 
    ▪ According to DRS, the root KRM shows 7 values in Sem. 3 or 4 of these are relevant for Ar. The value ‘season of rain’ in the Eth languages may (acc. to Leslau) be connected to ‘be generous’, the rain season being the period of the year in which the sky ‘is noble’ and spends ‘generously’. This would reduce the number of values to six, three of which relevant for Ar. Out of these, only two have survived into MSA, the item karmaẗ ‘head of thigh bone (femur) turning in the hip bone’ (Freytag1837-IV: vitis; caput ossis femoris quo in acetabulo coxae vertitur) having become obsolete.
    ▪ The two surviving values – ‘vine(yard)’ and ‘nobleness, generosity’ – are hardly related to each other.
    ▪ While ‘vine(yard)’ can be traced back into AfrAs, the same does not seem to be possible for ‘nobleness, generosity’. 
    – 
    DRS 10 (2012): KRM–1 Akk kirimm‑ ‘flexion des bras; relâchement, détente’, Ar karmaẗ ‘tête de l’os du fémur qui tourne dans l’os de la hanche’, MġrAr krūma ‘vertèbre; cou, nuque; maillon d’une chaîne’, Amh kʷərma, Gur Selti kirmāyo, ? Har kurumbäy ‘coude’. –2 Ug krm, Hbr kęręm ‘vignoble’, korem ‘vigneron’, Ph Amm EmpAram krm, JP karmā ‘vignoble’, Syr kᵉram ‘tailler’, Ar karm ‘cep de vigne’, EAr ‘terre plantée en vignes, en pistachiers ou en figuiers (qui n’ont pas besoin d’irrigation)’, karmaẗ ‘vigne’, MarAr kṛəm ‘figuiers’. – Outside Sem, cf. also Eg kʔm ‘vigne, jardin, avec des arbres, des fleurs, des légumes’; mEg kʔmw ‘verger, vignoble’, kʔnw ‘vignoble’, Dem kʔm ‘jardin, kʔm ʔrry ‘vigne’. –4 nPun ʔkrmʔ ‘rivaliser de générosité’, Ar karuma ‘être noble, généreux; donner beaucoup d’eau (ciel, nuages)’; MġrAr krāma ‘banquet offert par un groupe pour remercier et honorer un de ses membres ayant accompli un acte louable’; Mhr kōrem, Śḥ kurum, Ḥrs. kërem ‘être généreux envers’, Te käramät ‘aumônes’. –5 Gz kərämt, Tña krämti, Te käräm, Amh Arg kərämt, Gaf krämtä, Har kirmi, Gur kärm, ḫərəm, hənəw ‘saison des pluies’. – This value seems to have cognates in Cush, perhaps also Berb: Sa karma, Bedja kerinti, Som keran, Qabenna kärmi ‘saison pluvieuse’; Cohen1969#185 ajoute le Berb du Sous kᵘrəm ‘être froid’.189  
    ▪ Out of the 7 values listed in DRS 10 (2012), Ar is involved only in three, though a forth one may be relevant too:
    ▪ According to Leslau1987, Gz karama, karma (yəkrəm, yəkram) ‘spend the rainy season, spend the winter, be of the preceeding year (wine)’ is connected with Ar karuma ‘be generous > yield rain’ […]. Note that Dillmann’s statement »Ar karuma ‘pluviam profundit (nubes)’; deinde ‘beneficus, generosus fuit’« should read »‘beneficus, generosus fuit’; deinde ‘pluviam profundit (nubes)’«. Leslau thus holds that ‘yield rain’, ‘rainy season’ etc. are secondary.723
    ▪ ‘Vine(yard)’ seems to have cognates in Eg. Unless this is a loan from Sem, or vice versa, we could then assume an AfrAs dimension.
    ▪ The value ‘season of rain’, realised as such only in Eth (but perhaps connected to, or dependent on, ‘be generous’), seems to have cognates in Cush, perhaps also Berb. So this is either an East African regional development from an AfrAs *‘be generous’, or we are dealing, against the above assumption, with a value in its own right. 
    – 
    – 
    karm كَرْم, pl. kurūm 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KRM 
    n.coll. 
    vine, grapes, grapevines; vineyard; garden, orchard – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protCSem *karm‑ ‘vineyard’ < protSem *k˅rm‑ ‘hill, mound’.
    ▪ …From CSem *karm‑ ‘vineyard’, akin to (or from?) PSem *k˅rm‑ ‘hill, mound’. There may also be an AfrAs dimension (but parallels in Eg may be borrowings). A connection to KRM_2 ‘be noble, generous’ is not likely. 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 10 (2012): KRM –2 Ug krm, Hbr kęręm ‘vignoble’, korem ‘vigneron’, Ph Amm EmpAram krm, JP karmā ‘vignoble’, Syr kᵉram ‘tailler’, Ar karm ‘cep de vigne’, EAr ‘terre plantée en vignes, en pistachiers ou en figuiers (qui n’ont pas besoin d’irrigation)’, karmaẗ ‘vigne’, MarAr kṛəm ‘figuiers’. – Outside Sem, cf. also Eg kʔm ‘vigne, jardin, avec des arbres, des fleurs, des légumes’; mEg kʔmw ‘verger, vignoble’, kʔnw ‘vignoble’, Dem kʔm ‘jardin, kʔm ʔrry ‘vigne’.
    ▪ BDB1906 (s.v. käräm): perhaps connected also to Akk karānu ‘vine’, but dubious. The connection seems, however, more natural, obviously, to Leslau1987, who gives not only Hbr käräm ‘vineyard’, but also Akk karānu, Ug krm, Syr karmā ‘wine, grapevine, grapes’.190
    ▪ Kogan2011 thinks that also Akk karmu ‘mound, heap’ and Mhr kərmáym ‘mountain’ are related. 
    ▪ BDB1906 (s.v. käräm) mentions that Gesenius compares this item also to Ar karuma ‘be noble, generous, fertile’ ↗karam, but BDB is eager to add that this seems »precarious«.
    ▪ Kogan2011 reconstructs CSem *karm‑ ‘vineyard’ and assumes a connection to PSem * k˅rm‑ ‘hill, mound’ (reconstructed from the Akk and Mhr evidence).
    ▪ Unless the Eg parallels are borrowed from Sem, or vice versa, we could then assume an AfrAs dimension. 
    – 
    bint al-karm, n., wine: fig. use.

    karmaẗ, n.f., grapevines, vine:.
    karrām, pl. ‑ūn, n., winegrower, vinedresser: n.prof.

    For the semantic complex ‘be noble, generous’ see ↗karam

    karam كَرَم 
    ID 753 • Sw – • BP 4332 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KRM 
    n. 
    noble nature; high-mindedness, noble-mindedness, noble-heartedness, generosity, magnanimity; kindness, friendliness, amicability; liberality, munificence –WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Grammatically, the word is a vn. I of the vb. karuma, which however probably is denominative (from karam or karīm).
    ▪ On account of the Eth evidence where the main value of KRM is ‘rain season’, but also because of the meaning ‘(to give) plenty of water’ that the vb. karuma can take in ClassAr, there is a theory that derives the notion of ‘generosity’ from the "generosity" of a sky/clouds giving plenty of rain. But it may also be the other way round, ‘generosity’ being the primary meaning from which ‘(to give) plenty of water/rain’ is a metaphorical extension.
    ▪ A key concept of Arab culture and civilisation that comprises a number of virtues such as “generosity, forgiveness, patience, reliability, caring for the neighbours, protection of honour, prevention of injustice, courage/braveness”.136 Related concepts: ↗saḫāʔ, ↗ǧūd; counter-concepts: ↗buḫl, ↗luʔm.
     
    ʕAmr b. Q. 5,9 ʕalà karamin wa-ʕalà naǧdatin, Huḏ. 108,6 ḏawū karamin wa-ṣidqin 20  
    20. WKAS. 
    DRS 10 (2012)#KRM –4 nPun ʔkrmʔ ‘rivaliser de générosité’, Ar karuma ‘être noble, généreux; donner beaucoup d’eau (ciel, nuages)’; MġrAr krāma ‘banquet offert par un groupe pour remercier et honorer un de ses membres ayant accompli un acte louable’; Mhr kōrem, Śḥ kurum, Ḥrs. kërem ‘être généreux envers’, Te käramät ‘aumônes’. –5 Gz kərämt, Tña krämti, Te käräm, Amh Arg kərämt, Gaf krämtä, Har kirmi, Gur kärm, ḫərəm, hənəw ‘saison des pluies’. – This value seems to have cognates in Cush, perhaps also Berb: Sa karma, Bedja kerinti, Som keran, Qabenna kärmi ‘saison pluvieuse’; Cohen1969#185 ajoute le Berb du Sous kᵘrəm ‘être froid’. 
    ▪ According to Leslau1987, Gz karama, karma (yəkrəm, yəkram) ‘spend the rainy season, spend the winter, be of the preceeding year (wine)’ is akin to Ar karuma ‘be generous > yield rain’. Note that Dillmann’s statement »Ar karuma ‘pluviam profundit (nubes)’; deinde ‘beneficus, generosus fuit’« should read »‘beneficus, generosus fuit’; deinde ‘pluviam profundit (nubes)’«. Leslau thus holds that ‘yield rain’, ‘rainy season’ etc. are figurative use and, thus, secondary.
    ▪ The value ‘season of rain’, realised as such only in Eth (but perhaps connected to, or dependent on, ‘be generous’), seems to have cognates in Cush, perhaps also Berb. So this is either an East African regional development from an AfrAs value *‘be generous’, or we are dealing, against the above assumption of metaphorical use, with a value in its own right.
    ▪ Nanah1987: 24, fn.28, claims that the root KRM is attested in other Sem langs but signifies ‘to keep away, keep off’, etc. there. The corresponding notion in Akk is krb (with R3 = b from < *m, as often) ‘to pay respect, venerate’. karābu ‘to pronounce formulas of blessing, praise, adoration, homage, greeting’ (CAD). 
    – 
    k. al-ʔaḫlāq, n., noble-mindedness, noble character

    karuma, u (karam, karamaẗ, karāmaẗ), vb. I, to be noble, high-minded, noblehearted, magnanimous, generous, liberal, munificent; to be precious: probably denominative (either from karam or karīm).
    karrama, vb. II, to call noble and high-minded; to honor, revere, venerate, treat with deference; to exalt, bestow honour upon:.
    kārama, vb. III, to vie in generosity; to meet reverentially, with deference, politely:.
    BP#3917ʔakrama, vb. IV, to call noble and high-minded; to honour; to treat reverentially, with deference, politely, hospitably, bestow honours upon; to prove o.s. to be high-minded and generous; to honour, present (s.o. with):.
    takarrama, vb. V, to feign generosity; to show one’s generous side; to be noble; to be friendly, kind, kindly; to be so kind, have the kindness (bi‑ to do s.th.); to present, graciously bestow:.

    kurmatan laka, kurmānan laka, adv., for your sake, as a favour to you, in your favour: mafʕūl min ʔaǧlih of obsolete vn.s kurmaẗ and kurmān.
    C BP#1822karāmaẗ, n.f., dignity, honour; generosity ↗s.v.
    BP#556karīm, pl. kuramāʔᵘ, kirām, adj., noble; generous; precious: adj. formation.
    karīmaẗ, pl. karāʔimᵘ, n., precious thing, object of value, valuable; vital part (of the body; esp. eye); daughter: f. of nominalized adj. karīm.
    ʔakramᵘ, pl. ʔakārimᵘ, adj., nobler, more distinguished; more precious, more valuable; most honorable; very high-minded, very noblehearted, most generous: elat.
    makram and makramaẗ, pl. makārimᵘ, n., noble trait, excellent quality | makārim al-ʔaḫlāq noble characteristics, noble traits of character.
    makrumaẗ, pl. makārimᵘ, n., noble deed:.
    BP#2670takrīm and takrimaẗ, n.f., honoring, respecting, tribute, honour (bestowed on s.o.): vn. II.
    ʔikrām, n., honour, respect, deference, tribute; hospitable reception, hospitality; kindness; honorarium: vn. IV.
    ʔikrāmiyyaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., honorarium; bonus: nsb-adj from ʔikrām.
    BP#3125 mukarram, adj., honoured, revered, venerated; venerable: PP II; Makkaẗ al-mukarramaẗ Holy Mecca.

    For derivatives of the etymon ‘vine, grapes, vineyard’ see ↗karm

    karāmaẗ كَرامَة 
    ID 752 • Sw – • BP 1882 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KRM 
    n.f. 
    1 nobility; high-mindedness, noble-heartedness; generosity, magnanimity; liberality, munificence. – 2 honor, dignity; respect, esteem, standing, prestige. – 3 mark of honor, token of esteem, favor. – 4 (pl. ‑āt) miracle that God works through a saint or allows to happen to him (Islamic popular belief) – WehrCowan1979. 
    For etymology see ↗KRM_2 and ↗karam
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    KRH كره 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
    √KRH 
    “root” 
    ▪ KRH_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KRH_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KRH_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘hardship; to dislike, loathe, antipathy; to force; calamity’ 
    ▪ … 
    KRW كرو 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21Feb2023
    √KRW 
    “root” 
    ▪ KRW_1 ‘globe, sphere; ball’ ↗kuraẗ ▪ KRW_2 ‘(a variety of) curlew, plover (Oedicnemus crepitans)’ ↗karawān
    ▪ KRW_3 ‘to dig’ ↗karā, also karà, hence grouped under ↗KRW/Y
    ▪ KRW_4 ‘caraway’ ↗karawyā (↗KRWYā)
    ▪ KRW_5 : see also ↗KRW/Y and ↗KRY

    Other values, now obsolete, include (WKAS I 1970, Hava1899, BK1860):

    KRW_6 ‘to round s.th.; to line (a well) with wood | garnir de troncs d’arbres l’intérieur (un puits)’: karā (u, karw)
    KRW_7 ‘to walk or prance in a particular manner (as an innate defect, of a horse)’: ²karā (impf. u); cf. also mukarriⁿ, mukāriⁿ ‘walking or prancing in a particular manner (of a camel)’ (WKAS)
    KRW_ ‘…’: ... 
    ▪ [gnrl] : Many values in the defective root KRW can be analyzed as extensions of the 2-cons. root nucleus ↗*KR , the “purest” reflex of which are ↗KRː (KRR) and the reduplicating ↗KRKR but which also reappears in KRW, ↗KRW/Y, ↗KRY, ↗KWR, and others (cf. DRS #KR ).
    ▪ [v1] : The 2-cons. kuraẗ is usually analyzed as from 3-cons. √KRW. But the basic idea of *‘roundness’ is already present in the 2-cons. root nucleus ↗*KR , the “purest” reflexes of which are ↗KRː (KRR) and the reduplicating ↗KRKR. – Within √KRW, the closest relative is the (now obsol.) vb. karā (u, karw) ‘to round s.th.; to line (a well) with wood’ (↗KRW). However, ‘ball’ can also be analyzed as the result of ‘piling up, heaping up’, as found in karkara ‘to collect, blow into a ball (wind the clouds); to pile up (s.th.)’ (↗KRKR_4), a specialised development from ↗²karra ‘to return with the aim of resupplying o.s. with ammunition/troops’.137 Cf. also EgAr ↗ku(r)rāriyyaẗ ‘spool, bobbin, reel (WehrCowan1976); ball (of string, wool etc.) (BadawiHinds1986)’. – In DRS, other Sem items meaning ‘ball’ etc. do not appear sub √KRW but ↗√KRː (KRR) (cf. below, section COGN).
    ▪ [v2] : Accord. to Asbaghi1988, Ar karawān ‘(a variety of) curlew, plover’ is from Pers kārwānak.138 – Ḍinnāwī2004 and Rolland2014, too, think the word is of Pers origin, but give the etymon as Pers kerwān. Rolland2014 would not exclude an inverse dependence, though, i.e., Pers < Ar, in which case one may assume a relation to [v7] and/or sup>†²kariya (a, karàⁿ) ‘to have thin and parted legs | avoir les jambes minces et écartées’, on account of the thinness of the bird’s legs (↗KRY_5).
    ▪ [v3] : Like *‘roundness’, also *‘to dig’ is a basic notion of the 2-cons. nucleus ↗*KR . In Ar, its reflexes show both W and Y as R₃, therefore karā ~ karà is grouped under ↗KRW/Y in this dictionary.
    ▪ [v4] : karawyā ‘caraway’ is a borrowing and therefore treated separately, see ↗KRWYā.
    [v6] : see above, [v1] ‘ball’.
    [v7] : ²karā (u) ‘to walk or prance in a particular manner (as an innate defect, of a horse)’ seems to be akin to, or perh. even identical with, sup>†²kariya (a, karàⁿ) ‘to have thin and parted legs | avoir les jambes minces et écartées’ (↗KRY_5, with also karāⁿ ‘thinness of the shank’), listed s.r. √KRW in DRS (see COGN below, DRS #KRW-4) and compared to karaʕ ‘thinness of the shank’ by Ullmann in WKAS I 1970 (↗√KRʕ); further related is possibly also karà (i, kary) ‘to run swiftly | se mettre à courir à toutes jambes, courir en ramassant, pour ainsi dire, rapidement ses pieds’ (↗KRY_6), and perh. also [v2] (unless borrowed from Pers).
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    DRS #KRW-1 Akk karū, Syr kᵊrā, kᵊrī ‘être court, devenir court’ [↗KRY]. -2 kurwah ‘champ ensemencé’. -3 Ar karā ‘jouer à la balle’. -4 karāⁿ ‘minceur des jambes’ [↗KRY]. -5 karawān : nom d’un oiseau (courlis ? pluvier ?).
    ▪ Cf. also ↗KRː (KRR) and ↗KRKR.
    ▪ ...
     
    DISC ▪ [v1]/[v2] DRS ad #KRW-3/4: Nöldeke NBSS:158 does not think that kuraẗ ‘ball’ and karāⁿ ‘thinness of the shank’ are related.
    ▪ [v7] : For some reason (unclear to me – S.G.), BK1860 analyzes an animal’s (but also a woman’s) ‘walking or prancing in a particular manner’ (‘marcher en posant les pieds tout droit et roide sur le sol’) as extended use (« de là ») of ↗karā/à (√KRW/Y) ‘to dig |creuser la terre, creuser un canal)’.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    kuraẗ كُرة , pl. -āt, kuràⁿ 
    ID 754 • Sw – • BP 501 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 21Feb2023
    √KRW 
    n.f. 
    1 globe, sphere; 2 ball – WehrCowan1979
     
    ▪ The 2-cons. kuraẗ is usually analyzed as from 3-cons. ↗KRW. But the basic idea of *‘roundness’ is already present in the 2-cons. root nucleus ↗*KR , the “purest” reflexes of which are ↗KRː (KRR) and the reduplicating ↗KRKR.
    ▪ Within √KRW, the closest relative is the (now obsol.) vb. karā (u, karw) ‘to round s.th.; to line (a well) with wood’ (↗KRW). However, ‘ball’ can also be analyzed as the result of ‘piling up, heaping up’, as found in karkara ‘to collect, blow into a ball (wind the clouds); to pile up (s.th.)’ (↗KRKR_4), a specialised development from ↗²karra ‘to return with the aim of resupplying o.s. with ammunition/troops’. Cf. also EgAr ↗ku(r)rāriyyaẗ ‘spool, bobbin, reel (WehrCowan1976); ball (of string, wool etc.) (BadawiHinds1986)’. – In DRS, other Sem items meaning ‘ball’ etc. do not appear sub √KRW but ↗√KRː (KRR) (cf. below, section COGN).
    ▪ …
     
    WKAS I 1970: ¹karā, u ‘to play ball’: denom.
    ▪ …
     
    DRS #KRW-1-2 ... . -3 Ar karā ‘jouer à la balle’. -4-5 ....
    DRS #KRR-1 Ar karra ‘revenir sur ses pas, revenir à la charge’, karrara ‘répéter, réitérer’, Tham kr ‘ramener, revenir’, MġrAr karrar ‘répéter une leçon, repasser le Coran dans une recitation ininterrompue’, Sab kr ‘répéter (une action)’191 ; Te kärara ‘rouler (vers le bas)’, Tña kärärä ‘être rond’, Amh kʷärrärä ‘échafauder, mettre l’un sur l’autre’. - Ar kurraẗ, Te korit ‘balle’, Amh kʷärät ‘caillou’.192 -2-13 ....
    DRS #KRKR-1 Ug krkr ‘enrouler, entortiller; faire tournoyer (doigts)’, Hbr *kirkēr ‘aller rapidement, courir, bouger de ci de là, danser’, JudPalAram kirker ‘tourner autour’, Ar karkara ‘tourner (la meule), amasser, entasser (des objets)’, takarkara ‘hésiter’; MġrAr karkar ‘traîner derrière soi’ ; Gz ʔankʷarkʷara ‘rouler, tourner autour’, Tña kärärä, ʔənkʷərkʷər bälä, ʔankʷäraräyä ‘être rond’, Te kärkära ‘rouler’, ʔänkʷärkʷära ‘dégringoler’, Amh tänkʷäräkkʷärä ‘rouler’; kʷäräkkʷärä ‘fouiller avec le doigt dans l’oreille pour en retirer le cérumen’. - ? Te kärkär bela ‘faire du bruit’, Amh täkärakkärä ‘se quereller’. | Outside Sem: (Cush) Sa Bil karkar ‘to be round’ – Leslau EDG III: 349, CDG 292.193 -2-8 ....
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ If Nourai 247 is right, Pers ǧarreʰ ‘jar’ is reimported from Ar ǧarraẗ, which, the author claims, is from Pers koreʰ ‘sphere, planet, ball’, in its turn allegedly from Ar kuraẗ ‘id.’.
    ▪ … 
    kuraẗ al-ʔarḍ and kuraẗ ʔarḍiyyaẗ, n.f., terrestrial globe, globe;
    kuraẗ al-ṯalǧ, n.f., snowball;
    kuraẗ al-sallaẗ, n.f., basketball;
    kuraẗ al-ṭāwulaẗ, n.f., table tennis;
    kuraẗ al-qadam, n.f., football, soccer;
    kuraẗ al-kawākib, n.f., celestial sphere;
    kurāt laḥm, nonhum.pl., small meatballs;
    kuraẗ al-māʔ, n.f., water polo;
    kuraẗ al-yad, n.f., (European) handball;
    niṣf al-kuraẗ, n., hemisphere

    kurayyaẗ, n.f., 1 globule; 2 pellet: dimin. | al-kurayyāt al-ḥamrāʔ\al-ḥumr, the red corpuscles, erythrocytes
    kurī and BP#4691kurawī, adj., globular, globate, globose, ball-shaped, ball-like, spherical: nsb-adj.
    kurawiyyaẗ, n.f., globosity, sphericity, roundness: abstr. formation in ¬-iyyaẗ | kurawiyyaẗ al-ʔarḍ, the sphericity of the earth

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗karawān, ↗karā/à (√KRW/Y), and ↗karawyā (√KRWYā), as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗KRW. – Cf. also ↗KRː (KRR), ↗KRKR, ↗KRW/Y, and ↗KRY. 
    karawān كَرَوان 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 22Feb2023
    √KRW 
    n. 
    (a variety of) curlew, plover (Oedicnemus crepitans) – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ Accord. to Asbaghi1988 from Pers kārwānak.139
    ▪ According to Ḍinnāwī2004 and Rolland2014, who also think the word is of Pers origin, the etymon is Pers kerwān. Rolland2014 would not exclude the inverse, though, i.e., Ar > Pers.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    DRS #KRW-1-3 .... -4 karāⁿ ‘minceur des jambes’ [↗KRY]. -5 karawān : nom d’un oiseau (courlis ? pluvier ?).
    ▪ Cf. perh. also ↗KRW_7 and/or ↗KRY_5.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗kuraẗ, ↗karā/à (√KRW/Y), and ↗karawyā (√KRWYā), as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗KRW. – Cf. also ↗KRː (KRR), ↗KRKR, ↗KRW/Y, and ↗KRY. 
    KRW/Y كرو/ي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21Feb2023
    √KRW/Y 
    “root” 
    ▪ KRW/Y_1 ‘to dig’ ↗karā\à
    ▪ KRW/Y_2 ‘caraway’ ↗karawyā (treated sub ↗KRWYā)
    ▪ KRW/Y_3 ↗KRW and ↗KRY 
    ▪ [v1] : Kogan2015: (Ar KRY) from WSem *KRY ‘to dig’. – See also below, section DISC.
    ▪ [v2] : see sub ↗KRWYā
     
    – 
    DRS #KRW/Y-1 Ug kry, Hbr kārāʰ, Pun krʔ, JudPalAram kᵊra, Mnd kra, Syr kurkᵊyā, Ar karā ‘creuser’, Gz karaya ‘creuser la terre, faire des trous, faire des incisions’, Te kära ‘détacher en creusant’, Amh kärräya ‘creuser, labourer’, Har ḫara, Gur käre ḫänä ‘creuser un trou’.194 | Outside Sem: Copt čri ‘le fait de creuser la terre, paysan, agriculteur’. -2 Gz karaya ‘remuer, exciter, inciter; se mettre en colère’, kʷaraya ‘se mettre en colère’ ; Tña kʷärräyä ‘devenir enragé’. -3 Gz makrit ‘épée’, Amh kara ‘couteau, coutelas’. -4 Hbr kārāʰ ‘donner un repas de fête’, kerāʰ ‘festin’. -5 Syr kārwāyā, Ar karawiyā, karawyāʔ ‘carvi’.
    ▪ [v1] : Kogan2015: 118 #13 Ug kry, Hbr kārā, JBA kry, Ar kry, Gz karaya ‘to dig’. – DRS : Pour ‘creuser’, comparer s. ↗*KR-, ↗KRː (KRR), ↗KRB, ↗KMR, ↗KWR.
    ▪ [v2] : see sub ↗KRWYā
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ [v1] : Klein1987 thinks that »the orig. meaning of this base was ‘to make round’«, associating Hbr kārāʰ ‘to dig’ with Ar kuraẗ ‘globe, sphere, ball’, Aram kᵊrēʸ, Syr keryā ‘to heap’, and Syr kᵊrā ‘be short’, lit. ‘be rounded off’. These juxtapositions look a bit far-fetched; but if valid, [v1] will have to be seen as forming a unit with KRW (↗kuraẗ), KRː (KRR) (↗kur(r)āriyyaẗ), KRKR (↗KRKR_4), and KRY (≙ DRS #KRW-1; ?cf. also ↗KRY_7 ‘to decrease, dwindle’?).
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    karā / karaw- كَرا/كَرَوْـ , u (karw), and karà / karay- كَرَى/كَرَيْـ , i (kary
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 21Feb2023
    √KRW/Y 
    vb., I 
    to dig (s.th.) – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ Kogan2015: (Ar KRY) from WSem *KRY ‘to dig’
    ▪ …
     
    WKAS I 1970: karā, u, and karà, i, ‘to dig a bed for a river, regulate a river’
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Kogan2015: 118 #13 Ug kry, Hbr kārā, JBA kry, Ar kry, Gz karaya ‘to dig’
    DRS #KRW/Y-1 Ug kry, Hbr kārāʰ, Pun krʔ, JudPalAram kᵊra, Mnd kra, Syr kurkᵊyā, Ar karā ‘creuser’, Gz karaya ‘creuser la terre, faire des trous, faire des incisions’, Te kära ‘détacher en creusant’, Amh kärräya ‘creuser, labourer’, Har ḫara, Gur käre ḫänä ‘creuser un trou’.195 | Outside Sem: Copt čri ‘le fait de creuser la terre, paysan, agriculteur’. -2-5 ....
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     

     
    karw, n., digging, excavation: vn. I

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗karawyā (treated sub ↗KRWYā), as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗KRW/Y. – Cf. also ↗KRː (KRR), ↗KRKR, ↗KRW, and ↗KRY. 
    KRWYā كرويا 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 21Feb2023
    √KRWYā 
    “root” 
    ▪ KRWYā_1 ‘caraway’ ↗karawyā
     
    ▪ [v1] : via Syr from Grk, see ↗karawyā
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ [v1] see ↗karawyā
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ [v1] Engl caraway, Fr It carvi ‘id.’, Du karwij, Ge Karve, Karbe, Span carvi, alcaravea, Port alcaraviakarawyā.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    karawyā كَرَوْيا , var. karāwiyā, karawiyāʔ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 22Jan2023
    √KRWYā 
    n. 
    caraway (Carum carvi L.; bot.) – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ from Syr krawyā, karwāyā, from Grk karuía (sic Ullmann in WKAS I 1970; Beekes gives only káron and the prob. older, perh. pre-Grk karṓ). – DRS KRW/Y-5 Emprunt du grec káron, karṓ ‘carvi, cumin des prés’, lui-même d’étymologie non assurée.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Variants in ClassAr: karawyāʔᵘ, karwiyāʔᵘ, karawiyyaẗWKAS I 1970.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (loanword) Grk > Syr > Ar, see above, section CONC.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl caraway, plant of southern Europe, the aromatic seeds of which are used in cooking and baking, lC13, carewei, via oFr caroi from oIt or mLat carui, from Ar karāwiyā, which is of unknown origin but suspected to be somehow from Grk karon ‘cumin’. Also as AngloLat carvi, oFr carvi. oSpan had alcarahuaya, alcaravea – EtymOnline.
    ▪ Cf. also Lokotsch1927: Ar karawiyāʔ ‘Feldkümmel, Carum carvi L.’, perh. from Grk káron, Lat careum, hence Fr It carvi ‘Wiesenkümmel’, Du karwij, Engl caraway ‘Feldkümmel’, Ge Karve, Karbe, Span carvi, alcaravea, Port alcaravia.
    ▪ … 
    For values attached to the root KRW/Y under which karawyā is sometimes grouped, cf. ↗karā\à as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗KRW/Y. – Cf. also ↗KRː (KRR), ↗KRKR, ↗KRW, and ↗KRY. 
    KRY كري 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 21Feb2023
    √KRY 
    “root” 
    ▪ KRY_1 ‘to rent, lease, let, let out, etc.’ ↗kirāʔ
    ▪ KRY_2 ‘to sleep, be asleep, slumber’ ↗¹kariya
    ▪ KRY_3 ‘to dig’ ↗karā\à (KRW/Y)
    ▪ KRY_4 ‘curry’ ↗karrī

    Other values, now obsolete, include (WKAS I 1970, Hava1899, BK1860)

    KRY_5 ‘to have thin and parted legs | avoir les jambes minces et écartées’: ²kariya (a, karàⁿ); ? karāⁿ ‘thinness of the shank’, cf. ↗KRʕ (WKAS)
    KRY_6 ‘to run swiftly | se mettre à courir à toutes jambes, courir en ramassant, pour ainsi dire, rapidement ses pieds’: karà (i, kary)
    KRY_7 ‘to decrease, dwindle’: ³kariya (a, karàⁿ); also vb. III, kārà (WKAS), and vb. IV, ʔakrà (Hava) ‘to decrease, diminish, lessen | diminuer, être en déchet’
    KRY_8 ‘to increase | augmenter, s’accroître ; to prolong (a discourse) | allonger, prolonger (p.ex. son entretien) ; différer, remettre à plus tard’ : ʔakrà (IV) contr. of preceding; (WKAS:) kārà (III) ‘to delay, postpone’
    KRY_9 ‘to keep sacred vigils | passer des nuits dans l’insomnie et en actes de devotion’ : ʔakrà (IV)
    KRY_ ‘…’ ↗kry
     
    ▪ [v1] (≙ DRS #KRY-1): The value ‘to rent, lease, let, let out, etc.’ is well attested in Sem (Ar, modSAr, Te Amh; Hbr with the slightly differing meaning ‘to buy, trade, run a business’). While the EthSem forms may be from Ar, the modSAr ones look rather genuine. In MSA, the corresponding vb. I has become obsolete, but the n. kirāʔ and vb.s III kārà and IV ʔakrà are still in use with the same meaning. – Any relation to [v8] in the sense of ‘to prolong, postpone’ (a contract?)?
    ▪ [v2] : According to DRS (#KRY-3), Ar ¹kariya ‘to sleep, be asleep, slumber’ is without obvious cognates in Sem. – Any relation to [v9] ʔakrà which, in BK1860, means ‘passer des nuits dans l’insomnie…’; should ‘passing the night in sleeplessness’ have developed into ‘slumber’?
    ▪ [v3] Accord. to Kogan2015, Ar KRY ‘to dig’ is from WSem *KRY ‘to dig’ (see s.r. ↗KRW/Y). – Klein1987 thinks that »the orig. meaning of this base was ‘to make round’«, associating Hbr kārāʰ ‘to dig’ with Ar kuraẗ ‘globe, sphere, ball’, Aram kᵊrēʸ, Syr karyā ‘heap’, and Syr kᵊrā ‘be short’ (Klein: lit., ‘be rounded off’). These juxtapositions look a bit far-fetched; but if valid, [v3] will have to be seen as forming a unit with KRW (↗kuraẗ), KRː (KRR) (↗kur(r)āriyyaẗ), and KRKR (↗KRKR_4).
    ▪ [v4] : karrī ‘curry’ is from Engl curry, ultimately from SInd lang.s. (mKan, mTam, Malayalam).
    [v5] (≙ DRS #KRW-4, ? DRS #KRY-4): It is not totally clear, though rather likely, that ²kariya ‘to have thin and parted legs’ is akin to, perh. even identical with, karāⁿ ‘thinness of the shank’, which latter Ullmann (WKAS I 1970) suggests to compare to ↗KRʕ ‘id.’.
    [v6] : In rendering Ar karà ‘se mettre à courir à toutes jambes’ with an explanatory ‘courir en ramassant, pour ainsi dire, rapidement ses pieds’, BK1860 seems to suggest that the value ‘to run swiftly’ should be seen in relation with the basic notion of *‘piling up, heaping up, collecting, assembling’ as reflected, for instance, in kuraẗ ‘sphere, ball’ and karā ‘to round s.th.’ (↗KRW), or karkara ‘to collect, blow into a ball (wind the clouds)’ (↗KRKR_4), as well as in EgAr ↗ku(r)rāriyyaẗ ‘spool, bobbin, reel; ball (of string, wool etc.)’.
    [v7] : DRS does not register ³kariya (also III and IV) ‘to decrease, deminish, dwindle, lessen’ among their #KRY values, nor among other phonetically close ones. Should one compare DRS #KRW-1 ‘être court, devenir court’ (Akk, Syr)?
    [v8] : The value ‘to increase; to prolong (a discourse)’ (ʔakrà) seems to contradict the preceding one. Within Ar, it is prob. akin to, perh. even identical with,
    kārà ‘to delay, postpone’. – Is it also related to [v1] ‘to rent, lease, let, let out’ (? < *‘to prolong the right to use s.th., postpone the date of calling s.th. back’)?
    [v9] ʔakrà ‘to keep sacred vigils | passer des nuits dans l’insomnie et en actes de devotion’ : poss. extended use of [v8] ‘to increase, prolong’. – Any relation to [v2] ‘to sleep, be asleep, slumber’?
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    DRS #KRY-1 Hbr *kārāʰ ‘acheter, marchander, traiter une affaire, négocier’, Ar kārā ‘louer, donner à loyer’, Mhr škēri, Ḥrs škēr, Śḥr škereʔ ‘louer, employer’, Te təkārạ̄, Amh (tä)kärrayä ‘louer’. -2 Akk karū, nHbr kᵊri, JudPalAram Syr karyā ‘tas de céréales, de froment ; mesure de capacité’.196 -3 Ar kariya ‘sommeiller’. -4 karā ‘marcher à allure forcée’. -5 Amh käre ‘os iliaque’. -6 kurye ‘mare, eau stagnante’.
    DRS #KRW-1 Akk karū, Syr kᵊrā, kᵊrī ‘être court, devenir court’. -2 kurwah ‘champ ensemencé’. -3 Ar karā ‘jouer à la balle’. -4 karāⁿ ‘minceur des jambes’. [?]-5 karawān : nom d’un oiseau (courlis ? pluvier ?).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    kariy- كَرِيَ , a (karàⁿ
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 25Jan2023, last update 21Feb2023
    √KRY 
    vb., I 
    to sleep, be asleep, slumber – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ Within the spectrum of semantic values attached to the root ↗KRY, the value ‘to sleep, be asleep, slumber’ seems to be rather isolated, as it can hardly be connected to ‘renting, leasing, letting’ (↗kirāʔ) or ‘digging’ (↗karā\à), nor to now obsolete notions like ‘to have thin and parted legs’ (↗KRY_5), ‘to run swiftly’ (↗KRY_6), and others. A certain overlapping may, perhaps, be observed in the case of ʔakrà ‘to keep sacred vigils | passer des nuits dans l’insomnie et en actes de devotion’ (↗KRY_9), though this latter may rather be based on ‘to prolong, delay, postpone’ (↗KRY_8) rather than on ‘sleep, slumber’.
    ▪ According to DRS (#KRY-3), Ar ¹kariya ‘to sleep, be asleep, slumber’ is without obvious cognates in Sem.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    DRS #KRY-1-2 .... -3 Ar kariya ‘sommeiller’. -4-5 ....
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    takarrà, vb. V, to sleep, be asleep, slumber: tD-stem, self-ref.
    karàⁿ, n., sleep, slumber: vn. I.

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗kirāʔ, ↗karā\à (√KRW/Y), and ↗karrī, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗KRY. – Cf. also ↗KRː (KRR), ↗KRW, and ↗KRW/Y. 
    kirāʔ كِراء 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 25Jan2023, last update 21Feb2023
    √KRY 
    n. 
    1a rent, hire, hiring; b lease; c rental, hire; 2 wages, pay – WehrCowan1976 
    kirāʔ is the vn. of a (now obsol.) vb. I, *karà, with prob. the same sense as the L- and *Š-stems (kārà and ʔakrà) that are still in use. Accord. to DRS #KRY-1, this value is well attested in Sem (Ar, modSAr, Te Amh; Hbr with the slightly differing meaning ‘to buy, trade, run a business’). While the EthSem forms may be from Ar, the modSAr ones look rather genuine. It seems quite safe therefore to assume a deeper (WSem?) dimension and a relatively old age of this value.
    ▪ Yet, within the semantic spectrum attached to ↗KRY, the value ‘to rent, lease, let, let out, etc.’ can hardly be connected to any of the other values – certainly not to ‘sleep, slumber’ (↗¹kariya), nor to ‘thinness of the shank; to have thin and parted legs’ (↗KRY_5) or to ‘decrease, dwindle, diminish, lessen’ (↗KRY_7). It looks conceivable, though, to assume a relation betw. ‘to rent, etc.’ and ‘to prolong, postpone’ (↗KRY_8) if we, for instance, think of leasing, letting out, etc., as a kind of prolongation of the right to use s.th.
    ▪ If the latter should indeed be related, then one may speculate even a bit farther and think that ‘to prolong, postpone’ possibly has s.th. to do with the idea of *‘collecting, assembling, piling up, heaping up’, reflexes of which are found in ↗kuraẗ ‘globe, sphere, ball’, ↗kur(r)āriyyaẗ ‘spool, bobbin, reel | ball (of string, wool etc.)’, and others. Klein1987 even thinks that »the orig. meaning of the base KRY was *‘to make round’«. If this should be valid, we would get a hypothetical development along the line *‘to make round > to collect, pile\heap up > to delay, postpone > to rent, hire, lease’. But this sounds highly speculative (and perh. also little likely…).
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    DRS #KRY-1 Hbr *kārāʰ ‘acheter, marchander, traiter une affaire, négocier’, Ar kārā ‘louer, donner à loyer’, Mhr škēri, Ḥrs škēr, Śḥr škereʔ ‘louer, employer’, Te təkārạ̄, Amh (tä)kärrayä ‘louer’. -2-6 […].
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    kārà, vb. III, and ʔakrà, vb. IV, to rent, lease, let, let out, farm out, hire out (s.th. to s.o.): L- and *Š-stem, assoc. and caus., respectively
    ĭktarà, vb. VIII, and ĭstakrà, vb. X, 1a to rent, hire (s.th.); b to lease, take on ease (s.th.), take a lease (of s.th.); 2 to hire, employ, engage (s.o.), engage the labor or services (‑h of s.o.): Gt- and *Št-stem, respectively, both self-ref.
    ʔikrāʔ, n., 1a renting, rent; b leasing, letting on lease, farming out: vn. IV
    ĭktirāʔ, n., 1a renting, rent; b leasing, taking on lease; 2 hiring: vn. VIII
    mukāriⁿ, pl. -ūn, n., 1 hirer (esp. one of horses, donkeys, mules, etc.); 2 donkey driver, muleteer: PA III
    mukriⁿ, n., 1 hirer, lessor; 2 landlord: PA IV
    mukràⁿ, adj., rented, let, hired out, let on lease: PP IV
    muktariⁿ, pl. -ūn, n., and mustakriⁿ, pl. -ūn, n., renter, tenant, lessee: PA VIII | muktariⁿ ṯāniⁿ, subtenant, sublessee

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗kariya, ↗karā\à (√KRW/Y), and ↗karrī, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗KRY. – Cf. also ↗KRː (KRR), ↗KRW, and ↗KRW/Y. 
    karrī كَرّي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 25Jan2023
    √KRY 
    n. 
    curry – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ Rolland2014, EtymOnline: from Engl curry ‘a kind of Indian dish or the sauce used upon it’ (1590s, as carriel), »prob. adopted into Engl via Port caril and its pl. caris, and ultimately derived from mingling of various SInd (Drav) words including mKan, mTam and Malayalam kari, often indicating s.th. ‘black in colour’ or ‘burnt’, and thus applied broadly to spices and meats. In modern Indian cookery, curry refers to spice blends with turmeric as their key ingredient; spice blends without turmeric are called masala.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ no cognates (loanword).
    ▪ … 
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ About the underlying Engl curry, EtymOnline says: »Of Eur dishes spiced after the Ind style, 1747 in BritEngl. As the spice blend used in making the sauce, 1780. Extended to exotic, spicy sauces from outside of India (Thai curry, Indonesian curry, etc.) by 1680s. The vb. meaning ‘flavour with curry’ is by 1839. The Murraya koenigii or Bergera koenigii is called curry tree, in Engl by 1822, prob. through one of the Sind languages. The kari name of the plant comes from the perceived blackness of the leaves […].«
    ▪ …
     
    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗kariya, ↗kirāʔ, and ↗karā\à (√KRW/Y), as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗KRY. – Cf. also ↗KRː (KRR), ↗KRW, and ↗KRW/Y. 
    KSB كسب 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
    √KSB 
    “root” 
    ▪ KSB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KSB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KSB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to earn one’s living, to profit, acquire; to gather, acquisition; birds of prey’ 
    ▪ … 
    ĭktisāb اِكْتِساب 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 8Jun2023
    √KSB 
    n. 
    ▪ vn. of vb. VIII, ĭktisaba, Gt-stem 
    KSD كسد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
    √KSD 
    “root” 
    ▪ KSD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KSD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KSD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘(of the market) to be dull, market depression, be sluggish, be stagnant’ 
    ▪ … 
    KSR كسر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KSR 
    “root” 
    ▪ KSR_1 ‘to break’ ↗kasara
    ▪ KSR_2 ‘…’ ↗

    ▪ KSR_n ‘elixir’ ↗ʔiksīr 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    kasar‑ كَسَرَ , i (kasr
    ID … • Sw – • BP 2163 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KSR 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    … 
    kāsir كاسِر , pl. kawāsirᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KSR 
    adj. 
    1 breaking, shattering, etc.; 2 (pl. kawāsirᵘ) rapacious, ferocious, savage (predatory animal) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    kāsir al-ḥaǧar, n., saxifrage, stonebreak (bot.)
    ṭayr kāsir, n., bird of prey
    kawāsir al-ṭayr, n.pl., predatory birds
     
    KSL كسل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
    √KSL 
    “root” 
    ▪ KSL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KSL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KSL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘laziness, to be sluggish, be idle, be negligent’ 
    ▪ … 
    KŠF كشف 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KŠF 
    “root” 
    ▪ KŠF_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ KŠF_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to peel away, peel off, flay, scratch off’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    kašaf‑ كَشَفَ 
    ID 755 • Sw – • BP 772 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KŠF 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    ĭktišāf اِكْتِشاف 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 2183 • APD … • © SG | created 8Jun2023
    √KŠF 
    n. 
    ▪ vn. of vb. VIII, ĭktišafa, Gt-stem 
    KẒM كظم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
    √KẒM 
    “root” 
    ▪ KẒM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KẒM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KẒM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to suppress, conceal, keep silent; to be oppressed, put a stop to; breathing tract’ 
    ▪ … 
    KʕB كعب 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
    √KʕB 
    “root” 
    ▪ KʕB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KʕB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KʕB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘ankle, ankle bone, heel; cube, dice, to fold in a square shape, square building; honour; the Ka’ba; busty, (of women) well-formed; to speed up’ 
    ▪ From WSem *√KʕB ‘to increase, swell’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Kaaba, from Ar ↗kaʕbaẗ ‘cube, cubic structure’, from ↗kaʕaba, vb. I, ‘to swell, be full’ (said of breasts). 
    KʕK كعك 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KʕK 
    “root” 
    ▪ KʕK_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ KʕK_2 ‘…’ ↗
    kaʕk 
    kaʕk 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    kaʕk كَعْك (n.un. ‑aẗ
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KʕK 
    n.coll. (n.un. ‑aẗ
    cake; designation of various kinds of pastry, also of small baked goods; pretzel (syr.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    Like also Pers kāk, Ar kaʕk probably goes back, via Aram forms, to an Eg word for a type of bread or cake (cf. Copt čaače, čooče, kaake etc. ‘baked loaf, cake’, Demot kʕkʕ(.t) ‘[a type of bread]’). 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 10 (2012)#KʕK: nHbr kaʕak, JP Syr kaʕkā ‘galette, gateau’, Ar kaḥk, kaʕk ‘craquelins sucrés’, MġrAr kaʕʕak ‘rouler une corde en anneaux’, kaʕwək ‘tortiller et mettre en rond’. Voir aussi KKʕ. – Outside Sem (as suggested by others): ? Eg ʕkk; ? Copt čaače ‘(perhaps a type of cake)’; ? Grk kákeis, kakeîs ‘(type of Egyptian bread)’.
    ▪ Littmann1924 thinks that Ge Kuchen ‘cake’ and Pers kāk, Aram kaʕkā and Ar kaʕk, all designating some type of bread or cake, must »somehow« be related to each other (cf. also Grk kakeîs and Copt kake) and that this conglomerate »perhaps« goes back to the form kʕkʕ, attested in Eg.
     
    LA explains the meaning as ‘dry bread’ and attributes it to a Pers origin.
    ▪ Fraenkel1886 thinks the closest cognate from which the Ar word is likely to have been borrowed, is Aram KʕKā, Syr kaʕkā ‘cake’.
    ▪ Littmann1924 is of the opinion that Ar kaʕk, together with Pers kāk, Aram kaʕkā, Grk kakeîs and Copt kake ‘type of bread or cake’, »somehow« must be related to each other and »perhaps« ultimately go back to the form kʕkʕ, attested in Eg. Details obscure.
    ▪ Rolland2014 (with Nourai and Corriente): (together with also Pers kāk ‘round, dry and hard bread’) probably from Eg [no details given] via Aram kak, gag [sic!] ‘id.’
    ▪ Crum1939: 843b juxtaposes Ar kaʕkaẗ and Copt čaače, var. čače, kake (Thebes), čooče S, čače DM ‘baked loaf, cake’. ▪ Youssef2003: from Eg kʕk, Copt kaake, an Egyptian cookie.
    ▪ Youssef’s “Eg” kʕk and Littmann’s kʕkʕ are neither to be found in ErmanGrapow1921 nor in ThLAeg. But ThLAeg (BBAW) mentions Dem kʕkʕ(.t) (a type of bread)724 , while ErmanGrapow1921 has Eg ʕqw ‘income; food; bread’ (Copt oeik).
    ▪ 
    ▪ Rolland2014, like before him Littmann1924, suggests that also Engl cake (Littmann: Ge Kuchen) is from the same old Eg source as Ar kaʕk. Dictionaries of modern Eur languages keep silent about a possible Oriental connection:
    EtymOnline, for example, says that Engl cake (eC13; until eC15 meaning ‘flat, round loaf of bread’) is from oNor kaka ‘cake’, from WGerm *kōkōn‑. Earlier theories that had believed the word to be related to Lat coquere ‘to cook’ were not to be upheld any longer. The oNor etymon is given in Kluge2002, too, who also states that the word’s history before oNor is obscure. Some believe it is s.th. like children’s language; others hold that the oNor form is borrowed from a Romance language and thus goes back to eRom *coca, which is from Lat cochlea ‘snail shell’ (from Grk kóχlias ‘snail; screw’ etc., from kóχlos ‘spiral shell’, perhaps related to kónχos ‘mussel, conch’), so that a ‘cake’ ultimately would be a piece of dough formed like a snail or a spiral shell. A similar idea, however, seems also to lie in the Oriental words mentioned in the DISC section: most of them designate a round bread/cake, often in the form of a spiral shell; cf. also the notion of ‘rolling’ as attested in the MġrAr forms. 
    – 
    KFː (KFF) كفّ / كفف 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KFː (KFF) 
    “root” 
    ▪ KFː (KFF)_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ KFː (KFF)_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘palm of the hand, to take by the hand, to cease, to fend off; (of eyesight) to be lost; to gather together, the masses; to ask for alms, modest means’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl kippahkaffa
    – 
    kaff كَفّ , pl. kufūf, ʔakuff 
    ID 756 • Sw –/66 • BP 2476 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KFː (KFF) 
    n.f. 
    palm of the hand; glove; paw, foot, claw (of an animal); slap; scale (of a balance); handful; quire; bar (of chocolate) – WehrCowan1979.
     
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *kapp‑ ‘palm of the hand’. – Cf. also the synonymous of *rāḥ‑at‑ (> Ar ↗rāḥaẗ).
    ▪ 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Zammit 2002, DRS 10 (2012)#KPP– 3: Akk kapp‑ ‘palm (of the hand)’, Ug *kp ‘palm(s), hand(s)’, Hbr kap ‘hollow, flat of the hand, palm, sole of the foot’, Pun kpp ‘to put away, take away’ (?), Deir ʕAlla kp, Aram kappā ‘palm, hand’, Syr kappā, Mand kapa, ‘palm, hollow of the hand’, Mhr kaf ‘palm’, kəff ‘back of the hand’, Ḥrs kəf ‘palm’, Jib Ḥrs keff ‘palm, back of the hand’, Jib keff (vb.) ‘to hold back, stop’, Ar kaff ‘(palm of the) hand’, kaffa ‘to withhold, restrain, keep back, (ʕan) abstain (from)’, Gz kāf ‘palm of the hand; sole of foot’ (< Hbr), Amh kaf ‘palm of the hand; sole of foot; heel’
     
    See section "Concise", above.
     
    ▪ Not directly from Arabic, but ultimately from the related Phoenician *kapp ‘palm of the hand, eleventh letter of the Phoenician alphabet’ are Engl Kaph (via Hbr kap ‘kaph’) and Engl Kappa (via Grk kappa ‘kappa’) – Huehnergard 2011. 
    kaff Maryam (eg.), n.f., agnus castus, chaste tree (Vitex agnus-castus; bot.); rose of Jericho, resurrection plant (Anastatica hierochuntica L.; bot.)
    kaff al- ʔasad, n.f., lion’s-leaf (bot.)
    al- kaff al- ǧaḏmāʔᵘ, n.f., star α in the constellation Cetus
    al- kaff al- ḫaḍīb, n.f., star β in Cassiopeia
    waḍaʕa ḥayātahū ʕalà kaffih, expr., to risk one’s life
    ĭstadarra ’l- ʔakuffa, expr., to secure generous contributions

    For other items from the “root”, see ↗√KFː(KFF) as well as ↗k-f-f, ↗k-f-f
    KFʔ كفأ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KFʔ 
    “root” 
    ▪ KFʔ_1 ‘to turn over, reverse, invert’ ↗kafaʔa
    ▪ KFʔ_2 ‘(to be/come) equal, on a par, alike, adequate, appropriate’ ↗k˅fʔ
    ▪ KFʔ_3 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘equality, capability, credentials; to reward; peer, alike; to turn over face down, to tilt, to shield; yield’ 
    Among the four values given in DRS for the Sem root KPʔ/P, three are relevant for ClassAr; of these, two survived into MSA. Although listed as separate items here and in DRS, the two may be related etymologically, the ‘turning over’ (and, hence, also ‘folding’) of KFʔ_1 implying a ‘putting over each other of equal halfs’. 
    – 
    DRS 10 (2012)#KPʔ/P–1: Akk kapāpu, kepū, kapū ‘plier, courber’, Hbr kāpap ‘courber, incliner’, Aram kᵉpap, kᵉpā ‘incliner, courber, renverser’, Ar kafaʔa ‘renverser, retourner, détourner vers une nouvelle direction’. –2. Ar kāfaʔa ‘égaler, être égal à; rétribuer qn pour ce qu’il a fait’. […] –4. Ar kāff, kafūf ‘qui a les dents usées de vieillesse’, Eth kafəʔa ‘s’émousser, s’affaiblir’, Tña käfʔe, Te käfʔa, Amh käff ‘être mauvais’, täkäffa ‘être mal disposé, prendre en aversion’, Amh Gur kəfu ‘mauvais’.
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1431: Ar kfʔ a ‘to go away’ has cognate in the form kop ‘to come’ in a WCh language. 
    ▪ BAH2008 gives the values of the root in ClassAr as: ‘equality, capability, credentials; to reward; peer, alike; to turn over face down, tilt, shield; to yield’.
    ▪ KFʔ_1 often shows overlapping with ↗KFY.
    ▪ For KFʔ_1, Orel&Stolbova1994 reconstruct Sem *k˅paʔ‑ ‘go away’ and WCh *kap‑ (loss of auslaut laryngeal), both from AfrAs *kapaʔ‑ ‘to go away’.
    ▪ Any relation between KFʔ_1 and KFʔ_2 ? Gabal2012 suggests a derivation of KFʔ from a biconsonantal nucleus with the basic meaning of ‘to grasp the loose part (of s.th.) and, by folding it, return it so that it is not loose/spread any more’ (qabḍ al-ṭaraf al-muntašir wa-ṯanyuh wa-radduh fa-lā yantašir), and the essential meaning of KFʔ/W is ‘to fold in order to cover the open back side of s.th.’.
    ▪ Ehret1995 does not mention KFʔ but derives the biconsonantal Ar kaffa ‘to avert, stay; to desist, refrain’ from a pre-PSem root *KP ‘to stop, cease’ 
    – 
    – 
    kafaʔ‑ كَفَأَ , a (kafʔ
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KFʔ 
    vb., I 
    to turn around, turn over, reverse, invert; to turn away, turn aside, turn back (min from) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 10 (2012)#KPʔ/P-1: Akk kapāpu, kepū, kapū ‘plier, courber’, Hbr kāpap ‘courber, incliner’, Aram kᵉpap, kᵉpā ‘incliner, courber, renverser’, Ar kafaʔa ‘renverser, retourner, détourner vers une nouvelle direction’. 
    DRS 10 (2012)#KPʔ/P-1: cf. also ↗KF: (KFF).
    ▪ Cf. also ↗KFʔ and ↗k˅fʔ ‘(to be/come) equal, alike’. An etymological relation between these items and kafaʔa ‘to turn over, reverse, invert’ cannot be excluded.
    ▪ There is some overlapping also with ↗KFY.
    ▪ For Ar kafaʔa a ‘to go away’ (cf. form VII below, section DERIV), Orel&Stolbova1994 reconstruct Sem *k˅paʔ‑ ‘to go away’ and WCh *kap‑ (loss of auslaut laryngeal), both from AfrAs *kapaʔ‑ ‘to go away’.
    ▪ Gabal2012 suggests a derivation of KFʔ from a biconsonantal nucleus with the basic meaning of ‘to grasp the loose part (of s.th.) and, by folding it, return it so that it is not loose/spread any more’ (qabḍ al-ṭaraf al-muntašir wa-ṯanyuh wa-radduh fa-lā yantašir), and the essential meaning of KFʔ/W is ‘to fold in order to cover the open back side of s.th.’.
    ▪ Ehret1995 does not mention KFʔ but derives the biconsonantal Ar ↗kaffa ‘to avert, stay; to desist, refrain’ from a pre-PSem root *KP ‘to stop, cease’ 
    – 
    ʔakfaʔa, vb. IV, to turn over, reverse, invert:…
    ĭnkafaʔa, vb. VII, 1 to be turned away, be turned aside; 2 to be changed, be altered; 3 to recede, change, fade (colour); 4 to turn back, withdraw, retreat, fall back, give way; 5 to be inverted, be reversed, be turned around or over; 6 to fall down, tumble, topple: quasi-pass. or, in some values, a separate item? 
    k˅fʔ : kafʔ كَفْء , kifʔ كِفْء , kufʔ كُفْء 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KFʔ 
    ¹adj.; ²n. 
    equal, alike; adequate, appropriate, suitable, fit (li‑ for); equal (li‑ to s.o.), a match (li‑ for); qualified, capable, able, competent, efficient – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 kufuw (equal, peer) Q 112:4 wa-lam yakun la-hū kufuwan ʔaḥadun ‘and equal to Him there is none’ 
    DRS 10 (2012)#KPʔ/P-2: Ar kāfaʔa ‘égaler, être égal à; rétribuer qn pour ce qu’il a fait’. No direct cognates given. But cf. also ↗KFʔ and ↗kafaʔa.
    ▪ Zammit2002 #KFʔ: no cognates at all. 
    ▪ Like Zammit, DRS does not give any direct cognates. But there may be a relation between ‘(to be/come) equal, alike, etc.’ and ↗kafaʔa ‘to reverse, inverse, turn over’, cf. ↗KFʔ. 
    – 
    kāfaʔa, vb. III, to reward; to requite, return, repay, recompense (s.th. bi‑ with); to compensate, make up (for s.th. bi‑ with); to be similar, equal (DO to s.th.), to equal, be commensurate with; to measure up, come up to, compare favorably with: associative.
    takāfaʔa, vb. VI, to be equal, be on a par; to (counter)balance each other, be perfectly matched: T-stem of III.

    kufūʔ, kufuʔ, n., equal, comparable (li‑ to), a match (li‑ for):…
    kifāʔ, n., an equivalent:…
    kafāʔ, n., equality; adequacy, adequateness: quasi-vn. I.
    BP#2085 kafāʔaẗ, n.f., equality; adequacy, adequateness; comparableness; fitness, suitability, appropriateness; competence, efficiency, ability, capability: quasi-vn. I; pl. ‑āt, qualifications, abilities, capabilities | šahādat al-~, n., certificate of competence (for practice of a trade, Alg.; formerly for school teachers, Eg.).
    BP#4475 mukāfaʔaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., requital; recompense, remuneration; compensation, indemnification, indemnity; reward; stipend; premium (ʕalà for): vn. III.
    takāfuʔ, n., mutual correspondence, equivalence; homogeneity, sameness; equality: vn. VI | ~ al-furaṣ, n., equal chances, equal opportunity; ~ al-ḍiddayn, n., ambivalence.
    ĭnkifāʔ, n., retreat, withdrawal: vn. VII.
    mukāfiʔ, adj., equal, (a)like, of the same kind, homogeneous, corresponding, commensurate, equivalent: PA III.
    mutakāfiʔ, adj., alike, (mutually) corresponding, commensurate, equivalent, equal: PA VI. 
    KFT كفت 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
    √KFT 
    “root” 
    ▪ KFT_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KFT_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KFT_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to alter, change; to detain, hiding place, place for burying things/people; to compete; difficulty; livelihood; small cooking pot, to sheathe; death’ 
    ▪ … 
    KFR كفر 
    ID 757 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KFR 
    “root” 
    ▪ KFR_1 ‘to cover, hide; be irreligious, infidel’ ↗kafara
    ▪ KFR_2 ‘village’ ↗kafr
    ▪ KFR_3 ‘camphor’ ↗kāfūr

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to cover, to hide, to cover seed in the soil, to plant seeds, planter; to wear a garment over the shield; to be ungrateful, to hide God’s existence, to deny God, not to believe, to blaspheme, to be an infidel; darkness of night, night; the sea; great valley; rain; to prostrate, to show humility’. – Al-Suyūṭī quotes an opinion that kaffir is a borrowing from either Nab or Hbr. 
    While kafr ‘village’ and kāfūr ‘camphor’ are loanswords, the vb. kafara in its meaning ‘to cover, hide’ is older (Huehnergard2011: protSem *√¹KPR ‘to wipe clean, polish, purify, cover’). The figurative meanings attached to this vb. and some of its derivations, however, may be Hebraisms or Aramaisms. This is evidently the case with ‘expiation’. But it is less obvious with ‘to be irreligious, infidel’. The latter may be a genuinely Ar innovation – unless the ‘infidel’ originally is the *‘villager’ (as Huehnergard2011 has it), in which case ‘to be irreligious, infidel’ belongs to KFR_2, not KFR_1. 
    – 
    DRS 10 (2012)#KPR: With 14 values, this root is one of the most complex in Sem. Out of these 14, however, only 4 are realized in Ar: –1 kafara ‘couvrir, recouvrir; renier les bienfaits reçus, être ingrat envers; être infidèle, incrédule, nepas croire en un dieu unique’. –2 kafr ‘village’. –7 kāfūr ‘camphre’. –13 (Moroccan) kafūra ‘groin’. – For cognates see the entries referred to in the "Nutshell" section above. The dialectal value has no correspondence in MSA, thus no entry. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl Capernaumkafr. – Engl giaour, kafir, Kaffir, takfir, takfirikāfir, ↗kafr.
    ▪ Engl cyprinid, cyprinodont: cf. perh. Ar ↗kafara
    – 
    kafar‑ كَفَرَ , ikafr ; ²kufr , kufrān , kufūr
    ID 760 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KFR 
    vb., I 
    v1 (vn. ¹kafr): to cover, hide
    v2 (vn. ²kufr, kufrān, kufūr): to be irreligious, be an infidel, not to believe; kafara bi-’llāh also: to blaspheme God, curse, swear; to renege one’s faith, become an infidel; to be ungrateful (for a benefit) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ The vb. kafara in its meaning ‘to cover, hide’ (v1) is old, going back to a Sem vb. that must have meant s.th. like *‘to wipe, clean, polish, purify, cover’ (Huehnergard2011).
    ▪ The figurative meanings attached to it and a number of derivations, however, may be Hebraisms or Aramaisms. This is evidently the case with the notion of ‘expiation’, as in kaffara ‘to expiate’ (vb. II), kaffāraẗ ‘penance, expiation; (hence also:) expiatory gifts’ and the vn. II takfīr in the sense of ‘expiation, atonement, penance (for a sin)’.
    ▪ The case of v2 ‘to be infidel’, however, is doubtful. Jeffery connects it to a Hbr-Syr context, while Huehnergard2011 considers it to be derived from kafr ‘village’; in this theory, an ‘infidel’ would thus be, originally, a *‘villager’. But the sense of ‘to deny one’s religion’ is not too far from ‘to cover, hide’, so it may well be a genuinly Ar innovation. 
    ▪ eC7 Used very frequently in Q in the sense of ‘to deny the existence of God’, then also ‘to be an unbeliever’. 
    DRS 10 (2012)#KPR-1: Akk kapāru ‘étendre, essuyer (en frottant)’, ? Ug kpr ‘essuyer (?)’, JP kəpar ‘essuyer, nettoyer’; Akk kuppuru ‘purifier’, kāpir : un ouvrier du temple, Hbr kipper ‘expier’, JP kapper ‘expier’, Sab kfr ‘pardonner (un péché)’, Palm kprh, Nab kprʔ, Liḥy kafr‑ ‘tombeau, sépulcre’.
     
    ▪ Jeffery1938, 250: »In its various forms it is of common use in the Qurʔān, and the root is undoubtedly Ar, but as a technical religious term it has been influenced by outside usage. – The primitive sense of kafara ‘to cover or conceal’, corresponds with the Aram כפר; Syr kfr, and a derivative from this primitive sense occurs in the Qurʔān, 57:20, in the word kuffār ‘husbandmen’, i.e. ‘they who cover the seed’. The form kaffara, however, corresponds with the Hbr kippēr, Aram kappēr, and means ‘to cover’ in the sense of ‘atone’.725 In this sense it is used with ʕan, and al-Suyūṭī, Itq, 324; Mutaw, 56, tells us that some early authorities noted this kafara ʕan as derived from Hebr or Nabataean. The commoner use, however, is with bi‑, in the sense of ‘to deny the existence or goodness of God’, and this use with bi‑ is characteristic of Syriac. The form kāfir, an ‘unbeliever’, and kufr ‘unbelief’, may indeed be independent borrowings from the [Talm]Hbr kōp̄ā̈r, Syr kāp̄ōrā and kāp̄ōrūṯā (Ahrens, Christliches, 41), though a kpr as a proper name seems to occur in the Thamudic inscriptions (Ryckmans, Nom propres, i, 115). The form [Ar] kaffāraẗ may, however, be a direct borrowing from the Jews, cf. Horovitz, JPN, 220. – Hirschfeld, Beiträge, 90; Horovitz, KU, 59, and Torrey, Foundation, 48, 144, would have the dominant influence on the Ar in this connection from the Jewish community, and Pautz, Offenbarung, 159, n.; Mingana, Syriac Influence, 86, stand for a Christian source. Again it is really impossible to decide (cf. Ahrens, Christliches, 21).«
    ▪ Pennacchio2014: 138 follows Jeffery in assigning vb. II, kaffara to Hbr Aram kippär ‘to expiate’, while she thinks that kaffāraẗ ‘expiation’ is not a borrowing from late [Talm] Hbr kappārā ‘expiation’, but must be earlier (from where? – Ahrens1930: 22 excluded BiblHbr kappōräṯ ‘propitiatory’, a late technical term from ‘to cover over sin’…).
    ▪ In contrast to all other references, Huehnergard2011 connects the meaning ‘to be infidel’ to ↗kafr ‘village’ (‘infidel’ < *‘villager’). For further discussion, see ↗kāfir
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl cyprinid; cyprinodont, from Grk kuprīnos ‘carp’, perh. from kúpros ‘henna’ (from the fish’s color), prob. from a Sem source akin to Ug kpr and Hbr kōper ‘henna’ (perh. ultimately from √KPR in the meaning ‘to wipe, cover’ > ‘to cover with dye’, cf. Ar ↗kafara).
    ▪ Not from Ar, but from Hbr (to which the Ar vb. is akin), is Yom Kippur, the name of the Jewish holiday. According to EtymOnline, the word came into English by mC19 (first attested 1854) from Mishnaic Hbr yôm kippûr (BiblHebr yôm kippûrîm), lit. ‘day of atonement,’ from yôm ‘day’ + kippûr ‘atonement, expiation.’ 
    v1
    kaffara, vb. II, to cover, hide: ints.

    v2
    kaffara, vb. II, 1 to expiate; to do penance, atone, make amends; to grant remission (of one’s sins); to forgive, grant pardon: probably a Hebraism-Aramaism; 2 to make an infidel, seduce to unbelief: caus., denom. from kāfir or kufr.
    ʔakfara, vb. IV, to make an infidel; to call an infidel, accuse of infidelity: caus., denom. from kāfir or kufr.

    kafr, n., village ↗s.v.
    BP#3044C kufr, kufrān, n., unbelief, infidelity ↗kufr
    kafar, pl. ‑āt (saud.-ar., Eg.), n., rubber tire (for cars, bicycles): ?
    kaffār, n., infidel, unbeliever: ints.
    kaffāraẗ, n.f., penance, atonement (for a sin), expiation; reparation, amends; expiatory gifts, expiations (distributed to the poor at a funeral):
    takfīr, n., 1 expiation, atonement, penance (for a sin); 2 seduction to infidelity; charge of unbelief
    BP#3646C kāfir, pl. ‑ūn, kuffār, kafaraẗ, kifār, adj./n., irreligious, unbelieving; unbeliever, infidel, atheist; ungrateful: PA I (but see "Discussion").
    kāfūr, n., camphor ↗s.v.

    kafr كَفْر , pl. kufūr 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KFR 
    n. 
    small village, hamlet – WehrCowan1979. 
    Probably from Aram kaprā ′village’, from protSem *kapar‑ ′village’. 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 10 (2012)#KPR-2: Akk kapr‑, Hbr kāpār, koper, oEmpAram kpr, JP kaprā ‘village’.
    ▪ Unrelated to ↗kafara ‘to hide; (but also to ′be an unbeliever’?) and ↗kāfūr ‘camphor’. 
    DRS 10 (2012)#KPR: »L’arabe est probablement un emprunt à l’araméen.«
    ▪ Huehnergard2011: from Aram kaprā ‘village’, from Sem *kapar ‘village’.
    ▪ Huehnergard2011 derives the figurative meaning of the vb. kafara, ‘to be infidel’, not from the vb.’s basic value ‘to hide, conceal’ but from kafr, the ‘infidel’ being, originally, the *‘villager’. For further discussion, see ↗kāfir.
     
    ▪ Kluge2002: Ge Kaff ‘awful hole, godforsaken place’ (C19), from Rotwelsch, from Romani gāw ‘village’, influenced by older Rotwelsch kefar ‘village’, from WYid kefar, from Hbr kāp̄ār ‘village’. 
    Derivational situation not clear yet. Should Huehnergard2011 be right in connecting ‘infidelity’ to ‘village’ then the following items may be derived from kafr :

    kafara, i (kufr, kufrān, kufūr), vb. I, to be irreligious, be an infidel, not to believe: denom. from kāfir or kufr (?).
    kaffara, vb. II, to make an infidel, seduce to unbelief: caus., denom. from kāfir or kufr. – For another value see ↗kafara.
    ʔakfara, vb. IV, to make an infidel; to call an infidel, accuse of infidelity: caus., denom. from kāfir or kufr.

    BP#3044C kufr, kufrān, n., unbelief, infidelity.
    kaffār, n., infidel, unbeliever: ints.
    takfīr, n., seduction to infidelity; charge of unbelief: vn. II. – For another value see ↗kafara.
    BP#3646C kāfir, pl. ‑ūn, kuffār, kafaraẗ, kifār, adj./n., irreligious, unbelieving; unbeliever, infidel, atheist; ungrateful: PA I (but see "Discussion").
     

    kufr كُفْر 
    ID 761 • Sw – • BP 3044 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KFR 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    kāfir كافِر , pl. ‑ūn , kuffār , kafaraẗ , kifār 
    ID 758 • Sw – • BP 3646 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KFR 
    ¹adj.; ²n. 
    irreligious, unbelieving; unbeliever, infidel, atheist; ungrateful – WehrCowan1979. 
    C
    ▪ Either simply a PA I from the vb. ↗kafara (′one who conceals his belief’), or from TalmHbr kōp̄ēr ′unbeliever’ (Horovitz), or inspired by Syr kāp̄ōrā ′unbeliever’, kāp̄ōrūṯā ′unbelief’ (Ahrens), or derived from, or akin to, Ar ↗kafr ′village’, an ′infidel’ originally being a *′villager’ (Huehnergard). 
    ▪ … 
    Depending on how the etymological situation is viewed, (indirect) cognates (via the non-Ar words from which the etymon of kāfir is borrowed) belong to the complexes of KFR_1 or KFR_2, see ↗KFR. 
    ▪ Huehnergard2011 derives the figurative meaning ‘to be infidel’ of the vb. kafara not from the vb.’s basic value ‘to hide, conceal’ but from ↗kafr, the ‘infidel’ being, originally, the *‘villager’. Huehnergard is the only reference who makes this connection. But cf. the extra-Sem evidence, see section "Loans into Western languages", below.
     
    ▪ Kluge2002: Ge Kaffer ‘silly person, idiot’ (attested since C18), from Rotwelsch kaffer, from WYid kaf(f)er ‘peasant, villager’, from post-TalmHbr kafrī ‘rural’, akin to WYid kefar ‘village’, from Hbr kāp̄ār ‘village’.
    ▪ Huehnergard2011: from Ar kāfir are Engl giaour 33 , kafir, Kaffir 34 , takfir, takfiri
    33. In contrast, EtymOnline says: »1560s, Turkish term of contempt for non-Muslims, from Pers gaur, var. of gabr ‘fire-worshipper,’ originally applied to the adherents of the Zoroastrian religion.«  34. Cf. also EtymOnline : »1790, from Arabic kāfir ‘unbeliever, infidel, impious wretch,’ with a literal sense of ‘one who does not admit the blessings of God,’ from kafara ‘to cover up, conceal, deny, blot out.’ Technically, ‘non-Muslim,’ but in Ottoman times it came to be used almost exclusively for ‘Christian.’ Early English missionaries used it as an equivalent of ‘heathen’ to refer to Bantus in South Africa (1792), from which use it came generally to mean ‘South African black’ regardless of ethnicity, and to be a term of abuse since at least 1934.« 
    Derivational situation not clear yet. Should kāfir, as Huehnergard2011 thinks, be from kafr ′village’, then the following items must be considered derivations that ultimately go back to kāfir (otherwise they belong to the vb. kafara on which then also would depend):

    kafara, i (kufr, kufrān, kufūr), vb. I, to be irreligious, be an infidel, not to believe: denom. from kāfir or kufr (?).
    kaffara, vb. II, to make an infidel, seduce to unbelief: caus., denom. from kāfir or kufr. – For another value see ↗kafara.
    ʔakfara, vb. IV, to make an infidel; to call an infidel, accuse of infidelity: caus., denom. from kāfir or kufr.

    BP#3044C kufr, kufrān, n., unbelief, infidelity.
    kaffār, n., infidel, unbeliever: ints.
    takfīr, n., seduction to infidelity; charge of unbelief: vn. II. – For another value see ↗kafara.
     

    kāfūr كافور 
    ID 759 • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KFR 
    n. 
    camphor, camphor tree; (EgAr) blue gum (Eucalyptus ‎globulus Lab.; bot.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ The word is ultimately of East Asian origin. Camphor came to the Arabs ‎via India, and to Europe via Arab physicians. In East Asia and India, it had been used since ancient times as a fumigant in religious rituals and other ceremonies. In the Qur’an it is mentioned as a cooling agent or flavouring for the drinks of the blessed in heaven. Arab physicians introduced camphor in the West as a drug. In C11 Italy and C12 Germany it is used as a remedy against gout and rheumatism (mentioned, among others, by Hildegard of Bingen) – Osman 2002. 

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘[n.] camphor; a mixture of chosen scents; a name of a spring in Paradise’

    C6 ʕAntara b. Šaddād bayna šifāhihā miskun ʕabīrun wa-kāfūrun yumāziǧuhū mudāmū (Polosin1995)
    ▪ eC7 al-Aʕšā wa-bāridin ratilin ʕaḏbin maḏāqatuhū | ka-ʔannamā ʕulla bi’l-kāfūri wa-’ġtabaqā ‘und ein kühles, schönes (Gebiß), von süßem Geschmack, gleich wie wenn es getränkt wäre mit Kâfūrwein und einen Abendtrunk getan hätte’ (Geyer1905: 61-2).
    ▪ eC7 Q 76: 5-6 ʔinna ’l-ʔabrāra yašrabūna min kaʔsin kāna mizāǧuhā kāfūran | ʕaynan yašrabu bihā ʕibādu ’ḷḷāhi yufaǧǧirūnahā tafǧīran “Die Frommen (dagegen) trinken (im Paradies Wein) aus einem Becher, dessen Mischwasser (mit) Kampfer (gewürzt) ist, | von einer Quelle, an der die (auserwählten) Diener Gottes trinken, und die sie unausgesetzt (oder: stark) (aus der Erde hervor)sprudeln lassen” (Paret) 
    see DISC section below. 
    ▪ According to Jeffery1938, »The verse [Q 76: 5] is an early one ‎descriptive of the joys of Paradise, where the Commentators were uncertain whether kāfūr was ‎the name of the fountain from which the Blessed drink, or the material used to temper the drink ‎‎(cf. Ṭab. and Bayḍ. on the verse). – It is usually taken as an Ar word (LA, vi, 465), but the ‎variety of spellings – kāfūr, qāfūr, qafūr, and qaffūr – would suggest otherwise, and several ‎of the early authorities noted it as a loan-word from Pers. The ultimate source ‎is probably to be found in the Munda dialects of India, whence it passed into Dravidian, e.g. Tamil karppūram, Malayalam kappūram, and into Skr, cf. karpūr. It passed also into Iranian, where we find Phlv kāpūr, which gives the modPers kāfūr, and Arm ‎k'ap'owr, and into Aram where we find Syr ‎qapūrā and Mand ‎גופארא‎. – It is very probable that the Syriac like the Grk kaphourá is from the Iranian, and Addai Sher, 136, would make the Ar also a ‎borrowing from the Persians. The probabilities are, however, that it, like the Eth [Gz] kəfūr,726 is to ‎be taken as derived from the Syriac. We find the ‎word in the early poetry (e.g. in al-Aʕshā), but the story ‎told by Balādhurī (ed. de Goeje, 264), that the Arab soldiers who conquered Madā’in found stores ‎of camphor there and took it for salt, would seem to show that the article was not widely known in ‎Arabia«.
    ▪ Geyer1905: 61-62: »Es ist schwer zu sagen, ob wir unter kāfūr wirklich stets den heute bei uns nur mehr medizinal gebrauchten Kampferwein oder auch anderweitig gewürzten Wein zu verstehen haben (vgl. die einander widersprechenden Angaben bei Lane, s.v.). Er wird ziemlich häufig genannt, am häufigsten wohl bei ʕUmar ibn ʔAbī Rabīʕah [lC7/eC8], und zwar VI 19, X 16, XVI 14, CLXXI 6, CLXXXIII; an den Stellen XXXII 1 und CXV 12 bezeichnet kāfūr‑ nur den Riechstoff, und es ist nicht auszuschließen, daß dies auch an einer oder der anderen von den früher angeführten der Fall ist«.
    ▪No relation whatsoever with the many KFR roots ‎‎(↗√KFR). 
    ▪ Kluge2002: A loan, ultimately, from an ‎Austroasian word (cf. Khmer kāpōr etc.). The many inlaut consonsants (Ge Kampfer, ‎nEngl camphor, Ital canfora, Ar kāfūr, oInd karpū́ra-) can be explained, probably, as a ‎variation that goes back to different prefixes.
    ▪ Ar kāfūr gave mLat ‎camphora, oItal cafura, Fr camphra, SpanPort cánfora, alcanfor, mHGe gaffer (C13) ‎and campher. Later attestations in Ge: 1556 Gampher (Frisius), 1616 Campher ‎‎(Henisch) – Osman2002. 
    – 
    KFL كفل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
    √KFL 
    “root” 
    ▪ KFL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KFL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KFL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘posterior, rump, buttocks; to undertake, guarantee, provide for, sponsor, guardian; share, equal amount; kiflayn, twice the amount’; considered by some philologists to be a borrowing from Gz’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    KFY كفي 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KFY 
    “root” 
    ▪ KFY_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ KFY_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ KFY_3 ‘…’ ↗ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ĭktafà / ĭktafay‑ اِكْتَفَى / اِكْتَفَيْـ 
    ID 762 • Sw – • BP 2893 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KFY 
    vb., VIII 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    kifāyaẗ كِفايَة 
    ID 763 • Sw – • BP 3027 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KFY 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    KLː (KLL) كلّ / كلل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KLː (KLL) 
    “root” 
    ▪ KLː (KLL)_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ KLː (KLL)_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to fatigue; the blunt side of a knife; to be childless, to die without leaving children to inherit; to be a burden on s.o.; head gear, crown, to surround’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    kull كُلّ 
    ID 764 • Sw 9/1 • BP 19 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KLː (KLL) 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2015 (Sw#1): from protSem *kal‑/*kull‑ ‘all’ (CDG 381).
    ▪ From protSem *√KLL, also *√KLY ‘to complete’, WSem *kull‑ ‘whole, all’ – Huehnergard2011.
    … 
    ▪ Cf. Fück1950: 34.
    ▪▪ …
    ▪▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘whole, all’) Akk (kullatu), Hbr kōl, Syr kul, Gz kʷell.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    kilā كِلا , f. kiltā; obl. kilay, f . kiltay 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KLā 
    pron. 
    (with dependent genit. or suffix) both (of) – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ DRS 10 (2012) #KLʔ/W/Y, KLL, KLKL-1 Akk kilallān, f. killatān, Ug klat, Hbr kilʔayim, Ar kilā ‘les deux’, Sab klʔy, Soq keʔala ‘les deux, l’un et l’autre’, Gz kəlʔe, Te kəlʔot, Tña kələtte, Har koʔot, kōt, Arg ket, Amh hulätt, Gur kʷett, hʷett, hoyt, wərʔət, ōšt ‘deux’; Arg kiya, Amh haya, häa, Gaf hayä ‘vingt’. – Outside Sem: En Eg on relève čnw ‘nombre, chaque (fois que)’, čnwt ‘nombre, quantité’. – Le Berb présente avec des valeurs analogues une forme réduite: Kab ako ‘tous, tout’, Tam akʷ, Tua ak ‘chaque’. – Cush: Bedja -ka, Ag Bil -k, Dembya Qwara ‘tout, chaque’, à quoi s’ajoute en Bedja une forme autonome triconsonanti- que (kāris, kars, kass). – LACAU 94 souligne le rapport entre la racine examinée ici et les formes Ar kulyaẗ, kulwaẗ ‘rein, rognon’ et met en évidence un parallèle Eg: zmʔ ‘poumon’ et le vb. “homographe” ‘lier deux objets ensemble’. || -25 cf. s.v. ↗KLʔ
    … 
    … 
    … 
    KLʔ كلأ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last update 15Feb2023
    √KLʔ 
    “root” 
    ▪ KLʔ_1 ‘to hold back; to guard, protect’ ↗kalaʔa
    ▪ KLʔ_2 ‘grass, herbage, pasture’ ↗kalaʔ
    ▪ KLʔ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘pasture, vegetation, herbage; to guard over; to stay awake at night; shore, to bring a boat in to port’ 
    ▪ Any relation betw. KLʔ_1 and KLʔ_2?
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ DRS 10 (2012) #KLʔ/W/Y, KLL, KLKL-1 […] ↗kilā. -2 Akk kalū, oAss kalāʔu ‘arrêter, retenir, refuser’, Hbr kālāʔ ‘retenir’, JudPal kᵊlā ‘retenir, empêcher’, Ar kalaʔa ‘différer, remettre à plus tard; surveiller, veiller sur, protéger’, kallāʔ ‘port’, kallaʔa ‘retenir, détenir, contenir’, Hbr kālā, Syr kᵊlā, Gz kalʔā, Te kälʔa, Tña kälʔe, Amh källa, Gur källa, ḫänʔa; Te källäla, kälkäla, Tña kälkälä, Amh Gaf käläkkälä, Arg käläkkäla ‘empêcher, interdire, refuser’. – Akk kill-, kīl-, Hbr keleʔ ‘détention, emprisonnement’; nikᵊlāʔ ‘enclos’. – Akk kalū ‘barrage’, Ar mukallāʔ, YemAr kallāʔ ‘rive de fleuve’, kilāʔ ‘terrasse’; nomades d’Orient čālī ‘bord escarpé’.197 -3 Ar kalaʔ ‘pâturage’, Sab ʔklʔ (pl.) ‘pâturages’, klwt ‘champs en terrasses (?), mur de barrage (?)’.198 -4 Hbr ‘se gonfler, se remplir d’air’, kalkal- ‘poitrine; flanc’; kilkal ‘embrasser, comprendre, tenir, contenir; pourvoir’. -5 […]. 
    See above, section CONC. 
    … 
    … 
    kalaʔ‑ كَلَأَ , a (kalʔ, kilāʔ, kilāʔaẗ
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KLʔ 
    vb., I 
    to guard, preserve, watch, protect – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Any relation to ↗kalaʔ ‘grass, herbage, pasture’?
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ DRS 10 (2012) #KLʔ/W/Y, KLL, KLKL-1 […] ↗kilā. -2 Akk kalū, oAss kalāʔu ‘arrêter, retenir, refuser’, Hbr kālāʔ ‘retenir’, JudPal kᵊlā ‘retenir, empêcher’, Ar kalaʔa ‘différer, remettre à plus tard; surveiller, veiller sur, protéger’, kallāʔ ‘port’, kallaʔa ‘retenir, détenir, contenir’, Hbr kālā, Syr kᵊlā, Gz kalʔā, Te kälʔa, Tña kälʔe, Amh källa, Gur källa, ḫänʔa; Te källäla, kälkäla, Tña kälkälä, Amh Gaf käläkkälä, Arg käläkkäla ‘empêcher, interdire, refuser’. – Akk kill-, kīl-, Hbr keleʔ ‘détention, emprisonnement’; nikᵊlāʔ ‘enclos’. – Akk kalū ‘barrage’, Ar mukallāʔ, YemAr kallāʔ ‘rive de fleuve’, kilāʔ ‘terrasse’; nomades d’Orient čālī ‘bord escarpé’.199 -35 […] (cf. ↗√KLʔ).
    … 
    See above, section CONC. 
    … 
    ĭktalaʔa, vb. VIII, to find no sleep (eye)

    kalūʔ, adj.: kalūʔ al‑ʕayn, sleepless, awake
    al‑Mukallā, n.geogr., Mukalla (seaport in S Yemen): *‘the one with the barrage (or: terrasses)’?

    For other meanings of the root, cf. ↗kalaʔ and, for the general picture, ↗√KLʔ. 
    kalaʔ كَلَأ , pl. ʔaklāʔ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KLʔ 
    n. 
    grass, herbage, pasture – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Any relation to ↗kalaʔa ‘to hold back; to protect’?
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ DRS 10 (2012) #KLʔ/W/Y, KLL, KLKL-1 […] ↗kilā. -2 […] ↗kalaʔa. -3 Ar kalaʔ ‘pâturage’, Sab ʔklʔ (pl.) ‘pâturages’, klwt ‘champs en terrasses (?), mur de barrage (?)’.200 -45 […] (cf. ↗√KLʔ). 
    See above, section CONC. 
    … 
    For other meanings of the root, cf. ↗kalaʔa and, for the general picture, ↗√KLʔ. 
    KLB كلب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KLB 
    “root” 
    ▪ KLB_1 ‘dog’ ↗kalb
    ▪ KLB_2 ‘rabies’ ↗kalab
    ▪ KLB_3 ‘hook; cramp’ ↗kullāb, var. kallāb

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘dog, any wild animal, to train animals and birds for hunting; to become fierce; rabies; to fight over; hanging hook; gluttony’ 
    ▪ KLB_1 : (Kogan2015 Sw#18:) from protSem *kalb‑ ‘dog’ (SED II #115). Passim except SEthSem.
    ▪ Both KLB_2 ‘rabies’ and KLB_3 ‘hook; cramp’ may depend on KLB_1 ‘dog’.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    DRS 10 (2012)#KLB-1 Akk kalb‑ , Ug klb, Hbr keleb, Phn klb, Aram kalbā, Ar kalb, Sab klb ‘dog’, Śḥr kob ‘wolf’, ekob ‘dog’, Mhr kawb ‘wolf’, Soq kalb, Gz kalb, Te kälb, Tña kälbi ‘dog’. -2 […] -3 Hbr kᵉlūb, Aram kulbāšā, Gz karabō ‘corbeille’. – nHbr kᵉlūb ‘cage’, nSyr kwlb ‘cruche’, Ar kulbaẗ ‘boutique de marchand de vin’. -4 Ar kalaba ‘éperonner’, kullāb ‘harpon, grappin, aiguillon, éperon, serre’, YemAr maklab ‘dard d’insecte’. -5 […].-6 […]. 
    ▪ Is kalb ‘dog’ derived from kalab ‘rabies’, or vice versa?
    kullāb, var. kallāb ‘hook; cramp’: figurative from kalb (*‘like a dog’s mouth’)?
    ▪ For kulbaẗ cf. Grk klōbós [‘bird-cage’].
     
    – 
     
    kalb كَلْب , pl. kilāb 
    ID 765 • Sw 21/30 • BP 1267 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KLB 
    n. 
    dog – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2015 (Sw#18): from protSem *kalb‑ ‘dog’ (SED II #115). Passim except SEthSem.
    ▪ Was the animal eponymous for the disease (rabies), or vice versa? ↗√KLB
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: Akk kalbu, Hbr kéleḇ, Aram kalb.ā, Gz ‎‎kalb ‘dog’.
    DRS 10 (2012)#KLB–1 Akk kalb‑ , Ug klb, Hbr keleb, Phn klb, Aram kalbā, Ar kalb, Sab klb ‘dog’, Śḥr kob ‘wolf’, ekob ‘dog’, Mhr kawb ‘wolf’, Soq kalb, Gz kalb, Te kälb, Tña kälbi ‘dog’. 
    ▪ Diakonoff1998 thinks the word may be segmented into a root *kal‑ plus AfrAs »key ‎consonant« *‑b for strong and/or dangerous animals, cf. also ↗ʔarnab, dubb, ḏiʔb, ḏubāb, labb, ʕaqrab, ṯaʕlab
    ▪ See also √KLB for kalab ‘rabies’.
    ▪ Outside Sem, kalb may be akin to biconsonantal themes like *KL, *KR, or*KN, in Cush and/or Chad, cf. Orel&Stolbova 1994 s.v. ‘dog’ in the index. – »Vicichl Delc 79 cite le copte kalōpou ‘petit chien’, qu’il estime probablement sémitique. – L’histoire de ce nom qui, au moins dans une certaine mesure, doit recouvrir, celle de l’animal lui-même, si anciennement domestiqué, est certes complexe, et les rapprochements opérés ne peuvent prendre sens qu’avec d’autres études […]. Il n’en reste pas moins qu’il semble difficile de passer sous silence la forme indo-européenne représentée en latin par canes, canis et en Grk kyṓn, et dont la structure pose quelques problèmes«. 
    – 
    al-kalb al-ʔakbar the constellation Canis Major with its main star Sirius:.
    al-kalb ‎al-ʔaṣġar the constellation Canis Minor with its main star Procyon:.
    kalb al-baḥr shark:.
    kalb al-māʔ otter; beaver:.

    kalbaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., bitch: f. of kalb.
    kalbī, adj., canine: nsb-adj.

    kullāb, var. kallāb, pl. kalālībᵘ, n., hook; cramp: figurative (like a dog’s mouth)? Rolland2014a thinks the word is probably a loan from Pers kalab ‘bec (d’oiseau)’.
    kullābaẗ, var. kallābaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., (pair of) pincers, tongs, forceps: f. of kullāb /kallāb and thus figurative from kalb ? Or from Pers kalab ‘bec (d’oiseau)’ (as Rolland2014a thinks likely)? 

    kalab كَلَب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KLB 
    n. 
    rabies, hydrophobia; burning thirst; greed – WehrCowan1979. 
    Ultimately from ‘dog’? Cf. ↗kalb and ↗√KLB
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Cf. ↗kalb
    Ultimately from ‘dog’? Cf. ↗kalb and ↗√KLB
    – 
    kaliba, a (kalab), vb. I, to be seized by hydrophobia; to become mad, crazy; to covet greedily: denominative?
    kallaba, vb. II, to stir up, rouse (s.o. against s.th.): ultimately from kalb ? If so, the animal was eponymous for the disease it used to be infected with and therefore was identified with.
    takālaba, vb. VI, to rage, rave, storm; to fall, pounce, rush in, assail (s.o.); to assail each other, rush against each other:.
    ĭstaklaba, vb. X, to be raging, raving, rabid, furious, mad, frenzied, possessed.
    kalib, adj., affected with rabies, rabid; mad; greedy
    kalīb, pl. kalbā, adj., affected with rabies, rabid, raging: quasi-PP I.
    taklīb, n., agitation, incitement: vn. II.
    takālub, n., 1 fierce struggle, dogfight, free-for-all, melee, brawl; 2 avidity, greed: vn. VI.
    maklūb, adj., rabid, frenzied, crazed, possessed: PP I. 
    kullāb كُلّاب , var. kallāb , pl. kalālībᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KLB 
    n. 
    hook; cramp – WehrCowan1979. 
    Figurative from ↗kalb ‘dog’ (*like a dog’s mouth)? 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 10 (2012)#KLB-4: Ar kalaba ‘éperonner’, kullāb ‘harpon, grappin, aiguillon, éperon, serre’, YemAr maklab ‘dard d’insecte’. – Note that this item is listed separately from other values of ↗KLB.
    ▪ But it may depend on ↗kalb ‘dog’. 
    – 
    – 
    kullābaẗ, var. kallābaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., (pair of) pincers, tongs, forceps: f. of kullāb and thus figurative from ↗kalb ‘dog’? 
    KLF كلف 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
    √KLF 
    “root” 
    ▪ KLF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KLF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KLF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘freckles, vitiligo; to be fond of; cost, task; to take the trouble; to be keen, be in charge; to feign’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    takalluf تَكَلُّف 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 8Jun2023
    √KLF 
    n. 
    ▪ vn. of vb. V, takallafa, tD-stem 
    KLFL كلفل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
    √KLFL 
    “root” 
    ▪ KLFL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KLFL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KLFL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘scowling, frowning, to be grave, austere; hardship, famine; succession of thunderbolts’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    KLM كلم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KLM 
    “root” 
    ▪ KLM_1 ‘wound, cut, slash’ ↗kalm
    ▪ KLM_2 ‘to speak, talk; word, speech, saying; disputation; (Isl.) theology’ ↗kalimaẗ, ↗kalām
    ▪ KLM_3 ‘kilim, carpet, rug’ ↗kalīm

    Not from KLM but sometimes looked up under the lemma are:
    • KLM_4 kulla-mā ‘whenever’ ↗kull
    • KLM_5 k-l-m ‘km’ (abbreviation of ‘kilometer’) ↗kīlūmitr

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘1 to cut, wound; 2 speech, utterance, word, to speak, conversation’ 
    ▪ Out of the 3 values that the root KLM, according to DRS, can take in Sem, only two are represented in Ar: ‘to wound’ and ‘speech, to speak’.
    ▪ KLM_2 ‘to speak, speech’ seems to be an exclusively SSem, if not only Ar phenomenon, while KLM_1 ‘(to) wound’ has a deeper Sem dimension. Are the two related etymologically? See DISC below.
    ▪ A third value, KLM_3 ‘kilim, carpet, rug’, is of Tu origin. 
    – 
    ▪ Out of the 3 values that the root KLM, according to DRS, can take in Sem, only two are represented in Ar: ‘to wound’ and speech, to speak’.
    ▪ KLM_2 ‘to speak, speech’ seems to be an exclusively SSem, if not only Ar phenomenon, while the KLM_1 ‘(to) wound’ has a deeper Sem dimension. Are the two related etymologically? See DISC below.
    ▪ A third value (KLM_3 ‘kilim, carpet, rug’) is of Tu origin. 
    ▪ While KLM_3 clearly is of foreign origin, KLM_1 and KLM_2 have cognates in Sem. The question is: Are the two related etymologically? – The value ‘speech, to speak’ (KLM_2) seems to be an exclusively SSem development, while the value ‘to wound, humiliate’ (KLM_1) is found in Ar as well as in Can (Hbr, Aram). There is also an ESem value: Akk kullumu means ‘to show, point out, indicate, produce evidence; to expose, reveal, exhibit’. DRS groups the Akk item together with Ar Can ‘to humiliate, wound’, but it is not clear why it should not belong to the SSem group. In fact, it may be the link between both and the primary meaning: One could imagine a development from an original *‘to show, indicate’ to the meanings (1) ‘to humiliate’ (by showing s.th. disgraceful, making humiliating statements or proposals) > (by extension) ‘to wound’, and (2) ‘speech, to speak’, i.e., a generalisation of the more specific ‘to put forward, show, indicate, produce evidence’. One could also think of a line ‘to show, point out, expose, reveal, exhibit’ > ‘to speak (i.e., to show, reveal verbally)’ > ‘to humiliate (by words, improper speech)’ > ‘to wound (in general)’. Another semantic chain could be: ‘to show, point out, expose, reveal, exhibit’ > ‘to humiliate, wound (by pointing to s.th.)’ > ‘to make a humiliating utterance’ > ‘to utter, express’ > ‘to speak’. Which of these, if any, is the right one is impossible to decide. 
    – 
    – 
    kalimaẗ كَلِمة , pl. ‑āt (coll. kalim
    ID … • Sw – • BP 173 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KLM 
    n.f. 
    1 word; 2 speech, address; 3 utterance, remark, saying; 4 aphorism, maxim; 5 brief announcement, a few (introductory) words; 6 short treatise; 7 importance, weight, influence, authority, ascendancy, powerful position – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Etymologically, Ar kalimaẗ belongs to the SSem theme ‘speech, utterance, to speak’. A relation with (ESem) Akk kullumu ‘to show, indicate, point out’ and/or Hbr Aram ‘to humiliate’, and with this also to Ar ↗kalm ‘wound’, is not impossible, but difficult to prove; see DISC s.v. ↗KLM.
    ▪ In the expression kalimaẗ Allāh, kalimaẗ means ‘a’ (single) divine utterance. It has to be distinguished from ↗kalām Allāh ‘the Word of God’ – EI², art. »kalām« (L. Gardet). »[kalimaẗ ] ‘the spoken word, utterance’, can be extended to mean ‘discourse’ and ‘poem’. The falāsifaẗ prefer to limit their discussion to the problems of grammar and logic: thus in the preamble to the Naǧāẗ (Cairo² 1357/1938: 11) Ibn Sīnā defines kalimaẗ as “a single word (lafẓaẗ) which refers to an idea and the length of time that this idea is applied to any indeterminate subject whatsoever; for example, when we say ‘he walked’.” Cf. also Manṭiq al-mašriqiyyīn, Cairo 1328/1910: 57-8, and 66, where kalimaẗ is given as a synonym for ‘that which grammarians call fiʕl ’. But according to the ʔIšārāt (ed. Forget, Leiden 1892: 11), logicians use kalimaẗ to apply to any wholly descriptive spoken word, noun or verb, which designates an indeterminate entity in a fixed period of time. (Cf. A. M. Goichon, Lexique de la langue philosophique d’Ibn Sīnā, Paris 1938, and Fr. tr. of ʔIšārāt, Paris 1951: 84, n.l.). / The term kalimaẗ and the pl. kalimāt occur frequently in the Qurʔān. It is used on numerous occasions in the very general sense of ‘spoken word’, good (14:24, 48:26) or bad (9:74, 14:26, 18:5, 23:100). Yet it most frequently pertains to the realised Word of God. ‘The words of God cannot be altered’, says the Qurʔān, 10:64. Subsequently kalimaẗ acquires a sense closely akin to ʔamr ‘decision’, ‘order’, or indeed qadar ‘decree’. R. Blachère frequently translates kalimaẗ by ‘arrêt ’. There are numerous references (e.g., 6:115, 7:137, 10:33, 96, 11:119, etc.; in the pl.: 6:34, 115, 18:109, 31:26, etc.). In 43:28 it is said of Abraham: ‘and he made it an everlasting word (kalimaẗan bāqiyaẗan) among his descendants’. The commentators (see al-Bayḍāwī, ed. Fleischer, ii: 237, 25) usually emphasised that this referred to an affirmation of the Oneness of God, the equivalent of the ‘first šahādaẗ ’, as is suggested in 43:26-7. One of the most frequently cited passages of the Qurʔān is 3:39 and 45, where Jesus is proclaimed as ‘a word coming from God’. The commentators regarded this kalimaẗ Allāh who is Jesus as a divine word linked to the creative kun (‘be!’; cf. 3:47) and subsequently related the creation of Jesus to that of Adam: ‘Yes, in the case of Jesus God acted just as He did with Adam: God created the earth, then He said ‘be!’ and there he was’ (3:59). / Thus kalimaẗ is not an attribute of the Word [see ↗kalām ] but its expression, through which divine decisions are formulated and communicated. Qurʔānic commentaries discuss it with particular reference to the verses concerning Jesus, and also in the ‘professions of faith’ (ʕaqāʔid), e.g., La Profession de foi d’Ibn Baṭṭaẗ, ed. and Fr. tr. H. Laoust, Damascus 1958: 58/107-8).« – EI², art. »kalima« (L. Gardet / D.B. MacDonald). 
    kallama (to speak, talk to) Q 6:111 wa-law ʔanna-nā nazzalnā ʔilay-him-u ’l-malāʔikata wa-kallama-hum-u ’l-mawtà ‘even if We sent the angels down to them, and the dead spoke to them’.
    kalām 1 (speech, talk, utterance, spoken words) Q 2:75 wa-qad kāna farīqun min-hum yasmaʕūna kalāma ’llāhi ṯumma yuḥarrifūna-hū min baʕdi mā ʕaqalū-hu ‘when a group of them used to hear the words of God and then pervert them, [even] after they had understood them’; 2 (the act of speaking) Q 7:144 qāla yā Mūsā ʔin-nī ’ṣṭafaytu-ka ʕalā ’l-nāsi bi-risālāt-ī wa-bi-kalām-ī ‘He said, “Moses, I have chosen you over the people by [giving you] My messages and by my speaking [to you]”’.
    kalimaẗ 1 (word) Q 14:24 kalimatan ṭayyibatan ka-šaǧaratin ṭayyibatin ‘a good word is like a good tree’; 2 (mere words, empty talk) Q 23:100 laʕall-ī ʔaʕmalu ṣāliḥan fī-mā taraktu, kallā, ʔinna-hā kalimatun huwa qāʔilu-hā ‘“that I might act righteously in the things I neglected”, no indeed!, this is a [mere] word [only words] he is saying’; 3 (advise, message, instruction) Q 43:27 wa-ǧaʕala-hā kalimaẗan bāqiyaẗan fī ʕaqibi-hī laʕalla-hum yarǧiʕūna ‘and he bequeathed this advice to his descendants that they might return [to God]’; 4 (decree) Q 10:33 ka-ḏālika ḥaqqat kalimaẗu rabbi-ka ʕalā ’llaḏīna fasaqū ʔanna-hum lā yuʔminūna ‘in this way, your Lord’s decree about those who defy [the Truth] has come true—they do not believe’; 5 (status, position, cause) Q 9:40 wa-ǧaʕala kalimaẗa ’llaḏīna kafarū ’l-suflā wa-kalimatu ’llāhi hiya ’l-ʕulyā ‘and He brought down the cause of the disbelievers; God’s cause is always uppermost’; 6 (promise) Q 6:115 wa-tammat kalimaẗu rabbi-ka ṣidqan wa-ʕadlan lā mubaddila li-kalimāti-hī wa-huwa ’l-samīʕu ’l-ʕalīmu ‘the words of your Lord have com to pass in truth and justice: no one can change His words’; 7 (direct creation, miraculous creation – an epithet for Jesus) Q 4:17 kalimaẗu-hū ‘His Word’
    kalim (pl. of kalimaẗ) 1 (words) Q 35:10 ʔilay-hi yaṣʕadu ’l-kalimu ’l-ṭayyibu ‘to Him ascend good words’; 2 (revelation) Q 4:46 min-a ’llaḏīna hādū yuḥarrifūna ’l-kalima ʕan mawāḍiʕi-him ‘some of those who are Jews distort words [of revelation] out of their contexts’
    taklīm (vn. II, used adverbially for emphasis: the act of speaking) Q 4:164 wa-kallama ’llāhu Mūsā taklīman ‘and to Moses God spoke directly’ 
    DRS 10 (2012)#KLM -1 Akk kullumu ‘montrer, indiquer’, Hbr hiklīm ‘importuner (une femme), insulter par des propos; faire honte’, niklam ‘avoir honte de’, kᵉlimmāh ‘injure, outrage’, JP ʔaklem ‘faire honte, humilier’, Ar kalama ‘blesser’, kalm ‘blessure’. -2 […] -3 Ar kallama ‘parler à, adresser la parole à’, kalmaẗ, kilmaẗ, kalimaẗ ‘mot, parole’, kalām ‘discours, langage’, Sab klm ‘mot, discours, message’, Te kälam 201 ‘discours, voix’.
    ▪ Zammit2002: Ar kallama ‘to speak to or with’, SAr klm ‘word, speech, message, utterance’, Gz kēlamāṭē ‘language’202  
    ▪ Obvious cognates exist only in SAr Sab (Te and Gz items are probably from Ar). – For the question whether the idea of ‘word, speech, language; to speak, talk’ is related to ‘(humiliation), wound’ (Can, Ar) and ‘to show, indicate, point out’ (Akk), see section CONC above as well as DISC s.v. ↗KLM. 
    – 
    kalimaẗan fa-kalimaẗan, adv., word by word, literally
    bi-kalimaẗ ʔuḫrà, adv., in other words
    ʔalqà kalimaẗan, vb. IV, to make a speech, give a public address
    lī kalimaẗ maʕa-k I’ve got to talk to you
    ǧamaʕū kalimata-hum ʕalà, expr., they decided unanimously to…, they were unanimous about…
    ĭǧtamaʕat kalimaẗu-hum, expr., they united, joined forces, came to an agreement
    ĭǧtamaʕat kalimaẗu-hum ʕalà, expr., they were agreed that…
    ǧamʕ al-kalimaẗ, tawḥīd al-kalimaẗ, n.f., union, joining of forces, unanimity
    ĭttiḥād al-kalimaẗ, n.f., concord, agreement, harmony
    taqsīm al-kalimaẗ, n.f., dissension, variance, disunion
    ʔaʕlà kalimata-hū, vb. IV, to raise the prestige of s.o.
    ʕuluww al-kalimaẗ and al-kalilmaẗ al-ʕulyā, n., supremacy, hegemony
    qāla kalimata-hū, expr., he said what he had to say, he had his say
    kalimaẗ allāh, n.f., the word of God, the Holy Scriptures
    kalimaẗ al-murūr, n.f., password, watchword, parole
    al-kalimāt al-ʕašr, n.pl., the ten Commandments
    kalimaẗ tamhīdiyyaẗ, n.f., preface
    kalimaẗ al-sirr, n.f., parole, password, watchword, countersign
    kalimāt mutaqāṭiʕaẗ, n.pl., crossword puzzle

    BP#2986kallama, vb. II, to address (s.o.), speak, talk (DO to or with s.o.): denom. (from kalimaẗ or kalām).
    kālama, vb. III, to speak, talk, converse (DO with s.o.): associative.
    BP#926takallama, vb. V, to speak, talk (maʕa with or to s.o., ʕan or ʕalà about, of); to utter, express, voice, say (bi‑ or DO s.th.) : denom. (from kalimaẗ or kalām).

    BP#242kalām, n., 1a talking, speaking; b speech; c language, mode of expression, style; 2a talk, conversation, discussion; b debate, dispute, controversy; 3a words, word, saying, utterance, statement, remark; b aphorism, maxim, phrase, idiom, figure of speech; c (gram.) sentence, clause: quasi-vn. I | bi’l-kalām, adv., orally, verbally; fataḥa fama-hū bi’l-kalām, vb. I, to open one’s mouth in order to say s.th., prepare to say s.th.; kalām fāriġ, n., idle talk, prattle, poppycock, bosh, nonsense; ṭarīqaẗ al-kalām, n.f., manner of speaking, diction; ʕilm al-kalām, scholastic theology (Isl.); kaṯīr al-kalām, adj., talkative, loquaoious, garrulous; luġat al-kalām, n.f., colloquial language, everyday speech.
    kalāmī, adj., of or pertaining to speech or words, speech-, word (in compounds), verbal; spoken, oral; scholastic, theological: nsb-adj., from kalām | mušāddaẗ (or maʕrakaẗ) kalāmiyyaẗ, n.f., battle of words, dispute, altercation.
    kalīm, 1 see ↗kalm. 2 (pl. kulamāʔᵘ), n., a person addressed; b speaker, spokesman, mouthpiece: quasi-PP I | kalīm allāh, epithet of Moses.
    kalīm, see also alphabetically.
    kalmānī, kalamānī, killimānī, adj., eloquent; n., fluent speaker: ints. adj.
    tiklām, tikillām, tiklāmaẗ, adj., eloquent; n., good talker, conversationalist; adj., talkative, loquacious, garrulous:…
    BP#2226mukālamaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., talk, conversation, discussion: vn. III | ~ tilīfūniyyaẗ, n.f., telephone conversation.
    takallum, n., speaking; talk, conversation; speech: vn. V.
    mutakallim, 1 adj., speaking (act. part.); 2 n., speaker, spokesman; 3 first person (gram.): PA V; 4 Muslim theologian, scholastic: denom., from kalām.

    For other items of the root cf. ↗KLM, ↗kalm, ↗kalām, ↗kalīm
    kalm كَلْم , pl. kulūm , kilām 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KLM 
    n. 
    wound, cut, slash – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ A closer relation exists between Ar kalm ‘wound’ and the Can (Hbr, Aram) idea of ‘humiliation, to insult, offend, put to shame’. DRS links these also to the ESem notion of ‘to show, indicate, point out’ as represented in Akk kullumu. For the question whether any, or all, of these may be akin to the other main value attached to KLM in Ar, namely ‘to speak, talk; word, speech, language’ (↗kalimaẗ, ↗ kalām), cf. section DISC below as well as ↗KLM. 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 10 (2012)#KLM-1 Akk kullumu ‘montrer, indiquer’, Hbr hiklīm ‘importuner (une femme), insulter par des propos; faire honte’, niklam ‘avoir honte de’, kᵉlimmāh ‘injure, outrage’, JP ʔaklem ‘faire honte, humilier’, Ar kalama ‘blesser’, kalm ‘blessure’. -2 […]. -3 Ar kallama ‘parler à, adresser la parole à’, kalmaẗ, kilmaẗ, kalimaẗ ‘mot, parole’, kalām ‘discours, langage’, Sab klm ‘mot, discours, message’, Te kälam 203 ‘discours, voix’.  
    ▪ The relation between Ar kalm ‘wound’ and Hbr ‘(N-stem) to be ashamed; (Š-stem) to put to shame, insult, humiliate’ seems to be obvious. DRS sees the Ar and Can value together with Akk kullumu ‘to show, indicate, point out’, while the latter could also belong to Ar (and SAr) ‘to speak, talk; word, speech, language’ (↗kalimaẗ, ↗ kalām). For the question of a possible connection between ‘wound, humiliation’, ‘speech’, and ‘to show’, see DISC in ↗KLM. 
    – 
    kalīm, pl. kulmà, adj., 1 wounded, injured; n., sore: quasi-PP I. — 2 and 3: For other meanings see ↗kalimaẗ and ↗kalīm.

    For other items of the root cf. ↗KLM, ↗kalimaẗ, ↗kalām, ↗kalīm
    kalām كَلام 
    ID 766 • Sw – • BP 242 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KLM 
    n. 
    1a talking, speaking; b speech; c language, mode of expression, style; 2a talk, conversation, discussion; b debate, dispute, controversy; 3a words, word, saying, utterance, statement, remark; b aphorism, maxim, phrase, idiom, figure of speech; c (gram.) sentence, clause – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Etymologically, Ar kalām belongs to the SSem theme ‘speech, utterance, to speak’ (see ↗kalimaẗ, ↗KLM). A relation to (ESem) Akk kullumu ‘to show, indicate, point out’ and/or Hbr Aram ‘to humiliate’, and with this also to Ar ↗kalm ‘wound’, is not impossible, but difficult to prove; see DISC s.v. ↗KLM.
    kalām ‘speech’ »is defined by the grammarians as such utterance (↗lafẓ) with the voice as is compound (murakkab), not single words, and which conveys a meaning by convention, not nature (waḍʕ, not ṭabʕ; as in exclamations; θέσις not φύσις). So the ʔĀǧurrūmiyyaẗ; the Mufaṣṣal (§ 1) says it must be a complete sentence, however simple, and Ibn ʕAqīl (Šarḥ al-ʔAlfiyyaẗ) distinguishes in detail between it and kalim (a compound of three or more words, not necessarily giving a complete sense) and ↗kalimaẗ (a single word with a meaning by convention) and ↗qawl which covers them all.« – D.B. Macdonald, in EI¹.
    ▪ »[kalām ], in the sense of kalām Allāh ‘the Word of God’, must […] be distinguished from 1) kalām meaning ʕilm al-kalām ‘defensive apologetics’, or ‘the science of discourse’ (on God); and 2) ↗kalimaẗ which, in the expression kalimaẗ Allāh, means ‘a’ (single) divine utterance.« – L. Gardet, in EI²
    ▪ eC7 1 (speech, talk, utterance, spoken words) Q 2:75 wa-qad kāna farīqun min-hum yasmaʕūna kalāma ’llāhi ṯumma yuḥarrifūna-hū min baʕdi mā ʕaqalū-hu ‘when a group of them used to hear the words of God and then pervert them, [even] after they had understood them’; 2 (the act of speaking) Q 7:144 qāla yā Mūsā ʔin-nī ’ṣṭafaytu-ka ʕalā ’l-nāsi bi-risālāt-ī wa-bi-kalām-ī ‘He said, “Moses, I have chosen you over the people by [giving you] My messages and by my speaking [to you]”’ 
    DRS 10 (2012)#KLM -1 Akk kullumu ‘montrer, indiquer’, Hbr hiklīm ‘importuner (une femme), insulter par des propos; faire honte’, niklam ‘avoir honte de’, kᵉlimmāh ‘injure, outrage’, JP ʔaklem ‘faire honte, humilier’, Ar kalama ‘blesser’, kalm ‘blessure’. -2 […] -3 Ar kallama ‘parler à, adresser la parole à’, kalmaẗ, kilmaẗ, kalimaẗ ‘mot, parole’, kalām ‘discours, langage’, Sab klm ‘mot, discours, message’, Te kälam 204 ‘discours, voix’.
    ▪ Zammit2002: Ar kallama ‘to speak to or with’, SAr klm ‘word, speech, message, utterance’, Gz kēlamāṭē ‘language’205  
    ▪ See section CONC above. 
    – 
    bi’l-kalām, adv., orally, verbally
    fataḥa fama-hū bi’l-kalām, vb. I, to open one’s mouth in order to say s.th., prepare to say s.th.
    kalām fāriġ, n., idle talk, prattle, poppycock, bosh, nonsense
    ṭarīqaẗ al-kalām, n.f., manner of speaking, diction
    ʕilm al-kalām, scholastic theology (Isl.)
    kaṯīr al-kalām, adj., talkative, loquaoious, garrulous
    luġat al-kalām, n.f., colloquial language, everyday speech

    BP#2986kallama, vb. II, to address (s.o.), speak, talk (DO to or with s.o.): denom. (from kalām or ↗kalimaẗ).
    kālama, vb. III, to speak, talk, converse (DO with s.o.): associative.
    BP#926takallama, vb. V, to speak, talk (maʕa with or to s.o., ʕan or ʕalà about, of); to utter, express, voice, say (bi‑ or DO s.th.) : denom. (from kalām or ↗kalimaẗ).

    kalāmī, adj., 1 of or pertaining to speech or words, speech-, word (in compounds), verbal; spoken, oral; 2 scholastic, theological: nsb-adj., from kalām | mušāddaẗ (or maʕrakaẗ) kalāmiyyaẗ, n.f., battle of words, dispute, altercation.
    kalmānī, kalamānī, killimānī, adj., eloquent; n., fluent speaker: ints. adj.
    tiklām, tikillām, tiklāmaẗ, adj., eloquent; n., good talker, conversationalist; adj., talkative, loquacious, garrulous:…
    BP#2226mukālamaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., talk, conversation, discussion: vn. III | ~ tilīfūniyyaẗ, n.f., telephone conversation.
    takallum, n., speaking; talk, conversation; speech: vn. V.
    mutakallim, 1 adj., speaking (act. part.); 2 n., speaker, spokesman; 3 first person (gram.): PA V; 4 Muslim theologian, scholastic: denom., from kalām.

    For other items of the root cf. ↗KLM, ↗kalimaẗ, ↗kalm, ↗kalīm
    kalīm كَليم , pl. ʔaklimaẗ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KLM 
    n. 
    kilim, carpet, rug (usually long and narrow) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ From Tu kilim, from Pers gilīm ‘cover, blanket, bed cover’, akin to Aram galīmā, galīmtā, from Grk kálymma ‘coat, cover’, from Grk vb. kalýptō ‘to cover’ – NişanyanSözlük_30Jun2015. 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ The Tu word is first attested around 1300, and in the Codex Cumanicus (1303). 
    ▪ Not from Ar kalīm, but from the same Tu source is Engl kilim: from Tu kilim, from Pers gilīm ‘garment made of wool or goat hair, blanket, rug’; perh. akin to Akk gulēnu 35 and Aram glīmā ‘cloak’ – Huehnergard (in AHDEL, 5th ed., 2015). 
    For other items of the root cf. ↗KLM, ↗kalm, ↗kalimaẗ, ↗kalām
    KLW / KLY كلو / كلي 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KLW / KLY 
    “root” 
    ▪ KLW/Y_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ KLW/Y_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    kulyaẗ كُلْيَة , var. kulwaẗ 
    ID 767 • Sw – • BP 4373 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KLW / KLY 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *k˅ly‑at‑ ‘kidney’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘kidney’) Akk kalītu, Hbr kilyā, Syr kolīṯā, Gz kʷelít.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    KMː (KMM) كمّ / كمم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KMː (KMM) 
    “root” 
    ▪ KMː (KMM)_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ KMː (KMM)_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to cover up, to conceal, to wrap up; sleeve, sheath, the outer part of a flower (perianth); headgear; blinkers’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    kumm كُمّ 
    ID 768 • Sw – • BP 7017 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KMː (KMM) 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: possibly related to protSem *k˅m‑ ‘articulation, joint’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    KML كمل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KML 
    “root” 
    ▪ KML_1 ‘(to be/come) whole, entire, complete’ ↗kam˅la
    ▪ KML_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘completeness. to become whole; to conclude, to perfect, maturity’ 
    The root has only one representative in Ar. 
    – 
    DRS 10 (2012)#KML–1 Akk kamālu ‘être en colère, hors de soit’. –2 Ar kamala, kamila, kamula ‘être entier, parfait’, kammala ‘parfaire, achever’, dial. kāməl ‘tout’, mér. kimil ‘être fini, périr; tarir (eau)’, Sab hkml ‘compléter (un ouvrage), réussir en’, Mhr kōmel, Ḥrs kēmel ‘finir’, Eth kämal ‘parfait, dans une bonne condition’, təkämmäla ‘être prudent, se restreindre’. 
    ▪ From among the two values given for the Sem root KML in DRS 10 (2012)#KML, only the second is represented in Ar. (The first is attested in Akk kamālu ‘to be in rage’ only.)
    ▪ BAH2008 gives the values Ar KML can take in ClassAr as ‘completeness, to become whole; to conclude, perfect, maturity’. 
    – 
    – 
    kam˅l‑ كمل :

    kamala, kamula u and kamila a (kamāl , kumūl
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KML 
    vb., I 
    to be or become whole, entire, integral, perfect, complete; to be finished, done, completed, accomplished; to be concluded, come to a close – WehrCowan1979. 
    Although the verb displays a large number of derivations, implying old age, these form a rather homogenous semantic field. The assumption of a SSem or CentrSem origin will depend on whether or not a Hbr word for ‘new grain’ should be ascribed to the root. 
    ▪ eC7 ʔakmala (to complete, perfect) Q 5:3 al-yawma ʔakmaltu la-kum dīna-kum ‘today I have completed/perfected your religion for you’. – kāmil (complete, in full) Q 16:25 li-yaḥmilū ʔawzāra-hum kāmilatan yawma ’l-qiyāmati ‘so that on the Day of Resurrection they will bear their full burden’ 
    DRS 10 (2012)#KML-2: Ar kamala, kamila, kamula ‘être entier, parfait’, kammala ‘parfaire, achever’, dial. kāməl ‘tout’, mér. kimil ‘être fini, périr; tarir (eau)’, Sab hkml ‘compléter (un ouvrage), réussir en’, Mhr kōmel, Ḥrs kēmel ‘finir’, Eth kämal ‘parfait, dans une bonne condition’, təkämmäla ‘être prudent, se restreindre’. - Hbr karmäl ‘grain nouveau’.
    ▪ Zammit2002: SAr hkml ‘to complete’ 
    Apart from Ar, the word seems to be attested only in southern regions (modSAr and Eth). DRS, however, mentions also Hbr karmäl ‘new grain’ as belonging here, claiming that, accord. to Baumgartner, «la forme Hbr est rattachée à cette racine car elle serait due à une dissimilation de *kmml ‘devenu plein, parfait’.» Should this be correct, one will have to assume a CentSem rather than a SSem area of distribution. 
    – 
    kammala, vb. II, and BP#1752ʔakmala, vb. IV, to finish, wind up, conclude, complete, consummate; to carry out, execute; to perfect, round out, complement, supplement: caus.
    takāmala, vb. VI, and BP#3352ĭktamala, vb. VIII, to be perfect, consummate, integral, be or become complete, finished, done, accomplished, concluded; to reach completion, fulfillment or perfection, to mature, ripen; to be perfected: recipr. and refl./quasi-pass., respectively.
    ĭstakmala, vb. X, to complete; to perfect; to round out, complement, supplement; to carry out, meet, fulfill (e.g., conditions): T-stem of IV.

    BP#4416kamāl, pl. ‑āt, n., perfection; completeness; completion, consummation, conclusion, termination, windup; maturity, ripeness: lexicalized vn. I | ~ al-ʔaǧsām, n., bodybuilding.
    kamālī, adj., luxury, luxurious, de luxe: nsb-adj. of vn. kamāl; pl. kamāliyyāt, n., luxuries; luxury; comforts, amenities: lexicalized abstr. in iyyaẗ.
    kamālaẗ (colloq.), n., that which fills up or completes a weight or number, a complement; addition, supplement:…
    BP#2969ʔakmalᵘ, adj., more complete, more perfect: elative.
    takmīl, n., completion, complementing, perfecting, perfection; conclusion, termination, windup; consummation, execution: vn. II.
    takmīlī, adj., completing, complementing, complementary, supplementary: nsb-adj. of vn. II.
    takmilaẗ, n.f., supplement, complement: vn. II.
    BP#4100ʔikmāl, n., completion, complementing, perfecting, perfection; conclusion, termination; windup; consummation, execution: vn. IV.
    BP#4237takāmul, n., integration; unification to a perfect whole: vn. VI | ḥisāb al-~, n., integral calculus.
    takāmulī, adj., integrative; all-including and unifying to form a perfect whole: nsb-adj. of vn. VI | madrasaẗ ~iyyaẗ, n., comprehensive school (integrating all grades).
    BP#4383ĭktimāl, n., completion; maturity, ripeness: vn. VIII.
    BP#2649ĭstikmāl, n., conclusion, termination, finishing: vn. X.
    BP#384kāmil, pl. kamalaẗ, adj., perfect, consummate; genuine, sterling; complete, full, plenary, full-strength; completed, concluded; whole, entire, total, integral; name of a poetic metre; folio format (paper): PA I.
    mukammil: pl. mukammilāt, n., appurtenances, accessory objects; accessories (esp. for stylish women’s clothing): PA II.
    BP#2394mutakāmil, adj., perfect; total, complete; integrative; integral; integrated: PA VI. 
    KMN كمن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KMN 
    “root” 
    ▪ KMN_1 ‘to hide, be hidden’ ↗kam˅na
    ▪ KMN_2 ‘cumin’ ↗kammūn
    ▪ KMN_3 ‘violin, fiddle’ ↗kamān
    ▪ KMN_4 ‘black cataract (med.)’ ↗kam˅na
    ▪ KMN_5 ‘also’ ↗kamān (dial.)
     
    While KMN_2 ‘cumin’ as well as KMN_3 ‘violin, fiddle’ are of foreign origin, KMN_4 ‘black cataract (med.)’ belongs to KMN_1 ‘to hide’ because the eye disease obstructs the light from passing through the lense. The dialectal kamān ‘also’ does not belong to KMN but seems to be derived from ka-mā ‘as also, like’ 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    From among the five values listed in DRS, only two (corresponding to KMN_1 and KMN_2) are relevant for Ar. KMN_3 is mentioned under KMNG only. KMN_4 is a specialization of KMN_1. KMN_5 is actually not from KMN but probably ka-mā + an old deictic/demonstrative element /-n/. The dialectal kamān seems to be ka-mā + -n (Procházka 2001). 
    ▪ Engl cumin, cymenekammūn
    – 
    kam˅n‑ كمن :

    kamana u and kamina a (kumūn
    ID … • Sw – • BP 2059 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KMN 
    vb., I 
    to hide; to be hidden, concealed, latent; to have its secret seat; to ambush, waylay (li‑ s.o.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 10 (2012)#KMN-2: Hbr *mikmannīm (pl.) ‘trésors cachés’, nHbr kāmen ‘être caché’, kimmēn ‘cacher des fruits dans le sol’, JP kᵊman, kammēn ‘cacher, cacher dans la terre’, Syr kᵉmen, Ar kamana ‘se cacher; (avec li ) se mettre en embuscade pour guetter qn’, kammana ‘dresser des embûches à’, mér. kaman ‘se mettre en embuscade’, Min kmn ‘interdire (?)’, Jib ekmin ‘tendre une embuscade à’, Śḥ kūn ‘cacher’. Les formes Hbr sont issues d’un emprunt à l’Aram. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    takammana, vb. V, to lie in wait (li‑ for s.o.), ambush, waylay (li‑ s.o.): TD-stem.
    ĭstikmana, vb. X, to hide, lie concealed: ŠT-stem.

    kumnaẗ, n.f., black cataract (med.):….
    kumūn, n.: marḥalaẗ al-~, latent phase, latency (med., psych.): vn. I.
    kamīn, pl. kumanāʔᵘ, adj., hidden, lying in ambush: quasi-PP I; n., ambush, secret attack: nominalized quasi-PP I.
    makman, pl. makāminᵘ, n., place where s.th. is hidden; ambuscade; ambush, hiding place: n.loc.
    BP#4617kāmin, adj., hidden, concealed, latent; secret: PA I; pl. kawāminᵘ, n., underlying factors, hidden background, latent depths: lexicalized nominalization of PA I. 
    kammūn كَمُّون 
    ID 769 • Sw – • BP??? • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KMN 
    n. 
    cumin (Cuminum cyminum L.; bot.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    From ComSem *kammūn ‘cumin’ (Ar < Akk kamūnu ?), perh. from Sum gamun ‘cumin’, unless this itself is of Sem origin. From the Hbr cognate, kammōn, are Grk kýminon and Lat cuminum, whence the word for ‘cumin’ in Eur langs. 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 10 (2012)#KMN-3: Akk kam(m)ūnu, Ug kmn, Phn kmn, Hbr kammōn, Aram kammōnā, Ar kammūnā, Gz kammūn, kammīn, Te Amh kämun ‘cumin’. 
    DRS 10 (2012)#KMN-3: Série d’emprunts à travers l’ensemble du domaine. Origine Akk? L’Hbr semble dépendre de l’Aram, le Gz de l’Ar.
    ▪ Rolland2014: Ar kammūn, from Akk kamūnu, from Sum gamun.
    ▪ Huehnergard2011: ComSem *kammūn ‘cumin’, perhaps from Sum gamun ‘cumin’, unless this itself is of Sem origin.
    ▪ Lokotsch1927#1046 thinks the original meaning may have been s.th. like ‘Mäusekraut’ (mice herb), “since Akk kamūnu perh. also means ‘mouse’”—an opinion that can hardly be corroborated and is not found after Lokotsch. 
    ▪ Huehnergard2011: Engl cumin, cymene, from Grk kýminon, probably from a Sem source akin to Akk kam(m)ūnu, Hbr kammón, Aram kammonā, kammunā, Ar kammūn ‘cumin’.
    ▪ Engl cum(m)in < oEngl cymen, from Lat cumīnum, from Grk kýmīnon, cognate with Hbr kammón, Ar kammūnEtymOnline.
    ▪ Ge Kümmel < mHGe kumin < oHGe kumī(n), kumih, kumil. Same etymology as Engl cum(m)in (see above). On its way into modern written standard Ge, the variant ending in ‑l (oHGe kumil, kümel) became dominant over earlier forms in n or h (the latter still surviving in some upper Ge dialects as kümmich) – Kluge2002.
    ▪ Lokotsch1927#1046: Sem > Grk > Lat > Eur langs (as in EtymOnline). In addition to Engl cumin and Ge Kümmel the author lists Swed kummin, Dan kummen, Du komijn; Fr cumin, It Span camino, Port cominho, Rum chimion [via Tu kimyon ]; Ru kmin, tmin, timon, Bulg kimnon, Serb kim, Cz kmín, Poln kmin, kminek. – From the deriv. Ar kammūniyyaẗ ‘(probably:) place/shop where cumin etc. is sold’, preceded by art. al-, are Span alcamonias, Port alcamonia, alcamunia ‘miscellaneous spices’. 
    kammūn ʔaswadᵘ, n., black caraway, black cumin (Nigella sativa L.; bot.).
    kammūn barrī, n., dto.
    kammūn ḥulw, n., anise, aniseed.
     
    kamān كَمان 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KMN, KMāN 
    n. 
    violin, fiddle – WehrCowan1979. 
    Rolland2014: from Pers kamān ‘bow’ 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    kamanǧā and kamanǧaẗ, n.f., oriental stringed instrument having one or two strings; (Western) violin, fiddle: Pers dimin. of kamān ‘bow’ 
    KMH كمه 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
    √KMH 
    “root” 
    ▪ KMH_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KMH_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KMH_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘blindness from birth, to come into darkness, be born blind; to become mad, dust covering the sun’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    KN: (KNN) كنّ/كنن 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
    √KNN 
    “root” 
    ▪ KNN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KNN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KNN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to conceal, shelter, protect; to value; quiver (for arrows); daughter-in-law; shelter, hide-out, nest; to abate; awning’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    KND كند 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
    √KND 
    “root” 
    ▪ KND_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KND_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KND_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘barren land, to deny assistance to others; to beat one’s servant; to be ungrateful’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    KNZ كنز 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KNZ 
    “root” 
    ▪ KNZ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ KNZ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘treasure, buried valuables; to fill up a water skin, to amass, to hoard’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
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    – 
    – 
    kanz كَنْز 
    ID 770 • Sw – • BP 3775 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 11Apr2023
    √KNZ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Cheung2017rev: may have been borrowed directly from Pers, or via Aram: < oIr *ganza-, cf. BiblAram ganzē, etc. ‘id.’. For details, see below, section DISC.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
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    … 
     
    KNS كنس 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KNS 
    “root” 
    ▪ KNS_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ KNS_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘den, lair, (of a deer) to hide in its shelter, a deer in its shelter; receding stars; to sweep; church, synagogue’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl Knessetkanīsaẗ
    – 
    kanīsaẗ كَنِيسَة 
    ID 771 • Sw – • BP 2056 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KNS 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Knesset, from modHbr kneset, from Mishnaic Hbr kᵊneset ‘assembly’, from Aram kᵊništā ‘assembly’, from kᵊnaš ‘to assemble’, cf. Ar kanīsaẗ
     
    KNF كنف 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KNF 
    “root” 
    ▪ KNF_1 ‘wing; side, flank; shadow, shelter; to protect’ ↗kanaf
    ▪ KNF_2 ‘vermicelli baked in sugar’ ↗kunāfaẗ
    ▪ KNF_3 ‘water closet, toilet’ ↗kanīf
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    DRS 10 (2012)#KNP–1 Akk kapp‑, Ug knp ‘aile’, Hbr kānāp, JP kanpā, Syr kenᵉpā ‘aile, bord’, Ar kanaf, Sab Qat knf ‘côté, direction’, Gz Te Amh Arg kənf, Tñakənfi, Gur kanfa ‘aile’. –2 Hbr niknap ‘se cacher’; ? Ar ĭktanafa ‘entourer, encercler, cerner’. –3 MġrAr knīf ‘lieux d’aisance, latrines’; ? ChadAr kanīfa ‘cimetière’. –4 Soq kinefeh ‘tresse, natte’. –5 Te känfa ‘être difficile, pointilleux’ 
    ▪ From the five values given in DRS, three are represented in Ar.
    ▪ However, the entry in DRS seems a bit strange:
    - It does not have the value ‘vermicelli pastry, kunāfa ’.
    - It does not have the ClassAr value (no longer MSA) ‘bag, pouch, knapsack’ (kinf), cf. Ullmann WKAS.
    - It classifies the regular (ClassAr and) MSA value ‘lavatory, latrine, toilet, privy’ as specifically MġrAr.
    - It separates the value ‘to surround, enclose, etc.’ from ‘shelter, to protect’.
    ▪ In contrast, the present entry groups ‘to surround, enclose, etc.’ together with ‘shelter, to protect’ as one value, treats ‘toilet’ as a current MSA item, and adds ‘kunāfaẗ’.
    ▪ ‘toilet’ (KNF_3) is originally *‘the sheltered place’, a specialised meaning of a quasi-PP from vb. I. In ClassAr, the original meaning is still attested: Ullmann WKAS gives ‘surrounding, covering, protecting (of a shield)’, ‘enclosure, pen, fold, paddock, barricade (of shrubbery)’, ‘lavatory, closet, latrine, privy’. 
    kanafeh, kenafeh, knafeh, kunafah, kunafeh, kunefe, etc. ↗kunāfaẗ
    – 
    kanaf كَنَف , pl. ʔaknāf 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KNF 
    n. 
    1 wing. – 2 side, flank. – 3 shadow, shelter, pale, fold, bosom – WehrCowan1979. 
    From protSem *kanap‑ ‘wing’. 
    ▪ The original meaning is clearly ‘wing’.
    ▪ From there, metaphorical use (‘the "wings" of the night’, or ‘▪ … of the sun, heat’) is attested already in early poetry – Ullmann WKAS.
    ▪ [v2] and [v3] seem to be semantic extensions from ‘wing’.

    ▪ 
    DRS 10 (2012)#KNP–1 Akk kapp‑, Ug knp ‘aile’, Hbr kānāp, JP kanpā, Syr kenᵉpā ‘aile, bord’, Ar kanaf, Sab Qat knf ‘côté, direction’, Gz Te Amh Arg kənf, Tñakənfi, Gur kanfa ‘aile’. –2 Hbr niknap ‘se cacher’; ? Ar ĭktanafa ‘entourer, encercler, cerner’. 
    DRS seems to hesitate to group the value ‘to surround, encircle, etc.’ together with ‘side, wing’. But it is not obvious why one should not do so.
    ▪ So also Ullmann, WKAS, who (for vb. I) separates the values 1. (kanafa, u, kanf) ‘to surround, enclose; to protect, guard’, and 2. (kanafa, u i, kanf, kunūf) ‘to erect, build an enclosure, a pen’.
    ▪ Kogan2011 reconstructs Sem *kanap‑ ‘wing’. 
    – 
    fī kanaf…, prep., under cover of…, in an atmosphere of…
    ʕāša fī kanafi-hī, vb., he lived under his wing or his protection.
    fī ʔaknāfi-hī, adv., under his aegis, under his sponsorship.

    kanafa, u (kanf), vb. I, to guard, protect; to fence in, hedge, provide with an enclosure; to surround; to help, assist: denom. (*to spread a protecting wing over…; *to set up a "wing" = screen)
    kānafa, vb. III; and ʔaknafa, vb. IV, to shelter, protect, help, assist: assoc. (III) and denom. (IV).
    ĭktanafa, vb. VIII, to surround (on both sides), enclose, embrace; to encircle, encompass: (auto-)benefactive (*to take a wing as protection for o.s. or another).

    kanīf, pl. kunuf, n., water closet, toilet; public lavatory: pseudo-PP (*the enclosed, fenced place)? – See ↗s.v..
    muktanaf, adj., surrounded, enclosed (bi‑ by): PP VIII.

    For other items of this root, see ↗√KNF and especially ↗kunāfaẗ
    kunāfaẗ كُنافة , pl. ‑āt 
    ID 772 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KNF 
    n.f. 
    vermicelli baked in sugar, melted butter and honey – WehrCowan1979. 
    Since it is problematic to relate the semantics of this word to other values of the root KNF, it is highly probable that it is a foreign word. Youssef2003 suggested to derive it, via Copt kenephiten, from Eg ḫnf.w(t) , a type of cake. Cf. however Huehnergard2011, who thinks it is akin to ‘to flank, surround, provide with an enclosure’ and, hence, ultimately based on ↗kanaf ‘wing, side’. 
    Alf laylaẗ (Calc.) IV: 677,678 – Ullmann WKAS
    ▪ 16 hits in arabicorpus.com for the premodern period, all in 1001 Nights (06Jan2015). 
    ▪ Item not mentioned in DRS 9 (2010)#KNP at all. 
    ▪ The value is not mentioned in DRS 9 (2010)#KNP.
    ▪ Youssef2003: a kind of Egyptian sweet pastry, possibly from Eg ḫnf.w [also ḫnf.wt, a type of cake], Copt kenephiten [kind of loaf or cake]
    ▪ The fact that the first attestation we seem to have for this item is in Alf laylaẗ wa-laylaẗ supports the assumption that the word has made its way into fuṣḥā via a dialect, probably EgAr.
    ▪ Huehnergard2011 derives the word from Ar kanafa ‘to flank, surround, provide with an enclosure’, which is from ↗kanaf ‘wing, side’, from ComSem *kanap‑ ‘id.’ 
    ▪ Engl kanafeh, kenafeh, knafeh, kunafah, kunafeh, etc. are direct borrowings from Ar. 
    kanafānī, n., maker, seller of kunāfaẗ : n.prof., denom., shortened from *kunā fānī
    kanīf كَنِيف , pl. kunuf 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KNF 
    n. 
    water closet, toilet; public lavatory – WehrCowan1979. 
    DRS lists the word as a value distinct from ‘wing; to shelter, protect’ and ‘to surround, encircle’. But why shouldn’t the ‘toilet’ just be the *‘fenced, protected place’? The quasi-PP form fits very well in such an etymology, and the original values are attested in ClassAr. 
    ▪ ‘toilet’ (KNF_3) is originally *‘the sheltered place’, a specialised meaning of a quasi-PP from vb. I. In ClassAr, the original meaning is still attested: Ullmann WKAS gives ‘surrounding, covering, protecting (of a shield)’ and ‘enclosure, pen, fold, paddock, barricade (of shrubbery)’, before he mentions ‘lavatory, closet, latrine, privy’.
    ▪ The value ‘graveyard’ that the f. kanīfaẗ takes in ChadAr is clearly a specialisation of *‘enclosure, fenced, protected place’. 
    DRS 10 (2012)#KNP-3 mentions only a MġrAr form knīf ‘lieux d’aisance, latrines’ and, with an interrogation mark, ChadAr kanīfa ‘cimetière’.
    ▪ But kanīf is both ClassAr and MSA and belongs most probably to the complex treated under ↗kanaf ‘wing’. For related items see therefore there. 
    ▪ The MġrAr and ChadAr items listed in DRS as well as the MSA value can easily be derived from the value ‘to surround, fence, protect’ so that the item should rather be grouped with ↗kanaf ‘wing’ from which ‘to surround, fence, protect’ etc. are derived. 
    – 
    – 
    KHRB كهرب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Jun2021
    √KHRB 
    “root” 
    ▪ KHRB_1 ‘amber’ ↗kahrabā
    ▪ KHRB_2 ‘electricity’ ↗kahrabāʔ
     
    ▪ The two values are essentially one, [v2] being a modern use of [v1].

    ▪ [v1] : From Pers kāh-robā ‘amber’, lit. *‘stealing straw, robber of straw’ (Pers kāh ‘straw’ + rubā, prs-stem of rubādan ‘to rob, steal, take away’ – Lokotsch1927), so called »because amber, when it is rubbed, attracts light objects, such as feathers or little blades of straw« (al-Bīrūnī, q. in J. Schönfeld, “Amber”, EI³).
    ▪ [v2] : In the same way as Engl electricity goes back to the Grk word for ‘amber’, ḗlektron, the modPers and Ar words are based on the old Pers words for the same material, due to its electromagnetic features. According to Braune1933, 140 the first Ar attestation in this sense is from the 1830s, coined by R.R. al-Ṭahṭāwī.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ [v1] WKAS
    ▪ [v2] 1834 (electricity) al-Ṭahṭāwī, Taḫlīṣ al-ʔibrīz (Braune 193321 )
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ –
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Rolland2014: »Du persan kāh-robā ‘ambre’, littéralement ‘voleur de paille’, du pehlevi kah-rupāti, id. – L’élément kah est apparenté du sanskrit kāša ‘paille’, et l’élément rupāti à l’avestique rupā ‘voler’, IE *reup‑ ‘saisir, arracher’« [cf. Engl to rob, Ge raub-en].
    ▪ Cf. also ↗kahramān ‘amber’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ [v1] : Lokotsch1927 #1004: Pers kahrubā ‘amber’ gave not only Ar kahrabā, but also (with dissimilation) vulgTu kehribar, kihlibar, which into several Eur langs: Bulg kehlibar, Serb hilibar, Rum chihlibar, chihlimbar, chihrimbar; > mLat (C13) carabe > Span It carabe, Fr carabé ‘amber’, Ge Karabe (1492; now obsol.), Dan rav. – Cf. also the term’s literal translation into Grk as pterugofóros, Fr tire-paille, Ge Strohzieher.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    kahrabā كَهْرَبا , var. kahrubā, kahrabāʔ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Jun2021
    √KHRB 
    n. 
    1 amber; 2kahrabāʔ – WehrCowan1976.
     
    ▪ From Pers kāh-robā ‘amber’, lit. *‘stealing straw, robber of straw’ (Pers kāh ‘straw’ + rubā, prs-stem of rubādan ‘to rob, steal, take away’ – Lokotsch1927), so called »because amber, when it is rubbed, attracts light objects, such as feathers or little blades of straw« (al-Bīrūnī, q. in J. Schönfeld, “Amber”, EI³).
    ▪ Since eC19, the term is also used to signify ‘electricity’, see ↗kahrabāʔ.
    ▪ »Amber (Grk ἤλεκτρον; Ar Pers kahrubā, kahrabā; Tu kehribar; for other forms, see WKAS, s.v.) consists of the petrified resin of conifers. In antiquity and the Middle Ages amber was a very popular gem and an important commercial item, imported from the shores of the Baltic Sea. The Grk word ἤλεκτρον, like the Persian word kahrubā, has passed into the modern language with the meaning “electricity” (Ar kahrabāʔ, kahrabāʔiyyaẗ, Pers kahrobāʔi)« – J. Schönfeld, »Amber«, EI³ (2007).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ »The word kahrubā […] appears in the third/ninth-century Arabic translation of Dioscorides’ Materia medica (s.v. αἴγειρος, “black poplar”), undertaken by Iṣṭifān b. Bāsīl and revised by Ḥunayn b. ʔIsḥāq (d. 260/873), as well as in the Firdaws al-ḥikmaẗ of ʕAlī b. Sahl Rabban al-Ṭabarī (d. c.250/864) and in the ʔAqrābāḏīn of ʔAbū Yūsuf Yaʕqūb b. ʔIsḥāq al-Kindī (d. c.252/866)« – J. Schönfeld, »Amber«, EI³ (2007).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Al-Bīrūnī (d. after 442/1050) »explained the word kahrubā as meaning ‘robber of straw’, because amber, when it is rubbed, attracts light objects, such as feathers or little blades of straw. The same explanation is found in the great cosmography on Islamic culture written by al-Qazwīnī (d. 682/1283). Al-Bīrūnī reported that amber was very popular with the eastern Turks, who preferred the Byzantine amber to the Chinese because of its pure yellow colour and the fact that it occurred in larger pieces. They also believed that amber provides protection from the evil eye. Its power to attract other substances was compared to that of the lodestone. Al-Bīrūnī mocks authors ignorant of the substance’s non-mineral origin, as such ignorance would suggest they had not observed leaves and insects encased in the substance. – Other authors discussed the medical attributes of amber. The Persian pharmacologist Muwaffaq al-Dīn, who in the fourth/tenth century wrote a book on drugs for the Sāmānid ʔamīr Manṣūr b. Nūḥ, likewise ascribed to amber the power to heal palpitations of the heart, catarrh, and gastric troubles, in addition to haemorrhages and menstrual bleeding. He also recommended it as a fumigating agent for cleaning “cholera-air.” The Spanish pharmacologist Ibn al-Bayṭār (d. 646/1248) confirmed most of these applications and added that amber rids one of hot swellings, prevents the pregnant woman from aborting, and cures jaundice, burns, and fractured and crushed bones« – J. Schönfeld, »Amber«, EI³ (2007).
    ▪ Another word for ‘amber’ is ↗kahramān (prob. akin to kahrabā). For ‘ambergris’, cf. ↗ʕanbar.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ [v1] : Lokotsch1927 #1004: Pers kahrubā ‘amber’ gave not only Ar kahrabā, but also (with dissimilation) vulgTu kehribar, kihlibar, which into several Eur langs: Bulg kehlibar, Serb hilibar, Rum chihlibar, chihlimbar, chihrimbar; > mLat (C13) carabe > Span It carabe, Fr carabé ‘amber’, Ge Karabe (1492; now obsol.), Dan rav. – Cf. also the term’s literal translation into Grk as pterugofóros, Fr tire-paille, Ge Strohzieher.
    ▪ …
     
    For other values, cf. ↗kahrabāʔ and, for the general picture, ↗√KHRB. – See also another word for ‘amber’, ↗kahramān.
     
    kahrabāʔ كَهْرَباء , var. kahrubāʔ, kahrabā, kahrubā 
    ID 774 • Sw – • BP 1185 • APD … • © SG | 15Jun2021
    √KHRB 
    n. 
    1kahrabā; 2 electricity – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ [v1] ↗kahrabā
    ▪ [v2] In the same way as Engl electricity goes back to the Grk word for ‘amber’, ḗlektron, the modPers and Ar words are based on the old Pers words for the same material, due to its electromagnetic features, see ↗[v1] kahrabā. According to Braune1933, 141 the first Ar attestation in this sense is from the 1830s, coined by R.R. al-Ṭahṭāwī.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ [v1] WKAS
    ▪ [v2] 1834 (electricity) al-Ṭahṭāwī, Taḫlīṣ al-ʔibrīz (Braune 193322 )
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    al-kahrabāʔ (Eg.), n.def., the streetcar, the trolley.

    kahraba, vb., 1a to electrify, electrize; b to ionize: vb. I, denom., a C19 coining.
    takahraba, vb. II, 1a to be electrified, be electrized, become electric; b to be charged with electricity; c to be ionized: t-stem of kahraba, pass./med.

    kahrabaẗ, n.f., 1a electrization, electrification; b electricity: vn. of kahraba.
    kahrab, pl. kahāribᵘ, n., electron: prob. a C19 neologism, based on the vb. kahraba.
    kuhayrib, pl. -āt, n., electron: dimin. of kahrab, most prob. a C19 neologism.
    kuhayribī, adj., electronic, electron‑ (in compounds): nisba-formation from kuhayrib | al-miǧhar al-kahrabāʔī, n., electron microscope
    kahāribī, adj., electronic, electron- (in compounds): nisba-formation, from kahāribᵘ, pl. of kahrab.
    kahrabāʔī and kahrabī, 1a adj., electric(al); b n., electrician: nisba-formation, from kahrabāʔ and kahrab, respectively | tayyār kahrabāʔī, n., electric current; ǧāmiʕaẗ kahrabāʔiyyaẗ, n.f., storage battery, secondary battery, accumulator; miṣbāḥ kahrabāʔī, n., electric lamp, lightbulb; ʕilāǧ kahrabāʔī, n., diathermy; ʕālim kahrabāʔī, n., electrophysicist; maġnaṭīs kahrabāʔī, n., electromagnet; maġnaṭīsiyyaẗ kahrabāʔiyyaẗ, n.f., electromagnetism; nūr kahrabāʔī, n., electric light
    kahrabāʔiyyaẗ and kahrabiyyaẗ, n.f., electricity: abstr. formation in ‑iyyaẗ.
    mukahrab, adj., electrically charged, electrized, electrified; electrically conductive, conducting, ionised; electrically ignited, provided with electric ignition: PP I.

    For other values, cf. ↗kahrabā and, for the general picture, ↗√KHRB. – See also the a porte-manteau formation ↗kahraṭīsī.
     
    kahrabāʔī كَهْرَبائيّ 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 2048 • APD … • © SG | created 8Jun2023
    √KHRB  
    adj., n. 
    ▪ nsb-formation, from kahrabāʔ 
    KHF كهف 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KHF 
    “root” 
    ▪ KHF_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ KHF_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘cave, cavern, hollow, refuge, helpful person’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    kahf كَهْف 
    ID 775 • Sw – • BP 4389 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KHF 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    KHL كهل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
    √KHL 
    “root” 
    ▪ KHL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KHL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KHL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘the back of the torso, the base of the neck; to burden, a person supporting the family; to be at the height of one’s strength; middle-aged person’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    KHN كهن 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
    √KHN 
    “root” 
    ▪ KHN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KHN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KHN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to predict the future, to prophesy, divination, soothsaying, fortune-telling, priesthood, priest’. The word kāhin is attributed by some to a borrowing from either Hbr or Gz 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    KHY كهي 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KHF 
    “root” 
    ▪ KHY_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ KHY_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    kāhiyaẗ كاهِيَة , pl. kawāhiⁿ 
    ID 776 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KHY 
    n.f. 
    chief officer of a kihāyaẗ (formerly, Tun.); deputy, vice (Tun.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    A loan (via Turkish ketḫüdā ?) from mPers katḫwatāi, a village chief or representative of a landowner among the farmers. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    From mPers katḫʷatāi, a ‘village chief, or representative of a landowner among the farmers’. While Vollers1896 assumes Turkish (ketḫüdā ‘vulg. kâhyā, kyāya 1. A steward in a great man’s household, also a manager of a farm or estate. 2. A warden of a guild. 3. A bailiff of a village or ward. 4. An officious meddler’ – Redhouse1890) as a mediator for the word (which obviously is a form particular of Tunisian), Eilers mentions also another chain of tradition (without naming its details), one that resulted in a form with ḫ‑ rather than h: kāḫiyaẗ (often shortened into kiḫyaẗ) ‘butler, steward’. Eilers believes kāhiyaẗ‑ to be the etymon of the items of ↗√KHY that are listed below in the DERIV section. But would that be likely? We have to consider that iktahà is already ClassAr, cf. entry in WKAS‑ (sources mentioned there: Fāʔiq II 212 paen. / Bǧ. 438,2 = Nih. IV 41,11). 
    – 
    kāhà , vb. III, gloriatus fuit (Freytag): “könnte vom Prahlen mit dem [kihāyaẗ ] Amte kommen” (Eilers).
    iktahà , vb. VIII, to respect, honour, (WKAS) ʔaǧalla, ʕaẓama, iḥtašama : < ‘to pay reverence to s.o., respect’? (Eilers).
    kihāyaẗ, n.f., administrative district (formerly, Tun.): office, position of a kāhiyaẗ.
    al-ʔakhāʔ n.pl., hommes de talent: perhaps simply ‘the kāhiya s’ 
    KWB كوب 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
    √KWB 
    “root” 
    ▪ KWB_1 ‘goblet, cup’ ↗kūb
    ▪ KWB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KWB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘cup, goblet without a handle or spout, to drink from such a cup; to be large of head but slender of neck; dice; drums’ 
    ▪ It was originally suggested by some scholars that kūb is an early borrowing from Nab. Recently, however, it has been linked to Grk through a chain which includes Aram, Syr and Byzantine -- BAH2008 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    kūb كُوب 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Jun2023
    √KWB
     
    n. 
    goblet – Jeffery1938 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q xliii, 71; lvi, 18; lxxvi, 15; lxxxviii, 14 – Jeffery1938.
     
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »It occurs only in early Sūras in descriptions of the pleasures of Paradise, and was recognized by some of the early authorities as a Nabataean word (cf. al-Suyūṭī, Itq, 319; Mutaw, 60).727 Some, of course, endeavoured to derive it from kāb, but this verb is obviously denominative (TA, i, 464; LA, ii, 225).
    The word is commonly used in the early poetry, cf. ʕAdi b. Zaid, al-ʔAʕšà (Geyer, Zwei Gedichte, i, 56 = Dīwān, ii, 21), ʕAbda b. atl-Ṭabīb,728 etc., and seems to have been an early loan-word from Aram, as Horovitz, Paradies, 11, has noted, though Aram kwbʔ, Syr kūbā both seem to be from the ByzGrk koûpa (Lat cupa, cf. Fraenkel, Vocab, 25), from the older Grk kúmbē.729 «
     
    – 
    – 
    KWD كود 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
    √KWD 
    “root” 
    ▪ KWD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KWD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KWD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be on the point of doing, almost do s.th.; to pile up’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    KWR كور 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
    √KWR 
    “root” 
    ▪ KWR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KWR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KWR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘travel gear; bellows; to twist a turban around the head, roll up; to harvest, gather; succession of day and night; township’. – kuwwirat is described by some philologists as a borrowing from Pers. 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    KWKB كوكب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KWKB 
    “root” 
    ▪ KWKB_1 ‘star’ ↗kawkab
    ▪ KWKB_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘star, planet; blossoms; to shine; water; centre of importance, leader; party’ 
    ▪ KWKB_1 : (Kogan2015 Sw#80:) from protSem *kabkab‑ ‘star’ (CDG 280). Passim except Harari.
    ▪ KWKB_2 : …
    ▪ KWKB_3 : … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    kawkab كَوْكَب 
    ID 777 • Sw 74/152 • BP 2733 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KWKB 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *kabkab‑ ‘star’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ ….. 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘star’) Akk kakkabu, Hbr kōḵāḇ, Syr kawkḇā, Gz kōkáb, Mhr kebkīb.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    KWN كون 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KWN 
    “root” 
    KWN_1 ‘to be, exist; to happen, take place’ ↗kāna
    KWN_2 ‘the planet Saturn’ ↗kaywān
    KWN_3 ‘…’ ↗

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘place, status; to become submissive [↗√KYN]; existence, to exist, to be; to form, to create; happenings’ 
    ▪ KWN_1 : From protSem *√KWN ‘to be, be(come) firm, true’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ KWN_2 : From Pers keyvān ‘Saturn’
    ▪ KWN_3 : … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ DRS 10 (2012) #KWN-1 Akk kānu, kuānu ‘être stable, ferme, solide, droit’, Ug kn ‘exister’, mknt ‘place’, yknn ‘il crée’, Phoen kn ‘exister’, Hbr hekīn ‘dresser, placer, disposer, décider’, mākān ‘station, place’, nākōn ‘être droit, raide’, kēn ‘oui’, Aram kān ‘arriver, être’, oAram ʔkyn, JP kēn, Syr ʔakēn, hākan ‘ainsi’, Ar kāna ‘être’, makān ‘lieu, demeure’, Ṣaf kʔn [= kāʔin] ‘imminent’, Sab Qat kwn ‘devenir, être, avoir lieu, survenir’; Sab ‘soutenir qn’, *hkn ‘faire arriver qc, ordonner, décréter’, Qat škn ‘imposer une punition’, kwn, Sab mknt ‘statut légal, siège; domaine agricole’, Sab Qat mknt ‘chambre sainte dans un temple’, Gz kōna ‘arriver, se produire, devenir’, Tña kōna ‘être’, Gz makān, Tña mäḫʷan ‘lieu’, Amh honā ‘devenir’, huneta ‘situation, état condition’ ; Te ʔaḱōn ‘place, lieu’, Gaf hona, Har ḫāna, Gur Sod kʷänä, Go hʷänä, Ča ḫärä ‘être, devenir’. – Tña kunät ‘circonstance’, kuntat ‘condition, situation’. -2 […]. -3 YemAr kawn ‘blessure subie dans un combat’, EAr kāwan ‘quereller; frapper’, t(i)kāwan ‘en venir aux mains, se bagarrer; se combattre, se faire la guerre’, kawn ‘attaque, combat, guerre’, ? DaṯAr kuwan, kūnāt ‘bâton gros et court’, Mhr šekēwen, Ḥrs šekewen, Śḥr škewen ‘lutter corps à corps avec’, ? Mhr Ḥrs kōwen ‘douleur’. -4 MġrAr kowwun ‘garder le silence’. -5 Amh käwwänä ‘faire, achever, bien disposer’. -6 Hbr kawwān : sorte de gâteau rituel (en particulier pour le culte d’Ištar).
    ▪ For a distinct set of meanings, cf. ↗√KYN. 
    … 
    ▪ Engl n.prop. Sargonkāna (+ Akk šarru ‘king’). 
    … 
    kān‑ / kun‑ كان / كُنـ , ū (kawn
    ID … • Sw – • BP 10 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KWN 
    vb., I 
    1 to be; 2 to exist; 3 to happen, occur, take place – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘¹firm, just, right; ²to be, become’) Akk ¹kēnu, Hbr ¹kēn, Syr ¹kēnā, Gz ²kṓna yékūn.
    ▪ DRS 10 (2012) #KWN-1 Akk kānu, kuānu ‘être stable, ferme, solide, droit’, Ug kn ‘exister’, mknt ‘place’, yknn ‘il crée’, Phoen kn ‘exister’, Hbr hekīn ‘dresser, placer, disposer, décider’, mākān ‘station, place’, nākōn ‘être droit, raide’, kēn ‘oui’, Aram kān ‘arriver, être’, oAram ʔkyn, JP kēn, Syr ʔakēn, hākan ‘ainsi’, Ar kāna ‘être’, makān ‘lieu, demeure’, Ṣaf kʔn [= kāʔin] ‘imminent’, Sab Qat kwn ‘devenir, être, avoir lieu, survenir’; Sab ‘soutenir qn’, *hkn ‘faire arriver qc, ordonner, décréter’, Qat škn ‘imposer une punition’, kwn, Sab mknt ‘statut légal, siège; domaine agricole’, Sab Qat mknt ‘chambre sainte dans un temple’, Gz kōna ‘arriver, se produire, devenir’, Tña kōna ‘être’, Gz makān, Tña mäḫʷan ‘lieu’, Amh honā ‘devenir’, huneta ‘situation, état condition’ ; Te ʔaḱōn ‘place, lieu’, Gaf hona, Har ḫāna, Gur Sod kʷänä, Go hʷänä, Ča ḫärä ‘être, devenir’. – Tña kunät ‘circonstance’, kuntat ‘condition, situation’. 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: The Ar verb is of Sem origin, but there is only one cognate with the same meaning ‘to be, become’ as in Ar: Gz kṓna yékūn. In other languages the cognate signifies ‘strong, firm, right, just’: Akk kēnu, Hbr kēn, Aram kēnā.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Sargon, from Hbr sargôn, from Akk šarru-kīn ‘the king is true, legitimate’, from šarru ‘king’, and kīn, predicate form of kīnu, vb.adj. of kânu ‘to be(come) firm, true’, akin to Ar kāna
    kawwana, vb. II, 1 to make, create, produce, originate, bring forth, bring into being, form, shape, fashion; 2 (MġrAr) to educate, train: D‑stem, caus.
    BP#2630takawwana, vb. V, 1a to be created, be formed; 1b to come into existence, form, arise, develop; 2 to be composed, made up, be formed, consist (of): Dt‑stem, refl./pass. of II (D).

    BP#739kawn, pl. ʔakwān, n., being, esse; event, occurrence, incident; al‑kawn, the existing, reality; the world; the cosmos, the universe
    BP#4739kawnī, adj., cosmic, relating to the universe: nisba formation of kawn.
    BP#1942kiyān, n., 1 being, esse; 2 existence; 3 essence, substance; nature; entity, a being
    al‑yakūn, n.det., the sum total: nominalized 3.sg.impv.
    BP#179makān, pl. ʔamākinᵘ, ʔamkinaẗ, n., 1 place; 2 position: n.loc.
    BP#2116makānaẗ, n.f., position, standing, status, reputation: n.loc.f.
    makānī, adj., local: nisba formation, from makān.
    makāniyyaẗ, n.f., spatiality (philos.): abstract formation in ‑iyyaẗ.
    BP#1936takwīn, n., 1 creating; 2 educating; 3 structure: vn. II.
    takawwun, n., 1 genesis, birth, nascency, origin, incipience, rise, development; 2 formation: vn. V.
    BP#2439kāʔin, 1 existing, located; 2 pl. ‑āt, n., creature: PA I.
    BP#2618mukawwin, n., 1 creator; – 2 pl. ‑āt, component; formative, constituent; factor, element: PA II.
    BP#2831mukawwan, adj., composed, consisting (of): PP II.

    ▪ For a distinct set of meanings, cf. ↗√KYN. 
    takwīnī تَكْوينيّ 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 8Jun2023
    √KWN  
    adj. 
    ▪ nsb-formation, from vn. II takwīn, D-stem of kān 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    kaywān كَيْوان 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KWN, KYN, KYWN 
    n. 
    the planet Saturn – WehrCowan1979. 
    From Pers kayvān ‘Saturn’. 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ Nişanyan_28Jul2015 / WKAS: from Pers kayvān, from Aram kēwān, from Akk *kay[ya]wān, lBab pronunciation of kayyamānu ‘persistent; Saturn’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Tu keyvan [Sinan Paşa, Tazarru'nâme, 1482] küngüre-i eyvānı evc-ı Keyvāne irmiş-idi.
    ▪ … 
    … 
    KWY كوي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
    √KWY 
    “root” 
    ▪ KWY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KWY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KWY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to burn, brand, cauterise, sting; hot iron; aperture, small round window’ – 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    KYD كيد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
    √KYD 
    “root” 
    ▪ KYD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KYD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KYD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘plot, to plot, to deceive, to connive, to conspire, ruse, machination; to wish to harm’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    KYF كيف 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
    √KYF 
    “root” 
    ▪ KYF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KYF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KYF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to cut; manner, mode, fashion, state’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    takyīf تَكْييف 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 8Jun2023
    √KYF 
    n. 
    ▪ vn. of vb. II, kayyafa, D-stem 
    KYL كيل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2023
    √KYL 
    “root” 
    ▪ KYL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KYL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ KYL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘volume, measurement, to measure in volume, dry measure; to compare, evaluate, pay back in kind’. kayl is described by some as a borrowing from Syr. 
    ▪ From protSem *√KWL ‘to contain, hold, measure’, variant (Ar) root form *√KYL – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    – 
    KYN كين 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last update 20Feb2023
    √KYN 
    “root” 
    ▪ KYN_1 ‘to become lowly, humble, miserable; to submit, yield, surrender, humble o.s.; to abandon o.s., give o.s. over.’ ↗ĭstakāna
    ▪ KYN_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ KYN_… ‘the planet Saturn’ ↗kaywān (placed s.v. KWN)
    ▪ …

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): »The substantive word for ‘clitoris’, kayn, seems to be the source from which this root is derived. The word istakāna ‘to be humbled, become abased, abase o.s.’, which is derived from this root, is also considered by some scholars to be a derivative from the root ↗SKN or ↗KWN. Such confusion is characteristically common in the case of roots with weak radicals.« 
    ▪ …
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ▪ DRS 10 (2012) #KYN-1 Ar kāna ‘s’humilier, s’abaisser devant qn’; kaynaẗ ‘malheur, adversité (qui abaisse)’. -2 kayn ‘vulve, petites lèvres’. -3 Gz kin, kinat ‘art, travail d’artisanat, habileté, métier, Te kin ‘intention, volonté’, Tña käynät, Amh kin ‘art’.
    ▪ For a distinct set of meanings, cf. ↗√KWN. 
    … 
    … 
    … 
    ĭstakāna اسْتَكانَ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √KYN 
    vb., X 
    1 to become lowly, humble, miserable; 2a to submit, yield, surrender, humble o.s., abase o.s., eat humble pie; 2b to abandon o.s., give o.s. over – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ DRS 10 (2012) #KYN-1 Ar kāna ‘s’humilier, s’abaisser devant qn’; kaynaẗ ‘malheur, adversité (qui abaisse)’. -2 kayn ‘vulve, petites lèvres’. -3 Gz kin, kinat ‘art, travail d’artisanat, habileté, métier, Te kin ‘intention, volonté’, Tña käynät, Amh kin ‘art’.
    ▪ For a distinct set of meanings, cf. ↗√KWN.
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    ĭstikānaẗ, n.f., yielding, submission, resignation, passivity: vn. X.
    mustakīn, adj., humiliated, oppressed, resigned, submissive: PA X.

    For a distinct set of meanings, cf. ↗√KWN. 
    lām لام 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ 
    R₁ 
    The letter l of the Arabic alphabet. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    LʔLʔ لألأ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 7May2023
    √LʔLʔ 
    “root” 
    ▪ LʔLʔ_1 ‘pearls’ ↗luʔluʔ
    ▪ LʔLʔ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LʔLʔ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘pearls, to shine, shimmer, glitter, radiate, (of fire) rage; (of animals, deer, in particular) to flash the tail’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    LʔM لأم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LʔM 
    “root” 
    ▪ LʔM_1 ‘to dress, bandage (a wound); to repair, mend; to solder, weld; to suit, fit together, be adequate, appropriate; peace, harmony’ ↗laʔama
    ▪ LʔM_2 ‘meanness, baseness, wickedness; niggardliness, miserliness; sordidness; iniquity’ ↗luʔm
    ▪ LʔM_3 ‘cuirass, chainmail’ ↗laʔmaẗ

    Other values, now obsolete, include:
    • LʔM_4 ‘apparatus or gear of a plough, ploughshare’ : luʔ(a)maẗ
     
    ▪ It is not clear whether we are dealing with one or more "roots" here. LʔM_3 ‘cuirass, chainmail’ and LʔM_4 ‘ploughshare’ most probably belong to LʔM_1 (ClassAr meaning: ‘to put s.th. together, fit together, connect, repair; to fit into one another, set on top of one another, esp. the feathers of an arrow’ – WKAS), both showing the overlapping of single elements, put together and/or on top of one another. Opinion differs however with regard to the question of relatedness, or non-relatedness, of LʔM_1 and LʔM_2.
    ▪ Those who do not exclude some kind of kinship between LʔM_1 and LʔM_2 are divided on the question which of the two may be the basic value from which the other should be derived. BDB1906 implicitly suggests that the value ‘people’ (Hbr, Ug, and as a loan also in Akk) originally was *‘common, vulgar people’, developed from the notion of ‘baseness, meanness, commonness’ of LʔM_2. But there is no further discussion that would try to answer the question how, if at all, the Ar value of ‘putting together, collecting, assembling’ (LʔM_1) that others usually see together with Hbr Ug (Akk) ‘people’, could be related to LʔM_2. As a secondary development, based on ‘people’ (the *‘collective’ body, the *‘assembled ones’)? A derivation of ‘baseness, meanness’ (LʔM_2) from ‘people’ (in its turn from LʔM_1 ‘to put together, collect, assemble’) would correspond to that of Engl vulgar from Lat vulgus ‘common people, crowd’.
    ▪ The value ‘people’ in Hbr and Ug may also not be the *‘collective’ but rather *‘those who have reached an agreement’ (cf. the notion of ‘to suit, fit, be adequate’ and ‘to make peace’, prominent esp. in the L-stem of LʔM_1). ‘People’ would then be a group who has ‘repaired’ internal conflicts and ‘dressed the wounds’ that had been open after disagreement.
    ▪ StarLing(Militarev2006) reconstructs Sem *LʔM, *LMM ‘to get together; to unite by common consent; peace treaty’, going back, like also extra-Sem cognates, to AfrAs *liʔam‑ ‘to get together; to be relative, companion’.
    ▪ For further details, cf. section DISC below.
    ▪ For other roots containing L and M and expressing a ‘putting together, joining, connecting, assembling, uniting’, cf. ↗lamma ‘to gather, collect’ (√LMː/LMM, also lamlama ‘id.’), ↗laḥama ‘to meld, patch, weld, solder’ (also laḥḥama, √LḤM), ↗lazima ‘to cling, adhere, belong, accompany’ (√LZM). A distant relationship exists perhaps also between the *L-M sequence and the one with the reverse order, *M-L, often expressing a similar notion of ‘company’ (cf., e.g., ↗zumlaẗ ‘party, company of people’, ↗zamīl ‘companion, associate, comrade; colleague; accomplice’, √Z-ML), but also ‘inclusion’ and ‘completeness’ (↗ǧamala ‘to sum up’, ↗ǧumlaẗ ‘totality, sum, whole; group’, √Ǧ-ML; ↗šamila ‘to contain, enclose, include’, √ŠML; ↗kam˅la ‘to be/become whole, entire, integral, perfect, complete’, √K-ML; etc.).
     
    – 
    ▪ StarLing (Militarev2006): Akk līmu (*liʔmu) ‘one thousand’, Ug li͗m ‘people, clan’, Hbr lᵊʔōm, lᵊʔūm, pl. lᵊʔummīm ‘people, nation’, Syr lam ‘to collect’, Ar lʔm ‘to gather’, liʔam- ‘accord, harmony (between people); peace, concord’, liʔamaẗ, liʔāmaẗ ‘equal, similar, corresponding counterpart’; laʔīm ‘ignoble, mean; similar, equal, adequate’; līm ‘peace, concord; ressemblance betw. two people’; lumaẗ ‘small group of people (3-10 persons); similar, identical; equal (age, form)’; lām- ‘parenté’; lummaẗ ‘compagnon; compagnons de voyage, qui participent aux provisions de route; troupe d’hommes (3-10 people); troupe de femmes’, lamūm ‘qui réunit dans son sein plusieurs personnes ou choses, et offre un rendez-vous’, LMM ‘ressembler, réunir en ramassant de tous côtés ce qui était dispersé’, Sab lʔm ‘to make a peace settlement’, lmw (*lmm) ‘to come to an agreement with s.o.’, Te läʔamä ‘to be attached, friendly’, Tña cf. läʔamä ‘to be good, patient’.
    ▪ Tropper2008: Akk liʔmu, līmu, Ug li͗m /liʔmu/, Hbr lᵊʔōm, lᵊʔôm ‘people’.
    ▪ Klein1987: Akk liʔmu, līmu ‘thousand’, Ug li͗m ‘people, crowd’, Hbr lᵊʔōm, lᵊʔôm ‘nation, people’, Ar laʔama ‘to gather together, assemble’
    ▪ BDB1906: Ar laʔuma ‘to be low, ignoble’, liʔām (pl.) ‘common ones’, Hbr lᵊʔōm ‘people’ 
    ▪ WehrCowan1979 treats LʔM_1 through LʔM_3 in one lemma, suggesting that they are semantically related. StarLing, too, does not separate the cognates of LʔM_1 and LʔM_2, not without adding, however, that the two values are quite far from each other and it therefore is legitimate to have serious doubts about their belonging together. According to the author (Militarev?), even the relation between Akk līmu (*liʔmu) ‘one thousand’, Hbr lᵊʔōm, lᵊʔôm ‘nation, people’ and Ar laʔama ‘to put together, gather together, assemble’, as put forward by Klein1987 and Tropper2008 (‘thousand’ and ‘people’ as a larger number of things or persons, a *‘collective, assembly’, held together by mutual agreement) cannot be taken for granted.730
    ▪ In contrast, BDB1906 speculates that the notion of ‘lowness, commonness’ (LʔM_2), expressed in Ar laʔuma ‘to be low, ignoble’, liʔām (pl.) ‘common ones’, may be the basic value of √LʔM from which Hbr lᵊʔōm ‘people’, »prop. ‘common, vulgar people’«, is derived. – It remains unclear, however, where BDB would place LʔM_1 in this picture.
    ▪ BadawiHinds1986 keeps EgAr lāʔam (vb. III, tr.) ‘to suit, be compatible with’ (LʔM_1) apart from laʔam u (vb. I, intr.) ‘to behave with deceit or cunning’ (LʔM_2), treating them as two homonymous roots. Interestingly enough, in EgAr, LʔM_2 has variants based on √LʕN (↗laʕana ‘to curse’) in all its forms.731 It seems that fuṣḥā terminology is reinterpreted here by the vernacular to make better sense of the abstract moral concept of luʔm for the common people.
    ▪ Irrespective of due reservations as to the belonging of some values (‘thousand’, ‘wickedness’, etc.) to the same Sem root, StarLing reconstructs Sem *LʔM, *LMM ‘to get together; to unite by common consent; peace treaty’, *liʔa/ām- ‘union, fraternity, people’ and puts this together with Eg rmṯ ‘person’ (< *l˅m-˅k ?, cf. Fay lōm-i ‘id.’), WChad *lilim- ‘assembly for special occasions’ (reconstr. from evid. in 1 lang), CChad *luma (?) ‘market’ (< *‘gathering of people’?), EChad *lam˅m- (based on forms like lùm, lámmà, lũmmè) ‘to gather’ (intr.), pile’; LEC *lamm- ‘companion, relative’ (cf. Som lammaan ‘to be companion’, Or lammii ‘(close) relations’732 ), HEC *lamm- ~ *m˅ll- ‘close relative; person’ (based on moollo ‘close relative’, lámmi ‘person’), SCush *lama(l)- ‘age-set’ (lama ‘serpentine ochre marking on body’ in 1 lang). The common ancestor of all these is reconstructed as AfrAs *liʔam- ‘to get together; to be relative, companion’. 
    – 
    – 
    laʔam‑ لَأَمَ , a (laʔm
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LʔM 
    vb., I 
    1 to dress, bandage (a wound). – 2 to repair, mend (s.th.). – 3 to solder, weld – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ The modern meanings of the vb. go back to a basic notion, in ClassAr, of ‘to put s.th. together, fit together, connect, repair; to fit into one another, set on top of one another (feathers of an arrow)’, in its turn perhaps (as suggested by Militarev) from a Sem *LʔM, *LMM ‘to get together; to unite by common consent; peace treaty’, from AfrAs *liʔam‑ ‘to get together; to be relative, companion’.
    ▪ Via the value ‘people’, not realized in Ar but in Hbr and Ug, which is likely to be from Sem *to get together, unite’, Ar laʔama may also be connected to laʔuma (↗luʔm) ‘to be ignoble, lowly (of character and birth); to be base, mean, vile, evil, wicked’, the development ‘base, mean’ < ‘people’ being similar to that of Engl vulgar from Lat vulgus ‘common people, multitude, crowd, throng’.
     
    ▪ ClassAr (as in WKAS): laʔama, vb. I, 1 to put s.th. together, fit together, connect, repair; 2 to fit into one another, set on top of one another (feathers of an arrow). – talaʔʔama, vb. V, to close, heal (wound). – III and VI: as mod. use. – laʔm, 1 vn. I, joining, union, connection; 2 adj., firm, solid, hard, strong; 3 n. (as also laʔmaẗ, n.un., f.), armour made of iron rings, chain-mail; 4 (arrow) with feathers fitted into one another, set on top of one another. – liʔm, n., 1 agreement, concord; 2 fitting, appropriate person, companion. 
    ▪ Militarev2006 (in StarLing): Akk līmu (*liʔmu) ‘one thousand’, Ug li͗m ‘people, clan’, Hbr lᵊʔōm, lᵊʔūm, pl. lᵊʔummīm ‘people, nation’, Syr lam ‘to collect’, Ar lʔm ‘to gather’, liʔam- ‘accord, harmony (between people); peace, concord’, liʔamaẗ, liʔāmaẗ ‘equal, similar, corresponding counterpart’; laʔīm ‘ignoble, mean; similar, equal, adequate’; līm ‘peace, concord; ressemblance betw. two people’; lumaẗ ‘small group of people (3-10 persons); similar, identical; equal (age, form)’; lām- ‘parenté’; lummaẗ ‘compagnon; compagnons de voyage, qui participent aux provisions de route; troupe d’hommes (3-10 people); troupe de femmes’, lamūm ‘qui réunit dans son sein plusieurs personnes ou choses, et offre un rendez-vous’, LMM ‘ressembler, réunir en ramassant de tous côtés ce qui était dispersé’, Sab lʔm ‘to make a peace settlement’, lmw (*lmm) ‘to come to an agreement with s.o.’, Te läʔamä ‘to be attached, friendly’, Tña cf. läʔamä ‘to be good, patient’.
    ▪ Tropper2008: Akk liʔmu, līmu, Ug li͗m /liʔmu/, Hbr lᵊʔōm, lᵊʔôm ‘people’.
    ▪ Klein1987: Akk liʔmu, līmu ‘thousand’, Ug li͗m ‘people, crowd’, Hbr lᵊʔōm, lᵊʔôm ‘nation, people’, Ar laʔama ‘to gather together, assemble’
    ▪ BDB1906: Ar laʔuma ‘to be low, ignoble’, liʔām (pl.) ‘common ones’, Hbr lᵊʔōm ‘people’ 
    ▪ Militarev2006 (in StarLing) underlines that his putting together such a large variety of diverging semantic values (‘thousand’, ‘to gather, collect’, ‘companionship, people, clan, nation’, ‘accord, harmony, peace’, ‘ressemblance, similarity’, ‘baseness, meanness’, etc.) may raise severe doubts. Nevertheless, he seems to be convinced that, ultimately, we are dealing with one etymon. Irrespective of the question whether Akk līmu ‘one thousand’ and Ar laʔīm ‘ignoble, mean, base, wicked’ (↗luʔm) rightfully belong here, the prevalence of the notion of companionship and accord/harmony among a group of people seems to have convinced the author that ‘coming/putting together, uniting, assembling’, as in Ar laʔama, is the basic meaning of the root. Accordingly, he reconstructs Sem *LʔM, *LMM ‘to get together; to unite by common consent; peace treaty’, *liʔa/ām- ‘union, fraternity, people’. Given what may be extra-Sem cognates,733 the author even suggests to trace all these back to an AfrAs *liʔam- ‘to get together; to be relative, companion’.
    ▪ Like Militarev2006, also WehrCowan1979 treats all items with the root LʔM in one lemma, suggesting that they are semantically related.
     
    – 
    lāʔama, vb. III, to agree (DO with s.o.); to suit, fit (garment; s.o.); to be adequate, appropriate (to s.th.), be suitable, fit, proper, convenient, favorable, propitious (for s.th.); to be adapted (DO to), be in harmony with, match (s.th.); to agree (climate, food; with s.o.), be wholesome (climate, air, food; DO for s.o.); to bring about a reconciliation, make peace (bayna between), reconcile (bayna… wa‑ s.o. with); to make consistent or congruous, reconcile, harmonize, bring into harmony (different things): L-stem, assoc.
    talāʔama, vb. VI, 1 to be mended, be repaired, be corrected: tD-stem, quasi-pass. of vb. III. – 2 to go well (maʕa with): intr. – 3luʔm.
    ĭltaʔama, vb. VIII, 1 to be mended, be repaired, be corrected. – 2 to be joined, be connected, be patched up, be soldered, be welded. – 3 to match, fit together, harmonize, be in harmony, agree, go together, be congruous, conformable, consistent; to be tuned or geared to each other (fig.). – 4 to unite, combine. – 5 to cohere, stick together. – 6 to heal, close (wound). – 7 to gather, assemble, convene (persons); to meet (committee, congress, council, etc.): t-stem, quasi-pass./intr. of I.
    laʔm, n., 1 dressing, bandaging (of a wound). – 2 joining, junction, connection. – 3 repair: vn. I.
    laʔmaẗ, n.f., cuirass, pair of cuirasses: probably called so on account of the interlocking of its chain links, set on top of one another (cf. SEMHIST).
    liʔm, n., 1 peace. – 2 concord, agreement, union, unity, unanimity. – 3 conformity, consistency, harmony: obviously a fig. use of the basic value of ‘binding together, repairing, joining’.15
    mulāʔamaẗ, n.f., 1 adequacy, appropriateness, properness, suitability, fitness. – 2 peacemaking, (re)conciliation. – 3 concord, union, agreement, harmony: vn. III.
    BP#3142mulāʔim, adj., adapted, suited, appropriate (li‑ to), suitable, fit, proper, convenient, favorable, propitious (li‑ for); agreeing, harmonizing, in conformity, consistent (li‑ with): PA III. 
    luʔm لُؤْم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LʔM 
    n. 
    1 ignoble mind, baseness, meanness, vileness, wickedness. – 2 niggardliness, miserliness. – 3 sordidness. – 4 iniquity – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ As also ↗buḫl ‘avarice, niggardliness, miserliness’, luʔm is a major antonym of the key concept of ↗karam.
    ▪ Of obscure etymology. BDB1906 evidently considers ‘baseness’ as the basic value of the root ↗LʔM to which also Hbr lᵊʔōm ‘people’ belongs, suggesting that the latter properly is *‘common, vulgar people’. But it could well be the other way round, given that ‘baseness’ seems to be peculiar to Ar, while ‘people’ etc. is more widespread in Sem (and possibly also AfrAs), cf. section COGN s.v. ↗LʔM. If ‘baseness, meanness, wickedness’ is from ‘people, crowd’ then we are dealing with an etymology corresponding to that of Engl vulgar from Lat vulgus ‘common people’. In Ar, however, there is no word meaning ‘people, crowd’ that would belong to the root LʔM. Hbr and Ug words for ‘people, crowd’ are often seen as a derivation from yet another value of LʔM, namely ‘to put together, assemble, join’ (people = *‘collective, assembly’), which in its turn is absent from these langs. If luʔm ‘baseness’ is from ‘people’, and the latter from ‘to put together, assemble’, then one will have to compare entry ↗laʔama (and, for the whole picture, ↗LʔM). 
    ▪ ClassAr (as in WKAS): laʔuma 1 to be ignoble, base, mean, dishonourable; 2 to be miserly, avaricious. – luʔm, n., 1 low, base attitude or sentiments, lowness, baseness, vileness, infamy; 2 miserliness. – laʔīm: as mod. use. – Cf. also malʔamaẗ, n.f., baseness, vile, mean attitude or sentiments, vile deed, ignominy. – For attestations, cf. WKAS ii: 63, col. 2 f.; (laʔīm) 67, col. 1 ff. 
    ▪ BDB1906 regards Ar laʔuma ‘to be low, ignoble’, liʔām (pl.) ‘common ones’ as akin to Hbr lᵊʔōm ‘people’.
    ▪ In contrast, Klein1987 connects Hbr lᵊʔōm, lᵊʔôm ‘nation, people’ (as well as Ug li͗m ‘people, crowd’ and Akk liʔmu, līmu ‘thousand’) with ↗Ar laʔama ‘to gather together, assemble’ (without mentioning luʔm).
    ▪ Militarev2006 (in StarLing), though with strong reservations and without discussion of internal dependence, presents all the following items in one unit: Akk līmu (*liʔmu) ‘one thousand’, Ug li͗m ‘people, clan’, Hbr lᵊʔōm, lᵊʔūm, pl. lᵊʔummīm ‘people, nation’, Syr lam ‘to collect’, Ar laʔama ‘to gather’, liʔm ‘agreement, harmony (between people); peace, concord’, liʔamaẗ, liʔāmaẗ ‘equal, similar, corresponding counterpart’, laʔīm ‘ignoble, mean; alike, equal, adequate’, liʔm ‘peace, concord; ressemblance betw. two people’; lumaẗ ‘small group of people (3-10 persons); similar, alike; equal (age, form)’; lām ‘similarity’; lummaẗ ‘companion; fellow-traveler who contributes to the travel provision; groupe of men (3-10 people), or women’, lamma ‘to pick up, collect s.th.’; Sab lʔm ‘to make a peace settlement’, lmw (*lmm) ‘to come to an agreement with s.o.’, Te läʔamä ‘to be attached, friendly’, Tña läʔamä ‘to be good, patient’. – He reconstructs Sem *LʔM, *LMM ‘to get together; to unite by common consent; peace treaty’, *liʔa/ām- ‘union, fraternity, people’ (implicitly relating ‘ignoble, mean’ etc. to the position of a derivation from ‘to get together, unite’), from AfrAs *liʔam- ‘to get together; to be relative, companion’.
     
    ▪ See CONC above, and for more details ↗LʔM and ↗laʔama
    – 
    laʔuma u (luʔm, laʔāmaẗ, malʔamaẗ), vb. I, to be ignoble, lowly (of character and birth); to be base, mean, vile, evil, wicked: denom., or the etymon proper?
    ʔalʔama, vb. IV, to act ignobly, behave shabbily: denom.
    talāʔama, vb. VI, 1laʔama. – 2 to act meanly: tL-stem, recipr.
    laʔīm, pl. liʔām, luʔamāʔᵘ, luʔmān, adj., ignoble, lowly, low, base, mean, evil, vile, wicked, depraved; sordid, filthy, dirty; niggardly, miserly: quasi-PP I, ints.adj.
     
    laʔmaẗ لَأْمَة 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LʔM 
    n.f. 
    cuirass, pair of cuirasses – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Together with an obsol. luʔ(a)maẗ ‘ploughshare’, laʔmaẗ ‘cuirass, chainmail’ most probably belongs to ↗laʔama (ClassAr meaning: ‘to put s.th. together, fit together, connect, repair; to fit into one another, set on top of one another, esp. the feathers of an arrow’ – WKAS), both showing the overlapping of single elements, put together and/or on top of one another. 
    WKAS : in ClassAr also laʔm ‘armour made of iron rings, chainmail’ 
    ▪ No direct cognates.
    ▪ If akin to ↗laʔama, cf. there and, for the general picture, ↗LʔM. 
    Cf. CONC above. 
    – 
    – 
    LBː (LBB) لبّ / لبب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LBː (LBB) 
    “root” 
    ▪ LBː (LBB)_1 ‘to remain, abide, stay (in a place)’ ↗labba?
    ▪ LBː (LBB)_2 ‘kernel, core, innermost, essence, best part; heart, mind, intellect, reason; to be sensible, reasonable, intelligent’ ↗lubb?
    ▪ LBː (LBB)_3 ‘breast collar (of a horse’s harness); martingale18 ; to gird o.s.’ ↗labab; ‘upper part of the chest, throat’ ↗labbaẗ; ‘golden necklace’ ↗EgAr libbaẗ
    ▪ LBː (LBB)_4 ‘lion’ ↗LBʔ, ↗LBW
    ▪ LBː (LBB)_5 ‘…’ ↗

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘kernel, core, the edible inside of nuts and fruits; the essence; heart, mind, reason; veins in the heart said to be the source of kindness, amiable person, diligent person, upper part of the chest’ 
    ▪ LBː (LBB)_1-3 : three roots or (partly?) related to each other? Unclear semantics.
    ▪ LBː (LBB)_1 : (Kogan2015 Sw#40:) from protSem *libb‑ ‘heart’ (SED I #174).
    ▪ LBː (LBB)_2 : …
    ▪ LBː (LBB)_3 : …
    ▪ LBː (LBB)_4 : short for full forms with R₃ = ʔ or W, cf. ↗LBʔ, ↗LBW
    ▪ LBː (LBB)_5 : …
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    … 
    labb‑ / labab‑ لَبّـ / لَبَبْـ , u (labb
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LBː (LBB) 
    vb., I 
    to remain, abide, stay (bi‑ in a place) – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Dependent on, or akin to, ↗lubb ‘kernel, core, heart, essence’, ↗labbaẗ ‘upper part of the chest, throat’, and/or ↗labab ‘martingale142 ’? 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    See above, section CONC. 
    … 
    For other items of the root, cf. ↗lubb, ↗labbaẗ, ↗EgAr libbaẗ, ↗labab, and, for the overall picture, ↗LBː (LBB). 
    lubb لُبّ , pl. lubūb, ʔalbāb
     
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LBː (LBB) 
    n. 
    1a (pl. lubūb) kernel, core (of fruits); b the innermost, marrow, pith; c core, gist, essence; d prime, best part; 2 (pl. ʔalbāb) a heart; b mind, intellect, reason, understanding – WehrCowan1976.
     
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1668: from protSem *libab‑ ‘heart’ < AfrAs *lib‑ / *lub‑ ‘heart’.
    ▪ Kogan2015: from protSem *libb‑ ‘heart’ (SED I No. 174). Successors of protSem *libb‑ are the main word for ‘heart’ throughout Sem, except in Ar, where it is replaced by ↗qalb, probably related to Akk ḳablu ‘middle’ (SED I No. 161). In Ar, protSem *libb‑ is preserved as lubb ‘what is in the inside; understanding, intelligence, mind’ (Lane 2643). 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: Akk libbu, Hbr lēḇ, Aram lebbā, Gz lebb ‘heart’
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1668: Akk libbu, Ug lb, Hbr lēb, Syr lebbā, Gz ləbb, Ḥrs ḥelbēb, Mhr ḥewbēb, Soq elbeb). – Outside Sem: Eg (pyr) i͗b ‘heart’, (WCh) ləp ‘lungs’ (in 1 idiom), (CCh) liḅī, lib(i) ‘belly, stomach'; ʔurvə‑ŋude, rivi‑ḍiya, arve ‘heart’, (ECh) ʔulbo ‘heart’ (1 idiom), Agaw läbbäka, läbakaa, ləbäkaa ‘heart’, (SA) Afar lubbi ‘heart’, (LEC) Som laab, Or lubbu, labbe, (Omot) yiboo ‘heart’, libʔa ‘belly’, (Rift) liba ‘chest’ (1 idom).
    ▪ Elmedlaoui2012 treats lubb and ↗qalb as one item and gives Berb ul / ulaw‑n ‘heart/s’ as cognates.
    ▪ See also ↗√LBː (LBB) !
     
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1668: protSem *libab‑ ‘heart’, Eg (pyr) i͗b ‘heart’, protWCh *l˅b‑, protCCh *(H˅‑)lib‑, protECh *lub‑, protAgaw *l˅b‑ak‑ ‘heart’ (suffix *‑ak‑), protSA *lub(b)‑, protLEC *lab‑ / *lub‑ ‘heart’, protOmot *lib‑ ‘heart’, protRift *lib‑ ‘chest’; all from a hypothetical AfrAs *lib‑ / *lub‑ ‘heart’.
    ▪ Any relation to ↗labba ‘to stay, remain, abide’ and/or ↗labab ‘upper part of the chest, throat; breast collar (of a horse’s harness); martingale734 ; to gird o.s.’? Cf. also EgAr ↗libbaẗ ‘golden necklace’.
    ▪ … 
    … 
    labba / labib‑, a (labab), and ~ / labub‑, u (labābaẗ), vb. I, to be sensible, reasonable, intelligent: prob. denom. from lubb [v2b].
    labbaba, vb. II, to kernel, ripen into kernels, produce kernels (grain, nuts): D‑stem, caus., denom. of [v1].
    talabbaba, vb. V, to gird o.s., prepare o.s.: Dt‑stem, intr./refl., from labab (akin to lubb [v1])?

    labbaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., 1a upper part of the chest; b throat of an animal, spot where its throat is slit in slaughtering: akin to lubb [v1]?
    EgAr libbaẗ, n.f., golden necklace: akin to lubb [v1]?
    labab, pl. ʔalbāb, n., 1 = labbaẗ; 2 breast collar (of a horse’s harness); 3 martingale16 : akin to lubb [v1]?
    lubāb, n., marrow, pith, core, quintessence, gist, prime, best part.
    labīb, pl. ʔalibbāʔᵘ, adj., understanding, reasonable, sensible, intelligent: ints.adj., quasi-PP, from labba / lubb [v2].
    talbīb, pl. talābībᵘ, n., collar: taFʕīL formation, rarely producing nouns other than vn. II, but here evidently used to signify an object that is worn on the chest, like labab / EgAr libbaẗ.

    For other items of the root, cf. ↗labba, ↗lubb, ↗labbaẗ, ↗EgAr libbaẗ, ↗labab, and, for the overall picture, ↗LBː (LBB). 
    labbaẗ لَبّة , pl. ‑āt 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LBː (LBB) 
    n.f. 
    1a upper part of the chest; b throat of an animal, spot where its throat is slit in slaughtering – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Prob. related to ↗labab ‘breast collar (of a horse’s harness); martingale143 ’; cf. also EgAr libbaẗ ‘golden necklace’.
    ▪ Relation (if any) to ↗lubb ‘kernel, core, essence, heart’ unclear.
    ▪ MSA has preserved the orig. meaning, which, according to WKAS II/1, is ‘upper part of the chest, low neckline; place on the throat where an animal is slaughtered’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    See above, section CONC. 
    … 
    EgAr libbaẗ, n.f., golden necklace.

    For other items of the root, cf. ↗labba, ↗lubb, ↗labab, and, for the overall picture, ↗LBː (LBB). 
    libbaẗ لِبّة 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LBː (LBB) 
    n.f. 
    (EgAr) golden necklace – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Apparently related to ↗labab ‘breast collar (of a horse’s harness)’ (orig. *‘chest strap preventing the saddle from slipping backwards’) and ↗labbaẗ ‘upper part of the chest; throat of an animal, spot where its throat is slit in slaughtering’.
    ▪ Perh. also related to ↗lubb ‘kernel, core, essence, heart’, but nature of relation unclear.
     
    ▪ … 
    … 
    See above, section CONC. 
    … 
    For other items of the root, cf. ↗labba, ↗lubb, ↗labbaẗ, ↗labab, and, for the overall picture, ↗LBː (LBB). 
    labab لَبَب , pl. ʔalbāb 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LBː (LBB) 
    n. 
    1a upper part of the chest; b throat of an animal, spot where its throat is slit in slaughtering; 2 breast collar (of a horse’s harness); 3 martingale19 – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ According to WKAS II/1, the orig. meaning is ‘chest strap (of horse, etc., which prevents the saddle from slipping backwards)’, i.e., the value closest to modern [v3] ‘martingale’.
    ▪ Apparently related to ↗labbaẗ with which it is overlapping in meaning today ([v1], [v2]).
    ▪ Perh. also related to ↗lubb ‘kernel, core, essence, heart’, but the precise nature of such a relation remains unclear.
     
    ▪ … 
    … 
    See above, section CONC. 
    … 
    talabbaba, vb. V, to gird o.s., prepare o.s.: Dt‑stem, intr./refl., [v3], *‘to put on the labab’.

    labbaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., 1a upper part of the chest; b throat of an animal, spot where its throat is slit in slaughtering: now semantically almost identical with labab; cf., however, WKAS II/1 where the original values are given as ‘chest strap (of horse, etc., which prevents the saddle from slipping backwards)’ for labab, and ‘upper part of the chest, low neckline; place on the throat where an animal is slaughtered’ for labbaẗ.
    EgAr libbaẗ, n.f., golden necklace: also akin to lubb?
    talbīb, pl. talābībᵘ, n., collar: taFʕīL formation, rarely producing nouns other than vn. II, but here evidently used to signify an object that is worn on the chest, cf. [v2]; cf. also libbaẗ.

    For other items of the root, cf. ↗labba, ↗lubb, ↗labbaẗ, ↗EgAr libbaẗ, and, for the overall picture, ↗LBː (LBB). 
    LBṮ لبث 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 7May2023
    √LBṮ 
    “root” 
    ▪ LBṮ_1 ‘to stay, remain’ ↗labiṯa
    ▪ LBṮ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LBṮ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to stay, be slow, tarry, be late in coming, abide, stopover, lingering; mixture’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    LBD لبد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 7May2023
    √LBD 
    “root” 
    ▪ LBD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LBD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LBD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘mane; felt; ticks, locusts, crowd; to stay, accumulate, congregate; to patch up; to be stuck to the earth’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    LBS لبس 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LBS 
    “root” 
    ▪ LBS_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ LBS_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to wear, to put on, to clothe, garment, clothes, armour, cover; to confuse; wife, husband; condition; to tarry or to remain in a place’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    labis‑ لَبِسَ 
    ID 778 • Sw – • BP 2617 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LBS 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘to put on (dress)’) Akk lbš, Hbr lḇš e (a), Syr lḇš e (a), Gz lbs (a).
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    LBN لبن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LBN 
    “root” 
    ▪ LBN_1 ‘(unburnt) brick’ ↗libn
    ▪ LBN_2 ‘milk’ ↗laban
    ▪ LBN_3 ‘frankincense; chewing gum’ ↗lubān
    ▪ LBN_4 ‘wish, aim, goal; business, enterprise’ ↗lubānaẗ
    ▪ LBN_5 ‘Lebanon’ ↗lubnān
    ▪ LBN_6 ‘storax/styrax tree’ ↗lubnà
    ▪ LBN_7 ‘towline’ (EgAr) ↗libān

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘milk, (of a female) to be with milk [LBN_2]; quest, wish, desire [LBN_4]; mud brick [LBN_1]; tree sap [LBN_3]’ 
    ▪ LBN_1 ‘brick(s)’ seems to be a loan, via Syr, from Akk, perhaps lit. *‘accumulated, hardened, solidified (sc. mud)’ (cf. also LBN_3 below).
    ▪ LBN_2 ‘milk’ is a value not to be found in other Sem languages (unless loaned from Ar) and is therefore thought to be the result of a development, peculiar to Ar, from an original *‘white(ness)’ (which also lies at the basis of the name for Lebanon, cf. LBN_5).
    ▪ LBN_3 ‘frankincense’ may be either *‘hardened, solidified (sc. resin)’ and thus, basically, built on the same idea as LBN_1 ‘brick(s)’ (applied to resin in this case rather than to mud in that of LBN_1), or it is *‘the product of the styrax tree’ (cf. LBN_6, below), or *‘the white one’ (cf. LBN_2 above, and LBN_5 below). The meaning ‘chewing gum’ is, of course, a modern development.
    ▪ LBN_4 ‘wish, aim, goal; business, enterprise’: not directly related to any of the other values and therefore difficult to explain. The semantics suggest a relation to ↗lubb ‘kernel, core; heart, mind, intellect, reason’, but this would be difficult to explain phonologically and morphologically. — For the time being, this word’s etymology remains obscure.
    ▪ LBN_5 ‘Lebanon’, as a geographical term, goes back, via Aram/Hbr Lᵊḇānōn, to Phoen lbnn. Ultimately, it is either *‘(the country with) the white (mountain tops)’ or *‘the snowy one’. If from *‘white’, then the closest relatives would be LBN_2 ‘milk’ (and perhaps also LBN_3 ‘frankincense’). If from *‘snow’, the idea of congelation/solidification connects it more closely to LBN_1 ‘brick(s) (but perhaps also to LBN_3 ‘frankincense’, if the latter is *‘hardened resin’).
    ▪ LBN_6 ‘storax/styrax tree’ may be *‘the white tree’ (cf. LBN_2 ‘milk’, LBN_5 ‘Lebanon’), or *‘the tree that produces an aromatically smelling resin’ (cf. LBN_3 ‘frankincense’), or it is a loan from Copt < Eg (unless the latter itself is from Sem).
    ▪ LBN_7 ‘towline’ (eg.) is agreed upon to go back to a Copt word for ‘(a ship’s) hauling-cable’.
     
    – 
    (based on data supplied by Nicolas2013)
    ▪ LBN_1: Akk libittu (*libintu), Ug lbnt (pl., *labinātu), Hbr lᵊḇīnāh, lᵊḇēnāh, Aram lᵊḇīntā, Syr lᵊḇettā (*lᵊḇentā) ‘brick, tile’, Ar libn, libin, SAr lbn ‘brick(s)’
    ▪ LBN_2: Ug lbn (*labanu), Hbr lāḇān ‘blanc’ (et nom propre),206 Phn lbn ‘white’, Mand laben ‘être blanc’, Ar laban ‘lait’ (> labana ‘avoir en abondance du lait dans ses pis’, talbīn(aẗ) ‘soupe faite avec du lait ou du miel’, mulabban ‘sorte de nougat fait de noix et d’amandes’)
    ▪ LBN_3: Hbr lᵊḇōnāh, lᵊḇônāh, Phn lbnh, Aram Syr lᵊḇûntāh, Ar lubān ‘résine qui sert d’encens’, SAr lbn ‘encens’;207 cf. also Mand labna ‘gluten’.
    ▪ LBN_4: Ar lubānaẗ ‘wish, aim, goal; business, enterprise’: –.
    ▪ LBN_5: Akk labnanu (BDB1906), Ug lbnn, Hbr lᵊḇānôn, Phn lbnh, oSyr leḇnān (Wild1973: 154), Ar lubnān ‘Lebanon’.
    ▪ LBN_6: Hbr liḇnäh ‘poplar (BDB1906), styrax, birch (Klein1987)’, Syr lebanītā, Ar lubnà, Gz ləbən ‘arbrisseau qui donne du storax, (BDB1906:) styrax officinalis’, Gz lebne ‘sorte de palme; sorte d’arbres’, Ar lubnà
    ▪ LBN_7: EgAr libān ‘towline’: no cognates in Sem.
     
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl Lebanonlubnān. – Engl benjamin, benzoinlubān
    – 
    libn لِبْن , var. labin 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LBN 
    n.coll. 
    unburnt brick(s), adobes – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    labbana, vb. II, to make brick: denom.

    libnaẗ, labinaẗ, n.un., pl. ‑āt, unburnt brick, adobe; (saud.-ar.) a sort of cheese | ~āt ʔasāsiyyaẗ, n.pl., basic structural units.
    labbān, n., 1 brickmaker; 2 For another meaning see ↗laban
    laban لَبَن , pl. ʔalbān , libān 
    ID 779 • Sw – • BP 3085 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LBN 
    n. 
    milk; (syr.) leban, coagulated sour milk – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *lbn ‘white’, one of the four basic colours in the protSem colour spectrum144 (see also Ar ↗BYḌ for ‘white’, ↗ẒLM and SWD for ‘black’, ↗ʔDM and ḤMR for ‘red’, ↗WRQ and ḪḌR for ‘green’).
    ▪ …… 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ʔalbān, n.pl., dairy products, milk products.
    laban al-ḫaḍḍ, n., buttermilk.
    laban rāʔib, n., curdled milk, curds.
    laban al-zīr (eg.) and laban ʕāqid, n., curds, cottage cheese.
    širs al-laban, n., whey.
    mīzān al-laban, n., lactoscope.
    farʕ al-ʔalbān, n., dairy department.

    ĭltabana, vb. VIII, to suck milk: T-stem, denom., autobenef..
    labanī, adj., lactic, milk (adj.); milky, milklike, lacteous, lacteal: nsb-adj.
    labaniyyaẗ, n.f., a dish prepared of milk: nominalized adj., f. of labanī.
    labanāt, n., lactate: neologism. | ~ al-ǧīr, n., calcium lactate.
    labān, n., breast:.
    libān, n., 1 sucking, nursing: vn. III, denom., assoc. – 2 For another meaning see ↗s.v.
    labbān, n., 1 milkman: n.prof. – 2 For another meaning see ↗libn.
    libānaẗ, n.f., selling or production of milk products, dairy: n. of profession, denom.
    labinaẗ, labūn, labūnaẗ, pl. libān, lubn, lubun, labāʔinᵘ, n., milch, giving milk: adj. | ḥayawān labūn, n., mammal.
    malbanaẗ, n.f., dairy: n.loc. (place where mild is produced/processed) 
    lubān لُبان 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LBN 
    n. 
    frankincense, olibanum; chewing gum (=~ al-maḍġ) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ WSem *lubān(at)‑ ‘frankincense’ – Huehnergard2011.
    … 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl benjamin, benzoin, from Ar lubān ‘frankincense’.↗ 
    lubān ǧāwī, n., benzoin.
    lubān ḏakar, n., (eg.) olibanum, oriental frankincense (resin of Boswellia carteri; bot.).
    lubān šāmī, n., (eg.) a pitchy resin used as a depilatory (resin of Pinus Brutia Ten.).
    lubān al-ʕaḏrāʔ, n., magnesia, Epsom salts, bitter salt.

    malban, n., a sweet made of cornstarch, sugar, mastic and pistachios 
    libān لِبان 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LBN 
    n. 
    1 (EgAr) towline. – 2 For another meaning see ↗laban . – WehrCowan1979. 
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    … 
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    lubānaẗ لُبانة , pl. ‑āt , lubān 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LBN 
    n.f. 
    wish, desire, object, aim, goal, end; business, undertaking, enterprise – WehrCowan1979. 
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    ▪ … 
    … 
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    – 
    – 
    lubnà لُبْنَى 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LBN 
    n.f.f. 
    storax/styrax tree – WehrCowan1979. 
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    … 
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    – 
    lubnānᵘ لُبْنانُ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LBN 
    n.prop.topon., m./f. 
    Lebanon – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Lebanon, from Hbr lᵊbānôn ‘Lebanon’, from lābān ‘white’, from lābēn ‘to be(come) white’. 
    BP#212lubnānī, adj., Lebanese; (pl. ‑ūn), n., a Lebanese: nsb-adj. (and nominal.). 
    lubnānī لُبْنانِيّ 
    ID 780 • Sw – • BP 212 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LBN 
    ¹adj.; ²n. 
    adj., Lebanese; (pl. ‑ūn), n., a Lebanese – WehrCowan1979. 
    nsb-adj., from ↗Lubnān
    ▪ … 
    See ↗Lubnān
    See ↗Lubnān
    – 
    – 
    LǦː (LǦǦ) لجّ/لجج 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 7May2023
    √ LǦː (LǦǦ) 
    “root” 
    ▪ LǦː (LǦǦ)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LǦː (LǦǦ)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LǦː (LǦǦ)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘depths of the sea, abyss; noise; to roar; to continue to argue or dispute obstinately; stammering; convoluted thick herbage’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    LǦʔ لجأ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LǦʔ 
    “root” 
    ▪ LǦʔ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ LǦʔ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘refuge, shelter, retreat; to appeal to s.o. for help, to have recourse to; to compel’ 
    ▪ … 
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    lāǧiʔ لاجِئ 
    ID 781 • Sw – • BP 2312 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LǦʔ 
    ¹adj.; ²n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    – 
     
    LǦN لجن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LǦN 
    “root” 
    ▪ LǦN_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ LǦN_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
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    – 
    – 
    laǧnaẗ لَجْنَة 
    ID 782 • Sw – • BP 258 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LǦN 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    LḤD لحد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 7May2023
    √LḤD 
    “root” 
    ▪ LḤD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LḤD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LḤD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘shelf in one side of a grave, to bury on such a shelf; to deviate, stray from the straight course, deviant; to object to, contradict, profane, violate; place of refuge, to seek refuge’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    LḤẒ لحظ 
    Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | created 9Jun2023
    √LḤẒ 
    “root” – 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    mulāḥaẓaẗ مُلاحظة 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 1498 • APD … • © SG | created 9Jun2023
    √LḤẒ 
    n.f. 
    ▪ vn., III 
    LḤF لحف 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 7May2023
    √LḤF 
    “root” 
    ▪ LḤF_1 ‘to wrap’ ↗laḥafa
    ▪ LḤF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LḤF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘outer garment, bedcover, to wrap up; to bestow a favour, request or ask persistently, demand urgently’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    LḤQ لحق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 7May2023
    √LḤQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ LḤQ_1 ‘to catch up, reach’ ↗laḥaqa
    ▪ LḤQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LḤQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to catch up, reach, follow, go after; pursuit; to attach, annex’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    LḤM لحم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LḤM 
    “root” 
    ▪ LḤM_1 ‘meat’ ↗ laḥm
    ▪ LḤM_2 ‘to mend, patch, weld, solder (up); woof, weft (of a fabric); close union, conjunction, connection, coherence, cohesion, adhesion, to adhere, cleave, stick to s.th., get stuck; relationship, kinship’ ↗ laḥama
    ▪ LḤM_3 ‘bloody fight, slaughter, massacre, fierce battle’ ↗ malḥamaẗ

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘meat; to be fleshy; to cling together; great battle; to patch up; kinship relation; to go after’ 
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    ▪ Engl Bethlehem (↗bayt and) ↗laḥm
    – 
    laḥm لَحْم , pl. luḥūm, liḥām 
    ID 783 • Sw 29/96 • BP 1518 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LḤM 
    n.coll. 
    flesh; meat – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Specialized meaning in Ar, from protCSem *laḥm‑ ‘(solid) food’ (Kogan2011), protSem *√LḤM ‘to eat’ (Huehnergard2011).
    ▪ The item may be akin to, if not even dependent on, Sem *LḤM ‘to be/get in close contact, be glued together, be compact, solid’ (= LḤM_2, see ↗laḥama). 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Orel/Stolbova 1994 #1642, Zammit 2002, Tropper 2008: Ug lḥm ‘food, bread; grain’, Phoen lḥm, Hbr läḥäm, TargAram lᵉḥēm, Syr laḥmā ‘bread, food’; Arab laḥm, laḥam ‘flesh, meat’. – Outside Sem: Cognates (acc. to Orel/Stolbova) in laam, laamu ‘meat’ in two WCh languages; note also Hs lamai ‘tuwo’. – Cf. also corresponding verbs: Akk laḫāmu (also leḫēmu, lêmu, leʔēmu, leʔāmu) ‘to consume, eat (and drink)’, Ug lḥm ‘to eat, devour’, Hbr läḥäm ‘to use as food, eat; to try, taste’.
    ▪ For further possible cognates cf. root entry ↗LḤM (for the general picture) as well as ↗laḥama (LḤM_2) and ↗malḥamaẗ (LḤM_3).
     
    ▪ On account of the Sem evidence Orel/Stolbova 1994 #1642 reconstruct Sem *laḥm- ‘bread, food; meat’. Taken together with the WCh evidence, for which the authors reconstruct WCh *laHam- ‘meat’, they postulate a common origin in AfrAs *laḥam- ‘meat, food’.
    ▪ Huehnergard 2011 assumes Sem √LḤM ‘to eat’.
    ▪ For a discussion of the relation between ‘meat’, ‘bread’ and the more general ‘food’, cf. Guidi 1879, Fraenkel 1889, Krotkoff 1969.
    ▪ For an attempt to make Sem *laḥm‑ ‘(solid) food’ dependent on *LḤM ‘to be/get in close contact, be glued together, be compact, solid’ (LḤM_2), see Krotkoff 1969. If there is such dependence, then Ar laḥm ‘meat’ is akin to other items of the root, such as ↗laḥama ‘to mend, patch, weld, solder (up)’, II laḥḥama ‘to solder’, VIII ĭltaḥama ‘to adhere, stick to, cling to, fit closely, be interjoined, closely united; to scar over, cicatrize (wound)’, laḥmaẗ, luḥmaẗ ‘woof, weft (of a fabric), luḥmaẗ ‘relationship, kinship’, as well as to the complex of ‘battle, fighting, etc.’ (LḤM_3), cf. ↗malḥamaẗ.
    ▪ »Laḥm was used in Classical Arabic to designate any type of meat, including flesh (edible or not), and even the core of fruit. In present-day Arabic, the same word, while still used to designate flesh and still within the domain of edible meats, conveys (red) meats almost exclusively, while other types of meats are referenced often by the name of their animal source (e.g. dajāj ‘chicken’)« – Esseesy 2009.
     
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Bethlehem, from Hbr bêt-leḥem ‘house of bread’, from bêt ‘house’ (cf. Ar ↗bayt) and leḥem ‘bread’, cognate of Ar laḥm ‘meat’. 
    bi-laḥmih wa-šaḥmih, expr., in his real human form; laḥman wa-daman, expr., dyed in the wool, inveterate

    laḥmaẗ, n.f., a piece of flesh or meat: n.un.
    laḥim, adj., fleshy, corpulent; carnivorous: adj. formation.
    laḥḥām, n., 1. butcher; 2. ↗laḥama : n.prof.
    laḥīm, adj., fleshy: quasi-PP.
    laḥāmaẗ, n.f., fleshiness, corpulence: n.abstr.

    For other items of the root, cf. ↗laḥama and ↗malḥamaẗ and, for the general picture, root entry ↗LḤM.
     
    laḥmaẗ لَحْمة 
    ID 784 • Sw – • BP 6217 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LḤM 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    malḥamaẗ ملْحمة , pl. malāḥimᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LḤM 
    n.f. 
    … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    – 
     
    LḤN لحن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LḤN 
    “root” 
    ▪ LḤN_1 ‘to speak ungrammatical Arabic (interspersed with barbarisms)’ ↗laḥana
    ▪ LḤN_2 ‘air, tune, melody’ ↗laḥn
    ▪ LḤN_3 ‘intelligent, understanding, sensible’ ↗laḥin

    Other values, now obsolete, include:
    • LḤN_4 ‘to incline’ : laḥana a (laḥn) (ʔilà to)
    • LḤN_5 ‘to drop\give a veiled hint, speak in code, allude to, hint at’: laḥana a (laḥn) (li- to); cf. also lāḥana, vb. III, ‘to make insinuations’; ʔalḥana, vb. IV, ‘to intimate s.th. to s.o., to give s.o. to understand s.th.’

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘1 dialect, language; 2 to err in speaking or reading, deviate; 3 to speak in code, allude to, hint at; 4 tune, to read melodically’ 
    ▪ Apart from an uncertain item in Ug, Ar √LḤN does not seem to have cognates in Sem, nor outside Sem.
    ▪ Fück1950 derives values [v1] to [v3] and [v5] from the now obsolete laḥana ‘to incline’ (LḤN_4), but this seems slightly doubtful. To the author of the present entry, what Fück thinks to be secondary, dependent on ‘to incline’, namely the idea of ‘deviation, modification, modulation’, seems more likely to be the “etymon proper”.
    ▪ LḤN_2: Günzburg1892 thought that laḥn in the sense of ‘air, tune, melody’ and Grk liχanós ‘tone’ probably go back to the same (Sem) source. Developing on this, LandbergZetterstéen1942 derives Ar laḥn from Grk liχanós ‘forefinger; (hence also:) the string struck with the forefinger, and its note’. Though semantically not without some plausibility, phonologically this etymology would be difficult to explain. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ LḤN_1 : Zammit2002: Ar laḥn ‘a vicious pronunciation’ is without parallels in the langs the author has looked at (Akk, Ug, Hbr, Phoen, Aram, Syr, SAr, Gz).
    ▪ LḤN_3 : Tropper2008: Ug lḥn (meaning uncertain!) ‘to be understanding, intelligent’ or ‘to be closely related (to s.o.)’ (cf. Ar laḥḥ ‘close relationship’). 
    ▪ According to Fück1950: 128-33, all values of the Ar root go back to one basic meaning, namely 0 ‘to incline, lean towards’ [= LḤN_4], indicating any deviation from/modification of the normal (position, situation). Directly from here Fück derives 1 the adj. laḥin *‘flexible, mobile, agile’ = ‘clever, intelligent, perspicacious’ and the n. laḥan ‘cleverness, comprehension, perspicacity’ [= LḤN_3] and an extension into the field of speaking, with 2 *‘abnormal way of speaking’, forming a new extended base from which derive other values like 2a ‘eloquence’, or 2b ‘melody’ [= LḤN_2], or 2c ‘talking in riddles full of hidden meanings\veiled hints\allusions\insinuations’ [= LḤN_5], or 2d ‘delusive expression’, and, finally, 2e downright ‘grammatical mistake, blunder’ [= LḤN_1]. According to Ayoub, the positive connotations are earlier than the negative ones (art. “Laḥn” in EALL).
    ▪ Is Fück correct? WKAS does not have Fück’s ‘to incline, lean towards’ as a basic value. It seems that the latter rather is secondary, based on ‘deviation, modulation, modification’; it is right that laḥana can mean ‘to incline’, but only in the particular sense of ‘to incline to s.o., lean towards s.o., show affection to s.o. ’, i.e., to a person, cf. the lexicographers’ explanation of laḥana li- (which is similar to ʔilà) as ‘to talk to s.o. in a way that only he understands (it remains unintellegible to others)’ (laḥana la-hū ʔiḏā qāla la-hū qawlan yafhamu-hū ʕan-hu wa-yaḫfī ʕalà ġayri-hī) (≈ LḤN_5); so, the ‘inclination’ or ‘affection’ is a way of talking ‘abnormally’, or the result thereof.
    ▪ [LḤN_2] For the idea that laḥn ‘melody’ may be from Grk liχanós ‘forefinger (etc.)’, cf. ↗laḥn
    – 
    – 
    laḥan‑ لَحَنَ , a (laḥn , luḥūn , laḥānaẗ
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LḤN 
    vb., I 
    to speak ungrammatical Arabic (interspersed with barbarisms) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ √LḤN seems to be an exclusively Ar root, not attested elsewhere in Sem nor outside of it.
    ▪ The basic meaning of Ar √LḤN is probably *‘to deviate (from the normal), modulate, modify’. While an interpretation of this ‘deviation’ in a positive sense seems to be quite old (↗laḥn ‘melody’), the negative sense is believed to have become prevalent after the early Arab conquests only, when the language came to be normed and standardized by the grammarians (*‘deviation from the normal > abnormal way of speaking, modulation in language > to make grammatical mistakes, blunders’).
    ▪ In the sense of ‘bad, incorrect Arabic, gibberish; grammatical mistake, blunder’ (WKAS), the vn. laḥn became one of the antonyms of ↗ʔiʕrāb and ↗faṣāḥaẗ.
    ▪ For laḥn as one of the many so-called ʔaḍdād (words that can take contradictory meanings) cf. individual entry on ↗laḥn
    ▪ eC7 laḥn (deviation, crookedness, twisting) Q 47:30 wa-la-taʕrifanna-hum fī laḥni ’l-qawli ‘but you will know them by [the] twisting of [their] speech’
    ▪ For ClassAr laḥana, WKAS gives: ‘to speak bad, incorrect Arabic, to talk gibberish, to make (a) grammatical error(s); †to drop a hint (li- to), give (li¬- s.o.) a veiled hint’.
    ▪ Fück1950 finds the earliest attestation for the meaning ‘to speak ungrammatical Arabic’ in a verse by an unknown poet from c. 630 CE.23  
    – 
    ▪ In ClassAr, laḥn is sometimes identified with ↗luġaẗ. According to Ayoub, this comes »from an archaic meaning of laḥn prior to the setting up of a linguistic norm. […] With the implementation of the norm, laḥn, which in its pre-classical acceptation meant a detour of speech in a positive sense [my emphasis—S.G.], came to express a negative ‘deviation’, a speech error.« Thus, in classical usage luġaẗ »represents legitimate linguistic variation, prior to the ‘corruption of the language’ that according to the sources appeared in the 1st century A.H.«, while laḥn came to mean »illegitimate linguistic change, “the diverging [in speech] from the correct form” (Ibn Manẓūr, Lisān 4013), as a result of ‘corruption of the language’.« This shift of meaning from a positive to a negative sense was accompanied by a transfer of the field of reference from the spoken to the written. Originally, in the pre-classical use of the term, »laḥn seems to have denoted the wrong use of language in speaking, since it is linked to voice and sound.« Later, however, it came to refer to mistakes in the written language, demonstrating the status acquired over nearly a century by the ʕarabiyya as a literary language, essentially linked to writing.«735
    ▪ Ayoub’s description matches that of Fück1950 who also believed that the preponderance of the value ‘grammatical mistake’ which in ClassAr overgrew most of the others (except ‘melody’), can be explained as a phenomenon of the period of futūḥ, when the Arabs conquered the territories of non-Arabic-speaking peoples and the knowledge of Arabic became a precondition of being accepted into the elites of the new ‘Islamicate’ society; in this period, Fück says, Arabs were confronted, for the first time on a larger scale, with groups of people trying to speak and write Arabic but still making a number of mistakes.
    ▪ Some lexicographers counted laḥn with its values a. al-ḫaṭaʔ, b. al-tawriyaẗ, and c. al-fiṭnaẗ among the words that can take contradictory meanings (ʔaḍdād).736  
    – 
    ʔalḥana, vb. IV, 1 = laḥana; 2 to mispronounce, esp. while reading the Koran aloud: Š-stem, caus. (of the original *‘to deviate’, i.e., lit. *‘to make deviate, sc. from correct pronunciation’), or denom. from laḥn.
    BP#3656laḥn, pl. ʔalḥān, luḥūn, n., 1laḥn; 2 grammatical mistake, solecism, barbarism: vn. I.
    malḥūn, adj., 1 incorrect, ungrammatical (language); 2 (maġr.) poetry in colloquial language: PP I. – Cf. also an earlier value, as given by Kazimirski: ‘agréable à l’oreille, mélodieux’, from ↗laḥn in the sense of pleasant modulation, melody, tune’.

    For other values attached to the same root, cf. ↗laḥn, ↗laḥin, and, for the whole picture, ↗LḤN. 
    laḥn لَحْن , pl. ʔalḥān , luḥūn 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 3656 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LḤN 
    n. 
    1 air, tune, melody; 2laḥana – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ For Fück1950: 128-33, the value ‘melody’ is based on the original idea of a *‘deviation from the normal’, extended into the field of language and speaking; ‘melody’ would thus properly be an *‘abnormal way of speaking’. The positive connotation (pleasant deviation) seems to be earlier than the negative ones than laḥn took in Isl times (for these, cf. ↗laḥana ‘to make grammatical mistakes’, etc.).
    ▪ LandbergZetterstéen1942, misreading Günzburg1892, would derive laḥn ‘melody’ from Grk liχanós (see detail below, section DISC), but this seems unlikely for pholonogical reasons.
    ▪ For [v2] ‘incorrect Arabic, grammatical mistake’, etc., cf. ↗laḥana.
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ According to Fück1950, the value ‘melody’ is derived from the basic idea of a *‘deviation from the normal’ in language and speaking, whence also the other values of laḥn in ClassAr, like ‘manner of speaking, intonation, speech, dialect’, ‘bad, incorrect Arabic, gibberish; grammatical mistake, blunder’, and ‘allusion, hint, insinuation’ (WKAS) (for these, cf. ↗laḥana).
    ▪ While [v1] ‘melody’ is attested already for pre-Isl times, Fück believed that the preponderance of [v2] ‘grammatical mistake’ which somehow overgrew most of the others (with the exception of ‘melody’), can be explained as a phenomenon of the period of futūḥ (see ↗laḥana). Ayoub, too, thinks that the value ‘positive/pleasant deviation’ is prior to the negative connotations, which came with linguistic normativity in the early Islamicate period.
    ▪ In contrast to the established view which sees the LḤN as one etymological unit, Günzburg1892 thought that »some musical terms, like laḥn ([Grk] liχanós) and ↗naġam ([Grk] neûma), were probably borrowed by […] Greeks and Arabs […] from a third people, without doubt of Sem descent.«737
    ▪ Misreading Günzburg’s theory (but finding this reading more convincing), LandbergZetterstéen1942 derives laḥn in the sense of ‘melody’ directly from Grk liχanós ‘index, forefinger; hence also: the string struck with the forefinger, and its note’.738 »J’ai toujours pensé que laḥn ‘mélodie’ et laḥn ‘faute de grammaire’ sont deux mots de provenance différente. […]. Cette polysémie me paraît indiquer que tout ce thème LḤN peut pas provenir d’une source commune arabe. Mais déjà de bonne heure et avant l’Islam, laḥana a pris le sens de ‘chanter’.« LandbergZetterstéen finds this etymology »assez probable« because it also shows »en même temps l’origine de la musique arabe moderne«.739 – From the point of semantics, this theory is certainly not without some plausibility. Phonologically, however, it seems difficult to explain how liχanós should have become laḥn.
    ▪ On account of the many and partly contradictory values that laḥn could take in ClassAr, some lexicographers counted the word among the ʔaḍdād (for more details, cf. section DISC in entry ↗laḥana). 
    ▪ The Ar word has been borrowed into nHbr as laḥan ‘tune, melody’ (cf. also the denom. lāḥan ‘to sing, chant, psalmodize’ and the Š-stem hi-lḥîn ‘to set to music, compose; to sing, chant, psalmodize’ – Klein1987) and Malt lehen ‘voice’ (Rajki2005). 
    laḥḥana, vb. II, 1 to chant, psalmodize; 2 to intone, strike up a melody; 3 to set to music, compose: D-stem, denom., caus.
    talḥīn, pl. talāḥīnᵘ, n., musical composition, musical arrangement: vn. II.
    talḥīnī, adj., singable: nsb-formation from vn. II.
    mulaḥḥin, pl. -ūn, n., composer (mus.): PA II.

    For other values attached to the same root, cf. ↗laḥana, ↗laḥin, and, for the whole picture, ↗LḤN. 
    laḥin لَحِن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LḤN 
    adj. 
    intelligent, understanding, sensible – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ √LḤN seems to be an exclusively Ar root, not attested elsewhere in Sem nor outside of it.
    ▪ The basic meaning of Ar √LḤN is probably *‘to deviate (from the normal), modulate, modify’ (for Fück1950 this is secondary from a primary value ‘to incline, lean towards’). From ‘deviation’, Fück derives the adj. laḥin in the sense of *‘flexible, mobile, agile’, hence ‘clever, intelligent, perspicacious’ and the n. laḥan ‘cleverness, comprehension, perspicacity’.
    ▪ Is Fück right? In my [SG] view, the semantic shift he assumes—from ‘deviation’ to *‘flexibility, mobility’—is not very convincing. But unless we assign the current value to another, homonymous root there are by now no better suggestions. 
    WKAS has laḥina a (laḥan) ‘to be clever, intelligent, perspicacious; †to learn, grasp, understand (s.th., ʕan from s.o.); lāḥana, vb. III, ‘to outdo, excel in cleverness, astuteness’; †laḥan, n., ‘cleverness, comprehension, perspicacity’, laḥin and lāḥin, adj., ‘clever, intelligent, perspicacious’ 
    ▪ Probably without cognates. According to Tropper2008, the meaning of Ug lḥn is uncertain (either ‘to be understanding, intelligent’ or ‘to be closely related to s.o.’, cf. Ar laḥḥ ‘close relationship’). 
    ▪ See above, section CONC. 
    – 
    laḥina, a (laḥan), to be intelligent: denom.?

    For other values attached to the same root, cf. ↗laḥana, ↗laḥn, and, for the whole picture, ↗LḤN. 
    LḤW/Y لحو/ي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 7May2023
    √LḤW/Y 
    “root” 
    ▪ LḤW/Y_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LḤW/Y_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LḤW/Y_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘tree bark; to peel off; to insult, rebuke; beard, the area where a beard grows’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    LDː (LDD) لدّ/لدد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 7May2023
    √ LDː (LDD) 
    “root” 
    ▪ LDː (LDD)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LDː (LDD)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LDː (LDD)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘the two sides of a valley; to look about in confusion, be perplexed; to be fierce; to be grim; to be stubborn; to be quarrelsome, be contentious, defend; mortal enemy’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    LDN لدن 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9May2023
    √LDN 
    “root” 
    ▪ LDN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LDN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LDN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be soft, be pliant; to ponder, tarry, to stay; point in time; location’ 
    ▪ From protSem *ladan‑ ‘labdanum’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    – 
    LḎː (LḎḎ) لذّ/لذذ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9May2023
    √ LḎː (LḎḎ) 
    “root” 
    ▪ LḎː (LḎḎ)_1 ‘to be delicious’ ↗laḏḏa
    ▪ LḎː (LḎḎ)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LḎː (LḎḎ)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘pleasure, sweetness, to be delicious, enjoy; speed, to be nimble’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    LZB لزب 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9May2023
    √LZB 
    “root” 
    ▪ LZB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LZB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LZB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be narrow; to be scanty, famine, hardship; to adhere, stick together; to sting’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    LZM لزم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LZM 
    “root” 
    ▪ LZM_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ LZM_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to cling, to adhere; to accompany; to persist, to force, to impose as a duty, necessity, obligation, compulsory’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ĭltizām اِلْتِزام 
    ID 785 • Sw – • BP 1342 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LZM 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    LSN لسن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LSN 
    “root” 
    ▪ LSN_1 ‘tongue; language’ ↗lisān
    ▪ LSN_2 ‘’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘1 tongue, speech, language, message, spokesman; 2 good repute; 3 eloquence’ 
    lisān 
    – 
    lisān 
    lisān 
    – 
    – 
    lisān لِسان , pl. ʔalsinaẗ , ʔalsun 
    ID 786 • Sw 44/172 • BP 1026 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LSN 
    n.m./f. 
    1 tongue; 2 language; 3 mouthpiece (fig.), organ (esp., of a newspaper; = ~ al-ḥāl see below) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *lišān‑ ‘tongue’.
    ▪ … perh. < AfrAs *les‑ ‘id.’.
    ▪ Acc. to Brockelmann1909 §133a the word is a n.instr. formed from a verbal basis lsn, while Bittner145 regards it as a nomen agentis from a base *ls‑ ‘to lick’, i.e., properly *‘licker, the licking one’.
    ▪ In ClassAr, lisān often meant ‘(foreign) language’, a value that today is mostly rendered by ↗luġaẗ (orig. perh. s.th. like ‘the way people [not in our tribe] speak’, i.e. similar to ↗lahǧaẗ ‘way of speaking; (later also :) ‘dialect’ – art. “Luġa” (Tamás Iványi), in EALL
    ▪ eC7 1 (tongue) Q 75:16 lā tuḥarrik bi-hī lisāna-ka li-taʕǧala bi-hī ‘[Prophet] do not move your tongue with it [Qur’anic verses as they are being revealed] in an attempt to hasten [your memorising] it’; 2 (language) Q 30:22 wa-min ʔāyāti-hī ḫalqu ’l-samawāti wa’l-ʔarḍi wa-’ḫtilāfu ʔalsinaẗi-kum wa-ʔalwāni-kum ‘and among His wonders are the creation of the heavens and earth, and the diversity of your languages and colours’; 3 (speech) Q 28:34 wa-ʔaḫī Hārūnu huwa ʔafṣaḥu min-nī lisānan ‘and my brother Aaron is more eloquent than me in speech’; 4 (repute) Q 19:50 wa-wahabnā la-hum min raḥmati-nā wa-ǧaʕalnā la-hum lisāna ṣidqin ʕaliyyan ‘and We granted them of Our grace, and bestowed on them high and true renown (or: We gave them a noble tongue of truthfulness)’
    ▪ Hava1899 has still also lasana u (lasan) ‘to bite s.o. in words (WKAS: to abuse, revile, give s.o. a good dressing down)’; lāsana, vb. III, ‘to contend in words with; (WKAS: to abuse, revile)’; ʔalsana, vb. IV, ‘to relate to s.o. (the words) of, send s.o. a message from s.o. else; (WKAS:) to speak to, address s.o.’; talassana, vb. V, ‘(WKAS: to be sharpened in the shape of a tongue); to flare in little tongues of flame, to blaze (fire)’; (WKAS : lisn ‘language, dialect, idiom’); milsan, n., ‘stone at the entrance of a trap’. 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928, Orel&Stolbova1994#1666, Zammit2002, Kogan2011#6.2.3.3: Akk lišānu, Ug lšn, Hbr lāšōn, Syr leššānā, Sab ls1n, Gz ləssān, Jib εls̃έn, Mhr εwšēn, Soq léšin ‘tongue’.208
    ▪ For cognates outside Sem cf. DISC below. 
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1666: From Sem *lišān- ‘tongue’ (so also Kogan2011). – All Sem cognates show a final vowel + -n. Evidence in non-Sem branches of AfrAs however makes it highly probable that Sem *-ān- is only a suffix. Thus, Berb words for ‘tongue’ are, e.g., Siwa elles and Kby iləs (< Berb *l˅s-), Eg has ns (Copt *les), WCh forms (of which some show a prefix *ḥa- and/or a suffix *-um- for body parts) are liis, leus, lis, lisi-m, lusu, ḍi-lis, ilmiši, ḍe-linsa, lim, limši, ʔalis, ʔaləs, and, last but not least, Hs halše, harše (< WCh *ḥa-lis-um-), CCh has eles, ɛlɛsi (< CCh *ʔ˅-lyas-, with prefix *ʔ˅-), ECh li-t, lesi, ʔilze, lɛ:s-ɛn, leese (< ECh *lyas-), and Omot mi-laso (Omot *mi-las-, prefix *mi-). Ultimately, all these forms go back to AfrAs *les- ‘tongue’.
    ▪ For other extensions from the root nucleus *LS- ‘tongue, to lick, bite, sting, etc.’ cf. lasaba ‘to sting (bee, scorpion)’, lasada i (lasd) ~ lasida a (lasad) ‘to lick (honey, a vessel)’, ↗lasaʕa ‘to sting (scorpion etc.)’, lasama u (lasm) ‘to taste s.th.’, lasā u (lasw) ‘to eat greedily’, as well as ↗LHS and ↗LḤS ‘to lick’.
     
    – 
    ʕalà lisānih, adv., from his mouth, through him
    ʕalà lisān al-ṣuḥuf, adv., through the organ of the press
    qīla ʕalà lisāni-hī mā…, expr., things were ascribed to him which…, he was rumored to have said things which…
    lisān rasmī, n., official organ
    mutaḥaddiṯ bi-lisān al-ḫāriǧiyyaẗ, n.f., a spokesman of the Foreign Ministry
    bi’l-lisān, lisānan, adv., orally, verbally
    dāra ʕalà ʔalsinaẗ al-ʕāmma wa’l-khāṣṣa, vb. I, expr., to be the talk of the town, be on everyone’s lips
    lisān al-ṯawr, n., borage (Borago officinalia; bot.)
    lisān al-ḥāl, n., the language which things themselves speak, silent language, mute expression (as distinguished from the spoken word); organ (of a party or political movement; a newspaper)
    wa-lisān ḥāli-hī yaqūlu, expr., adv., while he seemed to say…, with an expression as if he wanted to say
    lisān al-ḥamal, n., plantain (Plantago major L.; bot.)
    lisān al-ʕuṣfūr, n., common ash (Fraxinus excelsior; bot.)
    lisān al-qufl, n., bolt of the lock
    lisān al-qawm, n., spokesman (of a crowd)
    lisān al-kalb, n., hound’s-tongue (Cynoglossum; bot.); (eg.) also a variety of scorpion’s tail (Scorpiurus muricatus L.; bot.), having circinately coiled pods
    lisān al-miftāḥ, n., bit of the key
    ḏū lisānayn, n., double-tongued, deceitful, insincere, two-faced
    lisān markazī, n., official party organ (newspaper)
    lisān al-nār, pl. ʔalsinaẗ al-nīrān, n., tongue of flame

    lasina, a (lasan, lasānaẗ), vb. I, to be eloquent: denom.
    lassana, vb. II, to point, taper, sharpen (* s.th.): D-stem, denom.fig. (*to give s.th. the shape of a tongue, make look like a tongue)
    lasan, n., eloquence: vn. I.
    lasin and ʔalsanᵘ, f. lasnāʔᵘ, pl. lusn, adj., eloquent.
    lisānī, adj., oral, verbal: nsb-adj.; pl. lisāniyyāt, (Mor.) linguistics: n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ, pl.f.
    malsūn, n., liar: PP I (*equipped with a sharp tongue). 
    LṢː (LṢṢ) لصّ / لصص 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LṢː (LṢṢ) 
    “root” 
    ▪ LṢː (LṢṢ)_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ LṢː (LṢṢ)_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    liṣṣ لِصّ 
    ID 787 • Sw – • BP 4308 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LṢː (LṢṢ) 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    LṬF لطف 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9May2023
    √LṬF 
    “root” 
    ▪ LṬF_1 ‘to be gentle, amiable, courteous’ ↗laṭufa
    ▪ LṬF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LṬF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘gentleness, benevolence, to be amiable, be courteous, be merciful, be thin; to alleviate, caress, be obscure in meaning; discreetly’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    LẒY لظي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9May2023
    √LẒY 
    “root” 
    ▪ LẒY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LẒY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LẒY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘fire, raging fire, to burn brightly; to be mad with anger’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    LʕB لعب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LʕB 
    “root” 
    ▪ LʕB_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ LʕB_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to play, to jest, to trick; pastime, amusement; flirtatious, coquettish’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
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    laʕib‑ لَعِبَ 
    ID 788 • Sw –/112 • BP 619 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LʕB 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    LʕN لعن 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9May2023
    √LʕN 
    “root” 
    ▪ LʕN_1 ‘to curse, damn’ ↗laʕana
    ▪ LʕN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LʕN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to drive away, eject, reject; to curse, damn; to torture, imprecation; the devil; scarecrow’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    LĠ(ẗ) لغـ(ة) 
    Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | created 9Jun2023
    √LĠ(ẗ) 
    “root” 
    ▪ LĠ(ẗ)_1 ‘language’ ↗luġaẗ (arranged s.r. ↗LĠW) 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    LĠB لغب 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9May2023
    √LĠB 
    “root” 
    ▪ LĠB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LĠB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LĠB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘badly made arrow, weariness, fatigue, weak-minded person; to undertake a task tirelessly; long chase’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
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    LĠW لغو 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9May2023
    √LĠW 
    “root” 
    ▪ LĠW_1 ‘language, idiom’ ↗luġaẗ
    ▪ LĠW_2 ‘to cancel’ ↗laġà
    ▪ LĠW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to speak, language, dialect, idiom, useless idle talk, chatter, nonsense, outrageous talk; to cancel, void; to digress’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    luġaẗ لُغة 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 441 • APD … • © SG | created 9Jun2023
    √LĠẗ, LĠW 
    n.f. 
    ▪ … 
    LFː (LFF) لفّ/لفف 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9May2023
    √ LFː (LFF) 
    “root” 
    ▪ LFː (LFF)_1 ‘to wrap’ ↗laffa
    ▪ LFː (LFF)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LFː (LFF)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘(of the thighs) to be fleshy; to gather together, wrap up; large crowd of a mixture of people, thicket of trees; to stutter’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
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    LFT لفت 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LFT 
    “root” 
    ▪ LFT_1 ‘to turn to one side, look back, divert, distract; gesture’ ↗lafata
    ▪ LFT_2 ‘left-handed’ ↗ʔalfatᵘ
    ▪ LFT_3 ‘turnip’ ↗lift
    LFT_4 ‘gruel made from the white colocynth’: lafītaẗ

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to turn to one side, to turn back, to look back, to divert; to distract, to dissuade; to twist; to take care; eesture’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ LFT_1: Akk lapātu ‘to touch lightly, grasp, affect, attack,…’; (caus.) šulputu ‘to make touch, overthrow, defeat, destroy,…’ (CAD), Hbr lāpat ‘to twist, clasp, turn, grasp with twisting motion’ (Klein1987); Aram lappēt ‘to twine around, cling to, clasp’ (Zammit2002); ClassAr ʔalfatᵘ ‘strong-handed’, lafata (vn. laft) ‘to turn, roll about in the mouth; to fold; to turn from’, lafata 'l-māšiyaẗ ‘he beat the camel or sheep or goats, not caring which of them he truck’ (lufataẗ ‘s.o. who beats his camels etc., in this way’), lafata 'l-kalām ‘he sent forth, or uttered, words, without caring what might be the meaning209 ’ (Lane), lift ‘half; side, edge; inclination towards’; ? lafata (vn. laft) ‘to stir s.th. about and over’, ? lafata (vn. laft, lift) ‘to bark a tree, remove the peel/rind’
    ▪ LFT_2: Akk (stdBab) lupputu ‘damaged, soiled’; laptu, f. lapittu ‘damaged; anomalous’, liptu A ‘(handi)work, craft, creation (with ref. to human beings), touch (in the physical sense); affliction, disease; (discoloured) spot’, lipittu ‘disease, work, craft’, ClassAr (Lane vii 1885) ʔalfatᵘ ‘(he-goat) having crooked horn, having one of his horns twisted upon, or over the other (also lafat); (in the dial. of Qays) stupid, foolish, of little sense; of difficult or stubborn disposition (also: lafūt); (in the dial. of Tamīm) left-handed, who works with the left hand; (f. laftāʔᵘ) (woman) having distorted eyes’.
    ▪ LFT_3: Akk (oBab) laptu A ‘turnip’, var. reading (stdBab) liptu B ‘(a vegetable)’, postbibHbr lä̆p̄äṯ ‘turnip; vegetables eaten with bread’, Aram lip̄tā, Syr läp̄tā, lap̄tā, Ar lift ‘turnip’. – Accord. Klein1987, the nHbr ləpātît ‘Hirschfeldia (a genus of plants)’ is formed from lpt ‘to twist’ (cf. LFT_1); the author does not see it together with the lä̆p̄äṯ . – Cf. also the cognates of LFT_1? – Outside Sem: Copt (Sah) latp, (Boh) lapt, lebt ‘salt turnip, pickled turnip’. 
    ▪ LFT_1: It is difficult to decide whether ‘to touch, grasp, affect’, as in Akk, or ‘to twist, turn’, as appearing in Ar, should be regarded as the older value. I tend to regard ‘to touch, grasp, affect’ as primary, perhaps with the notion of ‘turning, twisting and overthrowing’ already included (as in Hbr). From there, the meanings (a) ‘to distract (attention), attract (the view)’ etc., prominent in MSA, as well as (b) ‘to twist’ and (c) ‘to overthrow, destroy’ can be derived. From (a) is ‘side; half’ (*attention turned away to one side, focus on the other half). From (a), (b) or (c) is LFT_2 (see below). For Ar, Gabal2012 suggests the basic value of √LFT as ‘to twist s.th., turn s.th. from one condition into another, or from one side to the other, or around it so that it sticks to it’ (layy al-šayʔ ʔaw taḥwīluh ʕan ḥāl ʔaw waǧh ʔilà ʔāḫar, ʔaw ḥawla šayʔ fa-yamtasik).
    ▪ LFT_2 is probably dependent on LFT_1, since ‘left-handed’ originally seems to be either *‘twisted, anomalous’, i.e., s.th. that is “the other way round, turned upside down”, or *‘having a focus on the one/other side’. The value ‘left-handed’ is the only meaning of ʔalfatᵘ that survived into MSA. But ClassAr, where it also can mean ‘having crooked horn’ (goat, cattle)’ and, in the dialect of Qays, ‘stupid, foolish’ or ‘of difficult or stubborn disposition’, or ‘having distorted eyes’, shows that ‘left-handed’ is only one out of a variety of meanings that developed from a more general *‘twisted, distorted, anomalous’. Cf. also the fact that ‘left-handed’, for some ClassAr lexicographers, seems to have been a specific use of the word in the dialect of the Tamīm tribe.
    ▪ For LFT_3 a Copt etymology has been suggested (Youssef2003), while the nHbr word for a similar plant is explained as derived from ‘to twist’. So, perhaps, there is a relation between LFT_3 ‘turnip’ and LFT_1 ‘to twist, turn’? This would be an interesting parallel to Engl turnip that is thought to be composed of turn (»from its shape, as though turned on a lathe«, etymonline.com) and mEngl nepe ‘turnip’. However, given the fact that there are Akk and Syr cognates, the most probable etymology is (as also put forward by Ullmann, WKAS, following Zimmern1914) that the word is of Akk or Aram origin.
    LFT_4: ClassAr lafītaẗ, described as ‘[a certain kind of gruel] made by straining water [or juice, or a decoction] of the white colocynth, then putting it into a stone cooking-pot, and cooking it until it has become thoroughly done and thickened, and then sprinkling flour upon it’ (Lane vii 1885), looks distinct from the other values, though it is unlikely that it does not belong to one of them. But how? 
    – 
    – 
    lafat‑ لَفَتَ , i (laft
    ID … • Sw – • BP 1701 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LFT 
    vb., I 
    to turn, bend, tilt, incline, direct, focus; to turn away, avert (s.th. ʕan from) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 lafata Q 10:78 qālū ʔa-ǧiʔta-nā li-talfita-nā ʕammā waǧadnā ʕalayhi ʔābāʔa-nā ‘they said, “Have you come to turn us away from that [the faith] which we found our fathers upholding?”’ – ĭltafata Q 11:81 fa-ʔasri bi-ʔahli-ka bi-qiṭʕin min-a ’l-layli wa-lā yaltafit min-kum ʔaḥad ‘so, travel with your household in the dead of night, and let none of you look behind’ 
    Akk lapātu ‘to touch lightly, grasp, affect, attack,…’; (caus.) šulputu ‘to make touch, overthrow, defeat, destroy,…’ (CAD), Hbr lāpat ‘to twist, clasp, turn, grasp with twisting motion’ (Klein1987); Aram lappēt ‘to twine around, cling to, clasp’ (Zammit2002); ClassAr ʔalfatᵘ ‘strong-handed’, lafata (vn. laft) ‘to turn, roll about in the mouth; to fold; to turn from’, lafata 'l-māšiyaẗ ‘he beat the camel or sheep or goats, not caring which of them he truck’ (lufataẗ ‘s.o. who beats his camels etc., in this way’), lafata 'l-kalām ‘he sent forth, or uttered, words, without caring what might be the meaning210 ’ (Lane), lift ‘half; side, edge; inclination towards’; ? lafata (vn. laft) ‘to stir s.th. about and over’, ? lafata (vn. laft, lift) ‘to bark a tree, remove the peel/rind’
     
    It is difficult to decide whether ‘to touch, grasp, affect’, as in Akk, or ‘to twist, turn’, as appearing in Ar, should be regarded as the older value. I tend to regard ‘to touch, grasp, affect’ as primary, perhaps with the notion of ‘turning, twisting and overthrowing’ already included (as in Hbr). From there, the meanings (a) ‘to distract (attention), attract (the view)’ etc., prominent in MSA, as well as (b) ‘to twist’ and (c) ‘to overthrow, destroy’ can be derived. From (a) is ‘side; half’ (*attention turned away to one side, focus on the other half). From (a), (b) or (c) is ‘left-handed’, etc. (↗ʔalfatᵘ). For Ar, Gabal2012 suggests the basic value of √LFT as ‘to twist s.th., turn s.th. from one condition into another, or from one side to the other, or around it so that it sticks to it’ (layy al-šayʔ ʔaw taḥwīluh ʕan ḥāl ʔaw waǧh ʔilà ʔāḫar, ʔaw ḥawla šayʔ fa-yamtasik).
     
    lafata naẓarahū ʔilà, vb. I, to turn one’s eyes or one’s attention to; to direct s.o.’s eyes to, call s.o.’s attention to.
    lafata 'l-naẓar, vb. I, to catch the eye, attract attention; to be impressive, stately, imposing.

    ʔalfata, vb. IV, = I.
    talaffata, vb. V, to turn, turn around, turn one’s face (ʔilà to); to look around, glance around; to peer around: intr.
    BP#2366ĭltafata, vb. VIII, to turn, turn around, turn one’s face (ʔilà to); to wheel around, turn around; to address o.s. (ʔilà to); to pay attention, attend (to), heed, observe, bear in mind, consider, take into account, take into consideration (ʔilà s.th.); to take care (of), care (for): T-stem of I.
    ĭstalfata, vb. X, to attract (the eyes, attention); to claim, arouse, awaken (interest, attention, min of s.o.): ST-stem of I, autobenefactive (*‘to make s.o. turn his attention to o.s.’).

    laftaẗ, n.f., turnabout, aboutface; (pl. lafatāt) turn, turning; gesture; sideglance, glance, a furtive, casual, or quick, look: n.un. of vn. I.
    lafāt and lafūt, adj., ill-tempered, surly, sullen: lit., *‘turning around, looking around very much, be unquiet’? Or closer to the complex of *‘anomalous, distorted’ treated under ↗ʔalfatᵘ ?
    ĭltifāt, n., turn, inclination, turning; attention, notice, heed; regard; consideration; care, solicitude; sudden transition (styl.): vn. VIII | bi-dūni 'l-~, adv., inattentive(ly); inconsiderate of, without consideration for; ʕadam al-~, n., inattention; naẓara ʔilayhi bi-ʕayni 'l-~, vb. I, to give s.th. sympathetic consideration.
    ĭltifātaẗ, n.f., a turning; turn of the face or eyes; sideglance, glance: n.vic. of vn. VIII.
    ĭstilfāt, n., stimulation of attention: vn. X.
    BP#2418lāfit, adj., getting attention; interesting: PA I.
    BP#3385lāfitaẗ, n.f., sign (bearing an inscription): originally a PA f., lit. *‘the turner, the thing that makes the eyes/attention turn to it’.
    mulfit: ~ al-naẓar, adj., attracting attention, striking, conspicuous: PA IV.
    multafit, adj., turning around, looking; regardful; attentive; heedful, careful; considerate: PA VIII. 
    lift لِفْت 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LFT 
    n. 
    turnip (Brassica rapa L.; bot.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    For this word, both a Copt and an Akk/Aram etymology have been suggested. See COGN and DISC below. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Akk (oBab) laptu A ‘turnip’, var. reading (stdBab) liptu B ‘(a vegetable)’ (CAD), postbibHbr lä̆p̄äṯ ‘turnip; vegetables eaten with bread’, Aram lip̄tā, Syr läp̄tā, lap̄tā, Ar lift ‘turnip’ (Klein1987). – Accord. Klein1987, the nHbr ləpātît ‘Hirschfeldia (a genus of plants)’ is formed from lpt ‘to twist’ (cf. ↗lafata); the author does not see it together with lä̆p̄äṯ ‘turnip’. – Cf. also the cognates of ↗lafata ? – Outside Sem: Copt (Sah) latp, (Boh) lapt, lebt ‘salt turnip, pickled turnip’. 
    ▪ Youssef2003 suggested that the word is borrowed from Copt lapt, latp ‘salt turnip, pickled turnip’. However, cognates can be found already in Akk from oBab onwards. Zimmern1914: 57, and after him also Ullmann, WKAS, think that Ar lift is from Akk or Aram. nHbr has ləpātît for a similar plant, but Klein1987 does not relate this to ‘turnip’ but rather explains it as derived from lpt ‘to twist’.
    ▪ Could there be a relation between ‘turnip’ and ‘to twist, turn’ (↗lafata)? This would be an interesting parallel to Engl turnip that is thought by some to be composed of turn (»from its shape, as though turned on a lathe«, etymonline.com) and mEngl nepe ‘turnip’.
    ▪ The evidence of ClassAr dictionaries does not make things clearer. Some lexicographers seem to associate the word with Egypt (a fact that would support Youssef’s suggestion of a Copt provenience), for others it is simply sounds foreign, or “Nabataen”.740
    ▪ Other meanings that the word could take in ClassAr are now obsolete and, with all likelihood, do not belong to ‘turnip’ but rather to ‘to turn aside’ (↗lafata). The value ‘half (of a thing, syn. šaqq), side (ṣiġw, ǧānib)’ seems to be derived from this notion, and the ‘cow, bull (syn. baqaraẗ)’ is probably literally the cattle *‘having crooked/twisted horn’. Still obscure remains the use of lift for ‘vulva of a lioness’ (because of its form?). 
    – 
    – 
    ʔalfatᵘ أَلْفَتُ , f. laftāʔᵘ , pl. luft 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LFT 
    adj. 
    left-handed – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Akk (stdBab) lupputu ‘damaged, soiled’; laptu, f. lapittu ‘damaged; anomalous’, liptu A ‘(handi)work, craft, creation (with ref. to human beings), touch (in the physical sense); affliction, disease; (discoloured) spot’, lipittu ‘disease, work, craft’ (CAD); ClassAr ʔalfatᵘ ‘(he-goat) having crooked horn, having one of his horns twisted upon, or over the other (also lafat); (in the dial. of Qays) stupid, foolish, of little sense; of difficult or stubborn disposition (also: lafūt); (in the dial. of Tamīm) left-handed, who works with the left hand; (f. laftāʔᵘ) (woman) having distorted eyes’ (Lane vii 1885). 
    ▪ The meaning of the elative formation ʔalfatᵘ is probably dependent on ‘to (grasp and) turn, twist, overthrow’ as preserved in Ar ↗lafata ‘to turn aside’, as ‘left-handed’ originally seems to have been either *‘twisted, anomalous’, i.e., s.th. that is “the other way round, turned upside down”, or *‘having a focus on the one/other side (to which attention has been unduely attracted)’. The value ‘left-handed’ is the only meaning of ʔalfatᵘ that survived into MSA. But ClassAr, where it also can mean ‘having crooked horn’ (goat, cattle)’ and, in the dialect of Qays, ‘stupid, foolish’ or ‘of difficult or stubborn disposition’, or ‘having distorted eyes’, shows that ‘left-handed’ is only one out of a variety of meanings that developed from a more general *‘twisted, distorted, anomalous’. Cf. also the fact that ‘left-handed’, for some ClassAr lexicographers, seems to have been a specific use of the word in the dialect of the Tamīm tribe. This may be the reason why some dictionaries, among them also WKAS, do not list the value ‘left-handed’ at all.
    ▪ Another old meaning of ʔalfatᵘ, now obsolete, is ‘strong-handed, who hoists or wrings him who strives or grapples with him’ (TA, accord. to Lane vii 1885). This can be related directly to the primary value of √LFT, namely *‘to grasp, turn down, overthrow’, cf. ↗LFT, ↗lafata
    – 
    lafāt and lafūt, adj., ill-tempered, surly, sullen: like ‘left-handed’ belonging to the complex of *‘anomalous, distorted’, or rather developed from *‘turning around, looking around very much, be unquiet, distracted’ treated under ↗lafata ?
     
    LFḤ لفح 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9May2023
    √LFḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ LFḤ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LFḤ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LFḤ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘heat of a fire, fire, glare of a fire; to scorch, burn, sear, tan; to strike lightly’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    LFẒ لفظ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9May2023
    √LFẒ 
    “root” 
    ▪ LFẒ_1 ‘to spit out; to utter, speak’ ↗lafaẓa
    ▪ LFẒ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LFẒ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to spit out, emit, cast out; to enunciate, utter, speak, utterance; to expire’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    LFW لفو 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9May2023
    √LFW 
    “root” 
    ▪ LFW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LFW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LFW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to scrape meat off bones; to find; to avoid; to put right; to eliminate’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    LQB لقب 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9May2023
    √LQB 
    “root” 
    ▪ LQB_1 ‘surname, nickname’ ↗laqab
    ▪ LQB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LQB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘surname, nickname, epithet, designation, title, to call names’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    LQḤ لقح 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9May2023
    √LQḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ LQḤ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LQḤ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LQḤ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘seed, semen, pollen, to impregnate, pollinate, become pregnant’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    LQṬ لقط 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9May2023
    √LQṬ 
    “root” 
    ▪ LQṬ_1 ‘to pick up, collect’ ↗laqaṭa, ‘foundling’ ↗laqīṭ
    ▪ LQṬ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LQṬ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to pick up from the ground, collect, glean; a find, a foundling; windfalls’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    LQF لقف 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9May2023
    √LQF 
    “root” 
    ▪ LQF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LQF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LQF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to catch up, gulp up, snatch up; to collapse, crumple’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    LQM لقم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9May2023
    √LQM 
    “root” 
    ▪ LQM_1 ‘morsel, mouthful’ ↗luqmaẗ
    ▪ LQM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LQM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to swallow, gobble up; morsel, mouthful of food, to hand-feed; to obstruct’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    LQY لقي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 9May2023
    √LQY 
    “root” 
    ▪ LQY_1 ‘to meet, encounter; to find’ ↗laqiya
    ▪ LQY_2 ‘to throw, cast’ ↗ʔalqà
    ▪ LQY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to meet, encounter, reunion; to find; to undergo, suffer, experience; to throw, cast; to give, receive, accept; to lie down’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    LMḤ لمح 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 10May2023
    √LMḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ LMḤ_1 ‘to glance, notice’ ↗lamaḥa
    ▪ LMḤ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LMḤ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to glance, notice, look furtively, twinkle, look askance; looks, features; glow of light’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    LMZ لمز 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 10May2023
    √LMZ 
    “root” 
    ▪ LMZ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LMZ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LMZ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to nudge; to poke fun at, defame, speak ill of s.o., slander, a slanderer’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    LMS لمس 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 10May2023
    √LMS 
    “root” 
    ▪ LMS_1 ‘to touch’ ↗lamasa
    ▪ LMS_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LMS_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to touch, probe; to look for, request; to become aware; to be in contact with, have sexual intercourse’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    LHB لهب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LHB 
    “root” 
    ▪ LHB_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ LHB_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘tongue of fire, flame, to blaze; radiance; to be extremely hungry, thirst’ 
    ▪ …
    ▪ …
    ▪ Kogan2011: < WS < protSem *lahb‑ , synonym of the main Sem term for ‘fire’, protSem *ʔiš(‑āt)‑, which left no traces in Ar.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘flame’) Akk laʔbu, Hbr láhaḇ, Syr (caus. šalheḇ ‘to ignite’), Gz lāhb.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ĭltihāb اِلْتِهاب 
    ID 789 • Sw – • BP 3443 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LHB 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    LHṮ لهث 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 12May2023
    √LHṮ 
    “root” 
    ▪ LHṮ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LHṮ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LHṮ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘the physical sensation of thirst, panting with thirst, panting; to loll the tongue; fatigue’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    LHM لهم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 12May2023
    √LHM 
    “root” 
    ▪ LHM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LHM_2 ‘to inspire’ ↗ʔalhama
    ▪ LHM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘gulping, glutton; inspiration, to inspire; notable person; fast horse; vast army’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ʔilhām إلْهام 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 9Jun2023
    √LHM 
    n. 
    ▪ vn., IV 
    LHW لهو 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 12May2023
    √LHW 
    “root” 
    ▪ LHW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LHW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LHW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘amusement, distraction, diversion, pastime, timewasting, to amuse o.s., have fun, distract; to turn one’s attention to; mouthful; uvula, gullet’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    LWḤ لوح 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last update 19Nov2022
    √LWḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ LWḤ_1 ‘to appear, come in sight, become visible; to shine, flash, glimmer, sparkle; to seem, appear’ ↗¹lāḥa
    ▪ LWḤ_2 ‘to wither, singe, parch, scorch; to tan’ ↗²lāḥa
    ▪ LWḤ_3 ‘board, slate, tablet, slab, plate, pane, plank, panel; shoulder blade, scapula’ ↗lawḥ; ‘plaque, surface, screen; poster; picture, painting’ ↗lawḥaẗ
    ▪ LWḤ_4 ‘program, project; bill, motion; order, decree, edict, regulation, rule’ ↗lāʔiḥaẗ

    Other values, now obsolete, include (BK1860, Lane vii 1885, Hava1899, WKAS ii):

    LWḤ_5 ‘air, atmosphere | espace entre le ciel et la terre’ : ¹lūḥ
    LWḤ_6 ‘polishing agent for mirrors’ : līḥaẗ
    LWḤ_7 ‘the lure; owl used for decoy shooting; decoy (bird)’ : milwāḥ (WKAS ii)
    LWḤ_8 ‘unfertilized eggs | œuf qui ayant été miré, est rebuté comme n’étant pas bon pour l’éclosion’ : lāḥ
    LWḤ_9 ‘thirst’ : ²lūḥ
    LWḤ_10 ‘to be afraid (min of s.o.), frightened, be on one’s guard (min against), shrink back, recoil (min from s.th.), blush (min at a word)’ : ʔalāḥa, vb. IV
    LWḤ_ ‘…’ :

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘shoulder blade, board, a slap; to be emaciated; to be tanned, to be scorched black, to be thirsty; to glitter, to appear from a distance; to wave, to brandish; to insinuate; a glance, a blink; to whip’ 
    ▪ [gnrl] There are at least three main values in the root that one will find hard to connect:
    • (a) *‘to become visible, flash’ [≙ v1];
    • (b) *‘to scorch, singe, sear, burn, parch, desiccate, wither, lose weight, get thinner’ [≙ v2]; and
    • (c) *‘board, tablet, plank; shoulder blade’ [= v3]. This is the only value that has cognates in Sem; in Ar, it may be a borrowing from Aram.
    The first two have developed a fairly high degree of differentiation in their respective semantic fields and are thus prob. rather old and genuine; all the more strange it seems that they do not seem to have counterparts in Sem (though perh. outside, in Eg). Gabal2012: 2013 suggests a derivation of all from a basic notion of *‘breadth, evenness and dryness or compactness in s.th.’, exemplarily represented in [v3] lawḥ ‘board, tablet, plank’. For, him, ‘dryness’ gave ‘thirst, desiccation, withering’, while ‘breadth’, he says, implies a higher degree of ‘visibility’. The strength of this argument would be the fact that only ‘board, tablet, plank’ seems to have a deeper Sem dimension; on the other hand, the theory appears to be rather far-fetched. Cf., however, a value of lawḥ (not mentioned by Gabal2012 but) given by ClassAr lexicographers, namely ‘tout ce qui, par sa surface plate et polie, reflète la lumière’ (BK1860) – here, s.th. with a flat, even, polished surface (as would be a ‘board, tablet, plank’) is combined with the reflexion of light, and the latter may look as if it could be derived from the former (see “a”). – Likewise, (a)[≙ v1] *‘to shine etc.’ and (b)[≙ v2] *‘to scorch, singe, sear, burn, parch, desiccate, wither, etc.’ may be connected via [v8] lāḥ ‘eggs found unsuitable for hatching after having “X-rayed” (i.e., candled) them by holding them against the sun-light’, which combines the notions of ‘shining, light’ and ‘desiccation, emaciation, shrinking (> infertility?)’ etc.
    ▪ [v1] ‘to appear, be(come) visible; to shine, flash, glimmer, sparkle; to seem, appear’: etymology obscure. An essential element in the original semantics seems to be the notion of surprise and speed. – Borg2021 suggests comparison with Eg ꜣḫ (Urk. IV, 18th Dyn.) ‘schön, herrlich, trefflich, nützlich sein | glorious, splendid’ (Brockelmann 1932: 100 | Faulkner 1962: 4); ꜣḫ.t ‘Sonnenglanz’; ꜣḫ.t (NK) ‘Auge, besonders vom Auge der Sonne’ (Wb I 13, 17). – For Gabal2012’s hypothesis (“[v1]<[v3]”), see previous paragraph. – It is tempting to regard the meaning of [v3] lawḥ ‘board, tablet, plank’ registered by ClassAr lexicographers (in the translation of BK1860) as ‘tout ce qui, par sa surface plate et polie, reflète la lumière’ as a semantic bridge that could justify the semantic transition *‘board, plank > to be(come) visible, appear’; but this would need to be corroborated by broader and more reliable evidence—after all, the semantic “bridge” may be a homogenizing construction made by lexicographers to explain diversity within the root and give it more coherence. – [v1] related to [v2] via [v8]? See above, s.v. [gnrl]. – [v1] is likely at the origin of values [v4]– [v7], perh. also [v8] – see below.
    ▪ [v2] ‘to wither, singe, parch, scorch; to tan’: etymology obscure. Semantic vicinity to [v9] ²lūḥ ‘thirst’ is obvious, but does not help either, as also the latter is without cognates in Sem and outside. In some dictionaries, ‘to thirst’ is given as the first meaning of the corresponding vb. lāḥa (Hava, Steingass, etc.). – [v10] ‘to be afraid, frightened, shrink back, blush’ could be fig. use of [v2]. – [v2] related to [v1] ‘to appear, shine, flash’ via [v8] ‘candled eggs’? See above, s.v. [gnrl] and [v1].
    ▪ [v3] ‘board, tablet, plank, etc.’: According to Jeffrey1939 borrowed from Aram lūḥā ‘id.’, but the word is widely attested in Sem (Akk, Ug, Hbr, Aram, Soq), so it may be genuine, directly from Sem *lawḥ ‘board, table, plank’. – A relation to [v1] ‘to appear, shine, flash’ has been suggested by Gabal2012 (see above, [gnrl] and [v1]), but this is little convincing. – The extended meaning ‘shoulder blade’ gave adj.s like ʔalwaḥᵘ and milwāḥ, both signifying s.o. ‘having broad bones, shoulder blades, tall’.
    ▪ [v4] ‘program, project; bill, motion; order, decree, edict, regulation, rule’: Formed on the FāʕiLaẗ pattern, lāʔiḥaẗ is evidently a PA I.f, most likely from [v1] lāḥa, thus meaning *‘the flashing one’. The connection between the modern meanings and the basic *‘becoming visible, appearing, flashing up’ becomes clear in the light of the D-stem, lawwaḥa ‘(*to let appear, let flash up >) to flourish, brandish, swing, wave, make a sign, signal’ (also with s.th. to eat or drink, to feed a child) and [v7] milwāḥ ‘lure, decoy’ (< *s.th. waved with to attract attention, lure, entice). A lāʔiḥaẗ is thus, originally, *‘s.th. flashing up, giving an idea of s.th., sketch, outline’.
    [v5] ‘air, atmosphere | espace entre le ciel et la terre’ : relation to [v1] not immediately obvious, but rather likely; perh. the layer of the air’s *‘flickering’.
    [v6] ‘polishing agent for mirrors’ : with all probability related to [v1] ‘to shine, sparkle, gleam, glisten, glitter, etc.’
    [v7] ‘the lure; owl used for decoy shooting; decoy (bird)’ : based on [v1] as *‘s.th. waved/signalled with (< made to shine, etc.) to attract attention and entice/lure s.o./s.th.’ (into a trap etc.). – Cf. D-stem lawwaḥa etc., as mentioned above, sub [v4].
    [v8] ‘unfertilized eggs | œuf qui ayant été miré, est rebuté comme n’étant pas bon pour l’éclosion’ : lāḥ : could serve as a semantic bridge betw. [v1] and [v2], since, accord. to ClassAr lexicographers, ‘unfertilized’ is rather *‘rejected as unsuitable for hatching after having “X-rayed” (candled) [the eggs] by holding [them] against the sun-light’ – here, the notions of [v1] ‘shining, light, etc.’ and [v2] ‘desiccation, emaciation, etc. (> infertility?)’ seem to overlap.
    [v9] ‘thirst’ : Alongside with the n. ²lūḥ, many dictionaries list ‘to thirst’ as one of the primary meanings of the vb. lāḥa. The value is obviously related to [v2] ‘to scorch, burn, desiccate, cause to wither, lose weight, get thinner, etc.’.
    [v10] ‘to be afraid (min of s.o.), frightened, be on one’s guard (min against), shrink back, recoil (min from s.th.), blush (min at a word)’ : ʔalāḥa is prob. fig. use of an ʔa caus. formed from the G-stem lāḥa – but which one: [v1] ↗¹lāḥa or ↗²lāḥa? If from [v1], the ‘being afraid, shrinking back, etc.’ would have to be seen as result (?) of s.th. appearing, shining up (suddenly, and hence frightening?); if from [v2], it could be interpreted as fig. use of the latter (‘to be afraid’ as ‘to wither, become thin, shrink, etc.’. Neither of the two options seems particularly convincing, as pattern IV verbs usually express caus. meaning. Nor is there a n. in sight from which it could be denominative.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ [v1] ¹lāḥa ‘to be(come) [clearly] visible, appear, emerge, come into view; to shine brightly, flash, sparkle, glint, glow, gleam, glitter, glisten (celestial bodies, fire, lamp, mirage, cloud of dust; water, butter, a spider’s web; traces left at an abandoned camp; … tracts of land, regions, paths, routes, buildings; flowers, blossoms; parts of the body; grey hair; weapons; implements, tools, materials, cloth, pieces of embroidery, jewelry, etc.; handwriting, ornaments, decorations; ship’s sails; pieces of jewelry, coins; brilliance of the morning sky, flash of lightning, thunder cloud, rainbow)’ (WKAS ii).24lawwaḥa bi’l-ʕaṣā ‘to raise a stick (upon s.o.)’, lawwaḥa ‘to feed a child (*waving with the food/drink)’ (Hava1899). – lāʔiḥaẗ ‘outward appearance, feature’ (Lane, Hava1899). – layāḥ, liyāḥ, ‘intensely, shining, glistening white; daybreak, dawn; wild bull’, ʔalwāḥ al-silāḥ ‘shining, glistening, flashing weapons’ (WKAS ii). – ʔalāḥa ‘to make a sign, wave s.th. about’ (WKAS ii). – milwaḥ ‘actively, busily waving’. – (=[v7]) milwāḥ ‘the lure; owl used for decoy shooting; decoy (bird)’ (WKAS ii). – See perh. also [v5], below. – Should also ʔalāḥa bi-ḥaqqi-h ‘to carry s.th. away, go away with, take away’ (WKAS ii) be grouped here? An underlying literal meaning of *‘to “flash up”, take s.th. and disappear with it as quickly as one showed up’ is not unconceivable.
    ▪ [v2] lāḥa (u, lawḥ, lūḥ, luwāḥ, luʔūḥ, lawaḥān) ‘to scorch, singe, sear, burn, parch, desiccate, s.o.; to cause s.o. to wither, to lose weight, to get thinner; to disfigure, to pester, harass, plague, beset (sun, midday heat; hot, dry wind; cold; grey hair, the colour black; shame, disgrace, worries, troubles) (WKAS ii); to thirst (Lane, Hava1899)’; lāḥa and lawwaḥa ‘to make s.o. lean, lank, light of flesh, slender, lank in the belly (thirst, travel, cold, illness, grief, …), alter the complexion, parch, scorch, burn, blacken; to render s.o. hoary (age)’, lawwaḥa ‘to ripen (grapes); become sick, exhausted’, lawwaḥa bi’l-nār ‘to heat s.th. in the fire’, milwaḥ, milwāḥ, milyāḥ ‘soon thirsty; slender’; lūḥ ‘thirst’ (Lane, Hava1899); lawḥaẗ ‘a scorching, singeing, parching, desiccating; a thirsting, yearning (for water)’, lawḥānᵘ ‘parched, desiccated, thirsty’, laʔiḥ ‘scorching, singeing, burning’, milwaḥ, milwāḥ ‘parched, desiccated, thirsty, emaciated’, mulawwaḥ ‘scorched, singed, burnt, parched, desiccated, withered, thin, lean, disfigured’ (WKAS ii). – Does also ʔalāḥa ‘to cause the loss of, destroy s.th.’ (Lane, Hava1899) belong here?
    ▪ [v4] Cf. also lawāʔiḥᵘ l-šayʔ ‘apparent, visible, external parts of s.th.’ (WKAS ii). lawāʔiḥᵘ is the pl. of lāʔiḥaẗ, which here clearly shows its dependence on [v1].
    [v5] lūḥ ‘airspace (above the Earth), air, ether, (blue) sky, vault of heaven’ (WKAS ii).
    [v10] : ʔalāḥa ‘to be afraid (min of s.o.), frightened, be on one’s guard, shrink back, recoil from s.th. (WKAS ii), to blush at (a word) (Lane, Hava1899)’
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ [v1] (outside Sem:) Borg2021 compares Ar lāḥa ‘to appear, shine (star), flash (lightning)’ (DaṯAr lāḥ ‘paraître, briller’, lawḥaẗ ‘apparition d’une chose’, Rwala lāḥ ‘to appear, shine, gleam, glitter, flash, sparkle’, PalAr lāḥ ‘glänzen, funkeln’, EgAr lāḥ ‘to please, be attractive’) with Eg ꜣḫ (Urk. IV, 18th Dyn.) ‘schön, herrlich, trefflich, nützlich sein | glorious, splendid’ (Brockelmann 1932: 100 | Faulkner 1962: 4); ꜣḫ.t ‘Sonnenglanz’; ꜣḫ.t (NK) ‘Auge, besonders vom Auge der Sonne’ (Wb I 13, 17). – See also below, section DISC.
    ▪ [v2] : no obvious cognates.
    ▪ [v3] : Akk lēʔu ‘(wooden) board, writing board, document, sheet of precious metal, ingot’, Ug *lḥ /lūḥu/, older /lōḥu/ ‘(Brief-)Tafel’ (only pl. lḥt attested, meaning sg. ‘letter, message’), Hbr lūᵃḥ, Aram lūḥā, Mnd luha, Soq lūḥ ‘board’, Ar lawḥ ‘board, table, tablet, plank, plate, parchment’ (> Gz lawḥ ‘id.’, luḥ ‘plank of wood, timber’, loḥa ‘to write’)
    ▪ [v4] : ↗[v1].
    [v5] : cf. prob. ↗[v1].
    [v6] : ↗[v1].
    [v7] : ↗[v1].
    [v8] : ↗[v1], perh. also ↗[v2].
    [v9] : ↗[v2].
    [v10] : ? Perh. ↗[v1].
     
    ▪ [v1] : Any connection with ↗LYQ? If so, one may want to compare (with Dolgopolsky2012 #1285): Ar liyāq ‘flamme, feu qui s’élève en flamme | blaze’; [outside Sem:) Berb *-luqq- > Gd luqq (pf. yə-luqq) ‘shine (briller)’; Gh d. imv. əmləġləg, pf. imləġləġ ‘briller’; (outside AfrAs:) IndEur *leu̯k- ‘shine’ > Grk leukós ‘light, bright; white’, Lat lux (gen. luc-is) ‘light’, Ru luč ‘ray, beam’, etc. – according to Dolgopolsky all from a hypothetical Nostr *LûḲa ‘to shine’.
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ¹lāḥ- / luḥ‑ لاحَ / لُحْـ , u (lawḥ
    ID – • Sw – • BP 3460 • APD … • © SG | 13Nov2022, last updated 20Nov2022
    √LWḤ 
    vb., I 
    1a to appear, show, loom, emerge, come in sight; b to become visible (li‑ to s.o.); c to break, begin to show (dawn); 2 to shine, gleam, glint, flash, shimmer, glimmer, sparkle; 3 to seem, appear; 4 ↗²lāḥa – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ The vb. ¹lāḥa represents one of three main values in the root ↗√LWḤ that one will find hard to connect: (a) *‘to become visible, flash’; (b) *‘to scorch, singe, sear, burn, parch, desiccate, wither, lose weight, get thinner’ (↗²lāḥa); and (c) *‘board, tablet, plank; shoulder blade’ (↗lawḥ). The latter is the only value that has cognates in Sem (although, in Ar, it may be a borrowing from Aram), which makes it tempting to assume that the other two are specifically Arabic developments from this value. However, none of the attempts to explain (a) or (b) as derivations from (c) are convincing. Moreover, both (a) and (b) show a fairly high degree of variation within their respective semantic fields, a fact that lets them appear old and genuine rather than later derivations. The semantic field belonging to ¹lāḥa spans from undoubtedly derived values, such as lawwaḥa ‘to flourish, brandish, swing, wave (bi‑ s.th.), to make a sign, signal; (fig.) to allude to, hint at’ (< *‘to let appear, make flash up’), hence also ‘to feed a child (*waving with the food/drink)’ and milwāḥ ‘lure, decoy’ (*‘s.th. waved/signalled with < made to shine, etc., to attract attention and entice/lure into a trap), līḥaẗ ‘polishing agent for mirrors’ (*‘what makes mirrors glitter’) and ↗lāʔiḥaẗ ‘program, project; bill, motion (esp., in parliament); order, decree, edict; ordinance; regulation, rule; pl. lawāʔiḥᵘ ‘outward appearance, looks, outward sign’ (< *‘s.th. flashing up, shining, giving a first idea of s.th., sketch, outline’) to less obviously related items, such as ¹lūḥ ‘airspace (above the Earth), vault of heaven’, lāḥ ‘eggs rejected as unsuitable for hatching after having “X-rayed” (candled) them by holding them against the sun-light’, and perh. also ʔalāḥa ‘to be afraid (min of s.o.), frightened, blush (min at a word)’.
    ▪ Borg2021 suggests comparison with (and derivation from?) Eg ꜣḫ (Urk. IV, 18th Dyn.) ‘schön, herrlich, trefflich, nützlich sein | glorious, splendid’ (Brockelmann 1932: 100 | Faulkner 1962: 4); ꜣḫ.t ‘Sonnenglanz’; ꜣḫ.t (NK) ‘eye, esp. eye of the sun’ (Wb I 13, 17). If this etymology is valid it could explain the high degree of variation among the derivations of ¹lāḥa and, thus, its old age as well as the fact that the Ar word is apparently without cognates in other Sem languages.
    ▪ In contrast, Gabal2012: 2013 suggests a derivation of all LWḤ values from a basic notion of *‘breadth, evenness and dryness or compactness in s.th.’, in his view exemplarily represented in ↗lawḥ ‘board, tablet, plank’. For him, ‘breadth’ implies a higher degree of ‘visibility’, so he derives (a) ‘to be(come) visible, flash up’ from (c) ‘board, tablet, plank (< *broad, even, dry, compact thing’). The strength of his argument is the fact that, among all LWḤ items, only lawḥ has a deeper Sem dimension. On the other hand, compared to Borg’s idea of an Eg influence, Gabal’s theory seems rather far-fetched. Cf., however, a value of lawḥ given by ClassAr lexicographers, namely ‘tout ce qui, par sa surface plate et polie, reflète la lumière’ (BK1860) where s.th. with a flat, even, polished surface (as would be a ‘board, tablet, plank’) is combined with the reflexion of light, and the latter may look as if it could be derived from the former. Such a derivation can look tempting, but it would certainly need to be corroborated by broader and more reliable evidence—after all, the semantic “bridge” may be a homogenizing construction made by lexicographers to explain diversity within the root and give it more coherence.
    ▪ In a similar way, a semantic bridge betw. (a) *‘to shine, appear, flash, etc.’ and (b) *‘to scorch, singe, sear, burn, parch, desiccate, wither, etc.’ (↗²lāḥa) could be the obsol. lāḥ ‘eggs found unsuitable for hatching after having “X-rayed” (i.e., candled) them by holding them against the sun-light’. This item combines the notions of ‘shining, light’ and ‘desiccation, emaciation, shrinking (> infertility?)’ etc.
    ▪ An essential element in the original semantics seems to be the notion of *surprise and *speed, or *quick passing, as in the glittering of things, the breaking through of the first sunrays at dawn, the flashing of a lightening, or sudden appearance of an idea or an image, or the sudden blushing (at a harsh word), or the waving with a decoy (letting it appear and disappear).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ The semantic field pertaining to ¹lāḥa in ClassAr can be sketched as follows: ¹lāḥa ‘to be(come) [clearly] visible, appear, emerge, come into view; to shine brightly, flash, sparkle, glint, glow, gleam, glitter, glisten (celestial bodies, fire, lamp, mirage, cloud of dust; water, butter, a spider’s web; traces left at an abandoned camp; … tracts of land, regions, paths, routes, buildings; flowers, blossoms; parts of the body; grey hair; weapons; implements, tools, materials, cloth, pieces of embroidery, jewelry, etc.; handwriting, ornaments, decorations; ship’s sails; pieces of jewelry, coins; brilliance of the morning sky, flash of lightning, thunder cloud, rainbow)’;25 lawāʔiḥᵘ l-šayʔ ‘apparent, visible, external parts of s.th.’ (WKAS ii). – lawwaḥa bi’l-ʕaṣā ‘to raise a stick (upon s.o.)’, lawwaḥa ‘to feed a child (*waving with the food/drink)’ (Hava1899). – lāʔiḥaẗ ‘outward appearance, feature’ (Lane, Hava1899). – layāḥ ~ liyāḥ, ‘intensely, shining, glistening white; daybreak, dawn; wild bull’, ʔalwāḥ al-silāḥ ‘shining, glistening, flashing weapons’ (WKAS ii). – ʔalāḥa ‘to make a sign, wave s.th. about’ (WKAS ii). – milwaḥ ‘actively, busily waving’. – milwāḥ ‘the lure; owl used for decoy shooting; decoy (bird)’ (WKAS ii). – lūḥ ‘airspace (above the Earth), air, ether, (blue) sky, vault of heaven’ (WKAS ii). – Perh. also ʔalāḥa bi-ḥaqqi-h ‘to carry s.th. away, go away with, take away’ (WKAS ii), and ʔalāḥa ‘to be afraid (min of s.o.), frightened, be on one’s guard, shrink back, recoil from s.th. (WKAS ii), to blush at (a word) (Lane, Hava1899)’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ (outside Sem:) Borg2021 compares Ar lāḥa ‘to appear, shine (star), flash (lightning)’ (DaṯAr lāḥ ‘paraître, briller’, lawḥaẗ ‘apparition d’une chose’, Rwala lāḥ ‘to appear, shine, gleam, glitter, flash, sparkle’, PalAr lāḥ ‘glänzen, funkeln’, EgAr lāḥ ‘to please, be attractive’) with Eg ꜣḫ (Urk. IV, 18th Dyn.) ‘schön, herrlich, trefflich, nützlich sein | glorious, splendid’ (Brockelmann 1932: 100 | Faulkner 1962: 4); ꜣḫ.t ‘Sonnenglanz’; ꜣḫ.t (NK) ‘Auge, besonders vom Auge der Sonne’ (Wb I 13, 17).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Any connection with ↗LYQ? If so, one may want to compare (with Dolgopolsky2012 #1285): Ar liyāq ‘flamme, feu qui s’élève en flamme | blaze’ (↗√LYQ); (outside Sem:) Berb *-luqq- > Gd luqq (pf. yə-luqq) ‘shine (briller)’; Gh d. imv. əmləġləg, pf. imləġləġ ‘briller’; (outside AfrAs:) IndEur *leu̯k- ‘shine’ > Grk leuk-ós ‘light, bright; white’, Lat lux (gen. luc-is) ‘light’, Ru luč ‘ray, beam’, etc. – according to Dolgopolsky all from a hypothetical Nostr *LûḲa ‘to shine’.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    yalūḥu lī ʔanna…, it seems to me that…;
    ʕalà mā yalūḥu, as it seems, apparently

    BP#4027lawwaḥa, vb. II, 1a to make a sign, beckon, wave (bi‑, ʔilà or li- to s.o. with); b to signal; 2 to allude (bi- to), hint (bi- at), intimate, insinuate, give to understand; 3 to flourish, brandish, swing, wave (bi‑ s.th.); 4 ↗²lāḥa; 5lawḥ, ↗lawḥaẗ: D-stem, caus.| lawwaḥa bi-yaday-hi, to wave with the hands
    ʔalāḥa, vb. IV, 1 to appear, show, come in sight; 2 to shimmer, glimmer, glint, flash, sparkle; 3 to wave, brandish, flourish, swing (s.th.): *Š-stem, denom.(?)

    talwīḥ, pl. -āt, n., 1 beckoning, waving, flourishing, brandishing; 2a sign, signal, wink, wave; b allusion; c hint, intimation, insinuation; 3 metonymy; 4 pl. a hints, references; b remarks, annotations, marginal notes: vn. II
    BP#2361lāʔiḥaẗ, pl. ‑āt, lawāʔiḥᵘ, 1 program, project; 2 bill, motion (esp., in parliament); 3a order, decree, edict; b ordinance; c regulation, rule; 4 pl. lawāʔiḥᵘ, outward appearance, looks, outward sign: PA I.f. | see ↗s.v.
    mulawwiḥaẗ, n.f., signal, semaphore (railroad): nominalized PA II

    For other values attached to the root, cf., ↗²lāḥa, ↗lawḥ, ↗lawḥaẗ, and ↗lāʔiḥaẗ as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√LWḤ.

     
    ²lāḥ- / luḥ‑ لاحَ / لُحْـ , u (lawḥ
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 13Nov2022, last updated 21Nov2022
    √LWḤ 
    vb., I 
    13 ↗¹lāḥa; 4a to wither, singe, parch, scorch; b to tan (‑h s.o.; sun) – WehrCowan1979
     
    ▪ The vb. ²lāḥa represents one of three main values in the root ↗√LWḤ that one will find hard to connect: (a) *‘to become visible, flash’ (↗¹lāḥa); (b) *‘to scorch, singe, sear, burn, parch, desiccate, wither, lose weight, get thinner’; and (c) *‘board, tablet, plank; shoulder blade’ (↗lawḥ). The latter is the only value that has cognates in Sem (although, in Ar, it may be a borrowing from Aram), which makes it tempting to assume that the other two are specifically Arabic developments from this value. However, none of the attempts to explain (a) or (b) as derivations from (c) are convincing. Moreover, both (a) and (b) show a fairly high degree of variation within their respective semantic fields, a fact that lets them appear old and genuine rather than later derivations. The semantic field belonging to ²lāḥa spans from undoubtedly related values, such as ²lūḥ ‘thirst’,146 lāḥa and lawwaḥa ‘to alter the complexion; to render s.o. hoary (age)’, lawwaḥa ‘to ripen (grapes); become sick, exhausted’, milwaḥ ~ milwāḥ ~ milyāḥ ‘soon thirsty; slender’ to less obviously related items, such as lāḥ ‘eggs rejected as unsuitable for hatching after being “X-rayed” (candled), held against the sun-light’ (?< *infertility = withering, shrinking), and perh. also ʔalāḥa ‘to be afraid (min of s.o.), frightened, blush (min at a word)’ (?< *to shrink, wither etc. on experiencing fear) and ʔalāḥa ‘to cause the loss of, destroy s.th.’ (Lane, Hava1899).
    ▪ Should one consider the possibility of ²lāḥa < ↗¹lāḥa? A ‘scorching, singeing, parching, desiccating, withering, etc.’ could possibly be the result of a ‘gleaming, glittering, flashing, shining (too intensely)’; but such a relation does not seem to be very likely and would still have to be corroborated by evidence that would make it more convincing. For the time being, the only lexical item that appears to combine both notions and thus could serve as a semantic “bridge” between the two is the obsol. lāḥ ‘eggs found unsuitable for hatching’, where their condition of ‘desiccation, emaciation, shrinking (> infertility?)’ ‘appears, becomes visible’ on holding them against the sun-light (candling).
    ▪ …
     
    lāḥa (u, lawḥ, lūḥ, luwāḥ, luʔūḥ, lawaḥān) ‘to scorch, singe, sear, burn, parch, desiccate, s.o.; to cause s.o. to wither, to lose weight, to get thinner; to disfigure, to pester, harass, plague, beset (sun, midday heat; hot, dry wind; cold; grey hair, the colour black; shame, disgrace, worries, troubles) (WKAS ii); to thirst (Lane, Hava1899)’; lāḥa and lawwaḥa ‘to make s.o. lean, lank, light of flesh, slender, lank in the belly (thirst, travel, cold, illness, grief, …), alter the complexion, parch, scorch, burn, blacken; to render s.o. hoary (age)’, lawwaḥa ‘to ripen (grapes); become sick, exhausted’, lawwaḥa bi’l-nār ‘to heat s.th. in the fire’, milwaḥ, milwāḥ, milyāḥ ‘soon thirsty; slender’; lūḥ ‘thirst’ (Lane, Hava1899); lawḥaẗ ‘a scorching, singeing, parching, desiccating; a thirsting, yearning (for water)’, lawḥānᵘ ‘parched, desiccated, thirsty’, laʔiḥ ‘scorching, singeing, burning’, milwaḥ, milwāḥ ‘parched, desiccated, thirsty, emaciated’, mulawwaḥ ‘scorched, singed, burnt, parched, desiccated, withered, thin, lean, disfigured’ (WKAS ii). – Prob. also ʔalāḥa ‘to cause the loss of, destroy s.th.’ (Lane, Hava1899). – Perh. also ʔalāḥa ‘to be afraid (min of s.o.), frightened, be on one’s guard, shrink back, recoil from s.th.’ (WKAS ii).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ no obvious cognates, neither in Sem nor outside.
    ▪ If related to ¹lāḥa, see ↗s.v.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    lawwaḥa, vb. II, 1-3 ↗¹lāḥa; 4a to turn grey (the head; of old age); b to burn, tan (s.o.; sun); 5lawḥ, lawḥaẗ, lāʔiḥaẗ: D-stem, caus.
    lawwāḥ, adj., withering, singeing, parching, scorching: ints. formation, pattern Faʕʕāl
    multāḥ, adj., sun-tanned, sunburned: PA/PP VIII

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹lāḥa, ↗lawḥ, ↗lawḥaẗ, and ↗lāʔiḥaẗ as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√LWḤ.

     
    lawḥ لَوْح , pl. ʔalwāḥ, lawāʔiḥᵘ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 13Nov2022, last updated 21Nov2022
    √LWḤ 
    n. 
    1a board, blackboard; b slate; c tablet; d slab; 2 plate, sheet; 3a pane; b plank, board; c panel; d small board, signboard; 4 shoulder blade, scapula – WehrCowan1976
     
    lawḥ represents one of at least three main values found in the root ↗LWḤ: (a) *‘to become visible, flash’ (↗¹lāḥa); (b) *‘to scorch, singe, sear, burn, parch, desiccate, wither, lose weight, get thinner’ (↗²lāḥa); and (c) *‘board, tablet, plank; shoulder blade’. The latter is the only value that has cognates in Sem.
    ▪ According to Jeffrey1938, the word is borrowed from Aram lūḥā ‘id.’, but it is widely attested in Sem (Akk, Ug, Hbr, Aram, Soq – see below, section COGN), so it may be genuine, directly from Sem *lawḥ ‘board, table, plank’. (Pennacchio2014: 126 tends to agree with Jeffrey, though.)
    ▪ ClassAr lexicographers see lawḥ related to ↗¹lāḥa ‘to become visible, flash’ as it can also mean (in the translation of BK1860) ‘tout ce qui, par sa surface plate et polie, reflète la lumière’, assuming a semantic transition *‘board, plank > to be(come) visible, appear’; but this would need to be corroborated by broader and more reliable evidence—after all, the semantic “bridge” may be a homogenizing construction made by lexicographers to explain diversity within the root and give it more coherence.
    ▪ In a similar vein, Gabal2012: 2013 suggested a derivation of all values in √LWḤ from a basic notion of *‘breadth, evenness and dryness or compactness in s.th.’, which he saw exemplarily represented in lawḥ ‘board, tablet, plank’ (accord. to him the * ‘broad, even, dry and compact thing’). (The aspect of *‘breadth’ then gave, ‘visibility’, and the element of ‘dryness’ gave ‘thirst, desiccation, withering’, etc.). – A strength of this argument is the fact that only ‘board, tablet, plank’ seems to have a deeper Sem dimension; on the other hand, the theory appears to be rather far-fetched.
    ▪ The meaning ‘shoulder blade’ is prob. a semantic extension rather than the original value, as the Sem cognates do not include it.
    ▪ … 
    eC7 Q 7:145, 150, 154; 54:13; 85:22. – Jeffrey1938: »There are two distinct uses of the word in the Qurʔān. In 54:13, it is used for the ‘planks’ of Noah’s ark, and elsewhere for ‘tablets’ of revelation, in Sura 7 for the tablets of Moses, and in 85:22 for the heavenly archetype of the Qurʔān.«
    ▪ The (prob. extended) value ‘shoulder blade’ gave adj.s like ʔalwaḥᵘ and milwāḥ, both signifying s.o. ‘having broad bones, shoulder blades, tall’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Akk lēʔu ‘(wooden) board, writing board, document, sheet of precious metal, ingot’, Ug *lḥ /lūḥu/, older /lōḥu/ ‘(Brief-)Tafel’ (only pl. lḥt attested, meaning sg. ‘letter, message’), Hbr lūᵃḥ, Aram lūḥā, Mnd luha, Soq lūḥ ‘board’, Ar lawḥ ‘board, table, tablet, plank, plate, parchment’ (> Gz lawḥ ‘id.’, luḥ ‘plank of wood, timber’, loḥa ‘to write’)
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Jeffrey1938: »In the related languages we find both these meanings [‘planks’ and ‘tablets’]. The Hbr lūᵃḥ means both the ‘planks’ of a ship (as in Ez. xxvii, 5), and the ‘stone tablets’ of the Ten Commandments (Ex. xxiv, 12). Similarly, Aram lūḥā can mean a ‘table’ for food, or, as constantly in the Targums, the ‘tablets’ of the Covenant, so Syr lūḥā is used of a ‘wooden board’, e.g. the títlos affixed to the Cross, and for the ‘tablets’ of the Covenant. Also the Eth [Gz] lawḥ, though not a common word, is used for the broken ‘boards’ on which Paul and his companions escaped from shipwreck in Acts xxvii, 44 (ed. Rom.), and also for ‘writing tablets’ of wood, metal, or stone. / In the early Arabic poetry we find the word used only in the sense of ‘plank’, cf. Ṭarafa iv, 12; Imruʔ al-Qays, x, 13, and Zuhayr, i, 23 (in Ahlwardt’s Divans),741 and the Lexicons take this as the primitive meaning. The word may be a loan-word in both senses, but even if a case could be made out for its being a genuine Ar word in the sense of ‘plank’, there can be no doubt that as used for the ‘Tables of Revelation’ it is a borrowing from the older faiths. Hirschfeld, Beiträge, 36, would have it derived from the Hbr, but Horovitz, KU, 66; JPN, 220, 221, is more likely to be correct742 in considering it as from the Aram, though whether from Jewish or Christian sources it is difficult to say. / If we can trust the genuineness of a verse of Sarāqaẗ b. ʕAwf in Aġānī, xv, 138, which refers to Muḥammad’s revelations as ʔalwāḥ we may judge that the word was used in this technical sense among Muḥammad’s contemporaries.« -- Cf., however, above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    lawḥ ʔarduwāz, n., slab of slate, slate;
    lawḥ muǧaʕqad, n., corrugated iron;
    lawḥ al-ǧalīd, n., block of ice;
    lawḥ ḥadīd, n., sheet iron;
    lawḥ zuǧāǧ, n., sheet of glass, pane;
    al-lawḥ al-maḥfūẓ, n., (Q 85:22) the Preserved/Guarded Tablet whereon are said to be inscribed all the divine decrees; the depository of the decrees, or willed events, ordained by God;
    lawḥ mutaḥarrik, n., spring board (in sports);
    lawḥ maʕdinī, n., metal plate, metal sheet;
    lawḥ al-nāfiḏaẗ, n., windowpane

    lawwaḥa, vb. II, 1-3 ↗¹lāḥa; 4 ↗²lāḥa; 5 to plank, lay with planks (the floor): D-stem, denom. from lawḥ and/or ↗lawḥaẗ
    BP#1276lawḥaẗ, pl. -āt, lawāʔiḥᵘ, n.f., 1a board; b blackboard; c slate; d tablet; e slab; 2a plate, sheet; b pane; c panel; 3 plaque; 4 plane, surface; 5 screen; 6a placard, poster; b picture, painting: f. of lawḥᵘ | ↗s.v.

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹lāḥa, ↗²lāḥa, ↗lawḥaẗ, and ↗lāʔiḥaẗ as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√LWḤ.

     
    lawḥaẗ لَوْحة , pl. -āt, lawāʔiḥᵘ 
    ID 790 • Sw – • BP 1276 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 21Nov2022
    √LWḤ 
    n.f. 
    1a board; b blackboard; c slate; d tablet; e slab; 2a plate, sheet; b pane; c panel; 3 plaque; 4 plane, surface; 5 screen; 6a placard, poster; b picture, painting – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ The f. word lawḥaẗ seems to be, originally, a singulative (n.un.) coined from ↗lawḥ. Semantics of lawḥ and lawḥaẗ are still largely overlapping, but lawḥaẗ has also developed a number of own specific values.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ ↗lawḥ
    ▪ … 
    ▪ ↗lawḥ
    ▪ … 
    – 
    lawḥaẗ al-ĭsm, doorplate, name plate;
    lawḥaẗ al-tawzīʕ, switchboard (el., tel.);
    lawḥaẗ al-dāmā, checkerboard;
    lawḥaẗ zaytiyyaẗ, oil painting;
    lawḥaẗ sawdāʔ, blackboard; bulletin board;
    lawḥaẗ al-šaṭranǧ, chessboard;
    lawḥaẗ al-kitābaẗ, slate; writing tablet; blackboard

    lawwaḥa, vb. II, 1-3 ↗¹lāḥa; 4 ↗²lāḥa; 5 to plank, lay with planks (the floor): D-stem, denom. from ↗lawḥ or lawḥaẗ

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹lāḥa, ↗²lāḥa, ↗lawḥ, and ↗lāʔiḥaẗ as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√LWḤ.

     
    lāʔiḥaẗ لائحة , pl. ‑āt, lawāʔiḥᵘ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP 2361 • APD … • © SG | 13Nov2022, last updated 21Nov2022
    √LWḤ 
    n.f. 
    1 program, project; 2 bill, motion (esp., in parliament); 3a order, decree, edict; b ordinance; c regulation, rule; 4 pl. lawāʔiḥᵘ, outward appearance, looks, outward sign – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ Formed on the FāʕiLaẗ pattern, lāʔiḥaẗ is evidently a PA I.f, most likely from ↗¹lāḥa ‘to appear, be(come) visible; to shine, flash, glimmer, sparkle; to seem, appear’, thus originally meaning *‘the flashing one’. The connection between the modern meanings and the basic *‘becoming visible, appearing, flashing up’ becomes clear in the light of the D-stem, lawwaḥa ‘(*to let appear, let flash up >) to flourish, brandish, swing, wave, make a sign, signal’ (also with s.th. to eat or drink, to feed a child) and milwāḥ ‘lure, decoy’ (< *s.th. waved with to attract attention, lure, entice). A lāʔiḥaẗ is thus, originally, *‘s.th. flashing up, letting appear an idea of s.th., a sketch, an outline of it’, a draft giving a first idea.
    ▪ …
     
    lāʔiḥaẗ ‘outward appearance, feature’ (Lane, Hava1899), pl. lawāʔiḥᵘ l-šayʔ ‘apparent, visible, external parts of s.th.’ (WKAS ii).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ↗¹lāḥa
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    lāʔiḥaẗ qānūniyyaẗ, lāʔiḥaẗ al-qānūn, n.f., bill, draft law;
    lāʔiḥaẗ al-safar, timetable, train schedule, railroad guide;
    lāʔiḥaẗ al-ṭaʕām (SyrAr) menu, bill of fare

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹lāḥa, ↗²lāḥa, ↗lawḥ, and ↗lawḥaẗ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√LWḤ.

     
    LWḎ لوذ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 12May2023
    √LWḎ 
    “root” 
    ▪ LWḎ_1 ‘to take refuge, resort to’ ↗lāḏa (bi )
    ▪ LWḎ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LWḎ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to take refuge, resort to, keep close to, fortress; to evade, move furtively; to approximate’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    LWZ لوز 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LWZ 
    “root” 
    ▪ LWZ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ LWZ_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ For Engl lozenge, cf. perh. Ar ↗lawz
    – 
    lawz لَوْز 
    ID 791 • Sw – • BP 5404 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LWZ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ From eAram *lawz‑ ‘almond (tree)’ – Huehnergard2011.
    … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl lozenge, perh. ultimately from eAram *lawz‑ ‘almond (tree)’, cf. Ar ↗lawz
     
    LWM لوم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 12May2023
    √LWM 
    “root” 
    ▪ LWM_1 ‘to blame’ ↗lāma
    ▪ LWM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LWM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to blame, censure, rebuke, be deserving of blame; to linger; need; hardship; person, silhouette’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    LWN لون 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LWN 
    “root” 
    ▪ LWN_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ LWN_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘colour, to colour; types, species; to be changeable, to be capricious; to be hypocritical’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    lawn لَوْن 
    ID 792 • Sw – • BP 498 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LWN 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    LWY لوي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 12May2023
    √LWY 
    “root” 
    ▪ LWY_1 ‘to twist, intertwine, bend’ ↗lawà
    ▪ LWY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LWY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to twist, intertwine, bend, coil up; to tarry; to wither away; to dispute hotly; banner’ 
    ▪ From protSem *√LWY ‘to wind, twist, circle, encircle’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    – 
    LYL ليل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LYL 
    “root” 
    ▪ LYL_1 ‘night’ ↗layl
    ▪ LYL_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘night, night-time, one night, to enter night-time’ 
    ▪ LYL_1 : (Kogan2015 Sw#60:) from protSem *layliy‑ ‘night’ (CDG 314). Passim except Akk and modSAr.
    ▪ LYL_2 : …
    ▪ LYL_3 : …
     
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    layl لَيْل 
    ID 793 • Sw 92/105 • BP 392 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LYL 
    n.coll. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2015 (Sw#60): from protSem *layliy‑ ‘night’ (CDG 314). Passim except Akk and modSAr.
    ▪ …
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘night’) Akk līlātu ‘evening’, Hbr laylā, Syr lelyā, Gz lēlī́t.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    laylaẗ لَيْلَة 
    ID 794 • Sw –/105 • BP 518 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √LYL 
    n.f.un. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    LYN لين 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 12May2023
    √LYN 
    “root” 
    ▪ LYN_1 ‘to be soft, tender, mild’ ↗lāna
    ▪ LYN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ LYN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be soft, be tender, be mild; to be amiable, be lenient, relax, become at ease; to be affluent, ease of living; kind of palm tree’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    mīm ميم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ 
    R₁ 
    The letter m of the Arabic alphabet. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    مأ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √Mʔ 
    “root” 
    ▪ Mʔ_1 ‘hundred’ ↗miʔaẗ
    ▪ Mʔ_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ Mʔ_3 ‘…’ ↗

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): [√MʔY] ‘to exaggerate, to grow (said of trees), to come into leaf, to become enlarged; to backbite; to mow; the number ‘hundred’ 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    … 
    miʔaẗ مِئة / مائة , pl. muʔūn, miʔāt 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 244 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √Mʔ 
    n.card. 
    hundred – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘hundred’) Akk meʔatu, Hbr mēʔā, Syr , Gz meʔét.
     
    … 
    … 
    fī ’l‑miʔaẗ, bi’l‑miʔaẗ, adv., per cent

    miʔawī, var. miʔīnī, adj., centesimal, centigrade; percentile, percentual: nisba formation | ʕīd miʔawī, n., 100th anniversary, centennial; nisbaẗ miʔawiyyaẗ\miʔīniyyaẗ, n.f., percentage; daraǧaẗ miʔawiyyaẗ, n.f., centigrade (thermometer)
     
    MʔǦǦ مأجج 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 13May2023
    √MʔǦǦ 
    “root” 
    ▪ MʔǦǦ_1 ‘Magog’ ↗maʔǧūǧ 
    ▪ [v1] : see ↗maʔǧūǧ 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    Maʔǧūǧᵘ مَأْجوجُ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 13May2023
    √MʔǦǦ 
    n.pr. 
    Magog (Q 18:94 and Q 21:96) 
    ▪ ‘Gog and Magog’ (Yaʔǧūǧᵘ wa-Maʔǧūǧᵘ) are thought by many commentators to be Mongol or Tatar tribes of Central Asia (cf. Eze. 38-39 and Rev. 20:8) – BAH2008. 
    ▪ ec7 Q 18:94 qālū yā-ḏā ’l-qarnayni ʔinna yaʔǧūǧa wa-maʔǧūǧa mufsidūna fī ’l-ʔarḍi fa-hal naǧʕalu la-ka ḫarǧan ʕalā ʔan taǧʕala bayna-nā wa-bayna-hum saddan ‘They said: O Dhu’l-Qarneyn! Lo! Gog and Magog are spoiling the land. So may we pay thee tribute on condition that thou set a barrier between us and them? | Q 21:95-96 wa-ḥarāmun ʕalā qaryaẗin ʔahlaknā-hā ʔanna-hum lā yarǧiʕūna [96] ḥattā ʔiḏā futiḥat yaʔǧūǧu wa-maʔǧūǧu wa-hum min kulli ḥadabin yansilūna ‘And there is a ban upon any community which We have destroyed: that they shall not return. [96] Until, when Gog and Magog are let loose, and they hasten out of every mound’ 
    – 
    – 
    mās ماس 
    ID 795 • Sw – • BP 6902 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MĀS 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    māʕūn ماعُون 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Jun2023
    √MʕN, ʕWN, MāʕūN
     
    n. 
    help – Jeffery1938 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q cvii, 7 – Jeffery1938.
     
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »This curious word occurs only in an early Meccan Sūra, though v, 7, is possibly Madinan (cf. Nöldeke-Schwally, i, 93), and the Commentators could make nothing of it. The usual theory is that it is a form fāʕūl from maʕana, though some derived it from ʕāna. / Nöldeke, Neue Beiträge, 28, shows that it cannot be explained from Ar material,743 and that we must look for its origin to some foreign source. Geiger, 58,744 would derive it from Hbr māʕôn ‘a refuge’, which is possible but not without its difficulties. Rhodokanakis, WZKM, xxv, p. 67, agrees that it is from Hbr but coming under the influence of maʕūnaẗ (cf. Aram mʔnʔ, Syr mʔnā), developed the meaning of ‘benefit, help’.745 «
     
    – 
    – 
    MTʕ متع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 13May2023
    √MTʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ MTʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MTʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MTʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be(come) strong, be forceful; to advance (said of daytime), attain or to be granted longevity; to be extremely good, benefit s.o., to enjoy; commodities, provisions, livelihood; household equipment; memento; modest living; pmyose’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    MTN متن 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 13May2023
    √MTN 
    “root” 
    ▪ MTN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MTN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MTN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘back of an animal; to be strong, be firm; heights; the main part, the middle of the road; ropes holding a tent; to be remote; to hotly oppose in a debate’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    MṮL مثل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MṮL 
    “root” 
    ▪ MṮL_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ MṮL_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘similarity, to resemble, to imitate, to liken, statue, to stand for, to emulate; to appear, to materialise, to submit, proof; amount; example, a saying, parable; measure; to recover, to become good, the best; to mutilate, to maim, punishment, retribution’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘to resemble, equal’) Akk mšl (i), Hbr mšl (n-stem), Syr mtl a (u) ‘to compare’, Gz msl –/a (a).
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    maṯal مَثَل 
    ID 796 • Sw – • BP 350 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MṮL 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    tamṯīl تَمْثيل 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 2338 • APD … • © SG | created 9Jun2023
    √MṮL 
    n. 
    ▪ vn., II 
    MṮN مثن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MṮN 
    “root” 
    ▪ MṮN_1 ‘urinary bladder’ ↗maṯānaẗ
    ▪ MṮN_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ MṮN_3 ‘…’ ↗ 
    ▪ MṮN_1 : Given the cognates in other Sem languages, it is to be assumed that the initial ma‑ in maṯānaẗ is just a regular prefix to a root *ṮWN/ṮYN which does no longer exist in Ar.
    ▪ MṮN_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ MṮN_3 ‘…’ ↗ 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    … 
    maṯānaẗ مَثانة , pl. ‑āt 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √*MṮN, ṮWN/ṮYN 
    n.f. 
    (urinary) bladder – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Given the cognates in other Sem languages, it is to be assumed that the initial ma‑ in maṯānaẗ is just a regular prefix to a root *ṮWN/ṮYN which does no longer exist in Ar.
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘urine’) Akk šīnāti, Hbr šáyin, Syr tīnā, Gz šent.
     
    See above, section CONC. 
    … 
    … 
    MǦD مجد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 13May2023
    √MǦD 
    “root” 
    ▪ MǦD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MǦD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MǦD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to feed on plentiful luscious pasturage; to be of good stock, be exalted, be glorified; splendour, glory’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    maǧd مَجْد , pl. ʔamǧād 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 2326 • APD … • © SG | 5Nov2022
    √MǦD 
    n. 
    1 glory; 2 splendor, magnificence, grandeur; 3 nobility, honor, distinction – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ From protCSem *magd- ‘excellence’, prob. to be analyzed as composed of an old ma-prefix derivate from the protWSem biconsonantal element *GD ‘to be good, lucky, excellent’, cf. also ↗ǦDː(ǦDD)_2 ‘to be good, approvable, excellent’ (incl. ↗²ǧadd ‘good luck, good fortune’) and ↗ǦWD ‘to be good, approvable, excellent’ – Kogan2015: 193 #37.
    ▪ … ▪ …
    ▪ …– 
    ▪ …
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Hbr gad ‘fortune’, Ar ǧadd- ‘good fortune’, ǧwd ‘to be good, approvable, excellent’, Sod gud ‘wonderful, marvelous, splendid’ (also in most of the other modern EthSem languages) Kogan2015: 193 #37.
     
    ▪ … ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    maǧad-, u (maǧd), and maǧud-, u (maǧādaẗ), vb. I, to be glorious, illustrious, exalted: G-stem, denom. (?)
    maǧǧada, vb. II, and ʔamǧada, vb. IV, to praise, extol, laud, glorify, celebrate: D- and *Š-stem, respectively, both (denom.?) caus.
    tamaǧǧada, vb. V, 1 to be extolled, be glorified, be lauded, be praised; 2 to boast, glory: tD-stem, self-ref.

    maǧdī, adj., laudable, praiseworthy, glorious: nsb-adj.
    BP4467maǧīd, adj., 1 glorious, illustrious; 2a celebrated, famous; b glorified, exalted; c praiseworthy, laudable, admirable, excellent, splendid; 3 noble: quasi-PP I | al-Qurʔān al-maǧīd, the Koran
    maǧīdī, 1 n., medjidie, a Turkish silver coin of 20 piasters coined under Sultan ʕAbdülmecīd; 2 adj., (of money) Turkish: nsb-formation, from (Sultan ʕAbd al-) Maǧīd
    ʔamǧād, n.pl., people of rank, distinguished people: nominalized pl. of maǧīd
    ʔamǧadᵘ, pl. ʔamāǧidᵘ, 1 more glorious, more illustrious; 2 more distinguished: elat. formation
    tamǧīd, n., praise, glorification, exaltation, idolization: vn. II
     
    MǦS مجس 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 11Apr2023
    √MǦS 
    “root” 
    ▪ MǦS_1 ‘Zoroastrians, Magians’ ↗maǧūs
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    al-maǧūs الـ) مَجُوس) 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 11Apr2023, last updated 21Apr2023
    √MǦS, MǦūS 
    n. 
    Magi, adherent of Mazdaism – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ Cheung2017rev: ultimately of Ir origin, but prob. borrowed indirectly, via Syr mgušā or (Emp)Aram *magūš ‘id.’ < oPers maguš ‘Magian priest’. For details, see below, section DISC.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q 22:17 ʔinna ’llaḏīna ʔāmanū wa-’llaḏīna hādū wa-’l-ṣābiʔīna wa-’l-naṣārā wa-’l-maǧūsa wa-’llaḏīna ʔašrakū ʔinna ’llāha yafṣilu bayna-hum yawma ’l-qiyāmaẗi ‘Lo! those who believe (this revelation), and those who are Jews, and the Sabaeans and the Christians and the Magians and the idolaters – Lo! Allah will decide between them on the Day of Resurrection’. 
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »They [the Magians, or Zoroastrians] are mentioned in a late Madinan verse along with Jews, Christians, and Sabians. – The early authorities know that the sun-worshippers are meant, and it was early recognized that it was a foreign word.746 Ibn Sīda and others derived the word from manǧ said to mean qaṣīr [small] and kūš said to mean al-ʔuḏun [ear], and tell us that it referred to a man manǧ kūš, so called because of the smallness of his ears, who was the first to preach the Magian faith.747 Others, however, knew that it was derived from the Iranian Magush (LA, viii, 99). – It is clearly the oPers Magush,748 with the acc. form of which, magum, we can compare the Av magav or moγu749 and Phlv maγōī. 750 From Av ??? come the Arm mog,751 and Hbr māg, as well as the modPers moġ.752 In Phlv we also find a form magōšīā,753 derived directly from the oPers, and this appears in the Aram ʔmgwšʔ, Grk mágos,754 Syr mgwšā and the mgwš of the Aram of the Behistun inscription.755 – Lagarde, GA, 159, would derive maǧūs from the Grk mágos, and though Vollers, ZDMG, li, 303, follows him in this there is little to be said in its favour. The word was well known in pre-Islamic days and occurs in the old poetry,756 and so may quite well have come direct from mPers, though it is also a possibility that it may have come through Syr.757 « 
    ▪ Cf. Engl magi, sg. magus) ‘skilled magicians, astrologers’, »c. 1200, from Lat magi, pl. of magus ‘magician, learned magician’, from Grk magos, a word used for the Pers learned and priestly class as portrayed in the Bible (said by ancient historians to have been originally the name of a Median tribe), from oPers maguš ‘magician’ (see magic). Also, in Chr history, the ‘wise men’ who, according to Matthew, came from the east to Jerusalem to do homage to the newborn Christ (lC14). || magic (n.), lC14, magike ‘art of influencing or predicting events and producing marvels using hidden natural forces’, also ‘supernatural art’, especially the art of controlling the actions of spiritual or superhuman beings; from oFr magique ‘magic; magical’, from lLat magice ‘sorcery, magic’, from Grk magikē (presumably with tekhnē ‘art’), fem. of magikos ‘magical’, from magos ‘one of the members of the learned and priestly class’, from oPers maguš, which is possibly from protIE root *magh- ‘to be able, have power’.36 / The transferred sense of ‘legerdemain, optical illusion, etc.’ is from 1811. It displaced oEngl wiccecræft (see witch), also drycræft, from dry ‘magician’, from Irish drui ‘priest, magician’ (see Druid). Natural magic in the Middle Ages was that which did not involve the agency of personal spirits; it was considered more or less legitimate, not sinful, and involved much that would be explained scientifically as the manipulation of natural forces« – EtymOnline
    maǧūsī, adj./n., Magian; Magus, adherent of Mazdaism: nsb-formation
    maǧūsiyyaẗ, n.f., Mazdaism: abstr. formation in -iyyaẗ 
    MḤṢ محص 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 13May2023
    √MḤṢ 
    “root” 
    ▪ MḤṢ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MḤṢ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MḤṢ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘sifting, purifying, smelting; to examine closely; to come into the open; to be tightly twisted; to afflict’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    MḤQ محق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 13May2023
    √MḤQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ MḤQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MḤQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MḤQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘waning of the moon, moonless nights; to diminish, blot out, eradicate; to uproot, annihilate; sharp blade’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    MḤL محل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 13May2023
    √MḤL 
    “root” 
    ▪ MḤL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MḤL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MḤL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘vertebra; might, to struggle; drought, hardship; to defend, be antagonistic, carry out intrigues, plot; to shift from one situation to another’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    MḤN محن 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 13May2023
    √MḤN 
    “root” 
    ▪ MḤN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MḤN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MḤN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘experience, to try, put to the test, afflict; to smelt, purify; to whip, wear out; to be hardened’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    MḤW محو 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 13May2023
    √MḤW 
    “root” 
    ▪ MḤW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MḤW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MḤW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to wipe out, eradicate, disappear completely, be effaced, be featureless; (of land) to be covered with rain water; to annul’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    MḪR مخر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 13May2023
    √MḪR 
    “root” 
    ▪ MḪR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MḪR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MḪR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘(of the bow of a boat) to cleave water, sail with such force as to cause the water to splash up noisily, the sound of the wind driving boats along the surface of the sea; drinking place’ 
    ▪ It has also been suggested that mawākhir, when describing ‘sailing ships’, could be a borrowing from Akk – BAH2008. 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    MḪḌ مخض 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 13May2023
    √MḪḌ 
    “root” 
    ▪ MḪḌ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MḪḌ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MḪḌ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be in labour, give birth, the pain of giving birth, be with child; to churn, skimmed milk, a churn; to move fast’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    MDː (MDD) مدّ/مدد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 13May2023
    √ MDː (MDD) 
    “root” 
    ▪ MDː (MDD)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MDː (MDD)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MDː (MDD)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to pull, stretch, elongation, be tall, give rope, lend, unfold; to enrich, support, reinforce, supply; fodder; ink; to be at high tide, rise; to fester, pus; duration, period, time span; a dry measure’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    MDN مدن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MDN 
    “root” 
    ▪ MDN_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ MDN_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘city, fortress, to settle in a place’ are concepts which some philologists consider to be associated with this root. Others derive these concepts from the root DYN. It is clear from literature, however, that madīnaẗ came into Arabic as a borrowing from Aram. Madyan, which some philologists derive from this root, is generally recognised as a foreign name. 
    ▪ … 
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    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ For Engl medina see ↗madīnaẗ and ↗dīn
    – 
    madīnaẗ مَدِينَة 
    ID 798 • Sw – • BP 144 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MDN, DYN 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl medina, from Ar madīnaẗ ‘city’, from Aram mᵊdin(t)ā ‘jurisdiction, district, province, city’, from dān ‘to judge, adjudicate, administer’, cf. Ar ↗dīn in the sense of ‘judgment’. 
     
    madanī مَدَنِيّ 
    ID 797 • Sw – • BP 671 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MDN 
    ¹adj.; ²n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    tamaddun تَمَدُّن 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 9Jun2023
    √MDN 
    n. 
    ▪ vn., V 
    MRː (MRR) مرّ / مرر 
    ID 799 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRː (MRR) 
    “root” 
    ▪ MRː (MRR)_1 ‘to pass, go by, elapse, cross, etc.; time, turn’ ↗marr-/marar- u (marr, murūr, mamarr)
    ▪ MRː (MRR)_2 ‘bitter; myrrh’ ↗murr
    ▪ MRː (MRR)_3 ‘tightness, strength; (tightly twisted) rope; to struggle; to continue; (strong) character’ ↗marr_1
    ▪ MRː (MRR)_4 ‘spade, shovel’ ↗marr_2
    Now obsolete:
    ▪ MRː (MRR)_5 ‘young girl of slight build’ ↗?

    ▪ MRː (MRR)_6 ‘desert’ ↗?

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to pass by; to drag along, to continue; to twist together, might, determination; to struggle, to be trustworthy; once, one time; myrrh, bitterness, gall, gall bladder; to be angry; marble’ 
    – 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ The obsolete value MRː (MRR)_5 is represented by the meaning ‘jeune fille au corps délicat’ given for murayrāʔ and mārūraẗ by Kazimirski. A distinct item or connected to one of the other values? The forms of the words suggest that they are derived from s.th. else – perhaps from MRː (MRR)_2 ↗murr (fig. use of murayrāʔ and mārūraẗ ‘plante à la graine noire et amère qui se mêle au blé’), or from MRː (MRR)_3 ↗marr_1 (< *‘girl of a body as thin as a tightly twisted rope’)?
    ▪ The obsolete value MRː (MRR)_6 ‘desert’ is attested through marīr ‘desert’ (Kazimirski) and marawrāt pl. marawrà, marawrayāt, marārī ‘völlige Wüste’ (Wahrmund). Connected to MRː (MRR)_1 ‘bitter’?
    ▪ According to Ehret1989, the “simple form” marr ‑ ‘to pass, pass by, depart, go away’ has preserved an earlier bi-consonantal *mr from which a number of triradical themes have been formed via extension: (+ “inchoative/denominative” *‑y =) mary ‘to take out, pull out’, (+ “durative” *‑t =) mart ‘to drive away’, (+ “durative” *‑g =) marǧ ‘to send an animal to pasture’.
    ▪ Another value of *mr as given by Ehret1989 is ‘to brush with the fingers’. The author remains silent as to the possibility, or impossibility, of a relation between this theme and ‘to pass, pass by, depart, go away’. From *mr ‘to brush with the fingers’, Ehret1989 derives ↗maraḫ (“extension” in “iterative” *‑ḥ), mart ‘to smooth’, ↗maraṯa, marz ‘to press slightly with the fingertips’, mars ‘to macerate and crush with the hand’ (↗marasa), ↗maraša, ↗maraʕa, marġ ‘to anoint with oil’ (cf. also ↗√MRĠ), marq ‘to scratch off the wool’ (cf. also ↗√MRQ), and mary ‘to stroke the udder of the camel for milking’ (cf. also ↗√MRY). 
    ▪ Engl myrrhmurr
    – 
    marr‑ / marar‑ مَرَّ / مَرَرْـ , u (marr , murūr , mamarr
    ID 800 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRː (MRR) 
    vb., I 
    to pass, go, walk, saunter, or stroll (bi‑ or ʕalā by or past s.th.); to march past s.o. (ʔamāma), pass in review (bi‑, ʕalā before s.o.; mil.); to pass, elapse, go by, run out (time); to come, go, walk, or pass along s.th., skirt; to pass, go, walk, move, march, travel, cross, traverse (bi‑, min, ʕalā a place, a country, a room); to flow through, run through; to fly through; to lead, run, cut (bi‑ through an area; border), pass ( over), cross ( an area); to go or pass (bi‑ through a stage or phase), undergo (bi‑ a state or phase); to cross (ʕalā a border, a line, mountains, etc.); to fly (fawqa over an area; airplane); to depart, go away, leave – WehrCowan1979. – (Does also the value ‘to continue (yafʕalu to do s.th.), keep, or go on, doing s.th.’ belong here? We do not believe so and suggest the latter’s dependence on ↗marr_1 ‘tightly twisted rope’, hence ‘strength, endurance’.) 
    Cf. also ↗√MRː (MRR), with disambigution. 
    ▪ eC7 Q (passim): ‘to pass by; pass on; go’ 
    Ug mr ‘weggehen, weichen’, Hbr mar ‘drop’ (n.), ESA mrr ‘to happen to, befall’ (Zammit2002).
    ▪ Akk marāru ‘to leave, go away’ is a loan-word from WSem (CAD, s.v. “marāru C”), according to Zammit2002 from Ug. 
    ▪ Given the Ug, Hbr and SA cognates, the verb can be assumed to be of Sem origin, with a value either of s.th. like ‘to go away, leave’ or ‘to pass by (quickly?), flash by’.
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1731 reconstruct Sem *mur‑ ‘to go away’ (but only on the evidence of Ar marr‑, IPFV ‑murr‑). Outside Sem, the authors see cognates in Berb *m˅r‑ (> Ayr əmmər‑ ‘to pass by’), WCh *mir‑ /*mur‑ ‘to run’ (> mir‑, mur‑ in 2 languages), HEC *mar‑ ‘to go’ (> mar‑ in 4 languages, among which Sid), Dhl mar‑ ‘to go round’, and hence reconstruct AfrAs *mar‑ ‘to walk’. Vowelism in Sem *mur‑ then would be secondary.
    ▪According to Ehret1989, the “simple form” marr ‘to pass, pass by, depart, go away’ has preserved an earlier biconsonantal *mr‑ from which a number of triradical themes have been formed via extension: (+ “inchoative/denominative” *y =) mary ‘to take out, pull out’, (+ “durative” *t =) mart ‘to drive away’, (+ “durative” *g =) marǧ ‘to send an animal to pasture’ (↗marǧ). 
    – 
    – 
    ¹marr مَرّ , pl. ? 
    ID 801 • Sw –/122 • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRː (MRR) 
    n. 
    rope – WehrCowan1979. 
    Essential to marr ‘rope’ is the ‘tightness’ with which it is twisted, hence the ‘strength’ that is needed to twist it and that the tightly twisted rope itself may represent, figuratively. Inner-Arabic evidence suggests logical precedence of ‘rope’ before ‘strength’. But Orel&Stolbova supply evidence from outside Sem that would favour ‘strength’ as the basic meaning. – Any relation with ↗murr ‘bitter’? Relation with marr‑ / marar‑ ‘to pass’ unlikely. 
    ▪ … 
    Akk marmaru (with redupl.) ‘healthy, strong’; cf. also Ḥrs merret ‘strength’ – Orel&Stolbova1994#1737. Cf. also marmāru ‘strong person’ – CAD
    It looks as if either the ‘strength’ with which a rope is twisted, or the ‘rope’ that is twisted tightly, i.e., with strength, are the logical basis in Ar from which other values are derived. From ‘rope’: ‘to tie up a camel’ (with a rope), ‘to twist o.s. (like a rope) about s.o. = to wrestle, fight’, and perhaps also ‘firmness, determination, resoluteness’ (etc. – Kazimirski, at least, regards marīr in the sense of ‘résolution ferme et inébranlable’ as a figurative use of ‘ficelle ou corde mince, mais très-bien tressée et solide’). From ‘strength’: ‘to persist, persevere, keep (doing s.th.)’, hence ‘to last, endure, remain, stay’ in general; (if not from ‘rope’) the ‘vigor, energy, tenacity’ of the mind, hence a person’s ‘intelligence’, but also his/her ‘determination, resoluteness, steadiness, constancy’.
    Is ‘strength’ logically prior to ‘(tightly twisted) rope’, or vice versa? Morphologically, marr ‘rope’ looks more basic than the words that connote ‘strength’ so that the latter seem to be derived from the former, not the other way round, which is the reason for making marr the lemma, not marīr.
    ▪ However, on account of the Akk and Hss evidence, which they parallel with Ar marīr, Orel&Stolbova reconstruct Sem *mar‑ ‘healthy, strong’ as the basic meaning. Outside Sem, the authors see a cognate in Hs māre ‘to recover’ (from WCh *mar‑ ‘dto.’). As a common ancestor of the Sem and WCh forms, they suggest AfrAs *mar‑ ‘to recover, be healthy’ – Orel&Stolbova1994#1737.
    ▪ Related to, or even forming one semantic unit with, the theme of ‘bitterness’ treated under ↗murr
    – 
    marra, u, vb. I, serrer et attacher avec une corde un chameau, etc. (Kazimirski1860): denominative from marr, or vice versa? – For other meanings ↗marr‑ / marar‑ and ↗murr.
    marrara, vb. II, ↗marr‑ / marar‑ and ↗murr.
    mārra, vb. III, to twist o.s. about s.o. and turn him round to throw him down (Lane), lutter avec qn. corps à corps et chercher à le renverser par terre (Kazimirski1860). – For other meanings ↗marr‑ / marar‑.
    ʔamarra, vb. IV, to twist tightly (a rope, a thread); hence also : to struggle or strive with s.o., twist about him, or twist his neck, to throw him down (Lane). – For other meanings ↗marr‑ / marar‑ and ↗murr.
    tamārra, vb. VI, to fight, contend, dispute (with each other), (Lane) to struggle or strive with each other, twisting the other’s neck to throw him down, (Kazimirski1860) lutter avec qn. corps à corps pour le renverser: from the idea of twisting, or rather from ‘bitter’ (*to engage in bitter, severe fight with s.o.)? – For other meanings ↗murr‑.
    imtarra, vb. VIII ↗marr‑ / marar‑.
    ĭstamarra vb. X, to last, endure, continue, go on; to remain, stay; to continue, persist, persevere, keep (doing s.th.), go on (doing s.th.), stick, adhere (to s.th.). to become tightly twisted (Lane), être tordu avec force, recevoir quelques tours de plus pour être solide (se dit d'une corde) (Kazimirksi1860); hence/de là: to become strong, or firm, like a rope tightly twisted (tropical signification, from the twisting of a rope); hence: to become right after having been corrupt (one’s case or state of affairs), to repent and become good, righteous, virtuous (Lane); de là, on dit d’un homme: istamarrat marīratuhū il s’est raffermi ou rendu plus fort, plus ferme (Kazimirksi1860). – For other meanings ↗marr‑ / marar‑ and ↗murr.
    marār Strick (Wahrmund1887)
    mirraẗ, n.f., pl. ʔamrār, mirar strength, power, (Wahrmund1887) Verstand, Einsicht; gesundes Urtheil, (Kazimirksi1860) force de l’intelligence; fermeté, constance | ḏū mirraẗ puissant ou ferme, surnom de l’ange Gabriel: < firm, strong twisting (Lane), tortis, tresse dont se compose une corde (Kazimirksi1860). – For other meanings ↗murr.
    marīr, adj., pl. marāʔirᵘ strong, firm, stubborn, tenacious, dogged, persistent, deep-seated, deep, profound (esp., of feelings); résolution ferme et inébranlable [syn. ʕazīmaẗ) (Kazimirksi1860): fig. use of <ficelle ou corde mince, mais très-bien tressée et solide (Kazimirksi1860). – For other meanings ↗murr.
    marīraẗ, n.f., pl. marāʔirᵘ firmness; determination, resoluteness; vigor, energy, tenacity, doggedness; steadiness, constancy; langer starker Strick (Wahrmund1887), ficelle ou corde longue, mince et solide; tresse, tortis dont se compose une corde (Kazimirksi1860)
    mirrīraẗ, n. Absicht (Wahrmund1887)
    murayr, n. 1 Scorsonère. 2 Hiéracium. 3 Souchet : plantes (Kazimirksi1860): probably rather related to ↗murr (‘bitter’) than to marr_1 (‘making tight, strong through twisting’).
    ĭstimrār X vn. duration, permanence, continuity, continuance, continuation, continued existence, survival; persistence | bi‑’st. continually, constantly; quwwat al-~, n., inertia, vis inertiae :
    ĭstimrāriyyaẗ, n. continuity: abstr. formation from ĭstimrār.
    ʔamarrᵘ, adj. firmer, stronger | al-ʔamarrāni the two bitter things (i.e., poverty and old age); qāsā l-ʔamarrayn to go through the worst, be exposed to greatest hardships: el. – For other meanings ↗murr.
    mustamirr, adj. lasting, permanent, enduring, constant, continual, uninterrupted, unceasing, incessant; continuous, unbroken: PA X. 
    ²marr مَرّ , pl. ? 
    ID 802 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRː (MRR) 
    n. 
    iron shovel, spade – WehrCowan1979. – For other meanings ↗marr_1 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ ….. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    CAD thinks Akk marru‑ ‘spade, shovel’ (cf. also bīt marri ‘land worded with a spade’) is a loan-word from Sum.
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1738, however, juxtapose Akk marru, Syr marr or maʔr ‘hoe, spade’, and Ar marr ‘iron spade’ and reconstruct Sem *marr‑ ‘hoe, spade; iron spade’. Given that there seem to be cognates also outside Sem in Eg mr ‘hoe’ (a.), ECh *mar-/ *mir-/ (> mara, miri) ‘hoe’ and HEC *morar- <‑ *marar‑ (> moraara‑ ‘hook of the plough’, with partial redupl., in 1 language), the authors find reasons to believe that all of these may go back to an AfrAs *mar‑ ‘hoe’ (n.), which in itself would be related to (#1739) AfrAs *mar‑ ‘to dig’ (> Sem *mur‑ [with secondary *‑u‑ ] ‘dig’: Akk marāru, and > WCh *mari‑ ‘to hoe, farm’: appearing as mār, mar, na mira in modern WCh languages).
    ▪ In contrast, Fraenkel1886 believed that marr was borrowed via Aram mrʔ, Syr marrā, from a late Grk márra ‘mattock, hoe’ (cf. also Lat marra ‘sort of hoe for tearing up weeds, a weeding-hook’, found in Plinius, C1 – FALS1879). 
    – 
    – 
    murr مُرّ , pl. ʔamrār 
    ID 803 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRː (MRR) 
    ¹adj.; ²n. 
    (adj.) 1 bitter; severe; sharp; painful; (n.) bitterness. – 2 myrrh | m. al-ṣaḥārā colocynth (bot.) WehrCowan1979. – 3 salsify (Scorzonera hispanica; bot.) – Kazimirski1860 
    1) The word goes probably back to protSem *√MRR ‘to be(come) bitterʼ and a common Sem noun *murr‑ ‘bitterness; myrrh’ (Huehnergard2011) that belongs to the general theme protSem *MRR ‘bitterness’ (Kogan2011). The latter has been suggested to have developed from an AfrAs *mar‑ ‘to be sour’.
    2) The word murru appears already in Akk sources. Although it “does not always nor only refer to the costly imported resin” (CAD),147 there is evidence also for the use of real myrrh. The attestations inform us about the use of murru in many fields: in rituals, as an ingredient of perfumes and for scenting oil, in medicine (for fumigation, or as a “medication against stricture of the bladder” which was given to the patient “to drink in beer”, or was “rub[bed] on in oil, or “blow[n] into his penis through a tube”, CAD). Myrrh had to be imported and was therefore very prestigious and expensive. 
    v1lC6 ʕAntara b. Šaddād 1,36: ʔinna ẓulmiya bāsilun murrun maḏāquhū ka-ṭaʕmi ’l-ʕalqami ‘the injustice/tyranny/torment I suffered [lit. my tyranny] is death-defying (and) bitter, its taste is like the taste of the colocynth’ (Polosin 445).
    ▪ eC7 Q 54:46 bali ‘s-sāʕatu mawʕidu-hum wa’s-sāʕatu ʔadhā wa-ʔamarru ‘Nay, but the Hour (of doom) is their appointed tryst, and the Hour will be more wretched and more bitter (than their earthly failure)’.
    v2 ▪ … 
    v1 Akk marāru ‘to be bitter’, murruru ‘to make bitter’, marru (māru, f. marratu) ‘bitter, brackish, biting’ (the f. also meaning ‘sea (as body of salty water), CAD); murru ‘bitter taste’; related also murāru ‘bitter lettuce’, Hbr mārar, Aram mᵉrar ‘to be bitter’, Syr mar ‘to be bitter, sour, acid’, Gz marīr ‘amarus, acerbus; exacerbatus’ (Zammit2002, following Dillmann).
    Within Sem, Orel&Stolbova1994 (#1734) add Hbr mar, Soq mrr, Ḥrs mer, Mhr mer, Śḥr mur and reconstruct Sem *mar‑ ‘(to be) bitter’.
    v2 Akk murru, Ug mr, Hbr mōr, JudAram mūrā ‘myrrh’. Huehnergard2011 reconstructs a common Sem noun *murr‑ ‘bitterness; myrrh’, belonging to the general theme Sem *mrr ‘to be(come) bitter’. 
    Huehnergard2011 reconstructs a general Sem theme *mrr‑ ‘to be(come) bitter’. – Orel&Stolbova1994 (#1734) reconstruct Sem *mar‑ ‘(to be) bitter’. On account of what the authors believe to be cognates – Eg ʕmꜢ (“prefix ʕ‑ ”) ‘become sour’ (pyr) and one mer ‘sour’ in a WCh language (< WCh *mar‑) – they reconstruct AfrAs *mar‑ ‘be sour’ as the origin common to all. 
    v2 The word entered Eur languages via Grk mýrrha into which it came from some Sem source and was then (according to Dolgopolsky2012) perhaps contaminated with Grk mýron ‘unguent, perfume, sweet oil’, which in its turn is probably related to an Idg root *smeru‑ ‘ointment’, cf. Ge schmieren, denominative of Schmer < Germ *smerwa‑ ‘fat, grease’ (cf. Nor smør ‘butter, fat’) (Kluge2002), which Dolgopolsky2012 thinks is related to a WSem root √*mrḫ ‘to smear’ (↗Ar √mrḫ ‘anoint (the body)’. The Grk term was loaned into Lat murra, murrha, myrrha, which is the source of the word in the Eur languages (cf. oEngl myrre, NL mirre, Ge Myrrhe, Fr myrrhe, Ital Span mirra). It arrived there at an early date: the first attestations in oHGe, e.g., date back into C8 (mirra, myrra, murra) (Kluge2002). 
    marr‑ / marar‑, u a (marāraẗ), vb. I, to be or become bitter; dire des choses amères, désagréables (Kazimirski): denominative. – For other meanings ↗marr‑ / marar‑ and ↗marr_1.
    marrar‑, vb. II, to make bitter, embitter (s.th.): caus., denominative. – For other meanings ↗marr‑ / marar‑.
    mārr‑ / mārar‑, vb. III, lutter avec qq. corps à corps et chercher à le renverser par terre (Kazimirski): probably not related to murr but to the theme ‘strong, tight’ treated under ↗marr_1. – Cf. also ↗marr‑ / marar‑.
    ʔamarr‑ / ʔamrar‑, vb. IV, to be or become bitter; to make bitter (s.th.); être mêlé de graines amères (se dit du blé) (Kazimirski): caus., denominative. – For other meanings ↗marr‑ / marar‑ and ↗marr_1.
    tamārr‑ / tamārar‑, vb. VI, to fight, contend, dispute (with each other): probably not related to murr but to the theme ‘strong, tight’ treated under ↗marr_1. devenir amer, contracter de l’amertume (Kazimirski): denominative.
    ĭmtarr‑ / ĭmtarar‑ , vb. VIII, ↗marr‑ / marar‑.
    ĭstamarr‑ / ĭstamrar‑, vb. X, to think bitter, find bitter (s.th.): denominative. – For other meanings ↗marr‑ / marar‑ and ↗marr_1.
    mirraẗ, n.f., pl. mirar gall, bile ↗s.v.; (pl. ʔamrār) ↗marr_1.
    murār, n., eine Bitterpflanze (Wahrmund1887):
    marāraẗ, n.f., pl. marāʔirᵘ bitterness; gall, gall bladder; innermost, heart | inšaqqat m.uhū ġayẓan he burst with anger :
    mirāriyyaẗ, n.f., Galligkeit (Wahrmund1887): ↗mirraẗ.
    marīr, adj., pl. marāʔirᵘ bitter (taste, feelings). – For other meanings ↗marr_1.
    marīraẗ, n. ↗marr_1.
    ʔamarrᵘ, adj., bitterer: el. | al-ʔamarrāni the two bitter things (i.e., poverty and old age); qāsā l-ʔamarrayn to go through the worst, be exposed to greatest hardships. – For other meanings ↗marr_1.
    ʔamarrᵘ, n., intestines (Kazimirski1860): nominalized el.(?), related to murr ?
    murrà, n., chose amère | al-murrayān les deux choses les plus amères: l’absinthe et la coloquinte (Kazimirski1860) : nominalized el.f. (?).
    murrī, n., eine Art Bitterwasser (den Appetit zu schärfen) (Wahrmund1887): nominalized nsb-adj., *tasting myrrh (?),
    mārūraẗ, n.f., 1 plante à la graine noire et amère qui se mêle au blé; (2 jeune fille au corps délicat et chez qui les chairs tremblent quand elle marche) (Kazimirski1860): While (1) is clearly related to murr the relation is doubtful for (2).
    murayr, n., 1 scorsonère. 2 hiéracium. 3 souchet : plantes (Kazimirski1860): related to murr because of their ‘bitterness’?
    murayrāʔ, n., 1 Plante à la graine noire et amère qui se mêle au blé; – (?related:) 2 Jeune fille au corps délicat et chez qui les chairs tremblent quand elle marche.
    murrāʔᵘ, n., Sorte de vin (Kazimirski1860): related to murr because of its bitterness? (cf. murrī above).
    mamrūr, adj., bilious; foolish, crazy; fool: PP I ↗mirraẗ
    marāraẗ مَرارَة 
    ID 804 • Sw – • BP 2844 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRː (MRR) 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Cf. Kogan2011: (Ar mirraẗ ‘gall; gall bladder’) from protSem *m˅r(˅)r‑at‑ ‘gall; gall bladder’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    murūr مُرُور 
    ID 805 • Sw – • BP 528 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRː (MRR) 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    vn. from marra
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    MRʔ مرأ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRʔ 
    “root” 
    ▪ MRʔ_1 ‘man’, ‘woman’ ↗marʔ (and also ↗marʔaẗ)
    ▪ MRʔ_2 ‘be wholesome, healthful, healthy’ ↗mar˅ʔa
    ▪ MRʔ_3 ‘esophagus, gullet’ ↗marīʔ (n.)

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘(of food) to be wholesome and palatable, to be digestible, food passage; a human being, man, woman, wife, one person; “chivalrous” character, generosity of nature, to be humane, humanity’ 
    Any connection between the three values? MRʔ_2 not unlikely to be akin to MRʔ_3. Further research needed! 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Badawi 2008 lists three main values of the root in ClassAr: 1 (of food) to be wholesome and palatable, to be digestible, food passage; 2 a human being, man, woman, wife, one person; 3 “chivalrous” character, generosity of nature, to be humane, humanity. According to this semantic grouping, MRʔ_3 ‘esophagus, gullet’ would belong to MRʔ_2 (healthy, palatable food being food that passes the esophagus), a relation that does not seem all too unlikely. In contrast, making ‘“chivalrous” character, generosity of nature, to be humane, humanity’ a separate value does not seem to be entirely justifiable, since this is clearly a semantic development from MRʔ_1 ‘man’.
    ▪ Since etymology is not clear yet, the variety of meanings of the “root” has been tentatively reflected in three separate values. Further research, however, may find that at least MRʔ_2 and MRʔ_3 perhaps are related, the meaning ‘be wholesome, healthful, healthy’ originally referring to what passes the esophagus. But the FaʕīL form of the latter does not really fit this assumption. – In contrast, a relation between MRʔ_2 and MRʔ_3 on the one hand, and MRʔ_1 ‘man, male’ is hardly likely. 
    ▪ Engl n.prop.f. Marthamarʔ
    – 
    mar˅ʔ‑ : maraʔ‑ مَرَأَ a , mariʔ‑ مَرِئَ a , maruʔ‑ مَرُؤَ u (marāʔaẗ
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRʔ 
    vb., I 
    to be wholesome, healthful, palatable (food); — maruʔa, u (marāʔaẗ) to be healthy and salubrious (climate) — WehrCowan1979. 
    Any connection with other values of ↗MRʔ ? Further research needed! 
    ▪ eC7 (marīʔan (‘palatable, nourishing, wholesome’) Q 4:4 wa-ʔātū ’l-nisāʔa ṣaduqāti-hinna niḥlatan fa-ʔin ṭibna la-kum ʕan šayʔin min-hu nafsan fa-kulū-hu hanīʔan marīʔan ‘And give unto the women [whom ye marry] free gift of their marriage portions; but if they of their own accord remit unto you a part thereof, then ye are welcome to absorb it [in your wealth]’ 
    BDB1906: Akk marû ‘well-fed, fat (said of domestic animals)’, Hbr *mrʔ ‘be fat ’, mᵊrī(ʔ) ‘fatling(s)’.
     
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ĭstamraʔa, vb. X, to find wholesome and tasty (food); to enjoy, savor, relish (s.th,); to be able to digest (s.th.; also fig.); to take to s.th., take a liking (bi‑ to), derive pleasure (from):.

    marīʔ, adj., healthful, salubrious, healthy, wholesome | hanīʔan wa-marīʔan, adv., approx.: may it do you much good! I hope you will enjoy it (i.e., food)! – For other meanings see ↗marʔ and ↗marīʔ (n.).

    For other items of the root, cf. ↗MRʔ with further references. 

    ĭmraʔ اِمْرَأ , ĭmruʔ اِمْرُؤ , (with definite article) al-marʔ المَرْء 
    ID … • Sw 17/94 • BP 2137 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRʔ 
    n. 
    a man; person, human being; al-marʔ frequently for Engl ‘one’, as yaẓunnu ’l-marʔ one would think – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ As also a number of other Sem languages, Ar distinguishes between ‘man as a human being’ (homo, Mensch, ↗ʔinsān) and ‘man as an adult male’ (vir, Mann), ĭmraʔ / ĭmruʔ, with article al-marʔ. The word goes back to protSem *marʔ‑ ‘man, male’ (Kogan2011) or *māriʔ‑ ‘man, master, lord’ (Huehnergard2011, alongside with *marʔ‑) and, perhaps, AfrAs *mar‑ / *maraʔ‑ (possibly also *maʔar‑) ‘man’ (Orel&Stolbova1994). 
    ▪ eC7 Q 70:38 imruʔ, 8:24 marʔ ‘a person, one’ 
    ▪ BDB1906: BiblAram mārê ‘lord’, Syr mārē, mārā, EgAram mrʔ, oAram Nab Palm mr(ʔ) ‘lord’, Sab mrʔ ‘man, lord’
    ▪ Zammit2002: Ar marʔ ‘a man’: Ug mr ‘Herr (?); Gastgeber (?)’, BiblAram mārē ‘lord’, Syr mārā ‘lord, owner, ruler, master, prince’, SAr mrʔ ‘man, lord’, Gz mār (< Syr) ‘lord, master’
    ▪ Kogan2011: Akk māru (CAD: also merʔu, marʔu) ‘son’, Aram *māriʔ‑ ‘lord’, Sab Qat mrʔ ‘man; male child; lord’.
    ▪ Cohen1969 mentioned also Akk amīlu (awīlu, amēlu, awēlu) ‘man’, and, outside Sem, some Berb and Cush forms. All doubtful!
    ▪ OrelStolb1994#1740: Akk māru ‘son’, BiblAram mārē ‘master’, SAr mrʔ ‘man, husband’. – Outside Sem: Eg mr.w ‘people’ (OK); maar ‘boy’ and mara ‘masculine’ in 2 WCh languages; maar ‘uncle’ in 1 ECh idiome. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from Sem *marʔ‑ ‘man, male’.
    ▪ Huehnergard2011: from Sem *marʔ‑, *māriʔ ‘man, master, lord’.
    ▪ OrelStolb1994#1740 reconstruct Sem *marʔ‑ ‘man; husband; master’, from AfrAs *mar‑ / *maraʔ‑ ‘man’. For both WCh and ECh the authors assume *maʔar‑, which, if correct, would show metathesis as compared to the reconstructed AfrAs form. An alternative reconstruction would be AfrAs *maʔar‑, taking the WCh and ECh forms as the more original ones; then Sem would have undergone metathesis. The Eg evidence is not helpful for a decision between the one or the other since it shows no traces of *‑ʔ‑
    – 
    maruʔa, u (murūʔaẗ), vb. I, to be manly: denom. – For other meanings see ↗marVʔa.

    BP#321ĭmraʔaẗ, with def. article al-marʔaẗ, pl. ↗nisāʔ, niswaẗ, etc., n., woman; wife: f. of marʔ.
    murūʔaẗ, var. muruwwaẗ, n., the ideal of manhood, comprising all knightly virtues, esp., manliness, valor, chivalry, generosity, sense of honor:.
    marīʔ, adj., manly, virile: adj. formation. – For other meanings see ↗marVʔa and ↗marīʔ (n.). 

    ĭmraʔaẗ اِمْرَأَة , with article al-marʔaẗ المرْأة , pl. ↗nisāʔ , niswaẗ 
    ID 806 • Sw 16/195 • BP 1052, 321 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRʔ 
    n.f. 
    woman; wife – WehrCowan1979. 
    Feminine of marʔ ‘man’. Goes back to protSem *marʔ‑at‑, *māriʔ‑at‑ ‘woman, mistress, lady’ – Huehnergard2011. 
    ▪ eC7 Q 27:23 ‘woman’, 19:8 ‘wife’ 
    ▪ CAD: Akk mārtu (merʔatu, marʔatu, māštu) ‘daughter; (young) girl, woman’
    ▪ Bennett1998: Sab mrʔt ‘woman’. – Outside Sem: Berb ṯa-mġar-ṯ (Senhayi), ta-mṭːū-ṭː (Ayt Segrouchen), talta (Ghadamsi) ‘woman’.
    ▪ If, as suggested by Cohen1969, Akk amīlu ‘man’ is a cognate of Ar marʔ, then also Akk amīltu (awīltu, amēltu, awēltu, amīltu) ‘woman; female, feminine’ should be compared. However, as already the first is precarious, the other is not less so. 
    ▪ Huehnergard2011 reconstructs Sem *marʔat‑, *māriʔat ‘woman, mistress, lady’, as the f. of *marʔ‑, *māriʔ ‘man, master, lord’.
    ▪ The Berb forms mentioned in Bennett1998 are due to contact with Ar. 
    ▪ Huehnergard2011: Not from Ar ĭmraʔaẗ / marʔaẗ, but from its Aram counterpart, mārᵊtā, is the Eur name Martha
    al-marʔaẗ al-musalsalaẗ, n.f., Andromeda (astron.) 
    murūʔaẗ مُرُوءة , var. muruwwaẗ مُرُوّة 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRʔ 
    n.f. 
    the ideal of manhood, comprising all knightly virtues, esp., manliness, valor, chivalry, generosity, sense of honor – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ From ↗marʔ ‘man’.
    ▪ A key concept of pre-Islamic and Islamic culture. According to EI², the meaning of murūʔaẗ is somewhat “imprecise”—which, however, is not unusual with ‘super’- or ‘meta’-concepts of a comparable importance). “There is reason to believe that m. originally describes the sum of the physical qualities of man and then by a process of spiritualisation and abstraction his moral qualities.”148
    ▪ Related concepts: among others, cf. ↗ʔadab, ↗ʔaḫlāq, ↗ḍiyāfaẗ, ↗fakhr, ↗ḥamāsaẗ, ↗ḥilm, ↗ʕirḍ, ↗karam, ↗ṣabr
    »There is reason to believe that murūʔaẗ originally describes the sum of the physical qualities of man and then by a process of spiritualisation and abstraction his moral qualities. After Islam, its meaning was extended thanks to the now pre-dominating moral focus. Broadly speaking, with the rightly-guided caliphs, m. means chastity, good nature and observance of Qurʔānic laws, with the Umayyads, m. implies politics, diplomacy, work, dignity and compassion, and with the early ʕAbbāsids, m. implies merit and is contrasted with abjectness; with the moralists, m. is identified with ↗ʔadab in the meaning of good conduct. Becoming more and more abstract, m. finally came to mean virtue. In law, m. indicates the fact of abstaining from any act capable of offending religion although not constituting an illicit act. In the spoken language of today, m. means ‘energy’ in Egypt (miriwwaẗ) and Syria (muruwwaẗ), as in the expression ‘so-and-so has not the miriwwaẗ/muruwwaẗ to accomplish such a thing’.«26  
    See ↗MRʔ and ↗marʔ
    See ↗marʔ
    – 
    See ↗marʔ
    marīʔ مَرِيء , pl. ʔamriʔaẗ , murūʔ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRʔ 
    n. 
    esophagus, gullet – WehrCowan1979.

    For other meanings cf. ↗mar˅ʔa and ↗marʔ

    Relation to other items of √MRʔ (‘man’/‘woman’; ‘be wholesome, healthy’) unclear. See ↗MRʔ for details and further references. 
    ▪ … 
    BDB1906: ? Hbr murʔā(h) ‘crop, or alimentary canal (of bird)’. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    Perhaps the items listed under ↗marVʔa are related. 
    MRTB مرتب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRTB 
    “root” 
    ▪ MRTB_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ MRTB_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    martabān مَرْتَبان , pl. ‑āt 
    ID 807 • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRTB, RTB 
    n. 
    marṭabān
    marṭabān 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
    – 
    MRǦ مرج 
    ID 808 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRǦ 
    “root” 
    ▪ MRǦ_1 ‘grass-covered steppe, pasture, meadow’ ↗marǧ
    ▪ MRǦ_2 ‘disorder, confusion, tumult’ ↗maraǧ
    ▪ MRǦ_3 ‘pearl, coral’ ↗marǧān

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘open space, pasture land, to pasture; to shoot out, branches, to be convoluted, to be obscure; bright, smokeless flame, a bright tongue of fire, to exaggerate; coral; small pearls’. The word marǧān, which philologists classify under this root, is an early borrowing into Ar from Pers, perhaps through Aram. 
    ▪ … 
    –.. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Any relation between MRǦ_1 and MRǦ_2 (the latter being fig. use of the former)?
    ▪ MRǦ_3 < Grk. 
    – 
    – 
    marǧ مَرْج , pl. murūǧ 
    ID 809 • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRǦ 
    n. 
    grass-covered steppe; pasture; meadow – WehrCowan1979. 
    Etymology not clear. Suggestions for a derivation of the word from bi-consonantal themes with similar meanings have been made but seem rather speculative. 
    ▪ ….. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ According to Ehret1989, the obsolete vb. maraǧ‑ (vn. marǧ) ‘to send an animal to pasture’ is an extension in “durative” *g from an earlier biconsonantal *mr, the “simple form” of which has been preserved in ↗marr‑ / marar‑ ‘to pass, pass by, depart, go away’. Other triradical themes from the same *mr‑ : (+ “inchoative/denominative” *y =) mary ‘to take out, pull out’, (+ “durative” *t =) mart ‘to drive away’.
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1741 reconstruct Sem *marg‑ ‘meadow’ and parallel this with the word morgo ‘field’ in one ECh language (their basis for reconstructing ECh *m˅r˅g‑ < *marug‑), and perhaps also Or marga ‘grass’ (< LEC *mar˅g‑). On account of these cognates the authors reconstruct AfrAs *mar˅g‑ ‘field’ (which they think may in turn be derived from AfrAs *mar‑ ‘field’). 
    – 
    marǧ in: harǧ wa-marǧ confusion, jumble, tumult, hubbub: related to marǧ ‘meadow’?
    maraǧ disorder, confusion, jumble: related to marǧ ‘meadow’? 
    marǧān مَرْجان , var. murǧān 
    ID 810 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRǦN 
    n.coll. (n.u. ‑aẗ
    small pearls; corals | samak m. goldfish – WehrCowan1979. 
    A loan-word that came into Ar via Syr MRGNYtā from mPers murvārīt ‘pearl’. 
    ▪ ….. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Jeffery1938: 261: »The word […] was ‎early recognized as borrowed from Persia,758 but it is certain that it did ‎not come directly from Iranian into Ar.759 – We find in Phlv murvārīt,760 a ‘pearl’ used, e.g. in the Gosht-i Fryānō, ii, 13, in describing the crowns presented to the daughters of Spitama after death. From ‎mPers the word was borrowed widely, e.g. Grk margarítēs 761 ; Aram mrgnytā; Syr mrgnytā, ‎and from some Aram form762 it came into Ar. It would have come at an early date ‎for it is used in the old poetry and was doubtless well known in the pre-Islamic period«.
    ▪ No ‎connection whatsoever with (hypothetical) *√RǦN, nor with the other items listed under ↗√MRǦ
    – 
    marǧānī coralline, coral, coralli‑ (in compounds), corallike, coral-red: nsb-adj. | pl. marǧāniyyāt coral polyps, anthozoans (zool.); ǧazīraẗ m.iyyaẗ atoll; šiʕāb m.iyyaẗ coral reefs 
    murǧān مُرْجان , var. marǧān 
    ID 811 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRǦN 
    – 
    … 
    marǧān 
    ▪ eC7 Q 55:22 yaḫruǧu min-humā ’l-luʔuʔu wa’l-marǧānu ‘There cometh forth from both of them the pearl and coral-stone’, 55:58 ka-ʔanna-hunna ’l-yāqūtu wa’l-marǧānu ‘(In beauty) like the jacynth and the coral-stone’. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    MRḤ مرح 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 13May2023
    √MRḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ MRḤ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MRḤ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MRḤ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘joy, merriment; arrogance, haughtiness, ungratefulness; mirth, to be active, be playful, be light-hearted; intoxicating drink, resonating, precise bow; to bring out shoots’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    MRḪ مرخ 
    ID 812 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRḪ 
    “root” 
    ▪ MRḪ_1 ‘to rub, anoint’ ↗maraḫ- a (marḫ)
    ▪ MRḪ_2 ‘Mars (astron.)’ ↗mirrīḫ 
    ▪ … 
    –.. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    According to Ehret1989, MRḪ_1 is an “extension” in “iterative” *‑ḥ‑ of a reconstructed biconsonantal root *mr‑ ‘to brush with the fingers’ (cf. ↗marr‑ / marar‑). – Other such extensions in Ar, as given by Ehret, are mart‑ ‘to smooth’, ↗maraṯ‑, marz‑ ‘to press slightly with the fingertips’, mars‑ ‘to macerate and crush with the hand’ (↗tamarras‑), ↗maraš‑, ↗maraʕ‑, marġ‑ ‘to anoint with oil’ (cf. also ↗√MRĠ), marq‑ ‘to scratch off the wool’ (cf. also ↗√MRQ), and mary‑ ‘to stroke the udder of the camel for milking’ (cf. also ↗√MRY). 
    – 
    – 
    maraḫ‑ مَرَخَ , a (marḫ
    ID 813 • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRḪ 
    vb., I 
    to oil, anoint, rub, embrocate (the body) – WehrCowan1979. 
    Etymology still uncertain. An origin in a biconsonantal theme *mr ‘to brush with the fingers’ has been suggested by Ehret1989, while Dolgopolsky2012 reconstructed WSem *mrḫ ‘to smear’ < Nostr * ‘meŕûq˅ ‘to smear’. 
    ▪ ….. 
    Hbr māraḥ ‘to rub’, Jib mirɜḫ ‘to throw sth. sticky on sth., smear (paint etc. on sth.) with one’s hands’ – Dolgopolsky2012#1485. 
    Dolgopolsky2012#1485 reconstructs WSem *mrḫ ‘to smear’ and suggests that the theme goes back to Nostr *‘meŕûq˅ ‘to smear’ which, among others, also produced Idg *smeru‑ ‘ointment’, cf. Grk mýron ‘unguent, perfume, sweet oil’, Germ *smerwa‑ ‘fat, grease’ (cf. G schmieren, denominative of Schmer, Norw sm▪r ‘butter, fat’ – Kluge2002).
    In contrast, Ehret1989 presents Ar maraḫ 763 as an “extension” in “iterative” *ḥ‑ of a reconstructed biconsonantal root *mr‑ ‘to brush with the fingers’ (cf. ↗marr‑ / marar‑). – Other such extensions in Ar, as given by Ehret, are mart‑ ‘to smooth’, ↗maraṯ‑, marz‑ ‘to press slightly with the fingertips’, mars‑ ‘to macerate and crush with the hand’ (↗tamarras‑), ↗maraš‑, ↗maraʕ‑, marġ‑ ‘to anoint with oil’ (cf. also ↗√mrġ), marq‑ ‘to scratch off the wool’ (cf. also ↗√mrq), and mary‑ ‘to stroke the udder of the camel for milking’ (cf. also ↗√mry). 
    – 
    marraḫ , vb. II, = I.
    tamarraḫ , vb. V, to rub one’s skin with a liniment, oil o.s., anoint o.s. :.
    mariḫ, adj., soft; slack, flabby, flaccid :.
    marūḫ, n., liniment; salve, unguent, ointment :. 
    MRD مرد 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRD 
    “root” 
    ▪ MRD_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ MRD_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to exceed the limits, to violate the norms, to mutiny, to be arrogant, to be insolent; giant, devil, demon, evil spirit; to soften, to glaze, to plaster; to erect a very high building’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    tamarrud تَمَرُّد 
    ID 814 • Sw – • BP 3217 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRD 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ ….. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    MRS مرس 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRS 
    “root” 
    ▪ MRS_1 ‘to soak in water, macerate’ ↗marasa
    ▪ MRS_2 ‘(a kind of beer)’ ↗marīsaẗ
    ▪ MRS_3 ‘strength, power’ ↗marāsaẗ
    ▪ MRS_4 ‘seasoned, practiced, experienced, veteran’ ↗maris
    ▪ MRS_5 ‘to exercise, pursue, practice’ ↗mārasa
    ▪ MRS_6 ‘rope, cord, line, cable’ ↗marasaẗ
    ▪ MRS_7 ‘to rub o.s. with/against, have trouble, be at odds with’ ↗marasaẗ
    ▪ MRS_8 ‘to fight, struggle, contend with each other’ ↗tamārasa
    ▪ MRS_9 ‘a round in backgammon’ ↗mars
    ▪ MRS_10 ‘hot south wind (eg.)’ ↗marīsī

    Pseudo-MRS:
    ▪ MRS_11 ‘March’ ↗māris
    ▪ MRS_12 ‘merci [Fr]’ ↗mirsī
    ▪ MRS_13 ‘Murcia (a city in Spain)’ ↗mursiyaẗᵘ
    ▪ MRS_14 ‘anchor’ (marsā) ↗rasā (√RSW)
    ▪ MRS_15 ‘myrtle’ ↗marsīn
     
    The “root” √MRS displays an enormous variety of values.
    ▪ Some of these are easily recognizable as borrowings from outside Ar (māris ‘March’, mirsī ‘merci’, marsīn ‘myrtle’).
    ▪ Others conform to common morphological patterns and therefore look genuinely Ar although they might not be so, or actually belong to another root. Thus, some dictionaries list marsà ‘anchor’ under √MRS, although it is definitely from √RSW (but not perhaps the Qur’anic mursà).
    ▪ Among the items that look Ar but actually are borrowings we find the Ar name of the Andalusian city of Murcia, mursiyaẗ; it looks as if it could be from √MRS or from √RSW, but with all likelihood, it is from neither, going back to a local, non-Ar place name.
    ▪ Perfectly “disguised” as Ar words is also hot mistral-like wind blowing from the south, called il-marīsī in EgAr (but to be found also in MSA texts); its name goes back to the Copt expression for a southern Eg province.
    ▪ Another group of items comprises those that not only look Ar but may also actually be so; but some scholars have suggested a foreign origin. Among these we find the kind of beer (or, in ClassAr, date wine) called marīsaẗ; for the beer, at least, a Copt < Eg etymology has been proposed, but it may also simply be a pseudo-PP I from marasa ‘to soak, macerate’ (barley, or dates, in order to let them ferment). marasaẗ ‘rope’ may either be genuinely Ar or a loan from Syr. And for mars, a technical term in playing cards or backgammon, an Ar etymology has been put forward (*‘to sink’ < ‘to soak’), although it is more likely to be a borrowing (both Pers and Tu have been suggested).
    ▪ A number of the remaining values can be explained as having developed from a basic notion of ‘strength, power, force, effort, energy’ (which has survived into MSA unaltered only in the n. marāsaẗ, and perhaps in vb. VI, ‘to struggle, contend with each other’, i.e., use power against each other, put o.’s efforts into reaching a goal, competing with others in doing so). Strength and effort put into s.th. later became identified with practical experience and proficiency, hence the adj. maris ‘seasoned, practiced, experienced, veteran’ (in ClassAr first and foremost ‘strong’) and the vb. III, mārasa ‘to exercise, pursue, practice s.th.’ To the same semantic complex seems to belong the n., now obsolete, maris ‘sort, kind, type’, as in the expression hum ʕalà maris wāḥid ‘they are alike in dispositions’ (Lane1885), ‘they are of the same sort’ (Hava1899), i.e., they are used to apply the same approaches, or practices, they treat things/people in a similar way.
    ▪ The other basic value on which a number of derivatives seem to be dependent, is ‘rope’, marasaẗ. The ClassAr intr. vb. I marisa ‘to fall from the pulley and get stuck’ (said of a rope) and the tr. vb. IV ʔamrasa ‘to set right (a rope), restore (the rope) to the place in which it ran; to remove (the rope) from there’ are clearly denominative from ‘rope’. Perhaps the same holds true also for ‘to rub o.s. with/against, have trouble, be at odds with’ (tamarrasa, vb. V). These values may be akin to the ClassAr marasa ‘to wipe (o.’s hands, bi‑ with)’.
    ▪ According to Ehret1989 as well as Gabal2012, the movement (of o.’s fingers or hands) over or across s.th., a surface, is the nuclear meaning of the bi-consonantal root *MR‑ [↗MRː (MRR)] from which marasa can be regarded to be an extension. Ehret distinguishes two values of marasa, the one meaning ‘to wipe’ having developed from *mar‑ through the addition of a “non-finitive” *‑c (which later became ‑s). Unlike Ehret, for whom the bi-consonantal nucleus does not include the use of ‘force’, Gabal thinks that some kind of force, tightening, or pressure accompanies the movement associated with *mar‑. This idea brings Gabal’s nuclear *mar‑ already close to the ‘rubbing’ and ‘pressing’ that accompanies the getting stuck of the rope, marasaẗ, that has fallen from the pulley, and the ‘strength, power, effort, force, energy’ we encountered in marāsaẗ above.
    ▪ No word from the root √MRS appearing in the Qurʔān, neither Jeffery1938 nor Gabal2012 treat it; so we do not know either how Gabal would explain the relation between the other—and in the dictionaries primary—meaning marasa, namely ‘to soak, macerate’ and, according to many also: ‘to mash, crush with the hand’. The latter aspect is lost in MSA marasa (accord. to WehrCowan1979, at least), but mentioned in many dictionaries of ClassAr, cf. Lane vii 1885: marasa-hū ‘he macerated, steeped, or soaked, it […] and mashed it with the hand […], he rubbed and pressed it (namely, a quantity of dates,) with the hand, in water, so that it became mashed [… or…] soft […]’. The value is also still repeated in Hava1899: marasa u (mars) ‘to dilute and mash (a medicine)’. For Ehret, this marasa is an extension in »fortative (> intensive)« *‑s.
    ▪ Summarizing the above (as far as the three “genuinely” Ar values ‘to soak’, ‘to use force, to crush, smash; power, effort, energy’, and ‘rope’ are concerned), we may, with Ehret and Gabal, assume I a bi-consonantal nuclear *MR‑ ‘to brush with the fingers’ (perhaps accompanied by some pressure). II This nucleus was extended, forming (accord. to Ehret), among many others, two new 3-radical bases: II.1 *MR-C ‘to wipe’ and II.2 *MR-S ‘to macerate and crush with the hand’, which both III merged into Ar *MRS. III.1 From II.1 ‘to wipe’ is the vb. I, now obsolete, marasa ‘to wipe’. III.2 continues II.2, splitting in III.2.a marasa ‘to soak, macerate (and crush with the hand)’, a value that has cognates in Akk marāsu A ‘to stir into a liquid’, or marsu ‘mixed, mashed’, and III.2.b the idea of crushing, rubbing, pressing, i.e., using force on the object under one’s treatment, as preserved in MSA marāsaẗ ‘strength, power, force, effort, energy’. — The ‘rope’, marasaẗ, is difficult to relate: it may belong to III.2.b, either as *‘the one obstructing the pulley when falling from it’, but more likely as *‘the thing that is produced (i.e. twisted) with a lot of energy, the thing that is strong’. Fraenkel1886 is unclear, but in one place he thinks it is an Aramaeism, derived from Syr maršā ‘strong hempen rope’ (p. 93); on another occasion, however, he thinks marasaẗ »is probably genuine« (p. 229). — For further derivations, see individual entries ↗marasa, ↗marasaẗ, ↗marāsaẗ
    – 
    ▪ MRS_1 marasa ‘to soak in water, macerate’: Akk marāsu A ‘to stir into a liquid’, marsu ‘mixed, mashed’ (said of malt steeped for beer), mirsu (also mersu, mirisu) ‘a confection made of dates, oil, butter, etc.’ (CAD), Syr mras (2) ‘contudit’ (Brockelmann1895). – ? Cf. also Akk marāsu B ‘to squash’ (CAD), Syr mras (1) ‘pressit’ (Brockelmann1895), ‘zerrühren’ (Zimmern1914), ‘to crush, bruise, steep’, maršā, maršətā, məraštā ‘pestle, mortar’ (PayneSmith1903). – ? Cf. also Ar ↗marāsaẗ ‘strength, power, vigour’. – ? Cf Dozy1881-II: Ar marīs ‘kind of thin bread, kneaded (yumras) together with butter and dates’.
    ▪ MRS_2 marīsaẗ ‘(a kind of beer)’: ? (Eg)Ar marīsī, a hot wind blowing from southern Egypt, from Copt marēs ‘country of the south, southern region’ (Dozy1881). – ? Ar marasa ‘to soak (and crush with the hands)’, marīs ‘dates soaked in water or milk’, marīsaẗ ‘date-wine’ (Hava1899), Akk marāsu A ‘to stir into a liquid’, marsu ‘mixed, mashed’ (said of malt steeped for beer) (CAD), mirsu ‘mash, purée’, Aram məras ‘to soak, macerate’, marīs ‘date jam, mash’ (Zimmern1914).
    ▪ MRS_3 marāsaẗ ‘strength, power’: ↗marasa, perhaps also ↗marasaẗ.
    ▪ MRS_4 maris ‘seasoned, practiced, experienced, veteran’: ↗marāsaẗ
    ▪ MRS_5 mārasa ‘to exercise, pursue, practice’: ↗marāsaẗ
    ▪ MRS_6 marasaẗ ‘rope, cord, line, cable’: Syr maršā (Brockelmann1895), also maršətā, məraštā ‘strong hempen rope’ (PayneSmith1903); ? Akk maḫrašu (Jensen, accord. to Brockelmann1895).
    ▪ MRS_7 tamarrasa ‘to rub o.s. with/against, have trouble, be at odds with’: ↗marasaẗ
    ▪ MRS_8 tamārasa ‘to fight, struggle, contend with each other’ ↗marāsaẗ
    ▪ MRS_9 mars ‘a round in backgammon’: ? Tu mars, written mārs. – ? Ar ↗marasa ‘to soak’ (> *‘to sink’?)
     
    ▪ Accord. to Ehret1989, MRS_1 ‘to macerate and [accord. to Ehret also: to] crush with the hand’ is an extension in »fortative (> intensive)« *s, from a 2-cons. root *mr ‘to brush with the fingers’. Other extensions from this root include mart (“extension” in “durative” *‑t ‘to smooth’, ↗maraṯa (with “diffusive” *‑ṯ) ‘to crush with the fingers
    , ↗maraḫa (“iterative” *‑ḥ) ‘to oil, anoint, rub with ointments; to coat slightly with mud’, marz (“intensive” *‑z) ‘to press slightly with the fingertips’, ↗marasa (2) (“non-finitive” *‑c) ‘to wipe’, ↗maraša (“ventive” *‑ɬ) ‘to scratch with the nails’, ↗maraʕa (“sunderative > andative” *‑ʕ) ‘to anoint abundantly’, marġ (“intensive” *‑ġ) ‘to anoint with oil’ (cf. also ↗√MRĠ), marq (“intensive” *‑ḳ) ‘to scratch off the wool’ (cf. also ↗√MRQ), and mary (“inchoative > transitive” *‑y) ‘to stroke the udder of the camel for milking’ (cf. also ↗√MRY).
    ▪ Cf. also the basic value, assumed by Gabal2012 for the 2-cons. basis *MR-, of ‘to let pass (s.th., e.g., the hand), to stroke continuously or all across s.th., folding it strongly, or tightening or pressing it’ (istirsāl iṭṭirādī ʔaw iǧtiyāzī maʕa šiddaẗ ʔaṯnāʔ ʔaw ḍīq wa-ḥabs, iv:2106).
    ▪ For the remaining discussion, see NUTSHELL. 
    – 
    – 
    maras‑ مَرَسَ , u (mars
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRS 
    vb., I 
    to soak (in water), macerate – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Lane vii 1885: ‘he macerated, steeped, soaked it (dates, medicine, bread) in water, and mashed it with the hand, he rubbed and pressed it until it became soft’.
    ▪ Hava1899: ‘to dilute and mash (a medicine)’.27
     
    ▪ Akk marāsu A ‘to stir into a liquid’, marsu ‘mixed, mashed’ (said of malt steeped for beer), mirsu (also mersu, mirisu) ‘a confection made of dates, oil, butter, etc.’ (CAD), Syr mras (2) ‘contudit’ (Brockelmann1895).
    ▪ ? Cf. also Akk marāsu B ‘to squash’ (CAD), Syr mras (1) ‘pressit’ (Brockelmann1895), ‘zerrühren’ (Zimmern1914), ‘to crush, bruise, steep’, maršā, maršətā, məraštā ‘pestle, mortar’ (PayneSmith1903). – Cf. also Ar marāsaẗ ‘strength, power, vigour’ ?
    ▪ ? Dozy1881-II: Ar marīs ‘kind of thin bread, kneaded (yumras) together with butter and dates’211 .
     
    ▪ MSA has preserved only the value ‘to soak (in water), macerate’. Little more than a century ago, however, Hava1899 still mentions also the notion of ‘mashing, rubbing, pressing’ in addition to that of ‘soaking’, i.e., the application of some kind of force, and in ClassAr both come together, cf. SemHist section (with Lane vii 1885).
    ▪ For Akk marāsu, CAD distinguishes a value A ‘to stir into a liquid’ and a value B ‘to squash’. The latter is said to be a loan from Aram.
    ▪ Information in dictionaries of Syr vary. For Syr mras, Brockelmann1895 gives both ‘to soak’ and ‘to press’ as two distinct values, while in PayneSmith1903 they are seen as one: ‘to crush, bruise, steep’. In translating Akk marāsu as ‘zerrühren’, Zimmern1914 too merges ‘soaking’ and ‘mashing’.
    ▪ Ar marīs ‘kind of thin bread, kneaded (yumras) together with butter and dates’, mentioned by Dozy1881, is obviously akin to (or even taken from?) Akk mirsu, var. mersu, mirisu ‘a confection made of dates, oil, butter, etc.’, as given in CAD. So, here too the ‘mixing’ is combined with a kind of ‘smashing’ and the use of force.
    ▪ Besides mras, Syr has also mraš ‘pestle, mortar’, but this is said to be from √RŠ ‘to bray, pound, decorticate’.
    ▪ The question is whether the application of ‘strength, power, vigour’ (↗marāsaẗ) is etymologically dictinct from that of ‘soaking’ (and perhaps came in addition to it) or whether it was inherent in it from the beginning. In the latter case, ‘strength, power, energy, vigour’ has to be interpreted as a specialisation. And then also ↗marasaẗ ‘rope’ (as *‘the thing that is twisted strongly’) is perhaps related. For the whole picture, cf. ↗MRS. 
    – 
    marīsaẗ, n.f., a kind of beer: could be a quasi-PP from marasa, so that the beer would be ‘(the drink made of) soaked (barley, etc.)’. But other etymologies have been suggested, see ↗s.v.
    māras‑ مَارَسَ , (mirās , mumārasaẗ
    ID … • Sw – • BP 1393 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRS 
    vb., III 
    1a to exercise, pursue, practice (s.th., esp., a profession); b (intr.) to practice, have or operate a practice; c to carry on, ply (s.th., e.g., seafaring). – 2 to apply o.s. (to s.th.), go in for – WehrCowan1979. 
    Originally, the vb. seems to mean *‘to put an effort in, strive, struggle to achieve s.th.’ and therefore belongs complex of ‘strength, power, force, effort, energy’ treated under ↗marāsaẗ
    ▪ … 
    marāsaẗ, ↗MRS. Cf. also ↗tamarrasa [v2]. 
    ▪ The vb. III is probably derived from the idea of ‘strength, power, force, effort, energy’, treated under ↗marāsaẗ. In ClassAr, a maris is ‘strong’ man, and from the strength or vehemence ‘in labour or exertion’ is derived the idea of being ‘experienced in affairs’, of having ‘laboured, or exerted [o.s.], in the management, or transaction, thereof’ (Lane vii 1885). From here, the step to the modern meanings of ‘to exercise, pursue an office, practice a profession’, ‘to ply (s.th.)’, and ‘to go in for s.th.’ are only natural. 
    – 
    sahl al-mirās, adj., tractable, manageable, docile, compliant.
    šadīd al-mirās, ṣaʕb al-mirās, adj., intractable, unruly, refractory.
    ṣuʕūbaẗ al-mirās, n., intractability, unruliness, refractoriness, recalcitrance.

    BP#988mumārasaẗ, n.f., pursuit, exercise, practicing (of a profession); execution, implementation; practical application; pl. ‑āt, practice; experience, routine; ( eg.) negotiation, treaty: vn. III. 
    tamarras‑ تَمَرَّسَ , (tamarrus) 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRS 
    vb., V 
    1 to rub o.s. (bi‑ with, against); to have trouble, be at odds (bi‑ with); to have to cope or struggle (bi‑ with s.th.). – 2 to exercise (bi‑ an office), pursue, practice (bi‑ a profession); to work (bi‑ with), be in practical contact, have actually to do (bi‑ with s.th.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    The two values probably belong to two different themes, treated under ↗marasaẗ ‘rope’ and ↗marāsaẗ ‘strength, power, force, energy, effort’, respectively. 
    ▪ … 
    marasaẗ, ↗marāsaẗ, ↗MRS 
    ▪ [v1] probably belongs to ↗marasaẗ ‘rope’. ClassAr still has the denom. vb. I marisa ‘to fall from the pulley, get stuck’ (said of a rope), hence the expression marisat ḥibāluhū ‘his affairs were unsettled’, which is close to the modern meanings, obviously metaphorical, ‘to be in trouble, have to cope with s.th.’. Lane vii 1885 lists as the first meaning of the vb. V ‘to be(come) strongly twisted, and adhering’. The notion of ‘strength, power, energy’ inherent in this definition brings it close to the most likely origin of [v2].
    ▪ [v2] is probably based on this notion of ‘strength, power, force, energy’, treated under ↗marāsaẗ. In ClassAr, a maris is ‘strong’ man, and from the strength, or vehemence, ‘in labour or exertion’ is derived the idea of being ‘experienced in affairs’, of having ‘laboured, or exerted [o.s.], in the management, or transaction, thereof’ (Lane). From here, the step to the modern meaning ‘to exercise, pursue an office, practice a profession’ is not far. 
    – 
    tamarrus, n., practicing, practice (bi‑ of an activity, of a profession): vn. V of [v2].
    mutamarris, adj., practiced, experienced, veteran : PA V of [v2].
     
    tamāras‑ تَمَارَسَ (tamārus
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRS 
    vb., VI 
    to fight, struggle, contend with each other – WehrCowan1979. 
    Dictionaries of ClassAr explain the vb. VI as belonging to the idea of ‘strength, power, force, effort’, treated under ↗marāsaẗ
    ▪ … 
    marāsaẗ. But cf. also ↗marasaẗ and ↗MRS. 
    ▪ For ClassAr, Lane vii 1885 specifies the meaning of vb. VI as ‘(to labour, strive, struggle, contend or conflict with each other, to prevail, overcome, gain the mastery, or effect an object:) to contend together, smiting each other, syn. taḍāraba ’. This suggests that the meaning is based on the notion of ‘strength, power, force, effort’, treated under ↗marāsaẗ, as, lit., *‘to apply force against one another’.
    ▪ But couldn’t it also be related to the notion of ‘getting stuck’ and ‘rubbing’ o.s. against s.th./s.o., as represented by the ClassAr vb. I marisa ‘to fall from the pulley (a rope) and get stuck fast’? For this complex, cf. ↗marasaẗ ‘rope’. 
    – 
    – 
    mars مَرْس 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRS 
    n. 
    game which is won by getting all the tricks – WehrCowan1979.; raffle (at play) – Hava1899 
    Formally, the word could be a vn. I of marasa ‘to soak and mash’. But the fact that it is found in Tu as mars (not *mers, as it should be if it was taken from an Ar mars) and that in Ott it is written with an ʔalif (mā̆rs), points to a non-Ar origin. For Redhouse, the word is Tu – but it does not look Tu at all. For BadawiHinds, it is of Pers origin – but I found neither an entry mars nor one mārs in a Pers dictionary. 
    ▪ Tu mars : 1876 written mārs, ‘to get all the tricks in a game, to win’ (Aḥmed Vefīḳ Paşa, Luġat-ı ʕOs̱mānī). Cf. also Redhouse1890 ‘1. (at cards) A game lost with all the tricks, 2. (at backgammon) A game lost without one piece removed from the board’. 
    … 
    ▪ BadawiHinds1986: from Pers mars ‘a round in backgammon in which the winner removes all his chips from the board before his opponent removes any, a gammon’. But this item is not to be found in Steingass or other dictionaries of Pers.
    ▪ Nişanyan (#mars, 2.9.14) sees the word as a vn. of ↗marasa ‘to soak’, in the specialized sense of ‘to sink’ (s.o.’s “ships” in a game). But this is unlikely: in Ottoman, the word is written with ʔalif, and the usual rendering of Ar mars should be *mers.
    ▪ Redhouse1890 identifies Ott mars (written mārs) as »T[urkish]«. 
    – 
    – 
    maris مَرِس , pl. ʔamrās 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRS 
    adj. 
    seasoned, practiced, experienced, veteran – WehrCowan1979. 
    The modern meaning seems to have evolved from an earlier value ‘strong, energetic’. The adj. therefore belongs to the complex of ‘strength, power, force, effort, energy’ treated under ↗marāsaẗ and is of course related to vb. III, ↗mārasa ‘to practice’. 
    ▪ … 
    marāsaẗ, ↗mārasa, ↗MRS. Cf. also ↗tamarrasa [v2]. 
    In ClassAr, a maris is ‘strong’ man, and from the strength or vehemence ‘in labour or exertion’ is derived the idea of being ‘experienced in affairs’, of having ‘laboured, or exerted [o.s.], in the management, or transaction, thereof’ (Lane vii 1885). From here, the step to the modern meaning is only natural. 
    – 
    Cf.
    BP#1393mārasa, vb. III, to exercise, pursue, practice (s.th., esp., a profession); (intr.) to practice, have or operate a practice; to carry on, ply (s.th., e.g., seafaring); to apply o.s. (to s.th.), go in for: applicative.
    BP#988mumārasaẗ, n.f., pursuit, exercise, practicing (of a profession); execution, implementation; practical application; pl. ‑āt, practice; experience, routine; (eg.) negotiation, treaty: vn. III, applicative. 
    marasaẗ مَرَسة , pl. ʔamrās 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRS 
    n.f. 
    rope, cord, line; cable, hawser – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ PayneSmith1903: Syr maršā, maršətā, məraštā) ‘strong hempen rope’212 .
    ▪ Brockelmann1895: Syr maršā ‘funis [rope]’, (Jensen:) Akk maḫrašu.
     
    ▪ Fraenkel1886 is not clear (or even contradicts himself?): on the one hand (p. 229), he says that marasaẗ ‘rope’ probably is genuinely Ar (only the later vulgar variant maraš being borrowed from Syr); on the other hand (p. 93), he states that only the vb. ↗marasa is Ar while marasaẗ ‘rope’ is a loan from Syr (the variant form marš being a late Aramaeism that replaced the fuṣḥà word in Syria and Iraq). Fraenkel rejects a relation between ‘rope’ and ‘to twist’ which, accord. to him, is another meaning of Ar mrs and the etymon of ↗mārasa, vb. III, ‘to fight’.
    ▪ Lane’s (vii 1885) comment that the rope is »so called because of the strong twisting and adhering (tamarrus) of its strands, one upon another« connects marasaẗ to the vb. I ↗marasa ‘to mash, press, knead’ and to the vb. V tamarrasa ‘to exercise (an office), etc.’, treated under ↗marāsaẗ ‘strength, power, vigour’.
    ▪ Brockelmann1895 notes that Syr maršā ‘rope’, accord. to Jensen, is from an Akk maḫrašu. But this is not verifiable in CAD, which only has markasu ‘rope, cable of a boat’ (among other values).
    ▪ … 
    – 
    marisa, a (maras), vb. I, to fall from the pulley (rope) [and stick fast]: denom.
    ʔamrasa, vb. IV, to set right (a rope), restore (the rope) to the place in which it ran; to remove (the rope) from there: denom.
    tamarrasa, vb. V, to rub o.s. (bi‑ with, against; so also ĭmtarasa, vb. VIII): denom.; to have trouble, be at odds (bi‑ with); to have to cope or struggle (bi‑ with s.th.): metaphorical use of the former. – For other meanings see ↗marāsaẗ
    marāsaẗ مَراسة 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRS 
    n.f. 
    strength, power – WehrCowan1979. 
    It is difficult to decide whether ‘strength, power, force, effort, energy’ is a value in its own right, or whether it depends either on ‘to soak (and at the same time mash, i.e., exert power on the soaked material)’ (↗marasa) or on the ‘rope’ (↗marasaẗ) that has fallen from the pulley and is now rubbing ‘vehemently’ against it, obstructing its movement. 
    ▪ … 
    ↗MRS, ↗marasa), perhaps also ↗marasaẗ
    ▪ The notion of ‘strength, power, force, effort, energy’ is certainly one of the most basic ideas in the root √MRS, and many other items are derived from it. But is it also the primary meaning? No vb. I and no simple n. other than marāsaẗ is to be found that could help decide this question. See DISC in ↗MRS.
     
    – 
    NB: None of the following items are derivations, in the proper sense, from marāsaẗ, but akin to it.
    BP#1393mārasa, vb. III, to exercise, pursue, practice (s.th., esp., a profession); (intr.) to practice, have or operate a practice; to carry on, ply (s.th., e.g., seafaring); to apply o.s. (to s.th.), go in for: applicative (*‘to put one’s efforts or energy into s.th.), see also ↗s.v..
    tamarrasa, vb. V, to exercise (bi‑ an office), pursue, practice (bi‑ a profession); to work (bi‑ with), be in practical contact, have actually to do (bi‑ with s.th.):… – For other meanings see ↗marasaẗ.
    tamārasa, vb. VI, to fight, struggle, contend with each other: recipr. See also ↗s.v..

    maris, pl. ʔamrās, adj., seasoned, practiced, experienced, veteran: see s.v..
    mirās, n.: sahl al-~, adj., tractable, manageable, docile, compliant; šadīd al-~ or ṣaʕb al-~, adj., intractable, unruly, refractory; ṣuʕūbaẗ al-~, n., intractability, unruliness, refractoriness, recalcitrance: vn. III in ‘false ʔiḍāfaẗ’.
    BP#988mumārasaẗ, n.f., pursuit, exercise, practicing (of a profession); execution, implementation; practical application; pl. ‑āt, practice; experience, routine; (eg.) negotiation, treaty: vn. III, applicative.
    tamarrus, n., practicing, practice (bi of an activity, of a profession): vn. V.
    mutamarris, adj., practiced, experienced, veteran: PA V. 
    marīsaẗ مَرِيسَة 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRS 
    n.f. 
    a kind of beer – WehrCowan1979.; date-wine – Hava1899 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ Dozy1881 thinks that the marīsaẗ type of beer, like the hot wind called marīsī, blowing from southern Egypt, take their name from Copt marēs ‘country of the south, southern region’764 (Copt ma ‘country’ + rēs ‘south’ [cf. Eg ʕ-rs.j ‘southern province; Upper Egypt’ – ThLAeg]).
    ▪ Cf., however, Hava1899: marīs ‘dates soaked in water or milk’, marīsaẗ ‘date-wine’.
    ▪ CAD: Akk marāsu A ‘to stir into a liquid’, marsu ‘mixed, mashed’ (said of malt steeped for beer).
    ▪ Zimmern1914:38 Akk mirsu ‘mash, purée’, marāsu ‘to stir and mash’: probably > Aram məras ‘id.’ (probably > Ar marasa ‘aufweichen’, marīs ‘date jam, mash’).
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    marīsī مَرِيسيّ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRS 
    n. 
    hot south wind (eg.20 ) – WehrCowan1979. 
    A nominalized adj., from Copt marēs (region in Upper Egypt, boardering on Nubia), lit. ‘(the wind blowing) from the marēs region’. 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ Corriente2008: (EgAr mirīsī :) (following Bishai1964) from Copt marēs ‘country of the south, southern region’765 (ma ‘country’ + rēs ‘south’ (cf. Eg ʕ-rs.j ‘southern province; Upper Egypt’ – ThLAeg)
    ▪ Dozy1881 thinks that also the ↗marīsaẗ type of beer takes its name from the marēs region. But cf. s.v. for other etymologies. 
    – 
    – 
    māris مارِس 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRS, MāRS 
    n. 
    March – WehrCowan1979. 
    From Lat Mars, the god of war (Rolland2014). 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    mursiyatᵘ مُرْسِيَة 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRS 
    n.f.prop.loc. 
    Murcia (a city in Spain) – WehrCowan1979. 
    The Span name Murcia goes back to Ar mursiyaẗ, which is perhaps from Lat myrtea or murtea ‘land of myrtle’ (Lat murtus, from Grk mýrtos), or from the common Roman name Murtius, or from Lat mōrus ‘mulberry tree’ (as this tree covered the local landscape for many centuries, < Grk móron, mṓron) – en.wiki. 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    Dictionaries of Ar often treat mursiyaẗ under √RSW, explaining it as a place of ‘anchorage’. But if this were the case, then the form, an PA IV, is difficult to explain (*‘the one that makes you anchor, causes you to stop’?). It is more probable that the Ar name is borrowed from an indigenous place name. The modern Span name, however, seems to have evolved from the Ar one. 
    – 
    – 
    mirsī , mīrsī , mersī مِرْسي ، ميرسي 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRS, MRSY, MYRS, MYRSY 
    interj. 
    thank you!, merci 
    From Fr merci
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    marsīn مَرْسين 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRS, MRSN, RSN 
    n. 
    myrtle (myrtus; bot.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Earliest attestation in Tu 1420 (in Yādigār-ı İbn-i Şerīf) – Nişanyan (08Sep2014). 
    … 
    ▪ Lane vii 1885 (#MRS) reproduces the opinion held by al-Zabīdī in TA that the word is from EgAr and that the final n »perhaps… is a radical letter«.
    ▪ Nişanyan (08Sep2014): Tu mersin is from nGrk myrsíni, from oGrk mýrsinos, mýrsinē, from mýrtos. The Ar form looks as if it came from the same source. Accord. to Nişanyan, the Pers form murd perhaps points to a common origin of the Pers and Grk words in an Anatolian language. 
    ▪ Kluge2002: Ge Myrte C10, from Lat murtus, myrtus, from Grk mýrtos, from a Sem source.
    EtymOnline: Engl myrtle c.1400, from oFr mirtile, from mLat myrtillus, dimin. of Lat mýrtus ‘myrtle tree’, from Grk mýrtos ‘the myrtle, a sprig of myrtle’, from same Sem source as Grk mýrrha – see ↗murr
    – 
    MRḌ مرض 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRḌ 
    “root” 
    ▪ MRḌ_1 ‘to be(come) sick, fall ill; illness’ ↗mariḍa, ↗maraḍ
    ▪ MRḌ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be sick, to be taken ill, to nurse; affliction; pest, to be weak; to be of bad judgement; to be hypocritical, to have doubt’ 
    ▪ BAH2008 gives the variety of meanings attached to √MRḌ in ClassAr as: ‘to be sick, be taken ill; to nurse; affliction; pest, to be weak; to be of bad judgment; to be hypocritical, have doubt’.
    ▪ Original meaning in Sem probably ‘to feel or cause pain’, whence the values ‘to be grievous’, ‘be difficult’, and ‘to be strong’ in a number of Sem languages (↗mariḍa). 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    mariḍ‑ مَرِضَ a (maraḍ
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRḌ 
    vb., I 
    to be or become sick; to fall ill, be taken ill – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Fronzaroli reconstructed protSem *mariḍ‑ ‘ill, ailing’ (adj.), Kogan2011 has the more general protSem *√MRŚ ‘to be ill’.
    ▪ Original meaning probably ‘to feel or cause pain’, whence the values ‘to be grievous’, ‘be difficult’, and ‘to be strong’ in a number of Sem languages. 
    ▪ eC7 (mariḍa, to become ill) Q 26:80 wa-ʔiḏā mariḍtu fa-huwa yašfī-nī ‘and if I fall sich He heals me’; (maraḍ, illness, sickness, disease) Q 33:60 wa-’llaḏīna fī qulūbi-him maraḍun ‘and those in whose hearts is a sickness, those who harbour ill feelings’; (marīḍ, ill, sick, infirm) 73:20 ʕalima ʔan sa-yakūnu min-kum marḍà ‘He knows that some of you will be sick’ 
    ▪ Fronzaroli #2.12: Akk mariṣ, Ug mrṣ ‘ill, ailing’, Hbr nimrāṣ ‘ailing’, Syr marʕā, Ar marīḍ ‘ill, ailing’, Ar mariḍa ‘to be sick, ill’, SAr mrḍ ‘ill, ailing’.
    ▪ Zammit2002: Akk marāṣu ‘to be ill, be suffering’, Ug mrṣ ‘to be sick’, Hbr māraṣ ‘to be sick’, Aram Syr mᵉraʕ ‘to be/ fall sick’ (OAram mrq ‘illness’), Ar mariḍa ‘to be ill’, SAr mrḍ ‘to suffer a sickness’.
    ▪ Kogan2011: Akk marāṣu, Ug mrṣ, Syr mraʕ, Ar mrḍ, Sab mrṣ́, Mhr mərēź, Jib mírẓ́.
    ▪ CAD: marāṣu1 to fall ill, have a disease, (stat.) to be diseased; 2 to be concerned, be cause for annoyance, become troublesome, difficult, (stat.) be difficult, in difficulty, troublesome; 3 (with eli, ina muḫḫi, ana, or dat.) to become displeasing, troublesome’. – Cf. also marrāṣu (adj.) ‘sickly’, marṣiš (adv.) ‘bitterly, with difficulty, with pain’,marṣu, f. mariṣtu (adj.) ‘1 sick, diseased; 2 difficult, inaccessible, impregnable, severe, grievous, bitter’,maruṣtu (var. of maruštu, n.f.) ‘1 trouble, hardship, difficulty; 2 left side’, murṣu ‘illness’, namraṣiš (adv.) ‘with difficulty’, namrāṣu ‘difficulty, hardship, trouble’.
    ▪ Dolgopolsky2012#1475: Akk √MRṢ ‘to fall ill, have a disease’, Ug √MRṢ ‘to be sick’, mrṣ ‘illness’, JA √MRʕ (pfv mᵉraʕ) ‘to be ill; to fall sick, be(come) weak’, mᵉraʕ ‘sick, suffering’, Syr mraʕ ‘to fall ill, become sick’, BiblHbr nimrāṣ ‘sore, grievous’ (< ‘made sick’), Ar mariḍa ‘to be diseased, ill’, Sab √MRṢ́ ‘to suffer from disease’, Mhr mērɜṣ́/ẓ́ ‘to be ill’, Jib mirṣ́/ẓ́, Ḥrs mēreź ‘to be unwell, be ill’, Soq √mrṣ́, Śḥr (Š-stem) hemrōṣ́ ‘to heal’. – Outside Sem: perhaps Eg mr ‘illness’213 and IE *mer‑ ‘to die’214 (uncertain).
     
    ▪ Since it is difficult to decide what was first – the vb. ‘to be sick, ill’, the n. ‘sickness, illness’, or the adj. ‘sick, ill’, all are treated here under the vb.
    ▪ Klein1987: »The orig[inal] meaning of this base prob[ably] was ‘to feel or cause pain’, whence arose the meanings ‘to be grievous’, ‘be difficult’, and ‘to be strong’«. Klein is probably right, cf. the Akk case where the values attached to the root vary between ‘illness, sickness, disease’ (primary value in the vb. marāṣu, the adj. marṣu, etc.) and ‘difficulty, hardship’ (primary value in the n.s maruṣtu and namrāṣu as well as the adv.s marṣiš and namraṣiš).
    ▪ Fronzaroli #2.12 reconstructs Sem *mariḍ‑ ‘ill, ailing’.
    ▪ Kogan2011 reconstructs Sem *mrś ‘to be ill’, adding that the Sem word is only scarcely attested in Hbr (replaced there by ḥly with no certain etymology) and that it is missing from EthSem (replaced by reflexes of Sem *ḥmm ‘to be hot’766 ).
    ▪ Dolgopolsky2012#1475: Sem *√MRṢ́ ‘to be(come) sick, fall ill’, ? from Nostr *m˹ä˺R˻˅˼ć̣˅ ‘to be ill, be wounded’ (if Eg and IE are genuine cognates).
     
    – 
    marraḍa, vb. II, to make ill or sick: caus.; to nurse, tend (a sick person): denom. (from maraḍ or marīḍ).
    ʔamraḍa, vb. IV, to make ill or sick (s.o.): caus.
    tamarraḍa, vb. V, to be infirm, ailing, sickly, weak: tD-stem, refl./ingress.
    tamāraḍa, vb. VI, to feign illness, malinger: tL-stem (‘to act as if…’).

    BP#452maraḍ, pl. ʔamrāḍ, n., disease, malady, ailment; illness, sickness: vn. I (perhaps the etymon proper) | ~ al-bayāḍ al-daqīqī, n., mildew; ~ ʕaṣabī, n., nervous disease, neuropathy; ~ ʕaqlī, n., mental disease; ~ faḥmī, n., blight, blast (of grain); ~ firanǧī, n., syphilis; ~ muʕdin, n., contagious disease; ʔamrāḍ bāṭiniyyaẗ, n.pl., internal diseases; ʔamrāḍ sirriyyaẗ, n.pl., venereal diseases; ʔamrāḍ ṣadriyyaẗ, n.pl., diseases of the chest, pulmonary diseases; ʔamrāḍ al-manāṭiq al-ḥārraẗ, n.pl., tropical deseases.
    murḍin, det. murḍī : ↗raḍiya..
    BP#3933maraḍī, adj., relating to disease, morbid, pathological, patho- (in compounds): nsb-adj., from maraḍ.
    BP#822marīḍ, pl. marḍà, marāḍà, adj., sick, ill, ailing; diseased; unwell, indisposed: quasi-PP I; n., sick person, patient: nominalized adj. | ~ nafsī, n., psychopath.
    mimrāḍ, adj., sickly, in poor health, ailing:…
    tamrīḍ, n., sick-nursing: vn. II, denom.
    BP#4716mumarriḍ, n., (male) sick nurse, hospital attendant; ambulance man, first-aid man; doctor’s assistant: nominalized PA II, denom.
    mumarriḍaẗ, n.f., sick nurse, nurse (f.): f. of previous.
    mutamarriḍ, adj., sickly, in poor health, ailing: PA V.
     
    maraḍ مَرَض , pl. ʔamrāḍ 
    ID 815 • Sw – • BP 452 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRḌ 
    n. 
    disease, malady, ailment; illness, sickness – WehrCowan1979. 
    vn. I of ↗mariḍa. (The n. is perhaps the etymon proper, but since it may also have been the vb. or the adj. it is treated here under the vb.) 
    mariḍa 
    mariḍa 
    mariḍa 
    – 
    maraḍ al-bayāḍ al-daqīqī, n., mildew.
    maraḍ ʕaṣabī, n., nervous disease, neuropathy.
    maraḍ ʕaqlī, n., mental disease.
    maraḍ faḥmī, n., blight, blast (of grain).
    maraḍ firanǧī, n., syphilis.
    maraḍ muʕdin, n., contagious disease.
    ʔamrāḍ bāṭiniyyaẗ, n.pl., internal diseases.
    ʔamrāḍ sirriyyaẗ, n.pl., venereal diseases.
    ʔamrāḍ ṣadriyyaẗ, n.pl., diseases of the chest, pulmonary diseases.
    ʔamrāḍ al-manāṭiq al-ḥārraẗ, n.pl., tropical deseases.

    For other items, cf. ↗mariḍa
    MRṬB مرطب 
    ID 816 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRṬB 
    “root” 
    ▪ MRṬB_1 ‘jar made of glass or pottery with lid’ ↗ marṭabān
    – 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    marṭabān مَرْطَبان , var. martabān , baṭramān , ↗barṭamān , pl. ‑āt 
    ID 817 • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRṬB 
    n. 
    (syr.) jar made of glass or pottery with a lid for preserving fruit, pickles, marmelade, etc.; (EgAr) = ↗barṭamān – WehrCowan1979. 
    After Martaban (Mottama), now a village, in the Middle Ages a city in Southern Burma from which a kind of precious vessel with lid was imported. From the fact that in Pers, into which the word passed from Ar, martabān means ‘a vessel of the finest porcelain which poison cannot penetrate’ (Steingass) it can be inferred that the reason for the vessel’s fame and market value was the high quality of the material which made the vessel walls impermeable/impenetrable.
    According to some (e.g., Kluge, Vennemann), Ar marṭabān is the etymon of European words for marzipan/marchpane, the semantic link being little boxes called marzapane in which the delicious sweet was packed in Venice for shipping. The name of the receptable then was transferred to its favourite contents. 
    1881 Dozy ‘(dans les dict. pers. aussi martabān) [▪ …] vase de porcelaine dans lequel on serre des médicaments, des confitures, des épices ou de l’encre’, taken from al-Bustānī’s Muḥīṭ al-muḥīṭ, where it is arranged under the root RṬB and classified as a ʕāmmiyya word.
    1887 Wahrmund ‘glasiertes Gefäß’. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    According to Vennemann2006 (and Kluge2002), the ‘receptacle made of porcelain for keeping medicine, confiture, spices, or ink’ was named after Martaban (Mottama), now a village, in the Middle Ages a city in Southern Burma, where this kind of jars were produced and from where they were imported, among other regions, into the Arab World, obviously on account of the impermeability of this type of high quality pottery.
    ▪ Unrelated to √RṬB or √RTB
    ▪ It seems not unlikely that marṭabān is the etymon of the Eur words for marzipan/marchpane (Kluge2002, Vennemann2006). From Ar, the word seems to have passed into Italian by way of trading, and by the turn of C13 to C14, marzapane appears in Venetia as a term for a little box that was used as a container of marchpane, esp. for export (cf. also Sicilian marzapani and Calabrian marzapane ‘wooden box, band-box’). In C14 the term for the box was transferred to its contents, and with the latter then made its way into the rest of Europe. In Ge, e.g., the word is attested from eC16 (EtDUD). – For another etymology of marzipan / marchpane see ↗waṯaba
    – 
    MRQ مرق 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ MRQ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ MRQ_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    maraq مَرَق 
    ID 818 • Sw – • BP 6823 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MRQ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protWSem *maraḳ‑ ‘broth’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
     
    MRW مرو 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 13May2023
    √MRW 
    “root” 
    ▪ MRW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MRW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MRW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘hard, white stone from which blades are made, flint; barren land; type of fragrant tree’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    MRY مري 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 13May2023
    √MRY 
    “root” 
    ▪ MRY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MRY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MRY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to rub the udder of a she-camel before milking, (of a she-camel) to give plenty of milk; to cause blood to flow, bring forth; to bring out all arguments in a dispute, wrangle, oppose, doubt; to be bright; white antelope, the sweat of a running horse’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    MRYM مريم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 13May2023
    √MRYM 
    “root” 
    ▪ MRYM_1 ‘Maria’ ↗Maryam
    ▪ MRYM_ ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ [v1] ↗Maryam 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    Maryamᵘ مَرْيَمُ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 13May2023
    √MRYM, RWM, MRY 
    n.pr.f. 
    Maria 
    ▪ »Some philologists suggest an Ar root for this name (↗RWM), but under the root ↗MRY the possibly related proper name Māriyaẗᵘ or Māriyyaẗᵘ is classified and connected with the senses of ‘being bright’ and ‘white antelope’. However, many other philologists recognise the name as a borrowing from Hbr into Ar« – BAH2008. 
    ▪ ... 
    ▪ ... 
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »The name refers always to the mother of Jesus, though in xix, 29; iii, 31; lxvi, 12, she is confused with Miriam, the sister of Moses and Aaron. / Some of the philologers took the name to be Arabic, a form maFʕaL from rāma, meaning ‘to depart from a place’.767 Some, however, noted it as a foreign word,768 and Bayḍ. on iii, 31, goes as far as to say that it is Hbr. Undoubtedly it does go back to the Hbr Miryām but the vowelling of the Ar Maryam would point to its having come from a Chr source rather than directly from the Hbr. The Grk Maríam, Syr Maryam, Eth [Gz] Māryām are equally possible sources, but the probabilities are in favour of its having come from the Syr.769 There seems no evidence for the occurrence of this form in pre-Islamic times,770 though the form Māriy(y)aẗ, the name of the Coptic slave girl sent from Egypt to Muḥammad,771 is found in a verse of al-Ḥāriṯ b. Ḥilliẓa, iii, 10 (ed. Krenkow, Beirut, 1922).« 
    ▪ ... 
    – 
    MZǦ مزج 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 13May2023
    √MZǦ 
    “root” 
    ▪ MZǦ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MZǦ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MZǦ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to mix, mixture, substance for mixing with other things; to ripen; person prone to change, temperament’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    mazāǧ مَزاج 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 3662 • APD … • © SG | created 9Jun2023
    √MZǦ 
    n. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    MZḤ مزح 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MZḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ MZḤ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ MZḤ_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    mazaḥ‑ مَزَحَ 
    ID 819 • Sw – • BP 5427 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MZḤ 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    MZQ مزق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 13May2023
    √MZQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ MZQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MZQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MZQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to tear up, rip apart, shred, pierce, be tattered; to scatter, disperse’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    MZN مزن 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 13May2023
    √MZN 
    “root” 
    ▪ MZN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MZN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MZN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘rain clouds; to go about one’s business in haste, run away from an enemy, be far away; to act pleasantly’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    MSː (MSS) مسّ/مسس 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 13May2023
    √ MSː (MSS) 
    “root” 
    ▪ MSː (MSS)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MSː (MSS)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MSː (MSS)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to touch, feel; to cohabit; to hit, befall, harm, afflict, slight madness, slight fever; to be mean, be extreme; thirst-quenching water, verdant pasture; antidote’ 
    ▪ From protSem *√MŠŠ ‘to feel, grope for, touch’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl massage, masseur, from Ar ↗massa ‘to touch’ (or ↗masaḥa ‘to anoint, stroke, rub’). 
    – 
    MSḤ مسح 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MSḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ MSḤ_1 ‘to anoint’ ↗masaḥa, ‘Messias’ ↗masīḥ, ‘Christendom’ ↗masīḥiyyaẗ
    ▪ MSḤ_2 ‘crocodile’ ↗timsāḥ (√TMSḤ)
    ▪ MSḤ_3 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to wipe off, to caress; to anoint; to shake hands over a deal; flat barren land; to deceive by insincere words, insincere person, a lie; to travel in the land; to cut off, to smite’. – Some philologists classify al-Masīḥ under this root, while others recognise it as a borrowing from Hbr. 
    ▪ MSḤ_1 : From protSem *√MŠḤ ‘to anoint’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ MSḤ_2 : From Eg msḥ, mzḥ (LE) ‘crocodile’
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl Messiahmasīḥ); massage, masseurmasaḥa (or ↗massa). 
    – 
    masīḥ مَسِيح , pl. musaḥāʔᵘ , ‎‎masḥà 
    ID 820 • Sw – • BP 3223 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MSḤ 
    ¹adj.; ²n. 
    anointed; wiped, clean, smooth; al-M. the ‎Messiah, Christ – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »It is used only as a title of Jesus, and only in late ‎passages when Muḥammad’s knowledge of the teachings of the People of the Book is much ‎advanced. – The Muslim authorities usually take it as an Ar word from masaḥa ‘to wipe’ ‎‎(Ṭab. on iii, 20). Others said it was from masaḥa ‘to smear’ or ‘anoint’ (Rāghib, Mufradāt, 484), ‎others derived it from sāḥa ‘to travel’ (LA, iii, 431), and some, like Zam. and Bayḍ., rejected ‎these theories and admitted that it was a borrowed word. – Those Muslim philologers who noted it ‎as foreign, claimed that it was Hbr, and this has been accepted by many Western ‎scholars,772 though such a derivation is extremely unlikely. Hirschfeld, Beiträge, 89, would ‎derive it from Aram ‎MŠYḤā, which is possible, though as it is used in early Ar particularly with ‎regard to Jesus, we are safer in holding with Fraenkel, Vocab, 24,773 that it is from Syr məšīḥā especially as this is the source of the Arm mesiay 774 ; Eth [Gz] masīḥ 775 ; the Manichaean mšiχa ‎of the “köktürkisch" fragments776 ; the Pazend mashyâê; Phlv ??? (Shikand, Glossary, ‎‎258), and the Manichaean Soghdian mšyh (Henning, Manichäisches Beichtbuch, 142). – The ‎word was well known in both N and SArabia in pre-Islamic times.777 «
    EALL (Retsö, “Aramaic/Syriac Loanwords”778 ): loaned from Syr mšīḥā ‘‎Christ’
    ▪ Cf. also √MSḤ
    ▪ The English Messiah c.1300 is not from Ar masīḥ but goes back, via the older form messias, from lLat messíās and Grk messías, to the same Aram mešīḥā and Hbr māšīᵃḥ ‘the anointed’ (of the Lord) from which also the Ar word is borrowed. “This is the word rendered in Septuagint as Grk χrīstós (see Christ). In Old Testament prophetic writing, it was used of an expected deliverer of the Jewish nation. The modern English form represents an attempt to make the word look more Hbr, and dates from the Geneva Bible (1560). Transferred sense of ‘an expected liberator or savior of a captive people’ is attested from 1660 s” – EtymOnline
    massaḥa, vb. II, to Christianize: denominative. – For other ‎meanings ↗√masaḥa.
    BP#1561masīḥī, adj., Christian: nsb-adj from the noun.
    BP#4550al-masīḥiyyaẗ, n.f., Christendom: n.abstr. in -iyyaẗ from al-masīḥ
    masīḥī مَسِيحِيّ , pl. ‑ūn 
    ID 821 • Sw – • BP 1561 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MSḤ 
    ¹adj.; ²n. 
    Christian, Messianic; (pl. ‑ūn) a Christian – WehrCowan1979. 
    Nisba formation from ↗masīḥ
    ▪ … 
    – 
    Nisba formation from ↗masīḥ ‘the Messiah, Christ’. 
    – 
    masīḥiyyaẗ, n.f., Christendom; Christianity, the Christian faith : abstract formation in ‑iyyaẗ 
    masīḥiyyaẗ مَسِيحِيَّة 
    ID 822 • Sw – • BP 4550 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MSḤ 
    n.f. 
    Christendom; Christianity, the Christian faith – WehrCowan1979. 
    Abstract formation in iyyaẗ, from ↗masīḥī ‘Christian, a Christian’ (from ↗al-masīḥ ‘the Messiah, Christ’) 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    Abstract formation from ↗masīḥī ‘Christian, a Christian’ (from ↗al-masīḥ ‘the Messiah, Christ’) 
    – 
     
    MSḪ مسخ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 13May2023
    √MSḪ 
    “root” 
    ▪ MSḪ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MSḪ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MSḪ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to distort, transmute, transform into an ugly shape or ugly character, disfigure; tasteless food, a plain person; to wear an animal thin by too much work’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    MSD مسد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 13May2023
    √MSD 
    “root” 
    ▪ MSD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MSD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MSD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘palm tree fibres, rope, twisted from palm tree leaves or fibres, rope, made of wool or from animal hides, to twist very tightly; good figure; to persist in travelling by night’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    MSK مسك 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MSK 
    “root” 
    ▪ MSK_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ MSK_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘hide (originally that of young sheep); bracelet, anklet; a catch, to hold, to seize, to firmly adhere to, to be guided by; to be holding together; brain; to stop doing; to be miserly; deposit; to be impregnable; water reservoir; musk; to scent’. – Although classified under this root, misk is recognised by many philologists as an early borrowing from Pers. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ …
    ▪ …
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *mašk‑, the only widespread term for ‘skin’ in Sem. – For the less widespread synonym, protWSem *gild‑, cf. Ar ↗ǧild.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    misk مِسْك 
    ID 823 • Sw – • BP 4559 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 20Apr2023
    √MSK 
    n. 
    musk – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Cheung2017rev: prob. a direct borrowing from (e)nPers mišk, var. of mušk ‘musk’. For details, see below, section DISC.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ …
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    – 
     
    MSKN مسكن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MSKN 
    “root” 
    ▪ MSKN_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ MSKN_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    miskīn مِسْكِين 
    ID 824 • Sw – • BP 1828 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MSKN 
    adj. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ …
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    – 
     
    MSW مسو 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MSW 
    “root” 
    ▪ MSW_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ MSW_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008, s.r., MSw/y): ‘evening, to enter the evening time; to clear the uterus of a she-ʕamel by hand; to help s.o.; hardship; middle of the road’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
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    – 
    – 
    masāʔ مَساء 
    ID 825 • Sw – • BP 642 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MSW 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *mušy(‑at)‑ ‘evening’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
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    ▪ …
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    MŠǦ مشج 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 13May2023
    √MŠǦ 
    “root” 
    ▪ MŠǦ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MŠǦ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MŠǦ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘mixture of two colours, mixture of red and white, mixture of two things, mix, to mingle, a mixture’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    MŠY مشي 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MŠY 
    “root” 
    ▪ MŠY_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ MŠY_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to walk, to go, to proceed; to increase, to prosper, to multiply; to backbite, to spread slanderous rumours; cattle’ 
    ▪ … 
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    – 
    mašà / mašay‑ مَشَى / مَشَيْـ 
    ID 826 • Sw 65/178 • BP 1248 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MŠY 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
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    MṢR مصر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MṢR 
    “root” 
    ▪ MṢR_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ MṢR_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to milk with the tips of the fingers; to separate; to give sparsely; place where horses are trained; boundaries, city, to urbanise; Egypt; reddish clay; intestines’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
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    – 
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    miṣrī مِصْرِيّ 
    ID 827 • Sw – • BP 381 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MṢR 
    ¹adj.; ²n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    MḌĠ مضغ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 13May2023
    √MḌĠ 
    “root” 
    ▪ MḌĠ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MḌĠ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MḌĠ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘small mound; small piece of meat, morsel, mouthful, to chew; molars, jaws’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    MḌY مضي 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MḌY 
    “root” 
    ▪ MḌY_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ MḌY_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to go, to leave, to pass; to continue, to go by; to execute a task; to expire, to die; to be sharp; to come to pass; to complete a deal’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
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    – 
    maḍà / maḍay‑ مَضَى / مَضَيْـ 
    ID 829 • Sw – • BP 908 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MḌY 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
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    – 
     
    māḍiⁿ , det. ‑ī ماضٍ 
    ID 828 • Sw – • BP 203 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MḌY 
    ¹adj.; ²n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
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    – 
     
    MṬR مطر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MṬR 
    “root” 
    ▪ MṬR_1 ‘rain’ ↗maṭar
    ▪ MṬR_2 ‘to run swiftly (horse), speed away’: see maṭara s.v. ↗maṭar

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘rain, to rain, to hail; to pray for rain; to expose o.s. to the elements; to be steady in one’s views, habit, custom; to seek assistance’ 
    For etymology of MṬR_1 ‘rain’ cf. ↗maṭar
    – 
    For cognates of MṬR_1 ‘rain’ cf. ↗maṭar
    MṬR_2 is explained by Arab lexicographers as a fig. extension of MṬR_1: »marra ’l-farasu yamṭuru, vn. maṭr and muṭūr, and yatamaṭṭaru [vb. V] ‘The horse passed, or went, running vehemently, like the pouring of rain ’« (Lane 7-1885; my italics, SG). The vn.s however suggest that it may be an etymon in its own right. 
    – 
    – 
    maṭar مَطَر , pl. ʔamṭār 
    ID 830 • Sw 76/115 • BP 1468 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MṬR 
    n. 
    rain – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: ProtSem *ḏ˅n˅m‑ (or *ḏ˅n˅n‑), which was prob. the main Sem term for ‘rain’, has left no trace in Ar. Like in other Sem langs, the term was replaced in the CSem area by protCSem *maṭar‑ ‘rain’.
    ▪ … perh. < AfrAs *maṭar‑ ‘water’ (Orel/Stolbova 1994).
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1747: Akk miṭirtu ‘streaming water’; Ug mṭr, Hbr māṭār, Syr meṭrā ‘rain’. – Outside Sem: Eg mtr ‘water’ (Amarna).
    ▪ Kogan2011: Ug mṭr, Hbr māṭār, Syr meṭrā ‘rain’; Sab Min mṭr ‘rain-watered field’. »Akk miṭirtu 215 appears more problematic.«216
    ▪ ? For outside Sem cf. also the Berb forms given by Bennett1998: 228: Jebel Nafusa anẓar, Ghadamsi anaẓar, Wargla amẓar, Ayt Seghrouchen and Shilḥa anẓaṛ ‘rain’. 
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1747: Sem *maṭar‑ ‘rain; water’, from AfrAs *maṭar‑ ‘water’.
    ▪ Kogan2011: Sem *maṭar‑ ‘rain’.
    ▪ The Berb forms given by Bennett1998 seem to be loans from the Ar pl., ʔamṭār
    – 
    maḥaṭṭaẗ li-raṣd al-ʔamṭār, n., pluviometrical station

    maṭara, u, vb. I, 1. a to rain (maṭarat il-samāʔ it rained); to shower with rain (of the sky); to pour out, shower, douse (s.o. bi‑ with): denominative; b. to do, render (bi-ḫayr a good turn, a favour): fig. use of [1a]; 2. to run swiftly (horse), speed away: explained by Arab lexicographers as a fig. extension of [1a]: »marra ’l-farasu yamṭuru, vn. maṭr and muṭūr, and yatamaṭṭaru [vb. V] ‘The horse passed, or went, running vehemently, like the pouring of rain’« (Lane vii-1885; my italics, SG).
    ʔamṭara, vb. IV, 1 to rain (of the sky): denom.; 2 to cause to rain; to shower (s.o.), heap (s.th. upon s.o.): caus. of I.
    ĭstamṭara, vb. X, to ask for rain; to ask s.o. a favour; to wish (for s.th.), desire (s.th.); to invoke, call down (s.th. ʕalà upon s.o.): Št-stem, autobenefactive.

    maṭraẗ, var. maṭaraẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., downpour, rain shower: n.un.
    maṭir and maṭīr, adj., rainy, abounding in rain: adj. formation.
    mimṭar and mimṭaraẗ, pl. mamāṭirᵘ, n., raincoat: n.instr.
    māṭir, adj., rainy, abounding in rain: lexicalized PA I.
    mumṭir, adj., rainy, abounding in rain: PA IV.

     
    MʕD معد 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MʕD 
    “root” 
    ▪ MʕD_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ MʕD_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
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    – 
    – 
    miʕdaẗ مِعْدَة , var. maʕidaẗ 
    ID 831 • Sw – • BP 3629 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MʕD 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
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    – 
     
    MʕZ معز 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 13May2023
    √MʕZ 
    “root” 
    ▪ MʕZ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MʕZ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MʕZ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘goats; rocky, hard, difficult land; a tough person, person with good judgement; to be miserly’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    MʕN معن 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 13May2023
    √MʕN 
    “root” 
    ▪ MʕN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MʕN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MʕN_3 ‘help’ ↗māʕūn (see alphabetically)
    ▪ MʕN_4 ‘fountain, clear flowing water’ ↗maʕīn (arranged s.r. ↗√ʕYN)
    ▪ MʕN_ ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘water channels in the bottom of a valley, sweet, running water, utensils; to devote one’s efforts to; obedience, to confess; assistance; property; settled dwelling’. 
    ▪ BAH2008: »The two words māʕūn and maʕīn are variously derived from either this root or the root ↗ʕYN. They are also considered by some to have been borrowed in pre-Islamic times from Hbr.« 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    MʕY معي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 13May2023
    √MʕY 
    “root” 
    ▪ MʕY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MʕY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MʕY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘intestine; soft ripening date, soft food; (of troubles or disturbance) to spread out’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
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    MFW مفو 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 13May2023
    √MFW 
    “root” 
    ▪ MFW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MFW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MFW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to go fast; to open one’s eyes; limbs, to stretch one’s limbs; to swagger; back of an animal, to mount, riding animals’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
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    MQT مقت 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 13May2023
    √MQT 
    “root” 
    ▪ MQT_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MQT_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MQT_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘guardian; to detest, loathe, abhor, hatred, detestation; marrying the widow or divorcee of one’s father (in pre-Islamic times)’ 
    ▪ … 
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    MKː (MKK) مكّ/مكك 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 13May2023
    √ MKː (MKK) 
    “root” 
    ▪ MKː (MKK)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MKː (MKK)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MKː (MKK)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to suck the mother’s milk dry, chew on hard bones; crowdedness; to press a debtor for a debt; dry measure, drinking goblet; to chirp’ 
    ▪ … 
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    MKṮ مكث 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 13May2023
    √MKṮ 
    “root” 
    ▪ MKṮ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MKṮ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MKṮ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to remain, wait, bide one’s time, await the outcome; to be self-restrained, be calm’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
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    MKR مكر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 13May2023
    √MKR 
    “root” 
    ▪ MKR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MKR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MKR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘plotting, conniving, cunning, to deceive; to irrigate hard, dry land, (of trees) to be of strong, straight stem’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
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    MKN مكن 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 13May2023
    √MKN 
    “root” 
    ▪ MKN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MKN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MKN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘lizard and locust eggs; bird’s nest; to be exalted in position; to be calm; to be firmly established, consolidate, gain influence; to become possible’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
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    MKW مكو 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 13May2023
    √MKW 
    “root” 
    ▪ MKW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MKW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MKW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to whistle, a certain bird with a long whistling sound; buttocks; animal furrows, to wash, (of a horse) to sweat’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    MLː (MLL) ملّ / ملل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MLː (MLL) 
    “root” 
    ▪ MLː (MLL)_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ MLː (MLL)_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘hot ashes, heat of the fire, food cooked in hot ashes; to become bored, to be restless, to loathe; to dictate, to sketch; creed, religion, faith’. – It has been suggested that millaẗ is perhaps a borrowing from Aram. 
    ▪ … 
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    millaẗ مِلّة 
    ID 832 • Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MLː (MLL) 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
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    … 
     
    mullā مُلّا 
    ID 833 • Sw – • BP 4798 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MLĀ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    – 
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    … 
     
    MLʔ ملأ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MLʔ 
    “root” 
    ▪ MLʔ_1 ‘to be(come) filled, full, replete; to fill’ ↗maliʔa / malaʔa
    ▪ MLʔ_2 ‘to help, assist, support; to make common cause, join forces ’ ↗mālaʔa
    ▪ MLʔ_3 ‘crowd, gathering; audience; council of elders’ ↗malaʔ
    ▪ MLʔ_4 ‘wrap worn by Egyptian women; bed sheet’ ↗mulāʔaẗ ~ milāyaẗ
    ▪ MLʔ_5 ‘…’ ↗

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to fill up, capacity, surfeit; to be rich; leaders, notables; groups of people; pleasing sight; to back up; to connive, to gang up on s.o.; good character; outer garments’ 
    ▪ MLʔ_1 (Kogan2015 Sw#32:) from protSem *mlʔ ‘full’ (CDG 342). Passim througout Sem.
    ▪ MLʔ_2 …
    ▪ MLʔ_3 …
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
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    … 
    … 
    … 
    (1) malaʔ‑ ملأ , a (malʔ, malʔaẗ, milʔaẗ)
    and
    (2) maliʔ‑ مَلِئَ , a 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 2067 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MLʔ 
    vb., I 
    (1) 1 to fill, fill up (bi‑ or min or ‑h s.tb. with); 2 to fill out (a form, a blank); 3 to take up, fill, occupy (space); 4 to fill (a vacancy)
    (2) to be or become filled, filled up, full, replete – WehrCowan1976.
     
    ▪ Kogan2015 (Sw#32): from protSem *mlʔ ‘full’ (CDG 342). Passim througout Sem.
    ▪ …
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘full’) Akk malū, Hbr mālē, Syr mlē, Gz (vb. mlʔ (a)).
     
    … 
    … 
    malaʔa ’l‑dahrᵃ, expr., his (its) fame spread far and wide
    malaʔa ’l‑sāʕaẗᵃ, expr., to wind up a watch or clock
    malaʔa šidqayhi bi’l‑hawà, expr., to puff one’s cheeks
    malaʔa ’l‑ʕaynᵃ, expr.,) to satisfy completely; please
    malaʔa ’l‑faḍāʔᵃ bi’l‑šakwà, expr., to fill the air with complaints, voice loud laments
    malaʔa fāhu bi‑, expr., to talk big about…, shoot off one’s mouth about…

    mālaʔa, vb. III, 1 to help, assist, support, back up (s.o. ʕalà in), side; 2 to make common cause, join forces (ʕalà with s.o. against): L-stem, assoc., orig. prob. in the sense of *‘to complement s.o., make s.o. more complete (by joining and assisting him)’.
    ʔamlaʔa, vb. IV, to fill (s.th., also a vacancy): *Š-stem, caus. of intr. vb. I., denom. of malīʔ
    tamallaʔa, vb. V, to fill, become full; to be filled (‑h or bi‑ with), be full (of): Dt-stem, intr.
    BP#4096ĭmtalaʔa, vb. VIII, to fill, become full; to be filled (glass; pass.); to be filled (min, bi‑ with s.th., ‑h also with a feeling), be full (of); to fill, fill up; to imbue, fill (‑h s.o., ‑h with a feeling): Gt-stem, autobenef.

    malʔ, n., filling (also, e.g., of vacancies); filling out.
    BP#3644milʔ, pl. ʔamlāʔ, filling, quantity which fills s.th., fill; quantity contained in s.th. | milʔu ʔihābihī ’l‑kibriyāʔu, expr., he is all pride and arrogance; milʔu baṭnih, n., as much as one can eat, one’s fill; milʔu qadaḥin, n., a cupful; milʔ al‑yad, n., a handful; milʔ kisāʔih, n., corpulent fat; bi‑milʔi ’l‑fam, adv., in a loud voice; bi‑milʔi fīhi, adv., with a ring of deep conviction (with verbs like ‘say’, ‘declare’, ‘exclaim’, etc.); loudly, at the top of one’s voice or one’s lungs (with verbs like ‘shout’, ‘cry’, etc.); ḍaḥika bi‑milʔi (or milʔa) šidqayhi, vb., to grin from ear to ear; qāla bi‑ṣawtin milʔuhū ’l‑šafaqaẗ, expr., he said in a voice full of mercy; lī milʔu ’l‑ḥurriyyaẗ fī…, expr., I have complete freedom to…, I am completely at liberty to…; waqafa mawqifan milʔuhū ’l‑ḥazm, expr., he assumed a posture that was all determination; ʔanti milʔu ḥayātī, expr., you are all my life; yanāmu milʔa ǧafnayhi, expr., he is sound asleep, he sleeps the sleep of the just.
    BP#4733malaʔ, pl. ʔamlāʔ, n., 1 crowd, gathering, assembly, congregation; 2a audience; 2b (general) public; 3 council of elders, notables, grandees | ʕalà ’l‑malaʔ, adv., publicly, in public; ʕalà malaʔ al‑ʕālam, adv., for everyone to see, before all the world; al‑malaʔ al‑ʔaʕlà, n., the heavenly host, the angels.
    mulāʔaẗ, dial. var. milāyaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., 1 wrap worn by Egyptian women; 2 sheet, bed sheet: related to malaʔa ‘to fill’ (*“to cover fully’?) or etymologically from another source?
    BP#2606malīʔ, adj., full (bi‑ of), 1 filled, replete (bi‑ with); 2a bulging, swelling (bi‑ with); plump; 2b stout, fat, corpulent, obese; 3 rich, abounding (bi‑ in); 4 well‑to‑do, wealthy; 5 solvent | malīʔ al‑badan, adj., stout, fat, corpulent
    malʔān, f. malʔà or malʔānaẗ, pl. milāʔ, adj., 1 full, filled, replete; 2 plump, fat: ints.adj.
    mumālaʔaẗ, n.f., 1 partiality, bias; 2 collaboration (pol.): vn. III.
    ʔimlāʔ, n., filling (also, e.g., of a vacancy): vn. IV.
    ĭmtilāʔ, n., 1 repletion, fullness; 2a full, round form, plumpness; 2b bulkiness; 2c fatness, stoutness, corpulence: vn. VIII.
    mamlūʔ, adj., 1 filled, filled up; 2a imbued; 2b loaded: PP I.
    mumāliʔ, 1 adj., partial, biased, prejudiced; 2 collaborator (pol.): PA III.
    mumtaliʔ, adj., full, filled, filled up, replete | mumtaliʔ al‑ǧism, adj., stout, fat, corpulent: PA VIII.

    See also individual entries: ↗mālaʔa, ↗malaʔ, and ↗mulāʔaẗ ~ milāyaẗ, as well as, for the general picture, ↗√MLʔ. 
    mālaʔ‑ مالأ (mumālaʔaẗ
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MLʔ 
    vb., III 
    1 to help, assist, support, back up (s.o. ʕalà in), side; 2 to make common cause, join forces (ʕalà with s.o. against) – WehrCowan1976.
     
    ▪ L-stem of ↗malaʔa ‘to fill’, assoc., orig. prob. in the sense of *‘to complement s.o., make s.o. more complete (by joining and assisting him)’.
     
    ▪ … 
    See ↗malaʔa / maliʔa
    See above, section CONC. 
    … 
    mumālaʔaẗ, n.f., 1 partiality, bias; 2 collaboration (pol.): vn. III.
    mumāliʔ, 1 adj., partial, biased, prejudiced; 2 collaborator (pol.): PA III.

    For other items of the root, cf. ↗maliʔa / malaʔa, ↗malaʔ, and ↗mulāʔaẗ ~ milāyaẗ, as well as, for the general picture, ↗√MLʔ. 
    malaʔ مَلَأ , pl. ʔamlāʔ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 4733 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MLʔ 
    n. 
    1 crowd, gathering, assembly, congregation; 2a audience; 2b (general) public; 3 council of elders, notables, grandees – WehrCowan1976.
     
    ▪ Akin to ↗malaʔa ‘to fill’, the basic idea prob. being that a place of gathering is “filled” completely by those attending. 
    ▪ … 
    See ↗malaʔa / maliʔa
    See above, section CONC. 
    … 
    ʕalà ’l‑ malaʔ, adv., publicly, in public
    ʕalà malaʔ al‑ʕālam, adv., for everyone to see, before all the world
    al‑malaʔ al‑ ʔaʕlà, n., the heavenly host, the angels.

    For other items of the root, cf. ↗malaʔa / maliʔa, ↗mālaʔa, and ↗mulāʔaẗ ~ milāyaẗ, as well as, for the general picture, ↗√MLʔ. 
    mulāʔaẗ مُلاءة , dial./coll. var. milāyaẗ, pl. ‑āt 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MLʔ 
    n.f. 
    1 wrap worn by Egyptian women; 2 sheet, bed sheet – WehrCowan1976.
     
    ▪ Relation to ↗malaʔa ‘to fill’ unclear / not certain, perh. in the sense of *‘to cover fully’? 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ ? Cf. ↗malaʔa / maliʔa.
    ▪ … 
    See above, section CONC. 
    … 
    For other items of the root, cf. ↗malaʔa / maliʔa, ↗mālaʔa, and ↗malaʔ, as well as, for the general picture, ↗√MLʔ. 
    MLḤ ملح 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MLḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ MLḤ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ MLḤ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘salt, to salt, bitter water; sailor, wind that drives boats; beauty’ to be nice, to be of good character; to praise’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl malachite, mallow, mauvemilḥ
    – 
    milḥ مِلْح 
    ID 834 • Sw – • BP 2801 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MLḤ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protWSem *milḥ ‘salt’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl malachite, from Grk malakhē, molokhē ‘mallow’, prob. from a Sem source akin to Hbr mallûᵃḥ, a salt-marsh plant, akin to melaḥ ‘salt’, cf. Ar ↗milḥ. – Engl mallow, mauve, from Lat malva, prob. from a Sem source akin to Hbr mallûᵃḥ (see above). 
     
    MLḪ ملخ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MLḪ 
    “root” 
    ▪ MLḪ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ MLḪ_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    mulūḫiyyaẗ مُلُوخِيَّة 
    ID 835 • Sw – • BP 6802 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MLḪ 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    MLQ ملق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 13May2023
    √MLQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ MLQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MLQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MLQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘smooth, solid rock, to smooth; to flatter; to become impoverished, become destitute; to erase, level up’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    MLK ملك 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MLK 
    “root” 
    ▪ MLK_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ MLK_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ MLK_3 ‘Malik (the angel who has charge over Hell)’ ↗Mālik

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to own, to acquire, owner, ownership, property; to rule, to reign, to control, kingdom, sovereignty, king; slave; foundations, essence, the heart; to marry, marriage ceremony; middle of the road, middle of the valley; angels; heavenly’. 
    ▪ From WSem *√MLK ‘to rule, dominate, possess, own’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ Classified under this root are words which may have had their origin in other Sem languages long before Islam. These are malak from Gz; mālik from Hbr; malakūt from Aram, and malik, together with mulk and malīk, from Akk – BAH2008 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Mameluke, from Ar mamlūk ‘owned, slave, Mameluke’, PP of malaka, vb. I, ‘to own, possess’.
    ▪ Engl Melkite, Melchizedek, Molochmalik.
    ▪ For n.geogr. Malaga, cf. ↗malāk
    – 
    malik مَلِك 
    ID 837 • Sw – • BP 425 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MLK 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ From protSem *malk‑ ‘ruler, king’ – Huehnergard2011.
    … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘king’) Akk malku, Hbr méleḵ, Syr malkā, Gz (malākī ‘Herr’).
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Melkite, from Aram malkāye, pl. of malkāy ‘royal, royalist’, from malkā ‘king’. – Melchizedek, from Hbr malkî-ṣedeq ‘my king (is) righteousness’, from malk, presuffixal form of melek ‘king’ + ‘my’. – Moloch, from Hbr mōlek, from Can *mulk, perh. variant of Can *malk, *milk ‘king’, cf. Ar malik
     
    milkiyyaẗ مِلْكِيَّة 
    ID 838 • Sw – • BP 2779 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MLK 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    malāk مَلاك 
    ID 836 • Sw – • BP 2292 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MLK 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Malaga, from Lat Malaca, Malacha, from Phoen *malʔakat‑ ‘work(place) of (a god whose name has not been preserved)’, from *lʔk ‘to send, serve, work’, cf. Ar malʔak~malāk ‘angel’ (< Hbr malʔāk ‘messenger’, from Hbr *lāʔak ‘to send’). 
     
    mālik مالِك 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Jun2023
    √MLK
     
    n.(prop.) 
    Malik, the angel who has charge over Hell – Jeffery1938 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q xliii, 77 – Jeffery1938.
     
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »The native authorities derived the name from malaka ‘to possess’, ‘rule over’. This root may have influenced the form, but the source is doubtless the Biblical Moloch. The Hbr form is mōläḵ, and it may possibly have come direct from Hbr779 but the Syr mâlak (PSm, 1989) is much more likely.«
     
    – 
    – 
    MLW ملو 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 13May2023
    √MLW 
    “root” 
    ▪ MLW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MLW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MLW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘an expanse of empty land; a period of time, to prolong life for s.o., prosperity; to give rein to; to dictate (a text)’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    MNː (MNN) منّ / منن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MNː (MNN) 
    “root” 
    ▪ MNː (MNN)_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ MNː (MNN)_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to cut; a weak rope, a tattered garment, fatigue; vigour, strength of heart; death, eventualities, passage of time; to grant a favour, to remind s.o. of favours you have done for them; honey-like substance; a certain weight’. – mann, honey-like substance, is classified under this root, although it appears to be a borrowing from either Syr or Hbr. 
    ▪ From WSem *√MNN ‘to be kind, show favor, patronize, disdain’ – Huehnergard2011.
    … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Englmannamannaẗ
    – 
    mannaẗ مَنَّة 
    ID 839 • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MNː (MNN) 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Englmanna, from Aram mannā, from Hbr mān ‘manna’, akin to Ar mann ‘favour, gift, honeydew, manna’, from manna, vb. I, ‘to be kind, show favour’. 
     
    MNʕ منع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 13May2023
    √MNʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ MNʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MNʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MNʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to prevent, refuse, hold back, hinder, prohibit, restrain, refrain, deprive; to protect, guard over; to be difficult, defy, be impregnable, be impenetrable, be insurmountable; to be mighty, be wealthy; to be miserly’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    MNW / MNY منو / مني 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MNW/Y 
    “root” 
    ▪ MNW/Y_1 ‘to put to the test, try, tempt, afflict’ ↗manā~manà
    ▪ MNW/Y_2 ‘fate, destiny, lot; (fate of) death’ ↗manan, ‘Manāt (anc.Ar goddess)’ ↗Manāẗ
    ▪ MNW/Y_3 ‘semen, sperm’ ↗minan, ‘wish, desire’ ↗munyaẗ~minyaẗ
    ▪ MNW/Y_4 ‘’ ↗… .

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): [√MNW/Y] ‘fate, to fate, death, to afflict, to test; to approximate; to hope for, to imagine, to implore; to fabricate, to lie; to shed, to flow, semen, sperm; to recite; to reward; to await; a dry measure’ 
    ▪ Dolgopolsky2012 holds [v1] and [v2] apart for systematic reasons, but acknowledges possible/probable overlapping (‘fate, destiny, lot’ interpreted as s.th. by which a deity ‘puts s.o. to the test’ or by which one is ‘afflicted’). In principle, however, he posits 3 Sem (< Nostr) roots:
    • #1427 [cf. MNW/Y_1]: protSem *√mny ~ *√mnw ‘to test, reckon, count’ < Nostr *mon̄˅ ‘to think, learn, know’ (with assumed cognates even in Eur langs, e.g., Grk mnḗmē ‘remembrance, memory’, Ge meinen, Engl mean);
    • #1423 [cf. MNW/Y_2]: protSem *manay-, *manat- ‘share’ < Nostr *meǹ˅ ‘to tear, tear into pieces, divide’, perh. contaminated/influenced by, or completely dependent on, #1427 Sem *√mny ‘to count’;
    • #1433 [cf. MNW/Y_3]: protSem *√mny ‘to wish, desire’ < Nostr *mAyn˅ ‘desire’ (perh. contaminated/influenced by #1427 Nostr *mon̄˅ ‘to think, learn, know’) (with assumed cognates even in Eur langs, e.g., nHGe Minne ‘love’, mHGe meinen ‘to love’).
    • ▪ …
    ▪ For [v3], Militarev&Kogan2000 (SED I vb#41) assume that Ar preserved the original meaning of the Sem vb., *mny, which was prob. *‘to discharge sperm, excude vaginal secretion’ (cf. ↗minan) and later underwent a semantic shift, via ‘to have sexual desire’ (cf. derived forms like ĭstamnà, vb. X, ‘to practice onanism, masturbate, have pollutions’) further to ‘desire, wish, want’ and ‘love’ (↗munyaẗ~minyaẗ).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ See ↗manā~manà [v1], ↗manan [v2], ↗minan [v3].
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Any relation betw. [v3] ‘semen, sperm; wish, desire’ and one or more of the other values?
    ▪ Else: see above, section CONC.
     
    – 
    – 
    manā / manaw‑ مَنا / مَنَوْـ , ū (manw)
    and
    manà / manay‑مَنَى / مَنَيْـ , ī (many
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MNW/Y 
    vb., I 
    to put to the test, try, tempt, afflict (‑hu bi‑ s.o. with s.th.; of God) – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1772: from protSem *m˅n˅y‑ ‘to want’, perh. from AfrAs *min‑ ‘dto.’ (basis for reconstruction weak).
    ▪ Dolgopolsky2012: from protSem *√mny~mnw ‘to test, reckon, count’ < Nostr *mon̄˅ ‘to think, learn, know’ (with assumed cognates even in Eur langs, e.g., Grk mnḗmē ‘remembrance, memory’, Ge meinen, Engl mean). According to the author, the complexes treated s.vv. ↗manan (‘fate, lot, destiny; death’) and ↗minan (‘sperm; wish, desire’) may have been influenced by ‘to test, reckon, count’.
    ▪ In particular, a relation between ‘fate, destiny, lot’ and the idea of ‘test, trial’ seems plausible, as ‘fate, destiny, lot’ often is interpreted as s.th. by which a deity puts s.o. to the test or tries one.
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (manà) Akk imnū, Hbr mānā yimnē, Aram mnā nemnē, SA mnw ‘to count, assign, apportion’
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1772: Soq mny, Gz mny, Tña mny ‘to want’. – Outside Sem: min ‘to want’ in a CCh language.
    ▪ Dolgopolsky2012#1427: Akk manû ‘to consider (sth., so. as belonging to a certain class), count’, BiblHbr māˈnā (ip. yimˈnɛ̄), BiblAram mᵊˈnā, Jud(Targ)Aram mᵊˈnē~mᵊˈnā, Syr √mnw G (ip. 3m mˈnɛ̄) ‘to reckon (be of the opinion), count’, Min mnʔ ‘to count’, Qat mtn-n (3p) ‘to agree, consent’, Ar manā~manà ‘to test (s.o. by s.th.), determine (upon s.th.)’; Akk (from oBab) mīn-u ‘number, amount’, Ug mnt ‘Aufzählung / repartición, recuento, lista’; IAram, ChrPalAram mnyn, Jud(Targ)Aram minˈyān, JEA minyāˈnā, Syr mɛnyāˈn-ā, Mnd miniana, mHbr minˈyān ‘number’. – Outside Sem: (Berb) ETwl/Ty temen-t (ann. tъ-men, pl. ti-men-en) ‘esprit, intélligence’, Gh i-mun ‘connu’; (LEC:) Som mān, Som N mā̀n (pl. mā̀nán) ‘mind, intelligence’, Or mānā ‘reason, meaning’; (WCh:) Ang màn, Gmy man, Su man ‘to know; to recognize (s.o.)’, Mpn man ‘to know, be able to’; (BT:) Krkr ment-, Bl mon- ‘know’; (SBc:) Buli man, Zem ‑mani; (CCh:) Lame mán ‘observer, analyser (pour le devin)’; ZmD mun ‘hear, understand, listen’; (ECh:) Ke míní! ‘to announce, say’, WDgl mínè, EDgl mìne ‘faire savoir, informer. – Cf. perh. even (IE:) Grk mnḗmē ‘remembrance, memory’, mimnḗskō ‘to remind, put in one’s mind’, mnêma, mnâma ‘memorial, remembrance’, Got munan ‘to think, believe; to remember, to want’, oNo muna ‘to remember’, oSax munan ‘to think’, AngSax munan ‘to be mindful of; to think, esteem’; Got muns ‘Gedanke, Ratschluß, Absicht’, oNo munr ‘mind’, AngSax myne ‘memory’; mDu mēnen, Du menen ‘to mean, think’, oSax mênian, oHGe meinen ‘to think, have an opinion, mean’, mHGe, nHGe meinen, AnglSax mǣnan ‘to have an opinion, have s.th. in mind’, Engl mean.
    ▪ Cf. perh. also the cognates given s.v. ↗manan and ↗minan (if these should be akin to manā~manà).
     
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1772: protSem *m˅n˅y‑ ‘to want’ (based on Ar, Soq, Gz, Tña), protCCh *min‑‘to want’ (based on only 1 lang), both from hypothetical AfrAs *min‑ ‘to want’.
    ▪ Dolgopolsky2012#1427 reconstructs protSem *√mny ~ *√mnw ‘to test, reckon, count’, protBerb *°mVn- ‘esprit, intélligence / connu’, protLEC *mān ‘mind, intelligence, reason’, WCh (protAG) *man ‘to know’ etc.; NaIE *men- ‘to think’ (> Germ *mai̯n-j-an), all from hypothetical Nostr *mon̄˅ ‘to think, learn, know’.
    ▪ Cf. perh. also ↗manan and ↗minan (if these should be akin to manā~manà).
     
    … 
    For other items of the root, cf. ↗manan, ↗Manāẗ, ↗minan, ↗munyaẗ~minyaẗ, and, for the general picture, ↗√MNW/Y.
     
    manaⁿ مَنىً , def. al‑manà المَنَى
    and
    maniyyaẗ مَنِيّة , pl. manāyā 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MNW/Y 
    n. and n.f., respectively. 
    1 fate, destiny, lot; 2 fate of death; 3 death – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Originally, *‘share, portion, lot’ that everyone has to bear, from protSem *manay-, *manat- ‘share’ (perh. with interference of protSem *√mny ‘to count’, cf. ↗manā~manà) – Dolgopolsky2012. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (manà) Akk imnū, Hbr mānā yimnē, Aram mnā nemnē, SA mnw ‘to count, assign, apportion’
    ▪ Cf. also Fraenkel1886: Aram mānā ‘mina’ (weight unit?) > Ar minà, sometimes shortened to mann.
    ▪ Erman1892: Eg mnwy ‘individual piece (of tissue, when counting pieces of textile)’: Hbr mānāʰ ‘to count’, mānāʰ ‘share, portion’, Ar mann ‘part, number’ (Brugsch). The Eg word is attested only since the New Kingdom.
    ▪ Dolgopolsky2012#1423: Akk (from oAkk) manû ~ manaʔu ‘mina (unit of weight)’, Ug mnt, BiblHbr māˈnā, IA/Palm mnh ‘share, part, portion’, JEA em. mənāˈṯ-ā (constr. mənāṯ) ‘share’, Ar manan ‘fate’ (> ‘death’), du. manawāni~manayāni ‘two pounds (unit of weight)’, Ar (Lt-stem) tamānà ‘se partager qch. en séparant avec les doigts’; Akk manû (G) and D ‘to assign’, BiblHbr (D) minˈnā ‘to assign (a share), apportion’, Min √mnw ‘attribuer’, ? Sab mn ‘bénifice’. – NB: The Sem words may belong to the complex treated s.v. ↗manā~manà.
     
    ▪ Dolgopolsky2012#1423 reconstructs protSem *manay-, *manat- ‘share’ (perh. interference of protSem *√mny ‘to count’, cf. ↗manā~manà), from a hypothetical Nostr *meǹ˅ ‘to tear, tear into pieces, divide’. However, the author concedes that there may not one have been interference from ‘to count’; rather, the whole complex is perh. derived from proSem *√mny ‘to test, count’ (< Nostr *mon̄˅ ‘to think, learn, know’ [#1427]).
    ▪ Any relation betw. ‘fate, destiny, lot; death’ and the complex treated s.vv. ↗minan ‘semen, sperm’ and ↗munyaẗ~minyaẗ ‘wish, desire’? 
    … 
    muniya, vb. I pass., 1 to be afflicted with, be sorely tried, suffer, sustain, undergo, experience, be affected, hit, smitten, stricken; 2 to find by good luck, be so fortunate as to find: orig., *‘to be assigned one’s share, either negative [v1] or positive [v2].

    (?) minan, m.. and minà, n.f.topogr., the valley of Mina near Mecca: belonging here?
    (?) manāẗ, n.prop.div., Manāẗ, name of an ancient Arabian goddess: see also ↗s.v..

    For other items of the root, cf. ↗manā~manà, ↗Manāẗ, ↗minan, ↗munyaẗ~minyaẗ, and, for the general picture, ↗√MNW/Y. 
    minaⁿ مِنىً , def. al‑minà المِنَى 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MNW/Y 
    n. 
    semen, sperm – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1772: from protSem *m˅n˅y‑ ‘to want’ (Dolgopolsky2012: *√mny ‘to wish, desire’), perh. from AfrAs *min‑ ‘dto.’ (basis for reconstruction weak). Cf., however, foll. paragraph.
    ▪ Militarev&Kogan2000 (SED I vb#41): The original meaning of the Sem vb., *mny, preserved in Ar, was prob. *‘to discharge sperm, excude vaginal secretion’ with a shift to ‘to have sexual desire’ (cf. vb. X) and further to ‘desire, wish, want’ and ‘love’ in general (munyaẗ, ʔumniyyaẗ, mannà, tamannà).
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1772: Soq mny, Gz mny, Tña mny ‘to want’. – Outside Sem: min ‘to want’ in 1 CCh language.
    ▪ Dolgopolsky2012#1433: Akk menû ‘to love, be(come) fond (of s.o.)’, Ar √mny (G-stem) ‘to let flow sperm (as in copulation)’, muniya (pass.) ‘to be favored in’, tamannà (Dt-stem) ‘to desire, wish’, Gz tamannaya (Dt) ‘to wish, desire, be eager for’, mənuy ‘who wishes ardently; wished for, desired’, Mhr ˈmatni, Ḥrs ˄mtōni, Jib E/C ˈmutni (sbjv. yɛmˈtin), Soq ˈmɔtɛnɛʔ (sbjv. l-imˈtɛnɛw) ‘to wish’. – Outside Sem: (CCh:) Ms mìn ‘to wish, desire, love; to want’, Azm minda ‘to will, desire, like’. – Compare perh. even (IE:) AnglSax myne (n.) ‘desire, love’, oFries minne, oSax minnea, oHGe minna, nHGe Minne n. ‘love’, mHGe meinen ‘to love’.
     
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1772: protSem *m˅n˅y‑ ‘to want’ (based on Ar, Soq, Gz, Tña), protCCh *min‑‘to want’ (based on only 1 lang), both from hypothetical AfrAs *min‑ ‘to want’.
    ▪ Dolgopolsky2012#1433 reconstructs protSem *√mny ‘to wish, desire’ (with poss. interference of Nostr *mon̄˅, see Ar ↗manā~manà) and CCh ‘to wish, desire, love; to want’, NaIE *men- (loss of the glide * preceding a sonant) ‘to wish eagerly’, all from hypothetical Nostr *mAyn˅ ‘desire’.
    ▪ Any relation betw. ‘semen, sperm’ (> ‘wish, desire’) and the complex ‘fate, destiny, lot; death; (goddess) Manāẗ’ treated s.vv. ↗manan and ↗Manāẗ?
     
    … 
    mannà, vb. II, 1a to awaken the desire, make s.o. hope, give reason to hope, raise hopes; 1b to promise: D‑stem, caus.
    ʔamnà, vb. IV, 1 to shed (blood); 2 to emit, ejaculate (sperm): *Š‑stem.
    BP#451tamannà, vb. V, to desire, wish: Dt‑stem.
    ĭstamnà, vb. X, to practice onanism, masturbate: *Št‑stem, desiderative.

    minawī, adj., seminal, spermativ: nisba formation of minan
    munyaẗ, var. minyaẗ, pl. munan, def. al‑munà, n.f., 1 wish, desire; 2 object of desire
    BP#3492ʔumniyyaẗ, pl. ʔamānin, def. al‑ʔamānī, n.f., wish, demand, claim, desire, longing, aspiration
    tamniyaẗ, n.f., and ʔimnāʔ, n., emission, ejaculation of the sperm: vn. II and IV, resp.
    tamannin, def. al‑tamannī, pl. ‑āt, n., wish; desire; request: vn. V.
    ĭstimnāʔ, n., self‑pollution, masturbation, onanism: vn. X.

    For other items of the root, cf. ↗manā~manà, ↗manan, ↗Manāẗ, ↗munyaẗ~minyaẗ, and, for the general picture, ↗√MNW/Y. 
    Manāẗ مَناة 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MNW/Y 
    n.prop.div. 
    Manāt, name of an ancient Arabian goddess – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ The name of the ancient Arabian goddess, identified in the Greco-Roman tradition as Túkhai and Fortanae, originally means *‘deity that assigns to each his/her lot/share’, i.e., one’s destiny.
    ▪ Etymologically, it is from protSem *manay-, *manat- ‘share’, cf. ↗manan (perh. with interference of protSem *√mny ‘to count’, cf. ↗manā~manà) – Dolgopolsky2012.
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ See ↗manā~manà.
     
    ▪ Wellhausen1897, 28: »Manat kommt schon auf den nabatäischen Inschriften von Higr vor und zwar im Plural, mnwtn /manavātun/. Dadurch wird […] die Bedeutung ‘Schicksal’ (eigentlich ‘Anteil’ wie im Aramäischen) festgestellt, welche appellativisch nur noch für maniyyaẗ (pl. manāyā, manā) im Gebrauch ist. Ähnliche abstracte Gottesnamen sind Saʕd, Gad (Grk túkhē), ʕAwdh.«
    ▪ Fahd2012: »name of one of the most ancient deities of the Semitic pantheon, who appears in the Pre-Sargonic period in the form Menūtum and constitutes one of the names of Ishtar […]; the Qurʔānic scriptio of her name preserves the primitive w, which also appears in the Nabatean mnwtn […]. The w changes to i in the Bible (Isa. 65: 11) […]. [the name is from] the root mnw/y which is to be found in all Sem langs with the meaning of ‘to count, to apportion’, being applied in particular to the idea of *‘to count the days of life’, hence ‘death’ (maniyyaẗ), and *‘to assign to each his share’, hence, ‘lot, destiny’ […] The Greco-Roman equivalents given to Manāẗ testify to this meaning, since she is identified with Τύχαι or the Fortunae, the pl. reflecting the form Manawāt […] In Palmyra she is represented on a mosaic, seated and holding a sceptre in her hand, after the fashion of Nemesis, goddess of destiny […]. / Like al-Lāt and al-ʕUzzà who form with her the Arab triad (Q 53: 19-20), Manāẗ was worshipped by all the Arabs. It was [originally] a rock for Huḏayl in Qudayd […, later then] a statue imported from the north, like that of Hubal. The sacred site [was situated …] about 15 km from Yaṯrib […]«
     
    … 
    For other items of the root, cf. ↗manā~manà, ↗manan, ↗minan, ↗munyaẗ~minyaẗ, and, for the general picture, ↗√MNW/Y.
     
    munyaẗ مُنْية , var. minyaẗ, pl. munaⁿ, def. al‑munà 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MNW/Y 
    n.f. 
    1 wish, desire; 2 object of desire – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1772: from protSem *m˅n˅y‑ ‘to want’, perh. from AfrAs *min‑ ‘dto.’ (weak basis for reconstruction).
    ▪ Militarev&Kogan2000 (SED I vb#41): The original meaning of the Sem vb., *mny, preserved in Ar, was prob. *‘to discharge sperm, excude vaginal secretion’ with a shift to ‘to have sexual desire’ and further to ‘desire, wish, want’ and ‘love’.
    ▪ For further details, cf. ↗minan ‘semen, sperm’. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ See ↗minan
    ▪ See above, section CONC, and ↗minan ‘semen, sperm’. 
    … 
    BP#451tamannà, vb. V, to desire, wish: Dt‑stem.

    BP#3492ʔumniyyaẗ, pl. ʔamānin, def. al‑ʔamānī, n.f., wish, demand, claim, desire, longing, aspiration
    tamannin, def. al‑tamannī, pl. ‑āt, n., wish; desire; request: vn. V.

    For other items of the root, cf. ↗manā~manà, ↗manan, ↗Manāẗ, ↗minan, and, for the general picture, ↗√MNW/Y. 
    MHD مهد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 14May2023
    √MHD 
    “root” 
    ▪ MHD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MHD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MHD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘sleeping place, resting place, cradle, to prepare, pave, straighten things up, make level or even; to facilitate, introduce’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    MHL مهل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 14May2023
    √MHL 
    “root” 
    ▪ MHL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MHL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MHL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘molten copper, a generic name for all metals, tar, heated dirty oil; ease of manner, self recollection, to act or proceed in a deliberate manner, tarry, give respite; to collapse, avalanche’ 
    ▪ BAH2008: al-Suyūṭī attributes muhl ‘oil dregs’ to a borrowing from Berber. 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    MHN مهن 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 14May2023
    √MHN 
    “root” 
    ▪ MHN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MHN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MHN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to serve, a servant; profession, vocation; to weaken; to degrade, treat in a humiliating manner; vile, contemptible, insignificant’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    MWT موت 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MWT 
    “root” 
    ▪ MWT_1 ‘to die, death’ ↗māta
    ▪ MWT_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘death, to die, to seek death, mortal; to die down, to let up; wasteland, uncultivated land, to become arid; silence, to become silent’ 
    ▪ MWT_1 : (Huehnergard2011, Kogan2015 Sw#17:) from protSem *mwt ‘to die’ (SED I #43ᵥ). Passim except Jib and Soq.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘death’) Akk mūtu, Hbr máweṯ, Syr mawtā, Gz mōt.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl checkmate, matemāta
    – 
    māt‑ / mut‑ ماتَ / مُتْـ 
    ID 840 • Sw 61/27 • BP 593 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MWT 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Huehnergard2011, Kogan2015 (Sw#17): from protSem *mwt ‘to die’ (SED I #43ᵥ). Passim except Jib and Soq.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl checkmate, mate, from Ar māt ‘he has died’, from earlier māta ‘to die’. 
     
    MWǦ موج 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 14May2023
    √MWǦ 
    “root” 
    ▪ MWǦ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MWǦ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MWǦ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘wave, swell, surge, to swell, heave, roll, be excited, be agitated, flood, be stormy, (of sea) to be high; to intermingle’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    MWR مور 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 14May2023
    √MWR 
    “root” 
    ▪ MWR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MWR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MWR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to move briskly to and fro, swell, boil, chum; high waves, dusty wind; to spill over, (of liquids) to run; (of stars) to set and rise in succession; to contradict, contest; to pluck out’ – 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    Mūsà مُوسَى 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 14May2023
    √Mūsà 
    n.pr. 
    Moses 
    ▪ BAH2008: generally recognised as a borrowing 
    – 
    ▪ Jeffrey1938: »It was very commonly recognized as a foreign name,780 the usual theory being that it was from an original form Mūšā, which some say means ‘water’ and ‘trees’ in Hbr,781 and others in Copt,782 this name being given to Moses because of the place from which he was taken. / It is possible that the name came direct from the Hbr Mōšäʰ, or as Derenbourg in REJ, xviii: 127, suggests, through a form Mwsy used among the Arabian Jews. It is much more likely, however, that it came to the Arabs through the Syr Mōšē783 or the Eth [Gz] Muse, especially that it was from the Syr that the Pazend Mushāē, Phlv [?] and Arm Mowšē were borrowed. / There appears to be no well-attested example of the use of the word earlier than the Qurʔān,784 so that it may have been an importation of Muḥammad himself, though doubtless well enough known to his audience from their contacts with Jews and Christians.« 
    – 
    – 
    mūsīqà مُوسِيقَى 
    ID 841 • Sw – • BP 1440 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MWSYQĀ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
     
    MWL مول 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 14May2023
    √MWL 
    “root” 
    ▪ MWL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MWL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MWL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘property, possessions, wealth, gold and silver, (specifically) camels (for Arabs), to become wealthy, finance’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    MWN مون 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MWN 
    … 
    ▪ MWN_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ MWN_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    mīnāʔ مِيناء 
    ID 842 • Sw – • BP 2571 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MWN 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    MWH موه 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MWH 
    “root” 
    ▪ MWH_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ MWH_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘water, a well, to strike water, (of a boat) to spring a leak, to quench one’s thirst, (of dates and grapes) to ripen; to gild, to coat; to falsify; to camouflage’ 
    ▪ protSem *√²MY (exact root shape uncertain) – Huehnergard2011.
    … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    māʔ ماء 
    ID 843 • Sw 75/181 • BP 236 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MWH 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *mā̆y‑ ‘water’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘water’) Akk , Hbr máyim, Syr mayyā, Gz māy.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    MYD ميد 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 4Aug2022
    √MYD 
    “root” 
    ▪ MYD_1 ‘to be shaken, sway, swing; to feel giddy, be dizzy’ ↗māda
    ▪ MYD_2 ‘table’ ↗māʔidaẗ
    ▪ MYD_3 ‘square, open place; arena, combat area, race-course, playground; field, domain’ ↗maydān
    ▪ MYD_4 ‘measure, amount, length, distance; (prep.) in front of, opposite’ ↗mīdāʔ
    ▪ MYD_5 (EgAr) ‘foundation girder, lintel, breastsummer (arch.), keelson (naut.)’ ↗mēdaẗ, mīdaẗ

    Other values, now obsolete, include (Lane1885, Hava1899):

    MYD_6 ‘to confer, bestow benefit(s) or favour(s) (-h on s.o.), give, furnish s.o. with provisions for travelling’ : māda
    MYD_7 ‘to visit (‑h s.o.)’ : māda
    MYD_8 ‘to increase, grow’ : māda
    MYD_9 ‘because, unless’ : maydà ʔan; cf. also maydà ~ maydā ‘on account of’
    MYD_ ‘…’ : …

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to shake, sway, fluctuate; to feed, provide for, a banquet, table laden with food, to grant favours to s.o.; a square’ 
    ▪ [v1] From CSem *√MYD ‘to sway, move, shake’ – Huehnergard2011.

    ▪ [v2] From Gz māʔədd (ʔəgzīʔabḥēr) ‘(the Lord’s) Table’ – Jeffery1938.

    ▪ [v3] Prob. from mPers m(a)idan, maiδyana ‘middle, centre, between’ (thus ultimately IndEur *médʰ-jo- ‘middle, centre’) – cf. Asbaghi1988, Rolland2014.

    ▪ [v4] …

    ▪ [v5] …

    ▪ [v6] …

    ▪ [v7] …

    ▪ [v8] …

    ▪ [v9] …

     
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ [v2] Engl maidanmaydān
    – 
    māʔidaẗ مائِدَة , pl. -āt, mawāʔidᵘ 
    ID 844 • Sw – • BP 2761 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 4Aug2022
    √MYD 
    n.f. 
    table – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ From Gz māʔədd (ʔəgzīʔabḥēr) ‘(the Lord’s) Table’ – Jeffery1938.
    ▪ … 
    eC7 (‘table spread with food’) Q 5:114 qāla ʕīsā bnu maryama ’llāhumma rabba-nā ʔanzil ʕalay-nā māʔidatan min-a l-samāʔi takūnu la-nā ʕīdan li-ʔawwali-nā wa-ʔāḫiri-nā wa-ʔāyatan min-ka ‘Jesus, son of Mary, said: O God, our Lord, send down to us a table [spread with food] from heaven, that it may be a feast for us, for the first of us and for the last of us, and a sign from Thee’
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »A late word found only in a late Madinan verse, where the reference is to a table which Jesus brought down for His disciples. – The Muslim authorities take it to be a form FāʕiLaẗ from ↗māda (cf. LA, iv, 420), though the improbability of their explanations is obvious. It has been demonstrated several times that the passage Q 5:112-15 is a confusion of the Gospel story of the feeding of the multitude with that of the Lord’s Supper.785 Fraenkel, Vocab, 24,786 pointed out that in all probability the word is the Eth [Gz] māʔədd, which among the Abyssinian Christians is used almost technically for the Lord’s Table, e.g. māʔədd ʔəgzīʔabḥēr, while Nöldeke’s examination of the word in Neue Beiträge, 54, has practically put the matter beyond doubt.787 – Addai Sher, 148, however, has argued in favour of its being taken as a Pers word. Relying on the fact that māʔidaẗ is said by the Lexicons to mean ‘food’ as well as ‘table’, he wishes to derive it from Pers mīdeh, meaning ‘farina triticea’.788 Praetorius also, who in ZDMG, lxi, 622 ff., endeavours to prove that Eth [Gz] māʔədd and the Amh mād are taken from Ar, takes māʔidaẗ back to Pers mez, mīz 789 (earlier pronounced māz), through forms MYḎ, MYD, and maydah. Now there is a Phlv word myazd,790 meaning a sacred repast of the Parsis, of which the people partake at certain festivals after the recitation of prayers and benedictions for the consecration of the bread, fruit, and wine used therein. It seems, however, very difficult to derive māʔidaẗ from this, and still more difficult from the forms proposed by Praetorius. Nöldeke rightly objects that the forms mīz and māz which Praetorius quotes from the Mehrī and ʕUmānī dialects in favour of his theory, are hardly to the point, for these dialects are full of Pers elements of late importation. Praetorius has given no real explanation of the change of z to d, whereas on the other side may be quoted the Bilin mīd and the Beja mēs which are correct formations from a stem giving māʔədd in Eth [Gz], and thus argue for its originality in that stock.«
    ▪ … 
    – 
    māʔidaẗ al-tašrīḥ, operating table
    māʔidaẗ al-zīnaẗ, dressing table
    māʔidaẗ al-sufraẗ, dining table

     
    maydān مَيْدان , var. mīdān, pl. mayādīnᵘ 
    ID 845 • Sw – • BP 1661 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √MYD 
    n. 
    1a square, open place, open tract; b field; arena; 2a battleground, battlefield; b combat area, fighting zone; c race course, race track; d playground (fig.); 3 field, domain, line, sphere of activity – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl maidan, from Ar maydān ‘city square, open space, racetrack, combat area’, from māda, vb. I, ‘to be moved, sway’. 
    maydān al-tadrīb, drill ground; military training center
    maydān al-ḥarb, theater of war
    maydān al-sibāq, race course, race track
    maydān al-ʕamal, field of activity, scope of action
    maydān al-qitāl, battlefield
    ḫaraǧa min maydān al-ʕamal, to be put out of service or commission
    ẓahara fī l-maydān, to turn up, appear on the scene
    fī maydān al-šaraf, on the field of honour
    madāfiʕ al-maydān, fieldpieces, field guns, infantry howitzers

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗māda, ↗mīdaẗ, ↗mīdāʔ, ↗māʔidaẗ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√MYD.
     
    MYR مير 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 14May2023
    √MYR 
    “root” 
    ▪ MYR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MYR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MYR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘food stock, provision, to provide with food, keep well-stocked/supplied with food; to melt down’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    MYZ ميز 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 14May2023
    √MYZ 
    “root” 
    ▪ MYZ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MYZ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MYZ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to sort out, separate, mark out, distinguish; to weed out; to stand out; to fall apart; to fall into factions’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    MYL ميل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 14May2023
    √MYL 
    “root” 
    ▪ MYL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MYL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ MYL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to incline, lean towards, tilt, bend, lean over, take sides, deviate; to attack; to be crooked; to swagger; to waver, be in doubt, win s.o. over’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    nūn نون 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ 
    R₁ 
    The letter n of the Arabic alphabet. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl nu, from Grk ‘nu’; nun, from Mishnaic Hbr nûn ‘nun’; both from Phoen *nūn ‘fish; fourteenth letter of the Phoen alphabet’. 
     
    NʔY نأي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √NʔY 
    “root” 
    ▪ NʔY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NʔY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NʔY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘small ditch encircling a tent to keep sewage away, go a long distance, walk away, shun, be far removed, keep away, remove’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    *NB‑ نبـ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √*NB‑ 
    “root” nucleus 
    ‘to call, proclaim’, ↗NBḤ ‘to bark, bellow, hiss’, ↗NBR ‘to shout to, drive away by cries or shouts’, ↗NBZ ‘to give one a nickname, revile’, ↗NBṢ ‘to speak’.
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    NBː (NBB)1 to be haughty; 2 to utter a low voice; to call, proclaim; 3 to bleat from rut’
    NBʔ ‘to be high, tower over, elevated place; to come upon from above, conquer, surpass’
    NBT ‘to germinate, sprout, grow; (height of) growing plants’
    NBṮ ‘to dig out with o.’s hand, clean a well, uproot’
    NBǦ ‘to creep out ouf the egg, break forth, flow’
    NBḤ ‘to bark, bellow, hiss’
    NBḎ ‘to fling, throw away, cast, reject, let go’
    NBR1 to raise, elevate, thrive, grow; 2 to pierce through and draw the lance back quickly’ (second part of meaning shows influence from *NB ‘to bring out’); 3 to shout to, drive away by cries or shouts’
    NBZ1 skin of the leprous; palm root, or bark of upper part of a palm; 2 to give one a nickname, revile’
    NBŠ ‘to uncover, dig out, dig, bring to light’
    NBṢ1 to be on the point of sprouting; 2 to speak’
    NBṬ ‘to well out, gush out’
    NBʕ ‘to well, well up, gush forth’
    NBĠ1 to fly off; 2 to appear, come to light, get known, break forth’
    NBQ1 to spurt out of a wound (blood, pus); 2 to write’
    NBL1 to surpass in any skill; 2 to shoot arrow, throw spears, take as a mark, shoot at, surpass in shooting arrows’ (last part of meaning shows influence from *NBL formed from *NB#92 ‘to rise, become high’)
    NBH ‘to awake’
    NBW1 to remove, withdraw; 2 to tower over a place’
    NWB ‘agglomeration/accumulation fitting with (the degree) of elevation’
     
    NBʔ نبأ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NBʔ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NBʔ_1 ‘to be high, tower over, …’ ↗nabaʔa
    ▪ NBʔ_2 ‘to speak in a low voice, utter a low sound; to announce’ ↗nabaʔ, ↗nabiyy, ↗nubuwwaẗ
    NBʔ_3 ‘to turn away, withdraw, be repelled, disgusted, shocked’ ↗nabā .
    NBʔ_4 ‘to wander around’: now obsolete.

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘protrusion, to rise; to overpower; to leave one’s town and settle in another; news item, to ask for news, to inform; prophecy, to predict, to foretell, to prophesy, to claim to be a prophet’ 
    ▪ While Gabal2012 thinks that all values of NBʔ can be derived from one basic value (‘unexpected appearance, accompanied by a hiddenness’), other researchers agree on that NBʔ is a homonymous root with at least two values: 1 ‘to be high, tower over’ (= NBʔ_1) and 2 ‘to speak in a low voice, utter a low sound; to announce’ (= NBʔ_2). Albright1927#47 thinks that among NBʔ_2 is original while NBʔ_1 ‘(to be) high’ is the result of a dissimilation of an underlying *NM- ‘to grow’ into *NB-.
    ▪ For NBʔ_2, the »reconstruction of Sem *n-b-ʔ as a transitive root meaning ‘to name, proclaim’« is »uncomplicated« (following Huehnergard1999).
    ▪ Militarev2006 assumes an AfrAs dimension of NBʔ_2 (AfrAs *nab‑ ‘to call by name’ ), and Dolgopolsky2012 goes even farther, putting Sem *NBʔ ‘to name, give a name’ together with IE *‘no(ː)m-n(-) / *‘n̥m-n(-) ‘name’ and assuming Nostr *‘nimʔ˅‑ ‘name’ as the common ancestor. For him, Nostr *NM dissimilated into Sem *NB.
    ▪ NBʔ_3 ‘to turn away’ seems to be etymologically the same as ↗nabā ‘to move away, withdraw; to bounce off; to disagree, be in conflict with; to be repugnant’ (↗NBW).
    ▪ NBʔ_4 ‘to wander around’: etymology still unclear (see DISC). 
    ▪ BadawiAbdelHalim2008 #NBʔ: ‘1 protrusion, to rise; to overpower; 2 news item, to ask for news, to inform; prophecy, to predict, foretell, prophesy; to claim to be a prophet; 3 to leave o.’s town and settle in another’. 
    For cognates, see DISC below as well as ↗nabaʔ and ↗nabaʔa.
     
    NBʔ_1 and NBʔ_2:
    ▪ Gabal2012 assumes one basic value for all meanings of NBʔ that occur in the Qurʔān: ‘sudden/unexpected appearance or occurrence of s.th., preceded or accompanied by some secrecy/hiddenness (ẓuhūr ʔaw ṭurūʔ, musbaq ʔaw maknūf bi-ḫafāʔin)’. This, he says, is the case in nabʔaẗ ‘elevation, protrusion’ (= appearing above the surface, of a height that more limited than one would have expected) as well as in nabaʔ ‘news’ (information that one receives unexpectedly). – ClassAr nabīʔ ‘clear path’ is said to belong to ↗NBW, while nabiyy ‘prophet’ is believed to derive from *nabīʔ meaning that the Prophet is both ‘called/informed’ (munbaʔ) by God and ‘informing’ (munbiʔ) about Him, rather than from nabwaẗ ‘elevated place’.
    ▪ Albright1927#47 notices that Ar √NBʔ obviously has two values: a) ‘to be high, raised up’ (Ar nabaʔa; cf. also nabiʔ ‘height, mound’, nabāwaẗ ‘high ground’, etc.), b) ‘to make a noise; to proclaim, announce, call by name’ (nabʔaẗ ‘barking of dogs’; nabaʔ ‘news’, nabīʔ [sic!] ‘prophet’, etc.). Therefore, the author holds, »there must evidently have been a confusion of the two distinct root-meanings«. The author thinks the latter value is from an original *NB, while the former is as dissimilation from *NM.
    ▪ BDB1904 (#NBʔ): cf. [NBʔ_2] Ar nabaʔa ‘to utter a low voice, or sound (esp. of dog); to announce’, (but also) [NBʔ_1] to be exalted, elevated (nabʔaẗ eminence); [NBʔ_2] III, IV, ‘to acquaint, inform’; nabaʔ ‘information, announcement, intelligence’; Akk nabū ‘to call, proclaim, name’, Gz nababa ‘to speak’, Sab tnbʔ ? => Hbr nāḇî(ʔ) ‘spokesman, speaker, prophet’, nᵊḇûʔâh ‘prophecy’.

    NBʔ_1:
    ▪ Cf. also obsolete items like nabʔ ‘superiority, victory, success’, nubuʔ ‘being high, superiority’, nabiʔ ‘high point’, nābiʔ ‘bossed, convex’, and also (NBʔ ~ NBW) nabwaẗ, nabāwaẗ ‘height; rising ground’, nābin, det. nābī, pl. nubiyy, ‘high ground’, nābiyaẗ ‘strongly-bent bow’ (all BK, Munǧid, Wahrmund1887/Steingass1894).
    ▪ Ehret1989#92 thinks NBʔ ‘to be high, tower over, come upon from above, conquer, surpass’ is an extension in “concisive” *‑ʔ from a bi-consonantal “pre-Proto-Semitic” (pPS, i.e. preSem) root ↗*NB ‘to rise, become high’, cf. ↗NBː (NBB) ‘to be haughty’. Other extensions from the same pre-Sem nucleus: ↗NBT ‘to germinate, sprout, grow’, ↗NBR ‘to raise, elevate, thrive, grow’, ↗NBṢ ‘to be on the point of sprouting’, ↗NBĠ ‘to fly off’, ↗NBL ‘to surpass in any skill’, ↗NBH ‘to awake’
    ▪ Albright1927#47 holds that Ar »nabaʔa ‘to be high’ is connected with Hbr nûb ‘to grow’791 and Ar nabt ‘plant’, old pl. nabāt, from which ↗nabata ‘to grow’ is denom., as well as with Ar ↗namā ‘to grow, rise’, nammà ‘to raise’. The root is probably nm, from which the dissimilated form nb (cf. banna for manna, etc.) has arisen.« – Outside Sem, Eg nb3 ‘carrying pole’ (= Calice1936#655) is perhaps to be connected.

    NBʔ_2:
    ▪ Huehnergard2011: Sem *NBʔ ‘to name, proclaim, summon’ (Huehnergard1999: an »uncomplicated reconstruction«).
    ▪ Calice1936#59 mentions Ar nabaʔa ‘to announce’, nabʔaẗ ‘faint noise’ together with Ar nabba ‘to bark’, Gz nababa ‘to growl’ and the Sem vb.s Akk nabû ‘to call, name’, Sab nbʔ ‘to proclaim’, Hbr √NBH ‘to prophesy’ as cognate with Eg (MK) nmj ‘to scream, yell, roar’. Akin to the latter, and thus also to nabaʔa, are also Ar naʔama ‘to whisper’, naʕama ‘to say yes’, namma ‘to whisper’ and Hbr √NʔM ‘to say’.792
    ▪ Ehret1989#95 does not mention NBʔ among the root extensions he gives for the bi-consonantal “pre-Proto-Semitic” (pPS, i.e. preSem) root *NB ‘to call, cry’, but the semantics clearly allow us to group Ar NBʔ_2 here. For extensions from the same pre-Sem nucleus that Ehret did list, cf. ↗NBː (NBB) ‘to bleat from rut’, ↗NBḤ ‘to bark, bellow, hiss’, ↗NBR ‘to shout to, drive away by cries or shouts’, ↗NBZ ‘to give one a nickname, revile’, ↗NBṢ ‘to speak’.
    ▪ Militarev2006 (#603): Sem *n˅b˅ʔ‑ ‘to call; to speak; to nominate’, WCh *nab‑ ‘to read, count’, Omot *nab‑ ‘name’ < AfrAs *nab‑ ‘to call by name’
    ▪ Dolgopolsky2012: Sem *NBʔ ‘to name, give a name’, IE *‘no(ː)m-n(-) / *‘n̥m-n(-) ‘name’, and alleged cognates in other macro-families < Nostr *‘nimʔ˅‑ ‘name’ (with dissimilation of Sem *NB from Nostr *NM).

    NBʔ_3 and NBʔ_4:
    ▪ There seems to be a lot of overlapping of NBʔ with ↗NBW. Thus, NBʔ_3 ‘to turn away, withdraw, be repelled, disgusted, shocked’ seems to be etymologically the same as ↗nabā ‘to move away, withdraw; to bounce off; to disagree, be in conflict with; to be repugnant’.
    ▪ No explanation so far with regard to NBʔ_4 ‘to wander around’. Belonging to NBʔ_3 ‘to turn away’? – In ClassAr, there is, e.g. (data from Freytag1837 and Hava1899): nābiʔ ‘ex alia regione veniens (aquae fluxus, homo), crossing a country (man, stream)’, nabiʔ ‘migrans de locu in locum, wanderer, wayfarer’, (?) nabīʔ ‘well-traced road’. Gabal2012 thinks it belongs to ↗NBW. Albright1927#47 considers a connection with Eg nmy ‘to traverse’ and Eg nby ‘to swim’.793
     
    – 
    See
    nabaʔa and
    nabaʔ
    nabaʔ‑ نَبَأَ a (nabʔ , nubūʔ
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NBʔ 
    vb., I 
    1 to be high, raised, elevated, protruding, projecting, prominent; to overcome, overpower, overwhelm (ʕalà s.o.). – 2 to turn away, withdraw, shrink (ʕan from); to be repelled, repulsed, sickened, disgusted, shocked (ʕan by) – WehrCowan1979.

    Other values, now obsolete:
    3 to pass (min from a place, ʔilà to another), to wander around
    4 (nabʔ) to bark faintly (dog) – Hava1899
     
    ▪ [v1]: The vb. and the corresponding complex of ‘height, elevation, high ground, etc.’ are difficult to relate semantically to the other main value of NBʔ, ‘to utter a low noise; to proclaim, announce, call’ (treated s.v. ↗nabaʔ, ↗nabiyy, ↗nubuwwaẗ), so that one with all probability has to regard NBʔ as a homonymous root with several distinct meanings (↗NBʔ). While Ehret traces the two values back to a biconsonantal nucleus *NB- that shows four separate values (among which *‘to rise, become high’, whence nabaʔa; and *‘to call, cry’, whence nabaʔ), Albright thought that nabaʔa ‘to be high’ and semantically close items in Sem and outside ultimately go back to a *NM that only has dissimilated into *NB; he therefore compares Ar nabaʔa ‘to be high’ with, among others, ↗namā ‘to grow’.
    ▪ [v2]: This item seems to be etymologically the same as ↗nabā ‘to move away, withdraw; to bounce off; to disagree, be in conflict with; to be repugnant’ and is therefore treated there; cf. also ↗NBW.
    ▪ For [v3] cf. ↗NBʔ.
    ▪ [v4] belongs to the complex treated s.v. ↗nabaʔ
    ▪ … 
    ▪ [v1] Albright1927#47: Hbr nûb ‘to grow’217 , Ar nabāt (thought to be an old pl., nab‑ + ‑āt) ‘plant’, Ar ↗namā ‘to grow, rise’, nammà ‘to raise’. – Outside Sem: ? Eg nb3 ‘carrying pole’ (Calice1936#655).

    ▪ [v2] ↗nabā.
    ▪ [v3] ↗NBʔ.
    ▪ [v4] ↗nabaʔ
    ▪ [v1] Gabal2012 assumes one basic value for all meanings of ↗NBʔ that occur in the Qurʔān: ‘sudden/unexpected appearance or occurrence of s.th., preceded or accompanied by some secrecy/hiddenness (ẓuhūr ʔaw ṭurūʔ, musbaq ʔaw maknūf bi-ḫafāʔin)’. This, he says, is the case in nabʔaẗ ‘elevation, protrusion’ (= appearing above the surface, of a height that more limited than one would have expected) as well as in ↗nabaʔ ‘news’ (information that one receives unexpectedly). – In contrast, the author continues, ClassAr nabīʔ ‘clear path’ belongs to ↗NBW, while he believes nabiyy ‘prophet’ to derive from nabīʔ meaning that the Prophet is both ‘called/informed’ (munbaʔ) by God and ‘informing’ (munbiʔ) about Him, rather than from nabwaẗ ‘elevated place’.
    ▪ [v1] Albright1927#47 notices that Ar √NBʔ obviously has two values: a) ‘to be high, raised up’ (Ar nabaʔa; cf. also nabiʔ ‘height, mound’, nabāwaẗ ‘high ground’, etc.), b) ‘to make a noise; to proclaim, announce, call by name’ (nabʔaẗ ‘barking of dogs’; nabaʔ ‘news’, nabīʔ [sic!] ‘prophet’, etc.). Therefore, the author holds, »there must evidently have been a confusion of the two distinct root-meanings«. The author thinks the latter value is from an original *NB, while the former is as dissimilation from *NM. He thinks Ar »nabaʔa ‘to be high’ is akin to a Hbr vb. for ‘to grow’ (see COGN above) as well as to Ar ↗NBT ‘plant; to grow’ and Ar ↗namā ‘to grow, rise’. – Outside Sem, Eg nb3 ‘carrying pole’ (Calice1936#655) is perhaps to be connected.
    ▪ [v1] Ehret1989#92 thinks NBʔ ‘to be high, tower over, come upon from above, conquer, surpass’ is an extension in “concisive” *‑ʔ, from a bi-consonantal “pre-Proto-Semitic” (pPS, i.e. preSem) root ↗*NB ‘to rise, become high’, cf. ↗NBː (NBB) ‘to be haughty’. Other extensions from the same pre-Sem nucleus: ↗NBT ‘to germinate, sprout, grow’, ↗NBR ‘to raise, elevate, thrive, grow’, ↗NBṢ ‘to be on the point of sprouting’, ↗NBĠ ‘to fly off’, ↗NBL ‘to surpass in any skill’, ↗NBH ‘to awake’

    [v2] : ↗nabā.
    [v3] : Cf. also: nābiʔ ‘ex alia regione veniens (aquae fluxus, homo), crossing a country (man, stream)’, nabiʔ ‘migrans de locu in locum, wanderer, wayfarer’, (?) nabīʔ ‘well-traced road’ (Freytag1837, Hava1899). – Etymology unclear; see ↗NBʔ. Gabal2012 thinks it belongs to ↗NBW.
    [v4] : Cf. also nabʔaẗ ‘faint voice; barking of dogs’ (Hava1899). Belongs to the complex ‘to utter a low voice; to announce, proclaim’ treated s.v. ↗nabaʔ
    – 
    … 
    nabaʔ نَبَأ , pl. ʔanbāʔ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 1201 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NBʔ 
    n. 
    news, tidings, information, intelligence; announcement; report, news item, dispatch – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ The n. nabaʔ (which is taken here as the main entry because there is no vb. I in MSA with a corresponding value any more) belongs to the ClassAr vb. nabaʔa (a, nabʔ) ‘to utter a low voice/sound; to cry, bark (dog); (= IV) to inform, tell, make s.o. know’ that can be traced back to protSem *NBʔ ‘to name, proclaim, summon’ (Huehnergard2011). There are theories that connect this Sem/Ar NBʔ to roots that show M instead of B (cf., e.g., Eg MK nmj ‘to scream, yell, roar’, Ar namma, naʔama ‘to whisper’, naʕama ‘to say yes’, Hbr nᵊʔūm ‘utterance’, √NʔM ‘to make a speech; to utter a prophecy’, √NWM ‘to speak’); others regard it as an extension from a biconsonantal nuclear root *NB, and some also found an AfrAs (and even Nostr) background.
    ▪ The value ‘to utter a faint sound; to inform, make known’ is only one of a number of other values appearing in ↗√NBʔ. The relation of this value to the others (‘to be high’, ‘to withdraw’, ‘to wander around’, etc.) is still subject to discussion.
    ▪ Closely related to this discussion is the question whether the word for ‘prophet’, ↗nabiyy, should be derived from Ar nabaʔa ‘to be high’ (the prophet as ‘the excellent one’), or (via Hbr or Aram) from Sem *NBʔ ‘to name, proclaim, summon’ (prophet = ‘person called by God’), if not from ↗NBW. 
    ▪ eC7 1 (news, tidings) Q 33:20 yasʔalūna ʕan ʔanbāʔik-kum ‘seeking news of you’, 38:67 huwa nabaʔun ʕaẓīmun ‘it [the Revelation] is a momentous message’; 2 (story, tale, narrative) Q 5:27 wa-’tlu ʕalay-him nabaʔa ’bnay ʔādama bi’l-ḥaqqi ‘and relate to them in truth the tale of the two sons of Adam’; 3 (disclosures, revelations) Q 11:49 tilka min ʔanbāʔi ’l-ġaybi nūḥī-hā ʔilay-ka ‘these are some of the disclosures of the hidden [knowledge] that we have revealed to you’; 4 (lessons to be learned, examples) Q 54:4 wa-laqad ǧāʔa-hum min-a ’l-ʔanbāʔi mā fī-hi muzdaǧar ‘and from examples [of past generations] has come to them that in which [should be] a deterrent’; 5 (prophecy) Q 6:67 li-kulli nabaʔin mustaqarrun wa-sawfa taʕlamūn ‘every prophecy has its fixed time to be fulfilled (or: certain endurance), you will come to realise’; 6 (replies, responses, arguments) Q 28:66 fa-ʕamiyat ʕalay-him-u ’l-ʔanbāʔu yawmaʔiḏin ‘all answers will escape (lit., not find) them on that Day’ 
    ▪ Huehnergard1999: Akk nabû (< nabāʔu) ‘to name, invoke, summon, proclaim’,218 Ar nabaʔa ‘to speak in a low voice; to announce’, Sab (tD) tnbʔ ‘to promise’, Mhr nəbō (also caus. anōbi) ‘to inform’, Soq (caus.) ə́nbəʔ ‘to name’, Jib (caus.) enbé ‘to name, announce (that one will fast)’.
    ▪ Calice1936#59 (cognates of Eg MK nmj ‘to scream, yell, roar’): Ar nabaʔa ‘to announce’, nabʔaẗ ‘faint noise’, Ar nabba ‘to bark’, Gz nababa ‘to growl’, Akk nabû ‘to call, name’, Sab nbʔ ‘to proclaim’, Hbr √NBH ‘to prophesy’; cf. also Ar naʔama ‘to whisper’, naʕama ‘to say yes’, namma ‘to whisper’, Hbr √NʔM ‘to say’.219
    ▪ Militarev2006#603: For unknown reasons the author does not mention Ar NBʔ in this entry. But since the Sem evidence he gives parallels the one to be found elsewhere, the reference is repeated here, in order to connect it with alleged extra-Sem evidence and, hence, document a possible AfrAs dimension] Akk nabû ‘to call’, Hbr nbʔ, SAr nbʔ, Gz nbb ‘to speak’, Soq nbʔ, Jib enbe ‘to nominate’. – Outside Sem: [WCh] (1 lang) nabi ‘to read, count’, [Omot] (1 lang) nabi, naabi ‘name’. 
    ▪ Huehnergard2011: Sem *NBʔ ‘to name, proclaim, summon’.794
    ▪ Gabal2012 assumes one basic value for all meanings of NBʔ that occur in the Qurʔān: ‘sudden/unexpected appearance or occurrence of s.th., preceded or accompanied by some secrecy/hiddenness (ẓuhūr ʔaw ṭurūʔ, musbaq ʔaw maknūf bi-ḫafāʔin)’. This, he says, is the case in nabʔaẗ ‘elevation, protrusion’ (= appearing above the surface, of a height that more limited than one would have expected) as well as in nabaʔ ‘news’ (information that one receives unexpectedly).
    ▪ Albright1927#47 notices that Ar √NBʔ obviously has two values: a) ‘to be high, raised up’ (Ar ↗nabaʔa; cf. also nabiʔ ‘height, mound’, nabāwaẗ ‘high ground’, etc.), b) ‘to make a noise; to proclaim, announce, call by name’ (nabʔaẗ ‘barking of dogs’; nabaʔ ‘news’, nabīʔ [sic!] ‘prophet’, etc.). Therefore, the author holds, »there must evidently have been a confusion of the two distinct root-meanings«. NBʔ ‘to make noise, etc.’ is treated as an extension from an original *NB, cf. Ar nabba (inabīb, nabb, nubāb) ‘to utter a sound, or cry, [or rattle,] when be excited by desire of the female, or at rutting-time (said of a goat)’ (Lane).
    ▪ Calice1936#59 mentions Ar nabaʔa ‘to announce’, nabʔaẗ ‘faint noise’ together with Ar nabba ‘to bark’, Gz nababa ‘to growl’ and the Sem vb.s Akk nabû ‘to call, name’, Sab nbʔ ‘to proclaim’, Hbr √NBH ‘to prophesy’ as cognate with Eg (MK) nmj ‘to scream, yell, roar’. Akin to the latter and, according to Calice, thus also to nabaʔa, are also Ar ↗naʔama ‘to whisper’ (WehrCowan1979: ‘to sound, resound, ring out; to groan, moan’), naʕama ‘to say yes’, namma ‘to whisper’ and Hbr √NʔM ‘to say’ (BDB1906: nāʔam ‘to utter a prophecy, speak as a prophet’, nᵊʔūm ‘utterance’. Klein1987: √NʔM ‘to make a speech, utter, give an address; to utter a prophecy, speak as a prophet’: probably related also: √NWM ‘to speak’).
    ▪ Ehret1989#95 does not mention NBʔ among the root extensions he gives for the bi-consonantal “pre-Proto-Semitic” (pPS, i.e. preSem) root *NB ‘to call, cry’, but the semantics clearly allow us to group nabaʔ and related items here. For extensions from the same pre-Sem nucleus that Ehret did list, cf. ↗NBː (NBB) ‘to bleat from rut’, ↗NBḤ ‘to bark, bellow, hiss’, ↗NBR ‘to shout to, drive away by cries or shouts’, ↗NBZ ‘to give one a nickname, revile’, ↗NBṢ ‘to speak’.
    ▪ Militarev2006 (#603) reconstructs Sem *n˅b˅ʔ‑ ‘to call; to speak; to nominate’, WCh *nab‑ ‘to read, count’ and Omot *nab‑ ‘name’, all from a hypothetical AfrAs *nab‑ ‘to call by name’.
    ▪ Dolgopolsky2012 reconstructs Sem *NBʔ ‘to name, give a name’. – The semantics of Ar nabaʔa, nabbaʔa ‘to announce’ may be influenced by Ar nabīy ‘prophet’ (which the authors considers a borrowing from Hbr). – Dolgopolsky further juxtaposes Sem *NBʔ ‘to name, give a name’ and IE *‘no(ː)m-n(-) / *‘n̥m-n(-) ‘name’, and alleged cognates in other macro-families, deriving all from a hypothecial Nostr *‘nimʔ˅‑ ‘name’ (with dissimilation of Sem *NB from Nostr *NM).

     
    – 
    wakālat al-ʔanbāʔ or maktab al-ʔanbāʔ, n., news agency, wire service

    nabbaʔa, vb. II, to inform, notify, tell, advise (s.o. ʕan or bi‑ of s.th.), let (s.o.) know (ʕan or bi‑ about), make known, announce, impart, communicate; to be evidence (ʕan of), show, indicate, manifest, bespeak, reveal, disclose (ʕan s.th.): caus./ints. of *I, probably denom.
    ʔanbaʔa, vb. IV, to inform, notify, tell, advise (s.o. bi‑ of), let (s.o.) know (bi‑ about), make known, announce, impart, communicate: denom.
    tanabbaʔa, vb. V, to predict, foretell, forecast, prognosticate, presage, prophesy (bi‑ s.th.); to claim to be a prophet, pose as a prophet: denom. from *nabīʔ (= ↗nabiyy) ‘called one, appointed (by God)’.
    ĭstanbaʔa, vb. X, to ask for news, for information; to inquire (DO after), ask (DO about): requestative, denom.

    nabʔaẗ, n.f., faint noise, low sound: This word, in pre-MSA also meaning the ‘(faint) barking (of a dog)’, is perhaps the last remnant in MSA of an earlier stage in the semantic history of NBʔ, when the latter emerged as an extension of biconsonantal *NB- + modifyer *‑ʔ; cf. the fact that Gz nababa ‘to speak’ originally was ‘to growl’ (Calice1936, Klein1987).
    nubūʔaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., prophecy; prognosis: not derived directly from nabaʔ, but belonging to the same Sem root, cf. ↗nubuwwaẗ.
    BP#4823nubuwwaẗ, n.f., prophethood, prophecy: belonging to the complex Sem/Ar NBʔ,17 though probably not derived directly from nabaʔ but via Hbr or Aram, see s.v.
    BP#813nabiyy (= nabīy), pl. ‑ūn, ʔanbiyāʔᵘ, n., prophet: belonging to the complex Sem/Ar NBʔ,18 though probably not derived directly from nabaʔ but via Hbr or Aram, see s.v. | ḫašab al-ʔanbiyāʔ, n., guaiacum wood.
    BP#3290nabawī, adj., prophetic, of or pertaining to a prophet or specifically to the Prophet Mohammed: nsb-adj. of nabiyy.19
    ʔinbāʔ, pl. ‑āt, n., notification, information, communication: vn. IV.
    tanabbuʔ, pl. ‑āt, n., prediction, forecast, prognostication; prophecy; prognosis: vn. V.
    tanabbuʔī, adj., prognostic, predictive: nsb-adj. from the preceding. 
    nabiyy نَبِيّ , (= nabīy, *nabīʔ), pl. ‑ūn , ʔanbiyāʔᵘ , *nubaʔāʔᵘ , *ʔanbāʔᵘ 
    ID 847 • Sw – • BP 813 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NBʔ, NBW 
    n. 
    prophet – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ As against the opinion that nabiyy should be connected with the notion of ‘to be high’ (↗nabaʔa), EtymArab follows Huehnergard and others who regard it as a borrowing (from Hbr or Aram) with the original meaning of ‘the called/appointed one’. Thus, nabiyy belongs, though only indirectly, to the complex of Sem *NBʔ ‘to name, proclaim’, treated s.v. ↗nabaʔ , which probably developed as an extension in ‑ʔ from a biconsonantal nucleus *NB ‘to call, cry’ (the latter perhaps from AfrAs *nab‑ ‘to call by name’, which in turn may have dissimilated from Nostr *‘nimʔ˅‑ ‘name’).
    ▪ The fact that a number of Ar and Sem roots show *NM rather than *NB (or both) with similar meanings (Ar namma, naʔama ‘to whisper’, naʕama ‘to say yes’, Hbr nᵊʔūm ‘utterance’, √NʔM ‘to make a speech; to utter a prophecy’, √NWM ‘to speak’, cf. also Eg nmj ‘to scream, yell, roar’) and that the idea of ‘uttering a low, faint voice, groaning, mumbling, murmuring’ often is paralleled, like in ClassAr nabaʔa, with that of addressing s.o. with a message, may also let one think of a prophet as a ‘person who utters faint sounds, murmurs’ (under the impression of a divine voice calling him, or speaking through him). This direction has not yet been explored in research so far.
     
    ▪▪ …
    ▪ eC7 Q 19:41 wa-’ḏkur fī ’l-kitābi ʔibrāhīma ʔinnahū kāna ṣiddīqan nabiyyan ‘and in the Qurʔān, mention Abraham—he was a man of truth, a prophet’28  
    ▪ Jeffery1938: Hbr nāḇî(ʔ) ‘prophet’, Aram nəḇiyyā, Syr nᵊḇīyā, Gz nabīy.
    ▪ Zammit2002: Ø [!].
    ▪ Huehnergard1999: Akk nabû (< *nabiʔu) (adj.) ‘called’, Hbr nāḇîʔ ‘prophet’. For the vb. from which the forms are derived (Sem *NBʔ ‘to name, proclaim’), see s.v. ↗nabaʔ.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Gabal2012 does not think nabiyy ‘prophet’ is from √NBW; but he does not assume a foreign origin either. For the author, the word is from *nabīʔ (cf. the dual nabīʔayn, where the hamz is still preserved), meaning that the Prophet (Muḥammad) is both ‘called/informed’ (munbaʔ) by God and ‘informing’ (munbiʔ) about Him. A derivation, put forward by others, from the notion of ‘to be high, haughty, elevated’ (cf. nabwaẗ ‘elevated place, hill’) is, he says, to be rejected (on theological grounds, though).
    ▪ Jeffery1938, 276: »Usually the word is taken to be from √NBʔ ‘to bring news’ (as-Sijistānī, 312), though some thought it was from a meaning of that root ‘to be high’.795 – Fraenkel, Vocab, 20, pointed out that the pl. nabiyyūn, beside the more usual ʔanbiyāʔ, would suggest that the word was a foreign borrowing and that it was taken from the older religions has been generally accepted by modern scholarship.796 Sprenger, Leben, ii, 251, would derive it from the Hbr nāḇī(ʔ), and this view has commended itself to many scholars.797 There are serious objections to it, however, on the ground of form, and as Wright has pointed out,798 it is the Aram nəḇiyyā, which by the dropping of the sign for emphatic state, gives us the form we need. Thus there can be little doubt that nabiyy, like Eth [Gz] nabīy (Nöldeke, Neue Beiträge, 34), is from the Aram,799 and probably from JudAram rather than from Syr nᵊḇīyā. It was seemingly known to the Arabs long before Muḥammad’s day,800 and occurs, probably of Mani himself, in the Manichaean fragments (Salemann, Manichaeische Studien, i, 97).«
    ▪ Schall 1982: from Hbr nāḇī(ʔ) ‘prophet’.
    ▪ Huehnergard2011: Hbr nāḇî(ʔ) ‘prophet’ (originally, ‘one named, summoned by a god’).801 Hbr (and, in general, Sem) *qatīl nouns are stative, resultative, or passive in meaning.
    ▪ Huehnergard1999: uncomplicated reconstruction of Sem *NBʔ ‘to name, proclaim’ (similar meaning also in NWSem and > Hbr). »Since […] *qatīl agent nouns of transitive roots are uniformly passive in Hbr, Hbr morphology and semantics lead us inevitably to conclude that nābîʔ too is passive rather […] and means ‘the one called/named’ by a god, just as we find in parallel Akk expressions such as (literary) oBab nabiʔu DN ‘the one named/called by DN’.802 «
    ▪ Dolgopolsky2012 – The author thinks that BiblAram nᵊḇîʔ-ā, JudAram nᵊḇiyy-ā, Syr nᵊḇiy-ā, and Ar nabīy ‘prophet’ all are from BiblHbr nāḇî(ʔ) ‘prophet’ (originally a PP signifying ‘named one, appointed one’) and that Gz nabiyy ‘id.’ is from Ar. In contrast, he seems to see the Sem vb.s in direct dependence from Sem *NBʔ.
    ▪ Pennacchio2014:162 follows Blachère in regarding nabiyy as a loan from Hbr nāḇî(ʔ) ‘prophet’, more precisely from the Jews of the Ḥiǧāz. However, she gives the meaning of the underlying root NBʔ as ‘to be high, elevated’, which most others reject.
    ▪ Cf. also roots ↗√NBʔ in general and ↗√NBW, as well as ↗nubuwwaẗ.
     
    – 
    tanabbaʔa, vb. V, to predict, foretell, forecast, prognosticate, presage, prophesy (bi‑ s.th.); tanabbà, to claim to be a prophet, pose as a prophet: denom.

    BP#4823nubuwwaẗ, n.f., prophethood, prophecy: denom. (?).
    BP#3290nabawī, adj., prophetic, of or pertaining to a prophet or specifically to the Prophet Mohammed: nisba formation.
    tanabbuʔ, pl. ‑āt, n., prediction, forecast, prognostication; prophecy; prognosis: vn. V, denom.
    tanabbuʔī, adj., prognostic, predictive: nisba formation from denom. vn. V. 
    nubuwwaẗ نُبُوَّة (= nubūwaẗ, *nubūʔaẗ
    ID 846 • Sw – • BP 4823 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NBʔ, NBW 
    n.f. 
    prophethood, prophecy – WehrCowan1979. 
    Like ↗nabiyy ‘prophet’, nubuwwaẗ ‘prophethood, prophecy’ does probably neither belong to the root ↗NBW (see also ↗nabā ‘to remove, withdraw’) nor to NBʔ in the sense of ‘to be high’, but rather to the homonymous Sem root NBʔ ‘to name, proclaim, summon’, treated s.v. ↗nabaʔ ‘news, message’. Although also the var. nubūʔaẗ (with ‑ʔ‑) occurs, for the value ‘prophethood, prophecy’ the form with ‑w‑ instead of ‑ʔ‑ seems to be the older one in Ar, a fact that supports the theory of an inner-Sem borrowing, most probably from lHbr nəḇūwāh ‘prophecy’, which denotes the ‘office’ of a Hbr nābî(ʔ) ‘prophet’. The latter is obviously a PP from Hbr < Sem *NBʔ ‘to name, proclaim’. The latter took form perhaps as an extension in ‑ʔ from a biconsonantal nucleus *NB ‘to call, cry’ (which, according to some, goes back to an AfrAs vb. *nab‑ ‘to call by name’, which in turn may have dissimilated from the Nostr n. *‘nimʔ˅‑ ‘name’). 
    ▪ eC7 Q 57:26 (prophethood) wa-ǧaʕalnā fī ḏurriyyati-himā ’l-nubuwwaẗa wa’l-kitāba ‘and We established for their descendants prophethood and revelations’; see also Q 3:79, 6:89, 24:27, 45:16 ‘prophecy’ 
    ▪ Zammit2002: Ø [!].
    ▪ Jeffery1938: Hbr nəḇūwāh; cf. also JA nəḇūʔəṯā Syr nəḇīyōṯā ‘prophecy’.
    ▪ For the wider context, cf. ↗nabiyy, ↗nabaʔ, ↗NBʔ, ↗NB. 
    ▪ Jeffery1938, 277 [na buwwaẗ]: »The word occurs only in late Meccan passages (but see Ahrens, Christliches, 34), and always in connection with the mention of the previous Scriptures with which the Arabs were acquainted. It is thus clearly a technical word, and though it may be a genuine development from ↗nabiyy, there is some suspicion that it is a direct borrowing from the Jews. – In late Hbr nəḇūwāh is used for ‘prophecy’ (cf. Neh. vi, 12, and 2 Chron. xv, 8), and in one interesting passage (2 Chron. ix, 29) it means a prophetic document. In Jewish Aram nəḇūʔəṯā also means ‘prophecy’, but apparently does not have the meaning of ‘prophetic document’,803 nor is the Syr nəḇīyōṯā so near to the Ar as the Hbr, which would seem to leave us with the conclusion that it was the Hbr word which gave rise to the Ar, or at least influenced the development of the form (Horovitz, JPN, 224).«
    ▪ Pennacchio2014:162 follows Jeffery and Horovitz in regarding nubuwwaẗ as a loan from lHbr nᵊḇûʔâh ‘prophecy’, taken from the Jews of the Ḥiǧāz.
    ▪ Cf. also ↗NBW, ↗nabiyy, ↗NB and ↗NBʔ.
     
    – 
     
    NBT نبت 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √NBT 
    “root” 
    ▪ NBT_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NBT_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NBT_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘plant, vegetation, seedling, to sprout, germinate, (of plants) to shoot out, grow, bring forth, plant, cultivate, cause to grow; the young, to breed, raise, to become of age’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NBḤ نبح 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NBḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NBḤ_1 ‘to bark, bay’ ↗nabaḥa
    ▪ NBḤ_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ NBḤ_3 ‘…’ ↗ 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    … 
    nabaḥ‑ نَبَحَ , a (nabḥ, nubāḥ, nibāḥ, nabīḥ
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NBḤ 
    vb., I 
    to bark, bay – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘to bark’) Akk (nbḫ (u)), Hbr nbḥ a (a), Syr nbḥ a (u), Gz nbḥ – (ā).
     
    … 
    … 
    tanābaḥa, vb. VI, 1a to bark at each other; 1b to bark simultaneously, answer each other’s barks (dogs, e.g., at night).

    nabḥ, nubāḥ, nibāḥ, nabīḥ, n., barking, bark, baying, yelp(ing): vn. I.
    nabbāḥ, n., barker, yelper: ints. formation.
     
    NBḎ نبذ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √NBḎ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NBḎ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NBḎ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NBḎ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘portion, small piece; to hurl, discard, cast out, forsake, renounce; to withdraw, retire, retreat to one side’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NBZ نبز 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √NBZ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NBZ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NBZ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NBZ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘title, nickname, derisive or insulting name, descriptive name (usually bad), to call one another names, defame’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NBṬ نبط 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √NBṬ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NBṬ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NBṬ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NBṬ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘first water obtained from a newly dug well; to elicit, deduce; to well out, issue; the innermost part; Nabateans, to live like, or to claim to be, a Nabatean’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NBʕ نبع 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NBʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NBʕ_1 kind of tree ↗nabʕ
    ▪ NBʕ_2 ‘(to) well, well out, gush forth’ ↗nabaʕa
    ▪ NBʕ_3 ‘…’ ↗

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘spring of water, brook, creek; to flow, to gush out, to issue, to originate’ 
    ▪ Are [v1] and [v2] etymologically related?
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ NBʕ_1 : …
    ▪ NBʕ_2 : (Bergsträsser1928, *‘well’:) Akk nambāʔu, Hbr mabbōᵃʕ, Syr mabbōʕā, Gz (nbʕ ‘to weep, cry’).
    ▪ NBʕ_3 ‘…’ ↗
     
    … 
    … 
    … 
    nabaʕ‑ نَبَعَ, u, i, a (nabʕ, nubūʕ, nabaʕān)
     
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NBʕ 
    vb., I 
    1a to well, well up, gush forth, flow, issue; 1b to rise, spring, originate (river); 2a to emanate (e.g., an odor); 2b to emerge, spring, stem (from) – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ The fact that Bergsträsser has an entry manbaʕ (see below) instead of nabaʕa suggests that he considers the vb. to be secondary (denominative), not the noun deverbative. But this does not sound very reasonable, ma‑ being a very common prefix for n.loc.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘well’) Akk nambāʔu, Hbr mabbōᵃʕ, Syr mabbōʕā, Gz (nbʕ ‘to weep, cry’).
     
    … 
    … 
    ʔanbaʕa, vb. IV, to cause to gush forth or flow out: *Š‑stem, caus.

    nabʕ, n., 1nabʕ; 2 spring, source: may be the etymon proper from which vb. I then would be denom.
    BP#3856manbaʕ, pl. manābiʕᵘ, n., 1a spring, well; 1b fountainhead, springhead, source, origin: considered an original item by Bergsträsser, but rather a simple maFʕaL formation for n.loc. | manbaʕ zayt, manbaʕ bitrōl, n., oil‑well
    yanbūʕ, pl. yanābīʕᵘ, n., spring, source, well.

    For another item from the same root √NBʕ (related to nabaʕa?), cf. ↗nabʕ
    nabʕ نَبْع 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NBʕ 
    n. 
    1 a tree whose wood was used in arrow‑making; – 2nabaʕa.
     
    Related to ↗nabaʕa ‘to well, gush out; spring, source’?
     
    ▪ … 
    … 
    See above, section, CONC. 
    … 
    For other (related?) items of the same root, cf. ↗nabaʕa and, for the whole picture, ↗√NBʕ.. 
    NBW نبو 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NBW 
    “root” 
    ▪ NBW_1 ‘to remove, withdraw’ ↗nabā .
    ▪ NBW_2 ‘prophet, prophecy, to prophesy’ ↗nabiyy, ↗nubuwwaẗ, ↗nabaʔ .
    ▪ NBW_3 ‘to be high, elevated place’: nabwaẗnabaʔa .
    ▪ NBW_4 ‘tableboard; table-cloth of palmleaves’: nabiyyaẗ ↗ DISC below. 
    The root displays a variety of values due to mutual influence and overlapping with ↗NBʔ ‘to be high’ and ↗NBʔ ‘to call, proclaim, etc.’, or with ↗NBY. 
    – 
    ▪ [NBW_4 (in ClassAr dictionaries often treated s.r. NBY)] Klein1987: postBiblHbr nᵊḇiyyāh ‘sproutings, foliage’ (var. of Mishna nᵊmiyyāh), ? Ar nabiyyaẗ ‘tableboard; table-cloth of palmleaves’. Of uncertain origin, perhaps related to the base NWB ‘to sprout’. This, in turn, seems to be akin to the Mishna var. nᵊmiyyāh, which has been put together with Ar ↗namā ‘to grow’. 
    ▪ Lane treats NBW_1 s.v. NBY.
    ▪ Gabal2012 thinks that all meanings of NBW can be derived from one basic value (‘protrusion or swelling/inflation due to a—coarse—agglomeration/accumulation inside or a tension that does not allow the body to decrease/flatten’, such as in nabwaẗ ‘high ground, elevated place’). These aspects, however, are treated by others (and also EtymArab) as belonging to NBʔ in the sense of ‘to be high’, see ↗nabaʔa.
    ▪ Ehret1989#93 regards NBW ‘to remove, withdraw’ as an extension in “inchoative (> tr.)” *‑W from a bi-consonantal “pre-Proto-Semitic” (pPS, i.e. preSem) root ↗*NB ‘to bring out’. Other extensions from the same pre-Sem root: ↗NBṮ ‘to dig out with o.’s hand, clean a well, uproot’, ↗NBǦ ‘to creep out ouf the egg, break forth, flow’, ↗NBḎ ‘to fling out of o.’s hand, cast, reject, let go’, ↗NBŠ ‘to uncover, dig out, dig, bring to light’, ↗NBĠ ‘to appear, come to light, get known, break forth’, ↗NBQ ‘to spurt out of a wound (blood, pus)’, ↗NBW ‘to remove, withdraw’.
    ▪ NBW_4: Together with postBiblHbr nᵊḇiyyāh ‘sproutings, foliage’, Ar nabiyyaẗ ‘tableboard; table-cloth of palmleaves’804 may be related to Hbr nwb ‘to sprout’. The Mishna var. nᵊmiyyāh shows that there obviously is an oscillation between NB- and NM-, and this is why nabiyyaẗ not only may be seen together with Ar ↗namā ‘to grow’ (as mentioned by Klein1987), but perhaps also with ↗nabaʔa ‘to be high’ and ↗nabāt ‘plant(s)’.
    ▪ The obsolete word nabbaẗ ‘disagreeable, abominable smell’ (Hava 1899), arranged by Lane s.r. NBY and said to be »probably a mistake for bannaẗ (and therefore not mentioned by the leading lexicographers), may actually be a (rare) vulgar corrasion of nābiyaẗ ‘repelling’ (PA I f.) (> *nābyaẗ > *nā̆byaẗ = nabyaẗ > *nabʸaẗ > nabbaẗ). 
    – 
    – 
    nabā نَبا , u (nabw , nubūw
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NBW 
    vb., I 
    to be far off, distant, remote; to move away, withdraw in the distance; to miss (arrow, ʕan the target); to bounce off, rebound, bounce, bound (ʕan from – ʔilà to; ball); to disagree (ʕan with); to be contradictory (ʕan to), to conflict, be in conflict, be inconsistent (ʕan with); to be offensive, repugnant (ʕan to s.o.); to dislike, find repugnant (ʕan s.th.); nabā bi-hī to irk, offend, repel, displease s.o. (of s.th.) | nabā bi-hi ’l-maǧlis, he couldn’t bear sitting on the chair any longer; nabā bi-hā ’l-maḍǧaʕ, she couldn’t stand staying in bed any longer; nabā bi-hi ’l-makān, he felt unable to remain in the place, he became stir-crazy – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ Lane treats a number of items s.v. NBY, not NBW: nabā [written with ʔalif, not yāʔ ] ‘to recoil, revert, glanced off, glance away (ʕan al-ḍarībaẗ from the thing struck with it), without penetrating, or without effect (said of a sword); to be blunt (edge of a sword)’, ‘to recoil, revert (ʕan from s.th.), be repelled (ʕan by) (said of the sight); to recoil, flinch, shrink, be averse (ʕan from s.th.), shun and not accept s.th | ~ ǧanbuhū ʕan al-firāš his side did not rest, was restless, uneasy, upon the bed, it shrank from it’.
    ▪ Gabal2012 thinks that all meanings of NBW can be derived from one basic value (‘protrusion or swelling/inflation due to a—coarse—agglomeration/accumulation inside or a tension that does not allow the body to decrease/flatten’, such as in nabwaẗ ‘high ground, elevated place’). These aspects, however, are treated by other scholars as belonging to NBʔ in the sense of ‘to be high’, cf. ↗nabaʔa.
    ▪ Ehret1989#93 regards NBW ‘to remove, withdraw’ as an extension in “inchoative (> tr.)” *‑W from a bi-consonantal “pre-Proto-Semitic” (pPS, i.e. preSem) root ↗*NB ‘to bring out’. Other extensions from the same pre-Sem root: ↗NBṮ ‘to dig out with o.’s hand, clean a well, uproot’, ↗NBǦ ‘to creep out ouf the egg, break forth, flow’, ↗NBḎ ‘to fling out of o.’s hand, cast, reject, let go’, ↗NBŠ ‘to uncover, dig out, dig, bring to light’, ↗NBĠ ‘to appear, come to light, get known, break forth’, ↗NBQ ‘to spurt out of a wound (blood, pus)’, ↗NBW ‘to remove, withdraw’.
    ▪ For nabwaẗ ‘elevated place’ see ↗nabaʔa.
    ▪ The obsolete word nabbaẗ ‘disagreeable, abominable smell’ (Hava 1899), arranged by Lane s.r. NBY and said to be »probably a mistake for bannaẗ (and therefore not mentioned by the leading lexicographers), may actually be a (rare) vulgar corrasion of nābiyaẗ ‘repelling’ (PA I f.) (> *nābyaẗ > *nā̆byaẗ = nabyaẗ > *nabʸaẗ > nabbaẗ).
    ▪ For nabiyyaẗ ‘tableboard; table-cloth of palmleaves’805 cf. DISC in ↗NBW.
     
    – 
    nabbaẗ, n.f., disagreeable, abominable smell: perhaps a vulgar corrasion of nābiyaẗ ‘repelling’; if so, then it is originally a PA I f. of nabā, cf. DISC above.
    nabwaẗ, n.f., elevated place: see DISC above, and ↗nabaʔa.
    BP#4823nubuwwaẗ: grouped s.r. NBW in WehrCowan1979 but belonging to the complex of ‘calling, appointing, naming’ treated under ↗nabaʔ (though probably not derived directly from there); cf. also ↗nabiyy and own entry ↗nubuwwaẗ.
    BP#813nabiyy (= nabīy): grouped s.r. √NBW in WehrCowan1979 but belonging to the complex of ‘calling, appointing, naming’ treated under ↗nabaʔ (though probably not derived directly from there); cf. also own entry ↗nabiyy.
    nabiyyaẗ, n.f., tableboard; table-cloth of palmleaves: cf. DISC above, and ↗nabaʔa, ↗nabāt.
    BP#3290nabawīnabiyy.
    nābin, det. nābī, adj., repugnant, distasteful, improper, ugly: PA I. 
    NTQ نتق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √NTQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NTQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NTQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NTQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to shake; to raise, lift up, overturn, pour out by overturning; (of a camel’s rigging) to become loose’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NṮR نثر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √NṮR 
    “root” 
    ▪ NṮR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NṮR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NṮR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to strew, scatter, sprinkle, spillage’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NǦ‑ نج 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NǦ- 
    Perhaps a polyvalent 2-cons. root nucleus. 
    ▪ Ǧabal2012: 2219: /n/ nafāḏ bāṭinī laṭīf + /ǧ/ ǧurm kaṯīf ġayr ṣalib => nafāḏ kaṯīf ġayr ṣalib min bāṭin šayʔ ‘breaking through [and welling/pouring out, i.e., eruption] of s.th. thick, but not solid, from within s.th.’

    ▪ Ehret identifies 2 homonymous pre-protSem roots:
    • *NG-_1 ‘to strip’ ↗NǦ- (1) (Ehret1989)
    • *NG-_2 ‘to seep, ooze’ ↗NǦ- (2) (Ehret1995)
     
    See above, section ENGL. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Note the remarkable closeness between Gabal’s *‘breaking through [and welling/pouring out, i.e., eruption] of s.th. from inside’ and Ehret’s *‘to seep, ooze’ (Ehret1995).
    ▪ See also DERIV below. 
    – 
    According to Ehret, the following 3-cons. roots derive from the two bi-cons. pre-protSem root nuclei:

    ▪ From pre-protSem *NG ‘to strip’ (Ehret1989 #57):

    + extendative *‑b > ↗naǧb ‘to remove the bark from a tree’
    + diffusive *‑r > ↗naǧara ‘to cut or plane wood’
    + iterative *‑p > ↗naǧf ‘to shave or polish an arrow’
    + intensive (manner) *‑p naǧf ‘to cut down, pull out’
    + finitive *‑l > ↗naǧl ‘to blot out, erase, wipe the writing tablet’ (= [v10] of ↗NǦL; cf. also [v10], ibid.)
    + inchoative (> tr.) *‑w > ↗naǧw ‘to cut down a tree and strip off its branches, skin a camel’

    ▪ From pre-protSem *NG ‘to seep, ooze’ (Ehret1995 #613), Cush *ʔangʷ‑/ʔungʷ‑ ‘breast’ (from secreting of milk by the breast), ?Eg ngsgs ‘to overflow’, from AfrAs *‑nugʷ‑ ‘to seep’:

    + Ø > ↗naǧǧ ‘to bleed, suppurate’
    + extendative fortative *‑ḫʷ > ↗naǧḫ ‘to bring wind and rain’
    + durative *‑d > ↗naǧida ‘to drip with perspiration’
    + noun suffix *‑l > ↗naǧl ‘outflowing water, spring; to abound with springs of water’ (vb. < n.) (= [v16] of ↗NǦL)
    + iterative *‑f > ↗naǧf ‘to milk (a sheep) well’
    + deverbative *‑w > ↗naǧw ‘pouring cloud’

    According to Gabal2012, the following 3-cons. roots are formed by extension from the bi-cons. root nucleus *NǦ‑:

    + Ø (pure stem) naǧǧa ‘to seep, ooze’
    + *‑w > ↗naǧā (naǧw) ‘to save o.s., be rescued, escape’
    + *‑d > ↗naǧd ‘highland, upland, tableland, plateau; the Nejd’
    + *‑s > ↗naǧas ‘impurity, dirt, filth, defilement’
    + *‑m naǧama ‘to appear, come in sight, rise (star)’, naǧm ‘star’

     
    NǦ‑ نجـ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NǦ- 
    2-cons. root nucleus 
    *to strip – Ehret1989 #57 
    See below, section DERIV. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
    – 
    ▪ According to Ehret1989 #57, the following 3-cons. roots derive from pre-protSem *NG ‘to strip’:

    + extendative *‑b > ↗naǧb ‘to remove the bark from a tree’
    + diffusive *‑r > ↗naǧara ‘to cut or plane wood’
    + iterative *‑p > ↗naǧf ‘to shave or polish an arrow’
    + intensive (manner) *‑p naǧf ‘to cut down, pull out’
    + finitive *‑l > ↗naǧl ‘to blot out, erase, wipe the writing tablet’ (= [v10] of ↗NǦL; cf. also [v9] ‘to rip up, skin an animal from the hocks’, ibid.)
    + inchoative (> tr.) *‑w > ↗naǧw ‘to cut down a tree and strip off its branches, skin a camel’

     
    NǦ‑ نجـ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NǦ- 
    2-cons. root nucleus 
    *to seep, ooze – Ehret1995 #613
    *breaking through [and welling/pouring out, i.e., eruption] of s.th. thick, but not solid, from within s.th. – Gabal2012 
    See below, section DERIV. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Note the remarkable closeness between Ehret’s *‘to seep, ooze’ and Gabal’s *‘breaking through [and welling/pouring out, i.e., eruption] of s.th. from inside’ (see ↗*NǦ‑) 
    – 
    ▪ According to Ehret1995 #613, the following 3-cons. roots derive from pre-protSem *ng ‘to seep, ooze’:

    + Ø > ↗naǧǧ ‘to bleed, suppurate’
    + extendative fortative *‑ḫʷ > ↗naǧḫ ‘to bring wind and rain’
    + durative *‑d > ↗naǧida ‘to drip with perspiration’
    + noun suffix *‑l > ↗naǧl ‘outflowing water, spring; to abound with springs of water’ (vb. < n.) (= [v16] of ↗NǦL)
    + iterative *‑f > ↗naǧf ‘to milk (a sheep) well’
    + deverbative *‑w > ↗naǧw ‘pouring cloud’

    ▪ According to Gabal2012, the following 3-cons. roots are formed by extension from the bi-cons. root nucleus *NǦ‑:
    + Ø (pure stem) naǧǧa ‘to seep, ooze’
    + *‑w > ↗naǧā (naǧw) ‘to save o.s., be rescued, escape’
    + *‑d > ↗naǧd ‘highland, upland, tableland, plateau; the Nejd’
    + *‑s > ↗naǧas ‘impurity, dirt, filth, defilement’
    + *‑m > ↗naǧama ‘to appear, come in sight, rise (star)’, naǧm ‘star’

     
    NǦD نجد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √NǦD 
    “root” 
    ▪ NǦD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NǦD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NǦD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘hard and high land, plateau, to climb, a well-marked road which is both clear and wide; mean and tough camels; courage, assistance, to overcome’ 
    ▪ From WSem *√NGD ‘to become prominent, conspicuous, to drag, lead, travel’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NǦS نجس 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √NǦS 
    “root” 
    ▪ NǦS_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NǦS_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NǦS_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘filth, defilement, desecration, profanity, to soil; a type of amulet or charm used in pre-Islamic Arabia to protect children, incantations’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NǦL نجل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NǦL 
    “root” 
    ▪ NǦL_1 ‘to beget’ ↗naǧala
    ▪ NǦL_2 ‘large-eyed, wide (eye), gaping (wound)’ ↗ʔanǧalᵘ
    ▪ NǦL_3 ‘couch grass, orchard grass (Dactylis; bot.); quitch (bot.)’ ↗naǧīl
    ▪ NǦL_4 ‘scythe, sickle’ ↗minǧal
    ▪ NǦL_5 ‘bench vice’ ↗manǧalaẗ
    ▪ NǦL_6 (ʔNGL) ‘anglification’ ↗ʔangalaẗ
    ▪ NǦL_7 (ʔNǦīL) ‘gospel’ ↗ʔinǧīl
    ▪ NǦL_8 (ʔNGūLā) ‘Angola’ ↗ʔanġōlā

    Other meanings, now obsolete (as given by Steingass1884 and Hava1899, corroborated by Wahrmund1877; unless stated otherwise, meanings given in French are from Kazimirski1860):

    NǦL_9 ‘to rip up, skin (a slaughtered animal) from the hocks’: naǧala, u (naǧl)
    NǦL_10 ‘to blot out, erase (a writing), wipe the writing-tablet’: naǧala, i or u (naǧl); ? VIII ĭntaǧala ‘to remove water from the foot of a wall’
    NǦL_11 ‘to throw away, fling, strike off (with a foot or leg, e.g., pebbles)’: naǧala, i (naǧl); ? VIII ĭntaǧala ‘to remove water from the foot of a wall’
    NǦL_12 ‘to ill-treat s.o.’: naǧala, i (naǧl)
    NǦL_13 ‘marcher d’un pas vigoureux’: naǧala, i (naǧl)
    NǦL_14 ‘to strike, beat, push, drive’: naǧala, u (naǧl)
    NǦL_15 ‘to split, pierce (s.th., bi‑ with a spear); to make and opening in the earth to till (the ground)’: naǧala, i or u (naǧl); naǧl ‘opening made in the earth to plant s.th.’
    NǦL_16 ‘outflowing water, spring / eau qui sort du sol’ (LandbergZetterstéen1942)’: naǧl, pl. ʔanǧāl; cf. also naǧala, u (naǧl) and X ĭstanǧala1 to abound with springs of water; 2 to become swampy (ground) / se couvrir d’eau à la surface (se dit du sol marécageux)’, DaṯAr naǧīlaẗ ‘spring, well’ (LandbergZetterstéen1942)
    NǦL_17 ‘to combat, fight / combattre, en venir aux mains les uns avec les autres’: VI tanāǧala
    NǦL_18 ‘hervorbringen, ans Licht ziehen, bekannt machen | tirer, extraire ou emmener | to disclose; to manifest s.th.’ : naǧala, u (naǧl); cf. also VIII ĭntaǧala ‘to show o.s., appear (and disappear) / apparaître et disparaître aussitôt’; cf. also X ĭstanǧala ‘pousser de dessous terre, paraître à la surface du sol’
    NǦL_19 ‘breiter Weg’: naǧl, pl. ʔanǧāl

     
    General remarks
    While items NǦL_5–8 obviously are of foreign provenience, relations among the remaining values of the root are as unclear as the etymology of the corresponding items, due to the relative scarcity of Sem or other cognates. It is also not clear whether all can/should be traced back to one single value or etymon, or whether we are dealing with two or more homonymous roots. Opinion differs considerably, even in the case of minǧal ‘scythe, sickle’ (NǦL_4), which some believe to be of ultimately Sum origin while others derive it from Copt, or Eg, or Grk, and again others postulate a Sem *NGL ‘to mow, reap’ and/or put it together with the vb. Ar naǧala, giving the latter’s basic value either as ‘to remove the skin from a slaughtered animal’ (NǦL_9) or ‘to blot out, erase (a writing), wipe the writing-tablet’ (NǦL_10) or ‘to split, pierce’ (NǦL_15). – Leslau, Ehret and Orel&Stolbova seem to identify at least two roots: Ehret1989 gives pre-protSem *NG ‘to strip’ as the origin of Ar naǧala in the sense of ‘to blot out, erase, wipe the writing tablet’ (NǦL_10), while Ehret1995 reconstructs pre-protSem *ng ‘to seep, ooze’ as the basis of Ar naǧl ‘outflowing water, spring’ and a denom. vb. naǧala ‘to abound with springs of water’ (NǦL_16); Orel&Stolbova1994 list a Sem *n˅gil‑ ‘to mow, reap’ (> Ar NǦL_4 minǧal ‘sickle’) alongside with Sem *n˅gil‑ ‘to throw’ (> Ar NǦL_11 naǧala ‘to throw away, fling’), both of which with assumed AfrAs predecessors; Leslau1987 associates one Gz ngl (‘to uproot’) with Ar nǧl ‘to remove the skin from a slaughtered animal’ (NǦL_9) while he does not give an Ar cognate of another, homonymous Gz ngl (‘to become visible’) although its meaning comes close to Ar NǦL_18. The latter’s semantics may also suggest contamination with an N-stem of ↗ǦLW/Y ‘to make clear, plain, clarify’, cf. Ar ĭnǧalà, vb. VII, ‘to become clear, manifest itself’.

    NǦL_5–8
    ▪ NǦL_5: prob. from modGrk μέγγενη ~ μέγκενη /méŋgeni/ ‘bench vice’; perh. a wanderwort.
    ▪ NǦL_6: created from an assumed 4-rad. root *√ʔNGL along the faʕlalaẗ pattern for vn.s of 4-rad. verbs, cf. TaRǦaMaẗ ‘translation’, from TaRǦaMa, vb. I, ‘to translate, interpret’, from √TRǦM, or TaLFaNa ‘to phone’, from TiLīFūN ‘telephone’, hypothetical root *√TLFN.
    ▪ NǦL_7: lw., prob. via Gz wangēl, from Grk εὐαγγέλιον euangélion ‘god tidings, gospel’
    ▪ NǦL_8: Eg spelling of ʔanġōlā ‘Angola’

    NǦL_1–4 and NǦL_9–19
    ▪ One basic thematic idea that possibly is common to several of the non-foreign values seems to be the one given by Ǧabal2012 for the root nucleus *NǦ‑ in general, namely ‘breaking through [and welling/pouring out, i.e., eruption] of s.th. thick, but not solid, from within s.th. (nafāḏ kaṯīf ġayr ṣalib min bāṭin šayʔ)’, which corresponds, roughly, to Ehret’s (1995) assumption of a pre-protSem *√NG ‘to seep, ooze ’ (↗NǦ‑_2). The values that come closest to this idea would be ‘to split, pierce (and thereby cause an opening); (to make an opening in the earth) to till (the ground)’ (NǦL_15), ‘to show o.s., appear, break through (from down in the soil); to disclose, manifest’ (NǦL_18), and ‘outflowing water, spring’, hence also ‘to abound with springs of water; to become swampy (ground)’ (NǦL_16), perhaps even ‘large-eyed, wide (eye), gaping (wound)’ (NǦL_2, if the eye or wound is seen as *‘opening ’ caused by the *‘penetration, piercing’ of NǦL_15). ‘Outflowing water, spring’ could in turn be the source of ‘to beget; offspring’ (NǦL_1, if thought as *‘eruption of sperms, ejaculation’) as well as of ‘to combat, fight’ (NǦL_17, enemies *‘spurting out, erupting’ into each other). Perhaps also the naǧīl type of grass (NǦL_3) is originally the *‘pullulating (i.e., erupting, and quickly spreading)’ plant. Also the ‘broad path’ (NǦL_19) may be a metaphorical or extended use of what originally was a *‘wide opening’ (NǦL_2). – If the *‘breaking through/eruption’ is thought of as accompanied by some vehemence/violence, then also some other items may be connected. But this would be even more speculative – and probably also less convincing than their derivation from…
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova’s (1994) Sem *n˅gil‑ ‘to throw ’ or Ehret’s (1989) pre-protSem *NG ‘to strip ’ (↗NǦ‑_1). The item that Ehret regards as the direct result of the extension of this nucleus by finitive *‑l is ‘to blot out, erase, wipe the writing tablet’ (NǦL_10). But why not also ‘to remove the skin from a slaughtered animal’ (NǦL_9)? The latter is the value Leslau1987 assumes to be akin to Gz nagala ‘to be uprooted’, Soq ngl ‘to make go out’ and Syr naggel ‘to remove’, and hence also to Ar minǧal ‘scythe, sickle’ (NǦL_4) which he thinks is the *‘instrument that removes, uproots’. Given that the movement carried out in ‘blotting out, erasing, wiping the writing tablet’ can be imagined to be a vehement, swift movement away from the speaker, one may also connect ‘to throw away, fling, strike off (with a foot or leg, e.g., pebbles); to remove water from the foot of a wall’ (NǦL_11), which later may have been generalized into ‘to strike, beat, push, drive’ (NǦL_14) and hence also ‘to ill-treat’ (NǦL_12) and ‘marcher d’un pas vigoureux’ (NǦL_13). – But, again: all this is highly speculative, uncorroborated by sufficient evidence, and all assumptions are at best preliminary.
    EtymArab’s hypothesis is that (a) the evidence outside Ar is broad enough to assume a wider Sem and AfrAs dimension and therefore exclude dependence of the root, as a whole, on Sum, Eg, Copt, or Grk, and (b) that, within Sem, the primary value is [v11] ‘to throw away (stones, pebbles, a lance etc.), fling, strike off’ (= Orel&Stolbova1994: Sem *n˅gil‑ ‘to throw’, from AfrAs *n˅gol‑ ‘id.’). This ‘throwing away’ is accompanied by, or carried out with, some violence (hence [v13] ‘marcher d’un pas vigoureux’), typically directed at an animal to chase it (> [v14] ‘to strike, beat, push, drive away’) or a human being (> [v12] ‘to ill-treat’). The chasing may also be carried out with a lance or a spear, and when this is directed against another person, esp. an enemy, we get [v17] ‘to combat, fight’. The attack may result in some ‘splitting, piercing’ ([v15]), caused by the weapon. In a next step, ‘splitting, piercing’ gives rise to a number of derived values. On the one hand, there is, once an animal is killed, the splitting of its skin at a certain point of the leg, as an initial opening with the aim of ‘ripping up, skinning (a slaughtered animal) from the hocks’ ([v9]) (cf. Ehret1989’s pre-protSem *NG ‘to strip’), a notion that can easily be transferred to the ‘blotting out, erasing (of a writing), or wiping (of the writing-tablet)’ ([v10]), which is similar to the removal of the skin in that it is a scraping movement away from the agent. From ‘splitting, piercing’ may also derive the ‘cutting’ carried out by [v4] the ‘sickle’ (cf. Orel&Stolbova1994: Sem *n˅gil‑ ‘to mow, reap’, from AfrAs *n˅gil‑ ‘to cut’), perh. crossing the semantics of a loanword (Sum > Akk > WSem) here. On the other hand, the splitting may also cause a wide opening, which is the basic idea of the ‘gaping wound’ and the ‘wide, open eye’ ([v2]) as well as openings in the earth caused by digging, to cultivate crops, or openings happening naturally and spontaneously in the ground or a swamp, causing water to ‘flow out, spring’, hence the values ‘to abound with springs of water’ and ‘to become swampy (ground)’ [v16] (cf. Ǧabal2012’s Ar *NǦ‑ ‘breaking through, eruption’ and Ehret1995’s pre-protSem *NG ‘to seep, ooze’). ‘Erupting’ like water from the ground may also be the copious growth of the [v3] ‘couch grass, orchard grass’, or male sperma when ejaculated from the penis (hence [v1] ‘to beget’), or the sudden ‘appearance (and disappearance)’ of s.th. ([v18]). Last but not least, also [v19] ‘broad path’ may originally be simply a ‘wide opening’.

     
    NB: First attestations given only for the values that have become obsolete in MSA. For the others, cf. entries ↗naǧala, ↗ʔanǧalᵘ, ↗naǧīl, and ↗minǧal.

    NǦL_9 ‘to remove the skin from a slaughtered animal’: first attested in this sense in 723 CE in a verse by ʕUmar b. Laǧaʔ al-Taymī – HDAL (1Jun2020).
    NǦL_11 ‘to throw away, fling, strike off (with a foot or leg, e.g., pebbles)’ and NǦL_14 ‘to strike, beat, push, drive’: naǧala ‘to drive (a camel) forward by throwing pebbles on it’, first attested 544 CE in a verse by ʔImruʔ al-Qays b. Ḥuǧr al-Kindī (vn. naǧl 693 CE, al-Zafayān al-Saʕdī) – HDAL (1Jun2020).
    NǦL_15 ‘to split, pierce (s.th., bi‑ with a spear); to till (the ground)’: naǧl (spears etc.: causing widely gaping wounds) first attested 545 CE in a verse by Ṭarīfaẗ/Ẓarīfaẗ al-Ḥimyariyyaẗ; corresponding vb. naǧala ‘to hit s.o. with a spear, thereby causing a gaping wound’ 670 CE in a verse by Mulayḥ b. al-Ḥakam al-Huḏalī – HDAL (1Jun2020). – Derived value ‘to dig up the earth to prepare it for agriculture’: first attested 657 CE in a verse by Ibn Muqbil al-ʕAġlānī al-Tamīmī – HDAL (1Jun2020).
    NǦL_16 ‘(n.) outflowing water, spring; (vb.) 1 to abound with springs of water; 2 to become swampy (ground)’: naǧl ‘water pouring out from a swamp’, first attested 581 CE in a verse by ʕAmr Ḏū ’l-Kalb b. al-ʕAǧlān al-Huḏalī – HDAL (1Jun2020).
     
    ▪ NǦL_1 naǧala ‘to beget’: (?) Gz nagad ‘tribe, clan, kin, stock, kindred, progeny, lineage, family’ (connection suggested by Dillmann 695 and Barth 1893: 33, but considered “doubtful” by Leslau1987: 391). Equally or even more unlikely, according to Leslau1987: 137, is the derivation (suggested by Praetorius1879: 77) of Gz dəngəl ‘chaste (young man), celibate (monk), virgin’ from Ar naǧala ‘to beget’. – Value dependent on NǦL_15 ‘to pierce’ and/or NǦL_16 ‘outflowing water, spring’?
    ▪ NǦL_2 ʔanǧalᵘ ‘large-eyed, wide (eye), gaping (wound)’: no cognates in Sem or outside Sem. – Akin to NǦL_15 ‘to pierce’ and/or NǦL_16 ‘outflowing water, spring’?
    ▪ NǦL_3 naǧīl ‘couch grass, orchard grass; quitch’: EgAr naggil, vb. II, ‘1 to free of nigīl; 2 to grass, produce grass, become grassy’. – No obvious cognates outside Ar. – Akin to NǦL_15 ‘to pierce’ and/or NǦL_16 ‘outflowing water, spring’.
    ▪ NǦL_4 minǧal ‘sickle’: (? Akk niggallu, ningallu,) Hbr maggāl, JudAram maggǝlā, Syr maggəlā, maggaltā ‘sickle’, Mand manglia ‘scythes’, Ar naǧala ‘faucher (les céréales), labourer (la terre)’. – Leslau1987: 392 thinks Ar minǧal is cognate to Ar naǧala ‘to remove the skin from a slaughtered animal’ (NǦL_9), to which he also puts Soq ngl ‘to make go out’, Syr naggel ‘to remove’, Gz nagala ‘to be uprooted, roll, roll up, make into a ball’ (‘scythe, sickle’ < *‘instrument that removes, uproots’); but he also thinks that it is possible that Gz nagala ‘to roll up’ is to be separated from Gz nagala ‘to be uprooted’. – Fraenkel1886 derives minǧal from naǧala ‘to pierce’ (NǦL_15). – Rolland2014: from Copt mančale ‘pickaxe, hoe’, from Grk makélē ~ mákella ‘dto.’, but probably (= Rolland’s »hypothèse personnelle«) also akin to Akk ikkaru ‘plowman, farm laboror; farmer’ (> Ar ↗ʔakkār ‘plowman’), from Sum engar ‘irrigator, farmer’ (< en ‘lord’ + agar ‘field’ – Halloran3.0). – Corriente2008: EgAr mangal, Ar minǧal »do not appear to derive from a rather uncommon verb *naǧala«, so a Copt origin should not be excluded; but more likely from Eg. In contrast, Westendorf2008 thinks Copt mankʸale ~ mančale ‘Hacke, Schaufel’ is from Ar minǧal… – Orel&Stolbova1994 and Militarev&Stolbova2007 see cognates also outside Sem, in some Chad languages: (WCh) Warji ngǝlatǝ-na, Kariya ngalǝta, Miya ngǝlatǝ ‘sickle’; (CCh) Gude ŋgíla ‘knife’, Nzangi ngîla ‘knife, sword’; (ECh) Migama ʔângùl ‘sickle’.
    ▪ NǦL_5 manǧalaẗ ‘bench vice’: no cognates (loanword).
    ▪ NǦL_6 ʔangalaẗ ‘anglification’: no cognates (loanword).
    ▪ NǦL_7 ʔinǧīl ‘gospel’: no cognates (loanword).
    ▪ NǦL_8 ʔanġōlā ‘Angola’: no cognates (n.topogr.).
    NǦL_9 naǧala ‘to remove the skin from a slaughtered animal’: Leslau1987: 392 sees Gz nagala ‘to be uprooted; to roll, roll up, make into a ball’ as akin to Ar NǦL_9 as well as Soq ngl ‘to make go out’, Syr naggel ‘to remove’; he also thinks that Ar minǧal ‘scythe, sickle’ (NǦL_4, see above) has to be put here, as *‘instrument that removes, uproots’.
    NǦL_10 naǧala ‘to blot out, erase (a writing), wipe the writing-tablet’: no obvious cognates, but perh. to be grouped together with ‘to remove water from the foot of a wall’; perh. akin to NǦL_9 naǧala (see preceding item) and with this also to NǦL_4.
    NǦL_11 naǧala ‘to throw away, fling, strike off (with a foot or leg, e.g., pebbles)’: cf. perh. also Ar ĭntaǧala, vb. VIII, ‘to remove water from the foot of a wall’. – No obvious cognates, but perh. to be seen together with NǦL_9, 10 and the following NǦL_12-14, all of which denote a movement carried out with some vigour and intensity, often in a direction away from the speaker. – ? Outside Sem: (WCh) Tangale kwal, Gera ŋwal, Galambu ŋgwál‑, Kulere gyol ‘to throw’ – Militarev&Stolbova2007 (and Orel&Stolbova1994 #1897).
    NǦL_12 naǧala ‘to ill-treat, mistreat’: see preceding.
    NǦL_13 naǧala ‘marcher d’un pas vigoureux’: see NǦL_10-12.
    NǦL_14 naǧala ‘to strike, beat, push, drive’: cf.NǦL_10-13.
    NǦL_15 naǧala ‘to split, pierce; (to make an opening in the earth) to till (the ground)’: For Fraenkel1886, this is the basic value of naǧala from which, for him, also NǦL_4 minǧal ‘sickle’ derives. – Akin to NǦL_1 ‘to beget’ (< *‘to break through, erupt’) or NǦL_16 ‘outflowing water, spring’ (< *‘water that comes out after having split/pierced/dug up the soil’)?
    NǦL_16 naǧl ‘outflowing water, spring / eau qui sort du sol’, and (prob. denom.) naǧala, vb. I, and ĭstanǧala, vb. X, ‘1 to abound with springs of water; 2 to become swampy (ground) / se couvrir d’eau à la surface (se dit du sol marécageux)’, DaṯAr naǧīlaẗ ‘spring, well’: akin to NǦL_1 ‘to beget’ and/or NǦL_15 ‘to split, pierce; to till (the ground)’ (see preceding item)?
    NǦL_17 tanāǧala, vb. VI, ‘to combat, fight / combattre, en venir aux mains les uns avec les autres’: metaphorical use of NǦL_16 ‘outflowing water, spring’ (troops etc. seen as *‘spurting out, erupting’ into each other)? If so, the item may also be related to NǦL_2 ‘large-eyed, wide (eye), gaping (wound)’ and NǦL_15 ‘to pierce’ (see above). ­– See also Ambivalent cases in section DISC below.
    NǦL_18 naǧala ‘hervorbringen, ans Licht ziehen, bekannt machen / tirer, extraire ou emmener’: cf. also ĭntaǧala, vb. VIII, ‘to show o.s., appear (and disappear) / apparaître et disparaître aussitôt’, and ĭstanǧala, vb. X, ‘pousser de dessous terre, paraître à la surface du sol’: (?) Gz nagala ‘to be visible, be adorned’, mangal, mangəl ‘that which is visible, adornment’ – not considered as possible cognate of the Ar vb.s by Leslau1987 (s.v. nagala II). ­– Any relation to the N-stem of ǦLY (ĭnǧalà)? (See also Ambivalent cases, below.) – Or to NǦL_15 ‘to pierce’ and/or NǦL_16 ‘outflowing water, spring’ (in which it might also be akin to NǦL_1 ‘to beget’, NǦL_2 ‘large-eyed’, NǦL_3 naǧīl ‘couch grass’, etc.).
    NǦL_19 naǧl ‘broad path’: probably akin to, or an extended use of, ‘opening’ (NǦL_2) caused by ‘splitting, piercing’ (NǦL_15).

    Ambivalent evidence
    ▪ Syr ngal and naggel ‘to flee, take to flight’ (PayneSmith1903; Brockelmann1895 gives ‘1 devastatus est; 2 emigravit’) do not seem to be akin to any of the Ar values. Cf., however (sub NǦL_9, above) Leslau’s rendering of Syr naggel as ‘to remove’, hence his association of the vb. with Ar naǧala ‘to remove the skin from a slaughtered animal’ as well as with minǧal ‘scythe, sickle’ (NǦL_4), as *‘instrument that removes, uproots’.
    ▪ Most of the DaṯAr items listed by LandbergZetterstéen1942 s.r. √NǦL are certainly not to be considered here, since they are dialectal variations of items from the standard Ar root √NQL, due to realisation of /q/ as [g] (e.g., DaṯAr nagal ‘transporter, décharger’, or tanaggal ‘transporter à plusieurs reprises’). – There are, however, also ʿOmAr negel and DaṯAr ntegel, both ‘to throw/cast o.s. into s.th.’, a value that may come close to Ar tanāǧala (NǦL_17) ‘to throw o.s. into combat’ and naǧala ‘to throw away, fling, strike off’ (NǦL_11).

     
    ▪ For an own attempt at a synthesis, integrating all Ar non-borrowed values, see above, end of section CONC.
    ▪ For possible deeper (Sem, pre-protSem, AfrAs) dimensions and the evidence put forward by the authors of corresponding theories, see ↗*NǦ‑, ↗*NǦ‑_1 and ↗*NǦ‑_2 (for Ehret); ↗*NǦ‑ and NǦL_16 below (for Ǧabal); NǦL_11 (for Orel&Stolbova’s *‘to throw’) and NǦL_4 (for Orel&Stolbova’s *‘sickle; to reap, cut’).
    ▪ Like Orel&Stolbova, Dolgopolsky2012 #1582 distinguishes two main Sem values (based on the Ar evidence): a first one corresponding to Ar naǧala, u, ‘to rip up, skin (a beast) from the hocks [v9]; till (the ground) [v15]’, and a second one corresponding to Ar naǧala, i, ‘to erase (a writing)’ [v10], ‘to strike off pebbles’ (camel) [v11], ‘to pierce (with a spear)’ [v15]. – He sees cognates in Chad (MfG ́‑ngɜl‑ ‘cueillir, arracher’, Mf ń̥gʷalala ‘fête de récolte’, ngɜl‑ ‘to cut’) and perh. Eg (Pyr) ngȝ ‘to kill, slaughter’,806 (GrkRom) ngȝ ‘die Glieder zerfleischen, den Augapfel ausreißen’, and reconstructs Sem *√NGL < AfrAs *√NGL < Nostr *ńogü˹lͅ|ĺ˺˅ ‘to tear out\asunder, pinch, flay’ (reconstructed on account of assumed parallels in other macrofamilies).

    ▪ NǦL_1 naǧala ‘to beget’, naǧl ‘offspring’: no obvious cognates. – Dillmann and Barth (quoted in Leslau1987: 391) suggested to connect Ar naǧl with Gz nagad ‘tribe, clan, kin, stock, kindred, progeny, lineage, family’; Leslau himself, however, thinks this is »doubtful«. Equally or even more unlikely, according to Leslau1987: 137, is the derivation (suggested by Praetorius1879: 77) of Gz dəngəl ‘chaste (young man), celibate (monk), virgin’ from Ar naǧala ‘to beget’. – Etymology suggested by EtymArab: *[v11] ‘to throw away, fling, strike off (a spear, etc.)’ > thereby [v15] ‘split, pierce (s.th.)’ and cause a [v2] ‘wide opening’ > [v16] ‘opening through which water flows out, spring’ > [v1] ‘to beget’ (< *ejaculation of sperma). – There may have happened some contamination with ↗NSL (nasala ‘to beget, procreate, father’, nasl ‘progeny, offspring, descendants’).
    ▪ NǦL_2 ʔanǧalᵘ ‘large-eyed, wide (eye), gaping (wound)’: no immediately obvious cognates in Sem or outside Sem; but prob. akin to [v15] ‘to pierce, split’ (incl. ‘opening made in the earth to plant s.th.’) and/or [v16] ‘outflowing water, spring’, and perh. also [v19] ‘broad path’. – Etymology suggested by EtymArab: *[v11] ‘to throw away, fling, strike off (a spear, etc.)’ > thereby [v15] ‘split, pierce (s.th.)’ and cause a [v2] ‘gaping wound’ > ‘“gaping” eyes, wide opening (in general)’.
    ▪ NǦL_3 naǧīl ‘couch grass, orchard grass (Dactylis; bot.); quitch (bot.)’: no immediately obvious cognates in Sem or outside Sem. – Etymology suggested by EtymArab: *[v11] ‘to throw away, fling, strike off (a spear, etc.)’ > thereby [v15] ‘split, pierce (s.th.)’ and cause a [v2] ‘wide opening’ > to break through this opening, [v18] burst out and spread > grass that does so = [v3] ‘couch grass, orchard grass’. – For other options, cf. main entry, ↗naǧīl.
    ▪ NǦL_4 ‘scythe, sickle’: Among all the items ascribed to the root √NǦL, Ar minǧal is certainly the most widely discussed one. However, opinion differs considerably as to the possible origin of the word. We may distinguish two main types of theories put forward so far: (a) extra-Sem borrowing, (b) inner-Semitic development, either through inner-Sem borrowing or a common Sem origin.
    Ad (a): Extra-Sem borrowing appears likely to some due to the »fact«, as e.g. Corriente2008: 101-2 has it, »that Ar minǧal does not appear to derive from a rather uncommon verb naǧala« and that reflexes of minǧal in Neo-Arabic dialects are relatively rare. (See however below for EtymArab’s ideas on possible inner-Ar dependence.) Also in favour of a borrowing from outside Sem is the scarcity of Sem verbs belonging to Sem √NGL. As a consequence, Sum, Eg, Copt, and Grk etyma have been suggested. A Sum origin is considered possible by CAD for Akk niggallu ~ ningallu ‘sickle’ (from oBab, oAss on) [whence the word may have entered Sem, then with Akk n‑ > WSem m‑; more specifically, one could imagine a development *Sum > Akk > Aram > Hbr, Ar; or *Sum > Akk > Hbr > Aram > Ar]. However, CAD does not specify the alleged Sum etymon. (VonSoden ii 1972 classified Akk niggallu ~ ningallu as »unbekannter Herkunft«, i.e., of unknown provenience, though certainly not originally Akk.) Rolland2014 first reports another theory (Ar < Copt < Grk, see below), then adds his »hypothèse personnelle« that minǧal may also be akin to Akk ikkāru ‘plowman, farm laborer; farmer’ (> Ar ↗ʔakkār ‘plowman’), which is a borrowing from Sum engar ‘irrigator, farmer’ (< en ‘lord’ + agar ‘field’ – Halloran3.0). This etymology seems problematic for phonological reasons: Rolland does not explain why minǧal should have preserved the Sum ‑ng‑, while all other items derived from Sum engar show ‑kk‑; his hypothesis presupposes a more or less direct borrowing of Ar minǧal from Sum, while ʔakkār would have gone through Akk. – A Sum connection is rejected in total by Orel&Stolbova1994 and Militarev&Stolbova2007 in view of the comparative (Sem and AfrAs) data. They think they have found enough cognates, both within and outside Sem, to justify an ultimately AfrAs origin: reconstructing Sem *mi‑/ma‑ngal‑ ‘sickle’, *n˅gil‑ ‘to mow, reap’, and Chad *n˅gi/ula(‑t) ‘sickle’ (WCh *n˅gal‑at‑ ‘sickle’, CCh *n˅g˅l‑ ‘to cut’, *n˅gi/ul(‑at)‑ ‘sickle, knife’, ECh *ʔa‑ngul‑ ‘sickle’), they postulate (1994) AfrAs *n˅gil‑ ‘to cut’, or, slightly more cautiously (2007), AfrAs *ngl ‘to reap’. In any case, the Chad evidence (see COGN) would speak against the theory that assumes a borrowing Sum > Akk > WSem – otherwise the Chad terms would have to be borrowings from Sem. – Zimmern1914 does not mention Ar minǧal or any of its Sem cognates as a borrowing from Akk. Furthermore, if the borrowing was Sum > Akk > WSem, the word-initial sound shift Akk n‑ > WSem m‑ will have to be explained. – A (Grk >) Copt > Ar etymology is reported and supported by Rolland2014, considered possible by BadawiHinds1986 (at least for EgAr mangal ‘type of large sickle’), and discussed in some detail by Corriente2008: Ar minǧal, EgAr mangal ‘sickle’ < Copt mančale ‘pickaxe, hoe’ < Grk makélē ~ mákella ‘id.’. Corriente is reluctant to accept this etymology, given that the instrument signified by the Copt and Grk words is a ‘pickaxe, hoe, mattock’, while the Ar words mean a ‘sickle’. Furthermore, against a Grk origin would speak the fact that the Egyptians were »established farmers« and one has to wonder why such a people should »borrow the name of an agricultural tool from abroad«. Therefore, Corriente concludes, it is more likely that the borrowing went the other way round and happened much earlier, i.e., from Eg into Grk and Sem. Grk would have preserved the original meaning, while the semantic shift in Sem »might be explained by a borrowing in a time when western Semites still lived mostly as nomads, scarcely interested in agricultural lore«. However plausible this may sound, Corriente does not give us the Eg word of which Copt mankʸale ~ mančale would be the successor and that could have gone into Grk and Sem. The fact is: it seems that there is no such word at all, the Eg terms for ‘pickaxe, hoe, mattock’ being rather different from Copt mančale or Grk makélē ~ mákella. – Thus, there seems to be only one way out of the dilemma: While Copt mančale may well be from Grk makélē ~ mákella, the Grk item itself should be assumed to be either a completely inner-Grk affair, or a borrowing from a Sem language, most probably Hbr maggāl or Aram maggəlā. Phonologically, this does not look impossible (although the ‑n‑ in Copt mankʸale ~ mančale would have to be explained), and the semantic distance between Sem ‘sickle; scythe’ and Grk/Copt ‘pickaxe, hoe, mattock’ is not too far. Beekes2009: 894, too, would not exclude that Grk makélē and the Arm markeł ‘mattock’ are both loans »from a common source« (which we think could well have been a Sem language). Moreover, as Ar NǦL_2 and NǦL_15 show, ‘sickle, scythe’ is only a rather specialized development, while a more basic value is *‘to pierce, split’, and thereby ‘make an opening in the earth to plant s.th., till the ground’. So, while Westendorf2008 is probably wrong in assuming that Copt mankʸale ~ mančale is a loan from Ar minǧal, he may have understood that the origin of the Copt word ultimately could be Sem.
    Ad (b) Sem origin and inner-Sem borrowing: It is obvious that Hbr maggāl, Syr maggǝlā ‘sickle’, Mand manglia ‘scythes’, and perh. also Akk niggallu ~ ningallu ‘sickle’, are akin to Ar minǧal. If the Akk word is a loan from Sum (see above), the similarity with the WSem words is either a mere coincidence or it was the Akk word that went into WSem. In the light of the Chad evidence, Orel&Stolbova1994/Militarev&Stolbova2007 reject the idea of a borrowing from outside Sem. If one follows their argument (see above), then a Sem *mi‑/ma‑ngal‑ ‘sickle’, *n˅gil‑ ‘to mow, reap’ may be the etymon common to both the ESem (Akk) and WSem terms, all deriving directly from one common ancestor, without inner-Sem intermediates. In contrast, Jeffery1938, for instance, thinks that Ar minǧal is an inner-Sem loan, from Hbr maggāl or Syr maggǝlā. (Jeffery explains the additional ‑n‑ in Ar minǧal as opposed to the Can forms as a common phenomenon in Ar loan-words, cf., e.g., Ar ↗kanf ‘(palm of the) hand’ < Syr kappā, or Ar ↗qunfuḏ ‘hedgehog’ from Hbr qippōd, Syr quppəḏā, or Ar ↗ḫinzīr from Hbr ḥzīr, Syr ḥzīrā, etc.). Fraenkel1886 tends to make Ar minǧal dependent on Syr maggəlā (with dissimilation of Syr *‑gg‑ > Ar ‑nǧ‑) because, according to him, the Ar vb. naǧala only means ‘to pierce’ (NǦL_15), and the value ‘sickle’ would be difficult to derive from ‘to pierce’. (As the disambiguation section above shows, Fraenkel is completely wrong here: first, because there are many more values than ‘to pierce’; and second, because the sickles used in ancient times may have looked similar to some kind of pickaxes, or hoes, or mattocks, so that his argument is not very strong. Furthermore, the tool designated by a Sem n.instr. (Militarev2002: Sem *mi‑/ma‑ngal‑) formed from the root *NGL was not necessarily always a sickle, but may at some – unfortunately still unattested – stage also have been a sickle-shaped hoe; see below.) – BDB1906 list Hbr maggāl under the hypothetical root Hbr √NGL – there is no corresponding verb, which is why the root itself is said to be »of unknown meaning«! – and mention Ar naǧala, vb. I, ‘to strike, split, pierce’ (NǦL_14, NǦL_15) as a probable, though »very infrequent«, cognate; Ar minǧal is put alongside with Hbr maggāl although the Ar word is »possibly from Aram«. – Leslau1987: 392 thinks Ar minǧal is derived from Ar naǧala in the sense of ‘to remove the skin from a slaughtered animal’ (NǦL_9); however, he does not regard this as an exclusively Ar value but as part of a wider Sem picture to which also Soq ngl ‘to make go out’, Syr naggel ‘to remove’, Gz nagala ‘to be uprooted, roll, roll up, make into a ball’ belong, so that, for Leslau, the Sem ‘scythe, sickle’ etymologically is the *‘instrument that removes, uproots’. – In our opinion, the latter could reflect the stage in the semantic development of items from the root NGL/NǦL in which a Sem word was loaned into Copt and/or Grk, hence the meaning ‘pickaxe, hoe, mattock’, i.e., tool with which the soil is cultivated (*pierced, split, opened, widened, cf. [v15]). – There seems to have been, in earlier research on minǧal, a kind of “filter bubble” that tended to believe that the semantic distance between ‘sickle’ and the other values found in the Ar root was too big to be explained by derivation; therefore, Sum, Eg, Copt, Grk etyma were voluntarily accepted. But as the above discussion has shown, these etymologies are often rather problematic, so that a dependence of the Sem ‘sickles’ on the value ‘to strike, split, pierce; to till (the ground)’ should not be excluded (although the vb. is »rather uncommon« with this meaning, as Corriente2008 has it, or even »very infrequent«, as BDB1906 marks it). –
    The Etymology suggested by EtymArab combines elements from both theories discussed above. We think that the term for ‘sickle’ was borrowed from Sum into Akk, then from Akk into WSem, where it however began to interact with an already existing root √NGL/NǦL. Until the moment of borrowing, semantics in the Sem root had developed along the line: [v11] ‘to throw away, fling, strike off’ > [v15] ‘to split, pierce (s.th. with a spear)’. From here, two alternatives are possible: a) …> ‘to split = to dig up the earth, till the ground’ > tool used to do so = *‘hoe’ (no attestions for the tool, only for the vb.); b) … > ‘to split = [v9] = to rip up, skin (a slaughtered animal) from the hocks’ > instrument to do so. When the ‘sickle’ then was borrowed into Sem, the term was eventually adapted in form to Sem word patterns (causing initial Sum/Akk n‑ > WSem m‑) and began to interfer with the earlier meanings ‘instrument to pierce, till the ground’ or ‘instrument to skin an animal’, until it superseded as ‘scythe, sickle’.
    ▪ NǦL_5 ‘bench vice’: BadawiHinds1986 gives the origin of EgAr mangalaẗ as Grk méngelē. This is probably a variant of μέγγενη ~ μέγκενη /méŋgeni/ ‘vice’, according to Wiktionary a loan from Tu méngene ‘press, vice, screw-jack, clamp’ which, according to Nişanyan_27Jan2018, is in its turn from modGrk μάγγανο(ν) /máŋgano(n)/ ~ μαγγάνι /maŋgáni/ ‘calender, machine to calender cloth or linen, mangle, press; winch, windlass’ < (Nişanyan) oGrk μάγγανον /máŋganon/, lit. ‘means for charming or bewitching others, philtre’, but then also ‘block of a pulley’ (LiddellScott1940).
    ▪ NǦL_6 ‘anglification’: ʔangalaẗ, vn.f., from vb. ʔangala ‘to anglify’, neologism formed after regular pattern for 4-rad. vb.s (FaʕLaLa) from a hypothetical ↗√ʔNGL.
    ▪ NǦL_7 ‘gospel’: lw., prob. via Gz wangēl from Grk εὐαγγέλιον euangélion ‘god tidings, gospel’, sometimes treated lexicographically as if from a hypothetical ↗√ʔNGL.
    ▪ NǦL_8 ʔangūlā ‘Angola’: from the n.pr.geogr. (Engl?) Angola, sometimes treated lexicographically as if from a hypothetical ↗√ʔNGL.
    NǦL_9 ‘to remove the skin from a slaughtered animal’: Leslau1987: 392 thinks that with this value, Ar naǧala is cognate to Soq ngl ‘to make go out’, Syr naggel ‘to remove’, Gz nagala ‘to be uprooted, roll, roll up, make into a ball’ as well as [v4] Ar minǧal ‘sickle’ (*‘instrument that removes, uproots’). – Ehret1989 #57 saw similarities between this and other Ar vb.s such as naǧaba ‘to remove the bark from a tree’, ↗naǧara ‘to cut or plane wood’, naǧafa ‘to shave or polish an arrow’, naǧafa ‘to cut down, pull out’, and naǧā (naǧw) ‘to cut down a tree and strip off its branches, skin a camel’ and reconstructed a bi-cons. pre-protSem root *NG ‘to strip’, from which all these values are thought to be derived by the addition a modifying third radical. – Ehret does not go farther back behind the pre-protSem stage, but the overall situation in Sem and AfrAs seems to allow the assumption of 1-2 earlier stages (etymology suggested by EtymArab): [v11] ‘to throw away, fling, strike off’ > [v15] ‘to split, pierce (s.th. with a spear)’ > [v9] ‘to rip up, skin (a slaughtered animal) from the hocks’. In this way, [v9] could be seen as going back to Sem *n˅gil‑ ‘to throw’ and, ultimately, AfrAs *n˅gol‑ ‘id.’, as suggested by Orel&Stolbova1994 (see [v11], below).
    NǦL_10 ‘to blot out, erase (a writing), wipe the writing-tablet’: no obvious cognates. – According to Ehret1989, with this meaning Ar naǧala is derived by extension in *‑l from pre-protSem *NG ‘to strip’. – Etymology suggested by EtymArab: probably semantic extension of the preceding ([v9]), where the blotting out is seen as a kind of scraping off the skin from a slaughtered animal; alternatively, erasing a writing or wiping a writing-tablet could be regarded as a new [v2] “opening” in the sense of new ‘beginning’.
    NǦL_11 ‘to throw away, fling, strike off (with a foot or leg, e.g., pebbles) (vb. I); ? to remove water from the foot of a wall (vb. VIII)’: This is perh. the same as [v14] ‘to strike, beat, push, drive’. – Cf., however, Orel&Stolbova1994 #1897 and Militarev&Stolbova2007 where Ar naǧala, i, is thought to derive from a Sem *n˅gil‑ (OrSt) or *n˅gul‑ (MSt2007) ‘to throw’, a reconstruction that has no other foundations in Sem than the Ar evidence807 but seems to be justified nevertheless, in the authors’ eyes, in the light of what they think to be cognates in WCh *ngwal‑ ‘to throw’, Sem and WCh both deriving from AfrAs *n˅gul‑ (MSt2007) or *n˅gol‑ (OrSt1994) ‘to throw’. While Orel&Stolbova and Militarev&Stolbova assume this ‘throwing away’ to be one out of two basic values, EtymArab tends to regard it as the one on which also these authors’ second basic value, *‘to cut’ (> ‘sickle, to reap’, see [v4] above), may depend, given that ‘cutting’ is very similar to ‘splitting, piercing (s.th., with a spear)’, a value that may have developed from an earlier *‘throwing away’ along the lines described below under NǦL_15.
    NǦL_12 ‘to ill-treat’: no obvious cognates. – Etymology suggested by EtymArab: [v11] ‘to throw away, fling, strike off’ > [v14] ‘to strike, beat, push, drive’ > [v12] ‘to ill-treat’.
    NǦL_13 ‘marcher d’un pas vigoureux’: no obvious cognates. – Etymology suggested by EtymArab: value immediately dependent on [v11] ‘to throw away, fling, strike off’, an activity that is accompanied by some violent movement or carried out with some vehemence.
    NǦL_14 ‘to strike, beat, push, drive’: ‘to strike’ is enumerated in BDB1906 alongside with ‘to split, pierce’ (cf. next item, [v15]) as a basic value of the »very infrequent« Ar vb. naǧala. It is perh. identical also with [v11] ‘to throw away, fling, strike off (with a foot or leg, e.g., pebbles)’. – Etymology suggested by EtymArab: value immediately dependent on, or perh. even identical with, [v11] ‘to throw away, fling, strike off’, as this latter seems to be carried out with the aim of driving s.o./s.th. away or keeping s.o./s.th. off; so there is some violence/vehemence involved, as in [v13].
    NǦL_15 ‘to split, pierce (s.th., bi‑ with a spear)’: This value is given by BDB1906 as the basic meaning of Ar naǧala. Although the vb. is said to be “very infrequent” in Ar, the authors consider it as one possible source of [v4] Ar minǧal ‘sickle’ (which many regard as a loanword however; see above, NǦL_4). Orel&Stolbova1994 would derive minǧal from a Sem vb. *n˅gil‑ ‘to mow, reap’, the assumed origin of which – AfrAs *n˅gil‑ ‘to cut’ – would be very similar to the idea of Ar ‘to split, pierce’. However that may be, the ‘splitting, piercing’ of [v15] is very likely related to [v2] ‘wide (eyes); open, gaping wound; earth opened to plant s.th.’, [v16] ‘outflowing water’, [v18] ‘to appear, emanate; to disclose, manifest’, and prob. also [v19] ‘broad path’. – Etymology suggested by EtymArab: Value [v15] may be immediately dependent on [v11] ‘to throw away (pebbles, a spear, etc.)’, as esp. the spear that is thrown away may cause a [v15] ‘splitting, piercing’ in the person or object hit by it. In its turn, this ‘splitting, piercing’ can be the cause of the ‘wide opening, gaping’ of [v2] that is an important semantic node from which many other values developed. If the ‘splitting, piercing’ is not produced in a body but in the soil, the instrument that does so and that would be called minǧal would be a ‘pickaxe, hoe, mattock’, a value not attested in Sem but perh. realized in the stage of semantic development where the word went into Grk and Copt (see discussion on NǦL_4, above).
    NǦL_16 ‘(n.) outflowing water, spring; (vb.) 1 to abound with springs of water; 2 to become swampy (ground)’: this value corresponds nicely to Ǧabal2012’s bi-cons. Ar root nucleus ↗*NǦ‑ ‘break through, eruption of s.th. thick but not solid from inside’, which is similar to Ehret1995’s pre-protSem *NG ‘to seep, ooze’ (↗*NǦ‑_2), reconstructed on the basis of similarities between [v16] and Ar naǧǧa ‘to bleed, suppurate’, naǧaḫa ‘to bring wind and rain’, ↗naǧida ‘to drip with perspiration’, naǧafa ‘to milk (a sheep) well’, and naǧw ‘pouring cloud’. Together with Cush *ʔangʷ‑/ʔungʷ‑ ‘breast’ (from secreting of milk by the breast) and perh. Eg ngsgs ‘to overflow’, the author suggests a common origin in a hypothetical AfrAs *‑nugʷ‑ ‘to seep’. – Given that Ehret’s reconstruction beyond the Ar/pre-protSem stage cannot build on strong evidence, one could also think of a semantic development along the following line (etymology suggested by EtymArab): [v11] ‘to throw away, fling, strike off (a spear, etc.)’ > thereby [v15] ‘split, pierce (s.th.)’ and cause a [v2] ‘wide opening’ > [v16] ‘opening through which water flows out, spring’.
    NǦL_17 ‘to combat, fight | combattre, en venir aux mains les uns avec les autres’: no immediate cognates in Sem. – Etymology suggested by EtymArab: [v11] ‘to throw away, fling, strike off (a spear, etc.)’ > [v15] ‘to split, pierce (s.th., with a spear)’ > thereby cause a [v2] ‘wide opening through which bursts out what is inside’ > [v17] ‘to combat, fight’ (= *‘to “explode, erupt”, burst out into the enemy’). Alternatively, one could think of a “short cut”: [v11] ‘to throw away, fling, strike off’ > thereby [v14] ‘to beat, push, hit’ > (s.o. with a spear, etc.) > [v17] ‘to combat, fight’.
    NǦL_18 ‘hervorbringen, ans Licht ziehen, bekannt machen | tirer, extraire ou emmener | to disclose, manifest (vb. I); to show o.s., appear (vb. VIII), ‘pousser de dessous terre, paraître à la surface du sol (vb. X)’: Semantic similarity between NǦL_18 and the N-stem (vb. VII) of ǦLW/Y, ĭnǧalà, ‘to reveal itself, be disclosed, become manifest’, is undeniable, so that a dependence of the former on the latter, or an overlapping, should not be too quickly rejected as unlikely or impossible. (One will have to find out whether there are perh. more such cases where vb.s with R₁=N show semantic resemblance/overlapping with form VII of defective or geminated vb.s.). For the time being, it seems safer to assume kinship with other items from NǦL, esp. [v16], with which [v18] shares the idea of s.th. emerging from inside, hence also Ǧabal2012’s *‘break through, eruption of s.th. thick but not solid from inside’. – Accordingly, EtymArab suggests the following etymology: [v11] ‘to throw away, fling, strike off (a spear, etc.)’ > [v15] ‘to split, pierce (s.th., with a spear)’ > thereby cause a [v2] ‘wide opening through which bursts out what is inside’ > [v18] ‘to show o.s., appear’.
    NǦL_19 ‘broad path’: no obvious cognates, and difficult to connect even inside the Ar root. But if this value is akin to the others above, then it may have developed along the following line (etymology suggested by EtymArab): [v11] ‘to throw away (a spear, etc.), fling, strike off’ > [v15] ‘to split, pierce (s.th., with a spear)’ > i.e., cause a [v2] ‘wide opening’ > [v19] ‘broad path’ (a path that ‘opens up’ in front of you).

     
    – 
    – 
    naǧal‑ نجَل , u (naǧl
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NǦL 
    vb., I 
    to beget, sire, father (a son) – WehrCowan1979 
    ▪ Probably dependent on the idea of a *‘wide opening (through which s.th. flows out, spring)’ (cf. ↗ʔanǧalᵘ), itself seen as the result of some *‘splitting, piercing’, caused by *‘throwing away, flinging, striking off (a spear, etc.)’.
    ▪ For the latter, Orel&Stolbova1994 reconstructed Sem *n˅gil‑ ‘to throw’ < AfrAs *n˅gol‑ ‘id.’ as hypothetical predecessors.
     
    ▪ first attested 628 CE in a verse by al-ʔAʕšà al-Kabīr – HDAL (1Jun2020)
    ▪ In ClassAr, naǧl is not only attested as ‘offspring, descendants’, but also as ‘water oozing from the ground; flowing water; crowd’ – Hava1899.
     
    ▪ Leslau1987: 391 regards as “doubtful” Dillmann’s and Barth’s (1893: 33) theory that would connect Ar naǧl with Gz nagad ‘tribe, clan, kin, stock, kindred, progeny, lineage, family’.
    ▪ Leslau1987: 137: Equally or even more unlikely is the derivation, suggested by Praetorius1879: 77, of Gz dəngəl ‘chaste (young man), celibate (monk), virgin’ from Ar naǧala ‘to beget’.
    ▪ The value may be dependent on [v15] ‘to split, pierce’ and/or [v16] ‘outflowing water, spring’ of root ↗NǦL.
     
    ▪ As none of the cognates suggested by Dillmann, Barth and Praetorius (see COGN) are particularly convincing, the most probable etymology seems to be, for the time being, a derivation from the notion of an *‘opening through which water flows out, spring’ or a *‘wide opening’ in general, both of which are attested values within ↗√NǦL, cf. [v16] and [v2], respectively; see also ↗ʔanǧalᵘ ‘wide open (eyes), gaping (wound)’. naǧl ‘offspring’ would then either refer to the descendants who “spring” from the same source, or signify the product of the *‘ejaculation of sperma’.
    ▪ In either case, the etymology matches quite well Gabal’s and Ehret’s idea that this Ar √NǦL should be regarded as an extension in *‑l from a bi-consonantal root nucleus *NǦ (↗NǦ_2), the meaning of which Ehret1995 gave as *‘to seep, ooze’ while Ǧabal2012 described it as the ‘breaking through [and welling/pouring out, i.e., eruption] of s.th. thick, but not solid, from within s.th.’. Interestingly enough, in ClassAr texts naǧl is not only attested as ‘offspring’, but also as ‘water oozing from the ground; flowing water’.
    ▪ The idea of an ‘opening’ may, in its turn, go back to that of *‘splitting, piercing’, from a still earlier *‘throwing away, flinging, striking off (a spear, etc.)’, d.i., values [v15] and [v11], respectively, in ↗NǦL. For the latter, Orel&Stolbova1994 saw an AfrAs dimension: < Sem *n˅gil‑ ‘to throw’, from AfrAs *n˅gol‑ ‘id.’.
    ▪ There may have happened some contamination with ↗NSL (nasala ‘to beget, procreate, father’, nasl ‘progeny, offspring, descendants’).
     
    – 
    naǧl, pl. ʔanǧāl, n., offspring, descendant, scion, son; progeny, issue: vn. I.
     
    naǧīl نجيل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NǦL 
    n. 
    couch grass, orchard grass (Dactylis; bot.); quitch (bot.) – WehrCowan1979 
    ▪ In addition to naǧīl, which is attested from pre-Islamic times on, there is also a LevAr expression for ‘couch grass’, šilš al-ʔinǧīl. It is hard to decide whether naǧīl may be a ‘re-Arabization’ of the dialectal (šilš al‑) ʔinǧīl or whether the latter is a ‘Christian’ re-interpretation of the former.
    ▪ However, given that naǧīl also exists in EgAr and has produced denominal vb.s there, EtymArab thinks that LevAr šilš al-ʔinǧīl is secondary. For naǧīl, EtymArab therefore suggests a genuine etymology in which the plant is the *‘grass that breaks through (the soil), “springs” from the earth, and spreads’ (cf. [v18] in root entry ↗√NǦL), itself based on the more general notion of a *‘wide opening’ ([v2], cf. ↗ʔanǧalᵘ ‘wide open [eyes], gaping [wound]’), from *‘to split, pierce (s.th.)’ ([v15]), from an original *‘to throw away, fling, strike off (a spear, etc.)’ ([v11]).
     
    ▪ first attested 609 CE in a verse by Ṭufayl b. ʕAwf al-ʕAnawī – HDAL (1Jun2020)
     
    ▪ BadawiHinds1986: EgAr nigīl ‘any of a number of types of grass (including couch grass, Bermuda grass and orchard grass), naggil (vb. II) ‘1 to free of nigīl; 2 to grass, produce grass, become grassy’.
     
    ▪ In addition to standard Ar naǧīl ‘bitter plant sought by camels; bastard dittany (bot.)’, Hava1899 lists, under the same root lemma NǦL, also the item šilš al-ʔinǧīl ‘couch grass’, marked as LevAr. This marking as dialectal and the naming of the grass after the Gospel, al‑ʔinǧīl, may lead to the assumption that naǧīl is just a ‘re-Arabization’ of what originally was a Christian dialectal coining, carried out on the foreign expression to make it conform to a ‘genuine’ Ar root. Most probably it was the other way round, however, and šilš al-ʔinǧīl is a local/regional re-interpretation, originating in Christian circles, of the fuṣḥà term naǧīl. Two points speak in favour of this theory: (a) naǧīl is attested already in pre-Islamic poetry; (b) naǧīl has a cognate in EgAr nigīl, which also has produced some denominative verbs. – Both facts suggest that the term for a specific type of grass was more widespread than only in the Levant.
    ▪ Although BadawiHinds1986 classify EgAr nigīl and EgAr nagl ‘son’ as from different roots (marked ¹NGL and ²NGL, respectively), EtymArab still thinks the two items, as well as most others in the root, belong together; suggested etymology (for the whole picture, cf. ↗NǦL): *[v11] ‘to throw away, fling, strike off (a spear, etc.)’ > thereby [v15] ‘split, pierce (s.th.)’ and cause a [v2] ‘wide opening’ > to break through this opening, [v18] burst out and spread > grass that does so = [v3] ‘couch grass, orchard grass’.
    ▪ For *‘throwing away, flinging, striking off (a spear, etc.)’, Orel&Stolbova1994 reconstructed Sem *n˅gil‑ ‘to throw’ < AfrAs *n˅gol‑ ‘id.’ as hypothetical predecessors.
     
    – 
    – 
    ʔanǧalᵘ أنْجلُ , f. naǧlāʔᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NǦL 
    adj. 
    large-eyed; large, big, wide (eye); gaping (wound) – WehrCowan1979 
    ▪ Probably dependent on the idea of a *‘wide opening’ (cf. also ↗naǧala ‘to beget; offspring’), itself seen as the result of some *‘splitting, piercing’ (? cf. ↗minǧal ‘sickle’), caused by *‘throwing away, flinging, striking off (a spear, etc.)’.
    ▪ For the latter, Orel&Stolbova1994 reconstructed Sem *n˅gil‑ ‘to throw’ < AfrAs *n˅gol‑ ‘id.’ as hypothetical predecessors.
     
    ▪ first attested 517 CE in a verse by Ǧblẗ (?) b. al-Ḥāriṯ (al-Qālī, ʔAmālī) – HDAL (1Jun2020)
     
    ▪ No immediate cognates in Sem or outside. But perhaps akin to other values within ↗√NǦL (see particularly values [v15] and [v16]). See also section DISC, below.
     
    ʔanǧalᵘ does not seem to have cognates with similar semantics in Sem or outside. But it is prob. akin to other values of ↗√NǦL, now obsolete, esp. naǧala ‘to pierce, split (s.th., with a spear); to make an opening in the ground (to plant s.th.), till the ground’ ([v15]). The notion of an *‘opening’ is also present in naǧl ‘outflowing water, spring’ or DaṯAr naǧīlaẗ ‘spring, well’ ([v16]), in naǧala ‘to beget; offspring’, and, perh., in an obsolete (and hitherto unattested) meaning of ↗minǧal, now ‘sickle’ but at some stage perh. also *‘tool used to make openings in the soil to till the ground’.
    ▪ The (wide) ‘opening’ can perh. be connected to Ehret1995’s pre-protSem bi-consonantal root *√NG ‘to seep, ooze’ and Ǧabal2012’s bi-cons. Ar root nucleus *√NǦ‑ ‘breaking through [and welling/pouring out, i.e., eruption] of s.th. thick, but not solid, from within s.th.’.
    ▪ Etymology suggested by EtymArab: *[v11] ‘to throw away, fling, strike off (a spear, etc.)’ > thereby [v15] ‘split, pierce (s.th.)’ and cause a [v2] ‘gaping wound’, hence also ‘opening’ (in general) > ‘“gaping”, wide open eyes’.
     
    – 
    ṭaʕnaẗ naǧlāʔᵘ, n.f., a blow causing a gaping wound; heavy blow or thrust 
    minǧal مِنْجل , pl. manāǧilᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NǦL 
    n. 
    scythe, sickle – WehrCowan1979 
    ▪ Among all the items ascribed to the root √NǦL, Ar minǧal is certainly the most widely discussed. While several scholars assume an external source as the word’s most probable etymology – either extra-Sem (Sum, Eg, Copt < Grk) or inner-Sem (Hbr, Aram, ? < Akk), others make it dependent on values attested for items ‘deriving’ from the same Ar root √NǦL. For EtymArab, two alternatives seem to be the most likely solutions:
    ▪ Sum > Akk (? > Aram or Hbr) > Ar: This option has to regard the extra-Sem (Chad) parallels that Orel&Stolbova and Militarev&Stolbova take for genuine ‘cognates’, as borrowings from Sem, most probably Ar. From Akk, the ‘sickle’ may have made its way into Ar directly or via Aram or Hbr. A strong point in the theory is the scarcity of *NGL items throughout Sem; at the same time, a weak point is the fact that there are some of those *NGL lexemes, even in SSem, and quite many of them in Ar itself, the semantics of which can hardly be explained as deriving from ‘sickle’ alone.
    ▪ AfrAs > Sem (? > Akk, Hbr, Aram) > Ar: This option grants Orel&Stolbova’s and Militarev&Stolbova’s Chad parallels the status of genuine cognates and has no problems with the inner-Sem *NGL items either. The question here are mainly the inner-Sem relations, given the semantic diversity within the root (‘solved’ by some through the assumption of at least two homonymous roots).
    ▪ For the time being, EtymArab favours a combination of the two options, i.e., a loan Sum > Akk > WSem overlapping/crossing with the semantics of a Sem √NGL predating the borrowing. Before the borrowing, the root seems to have developed along the line (for value numbering cf. root entry ↗NǦL): [v11] ‘to throw away, fling, strike off’ > [v15] ‘to split, pierce (s.th. with a spear) – and from here, two alternatives are possible: a) …> to split = ‘to dig up the earth, till the ground’ > (instrument to do so =) *‘hoe, mattock’ > tool that looks similar to such an instrument = ‘scythe, sickle’; b) the development may have gone through [v9] to split = ‘to rip up, skin (a slaughtered animal) from the hocks’ > instrument to do so > instrument to carry out similar operations/movements = ‘scythe, sickle’.
    EtymArab tends to exclude the Eg origin suggested by Corriente2008, and also regards the assumption of a Copt (< Grk) source as improbable. Rather, the Copt and Grk words are from a Sem (Hbr, Aram) source (as already suggested by Černý1976).
     
    ▪ first attested 600 CE in a verse by ʕAntaraẗ b. Šaddād – HDAL (1Jun2020)
     
    ▪ Kazimirski1860: Ar naǧala ‘faucher (les céréales), labourer (la terre)’ (↗NǦL_15]).
    ▪ Fraenkel1886: Ar minǧal < naǧala ‘to pierce’ (↗NǦL_15]).
    ▪ Leslau1987: 392 thinks Ar minǧal is cognate to Ar naǧala ‘to remove the skin from a slaughtered animal’ (↗NǦL_9), to which he also puts Soq ngl ‘to make go out’, Syr naggel ‘to remove’, Gz nagala ‘to be uprooted, roll, roll up, make into a ball’ (‘scythe, sickle’ < *‘instrument that removes, uproots’); but he also thinks that it is possible that Gz nagala ‘to roll up’ is to be separated from Gz nagala ‘to be uprooted’.
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994, Militarev&Stolbova2007 (et al.): (? Akk niggallu, ningallu,) Hbr maggāl, JudAram maggǝlā, Syr maggəlā, maggaltā ‘sickle’, Mand manglia ‘scythes’. – Outside Sem: (WCh) Warji ngǝlatǝ-na, Kariya ngalǝta, Miya ngǝlatǝ ‘sickle’; (CCh) Gude ŋgíla ‘knife’, Nzangi ngîla ‘knife, sword’; (ECh) Migama ʔângùl ‘sickle’.
    ▪ Corriente2008: EgAr mangal, Ar minǧal »do not appear to derive from a rather uncommon verb *naǧala«, so a Copt origin should not be excluded; but more likely from Eg.
    ▪ Westendorf2008: Copt mankʸale ~ mančale ‘Hacke, Schaufel’ < Ar minǧal.
    ▪ Rolland2014: from Copt mančale ‘pickaxe, hoe’, from Grk makélē ~ mákella ‘dto.’.
    ▪ Rolland2014 (»hypothèse personnelle«): also akin to Akk ikkaru ‘plowman, farm laboror; farmer’ < Sum engar ‘irrigator, farmer’ (en ‘lord’ + agar ‘field’ – Halloran3.0).
     
    ▪ There seems to have been, in earlier research on minǧal, a kind of “filter bubble” suggesting that the semantic distance between ‘sickle’ and other values realized in the Ar root √NǦL was too big to be explained by derivation; therefore, the idea that it could be a borrowing was readily accepted, and Sum, Eg, Copt and Grk etyma have been proposed. Apart from the semantic distance just mentioned, the adherents of an extra-Sem origin also point to the scarcity of *NGL items throughout Sem – there are clear cognates only in Hbr and Aram, while the relation to some Gz lexemes is obscure and far from reliable. At the same time, a weak point is the fact that there are some of those *NGL lexemes, even in SSem, and quite many of them in Ar itself, the semantics of which can hardly be explained as deriving from ‘sickle’ alone. Moreover, there may also be extra-Sem cognates (see below).
    ▪ The weakest of the borrowing hypotheses are probably those that assume a Copt < Grk or an Eg origin, for the simple reason that none of them accounts a) for the shift of meaning from ‘pickaxe, hoe, mattock’ (Eg, Copt, Grk) to ‘sickle’ (Ar, Hbr, Aram, Akk), and b) for the existence of the extra-Ar ‘sickles’ (Hbr, Aram, Akk) and the many Ar and Sem *NGL items, with a large variety of meanings, suggesting a deep temporal dimension that would have allowed for the development of such a diversity. While Copt mankʸale ~ mančale may indeed be a loan from Grk makélē ~ mákella, it is hardly convincing, in the light of the pre-Islamic attestations of Ar minǧal as well as its Can parallels, that the Copt word should be the source of Ar minǧal – the word existed in Ar before the Islamic expansion to Egypt and intense Copt-Ar contacts. Corriente’s idea that both the Ar and the Grk item might go back to a common Eg (i.e., pre-Copt) etymon can sound more plausible at the first instance. On a closer look, however, it turns out that while Eg, as the language of experienced farmers, of course has a number of words for ‘sickle’ (ȝzḫ, ḫȝb ‘Sichel’, ‘sichelförmige Holzstange’ – TLÆ) as well as for ‘pickaxe, hoe, mattock’ (‘Breitblatthacke’ – TLÆ) or ‘chisel’ (mǧȝ.t, ḫnrTLÆ), none of these qualify as possible ancestors of Grk makélē ~ mákella or Ar minǧal.808 Therefore, a more likely scenario here is: Eg was not involved at all; the Grk word is a loan from Sem (Hbr maggāl, Aram maggǝlā), and Copt mankʸale ~ mančale a borrowing from Grk, perh. later influenced by Ar phonology (explaining Copt ‑nc‑/‑ng‑ instead of Grk ‑k‑ < Aram ‑gg‑).809 The semantic difference between Sem ‘sickle’ and Grk/Copt ‘pickaxe, hoe, mattock’ could be due to a loan at a time when the Sem etymon still also signified an tool used to till the ground. It is not attested as such in any Sem language; but Ar knows the vb. naǧala also with the meaning ‘to till the ground’ (see below), so that the Sem n.instr. formed from a NGL vb., at the time of its borrowing into Grk, may indeed have signified something like a ‘pickaxe, hoe, mattock’. As Beekes2009 observes, the variant mákella of Grk makélē points to an early borrowing (pre-Grk *‑alʸa), and the cognate Arm markeł ‘mattock’ could indicate that Grk makélē and Arm markeł are »from a common source« (which we think could well have been a Sem language, e.g., Aram). The Sem origin may also help to explain the formal and semantic similarity between Grk makélē ~ mákella and Grk díkella ‘mattock, two-pronged how’ (dí‑ ‘two’ + kellō ‘to drive on, run a ship to land, put to shore, into harbour’) as the result of the cross that has been assumed but for which, until now, »a convincing explanation has not yet been found« (Beekes2009: ibid.).810
    ▪ In contrast to the Copt < Grk or the Eg etymologies, discussed in the preceding paragraph, both the Sum and the AfrAs > Sem connection have a much higher degree of plausibility – if perh. only in combination with each other. In marking Akk niggallu ~ ningallu ‘sickle’ as a word »of foreign origin«, vonSoden seems to be reluctant to assume a specifically Sum source; irrespective of this, however, it is clear that he thinks the word is not genuine Akk. CAD explicitly identifies the source as Sum (though without naming the Sum word itself; would that be níŋ‑ŋál(‑la) ‘sickle’, as given by Halloran_3.0? Semantics not confirmed by PSD, which renders Sum níŋ‑ŋál(‑la) as ‘possessions’! – Rolland’s »hypothèse personelle« that Akk niggallu ~ ningallu is from Sum engar ‘farmer’ sounds slightly far-fetched and is phonologically problematic). A borrowing from Sum into Akk would make sense also from the cultural-historical point of view: it sounds only natural that the Sem nomads who immigrated into Mesopotamia from the west integrated important agricultural terminology from the language of the experienced Sum farmers into their own idiom. However, as mentioned above, an exclusively Sum etymology can neither explain the large semantic variety within the Sem root NGL nor the AfrAs parallels – it is impossible to make all this dependent on only one initial Sum > Akk borrowing. Although Zimmern1914 does not mention Akk as a source of any WSem NGL item, the semantic and phonological similarity between Akk niggallu ~ ningallu and Hbr maggāl, Aram maggəlā and Ar minǧal is so high that some kind of relation can be taken as a given. However, how exactly the items are related among each other, is difficult or impossible to decide. The borrowing may have happened independently for each of the recipient languages (i.e., Akk > Hbr, Akk > Aram, and Akk > Ar, separately) or first into Hbr or Aram and from there into Ar. In the first case, ‑nǧ‑ in Ar minǧal would be directly from Akk ‑ng‑, in the second, it would be the result of dissimilation of Hbr or Aram ‑gg‑ to Ar ‑nǧ‑. In all these cases, initial Akk ni‑ would have become ma‑/mi‑, probably to make the loanword conform to familiar noun patterns (like the Ar miC₁C₂aC₃ pattern for nomina instrumenti). But even if one assumes a Sum > Akk > WSem borrowing, the semantic variety within WSem NGL as well as the extra-Sem (Chad) parallels remain to be explained. For EtymArab, the most convincing solution to this problem is the assumption of a root √NGL in Sem that predates the borrowing from Akk into WSem so that the borrowed word was interpreted as if from the already existing root √NGL (Militarev2002 suggested Sem *mi‑/ma‑ngal‑). This would explain not only the existence of the Chad parallels but also the replacement of initial Akk n‑ with WSem m‑. It may also account for the difference in semantics between the Copt and Grk words (‘pickaxe, hoe, mattock’) and the WSem ones (‘sickle’): one could assume that Grk magélē ~ mágella was the etymon of Copt mancela but was itself a loan from Hbr maggāl or Aram maggəlā at a time when the WSem words still meant something like ‘pickaxe, hoe, mattock’, but that this value later changed to become ‘sickle’ when WSem came into contact with the Akk niggallu ~ ningallu ‘sickle’. In this scenario, Hbr, Aram, and Ar may have lost their original value, which, however, at some time, may indeed still have existed: for Ar, for instance, one can easily assume the existence of a n.instr. *minǧal from an Ar vb. naǧala in the sense (now obsolete, but attested for earlier times) of ‘to till the ground’ (see [v15] in root entry ↗√NǦL), lit., to make a naǧl, i.e., an ‘opening in the earth to plant s.th.’. minǧal is not attested in that meaning, but naǧala and naǧl are.811 Moreover, both are probably the result of a semantic shift (owing to the Neolithic revolution and the introduction of agriculture?) from a still earlier ‘to split, pierce (s.th., bi‑ with a spear)’ (attested as such in Ar, too, and thought to be the Ar vb.’s most elementary value by Fraenkel1886). – The question that remains to be solved in this theory is the existence of the Chadic parallels meaning ‘sickle’, ‘knife’ or ‘sword’. If ‘sickle’ is not the original meaning in Sem and if both Sem and Chad were from a common AfrAs source, then the Chad items shouldn’t mean ‘sickle’ but *‘instrument to pierce’ or, more specifically, *‘tool used to till the ground’. So, are the Chad parallels perh. no genuine cognates but borrowings from Sem? Or the results of a crossing of a borrowing with earlier semantics, similar to the changes that the Sem words underwent after the borrowing from Sum?
     
    808. The only words that come close to Grk makélē ~ mákella, both phonologically and semantically, are Eg mǧȝ.t ‘chisel’ (ErmanGrapow1921: ‘Meißel, Grabstichel’, > Copt mače ‘chisel, axe, pick’) and, perh., an unidentified Eg ancestor of Copt maḥoul ‘chisel, pick’ – CDO. Both are as unlikely as to imagine Grk makélē ~ mákella as an Eg+Grk composite, from Eg ‘sichelförmige Holzstange’ + Grk kellō, in analogy to díkella ‘mattock, two-pronged how’.  809. Cf. Vycichl1983 who holds that Copt mankʸale »est certainement d’origine grecque (mákella), peut-être influencé par un terme sémitique.«  810. Cf. Černý1976 who argues that Copt mankʸale ‘pick, hoe’ »might have been as to its meaning influenced by Grk mákella (or makélē), but must come, as its form shows, from Sem […]. From Sem comes evidently also Grk mákella ‘pick-axe with one point’ though Greeks felt the word to come from mía ‘one’ and kéllō ‘to drive on’, and formed díkella ‘two-pronged hoe’ (dís ‘twice’, and kéllō)«, an opinion suggested already earlier by Marco Kabis, “Auctarium lexici coptici Amedei Peyron”, Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde, (1975): 105, DOI.  811. Cf. Aro1963 who thinks (p. 476) that the Akk, Hbr, Aram and Ar terms look as if they were all based on a Sem »Nomen instrumenti aus einem unnachweisbaren NGL« (a n.instr. formed from a Sem NGL with an hitherto unattested meaning). »Jedenfalls dürfte das Wort alt sein« (In any case, it is likely an old term). 
    – 
    minǧalī, adj., sickle-shaped, falciform: nisba formation. 
    manǧalaẗ منْجلة , pl. manāǧilᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NǦL 
    n.f. 
    bench vice – WehrCowan1979 
    ▪ A borrowing from modGrk, perh. a wanderwort with a modGrk < Tu < oGrk background. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ No cognates (loanword). 
    ▪ BadawiHinds1986 gives modGrk méngelē as the origin of the EgAr term. méngelē is probably a variant of μέγγενη ~ μέγκενη /méŋgeni/ ‘vice’, according to Wiktionary a loan from Tu méngene ‘press, vice, screw-jack, clamp’ which, according to Nişanyan_27Jan2018, is in its turn from modGrk μάγγανο(ν) /máŋgano(n)/ ~ μαγγάνι /maŋgáni/ ‘calender, machine to calender cloth or linen, mangle, press; winch, windlass’ < (Nişanyan) oGrk μάγγανον /máŋganon/, lit. ‘means for charming or bewitching others, philtre’, then also ‘mangonel’, i.e., a “magic” war machine, specific type of catapult or siege engine used to throw projectiles at a castle’s walls (cf. ↗manǧanīq ‘mangonel, ballista, catapult’), then also ‘block of a pulley’ (LiddellScott1940), probably so called after the pulleys used in the mangonel. Thus, if all the stages just mentioned are correct, we are dealing with a wanderwort that traveled across the Eastern Mediterranean: oGrk > modGrk > Tu > modGrk > Ar, but also into Eur langs (see section WEST, below). 
    ▪ Engl mangonel, n., ‘military engine for hurling stones,’ mC13, from oFr mangonel ‘catapult, war engine for throwing stones, etc.’ (modFr mangonneau), diminutive of mLat mangonum, from vulgLat *manganum ‘machine,’ from Grk mánganon ‘any means of tricking or bewitching,’ said to be from a protIE *mang‑ ‘to embellish, dress, trim’ (source also of oPruss manga ‘whore,’ mIrish meng ‘craft, deception’), but Beekes thinks it might be Pre-Greek. Attested from c. 1200 in Anglo-Lat – EtymOnline.
    ▪ Engl mangle, machine for smoothing and pressing linen and cotton clothes after washing, 1774, from Du mangel (C18), apparently short for mangelstok, from stem of mangelen ‘to mangle’, from mDu mange, which probably is somehow from vulgLat *manganum ‘machine’ (see mangonel), ‘but its history has not been precisely traced’ [OED] – EtymOnline.

     
    – 
    NǦM نجم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NǦM 
    “root” 
    ▪ NǦM_1a ‘to appear, come in sight, rise (star), begin, commence, set in’ ↗naǧama
    ▪ NǦM_1b ‘origin, source; to originate, spring, result (from)’ ↗naǧama
    ▪ NǦM_1c ‘star (also metaph.: celebrity), the Pleiads, constellation, asterism; asterisk’ ↗¹naǧm, ↗naǧmaẗ
    ▪ NǦM_1d ‘to observe the stars, predict the future, practice astrology; astrologer; (EgAr) jinx’ ↗¹naǧǧama
    ▪ NǦM_1e ‘to pay in instalments; to accomplish (step by step)’ ↗²naǧm
    ▪ NǦM_1f ‘to cease, be over (cold, rain); to dissolve, disappear, evaporate (cloud)’ ↗²naǧm
    ▪ NǦM_1g ‘mine, pit’ ↗¹manǧam
    ▪ NǦM_1h ‘ankle, ankle-bone’ ↗manǧim
    NǦM_1i ‘iron-beam of a balance | cette partie de la balance sur laquelle se trouve l’indicateur des poids’ ↗minǧam
    ▪ NǦM_1j ‘well traced road; way out | chemin bien tracé et large’: ²manǧam.
    ▪ NǦM_1k (AlgAr) ‘to have the power, be able to do s.th.; ressources | pouvoir, être en état de faire qc’ ↗naǧām
    ▪ NǦM_1l/2 ‘plants with no stalk; herbs, herbage, quack\couch grass, quitch’ ↗³naǧm, ↗naǧīl.

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘star (particularly Pleiades or the Seven Sisters), instalments, fixed terms, astrology, to tell the future, (of a star) to rise, to appear; plants with no stalk, to sprout; to show up’ 
    ▪ √NǦM looks like an exclusively Ar root.
    ▪ Despite the semantic diversity within the root, all values (except perh. the last in the above list, [v1l/2]) seem to derive from one basic value, prob. [v1a] ‘to appear, come in sight’.
    ▪ The root may be a specification in ‑M from a bi-consonantal root nucleus *NǦ‑ ‘breaking through [and welling\pouring out, i.e., eruption] of s.th. thick, but not hard\solid\strong, from within s.th.’
     
    – 
    ▪ Zammit2002: Ø (no cognates in any Sem language)
    ▪ Nişanyan (s.v. nücum) lists Aram nagəm ‘to appear’ as a parallel, but as already PayneSmith1901 (s.v. Syr NGM) knew, this is an Arabism.
     
    General remarks
    ▪ The root does not seem to have cognates in any other Sem language (no cognates listed in Zammit2002) nor outside Sem.
    ▪ Nişanyan (s.v. nücum) lists Aram nagəm ‘to appear’ as a parallel, but as already PayneSmith1901 (s.v. Syr NGM) knew, this is an Arabism.
    ▪ BadawiHinds1986 identify (for EgAr) two NGM roots, marked ¹NGM (comprising EgAr nagam, nagmaẗ, nigmaẗ) and ²NGM (mangam only). Cf., however, the discussion of [v1g] ¹manǧam, below.
    ▪ Gabal2012: According to the author, Ar √NǦM is composed of the bi-cons. root nucleus *NǦ‑ ‘breaking through [and welling\pouring out, i.e., eruption] of s.th. thick, but not hard\solid\strong, from within s.th.’ (nafāḏ kaṯīf ġayr šadīd min bāṭin al-šayʔ) (see ↗*NǦ‑_2) and a modifying R₃ *‑M, adding the notion of *‘closing\rewelding a gaping opening over what is inside’ (ĭltiʔām ẓāhir al-ǧurm ʕalà mā fī ǧawfih), together producing the basic meaning of *‘partial breaking through of s.th. soft\fine through a closed\covered\rewelded surface’ (nafāḏ ǧuzʔī ʔay daqīq min saṭḥ multaʔim). Other roots/items containing the same nucleus (Qur’anic only) are: naǧǧa ‘to seep, ooze’, ↗naǧā (naǧw) ‘to save o.s., be rescued, escape’, ↗naǧd ‘highland, upland, tableland, plateau; the Nejd’, and ↗naǧas ‘impurity, dirt, filth, defilement’.
    ▪ Most values seem to be dependent on either [v1a] ‘to appear, come in sight’ or [v1c] ‘star’. It is hard to decide which of the two is the primary one, whether the vb. is denominal or the n. is deverbal; the latter seems slightly more likely (see details below, s.v. [v1a]). – For the link between these and [v1g] ‘mine, pit’ as well as [v1l/2] ‘plants with no stalk; herbs, herbage, quack\couch grass, quitch’, see s.v. below. – Values [v1i] ‘iron-beam of a balance’ and [v1j] ‘well traced road, way out’ remain of obscure semantics.

    Individual values (as found, in addition to WehrCowan1979, in Kazimirski1860, Dozy1881, Steingass1884, Hava1899, BadawiHinds1986):
    ▪ NǦM_1a : naǧama ‘to appear, come in sight, rise (star), begin, commence, set in’, hence also the further meanings in ClassAr, such as ‘to break forth, grow (teeth, horns, plants); come forward, come out | surgir (a heretic, an innovator); to ooze (water)’. – It is hard to decide whether this value represents the primary meaning (so that [v1c] would be deverbal, a ‘star’ as *‘the appearing one, rising in the sky’), or whether it is denominal from [v1c] (so that ‘to appear’ would originally be *‘to do the same as a star, i.e., rise, come in sight’). BAH2008, by letting [v1c] feature first in their list, seem to favour the idea that the vb. [v1a] is denominal. The fact, however, that all other Sem languages use other words for ‘star’ (all akin to Ar ↗kawkab) rather points to secondary nature of naǧm.
    ▪ NǦM_1b : naǧama ‘to originate, spring, result (from)’; cf. also naǧm ‘certain\true origin | origine certaine et authentique, non contestée’; laysa li-hāḏā ’l-ḥadīṯ naǧm, expr., ‘this information is groundless, i.e., il n’y a rien de vrai, de sérieux dans ceci’. – The value depends on [v1a], indicating the *‘place where s.th. appears from, where s.th. originates from’.
    ▪ NǦM_1c : ¹naǧm ‘star (also metaph.: celebrity), the Pleiads, constellation, asterism; asterisk’; cf. also ‘star of nativity, nativity’; yanẓuru fī ’l-nuǧūm, expr., ‘he ponders over what he has to do’; ʕilm al-nuǧūm ‘(lit., science of the stars =) astronomy, astrology’ (see [v1d]); metaphorical use in LevAr naǧmaẗ ‘blaze (i.e., a *star) on a beast’. – As mentioned above, s.v. [v1a], in the light of the absence of Sem cognates of naǧm, this value is likely not the primary value in the root; rather is the ‘star’ dependent on [v1a], originally being *‘the appearing\rising one’.
    ▪ NǦM_1d : ¹naǧǧama ‘to observe the stars, predict the future, practice astrology’; tanǧīm, ʕilm al-nuǧūm ‘astrology’; naǧǧām, munaǧǧim, mutanaǧǧim ‘astrologer’; (EgAr) nagm ‘jinx’. – Cf. also naǧm ‘horoscope, prediction’. – The value is clearly depending on [v1c] ‘star’, and so is also the special meaning of naǧǧama, ‘to expose a little mud to the air [i.e., to the stars] overnight to be able to judge the next flooding of the Nile (use practiced in Egypt)’. – According to HDAL_200620, the earliest attestation of munaǧǧim is from ca. 660 CE (ʕAlī b. ʔAbī Ṭālib), and of naǧm as ‘astrology’ from ca. 732 CE (saying reported by Wahb b. Munabbih).
    ▪ NǦM_1e : naǧǧama ‘to accomplish s.th. step by step; to pay in instalments’, ²naǧm ‘instalment’. – Cf. also naǧm ‘appointed time, term; pay, wages’; ǧaʕaltu mālī ʕalayhi nuǧūman, expr., ‘I allowed him to pay his debt by instalments’. – Like [v1d], also [v1e] is dependent on [v1c] ‘star’, developed from ‘to fix s.th. according to the course of stars, hence, at appointed terms’, hence ‘pay (a debt, wages, etc.) by instalments’ and ‘to accomplish gradually, step by step’, then also ‘to accomplish’ (in general; but this could also be a caus. formation from [v1a], lit. meaning *‘to make appear’), hence probably also [v1k] ‘to be able, have the ability to do s.th.’ (from *‘to be capable of accomplishing s.th. step by step’). – According to HDAL_200620, the value ‘to accomplish s.th. gradually, step by step, at appointed terms’ is attested as early as ca. 609 CE in a verse by the pre-Islamic poet Zuhayr b. ʔAbī Sulmà. From lC7, we have a statement by Ibn ʕAbbās as attestation of the use of nuǧūm as ‘instalments, successive parts’, and another by Saʕd b. ʔAbī Waqqāṣ for munaǧǧam (PP II) in the same sense. The early attestations can certainly be explained from the fact that, as al-Bustānī has it, »the Arabs used to measure time (tuwaqqit) according to the rising of the stars because they did not know how to calculate but remembered the times of the year by natural phenomena [ʔanwāʔ, lit., tempests]. They also called the time at which it [i.e., a tempest etc.] was due [or to be expected], metaphorically, a ‘star’ because its happening was not to be known but by [the observation of] the stars. Then they extended this meaning [even farther], calling also a due payment a ‘star’ because it was due […] at the time when [its] star rose« (1869: 2136).
    NǦM_1f : ʔanǧama, vb. IV, and ĭntaǧama, vb. VIII, ‘to cease, be over (rain, cold), clear away (weather) | cesser tout à coup; to dissolve, disappear, evaporate (cloud); se rasséréner, se remettre tout à coup au beau’, cf. ʔanǧamat-i ’l-samāʔ, or absol. ʔanǧamat. – The value is probably dependent on [v1a] ‘to appear, come in sight’, as the sky *‘reappears, comes in sight’ again when the clouds dissolve; alternatively, one may think of a development based on the idea of gradual change and accomplishment expressed in [v1e].
    ▪ NǦM_1g : ¹manǧam ‘mine, pit’. – The value is a n.loc., apparently derived from either [v1a] (*‘place where s.th. [sc. the metal ore] appears’) or [v1b] (*‘source’ of the metal ore) or [v1c] (*‘place where the metal ore flashes up like stars’).
    ▪ NǦM_1h : manǧim ‘ankle, ankle-bone’. – Obviously a maFʕiL formation from [v1a], signifying the bone that protrudes (*‘appears, shows) on the sides of a foot.
    NǦM_1i : minǧam ‘iron-beam of a balance | cette partie de la balance sur laquelle se trouve l’indicateur des poids’. – Relation to other values not clear. The word is a n.instr., coined along the miC₁C₂aC₃ pattern, and should therefore signify a tool serving to carry out an action designated by the vb. naǧama.
    NǦM_1j : ²manǧam ‘well traced road; way out | chemin bien tracé et large’. – Relation to other values not clear. The word is a n.loc., so it should indicate the place where an action signified by the vb. naǧama is carried out, or takes place. According to Kazimirski1860 who gives the first meaning of manǧam as ‘source, origine, lieu où la chose naît, où elle apparaît (p.ex. origine de l’erreur, du mal, etc.)’, the original meaning is dependent on [v1a] ‘to appear’ or [v1b] ‘source, origin, to originate’. Is the ‘well traced road’ the *‘road that appears (as a way out)’? The fact that manǧam also can signify a ‘mine, pit’ does not bring any light in this.
    NǦM_1k : AlgAr naǧǧam ‘to have the power, be able to do s.th.’, AlgAr naǧām ‘ressources’ (Dozy1881); cf. also DaṯAr naǧǧam ‘to be able to bear (e.g., the cold)’ (Zetterstéen1942). – This value seems to be a further development of [v1e] ‘to accomplish’ or [v1a] ‘to appear’, with emphasis on the ability to accomplish or make appear s.th.
    ▪ NǦM_1l/2 : ³naǧm ‘plants with no stalk; graminaceous plant, herbs, herbage, quack\couch grass, quitch’; in ClassAr also naǧmaẗ, naǧamaẗdactylis repens, species of dog-grass’. In ClassAr lexicography, the word is derived from [v1a] ‘to appear’ as the plant simply “appears”, without stalk. This etymology may be true, but there is also conspicuous overlapping with ↗naǧīl. In any case, the value is attested already in pre-Islamic poetry (c. 600 CE), then perh. also in the Qur’an (in one interpretation of Q 55:6).
     
    – 
    – 
    naǧam‑ نجم , u (nuǧūm
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NǦM 
    vb., I 
    1 to appear, come in sight, rise (star), begin, commence, set in; 2 to result, follow, ensue, arise, proceed, derive, originate, spring (min or ʕan from) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ The item belongs to a root that seems to be an exclusively Ar root without immediate cognates in Sem or outside. However, the root may be a specification in ‑M from a bi-consonantal root nucleus *NǦ‑ ‘breaking through [and welling\pouring out, i.e., eruption] of s.th. thick, but not hard\solid\strong, from within s.th.’ (Gabal2012).
    ▪ At first sight, one may assume dependence of the vb. naǧama on ↗naǧm ‘star’, but given the fact that the latter has no cognates in Sem (where ‘star’ is expressed by words akin to Ar ↗kawkab) it is more likely that naǧama ‘to appear, come in sight’ is the primary value, while naǧm an idiosyncratic secondary formation.
    ▪ [v2] dependent on [v1].
     
    ▪ [v1] first attestation <588 CE in a verse by ʕAdiyy b. Zayd al-ʕIbādī – HDAL_200620.
    ▪ [v2] most frequent in MSA in the PA nāǧim ‘originating, resulting (min, ʕan from)’.
    ▪ From naǧama ‘to appear, come in sight’ are also further meanings, now obsolete but attested in ClassAr, such as ‘to break forth, grow (teeth, horns, plants)’, ‘to come forward, come out | surgir (a heretic, an innovator)’, ‘to ooze (water)’.
     
    ▪ Nişanyan (s.v. nücum) lists Aram nagəm ‘to appear’ as a parallel, but as already PayneSmith1901 (s.v. Syr NGM) knew, this is an Arabism.
     
    ▪ BadawiHinds1986 identify (for EgAr) two NGM roots, marked »¹NGM« (comprising EgAr nagam, nagmaẗ, nigmaẗ) and »²NGM« (mangam only). But as the discussion of [v1g] in root entry ↗√NǦM shows, there is no reason to think that ¹manǧam ~ EgAr mangam should be from another root than the other items.
    ▪ Gabal2012: According to the author, Ar √NǦM is composed of the bi-cons. root nucleus *NǦ‑ ‘breaking through [and welling\pouring out, i.e., eruption] of s.th. thick, but not hard\solid\strong, from within s.th.’ (nafāḏ kaṯīf ġayr šadīd min bāṭin al-šayʔ) (see ↗*NǦ‑_2) and a modifying R₃ *‑M, adding the notion of *‘closing\rewelding a gaping opening over what is inside’ (ĭltiʔām ẓāhir al-ǧurm ʕalà mā fī ǧawfih), together producing the basic meaning of *‘partial breaking through of s.th. soft\fine through a closed\covered\rewelded surface’ (nafāḏ ǧuzʔī ʔay daqīq min saṭḥ multaʔim). Other roots/items containing the same nucleus (Qur’anic only) are: naǧǧa ‘to seep, ooze’, ↗naǧā (naǧw) ‘to save o.s., be rescued, escape’, ↗naǧd ‘highland, upland, tableland, plateau; the Nejd’, and ↗naǧas ‘impurity, dirt, filth, defilement’. – Cf. also Ehret’s (1995) assumption of a pre-protSem *NG ‘to seep, ooze’.
    ▪ Most values in the root √NǦM seem to be dependent on either naǧama ‘to appear, come in sight’ or ‘star’ (i.e., values [v1a] and [v1c] in root entry ↗√NǦM, respectively). It is hard to decide whether ‘to appear, come in sight’ is the primary meaning of the root (so that ‘star’ would be deverbal, as *‘the appearing one, the thing that comes in sight in the sky at night’), or whether it is denominal from ‘star’ (so that ‘to appear’ would be, originally, *‘to do the same as a star, namely, to rise, appear, come in sight’). BAH2008, by letting ‘star’ feature first in their list of the values attached to √NǦM in ClassAr, seem to favour the idea that the vb. is denominal. The fact, however, that all other Sem languages use other words for ‘star’ (all akin to Ar ↗kawkab) rather points to a secondary nature of naǧm.
    ▪ [v2] depends on [v1], focusing on the place where s.th. appears, i.e., its ‘origin, source’ (value attested for the vn. naǧm in ClassAr; cf. also naǧm ‘certain\true origin | origine certaine et authentique, non contestée’ and the idiomatic phrase laysa li-hāḏā ’l-ḥadīṯ naǧm ‘this information is groundless, i.e., il n’y a rien de vrai, de sérieux dans ceci’.
     
    – 
    ▪ Most of the items listed here are rather from the n. ↗¹naǧm (or its f. form, ↗naǧmaẗ) than from the vb. naǧama. However, given that we cannot be absolutely sure whether naǧama is dependent on naǧm or vice versa, the whole spectrum is listed here nevertheless.
    ▪ Values that are not listed in WehrCowan1979 but found in al-Mawrid (Baalbakki1995), are marked “(M)”.

    naǧama qarnuh, expr., to begin to show: metaphorical use; lit., *his horn appeared.

    naǧǧama, vb. II, 1 to observe the stars; to predict the future from the stars, practice astrology: (D-stem, denom. from ¹naǧm, see ↗¹naǧǧama; 2 to pay in instalments: D-stem, denom. from ²naǧm, see ↗²naǧǧama.
    tanaǧǧama, vb. V, to observe the stars, predict the future from the stars: Dt-stem, denom. from ¹naǧm, intr. of ↗¹naǧǧama.

    BP#1019naǧm, n., 1 (pl. nuǧūm, ʔanǧum) celestial body; star; lucky star; constellation, asterism: ↗¹naǧm; 2 (pl. nuǧūm) instalment, partial payment: ↗²naǧm; 3 (coll.) herbs, herbage, grass; (M) quack grass, couch grass, quitch: ↗³naǧm (? = ↗naǧīl).
    BP#3363naǧmaẗ, pl. naǧamāt, n.f., star; asterisk (typ.): (singulative?) f. of ↗¹naǧm.
    naǧmī, adj., 1 star-shaped, stelliform, starlike, stellate, stellular, stellar, astral; 2 in instalments, instalment‑ (in compounds): nisba formation from ↗¹naǧm (and/or ↗naǧmaẗ) and ²naǧm, respectively.
    (M) naǧmiyyaẗ, n.f., aster (bot.): abstr. formation in f. nisba ‑iyyaẗ for scientific classification, from ↗¹naǧm; a neol.?
    (M) naǧmiyyāt, n.f.pl., asteroidea (zool.): abstr. formation in f.pl. nisba ‑iyyāt for scientific grouping, from ↗¹naǧm; a neol.?.
    nuǧaymaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., small star, starlet: dimin. of ↗naǧmaẗ.
    naǧām, n., (AlgAr) resources: see ↗s.v.
    naǧǧām, munaǧǧim, mutanaǧǧim, pl. ‑ūn, n., astrologer: n.prof. (I) and PA II, PA V, respectively, from ↗¹naǧm.
    ¹manǧam, pl. manāǧimᵘ, n., 1 source, origin; 2 mine; pit: n.loc., lit., *‘place where s.th. appears, comes in sight’, cf. ↗¹manǧam.
    ²manǧam, n., well traced road; way out | chemin bien tracé et large: same morphology as ↗¹manǧam, but semantic relation to √NǦM unclear.
    manǧamī, adj., mining (in compounds): nisba formation from ↗¹manǧam.
    manǧim, n., ankle-bone: maFʕiL formation from naǧama, signifying the bone that protrudes (*‘appears, shows’) on the sides of a foot.
    minǧam, n., 1 = manǧim; 2 iron-beam of a balance | cette partie de la balance sur laquelle se trouve l’indicateur des poids’: relation to other NǦM values not clear; the word is a n.instr., coined along the familiar miC₁C₂aC₃ pattern, and should therefore signify a tool serving to carry out an action designated by the vb. naǧama.
    tanǧīm, n., astrology: vn. II, ↗¹naǧm, ↗¹naǧǧama.
    BP#4120nāǧim, adj. originating, resulting (ʕan, min from): PA I [v2].
    manǧūm, adj., starred; marked with a star or asterisk: neol., PP I from a hypothetical *naǧama ‘to mark with a star or asterisk’, denominal from ↗naǧmaẗ.
     
    ¹naǧǧam‑ نجّم (tanǧīm
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NǦM 
    vb., II 
    1 to observe the stars; to predict the future from the stars, practice astrology; 2 to pay in instalments ↗²naǧm, ↗²naǧǧama – WehrCowan1979.
     
    ▪ D-stem, denom. from ↗¹naǧm ‘star’ (from ↗naǧama ‘to appear, come in sight’).
    ▪ [v2] ‘to pay in instalments’, too, is related etymologically to the observation of stars, but treated separately here due to distinction in modern semantics.
     
    ▪ First attestation of vb. II in the meaning ‘to expect a tempest from the rising of its star’ <748 CE in a verse by the poet Ibn al-Dumaynaẗ, but naǧm in the sense of ‘astrology’, and munaǧǧim ‘astrologer’, are attested earlier (ca. 732 CE in a saying reported by Wahb b. Munabbih, and ca. 660 CE in a saying ascribed to ʕAlī b. ʔAbī Ṭālib, respectively) – HDAL_200621.
     
    – 
    ▪ The value is clearly dependent on ↗¹naǧm ‘star’, and so is also the special meaning of naǧǧama, ‘to expose a little mud to the air [i.e., to the stars] overnight to be able to judge the next flooding of the Nile (practiced in Egypt)’.
    ▪ EgAr distinguishes between ni gmaẗ ‘star’and na gmaẗ ‘jinx’. The EgAr vb. I nagam, i, ‘to jinx, put the evil eye on’ (as, e.g., in dōl nās wiḥšīn nagamū-na w-ḥasadū-na ‘they are bad people, they’ve jinxed us and put the evil eye on us’) signifies a magic practice based on the belief in the power of the stars – BadawiHinds1986.
    ▪ From the observation of the course of the stars and the moments they rise are not only the values ‘to predict the future, (and, in Egypt) the flooding of the Nile’ as well as ‘to practice astrology’, but also ↗²naǧǧama ‘to fix s.th. according to the course of stars, hence, to accomplish s.th. at appointed terms’, and then also ‘to pay in instalments’ (cf. also naǧm ‘appointed time, term’, and ↗²naǧm ‘instalment’). Al-Bustānī1869 explained the relation between the observation of the stars and paying one’s debts by the fact that, as he put it, »the Arabs used to measure time (tuwaqqit) according to the rising of the stars because they did not know how to calculate but remembered the times of the year by natural phenomena [ʔanwāʔ, lit., tempests]. They also called the time at which it [i.e., a tempest etc.] was due [or to be expected], metaphorically, a ‘star’ because its happening was not to be known except by [the observation of] the stars. Then they [sc. the Arabs] extended this meaning [even farther], calling also a due payment a ‘star’ because it was due […] at the time when [its] star rose« (1869: 2136).
     
    – 
    tanaǧǧama, vb. V, to observe the stars, predict the future from the stars: Dt-stem, intr. of ¹naǧǧama, denom. from ¹naǧm.

    naǧǧām and munaǧǧim, mutanaǧǧim, pl. ‑ūn, n., astrologer: n.prof. (I) and PA II, PA V, respectively.
    tanǧīm, n., astrology: vn. II.

    For other items of the root, see ↗naǧama, ↗²naǧǧama, ↗¹naǧm, ↗²naǧm, ↗³naǧm, ↗naǧmaẗ, ↗¹manǧam, ↗²manǧam, ↗manǧim, ↗minǧam, (AlgAr) ↗naǧām, and, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√NǦM.
     
    ²naǧǧam‑ نجّم (tanǧīm
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NǦM 
    vb., II 
    1 ↗¹naǧǧama; 2 to pay in instalments – WehrCowan1979 
    ▪ D-stem, denom. from ↗²naǧm.
    ▪ Semantics dependent on ↗¹naǧǧama, the observation of the stars (↗¹naǧm), see DISC below.
     
    ▪ First attestation in the meaning ‘to do at appointed terms’ <609 CE in a verse by the pre-Islamic poet Zuhayr b. ʔAbī Sulmà – HDAL_200620.
     
    – 
    ▪ The value ‘to pay in instalments’ of naǧǧama is a semantic extension made on the basis of the vb.’s more original value, which is ‘to observe the stars’ (↗¹naǧǧama, from ↗¹naǧm ‘star’). Semantics can be thought to have developed along the line ‘to observe the stars’ > ‘to fix s.th. according to the course of stars, i.e., according to the time at which a certain star (or group of stars) appears in the sky, hence, to accomplish s.th. at appointed terms’ > ‘to pay in instalments’ (cf. also naǧm ‘appointed time, term’, and ↗²naǧm ‘instalment’). Al-Bustānī1869 explained the relation saying that, »The Arabs used to measure time (tuwaqqit) according to the rising of the stars because they did not know how to calculate but remembered the times of the year by natural phenomena [ʔanwāʔ, lit., tempests]. They also called the time at which it [i.e., a tempest etc.] was due [or to be expected], metaphorically, a ‘star’ because its happening was not to be known except by [the observation of] the stars. Then they [sc. the Arabs] extended this meaning [even farther], calling also the due payment [of a debt] a ‘star’ because it was due […] at the time when [its] star rose« (1869: 2136).
     
    – 
    naǧmī, adj., 1 ↗¹naǧm, ↗naǧmaẗ; 2 in instalments, instalment‑ (in compounds): nisba formation from ↗²naǧm.

    For other items of the root, see ↗naǧama, ↗¹naǧǧama, ↗¹naǧm, ↗²naǧm, ↗³naǧm, ↗naǧmaẗ, ↗¹manǧam, ↗²manǧam, ↗manǧim, ↗minǧam, (AlgAr) ↗naǧām, and, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√NǦM.
     
    ¹naǧm نَجْم , pl. nuǧūm, ʔanǧum 
    ID 848 • Sw 74/152 • BP 1019 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NǦM 
    n.coll. 
    1 celestial body; star; lucky star; constellation, asterism; 2 ↗²naǧm; 3 ↗³naǧm, ↗naǧīl – WehrCowan1979.
     
    ▪ One is tempted to assume that ¹naǧm ‘star’ is the etymon of all (or at least most) lexical items and semantic values encountered in the root √NǦM. However, given that ¹naǧm ‘star’ is without cognates in Sem – in other Sem languages, the term for ‘star’ is expressed by words akin to Ar ↗kawkab – it is more likely that naǧm is an Ar idiosyncrasy, a secondary formation from ↗naǧama ‘to appear, come in sight’, literally meaning *‘the appearing, rising one’.
    ▪ [v2] and [v3] are dependent on [v1] or ↗naǧama: [v2] ‘instalment, partial payment’ is from ‘payment due at an appointed term’, from ‘term (date/time) of the rising of a star, to be known by observation of the stars (↗¹naǧǧama)’, from ¹naǧm ‘star’. [v3] ‘plants with no stalk; herbs, herbage, quack\couch grass, quitch’ may be the *‘plants that appear on the ground like stars, or cover it like stars’ or *‘plants somehow appearing from the ground’ – unless it is the result of a phonological-semantic confusion, due to a merging with naǧl, see ↗naǧīl.
     
    ▪ Older pl.s, found in ClassAr dictionaries in addition to nuǧūm and ʔanǧum: ʔanǧām, nuǧum.
    ▪ [v1] ‘bright star’: first attestation <230 CE in a verse by the pre-Islamic poet ʔAws b. Zayd Manāt al-ʕAbdī – HDAL_200620; then also ▪ eC7 Q 6:97 wa-huwa ’llaḏī ǧaʕala lakum-u ’l-nuǧūma li-tahtadū bihā fī ẓulumāti ’l-barri wa’l-baḥri ‘and He it is who has made the stars for you to use as a guide through the darkness of land and sea’.
    naǧm is also attested as ‘astrology’, <732 CE, in a saying reported by Wahb b. Munabbih – HDAL_200620. For this value, cf. esp. ↗¹naǧǧama.
    ▪ Another earlier value of naǧm, ‘mine, pit’, has become obsolete now (replaced by ↗¹manǧam). Its earlier use can be explained as either *‘place where s.th. (esp., metal ore) sparkles like stars in the sky’, or *‘place where s.th. (e.g., metal ore) appears, comes in sight’ (↗naǧama).
     
    – 
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    naǧm ḏū ḏanab, n., comet: lit., star with a tail
    nuǧūm al-sīnamā, pl., film stars, movie stars: neol.
    (M) naǧm al-baḥr, n., starfish, sea star: neol.?
    (M) naǧm al-quṭb, al‑naǧm al‑quṭbī, n., Polaris, the North Star, polestar, polar star: …

    naǧǧama, vb. II, 1 to observe the stars; to predict the future from the stars, practice astrology; 2 ↗²naǧǧama: D-stem, denom. from ↗naǧm.
    tanaǧǧama, vb. V, to observe the stars, predict the future from the stars: Dt-stem, denom. from naǧm.

    BP#3363naǧmaẗ, pl. naǧamāt, n.f., star; asterisk (typ.) | naǧmaẗ sīnamāʔiyyaẗ, n.f., film star, movie star; naǧmaẗ raqṣ, n.f., ballet star; maraḍ al-naǧmaẗ, n.f., a disease afflicting horses; (M) naǧmaẗ al-baḥr, n.f., starfish, sea star; (M) naǧmaẗ al-ṣabāḥ, n.f., morning glory (bot.): (?singulative) f. of ¹naǧm.
    naǧmī, adj., 1 star-shaped, stelliform, starlike, stellate, stellular, stellar, astral: nisba formation from ¹naǧm and/or naǧmaẗ; 2 ↗²naǧm.
    (M) naǧmiyyaẗ, n.f., aster (bot.): abstr. formation in f. nisba ‑iyyaẗ for scientific classification.
    (M) naǧmiyyāt, n.f.pl., asteroidea (zool.): abstr. formation in f.pl. nisba ‑iyyāt for scientific grouping.
    naǧǧām and munaǧǧim, mutanaǧǧim, pl. ‑ūn, n., astrologer: n.prof. (I) and PA II, PA V, respectively.
    manǧam, pl. manāǧimᵘ, n., 1 source, origin; 2 mine; pit: n.loc., either *‘place where s.th. (e.g., metal ore) sparkles like stars in the sky’, or *‘place where s.th. (e.g., metal ore) appears, comes in sight (↗naǧama)’.
    manǧamī, adj., mining (in compounds): nisba formation from manǧam.
    tanǧīm, n., astrology: vn. II, from ↗¹naǧǧama ‘to observe the stars’, from ¹naǧm.
    manǧūm, adj., starred; marked with a star or asterisk: neol., rather from ↗naǧmaẗ than from ¹naǧm.

    For other items of the root, see ↗naǧama, ↗²naǧǧama, ↗²naǧm, ↗³naǧm, ↗²manǧam, ↗manǧim, ↗minǧam, (AlgAr) ↗naǧām, and, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√NǦM.
     
    ²naǧm نَجْم , pl. nuǧūm 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NǦM 
    n. 
    1 ↗¹naǧm; 2 instalment, partial payment; 3 ↗³naǧm, ↗naǧīl – WehrCowan1979.
    conc
     
    ▪ The value ‘instalment, partial payment’ is derived from ‘payment due at an appointed term’, from ‘term (date/time) of the rising of a star, to be known by observation of the stars (↗¹naǧǧama)’, from ¹naǧm ‘star’.
     
    ▪ <687 CE in a statement by Ibn ʕAbbās, saying ʔunzila ’l-qurʔānu ʔilà samāʔi ’l-dunyā ǧumlaẗan wāḥidaẗan ṯumma ʔunzila ʔilà ’l-ʔarḍi nuǧūman ‘the Qur’an was sent down to the world’s heaven as one whole, then it was sent down to earth in instalments’ – HDAL_200620.
     
    – 
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
     
    – 
    nuǧūman, adv., in instalments: ḥāl‑acc., pl., indicating mode of payment

    naǧǧama, vb. II, 1 ↗¹naǧǧama; 2 to pay in instalments: D-stem, denom.

    naǧmī, adj., 1 ↗¹naǧm; 2 in instalments, instalment‑ (in compounds): nisba formation.

    For other items of the root, see ↗naǧama, ↗¹naǧǧama, ↗¹naǧm, ↗³naǧm, ↗naǧmaẗ, ↗¹manǧam, ↗²manǧam, ↗manǧim, ↗minǧam, (AlgAr) ↗naǧām, and, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√NǦM.
     
    ³naǧm نَجْم , pl. nuǧūm, ʔanǧum 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NǦM 
    n. 
    1 ↗¹naǧm; 2 ↗²naǧm; 3 (coll.) herbs, herbage, grass; (M) quack grass, couch grass, quitch – WehrCowan1979.
     
    ▪ In ClassAr lexicography, the word is explained as ‘plants with no stalk; graminaceous plant, herbs, herbage, quack\couch grass, quitch’ and usually derived from ↗naǧama ‘to appear’, as the plant simply “appears”, without stalk. This etymology may be true, but there is also conspicuous overlapping with ↗naǧīl, so that it may also be the result of a phonological-semantic confusion, due to a merging with the semantics of √NǦL.
     
    ▪ <600 CE in a verse by the pre-Islamic poet al-Ḥāriṯ b. Ẓālim al-Murrī al-Ġaṭafānī – HDAL_200620.
    ▪ Then also ▪ eC7 (plants with no stalk, herbage – in one interpretation of Q 55:6) Q 55:6 wa’l-naǧmu wa’l-šaǧaru yasǧudāni ‘the plants and the trees prostrate (or, fall into the Grand Design)’ – BAH2008.
    ▪ In ClassAr also attested as naǧmaẗ, naǧamaẗdactylis repens, species of dog-grass’.
     
    … 
    See above, section CONC.
     
    – 
    – 
    naǧmaẗ نَجْمَة , pl. naǧamāt, nuǧūm 
    ID 849 • Sw 74/152 • BP 3363 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NǦM 
    n.f.f., n.un. 
    1 star; 2 asterisk (typ.) – WehrCowan1979; 3 (EgAr) a jinx – BadawiHinds1986.
     
    ▪ Morphologically, naǧmaẗ is a singulative (n.un.), signifying either a single, specific star (from the collective ↗¹naǧm ‘stars’) or one incident of ‘rising, appearing’ (from the vn. naǧm of the vb. ↗naǧama ‘to appear, come in sight’).
    ▪ [v2] is a neologism.
    ▪ [v3]: EgAr distinguishes between ni gmaẗ ‘star’ and nagmaẗ ‘jinx’ (corresponding vb.: nagam, i, ‘to jinx, put the evil eye on s.o.’, as in dōl nās wiḥšīn nagamū-na w-ḥasadū-na ‘they are bad people, they’ve jinxed us and put the evil eye on us’ – BadawiHinds1986).
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ BadawiHinds1986 distinguishes 2 roots: »¹NGM« (comprising ni gmaẗ ‘star’, na gmaẗ ‘jinx’, and nagam ‘to jinx’) and »²NGM« (containing only mangam ‘mine, pit’). Etymologically, however, this distinction does not make sense, as also ‘mine, pit’ (originally, *‘place where s.th., e.g., metal ore etc., appears’) is based on the same ↗naǧama ‘to appear, come in sight’ are also ¹naǧm and naǧmaẗ (*‘the rising, appearing one’).
     
    – 
    naǧmaẗ sīnamāʔiyyaẗ, n.f., film star, movie star: neol.
    naǧmaẗ raqṣ, n.f., ballet star: neol.
    maraḍ al-naǧmaẗ, n.f., a disease afflicting horses: prob. so called after the macula appearing on the sick animal’s skin, cf. LevAr naǧmaẗ ‘blaze (i.e., a *star) on a beast’ – Hava1899.
    (M) naǧmaẗ al-baḥr, n.f., starfish, sea star: original Ar, or a calque?
    (M) naǧmaẗ al-ṣabāḥ, n.f., morning glory (bot.) : original Ar, or a calque?

    manǧūm, adj., starred; marked with a star or asterisk: neol., PP I from a hypothetical *naǧama ‘to mark with a star or asterisk’, denominal from naǧmaẗ.

    For other derivatives, see ↗¹naǧm. – For other items of the root, see ↗naǧama, ↗¹naǧǧama, ↗²naǧǧama, ↗¹naǧm, ↗²naǧm, ↗³naǧm, ↗¹manǧam, ↗²manǧam, ↗manǧim, ↗minǧam, (AlgAr) ↗naǧām, and, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√NǦM.
     
    ¹manǧam منْجم , pl. manāǧimᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NǦM 
    n. 
    1 source, origin; 2 mine; pit – WehrCowan1979; 3²manǧam
     
    ▪ The word is treated in BadawiHinds1986 (»²NGM«) as if from a separate root, homonymous but to be distinguished etymologically from »¹NGM« (nagmaẗ ‘a jinx’, nagam ‘to jinx, put the evil eye on’), but perh. only because the relation between the two is not so obvious. However, while manǧam in its basic meaning, [v1], clearly is a n.loc., *‘place where s.th. appears, comes in sight, originates from’, coined on the familiar maFʕaL pattern, from ↗naǧama ‘to appear, come in sight’, the EgAr ‘jinx’ is only indirectly from the same etymon; see ↗¹naǧǧama ‘to observe the stars; to predict the future from the stars, practice astrology’ (< ¹naǧm ‘star’ < ↗naǧama ‘to appear, come in sight’).
    ▪ [v2] ‘mine, pit’ is either a specialisation of [v1] in the sense of *‘place where metallic ore etc. originates from’, or dependent on ↗¹naǧm ‘star’, as *‘place where s.th. (metallic ore, etc.) comes in sight, sparkling like stars’.
    ▪ [v3] : see below, section DISC.
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ Another value of manǧam, now obsolete but attested in ClassAr, namely ‘well traced road; way out | chemin bien tracé et large’ (Hava1899, Kazimirski1860; see ↗²manǧam), is probably the same as ↗¹manǧam. It is treated separately here nevertheless, due to unclear semantics: how could the value ‘well traced road; way out’ be related to either ‘source, origin’ or ‘mine, pit’?
     
    – 
    manǧamī, adj., mining (in compounds): nisba formation.

    For other items of the root, see ↗naǧama, ↗¹naǧǧama, ↗²naǧǧama, ↗¹naǧm, ↗²naǧm, ↗³naǧm, ↗naǧmaẗ, ↗²manǧam, ↗manǧim, ↗minǧam, (AlgAr) ↗naǧām, and, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√NǦM.
     
    ²manǧam منْجم , pl. manāǧimᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NǦM 
    n. 
    1 ↗¹manǧam; 2 ↗¹manǧam – WehrCowan1979; 3 well traced road | chemin bien tracé et large – Hava1899, Kazimirski1860.
     
    ▪ The word is probably the same as ↗¹manǧam, but treated separately here because of unclear semantics: how could the value ‘well traced road; way out’ be related to either ‘source, origin’ or ‘mine, pit’? Riḍà1960 interprets it as maḫraǧ ‘way out’, but this does not help much to explain the word’s etymology either. Given that the primary meaning of manǧam is ‘source, origin, place where s.th. appears, comes in sight’ (n.loc., formed from ↗naǧama ‘to appear’, cf., e.g., ClassAr manǧam al-nahār ‘place where the sun rises’), the ‘well traced road’ is perh. the *‘road that appears (as a way out)’? The fact that manǧam also can signify a ‘mine, pit’ (↗¹manǧam) does not bring any light in this.
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
     
    – 
    – 
    manǧim منْجِم , pl. manāǧimᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NǦM 
    n. 
    ankle-bone – Hava1899
     
    ▪ Obviously a maFʕiL formation from ↗naǧama ‘to appear, come in sight’, signifying the bone that protrudes (*‘appears, shows’) on the sides of a foot.
     
    ▪ Earliest attestation <735 CE in a verse by Ḏū ’l-Rummaẗ – HDAL_200620.
     
    – 
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    minǧam مِنْجَم , pl. … 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NǦM 
    n. 
    iron-beam of a balance | cette partie de la balance sur laquelle se trouve l’indicateur des poids – Hava1899, Kazimirski1860
     
    ▪ Unclear semantics. The word is a n.instr., coined along the familiar miC₁C₂aC₃ pattern, and should therefore signify a tool serving to carry out an action designated by the vb. ↗naǧama ‘to appear, come in sight’, so perh. *‘tool that makes the differences appear, indicates whether the weights are in balance or not yet’?
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
     
    – 
    – 
    AlgAr naǧām نجام 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NǦM 
    n. 
    resources – Dozy1881. 
    ▪ The meaning of AlgAr naǧām and the corresponding vb. II, naǧǧam ‘to have the power, be able to do s.th.’, seems to be the latest stage in a semantic development that goes back, ultimately, to the notion of ‘appearing, coming in sight’ (↗naǧama): > ‘to appear in the sky’ = ‘to rise (stars)’ > ‘star’ (↗¹naǧm, ↗naǧmaẗ) > ‘to observe the stars’ (↗¹naǧǧama) > ‘to fix s.th. according to the course of stars, hence, at appointed terms’ (↗²naǧm) > ‘to accomplish s.th. at appointed terms, step by step, gradually’ (↗²naǧǧama) > ‘to accomplish (in general)’ (↗²naǧǧama) > ‘to be able, have the ability to accomplish s.th. (AlgAr naǧǧam), to have the resources to do so’ > ‘resources’. Alternatively, the semantics may be based directly on ↗naǧama, vb. I, ‘to appear’: > vb. II = causative formation, lit. *‘to make appear’ = ‘to create, accomplish’ etc.
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    See section CONC, above.
     
    – 
    naǧǧam, vb. II, (AlgAr) to have the power, be able to do s.th.

    For other items of the root, see ↗naǧama, ↗¹naǧǧama, ↗²naǧǧama, ↗¹naǧm, ↗²naǧm, ↗³naǧm, ↗naǧmaẗ, ↗¹manǧam, ↗²manǧam, ↗manǧim, ↗minǧam and, for the whole picture, root entry ↗√NǦM.
     
    NǦW نجو 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √NǦW 
    “root” 
    ▪ NǦW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NǦW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NǦW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘elevation, highland, a place too high for flooding to reach; to escape, deliver, rescue; speed, to run quickly; to remove dirt from o.s., cleanse o.s.; to cut, flay; to confide, confer in secrecy, consult with one another’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NḤB نحب 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √NḤB 
    “root” 
    ▪ NḤB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NḤB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NḤB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘vow, to fulfil a vow, (allotted) lifespan, to come to the end of one’s life, death; to weep; danger, to take chances; walking briskly, to work hard; to debate’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NḤT نحت 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √NḤT 
    “root” 
    ▪ NḤT_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NḤT_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NḤT_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to hew, carve, quarry, chisel, hollow, splinters; disposition, character’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NḤR نحر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NḤR 
    “root” 
    ▪ NḤR_1 ‘upper part of chest, throat; to slaughter; to hit, kill’ ↗naḥr
    ▪ NḤR_2 ‘to master one’s affairs’ ↗naḥr
    ▪ NḤR_3 ‘first part, beginning; to perform the prayer in the first part of its time’: see DISC below.
    ▪ NḤR_4 ‘to become opposite, to face, confront’: see DISC below.
    ▪ NḤR_5 ‘to pour down heavily’: see DISC below.

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘chest, the upper part of the chest, the throat, to slaughter; to strive; to pour down heavily’ 
    The many meanings that the root can take in ClassAr may all go back to naḥr ‘upper part of chest, throat’. The root seems to be Sem, but is scarcely attested. 
    – 
    See ↗naḥr
    ▪ Badawi2008 gives thrree values of √NḤR in ClassAr: ‘1. chest, the upper part of the chest, the throat, to slaughter; 2. to strive; 3. to pour down heavily’.
    ▪ The lexicographers derive all other values from ‘to stab, stuck (a camel)’: NḤR_2 ‘to master one’s affairs’ is explained as *‘to be so experienced as s.o. who when slaughtering a camel, hits it exactly where it ought to be hit’; NḤR_3 ‘first part, beginning; to perform the prayer in the first part of its time’ is another transfer of meaning, either of ‘upper part (of body)’ > ‘beginning (of s.th.)’, or (in the case of the early prayer) of the notion of ‘exactness’, to the field of religious duties; NḤR_4 ‘to become opposite, to face, confront’ is *‘to become abreast of’. The value NḤR_5 ‘to pour down heavily’ (only in vb. VI, tanāḥara, said of a cloud that bursts out with water) is not explained but could be interpreted as figurative use as well: rain pours from the cloud like the blood from an animal whose throat has just been cut. 
    – 
    – 
    naḥr نَحْر , pl. nuḥūr 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NḤR 
    n. 
    upper portion of the chest, juncture of chest and neck, throat – WehrCowan1979. 
    From Sem *naḥ(a)r‑ ‘upper part of the chest’. 
    ▪ … 
    Militarev&Kogan2000 (SED-1)#196: Te näḥar ‘breast’220 , Jib náḥar ‘windpipe and lungs’. »Scarce but reliable attestation in SSem area.« 
    Militarev&Kogan2000 (SED-1)#196: Sem *naḥ(a)r ‘upper part of the chest’. 
    – 
    naḥara, u (naḥr), vb. I, to cut the throat (of an animal), slaughter, butcher, kill (an animal): denom.
    tanāḥara, vb. VI, to fight; to kill each other, hack each other to pieces, engage in internecine fighting: denom., recipr.
    ĭntaḥara, vb. VIII, to commit suicide: denom., lit. ‘to cut one’s own throat’.

    naḥr, n., killing, slaughter(ing), butchering: lexicalized vn. of vb. I | yawm al-naḥr Day of Immolation (on the 10th of Ḏū ’l-ḥiǧǧaẗ).
    niḥr and niḥrīr, pl. naḥārīrᵘ, adj., skilled, adept, proficient, versed, experienced ( in): belonging to the obsolete meaning of vb. I, ‘to master (e.g., al-ʔumūr the affairs)’, explained by the classical lexicographers as derived from the original meaning of naḥara, namely ‘to stab (a camel etc.) in its manḥar ’, hence ‘to hit, hurt’ s.o. in exactly the place where he is vulnerable, hence naḥara… ʕilman ‘to master s.th. by knowledge or science’ (cf. Lane 8, 1893).
    naḥīr, adj., killed, slaughtered, butchered: pseudo-PP.
    manḥar, n., throat, neck: n.loc.
    ĭntiḥār, n., suicide: vn. VIII.
    manḥūr, adj., killed, slaughtered, butchered: PP I.
    muntaḥir, adj./n., suicide (person): PA VIII. 

    NḤS نحس 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NḤS 
    “root” 
    ▪ NḤS_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ NḤS_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘hardship, bad luck; dusty wind, severe cold; copper’ 
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    nuḥās نُحاس 
    ID 850 • Sw – • BP 5837 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NḤS 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
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    NḤL نحل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NḤL 
    “root” 
    ▪ NḤL_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ NḤL_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘honey bees; free gift; to become emaciated; to purport to be, to claim s.th. false for o.s. (such as a name, a virtue, an excuse)’ 
    ▪ … 
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    naḥl نَحْل 
    ID 851 • Sw – • BP 3998 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NḤL 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
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    NḪR نخر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √NḪR 
    “root” 
    ▪ NḪR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NḪR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NḪR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘nostril, to snort; decay, decaying’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
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    NḪL نخل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √NḪL 
    “root” 
    ▪ NḪL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NḪL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NḪL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘palm trees, date palms; the select; the dregs, to sieve out, sift’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NDː (NDD) ندّ/ندد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √ NDː (NDD) 
    “root” 
    ▪ NDː (NDD)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NDː (NDD)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NDː (NDD)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘an equal, peer; antagonist; to stand in opposition, slander, bolt, wander, scatter; sandalwood’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NDM ندم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √NDM 
    “root” 
    ▪ NDM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NDM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NDM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘remorse, repentance, regret, to be regretful; a drinking partner, an intimate companion’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
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    NDW ندو 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NDW 
    “root” 
    ▪ NDW_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ NDW_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘moisture, dew; goodness, generosity; voice, voice that carries, to call, to seek assistance; to call together, to get together, to assemble, to convene, assemblage, a group of people, a place of gathering for conferring, a consultative group, to take part in such an activity, to consult’ 
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    nadwaẗ نَدْوَة 
    ID 852 • Sw – • BP 1442 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NDW 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    nadaⁿ نَدىً , det. nadà 
    ID 853 • Sw – • BP 4035 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NDW 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    NḎR نذر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √NḎR 
    “root” 
    ▪ NḎR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NḎR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NḎR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘vow, to pledge to God, pledge, consecrate, votive offering; to warn, threaten, admonish, denote; harbinger, herald’ 
    ▪ From WSem *√NḎR ‘to vow, consecrate’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
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    NǦZ نجز 
    Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | created 9Jun2023
    √NǦZ 
    “root” 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    tanǧīzī تَنْجيزيّ 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 9Jun2023
    √NǦZ 
    adj. 
    ▪ nsb-formation, from tanǧīz, vn. of vb. II naǧǧaza, D-stem 
    NZʕ نزع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √NZʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NZʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NZʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NZʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to pull out, strip off, pull at; an archer; to incline, take after (a parent); to walk briskly, strive; to desire; to exchange, dispute, controversy’ 
    ▪ … 
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    – 
    – 
    NZĠ نزغ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √NZĠ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NZĠ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NZĠ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NZĠ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘jab, nudge, poke s.o. (with a finger or a spear); to sow dissension, incite hatred, insinuate, defame’ 
    ▪ … 
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    – 
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    NZF نزف 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NZF 
    “root” 
    ▪ NZF_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ NZF_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘haemorrhage, to bleed; to drain, to exhaust; (of drinks and arguments) to run out; to be intoxicated’ 
    ▪ … 
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    nazīf نَزِيف 
    ID 854 • Sw – • BP 3588 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NZF 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    NZL نزل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NZL 
    “root” 
    ▪ NZL_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ NZL_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘dwelling, habitat, to take up residence; hospitality, food offered to guests, provisions; to come down, to disembark, to bring down; flood, rain, stage, rank; combat, duel, to engage in combat; calamity; an attack of ill health, seizure’ 
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    nazal‑ نَزَلَ 
    ID 855 • Sw – • BP 673 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NZL 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    tanzīl تَنْزيل 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 9Jun2023
    √NZL 
    n. 
    ▪ vn., II 
    tanzīlī تَنْزيليّ 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 9Jun2023
    √NZL 
    adj. 
    ▪ nsb-formation, from tanzīl, vn. of vb. II nazzala, D-stem 
    NSʔ نسأ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √NSʔ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NSʔ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NSʔ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NSʔ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘stick, staff, to chide, drive hard (an animal), longevity, postponement, to protract, allow time to pay a debt; strongly intoxicating drink, to cause to forget’. There is some overlap between this root and root ↗NSY due to the alteration in Ar between the semi-vowels w, y and glottal stop ʔ, indicative of dialectical variation or historical sound change. 
    ▪ … 
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    NSB نسب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NSB 
    “root” 
    ▪ NSB_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ NSB_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘kinship, lineage, relationship through marriage, relative; to be equal, to be suitable, to match; a clearly-marked straight road’ 
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    nasab نَسَب 
    ID 856 • Sw – • BP 3879 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NSB 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    NSḪ نسخ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NSḪ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NSḪ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ NSḪ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to abrogate, to revoke, to remove, to invalidate, to substitute one thing for another; to copy, a copy, to seek to copy.’ – Some scholars claim the word nusḫaẗ is of Akk origin. 
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    nasḫ نَسْخ 
    ID 857 • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NSḪ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
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    – 
     
    nusḫaẗ نُسْخَة 
    ID 858 • Sw – • BP 1323 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NSḪ 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    NSR نسر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NSR 
    “root” 
    ▪ NSR_1 ‘eagle, vulture’ ↗nasr ~ nisr
    ▪ NSR_2 ‘small piece, chip, splint ; to get torn, break’ ↗nasraẗ
    ▪ NSR_3 ‘beak (of a predatory bird)’ ↗minsar
    ▪ NSR_4 ‘band, troop, clique’ ↗mansar
    ▪ NSR_5 ‘fistula, tumor’ ↗nāsūr
    ▪ NSR_6 ‘jonquil’ ↗nisrīn

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): [nasr] ‘[proper name occurring once in the Qur’an] eagle, vulture; pre-Islamic Arabian idol worshipped by the tribe of Hudhayl and said to have been in the shape of a vulture; the cult is thought to have come to Arabia from Syria and Babylonia (71:23) ‘they say to each other], “Do not renounce your gods—do not renounce Wadd, Suwāʕ, Yaġūṯ, Yaʕūq or Nasr’ 
    ▪ It seems that the semantic diversity in the root can be reduced to basically 2 values: [v1] and [v6]. While [v6] is prob. a borrowing from Pers nasrīn ‘wild rose’ – »à moins que ce ne soit l’inverse« (Rolland2014) – the other items are with all likelihood all based on [v1] ‘eagle, vulture’, which is the Ar form of the bird’s name that is very widespread in Sem.
    ▪ [v1] : from protSem *n˅šr ~ n˅sr ‘eagle, vulture’ – MilitarevKogan2005#166.
    ▪ [v2] designates, originally, a small piece of flesh a predatory bird tears from the body of its prey.
    ▪ [v3] is a n.instr. formed from the denom. vb. I, now obsolete, *‘to tear pieces of flesh from the body of a prey like an eagle\vulture does with its beak’ (Lane viii 1893: nasara ‘he [a bird etc.] pluck flesh with his beak’; still attested in a more generalized form in Hava1899: ‘to take off s.th.; to scrape, rub out s.th.’).
    ▪ [v4] is the result of a transfer of meaning from the eagle\vulture’s beak that ‘precedes’ the bird, onto a smaller group of people that marches ahead of the others (Lane viii 1893: ‘a portion of an army that goes before the main army’, Hava1899: ‘vanguard of an army’).
    ▪ [v5] is thought to be of foreign (Pers, Syr) origin by some, but can be from [v1] ‘eagle, vulture’, on account of the wounds caused by a predatory bird in the flesh of its prey.
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    See above, section CONC. 
    … 
    … 
    nasr نَسْر , var. nisr, pl. nusūr, nusūraẗ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NSR 
    n. 
    eagle; vulture – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ From protSem *n˅šr ~ n˅sr ‘eagle, vulture’ – MilitarevKogan2005#166.
    ▪ For the relation of the derivatives to ‘eagle’, see below (section DERIV) and individually, s.v..
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘eagle, vulture’) Akk našru, Hbr néšer, Syr nešrā, Gz nesr.
     
    See above, section CONC. 
    … 
    tanassara, vb. V, 1to get torn; 2 to break, snap: Dt-stem, quasi-pass. (1), intr. (2), orig. likened to an eagle’s plucking flesh from its prey with its beak.
    ĭstansara, vb. X, to become eagle‑like, act like an eagle: *Št-stem

    nasraẗ, n.f., small piece, chip, splint: orig. prob. *‘piece of flesh that an eagle tears out of its prey with its beak’.
    nusāriyyaẗ, n.f., eagle
    nāsūr, pl. nawāsīrᵘ, n., fistula, tumor: perh. a loanword (from Pers, or Syr?; cf. var. writing with : nāṣūr), but perh. akin to nasr , a tumor that breaks up being likened to the wound caused by an eagle’s beak.
    mansar, var. minsar, mansir, pl. manāsirᵘ, n., band, gang (of robbers, etc.); troop; clique: orig. ‘vanguard of an army’ (Lane viii 1893, Hava1899), so called on account of its marching ahead of the main army, like an eagle’s beak is ‘ahead’ of the bird’s main body.
    minsar, pl. manāsirᵘ, n., beak (of predatory birds): n.instr., from obs. vb. I, nasara *‘to pluck (with the beak) pieces of flesh from the body of a prey’ (Lane viii 1893; cf. also Hava1899: ‘to take off s.th.; to scrape, rub out s.th.’).

    ▪ For other items of the same root, cf. ↗nisrīn, as well as, for the general picture, ↗√NSR. 
    nasraẗ نَسْرة 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NSR 
    n.f. 
    small piece, chip, splint – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ From ↗nasr~nisr ‘eagle, vulture’, orig. prob. *‘piece of flesh that an eagle tears out of its prey with its beak’.
     
    ▪ … 
    See ↗nasr
    See above, section CONC. 
    … 
    tanassara, vb. V, 1 to get torn; 2 to break, snap: Dt-stem, quasi-pass. (1), intr. (2), orig. likened to an eagle’s plucking pieces of flesh from its prey with its beak.

    ▪ For other items of the same root, cf. ↗nasr~nisr, ↗minsar, ↗mansar, ↗nisrīn, and ↗nāsūr, as well as, for the general picture, ↗√NSR. 
    nāsūr ناسور , nawāsīrᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NSR 
    n. 
    fistula, tumor – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Perh. a loanword (from Pers, or Syr?; cf. var. writing with : nāṣūr, pl. nawāṣīrᵘ), but ultimately perh. akin to ↗nasr~nisr ‘eagle, vulture’, a tumor that breaks up being likened to the wound caused by an eagle’s beak (?).
     
    ▪ Lane viii 1893: ‘a certain disease that happens in the inner angles of the eyes (Ṣ, Mṣb, Q), with an incessant defluxion therefrom (Ṣ, TA) and sometimes it happens also in the part around the anus, and in the gum (Ṣ, Mṣb), or it signifies also a certain disease in the part around the anus, and a certain disease in the gum; nawāṣīr, pl. of nāṣūr: accord. to certain of the physicians, is a term applied to deep ulcers in the anus, at the extremity of the gut; – also: a vein constantly becoming recrudescent, with an incessant defluxion, corrupt within, whenever its upper part heals breaking forth again with corruption’. 
    … 
    ▪ Lane viii 1893: according to some ClassAr lexicographers, the word is Arabized from a Pers source.
    ▪ Ḍinnāwī2004: from Pers, or perh. from Syr nocouro (=?). 
    … 
    ▪ For other items of the same root, cf. ↗nasr~nisr, ↗nasraẗ, ↗minsar,↗mansar, and ↗nisrīn, as well as, for the general picture, ↗√NSR. 
    nisrīn نِسْرين 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NSR 
    n. 
    jonquil (Narcissus jonquilla bot.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ From Pers nasrīn ‘wild rose’ – »à moins que ce ne soit l’inverse« (Rolland2014). 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    See above, section CONC. 
    … 
    ▪ For other items of the same root, cf. ↗nasr~nisr, ↗nasraẗ, ↗minsar, ↗mansar, and ↗nāsūr, as well as, for the general picture, ↗√NSR. 
    mansar مَنْسَر , var. minsar, mansir, pl. manāsirᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NSR 
    n. 
    band, gang (of robbers, etc.); troop; clique – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ From ↗nasr~nisr ‘eagle, vulture’, orig. ‘vanguard of an army’ (Lane viii 1893, Hava1899), so called on account of its marching ahead of the main army, like an eagle’s beak is ‘ahead’ of the bird’s main body. If this etymology is correct, minsar (miFʕaL for n.instr.) may be the more original form, an eagle’s beak being its ‘instrument’ of prey. Given the spatial dimension inherent in marching ‘ahead’, for later users a re-interpretion as a maFʕaL form for n.loc. may have sounded more plausible.
     
    ▪ … 
    See ↗nasr
    See above, section CONC. 
    … 
    ▪ For other items of the same root, cf. ↗nasr~nisr, ↗nasraẗ, ↗minsar, ↗nisrīn, and ↗nāsūr, as well as, for the general picture, ↗√NSR. 
    minsar مِنْسَر , pl. manāsirᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NSR 
    n. 
    beak (of predatory birds) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ The n. is a miFʕaL formation for n.instr., from obs. vb. I, nasara *‘to pluck (with the beak) pieces of flesh from the body of a prey’ (Lane viii 1893; cf. also Hava1899: ‘to take off s.th.; to scrape, rub out s.th.’), from ↗nasr~nisr ‘eagle, vulture’. 
    ▪ … 
    See ↗nasr
    See above, section CONC. 
    … 
    ▪ For other items of the same root, cf. ↗nasr~nisr, ↗nasraẗ, ↗mansar, ↗nisrīn, and ↗nāsūr, as well as, for the general picture, ↗√NSR. 
    NSF نسف 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NSF 
    “root” 
    ▪ NSF_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ NSF_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to obliterate, to erase, to scatter, to uproot, to cause to collapse; to sift, to sieve, to winnow’ 
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    mansaf مَنْسَف 
    ID 859 • Sw – • BP 6523 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NSF 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
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    – 
     
    NSK نسك 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √NSK 
    “root” 
    ▪ NSK_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NSK_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NSK_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘green meadows; nuggets of gold and silver; sacrifice, ritual, act of worship; hermit, to live the life of an ascetic, be pious’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NSL نسل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √NSL 
    “root” 
    ▪ NSL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NSL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NSL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘offspring, progeny, to beget, give birth; (of hair or feathers) to fall out, fibrous waste; to move quickly, ooze out’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NSM نسم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NSM 
    “root” 
    ▪ NSM_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ NSM_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    nasamaẗ نَسَمَة 
    ID 860 • Sw – • BP 3296 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NSM 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    NSW نسو 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √NSW 
    “root” 
    ▪ NSW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NSW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NSW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘women, woman-like, pertaining to women; sciatica’. – In some works the roots √NSW and ↗√NSY are classified together, suggesting, perhaps, another overlap between these two roots and root ↗√NSʔ. 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NSY نسي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √NSY 
    “root” 
    ▪ NSY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NSY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NSY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘lowly people, rubble; a forlorn thing, to forget, abandon, overlook, oblivion’. – There is an overlap between this root and roots ↗√NSʔ and ↗√NSW. 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NŠʔ نشأ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NŠʔ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NŠʔ_1 ‘to rise, emerge, come into being; to grow; to raise’ ↗našaʔa
    ▪ NŠʔ_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ NŠʔ_3 ‘…’ ↗

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘the young, youth, young plants and animals, the young generations, the first hours of the night; to rise, to grow, to emerge, to come into being, to create, to initiate, to cause to grow, to raise from the dead; to glean information’ 
    ▪ NŠʔ_1 : (Orel&Stolbova1994#516:) from protSem *n˅śaʔ‑ (with prefix *n˅‑) ‘to rise, grow, raise’ < AfrAs *ĉaʔ‑ /*ĉaw‑ /*ĉay‑ ‘to move upwards’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    … 
    našaʔ‑ نَشَأَ , a, and našuʔ‑ نَشُؤَ , u (našʔ, nušūʔ, našʔaẗ)
     
    ID … • Sw – • BP 2634 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NŠʔ 
    vb., I 
    1 to rise, rise, aloft, emerge, appear, loom up; 2a to come into being, come into existence, originate, form, arise, come about, crop up; 2b to grow, grow up; 2c to develop, evolve 3 to proceed, spring (from), grow out (of); 4 to follow, ensue, result, derive (from) – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#516: from protSem *n˅śaʔ‑ (with prefix *n˅‑) ‘to rise, grow, raise’ < AfrAs *ĉaʔ‑ /*ĉaw‑ /*ĉay‑ ‘to move upwards’.
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘to raise, bear’) Akk iššī, Hbr nāśā (ipfv yiśśā), Syr nśā, Gz nšʔ (ā).
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#516: Akk našū, Ug nšū, Hbr nśʔ ‑a‑, Gz nśʔ, Amh nässa ‘to rise, grow, raise’. – Outside Sem: Eg (pyr) šwy ‘raise’ (cf. also zšy ‘lift’ with digraph zš‑ reflecting AfrAs *ĉ‑), (WCh) śa(‑), śe, śi, śu, iśa, śau ‘to stand up’, (CCh) ẑa, śeʔe, śaʔi, śi, śay, śēy, śāy, śa‑vo, śa‑tuʔ, śe, ẑeʔi ‘to stand up, rise’, and (ECh) so, , say ‘to stand up, rise’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#516: The word which denotes an elementary movement of the body is one of those AfrAs terms which have survived in more than only a few languages. It has cognates in Sem, Eg and a number of the Ch idioms. Since Eg and Ch lack the initial *n˅‑ of Sem, this latter seems to be a Sem innovation. Akk našū, Ug nšū, Hbr nśʔ [‑a‑ ], Gz nśʔ, Amh nässa go back to Sem *n˅śaʔ‑ (with prefix *n˅‑) ‘rise, grow, raise’. Cf., outside Sem, the forms without *n˅‑ : Eg (pyr) šwy ‘raise’ (cf. also zšy ‘lift’ with digraph zš‑ reflecting AfrAs *ĉ‑), WCh *ĉaʔ‑ (śa(‑), śe, śi, śu, iśa, śau) ‘stand up’, CCh *śaʔ‑ /*śay‑ (ẑa, śeʔe, śaʔi, śi, śay, śēy, śāy, śa‑vo, śa‑tuʔ, śe, ẑeʔi) ‘stand up, rise’, and ECh *ĉaw‑ /*ĉay‑ (so, , say) ‘stand up, rise’. As a common ancestor, AfrAs *ĉaʔ‑ /*ĉaw‑ /*ĉay‑ ‘move upwards’ is to be assumed.
     
    … 
    naššaʔa, vb. II, to cause to grow; to bring up, raise (a child): D‑stem, caus.
    BP#2634ʔanšaʔa, vb. IV, 1 to cause to rise; 2a to create, bring into being; 2b to bring forth, produce, generate, engender; 2c to build, construct; 2d to call into existence, originate, start, found, establish, organize, institute; 2e to set up, erect; 2f to install; to compose, draw up, write; 2g to bring up, raise, rear; 3 to begin, start, commence, initiate: *Š‑stem, caus.
    tanaššaʔa, vb. V, to grow, develop, spread, gain ground: Dt‑stem, intr.
    ĭstanšaʔa, vb. X, to search, ask, look (for news): *Št‑stem, desid.

    našʔ, n., youth; new generation.
    našʔaẗ, 1 growing up, upgrowth, growth; 2 early life, youth; 3 rise, birth, formation, genesis; 4 origin; 5 youth, young generation; 6 culture, refinement; upbringing, background (of a person).
    nušūʔ, n., growing, growth, development, evolution: vn. I | maḏhab al‑nušūʔ wa’l‑taraqqī, n., theory of evolution, evolutionism.
    al‑nušūʔiyyūn, n.pl., the evolutionists: pl.m. of nisba formation from nušūʔ.
    manšaʔ, n., 1 place of origin or upgrowth; 2 birth place, home town, home; 3 fatherland, homeland, native country; 4 origin, rise, birth, formation, genesis; 5 source, springfield, fountainhead; 6 beginning, start, onset: n.loc.
    tanšīʔ, n., upbringing, education: vn. II.
    tanšiʔaẗ, n.f., upbringing, education: quasi‑vn. II.
    ʔinšāʔ, n., 1 creation; 2 origination; 3 bringing about; 4 setting up, establishment, institution; 5 formation; 6 erection; – 7 (pl. ‑āt) building, construction; 8 founding, foundation; installation; – 9a composition, compilation, writing; 9b letter writing; 9c style, art of composition; 9d essay, treatise: vn. IV.
    ʔinšāʔī, adj., 1 construction…; 2 constructive; 3a relating to composition or style; 3b stylistic; 3c editing, editorial: nisba formation from ʔinšāʔ.
    BP#4215nāšiʔ, adj., 1 growing, growing up; 2 arising, originating, proceeding, emanating, springing, resulting; 3a n. (pl. ‑ūn) beginner; 3b (in sports) junior; 3c youngster, youth: PA I
    nāšiʔaẗ, n.f., youth, rising generation: PA I, f.
    munšiʔ, adj., creating; creative; – (pl. ‑ūn) creator, originator; builder, constructor; founder, establisher; author, writer: PA IV.
    munšaʔaẗ, f., pl. ‑āt, n.f., foundation; establishment, firm; 2 industrial plant; 3 pl., installations, (technical, military) facilities: nominalized PP IV.
     
    NŠR نشر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √NŠR 
    “root” 
    ▪ NŠR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NŠR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NŠR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘scent, to waft; to sprout, unfold, come into leaf, multiply; to announce, publicise; to raise, revive; to saw apart’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NŠZ نشز 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √NŠZ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NŠZ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NŠZ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NŠZ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘high ground, elevation, protrusion, stand out, be discordant, be rebellious; to be perverted’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NŠṬ نشط 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √NŠṬ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NŠṬ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NŠṬ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NŠṬ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a well with water high enough to draw, draw water from such a well; energy, agility, to recover completely from illness; to pasture well, (of animals) to migrate from one location to another in search of pasture’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NṢB نصب 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √NṢB 
    “root” 
    ▪ NṢB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NṢB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NṢB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘landmark; idol, altar; to erect, set up a monument; to tire, irritate; a trap, to trap; a base, a handle; part, share; in front of, opposite’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NṢT نصت 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √NṢT 
    “root” 
    ▪ NṢT_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NṢT_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NṢT_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to listen, lend an ear to, accept advice; to be silent, silence’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NṢḤ نصح 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NṢḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NṢḤ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ NṢḤ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a needle, to patch up, to stitch up; rain falling on arid land, to quench the thirst of animals or land; purity, sincerity, sincere advisor; advice, counsel, to be good-hearted, to act in good faith’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
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    naṣaḥ‑ نَصَحَ 
    ID 861 • Sw – • BP 3575 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NṢḤ 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    NṢR نصر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NṢR 
    “root” 
    ▪ NṢR_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ NṢR_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘flood channels leading into a valley, tributaries of a river, rain falling on arid land; to aid, to assist in repelling an attack, helpers, disciples; to triumph; to become impregnable; to avenge o.s.’ – Philologists derive the word naṣrānī from this root although it is more likely that the word is of Syr origin, derived from the name of Jesus’ hometown, Nazareth. 
    ▪ … 
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    ▪ …
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    naṣrānī نَصْرانِيّ 
    ID 862 • Sw – • BP 4804 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NṢR 
    ¹adj.; ²n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    NṢF نصف 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √NṢF 
    “root” 
    ▪ NṢF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NṢF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NṢF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘half, to halve, middle; justice; to be of good countenance; veil; rivulet leading into a valley’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
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    NṢY نصي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √NṢY 
    “root” 
    ▪ NṢY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NṢY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NṢY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘forehead, forelock, hair growing above the forehead, to plait hair, grasp by the forehead; to disgrace s.o.; to control; the upper crust of society, to climb up’ 
    ▪ … 
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    NḌǦ نضج 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √NḌǦ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NḌǦ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NḌǦ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NḌǦ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be cooked, to be done, ripen, mature, maturity, be wise, attain wisdom, be overdue in giving birth’ 
    ▪ … 
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    NḌḪ نضخ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √NḌḪ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NḌḪ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NḌḪ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NḌḪ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a drizzle, a gushing spring, a cascading spring, to spout water copiously’ 
    ▪ … 
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    NḌD نضد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √NḌD 
    “root” 
    ▪ NḌD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NḌD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NḌD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘pile of things, bunches of fruit growing in rows over one another, layers of clouds, stack of stones; the family elders’ 
    ▪ … 
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    NḌR نضر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √NḌR 
    “root” 
    ▪ NḌR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NḌR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NḌR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘pure gold, good living; lushness, verdure, freshness, good looks; the upper crust of the society; purity’ 
    ▪ … 
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    NṬḤ نطح 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √NṬḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NṬḤ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NṬḤ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NṬḤ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a horse with two white spots on the forehead (considered unlucky); to butt with horns; hardship, struggle’ 
    ▪ … 
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    NṬF نطف 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √NṬF 
    “root” 
    ▪ NṬF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NṬF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NṬF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘unblemished pearl, drop of water, semen; the dregs at the bottom of a container; to smear, slander, become dirty; to seep’ 
    ▪ … 
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    NṬQ نطق 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NṬQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NṬQ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ NṬQ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘belt, girdle, waist; speech, language, to speak, signal, to express o.s.; living animal’ 
    ▪ … 
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    naṭaq‑ نَطَقَ 
    ID 863 • Sw – • BP 2816 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NṬQ 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
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    NẒR نظر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NẒR 
    “root” 
    ▪ NẒR_1 ‘to see, view, eye, regard, etc.’ ↗naẓara
    ▪ NẒR_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ NẒR_3 ‘…’ ↗

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘eyesight, a sight, to look at, glimpse, see, watch; evil eye; to contemplate; to compare; to debate; to be equal; to wait, postpone, delay; to expect, expectation’ 
    ▪ From protSem *√NṮR ‘to see, watch, observe, guard’ – Huehnergard2011.
    … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ Engl Nebuchadnezzar, Nebuchadrezzar), Belshazzar: cf. Ar ↗baʕl and ↗naẓara.▪
    Engl nadir, from Ar ↗naẓīr
    … 
    naẓar‑ نَظَرَ , u (naẓar, manẓar
    ID … • Sw – • BP 478 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NẒR 
    vb., I 
    to perceive with the eyes, see, view, eye, regard (‑h, ʔilà s.o., s.th.), look, gaze, glance at, watch, observe, notice, pay attention to; to expect (‑h s.th.); to envisage, consider, contemplate, purpose (‑h, ʔilà s.o., s.th.); to have in mind, have in view (ʔilà s.th.), put one’s mind, direct one’s attention (ʔilà to s.th.); to take up, try, hear ( a case; court), look into a case (), examine (‑h, a case); to judge, rule, decide (bayna between two litigant parties); to take care (li‑ of s.o.), help (li‑ s.o.), stand by s.o. (li‑), look after s.o. (li‑) – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Huehnergard2011: from protSem *√NṮR ‘to see, watch, observe, guard’.
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#506: from protSem *n˅ṯ̣ar‑ ‘to guard, look’ (perh. < *n˅‑ ṯ̣ar‑, prefix *n˅‑), from hypothetical AfrAs *č̣ar‑ ‘to look, see’.

    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘to watch, guard’) Akk nṣr (u), Hbr nṣr a (o), Syr nṭr a (u/a), Gz nṣr a (e) ‘to watch’.
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#506: Akk naṣāru, Ug nġr, Phoen nṣr, Hbr nṣr, Syr nṭr, SAr nṭr ‘to guard’, Gz nṣr, Ar nẓr ‘to look’. – Outside Sem: Berb ẓer, ẓar ‘to see, look’, (WCh) Hs c̣are ‘to guard’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#506: protSem *n˅ṯ̣ar‑ ‘guard’, ‘look’ (with prefix *n˅‑), protBerb *c̣˅r‑ ‘to see, look’812 , protWCh *č̣ar‑) ‘to guard’, all from hypothetical AfrAs *č̣ar‑ ‘to look, see’.
     
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Nebuchadnezzar, from Hbr nᵊbûkadneʔṣṣar (also nᵊbûkadreʔṣṣar, whence English by-form Nebuchadrezzar), alteration of Akk nabû-kudurrī-uṣur ‘Nabu (a god) protect the borders’ (kudurrī, pl.obl. of kudurru ‘border’); Belshazzar, from Hbr bēlšaṣṣar, from Akk bēl-šar-uṣur ‘Bel (an Akk deity) protect the king’ (bēl ‘lord, Bel’, cf. Ar ↗baʕl, and šar ‘king’); both from Akk uṣur ‘protect!’, imperative sg. of naṣāru ‘to guard, protect’, akin to Ar NẒR, ↗naẓara.
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl nadir, from Ar ↗naẓīr (as-samt) ‘opposite (of the zenith)’, from naẓīr ‘facing, equal, opposite’, from ↗naẓara, vb. I, ‘to see, watch’.
     
    naẓara ʔilayhi šazran, to give s.o. a sidelong glance, look askance at s.o.
    naẓara (fī) ’l‑qaḍiyyaẗ, to try a case (jur.)
    naẓara fī ṭalab fulān, to process s.o.’s application, take care of s.o.’s application
    naẓara min furǧaẗ/fūhaẗ al‑miftāḥ, to peep through the keyhole
    unẓur baʕdahū, see below!
    unẓur ẓahrahū, see reverse!, please turn over!

    naẓẓara, vb. II, to make comparisons, draw parallels (bayna between): D‑stem, caus. (< *‘to make x face y’)
    nāẓara, vb. III, to equal (‑h s.o., s.th.), be equal (‑h to s.o., to s.th.); to equalize, put on an equal footing (bi‑ with), equate, liken, compare (bi‑ to); to vie, compete, be in competition (‑h with), rival; to argue, debate, dispute (‑h with s.o.), point out (‑h s.o., bi‑ to s.th.) by way of argument or objection, confront (s.o. bi‑ with); to superintend, supervise (s.th.): L‑stem, associative, from naẓīr.
    ʔanẓara, vb. IV, to grant (‑h s.o.) a delay or respite: *Š‑stem, caus.
    tanaẓẓara, vb. V, to regard, watch or observe attentively (‑h s.o., s.th.), look closely at, scrutinize; to bide one’s time, wait: Dt‑stem
    tanāẓara, vb. VI, to face each other, lie opposite; to be symmetrical (math.); to dispute, argue (with one another); to quarrel (ʕalà about), fight (ʕalà over s.th.); to contend (with each other), contest each other’s right: Lt‑stem, recipr.
    ĭntaẓara, vb. VIII, to wait (‑h for s.o.), expect (‑h s.o., s.th.), await, anticipate; to look closely (‑h at s.o.); to look on expectantly, bide one’s time, wait: Gt‑stem | ĭntaẓara ’l‑šayʔ al‑kabīr min, to expect much of…; ĭntaẓara min warāʔihī kulla ḫayr, expr., to set the greatest expectations in s.th.
    ĭstanẓara, vb. X, to wait, await, expect; to have patience, be patient; to request a delay or respite; to ask (s.o.) to wait, keep (s.o.) waiting: *Št‑stem, desiderative.

    BP#261naẓar, pl. ʔanẓār, n., seeing, eyesight, vision; look, glance, gaze; sight; outlook, prospect; view; aspect; appearance, evidence; insight, discernment, penetration; perception; contemplation; examination ( of); inspection, study, perusal; consideration, reflection; philosophical speculation; theory; handling ( of a matter); trial, hearing ( of a case, in court); supervision, control, surveillance; competence, jurisdiction; attention, heed, regard, notice, observance, respect, consideration, care | naẓaran ʔilà\li‑, quasi‑prep., in view of, with a view to, in regard to, with respect to, in consideration of, on the basis of, due to, because of, for; bi’l‑naẓar li‑, dto.; bi‑ṣarf\qaṭʕ al‑naẓar ʕan, quasi‑prep., regardless of, irrespective of; taḥt al‑naẓar, adv., under consideration, being studied, being dealt with; dūn naẓar ʔilà, quasi‑prep., irrespective of, regardless of; fī naẓarī, adv., in my eyes, in my opinion; lil‑naẓar fī, quasi‑prep., for the study of, for consideration, for further examination of, for handling…, for action on…; al‑naẓar fī ’l‑ḥayāẗ, n., weltanschauung; ʔiʕādaẗ al‑naẓar, n.f., re‑examination, reconsideration, resumption, retrial, revision; ʔahl al‑naẓar, n., speculative thinkers; theoreticians, theorists; baʕīd\ṭawīl al‑naẓar, adj., farsighted; qiṣar al‑naẓar, n., shortsightedness; qaṣīr al‑naẓar, adj., shortsighted; al‑maḥkamaẗ ḏāt al‑naẓar, n.f., the court of competent jurisdiction; masʔalaẗ fīhā naẓar, n.f., an unsettled, open question, an unsolved problem; man lahū naẓar, n., s.o. noteworthy, a distinguished man; the responsible, or authorized person; ʔaḫaḏa bi’l‑naẓar, vb. I, to catch the eye; ʔadāra naẓarahū fī, vb. IV, to let one’s eyes roam over…; tābiʕ \ rāǧiʕ bi’l‑naẓar li‑, adj., falling to the responsibility of, under the jurisdiction of, subject to the authority of; sāraqa\ĭstaraqa ’l‑naẓar ʔilayh or sāraqahū ’l‑naẓar, expr., to glance furtively at s.o., give s.o. a surreptitious look; fī hāḏā ’l‑ʔamr naẓar, expr., this matter calls for careful study, will have to be considered; qaṭaʕa ’l‑naẓar ʕan, vb. I, to take no account of, disregard s.th.; huwa taḥt naẓar fulān, expr., he is under the protection of so‑and‑so, he is patronized by so‑and‑so
    niẓr, adj., similar, like; equal | ʕadīm al‑niẓr, adj., unparalleled, unequaled, matchless, unique of his (its) kind
    naẓraẗ, pl. naẓarāt, n.f., look, glance; sight, view; viewing, contemplation (ʔilà of s.th.); pl. naẓarāt, (philosophical) reflections
    naẓiraẗ, n.f., delay, postponement, deferment (of an obligation)
    naẓarī, optic(al); visual; theoretic(al); speculative
    naẓariyyaẗ, n.f., theory; theorem; reflection, meditation, contemplation
    naẓīr, pl. nuẓarāʔᵘ, f.pl. naẓāʔirᵘ, adj., similar, like, same, equal, matching, corresponding, comparable; an equivalent; facing, opposite, parallel; (with foll. genit.) in the manner of, in the same manner as, just like, just as; transcript, copy | naẓīrᵃ, prep., as a compensation foe, in consideration of, in return for, in exchange for, for, on, e.g., naẓīrᵃ dafʕ ḫamsīn mallīman, on paying 50 millièmes; nuẓarāʔuh, people of his kind, people like him; naẓīr al‑samt or al‑naẓīr, n., nadir (astron.); maqṭūʕ\munqaṭiʕ al‑naẓīr, adj., incomparable; laysa lahū naẓīr, unparalleled, unequaled, matchless, unique of his (its) kind
    naẓīraẗ, n.f., head, foremost rank | fī naẓīraẗ (with foll. genit.) at the head of
    naẓẓār, adj., keen‑eyed; (pl. naẓẓāraẗ) spectator, onlooker
    naẓẓāraẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., field glass, binocular; telescope, spyglass; (pair of) eyeglasses, spectacles (occasionally also pl. naẓẓārāt with sg. meaning: a pair of eyeglasses); (pair of) goggles | naẓẓāraẗ fardiyyaẗ, n.f., eyeglass, monocle; naẓẓāraẗ muʕaẓẓimaẗ, n.f., magnifying glass; naẓẓāraẗ al‑maydān, n.f., field glass
    naẓẓārātī, n., optometrist; optician
    niẓāraẗ, n.f., supervision, control, inspection, management, administration, direction; ministry (now obs.)
    nāẓūr, n., field glass
    manẓar, pl. manāẓirᵘ, n., sight; view, panorama; look(s), appearance, aspect; prospect, outlook, perspective; an object seen or viewed, photographic object; scene (of a play); spectacle; stage setting, set, scenery; place commanding a sweeping view; lookout, watchtower | manẓar ʕāmm, n., general view, panorama, landscape, scenery; manāẓir ḫāriǧiyyaẗ, n.nhum.pl., shots on location (in motion‑picture making); manāẓir ṭabīʕiyyaẗ, n.nhum.pl.,scenic views, scenery, Iandscapes
    manẓarat, pl. manāẓirᵘ, n.f., place commanding a scenic view; view, scenery, landscape, panorama; watchtower, observatory; guestroom, reception room, drawing room, parlor
    minẓar, n., (pair of) eyeglasses, spectacles; telescope, spyglass
    minẓār, pl. manāẓīrᵘ, n., telescope, spyglass; magnifying glass; mirror, speculum, ‑scope (e.g., laryngoscope) | minẓār muʕaẓẓim, n., magnifying glass; raqaba bi‑minẓār ʔaswad, expr., to have a pessimistic outlook, look on the dark side of everything
    munāẓaraẗ, n.f., emulation, rivalry, competition; quarrel, argument, altercation, debate, dispute, discussion, controversy; supervision, control, inspection: vn. III.
    tanāẓur, n., difference of opinion, squabble, wrangle, altercation; symmetry (math.)
    ĭntiẓār, n., waiting, wait; expectation | ʕalà ġayr intiẓār, adv., unexpectedly
    nāẓir, pl. nuẓẓār, n., observer, viewer, spectator, onlooker; overseer, supervisor; inspector; manager, director, superintendent, administrator, principal, chief; (cabinet) minister (now obs.) | nāẓir al‑waqf, n., trustee of a wakf, administrator of a religious endowment
    nāẓiraẗ, administratress, directress, manageress, headmistress, matron
    nāẓir, n., and nāẓiraẗ, n.f., both pl. nawāẓirᵘ, eye; look, glance | bayna nāẓirayh, adv., before his eyes
    manẓūr, adj., seen; visible; foreseen, anticipated, expected; supervised, under supervision, controlled; envied, regarded with the evil eye; under consideration (case), pending (complaint, lawsuit; ʔamāmᵃ in a court) | manẓūr ʔilayh, one under supervision, subordinate, underling, protégé, charge, ward, pupil; ġayr manẓūr, adj., invisible; unforeseen, unexpected; ʔadawāt manẓūraẗ, n.inhum.pl., visual training aids; daʕwà manẓūraẗ, n.f., pending lawsuit; al‑šaḫṣ al‑manẓūr, n., person whose case is under consideration
    munāẓir, adj., similar, like, equal; competitor, rival, adversary, opponent (esp., in a discussion); interlocutor
     
    NẒM نظم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NẒM 
    “root” 
    ▪ NẒM_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ NẒM_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ Ar root √NẒM ‘to arrange’ – Huehnergard2011.
    … 
    – 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ …
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    – 
    – 
    niẓām نِظام 
    ID 865 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 199 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NẒM 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
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    – 
     
    tanẓīm تَنْظيم 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD 703 • © SG | created 9Jun2023
    √NẒM 
    n. 
    ▪ vn., II 
    munaẓẓamaẗ مُنَظَّمَة 
    ID 864 • Sw – • BP 521 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NẒM 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
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    – 
     
    NʕǦ نعج 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √NʕǦ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NʕǦ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NʕǦ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NʕǦ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘female sheep, ewe, gazelle, mountain goat, antelope; woman, woman or camel with good colouring; fast camel’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NʕS نعس 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √NʕS 
    “root” 
    ▪ NʕS_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NʕS_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NʕS_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘slumber, dozing off, drowsiness, to doze off; to beget lazy children’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NʕQ نعق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √NʕQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NʕQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NʕQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NʕQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘entrance to desert rat’s burrow; croaking, bleating, gibberish, to scream, shout at herds of goats and sheep, (all) living things’ 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NʕL نعل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √NʕL 
    “root” 
    ▪ NʕL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NʕL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NʕL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘footwear, horseshoe, camelshoe, to have thick hard feet, have hooves, travel on foot, hard and stony piece of barren land; calamities’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NʕM نعم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √NʕM 
    “root” 
    ▪ NʕM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NʕM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NʕM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘cattle, ostrich; bounty, blessings, grace, good living, to enjoy life, to bestow favours; to flourish, become verdant; to be soft and smooth’ 
    ▪ From CSem *√NʕM ‘to be(come) pleasant, agreeable’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    1 Engl personal name Naomi, from Hbr noʕŏmî ‘my delight’, from nōʕam ‘delight, delightfulness’, from nāʕēm ‘to be(come) pleasant, delightful’; 2 Engl anemone, perh. a folk-etymological alteration (influenced by Grk anemos ‘wind’) of an epithet of Adonis (the anemone having sprung from Adonis’s blood in Grk myth), from Phoen *hannaʕmon ‘the pleasant one’, akin to Hbr naʕămān, a man’s name (lit. ‘pleasantness’), and naʕămānîm, a word describing a garden in Isaiah 17:10, perh. a distortion of an epithet of Adonis. The Phoen and Hbr words are cognate to Ar ↗niʕmaẗ, ↗naʕam, etc., see ↗√NʕM. 
    – 
    NĠḌ نغض 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023
    √NĠḌ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NĠḌ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NĠḌ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NĠḌ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘the joint that moves the shoulder, to move from one side to the other, incline (one’s head), move the head up and down’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    *NF‑ نفـ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √*NF- 
    2-cons. "root nucleus" 
    ▪ *NF-_1 ‘to come out’
    ▪ *NF-_2 ‘to inhale, exhale’
    ▪ *NF-_3 ‘…’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
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    – 
    According to Ehret1989#58 and #59, 3-rad. extensions of pre-protSem *NP- in Ar are:

    *NF _1 ‘to come out’
    + “durative” *‑G : nafaǧa (nafǧ) ‘to creep out of the egg’
    + “intensive (> fortative)” *‑Z : nafaza (nafāz) ‘to come forth, arrive, reach’
    + “diffusive” *‑R : ↗nafara u i (nafar) ‘to flee and disperse, run away’
    + “venitive” *‑ɬ : ↗nafaša u (nafš) ‘to pick wool or cotton, pluck’
    + “focative” *‑Ṣ : nafaṣa (nafṣ) ‘to emit urine forcibly’
    + “middle” *‑Ḍ : nafaḍa (nafḍ) ‘to drop a foal, put forth ears’, ↗nafaḍa u (nafḍ) ‘to shake off, dust, dust off’
    + “inchoative (> tr.)” *‑W : ↗nafā (nafw) ‘to drive away, chase off’
    + “inchoative (> tr.)” *‑Y : ↗nafà (nafy) ‘to expel, drive away, banish, exile’

    *NF _2 ‘to inhale, exhale’
    (simple form) : ↗naffa i ‘to blow one’s nose, snuff’
    + “diffusive” *‑Ṯ : ↗nafaṯa u i (nafṯ) ‘to blow upon, spit out’
    + “finitive fortative” *‑G : nafaǧa (nafǧ) ‘to blow violently’
    + “iterative” *‑Ḥ : ↗nafaḥa a (nafḥ) ‘to spread odor, be fragrant, blow’
    + “extendative fortative” *‑Ḫ : ↗nafaḫa u (nafḫ) ‘to blow, breathe in air, blow upon’
    + “fortative” *‑S : ↗nafasa u (nafs, nafas) ‘to injure by breathing upon, breath of life, vital spirit, soul’
    + “durative intensive” *‑Ṭ : nafaṭa (nafīṭ) ‘to sneeze’, ↗nafṭaẗ ‘blister’, (?)↗nafṭ ‘naphtha, petroleum’ 
    NFṮ نفث 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 19May2023
    √NFṮ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NFṮ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NFṮ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NFṮ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to blow, spit out, puff out, inspire, (of a snake) to inject (venom), (of a witch) to hiss an incantation’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NFḤ نفح 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 19May2023
    √NFḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NFḤ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NFḤ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NFḤ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘rennet; dose; touch; (of a scent) to waft about, pleasant smell; to make a present; to kick, fend off’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NFḪ نفخ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NFḪ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NFḪ_1 ‘to blow, breathe; to inspire; to inflate, fill with air; bellows; arrogance’ ↗nafaḫa
    ▪ NFḪ_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ NFḪ_3 ‘…’ ↗

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘1 puff, blow, blow into, breathe in, inflate, bellows; 2 haughtiness, arrogance’ 
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    nafaḫ‑ نَفَخَ , u (nafḫ
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NFḪ 
    vb., I 
    1 to blow, puff; 2 to blow (tunes, on an instrument); 3a to breathe; 3b to breathe s.th. into s.o., inspire; 4a to blow up, inflate, fill with air; 4b to pump up, fill (a tire), fill with gas (balloon); 5 to inflate, puff up, elate, flush with success, fill with pride – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘to blow’) Akk npḫ (u) ‘to ignite a fire’, Hbr np̄ḥ a (a), Syr npḥ a (u), Gz nfḫ – (ā).
     
    … 
    … 
    nafaḫa fī ’l‑būq, vb. I, to blow the trumpet
    nafaḫa fī rūḥih, vb. I, to animate, inspirit s.o.
    nafaḫa fī ṣūratih, vb. I, to bring s.th. into being, give birth to s.th.
    nafaḫa fī zammāraẗ rūḥih, expr., to rouse s.o.’s temper
    nafaḫa ’l‑šamʕaẗ, vb. I, to blow out a candle
    nafaḫa fī šidqayhi, vb. I, to be puffed up, become inflated

    tanaffaḫa, vb. V, and ĭntafaḫa, vb. VIII, 1a to be blown up, inflated, filled with air; 1b 2 to swell.

    nafḫ, n., blowing, blowing up, inflation, pumping up, filling with air: vn. I.
    nafḫaẗ, n.f., 1 blow, puff; 2 breath; 3 gust; 4 distention, inflation, swelling; 5 conceit, overweeningness, haughtiness: nom.vic.
    nufāḫ, n., pulmonic emphysema (med.)
    naffāḫ, n., 1 flatulent; 2 grandiloquent: ints. formation.
    nuffāḫ, n., 1 vesicle; 2 swelling, inflation (med.).
    nuffāḫaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., 1 blister, vesicle; 2 bladder; 3 air bladder, swimming bladder; 4 bubble
    minfaḫ, pl. manāfiḫᵘ, n., bellows: n.instr.
    minfāḫ, pl. manāfīḫᵘ, n., 1a bellows; 1b air pump, tire pump; 2 blowpipe: n.instr.
    tanaffuḫ, n., 1 inflatedness, inflation; 2a bumptiousness, bumptious behaviour; 2b pride: vn. V.
    ĭntifāḫ, n., 1 process of being inflated; 2 distention, inflation, swelling, protuberance; 3 flatulence, meteorism (med.): vn. VIII.
    nāfiḫ, 1 adj., a blowing; b flatulent; blower; 2 n., a player of a wood‑wind or brass‑wind instrument
    manfūḫ, adj., 1a blown up, puffed up, inflated; 1b swollen; 1c pumped up; 1d bloated; 1e paunchy, obese, fat; 2a conceited, self‑conceited, overweening, snobbish; 2b turgid, bombastic (style): PA I.
    muntafiḫ, adj., 1a blown up, puffed up, inflated; 1b swollen: PA VIII.
     
    NFD نفد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 19May2023
    √NFD 
    “root” 
    ▪ NFD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NFD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NFD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to run out, vanish, be depleted’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NFḎ نفذ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 19May2023
    √NFḎ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NFḎ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NFḎ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NFḎ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘vent, opening, exit, to go through, penetrate; to carry out, arbitration’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NFR نفر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 19May2023
    √NFR 
    “root” 
    ▪ NFR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NFR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NFR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘group of between three and ten people, detachment, fighting group; to seek help, call up, rise to one’s duty; to scatter, stampede, flee; to alienate, dislike, kind of debate between two men each trying to prove his own superiority over the other’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    nafīr نَفير 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 9Jun2023
    √NFR 
    n. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
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    ▪ … 
    NFS نفس 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NFS 
    “root” 
    ▪ NFS_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ NFS_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘blood, life; breath, to breathe; (of soul, dawn or daylight) to break out, mind, the self, the psyche, discerning faculty, person, essence; the evil eye, to give the evil eye; to slacken, to release; precious, treasure, to treasure, to yearn for, to vie, to compete; to envy, to covet, to be sparing, to be niggardly’ 

    … 
    – 
    ▪ …
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    nafs نَفْس 
    ID 866 • Sw – • BP 44, 805 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NFS 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *napš‑ ‘soul’ (as receptacle of vital energy).
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘soul’) Akk napištu, Hbr nép̄eš, Syr nap̄šā, Gz nafs.
    ▪ … 
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    NFŠ نفش 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 19May2023
    √NFŠ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NFŠ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NFŠ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NFŠ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘wool, to tease out, ruffle the feathers, bristle up, swell, scatter over a large area’. – Some scholars attribute an Aram origin to the form manfūš’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NFḌ نفض 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NFḌ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NFḌ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ NFḌ_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ NFḌ_1: from protSem *√NPṢ́ ‘to shake, shatter’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ NFḌ_2: …
     
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl intifadaĭntifāḍaẗ, ↗nafaḍa
    – 
    ĭntifāḍaẗ اِنْتِفاضَة 
    ID 868 • Sw – • BP 2704 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NFḌ 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl intifada, from Ar ĭntifāḍaẗ ‘shudder, awakening, uprising’, from ↗ĭntafaḍa, vb. VIII, ‘to be shaken, shudder, wake up’, Gt-stem of ↗nafaḍa, vb. I, ‘to shake’. 
     
    NFṬ نفط 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NFṬ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NFṬ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ NFṬ_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl naphtha, from the same source as Ar ↗nafṭ
    – 
    nafṭ نَفْط , var. nifṭ 
    ID 869 • Sw – • BP 948 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NFṬ 
    n. 
    naphtha, petroleum, (mineral) oil – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ From protSem *napṭ‑ ‘naphtha’ – Huehnergard2011.
    … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl naphtha, from Grk náphtha, from a Sem source akin to and Gz and Ar ↗nafṭ, Aram nepṭā, Akk napṭu ‘naphtha’. 
    BP#2521nafṭī, adj., of naphtha, soaked in naphtha; oil-, petroleum- (in compounds): nsb-adj. | miṣbāḥ ~, n., oil lamp.

    For other values attached to the root, see ↗NFṬ, ↗nafṭaẗ 
    NFʕ نفع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 19May2023
    √NFʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NFʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NFʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NFʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘benefit, use, advantage, be useful, make use of; walking stick, dealers in walking sticks’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NFQ نفق 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NFQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NFQ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ NFQ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a desert rat’s tunnel, (of a desert rat) to go into one tunnel entrance and come out of another; (of an animal) to die; to find a good market, to become depleted; to spend, to donate for a good cause, to support one’s family’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    nifāq نِفاق 
    ID 870 • Sw – • BP 4225 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NFQ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    munāfiq مُنافِق 
    ID 871 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NFQ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    NFL نفل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 19May2023
    √NFL 
    “root” 
    ▪ NFL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NFL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NFL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘spoils of war, assistance, defence of others; extras, to give more than that due’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NFY نفي 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NFY 
    “root” 
    ▪ NFY_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ NFY_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008, s.r. NFW): ‘garbage, dregs; to eject, to exile, to dismiss, to set aside, to blow away, to exile; to deny, to disown’ 
    ▪ From protSem *√NPY ‘to sift’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl apron, map, mop, napery, napkin, nappe, perh. akin to cf. Ar ↗nafà
    – 
    nafà / nafay‑ نَفَى / نَفَيْـ 
    ID 872 • Sw – • BP 2101 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NFY 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl apron, map, mop, napery, napkin, nappe, from Lat mappa, originally ‘napkin, cloth’, said by the Roman author Quintilian to be of Pun origin, perh. from Phoen (Pun) *mappē, from protSem *manpay‑ or *manpiy‑ ‘sieve, fine cloth’ (?), cf. Ar ↗nafà
     
    NQB نقب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NQB 
    “root” 
    ▪ NQB_1 ‘to pierce; overseer, chief; syndicate, trade-union; intellect; veil’ ↗naqaba, ↗naqīb, ↗niqāb, ↗manāqibᵘ
    ▪ NQB_2 ‘Negev’ ↗Naqab
    ▪ NQB_3 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘perforation on a camel’s hooves; to pierce, to dig, to dig up; to search; nature, disposition, good character, good deeds; chief; veil, to wear a veil’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl Maccabee, niqab, cf. ↗naqaba, ↗niqāb
    – 
    naqab‑ نَقَبَ , u (naqb
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NQB 
    vb., I 
    to bore, pierce, perforate, breach, make a hole or breach, punch or drill a hole; to dig, dig up, dig out, excavate, hollow out; to traverse ( a country), pass, travel ( through); to inquire, ask, look, search (ʕan for), examine thoroughly, investigate, explore, search into, delve into – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ From protSem *√NQB ‘to pierce’ – Huehnergard2011.
    … 
    – 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘to pierce’) Akk nqb (i) ‘deflower’ [CAD: naqābu ‘to deflower, rape’], Hbr nqb a (o), Syr nqb a (u), SAr nqb.
    BDB 1906: Ass naḳbu ‘depth, spring’ (of water) [CAD: nagbu ‘spring, fountain; underground water’], Hbr nāqaḇ ‘to pierce’, Aram nᵊqaḇ, Syr nqaḇ ‘piercing, boring through’, Ar naqaba ‘to perforate, pierce; to scrutinize’, naqībaẗ ‘sagacity’, naqīb ‘leader, chief’ (one who scrutinizes). – Hbr näqäḇ appar. a ‘pass’ on border of Naphtali, Ar naqb ‘road between mountains’. – Hbr maqqǟḇǟṯ 1. ‘hammer’ (by means of which on drives in nails and pegs), 2. ‘hole, excavation’. 
    ▪ Ehret1995#645 (naqb to till or cultivate the ground; hollow out, excavate): an extension in »extendative« *‑b 813 from a bi-consonantal »pre-Proto-Semitic« (pPS, i.e. preSem) root *nḳ ‘to scrape’ < AfrAs *‑ɲuuk'‑ ‘to rub’. – Other extensions from the same pre-Sem root: NQṮ_2NQḤNQRNQŠ_2
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Maccabee, from Hbr maqqebet (< *manqabt‑) ‘hammer’, from nāqab ‘to pierce’.
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl niqab, from Ar niqāb ‘veil’, from naqaba ‘to pierce, bore a hole, perforate’. 
    naqiba, a (naqab), vb. I, to be perforated, be full of holes: denom. from naqb (?).
    naqqaba, vb. II, to dig (ʕan for); to drill (ʕan for, e.g., for oil); to explore, study, investigate (ʕan s.th.), penetrate, delve, search (ʕan into), look, search (ʕan for); to travel ( through): intens. of I (?).
    nāqaba, vb. III, to vie in virtues (‑hu with s.o.):.
    tanaqqaba, vb. V, to examine, study, investigate (ʕan s.th.), look, search (ʕan for): t-stem of II, reflexive; to veil her face (woman): denom. from niqāb; to be perforated, be full of holes: pseudo-pass. of II, denom. from naqb.
    ĭntaqaba, vb. VIII, to put on a veil, veil one’s face: denom. from niqāb.

    naqb, n., digging, excavation; piercing, perforation; — (pl. ʔanqāb, niqāb) hole, opening, breach; boring, bore; tunnel: the proper etymon?
    naqqāb, n., punch: ints.
    BP#3999niqāb, pl. nuqub, ʔanqibaẗ, n., veil: »voile dans lequel on a pratiqué deux trous à l’endroit des yeux« (Dozy ii 1881) | kašafa ‘l-niqāb ʕan to uncover, reveal, disclose s.th.
    BP#2150niqābaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., cooperative society; union, association, guild; corporation; syndicate; trade-union, labor union: originally, the office of a naqīb I n. al-ʕummāl, n., trade-union, labor union; n. mihniyyaẗ, n., white collar union:.
    BP#4926niqābī, adj., cooperative; syndicalistic; syndicalist; trade-unionist: nsb-adj from niqābaẗ.
    niqābiyyaẗ, n.f., syndicalism; trade-unionism: n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ, from niqābaẗ.
    BP#3877naqīb, pl. nuqabāʔᵘ, n., leader, head, headman; director, principal, chief; chairman of a guild; president; syndic, corporation lawyer; head of a labour or trade union; captain (in most Arab countries; mil.); staff sergeant, first sergeant (Jord.; mil.); tongue of a balance: properly, ‘one who sees through things, one whose view penetrates’, hence: ‘one who has overview, can oversee’ | n. al-ʔašrāf, n., head of the Alids, head of the descendants of the Prophet:.
    naqībaẗ, pl. naqāʔibᵘ, n., soul, spirit, mind, intellect; natural disposition, nature, temper, character: < *‘the ability to penetrate (a subject) intelletually, to examine, investigate’ (?).
    manqib, minqab, and manqabaẗ, pl. manāqibᵘ, n., mountain trail, defile, pass: *‘trail digged into the mountain’ (?).
    minqab and minqabaẗ, n.f., punch, perforator, drill; lancet: n.instr.
    manāqibᵘ, n.pl., virtues, outstanding traits; glorious deeds, feats, exploits: *‘deeds that exceed the usual and penetrate into the spheres of glory’ (?).
    BP#4923tanqīb, pl. ‑āt, n., drilling (esp., for oil); digging, excavation; investigation, examination, inquiry, search, exploration, research: vn. II.
    tanqībī, adj.: biʔr tanqībiyyaẗ, drilled well, exploratory well (oil industry): nsb-adj from tanqīb.
    munaqqib, pl. ‑ūn, n., drilling or excavation specialist; excavator; prospector; investigator, researcher, scholar, explorer: nominalized and lexicalized PA II.
     

    niqāb نِقاب , pl. nuqub , ʔanqibaẗ 
    ID 873 • Sw – • BP 3999 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NQB 
    n. 
    veil | kašafa ’l-niqāb ʕan to uncover, reveal, disclose s.th. – WehrCowan1979. 
    From ↗naqaba ‘to pierce’, i.e., properly, a tissue into which two holes for the eyes have been made.149  
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    NQB, ↗naqaba 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl niqab, from Ar niqāb ‘veil’, from ↗naqaba ‘to pierce, bore a hole, perforate’. 
    tanaqqaba, vb. V, to veil her face (woman): denom. – For other meanings ↗naqaba V.
    ĭntaqaba, vb. VIII, to put on a veil, veil one’s face: denom. 
    naqīb نَقِيب , pl. nuqabāʔᵘ 
    ID 874 • Sw – • BP 3877 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NQB 
    n. 
    leader, head, headman; director, principal, chief; chairman of a guild; president; syndic, corporation lawyer; head of a labour or trade union; captain (in most Arab countries; mil.); staff sergeant, first sergeant (Jord. ; mil.); tongue of a balance | n. al-ʔašrāf, n., head of the Alids, head of the descendants of the Prophet – WehrCowan1979. 
    From ↗naqaba ‘to pierce’, properly *‘one who sees through things, one whose view penetrates’, hence: ‘one who has overview, can oversee’ 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    NQB, ↗naqaba 
    – 
    BP#2150niqābaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., cooperative society; union, association, guild; corporation; syndicate; trade-union, labor union: originally, the office of a naqīb I n. al-ʕummāl, n., trade-union, labor union; n. mihniyyaẗ, n., white collar union:.
    BP#4926niqābī, adj., cooperative; syndicalistic; syndicalist; trade-unionist: nsb-adj from niqābaẗ.
    niqābiyyaẗ, n.f., syndicalism; trade-unionism: n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ, from niqābaẗ.
    naqībaẗ, pl. naqāʔibᵘ, n., soul, spirit, mind, intellect; natural disposition, nature, temper, character: derived from naqīb ? Or directly from ↗naqaba (*‘the ability to penetrate (a topic) intellectually, to examine, investigate’)? 
    manāqibᵘ مَناقِبُ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NQB 
    n.pl. 
    virtues, outstanding traits; glorious deeds, feats, exploits – WehrCowan1979. 
    Ultimately from ↗naqaba ‘to make a hole, pierce’? If so, semantics could be explained as *‘deeds that exceed the usual and penetrate into higher, lofty spheres’, or as a figurative use of the pl. of manqab *‘place where a breach has been made’ (n.loc.), hence ‘pass (in the mountains)’, i.e. a difficult trail. Other ClassAr etymologies connect the term either to ↗naqībaẗ ‘soul; trait of character, disposition’, or to ↗naqīb ‘chief’ (the one who scrutinizes). 
    ▪ … 
    naqaba
    Ch. Pellat, “Manāḳib”, in EI² : »To define this term, the lexicographers make it a synonym of ʔaḫlāq, taken in the sense of ‘natural dispositions (good or bad), innate qualities, character’, and associate it with naqībaẗ, explained by nafs ‘soul’, ḫalīqaẗ or ṭabīʕaẗ, likewise signifying ‘trait of character, disposition’, but also with nafāḏ al-raʔy, ‘perspicacity’, in such a way that the connection with the radical n-q-b, which is particularly expressive and implies especially the concrete sense of ‘perforate, pierce (a wall, for example)’, thus, in an abstract sense, ‘succeed in penetrating a secret’, becomes perfectly clear. Perhaps it should be approached as is suggested by Ibn Manẓūr (LA, sub radice n-q-b), via naqīb ‘chief’, thus named because he is privy to ‘the secrets of his fellow-tribesmen […] and to their manāqib, which is the means of knowing their affairs’; in short, manāqib would signify almost simultaneously both ‘traits of character’ and ‘acts and deeds’, and its use to introduce a biography centred not only on the actions, but also on the moral qualities of an individual, would be entirely legitimate. Finally, also worth consideration is an alternative meaning of the verb naqaba, ‘walk, follow a narrow path’, and a subtle connection may be observed between two senses of the singular manqabaẗ : on the one hand, ‘narrow street between two houses’, or ‘difficult path on the mountain’ (cf. Yāḳūt s.v. al-Manāqib; Sīra, ii, 468) and, on the other hand, ‘noble action’, in contrast to maṯlabaẗ ‘villainy, subject of shame’ […]. If the last explanation suggested is correct, one is entitled to consider that a semantic evolution has occurred comparable to that of ↗sīrat.« 
    – 
    – 
    al‑Naqab النَّقَب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NQB 
    n.prop. 
    Negev (desert region in S Israel) – WehrCowan1979. 
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    ▪ Engl Negev 
    – 
    NQD نقد 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NQD 
    “root” 
    ▪ NQD_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ NQD_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
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    – 
    – 
    nāqid ناقِد 
    ID 875 • Sw – • BP 3529 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NQD 
    ¹adj.; ²n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    NQḎ نقذ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 19May2023
    √NQḎ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NQḎ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NQḎ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NQḎ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to escape, save, to rescue, deliver, retrieve, a horse taken from the enemy’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NQR نقر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 19May2023
    √NQR 
    “root” 
    ▪ NQR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NQR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NQR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘puddle, small hole in a date-stone; bird’s beak; click with the tongue or fingers; to chisel, pierce; to abuse, infighting; to select; trumpet, horn’ 
    ▪ From protSem *√NQR ‘to bore, pierce’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NQṢ نقص 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 19May2023
    √NQṢ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NQṢ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NQṢ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NQṢ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to decrease, diminish, loss; to disparage; weakness in the mind, shortcomings, faults’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NQḌ نقض 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 19May2023
    √NQḌ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NQḌ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NQḌ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NQḌ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to annul, dismantle, revoke, violate, dispute with; contrary; opposite; to overburden; to weaken’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NQʕ نقع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 19May2023
    √NQʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NQʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NQʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NQʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘stagnant water, swamp, quagmire, (of water) to collect, soak, quench one’s thirst; dust storm, (of dust) to rise and float, raise one’s voice and shout, turn pale from fright or sickness’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
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    – 
    NQL نقل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NQL 
    “root” 
    ▪ NQL_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ NQL_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
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    – 
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    – 
    – 
    naqal‑ نَقَلَ 
    ID 876 • Sw – • BP 858 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NQL 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
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    … 
     
    NQM نقم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 19May2023
    √NQM 
    “root” 
    ▪ NQM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NQM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NQM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘punishment, denial, resentment, hatred, vengeance, to punish, deny, dislike, reproach, loathe, take revenge’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NKB نكب 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 19May2023
    √NKB 
    “root” 
    ▪ NKB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NKB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NKB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘wind that brings no rain, disastrous wind, to be afflicted by disaster; the shoulder joint, disease that afflicts the joint, to veer off, turn away from’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NKṮ نكث 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 19May2023
    √NKṮ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NKṮ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NKṮ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NKṮ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to untwist yarn, undo what has been done, go back on an agreement, renege on a promise, violate an oath; great crisis’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NKḤ نكح 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 19May2023
    √NKḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NKḤ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NKḤ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NKḤ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to marry, be married, give in matrimony; to fornicate, fornication; to drench the land (with rain), be overcome (by sleep)’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NKD نكد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 19May2023
    √NKD 
    “root” 
    ▪ NKD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NKD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NKD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘bad luck, strained circumstances; to be niggardly, deny assistance; (of she-camels) to fail to give birth to living young; (of land) to fail to grow plants’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NKR نكر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NKR 
    “root” 
    ▪ NKR_1 ‘not to know, be ignorant; to deny’ ↗nakira
    ▪ NKR_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ NKR_3 ‘…’ ↗

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘hardship, serious matters; cunning; to be discerning; denial, to disown; to dispute with, fighting; to be ignorant of s.th., to fail to recognise, to refuse to acknowledge; to seek to clarify; to censure, to blame; detestable, abominable, loathsome’ 
    ▪ … 
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    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    … 
    nakir‑ نَكِر , a (nakar, nukūr, nakīr
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NKR 
    vb., I 
    1 not to know, have no knowledge, be ignorant of; 2 to deny, disown, disavow, renege – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘stranger’) Akk nakru ‘enemy’, Hbr noḵrī, Syr nuḵrāyā, Gz (nakīr).
     
    … 
    … 
    nakkara, vb. II, 1 to disguise, mask; 2 to use in its indefinite form (a noun; gram.): D‑stem, caus.
    nākara, vb. III, to disapprove (‑h of s.o.), reject (s.o.): L‑stem, assoc.
    BP#3131ʔankara, vb. IV, 1 to pretend not to know, refuse to have anything to do with; 2a to refuse to acknowledge, disown, disavow, disclaim, deny; 2b to renounce, renege; 2c to refuse, deny (s.th. ʕalà to s.o.), dispute, contest (s.th. ʕalà of s.o.); to reject (s.th. ʕalà with regard to s.o.), disapprove; 3 to censure, blame, rebuke (s.o. ʕalà for), criticize (s.th. min in s.o.); to hold s.th. (ʕalà against s.o.), reproach (s.o. ʕalà for): *Š‑stem | ʔankara ḏātahū, vb. IV, to deny o.s.; ʔankara nafsahū, vb. IV, to harbor self‑doubts; ʔankartu ʔannī ʔarāh, expr., I pretended not to see him
    tanakkara, vb. V, 1 to be in disguise, be disguised, disguise o.s.; 2 to change for the worse, change beyond reCOGNition; 3 to become estranged, be alienated (li‑ from s.th.); 4 to snub (li‑ s.o.), treat (li‑ s.o.) with hostility, deal ungraciously (li‑ with s.o.); 5 to deny o.s. (li‑, e.g., a feeling), shut out from one’s heart (li‑ s.th.): Dt‑stem.
    tanākara, vb. VI, 1 to have no knowledge, be ignorant (• of s.th.); 2 to pretend not to know (• s.th.), feign ignorance, make as if one doesn’t know; 3 to refuse to have anything to do (‑h with), snub, out, ignore, pretend not to know: Lt‑stem.
    ĭstankara, vb. X, 1 not to know (s.o., s.th.), have no knowledge, be ignorant of; 2a to disapprove (of s.th.), reject; 2b to detest, loathe (• s.th.)

    nukr, n., denial, disavowal
    nakir, adj., unknown, little known
    nakiraẗ, n.f., 1 indefinite noun (gram.); 2 unknown person
    nukrān, n., denial | lā nukrāna, expr., it is incontestable; nukrān al‑ǧamīl, n., ingratitude; nukrān al‑ḏāt, n., self‑denial
    nakīr, n., 1a denial, disavowal; 1b disapproval, rejection; 2 negation; 3 adj., reprehensible, repugnant, disgusting, vile, revolting, loathsome, abominable, atrocious; 4 n.prop., one of the Angels of Death (see munkar) | šadda ʕalayhi ’l‑nakīr, expr., to reproach s.o. severely
    ʔankarᵘ, f. nakrāʔᵘ, adj., reprehensible, abominable, disgusting, vile, revolting, loathsome | ĭbtisāmaẗ nakrāʔᵘ, n.f., a vicious smile
    ʔinkār, n., 1 denial, disavowal, negation, contestation; 2 refusal, rejection, nonacceptance: vn. IV | ʔinkār al‑ḏāt, n., self‑denial, selflessness, unselfishness; ʔinkār li‑ǧamīlih, n., ingratitude toward s.o.
    ʔinkārī, adj., denying, disaffirmative; negative
    tanakkur, n., disguise, masquerade: vn. V | maḥfil al‑tanakkur, n., fancy‑dress party, costume ball
    tanakkurī, adj.: ḥafl tanakkurī, n., masked ball, costume ball
    ĭstinkar, n., 1a disapproval; 1b horror, aversion, loathing: vn. X.
    nākir, adj., 1 denying, disavowing; 2 unfriendly, hostile, forbidding | nākir al‑ǧamīl, adj., ungrateful
    munakkar, adj., 1a indeterminate; 1b indefinite (gram.): PP II.
    BP#4169munkar, I adj., 1 denied; 2 not reCOGNized, unacknowledged, disowned, disavowed, disclaimed; 3 disagreeable, shocking, detestable, abominable; II n., abomination, atrocity; pl. ‑āt, objectionable, forbidden, or reprehensible, actions: PP IV | Munkar wa‑Nakīr, n., the two angels who examine the dead in their graves as to their faith
    mutanakkir, adj., 1a disguised, in disguise; 1b inCOGNito: PA V | raqṣ mutanakkir, n., masked ball, oostume ball
    mustankar, adj., 1 objectionable, reprehensible; 2 odd, strange: PP X.
     
    NKS نكس 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 19May2023
    √NKS 
    “root” 
    ▪ NKS_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NKS_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NKS_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to turn upside down, turn down, reverse, hang one’s head in shame, be weak; to relapse, degeneration’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NKṢ نكص 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 19May2023
    √NKṢ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NKṢ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NKṢ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NKṢ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to withdraw, reverse, show reluctance, recoil, lose heart’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NKF نكف 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 19May2023
    √NKF 
    “root” 
    ▪ NKF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NKF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NKF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to wipe tears from the cheek with one’s finger, be disdainful, snub, loathe, be haughty’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NKL نكل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 19May2023
    √NKL 
    “root” 
    ▪ NKL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NKL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NKL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘shackles, chains; to punish severely, torture; to force back, rebel; to recoil, evade, be cowardly in the face of the enemy; courageous and experienced person’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NMː (NMM) نمّ / نمم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NMː (NMM) 
    “root” 
    ▪ NMː (NMM)_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ NMː (NMM)_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘louse; slight, gentle sound; to show through, (of scent) to waft about; to disclose or betray a confidence, to spread malicious rumours, to slander, to sow dissension, slanderer, calumny’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    namm‑ / nam˅m‑ نَمَّ / نَممْـ 
    ID 877 • Sw – • BP 4239 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NMː (NMM) 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    NMR نمر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NMR 
    “root” 
    ▪ NMR_1 ‘to become angry; leopard; speck, spot’ ↗nimr, ↗numraẗ
    ▪ NMR_2 ‘clean, pure’ ↗namir
    ▪ NMR_3 ‘number’ ↗nimraẗ
    ▪ NMR_ ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ NMR_1 : from protSem *namir‑ ‘leopard’ < AfrAs *numur‑ or *nurum‑ ‘leopard; hyaena’ (orig. prob. *‘the spotted one’) – Orel&Stolbova1994#1886.
    ▪ NMR_2 : …
    ▪ NMR_3 : (var. numraẗ) from Ital numero
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Any connection with ↗nimr / ²namir ‘leopard, panther’ and ↗¹namir ‘clean, pure, healthy, wholesome’?
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
    – 
    nimr نِمْر , var. namir, pl. numur, ʔanmār, numūr 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 6447 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NMR 
    n. 
    panther, leopard – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1886: from protSem *namir‑ ‘leopard’ < AfrAs *numur‑ or *nurum‑ ‘leopard; hyaena’ (orig. prob. *‘the spotted one’).
    ▪ Any connection with ↗¹namir ‘clean, pure, healthy, wholesome’?
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘panther, leopard’) Akk nimru, Hbr nāmēr, Syr nemrā, Gz namr.
     
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1886: Together with Akk nimrᵘ, Hbr nāmēr, Syr nemrā, Gz namr, Hss nemr, the Ar word goes back to protSem *namir‑ ‘leopard’. Given the fact that three WCh languages have the word murum (< WCh *murum‑), which could be COGNates (with assimilation of nasals & metathesis), for ‘hyaena’, one could assume AfrAs *numur‑ as a possible ancestor (alternatively *nurum‑, in which case the Sem, not the Ch form would show metathesis). A possible explanation for the fact that the word signifies ‘leopard’ in Sem, but ‘hyaena’ in Chad, would be that originally it just meant *‘the spotted one’, see ↗numraẗ below, in section DERIV.
    ▪ Any connection with ↗¹namir ‘clean, pure, healthy, wholesome’?
    ▪ … 
    … 
    tanammara, vb. V, to become angry, furious, turn into a tiger: DT-stem, denom.

    numraẗ, pl. numar, n.f., speck, spot: perh. the etymon proper.
    ʔanmarᵘ, f. namrāʔᵘ, pl. numr, adj., spotted, speckled: ʔaFʕaLᵘ formation for colours and body dysfunctions.
    munammar, adj., spotted, striped, brindled: PP II.
     
    namir نَمِر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NMR 
    adj. 
    clean, pure, healthy, wholesome (esp., water) – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Any connection with ↗nimr / ²namir ‘leopard, panther’ ?
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ Any connection with ↗nimr / ²namir ‘leopard, panther’ ?
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    numraẗ نُمْرة , pl. numar 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NMR 
    n.f. 
    1 speck, spot; 2nimraẗ – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Perh. the etymon proper of the complex treated sub ↗nimr ‘panther, leopard’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    Cf. perh. ↗nimr
    See above, section CONC. 
    … 
    ʔanmarᵘ, f. namrāʔᵘ, pl. numr, adj., spotted, speckled: ʔaFʕaLᵘ formation for colours and body dysfunctions.
    munammar, adj., spotted, striped, brindled: PP II.

    Cf. perh. also ↗nimr ‘panther, leopard’ (< *‘the speckled one’?).

    For the loanword numraẗ ‘number’ cf. s.v. ↗nimraẗ
    nimraẗ نِمْرة , var. numraẗ (نُمْرة , also plene نومرة), pl. nimar, numar 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NMR 
    n.f. 
    1 number, numero; 2 figure – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ From Ital numero, from Lat numerus ‘number’.
     
    ▪ … 
    See WEST. 
    See CONC. 
    ▪ Not from Ar nimraẗ ~ numraẗ, but ultimately from the same source is Engl number: c. 1300 ‘sum, aggregate of a collection’, from AngloFr noumbre, oFr nombre and directly from Lat numerus ‘a number, quantity’, from protIE root *nem- ‘to assign, allot; to take’.
    ▪ … 
    nimraẗ wāḥid, expr., first-class, first-rate, A-1, excellent

    nammara, vb. II, to mark with number, to number, provide with a number: D-stem, denom.
    tanammara, vb. V, to be numbered: Dt-stem, denom., intr.

    nammāraẗ, pl. -āt, n.f., numberer, numbering machine, date stamp: quasi-PA, ints.f.
    tanmīr, n., numbering, numeration, count: vn. II.
    munammar, adj., numbered, counted: PP II.
     
    NML نمل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 19May2023
    √NML 
    “root” 
    ▪ NML_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NML_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NML_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘ants; tips of the fingers; to invisibly mend a garment; to tell lies; to be restless, active person’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NHǦ نهج 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 19May2023
    √NHǦ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NHǦ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NHǦ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NHǦ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘clear, open road, pass through a clear road, point out the way, proceed; to breathe with difficulty; (of a garment) to become tattered’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    manhaǧ مَنْهَج 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 1633 • APD … • © SG | created 9Jun2023
    √NHǦ 
    n. 
    ▪ …I 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    NHR نهر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NHR 
    “root” 
    ▪ NHR_1 ‘stream, river; column (of a newspaper etc.)’ ↗nahr
    ▪ NHR_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘river, stream, to strike water (in digging a well), to gush forth; daylight; to chase away, to rebuke’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    nahr نَهْر , pl. ʔanhur, ʔanhār, nuhūr 
    ID 879 • Sw –/119 • BP 1184 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NHR 
    n. 
    1 stream, river; – 2 (pl. ʔanhur and ʔanhār) column (of a newspaper) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ [v1] Kogan2011: from protSem *nah(a)r‑ ‘river’. Underlying may be the idea of *‘(water) gushing forth and carving a river bed/channel into the earth/soil’.
    ▪ [v2] Figurative use (?).
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Dolgopolsky 2012 #1619: Akk nāru ‘river, canal; vein’, Ug nhr (Tropper 2008: [*nah(a)ru]) ‘stream, river, flood’, BiblHbr nāhār ‘stream, river’, oAram nhr ‘river, watercourse’, (BDB 1906: BiblAram nhar ‘river’), JudAram [Targ] nahrā ‘stream’, Syr nahrā, Ar nahr ~ nahar ‘river’, Sab ʔnhr (pl.) ‘irrigation channels’. – Cf. also corresponding verb: BiblHbr nāhar ‘to stream’, Ar nahara ‘to flow abundantly’ (blood, river), Gz nahara ‘to flow, go down, leap’
    ▪ BDB 1906, Klein 1987: Hbr minhārâh (dubious) ‘(BDB:) crevices, ravines (?), (Klein:) fissure, cleft, (nHbr) tunnel’: perh. related to Ar minhar(aẗ) ‘place hollowed out by water’, manhar ‘bed of a river, channel of water’
     
    ▪ Huehnergard 2011 assumes a ComSem noun *nah(a)r‑ ‘river’.
    ▪ Similarly, Dolgopolsky 2012 #1619 reconstructs Sem *nahar- ‘stream, river’ (verbal root *√NHR ‘to stream’ attested only in WSem). – Based on Sem and extra-AfrAs evidence, the author further reconstructs Nostr *ńihR˹a˺ ‘to stream; a stream, liquid’.
    ▪ According to Gabal 2012-IV: 2337, Ar nahr ‘river’ belongs to a theme √NHR the basic meaning of which is ‘copious (or also thin) flowing, broadly and extensively, from an opening (which it also produces and widens/carves out)’, based on a 2-consonantal nucleus *NH- meaning ‘an opening, a void space filled by s.th.’.
    ▪ Fraenkel doubted that nah(a)r is a genuinely Arabic word (as already Guidi 1879: 7 had assumed). According to him, »the Arabs can hardly have had an idea of a stream because they only knew wādī and sayl in their lands. nah(a)r however is a big stream, and I believe that the Arabs have taken its name from the inhabitants of Euphrates region« – Fraenkel 1886: 285.
    ▪ The Sem word has also been loaned into lEg as *nahara, Nah(a)rêna ‘stream, river’ – Hoch 1994 #253. – Cf. also (#254) lEg *nahara ‘flowing; fleeing’ or ‘to flee; to sail’, (#255) *naharû (?) ‘fugitives’.
    [v2] The value ‘(newspaper) column’ given in Wehr/Cowan could not be attested elsewhere. If this is not a mistake it must be a case of figurative use (*‘channel/river bed in which text is flowing’?). No explanation could be traced.
     
    ▪ Engl Achernarα Eridani (astron.)’, the brightest ‘star’ or point of light—actually, it is the primary star in a binary system—in the constellation of Eridanus, from Ar ʔāḫir al-nahr ‘the end(point) of The River’ (Grk Potamós, sc. the Eridanus) – Huehnergard 2011.
     
    mā bayna ’l-nahrayn, n.topogr., (lit., what is between the two rivers, sc. Euphrates and Tigris) Mesopotamia
    mā warāʔa ’l-nahr, n.topogr., (lit., what is behind/beyond the river, sc. the Oxus) Transoxiana
    nahr ʔurdunn, n.fl., the Jordan river
    nahr al-salām, n.fl., (lit., river of peace) the Tigris
    nahr al-šarīʕaẗ, n.fl., the Jordan river
    nahr al-ʕāṣī, n.fl., the Orontes

    nahara, a (nahr), vb. I, 1. to flow copiously, stream forth, gush forth: BDB 1906 (s.v. Hbr nāhar) thinks that the Ar vb. I ‘to run, flow’ is »perh[aps] denom[inative] fr[om] nahr ‘river’«; 2. ↗nahara
    nahrī, adj., river- (in compounds), riverine, fluvial, fluviatile: nisba formation from nahr.
    nahīr, adj., copious, ample, abundant, plentiful, much: quasi-PP.
    nuhayr, pl. ‑āt, little river, creek, brook; a tributary, an affluent: dimin. of nahr.

    For other items from the root, see ↗√NHR. 
    nahār نَهار 
    ID 878 • Sw –/26 • BP 980 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NHR 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    NHḌ نهض 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NHḌ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NHḌ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ NHḌ_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    nahḍaẗ نَهْضَة 
    ID 880 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 2672 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NHḌ 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ n.vic., I 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    NHW نهو 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20May2023
    √NHW 
    “root” 
    ▪ NHW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NHW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NHW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘goal, end, termination; to end, restrain, forbid, abstain; to inform, relate to; mind, discerning power, reason’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NWʔ نوأ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20May2023
    √NWʔ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NWʔ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NWʔ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NWʔ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a star approaching its celestial setting point; to be weighed down with difficulties, be strained by, or succumb under a heavy load; hostility’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NWB نوب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NWB 
    “root” 
    ▪ NWB_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ NWB_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘affliction, a seizure, calamity; to visit, to deputise; to take turns, a shift; to go back, to revert, to repent’ 
    ▪ Ar root √NWB ‘to represent, act as deputy’ – Huehnergard2011.
    … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl nabobnāʔib
    – 
    nāʔib نائِب 
    ID 881 • Sw – • BP 360 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NWB 
    ¹adj.; ²n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl nabob, from Ar nuwwāb, pl. of nāʔib ‘deputy’, active participle of ↗nāba ‘to represent, act as deputy’. 
     
    NWḤ نوح 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20May2023
    √NWḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NWḤ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NWḤ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NWḤ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to wail, lament, (of wind, wolves and dogs) to howl; power; to swing, (of trees and mountains) to stand face-to-face’ 
    ▪ (BAH2008): Although Arab philologists are aware of the Syr origin of the proper noun Nūḥ, they include it under this root. 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NWḪ نوخ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NWḪ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NWḪ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ NWḪ_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ From protSem *√NWḪ ‘to rest, come to rest’ – Huehnergard2011.
    … 
    – 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘to rest’) Akk inūḫ, Hbr nāḥ, Syr nāḥ, Gz nṓḫa.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl almanac, from munāḫ, var. ↗manāḫ
    – 
    manāḫ مَناخ , var. munāḫ 
    ID 882 • Sw – • BP 2553 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NWḪ 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl almanac, from Ar munāḫ ‘halting place, caravan stop, position of the stars’, from ʔanāḫa, vb. IV, ‘to make (a camel) lie down’, *Š-stem of nāḫa, vb. I, ‘to lie down, rest (of camels)’. 
     
    manāḫī مناخيّ 
    ID 883 • Sw – • BP 5543 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NWḪ 
    adj. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    NWR نور 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NWR 
    “root” 
    ▪ NWR_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ NWR_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘light, to light, to shed light, to illuminate; to clarify, to become clear; guidance, to guide, to seek guidance, to enlighten, to gain insight; lantern, landmark; fire, to light fire; blossoms, to blossom, to bring forth flowers’ 
    ▪ protSem *√NWR ‘to shine, be(come) bright’ – Huehnergard2011.
    … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl minaret, from Ar ↗manāraẗ, akin to ↗nūr
    – 
    nār نار 
    ID 884 • Sw 82/48 • BP 468 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NWR 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from Sem *nwr ‘to shine’, replaced the main Sem term for ‘fire’, protSem *ʔiš(‑āt)‑ (which left no traces in Ar).
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    NWS نوس 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20May2023
    √NWS 
    “root” 
    ▪ NWS_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NWS_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NWS_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘human beings, increase, shake; to be blown about, drive an animal; to slacken, hang down; cobweb’ 
    ▪ (BAH2008): In addition to deriving nās from this root (‘to move about’), philologists derive it also from roots ↗ʔNS ‘to be sociable’ and ↗NSY ‘to be forgetful’.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NWŠ نوش 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20May2023
    √NWŠ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NWŠ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NWŠ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NWŠ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘skirmish; to seize; to hang on to, receive; to save; to come face-to-face with’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NWṢ نوص 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20May2023
    √NWṢ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NWṢ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NWṢ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NWṢ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘escape, way out, place and time of escape, flee; to ready o.s. for action, move, pull; avoidance’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NWʕ نوع 
    Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | created 9Jun2023
    √NWʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    nawʕ نَوْع 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 305 • APD … • © SG | created 9Jun2023
    √NWʕ 
    n. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    NWQ نوق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20May2023
    √NWQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ NWQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NWQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NWQ_3 ‘...’ ↗... Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘she-camel, to be elegant, make dainty, be of pleasant complexion; to cause to be amiable; to be selective’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NWM نوم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NWM 
    “root” 
    ▪ NWM_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ NWM_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ NWM_1 ‘to sleep’ ↗nāma

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘sleep, to lie down, to dream, to he lazy; to be insignificant; to abate’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    nām‑ / nim‑ نامَ / نِمْـ , ā (nawm , niyām
    ID 885 • Sw 60/139 • BP 1268 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √NWM 
    vb., I 
    to sleep, slumber; to go to bed; to go to sleep; to abate, subside, let up, calm down, be calm (wind, sea, etc.); to be inactive, dull, listless (market); to be benumbed, be numb (limb); to neglect, omit, overlook (ʕan s.th.), forget (ʕan about s.th.), fail to think of; to be reassured (ʔilà by s.th.), accept (ʔilà s.th.), assent (ʔilà to), acquiesce (ʔilà in); to place confidence (ʔilà in s.o.), trust (ʔilà s.th.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protWSem *nwm ‘to sleep’. – For another word, less common in Ar but a basic item in protSem, cf. ↗sinaẗ (< protSem *šin‑at‑) ‘sleep’.
    ▪ From WSem *nwm ‘to sleep’, Sem *nawim‑ ‘drowsy’, *nawm-at‑ ‘slumber’. 
    ▪ eC7 (nawm) Q 2:255 lā taʔḫuḏuhū sinatun wa-lā-nawm ‘neither slumber nor sleep overtakes Him’; (manām) (act of sleeping) Q 30:23 wa-min ʔātāti-hi manāmu-kum bi’l-laylī wa’l-nahāri wa-’btiġāʔu-kum min faḍli-hī ‘His wonders [also] include your sleeping and seeking his bounty by night and by day’, (dream) Q 37:102 yā bunay-ya ʔinnī ʔarà fī ’l-manāmi ʔannī ʔaḏbaḥu-ka ‘my son, I have seen in the dream that I am slaying [sacrificing] you’; (nāʔim) Q 68:19 fa-ṭāfa ʕalayhā ṭāʔifun min rabbi-ka wa-hum nāʔimūna ‘a visitation from your Lord visited it while they were sleeping’ 
    ▪ Fronzaroli#2.11: Akk munattu ‘dream’,221 Hbr nāmū ‘they slept’, Syr nām, Ar nāma (< *nawima), Gz nōma ‘to sleep’; Hbr nūmā, Syr nawmᵉtā, Ar nawmaẗ, Gz newām ‘slumber’.
    ▪ BDB1906: nûm, Aram nūm, Syr nām, Gz nōma ‘to be drowsy, slumber’.
    ▪ Zammit2002: Akk nāmu ‘to slumber’222 (munattu ‘morning slumber’), Ug nhmmt ‘slumber’,223 Hbr nūm ‘to be drowsy, slumber’, Aram nūm ‘to slumber’ (namnēm ‘to be drowsy; to doze’), Syr nām ‘to sleep heavily, slumber’, Ar nawm, Gz newām ‘sleep’.
    ▪ Kogan2011: Ar nāma, Gz noma ‘to sleep’, Hbr Syr nām ‘to slumber’, ? Ug nhmmt ‘drowsiness’, ? Akk nu-ma-at ‘it (the forest) was still’.224  
    ▪ Fronzaroli#2.11: Sem *nawim‑ ‘drowsy’, *nawm-at‑ ‘slumber’.
    ▪ Kogan2011: Ar nāma, Gz noma ‘to sleep’ go back to WSem *nwm, preserved with the non-basic meaning ‘to slumber’ in Hbr and Syr and doubtfully attested in Ug nhmmt ‘drowsiness’ and Akk nu-ma-at ‘it (the forest) was still’. 
    – 
    nawwama, vb. II, to lull (s.o.) to sleep, make sleep, put to bed (esp., a child); to anesthetize, narcotize, put to sleep: caus.
    ʔanāma, vb. IV, = II: caus.
    tanāwama, vb. VI, to pretend to be asleep; to place confidence, put trust (ʔilà in s.o.):…
    ĭstanāma, vb. X, to let o.s. be lulled to sleep or narcotized (li‑ by s.th.); to accede (li‑ to s.th.), comply (li‑ with); to trust (ʔilà s.o.), have confidence (ʔilà in s.o.), rely, depend (ʔilà on s.o.); to entrust (bi‑ s.th. ʔilà to s.o.); to be reassured (ʔilà by s.th.), accept tacitly (ʔilà s.th.), acquiesce (ʔilà in s.th.), content o.s., be content (ʔilà with): requestative, tŠ-stem.
    BP#930nawm, n., sleep, slumber: vn. I | ġurfat al-~, n., bedroom; qamīṣ al-~, n., nightgown, nightshirt.
    nawmī, adj., of or pertaining to sleep, somn(i)-, sleeping- (in compounds): nsb-adj., from nawm.
    nawmaẗ, n.f., sleep, nap: n.un. of nawm.
    nuwamaẗ, n.f., one who sleeps much, sleeper: ints.
    nawwām, n., one given to sleep, sleeper: nominalized ints. adj.
    naʔūm, adj., sound asleep: ints.; n., one given to sleep, sleeper; late riser, slugabed: nominalization.
    BP#4877manām, n., sleep; (pl. ‑āt) dream:…
    BP#4877manām, n., place to sleep; bedroom, dormitory: n.loc.
    manāmaẗ, n.f., place to sleep; bedroom, dormitory: n.loc.; nightwear, nightgown, nightshirt: n.instr.; al-Manāmaẗ, Manama (capital of Bahrein Islands).
    tanwīm, n., lulling to sleep; narcotization, anesthetization; hypnotism, hypnosis: vn. II.
    BP#2214nāʔim, pl. niyām, nuwwam, nuyyam, nuwwām, nuyyām, adj., sleeping; asleep; numb, benumbed (limb); calm, tranquil, peaceful (night): PA I.
    munawwim, adj., sleep-inducing, somniferous, soporific; narcotic; hypnotist; (pl. ‑āt), n., a soporific, somnifacient: PA II | ǧurʕaẗ ~aẗ, n., soporific potion, sleeping draught, nightcap; dawāʔ ~, n., a soporific, somnifacient; ḥubūb ~aẗ, n.pl., sleeping pills.
     
    NWN نون 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20May2023
    √NWN 
    “root” 
    ▪ NWN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NWN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NWN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘fish; a correct word, word of wisdom; inkpot, the letter nūn, enunciate the sound nūn. nūn meaning ‘fish’ is considered by some scholars to be of Syr origin’ 
    ▪ From protSem *nūn‑ ‘fish’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NWY نوي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20May2023
    √NWY 
    “root” 
    ▪ NWY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NWY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NWY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a fruit stone; home, to leave home; direction, intention, to intend, determine’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    NYL نيل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20May2023
    √NYL 
    “root” 
    ▪ NYL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NYL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ NYL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘gift, a favour bestowed, a gracious act conferred, benefit; to obtain, enable to have, let have; to reach; to harm, bear upon, insult’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    hāʔ هاء 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ 
    R₁ 
    The letter h of the Arabic alphabet. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
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    – 
     
    hārb , hā̆rb هارْب 
    ID … • Sw … • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √HRB, HāRB 
    n. 
    harp (musical instrument) – WehrCowan1979. 
    Rolland2014a: from Engl harp or Fr harpe, from oEngl hearpe, from Germ *kharpon‑
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ▪ Germ *harpon- (cognates: oSax harpa ‘instrument of torture’, oNor harpa, Du harp, oHG harpfa, G Harfe ‘harp’), of uncertain origin. lLat harpa, source of words in some Rom langs (It arpa, Span arpa, Fr harpe), is a borrowing from Germ –
    DRS 5 (1995)#HGR-1 Ar haǧara ‘rompre avec, s’éloigner de, abandonner; bouder qn, cesser de lui parler’, hiǧraẗ ‘rupture, séparation; départ, émigration’, Marāz mahǧar ‘endroit isolé, lieu dont il n’y a aucun avantage à tirer’, HispAr hažar ‘détester’, Mhr hōgər, Jib hogór ‘émigrer’. – Outside Sem: ? [Berb] Warg aggur ‘marcher’, Naf agər, agur ‘s’en aller’, Tmzġ gurr ‘aller, partir, marcher’? -2 Ar haǧr, haǧīraẗ ‘milieu du jour, le plus fort de la chaleur’, HispAr hāžira ‘heure de la sieste’, Mhr hēgər ‘faire chaud à midi’, Jib hógər ‘midi’. -3 Ar hāǧiraẗ ‘langage indécent’, haǧara ‘délirer, radoter’, DaṯAr haǧar ‘parler haut’. -4 Ar haǧara ‘être pur, sans mélange’, huǧr ‘excellent, noble et distingué (homme)’, haǧǧīr ‘coutume, manière’. -5 Syr hᵉgar, ʔahgar ‘devenir musulman’, mahgᵉrā, mahgᵉrāyā ‘musulman’. -6 Ar hiǧār ‘corde de l’arc, corde avec laquelle on rattache le pied du chameau à la sangle, chaîne portée au cou’, DaṯAr haǧǧar ‘lier les pieds de devant d’un chameau’, SudAr haǧar ‘entraver et forcer à s’asseoir (chameau)’, mahǧar ‘vol (en particulier de vaches ou de chameaux)’, Marāz hᵃžaṛ ‘mettre l’entrave (à un chameau, cheval, âne en rut)’, MġrAr hǧar ‘faire violemment, avec excès’. -7 YemAr haǧar : ruines d’une ville antique, hiǧreh ‘enclave protégée’, SAr hgr ‘ville’, Gz hagar ‘ville, village, province, pays’, hagarit ‘ville, citadins’, Te Tña hagär, ‘région habitée, cité, village’, Amh Choa, Gur agär ‘terre, pays’; ? MġrAr mahǧar ‘chemin, rue très fréquentée, animée’. – Outside Sem: Cohen1969:77 proposant de voir dans HǦR avec cette valeur, une variante méridionale de ʔKL, rapproche d’Eg ʔkr ‘dieu de la terre’, [Berb] Tmšq, Sūs akāl ‘terre, terrain, pays’, [Cush] Af erkē, SaAf rikē, Or irge ‘endroit, place’; sans doute Som hag, hal ‘id.’. -8 MġrAr hǧar ‘vider, nettoyer une fosse’. -9 Te hagrä ‘creuser un trou’, hagärä ‘manquer, attendre’. -10 Gz həgʷre, higore, hegore ‘vermillon, couleur rouge’, Te haggärä ‘teindre en rouge’. -11 SudAr haǧǧarat ‘sorte de durra de qualité inférieure’. -12 Mhr həgūr ‘acheter de la nourriture pour sa famille’. 
    ▪ HǦR_1 (= DRS HǦR#1): regarded by Huehnergard2011 as an exclusively Arabic root. The notion of ‘departing, leaving behind’ may be at the basis of HǦR_7 YemAr haǧar ‘ruins of an old city/village’ (perhaps: *deserted place). But one could also imagine the reverse to be the case. Kerr, e.g., holds (Kerr2014:79,n.119) that, outside Ar, the root HǦR is attested only in SSem in the meaning of ‘city-dweller’ (HǦR_7; cf. also Ar huǧraẗ, hiǧraẗ ‘agricultural settlement of the Wahabi Ikhwān in Nejd’) and in Hbr and Aram as the name of Abraham’s concubine, Hagar (not accounted for in DRS). HǦR_1 could thus be dependent on HǦR_7. Some dictionaries indeed interpret the notion of ‘departing’ as that of a ‘removal from the desert to the towns or villages’, in this way linking ‘departure’ up to ‘town, village’. – What is deserted and neglected, also becomes ugly and disgusting; so HǦR_1 may also be the source of HǦR_3 ‘to talk nonsense, obscene language’.
    ▪ HǦR_2 (= DRS HǦR#2) ‘hottest time of the day’ ↗hāǧiraẗ : ‘because people [then] shelter themselves in their tents or houses, as though they forsook one another (tahāǧarū)’ (Lane, quoting Qāmūs)
    ▪ HǦR_3 (= DRS HǦR#3) ‘obscene language; to talk nonsense, talk through one’s hat’: ↗huǧr . Just a metathetical variant of ↗ǦHR?
    ▪ HǦR_4 (= DRS HǦR#4) ‘custom, habit’: hiǧǧīr, hiǧǧīrà, hiǧǧīraẗ; meaning also ‘speech, language’: Seen as one with HǦR_5 by DRS.
    ▪ HǦR_5 (= DRS HǦR#4) ‘excellent, distinguished’: hāǧir, hāǧirī, muhǧir, the latter meaning also ‘lofty (palm-tree)’, ʔahǧarᵘ ‘better, nobler; longer, thicker’. Seen as one with HǦR_4 by DRS.
    ▪ HǦR_6 (= DRS HǦR#6) ‘bow-string; rope for tying a camel’s foot, tether’: hiǧār.
    ▪ HǦR_7 (= DRS HǦR#7) huǧraẗ, hiǧraẗ ‘agricultural settlement of the Wahabi Ikhwān in Nejd’. ‘ruins of an old city’. – Cf. YemAr haǧar ? The latter or a relative of it may be at the origin of HǦR_1 ‘to depart’ in the sense of *‘to leave desert life and settle in an area of agriculture’. – DRS : Mot voyageur? Cf. also Sum agar ‘territoire irrigué’, Latin ager ‘champ’. – In contrast, Dolgopolsky2012#2571 does not connect the Sum and Lat (< IE *ag̑ro-s ‘field, field in cultivation’) words with Ar HǦR but with Ar ↗ḥākūraẗ ‘piece of land retained and enclosed by its proprietor for sowing and planting trees, (WehrCowan1979:) small vegetable garden’ (< Syr ḥkwrʔ /*ḥakūrā ?/ ‘field’ < CSem *ḤKR ‘field in cultivation’).
    ▪ HǦR_8 (= DRS HǦR#8) ‘to empty, clean a ditch’: MġrAr hǧar (DRS).
    ▪ HǦR_9 (DRS : Ø) ‘sufficiency’: haǧrāʔᵘ, cf. the expr. mā ʕinda-hū ġanāʔu ḏālika wa-lā haǧrāʔu-hū ‘he is not adequate to the work’.
    ▪ HǦR_10 (DRS : Ø) ‘large watering-trough; large cup’: haǧīr, pl. huǧur.
    ▪ HǦR_11 (DRS : Ø) ‘durra of minor quality’: SudAr haǧǧarat (DRS).
     
    ▪ eC7 haǧara (to desert, shun, part company with, forsake) Q 74:5 wa’l-ruǧza fa-’hǧur ‘and shun all abominations’, (to leave alone, avoid, abstain from, ignore) Q 4:34 wa-’hǧurū-hunna fī ’l-maḍāǧiʕi ‘and ignore them in bed’. – haǧr (vn. I, act of parting company with s.o., forsaking, boycotting, ignoring) Q 73:10 wa-’ṣbir ʕalà mā yaqūlūna wa-’hǧur-hum haǧran ǧamīlan ‘and endure patiently what they say, and forsake them with a gracious forsaking’. – hāǧara (vb. III, to emigrate, migrate) Q 4:100 wa-man yuhāǧiru fī sabīli ’llāhi ‘and he who emigrates in the cause of God’. – muhāǧir (PA III, migrant, emigrant, s.o. who migrates from their home/country) Q 4:100 wa-man yaḫruǧu min bayti-hī muhāǧiran ʔilà ’ḷḷāhi wa-rasūli-hī ‘and whosoever leaves home migrating to God and His Messenger’. – mahǧūr (PP I, forsaken, abandoned, deserted, shunned, neglected; abused, slandered, insulted) Q 25:30 wa-qāla ’l-rasūlu yā rabbi ʔinna qawm-ī ’ttaḫaḏū hāḏā ’l-qurʔāna mahǧūran ‘and the Messenger will say, “My Lord, my people have considered this Revelation as something of no consequence (or: s.th. to be ignored, or: to be abused)’.
    ▪ Hava1899 has vb. II haǧǧara with still another meaning: ‘to perform (prayer) before the time (Moslem)’, and vb. III hāǧara not only in the sense of ‘to emigrate’ but, more specifically, ‘to leave nomadic life’; hiǧraẗ not only ‘estrangement’ but also ‘removal from the desert to a town’. 
    ▪ Huehnergard2011 considers HǦR with the value ‘to depart’ as an exclusively Ar root.
    ▪ A relation to other values of HǦR should however not be discarded right away, although it is not attested and therefore difficult to prove. ‘Departing, leaving behind’ may be at the basis of YemAr haǧar ‘ruins of an old city/village’ (perhaps: *deserted place, = HǦR_7 s.v. ↗HǦR). But one could also imagine the reverse to be the case, i.e., ‘departing, leaving behind’ to be denominative from these ‘ruins’. In a similar vein, Kerr (2014:79,n.119) holds that, outside Ar, the root HǦR is attested only in SSem, where it carries the meaning of ‘city-dweller’ (HǦR_7) (cf. also Ar huǧraẗ, hiǧraẗ ‘agricultural settlement of the Wahabi Ikhwān in Nejd’), and in Hbr and Aram as the name of Abraham’s concubine, Hagar (not accounted for in DRS). haǧara could thus be dependent on haǧar (which perhaps is a Wanderwort (cf. Sum agar ‘territoire irrigué’, Latin ager ‘champ’, IE *ag̑ro-s ‘field, field in cultivation’—DRS). Some dictionaries indeed (though with adverse direction) interpret the notion of ‘departing’ as that of a ‘removal from the desert to the towns or villages’, in this way linking ‘departure’ up to ‘town, village’. – What is deserted and neglected, also becomes ugly and disgusting; is haǧara therefore possible also the source of HǦR_3 ‘to talk nonsense, obscene language’ (↗huǧr)? Probably not, the latter may be just a metathetical variant of ↗ǦHR.
    ▪ A relation to the value ‘hottest time of the day’ (HǦR_2, ↗hāǧiraẗ) ‘because people [then] shelter themselves in their tents or houses, as though they forsook one another (tahāǧarū)’ (Lane, quoting Qāmūs), does not seem very likely.
     
    haǧǧara, vb. II, to induce (s.o.) to emigrate: D-stem, caus.
    BP#4922hāǧara, vb. III, 1 to emigrate; to migrate, drift away (min from an area): L-stem, associative; cf., however, also muhāǧir, below. – 2 (leb.) to be carried away, be in ecstasy, be out of this world ( because of, by): fig. use of v1.
    ʔahǧara, vb. IV, 1 to leave, abandon, give up (s.th.): may be denom. from *haǧar in the sense of ‘settlement’ (*giving up desert life and settle in an agricultural area), see DISC above and huǧraẗ ~ hiǧraẗ below. – 2huǧr.
    tahāǧara, vb. VI, to desert one another, part company, separate, break up: tD-stem, recipr.
    haǧr, n., 1 abandonment, forsaking, leaving, separation; avoidance, abstention; separation from the beloved one: vn. I. – 2hāǧiraẗ.
    BP#1760hiǧraẗ, n.f., departure, exit; emigration, exodus; immigration (ʔilà to); al-Hiǧraẗ, n.f., the Hegira, the emigration of the Prophet Mohammed from Mecca to Medina in 622 A.D. | Dār al-hiǧraẗ, epithet of Medina; al-hiǧraẗ min al-rīf, n.f., rural exodus, migration from rural areas: n.vic. I, f.
    hiǧrī, adj., of the Hegira, pertaining to Mohammed’s emigration. nsb-adj. of preceding item. | sanaẗ hiǧriyyaẗ, n.f., a year of the Hegira, a year of the Muslim era (beginning with Mohammed’s emigration).
    huǧraẗ, hiǧraẗ, pl. huǧar, hiǧar, n.f., agricultural settlement of the Wahabi Ikhwān in Nejd: perh. akin to HǦR_7 in ↗HǦR. The notion of ‘agricultural settlement, cultivated field’ may in itself be the meaning on which that of haǧara is dependent as *‘to leave desert life and settle in an area of agriculture’ (see DISC above).
    mahǧar, pl. mahāǧirᵘ, n., place of emigration, retreat, refuge, sanctuary; emigration; settlement, colony; al-Mahǧar, the Mahjar, the Arab diaspora, Arabs living abroad, specif., in the New World: n.loc.
    mahǧarī, adj., living in exile, exile (in compounds); pertaining to the Mahjar: nsb-adj. of preceding item.
    tahǧīr, n., displacement (of persons); evacuation, relocation (of population): vn. II.
    muhāǧaraẗ, n.f., emigration: vn. III; cf., however, also muhāǧir, below.
    mahǧūr, adj., 1 abandoned, forsaken, deserted: PP I. – 2 lonely, lonesome: ext. of v1. – 3 in disuse, out of use; obsolete (word), antiquated, archaic: ext. of v1. – 4 (Hava1899:) uncouth (word), absurd (speech): cf. ↗huǧr.
    BP#2962muhāǧir, n., 1 emigrant, emigré: PA III. – 2 al-Muhāǧirūn, n.pl., (histor.) the Meccans who emigrated with Mohammed to Medina: usually seen as a specialization of v1; Kerr2014, however, thinks al-Muhāǧirūn is based on Syr mhaggrāyā (borrowed into Greek as magaroí) ‘the Hagarites’, a synonym for ‘Arabs’, the successors of Ismael, son of Abraham and Hagar.

    For other values attached to the root, see ↗HǦR, ↗huǧr ‘obscene language’, ↗huǧraẗ ‘agricultural settlement of the Wahabi Ikhwān in Nejd’, ↗hāǧiraẗ ‘midday heat’. 
    ▪ In the DRS entry HǦR (#7, = HǦR_7 in ↗HǦR), YemAr haǧar ‘ruins of an old city’ figures together with SSem words denoting ‘settlement, city’, ‘sedentary’, ‘city-dweller’. Ar huǧraẗ ~ hiǧraẗ ‘agricultural settlement of the Wahabi Ikhwān in Nejd’ is not mentioned in DRS but seems to belong to the same complex.
    ▪ The vb. ↗haǧara ‘to depart, leave behind, emigrate’ (HǦR_1) may be connected to, if not denominative from, ‘settlement, city, sedentary’, cf. the meaning, given in Hava1899, of vb. III hāǧara not only in the sense of ‘to emigrate’ but, more specifically, ‘to leave nomadic life’ (Lane: ‘to go forth from the desert to the cities or towns’), and that of hiǧraẗ not only as ‘estrangement’ but also ‘removal from the desert to a town’; accord. to Lane, »this is the primary acceptation, with the Arabs, of the verb (when intrans.)«.
    ▪ Does also (DRS HǦR#5) Syr hᵉgar, ʔahgar ‘to become a Muslim’, mahgᵉrā, mahgᵉrāyā ‘Muslim’ belong here? What at first may look as if it were derived from Ar al-Muhāǧirūn ‘the Meccans who emigrated with Mohammed to Medina’ may however be in itself the source of the Ar word: Kerr2014 thinks that the meaning ‘to migrate’ is secondary, al-Muhāǧirūn being based on Syr mhaggrāyā (borrowed into Greek as magaroí) as ‘the Hagarites’, a synonym for ‘Arabs’, the successors of Ismael, son of Abraham and Hagar, and the name Hagar (Hbr Hāgār) may have s.th. to do with ‘settlement, settling in a(nother) city’ (rather than meaning ‘flight’, as is usually assumed).
    DRS reports that YemAr haǧar is perhaps is a Wanderwort , akin to Sum agar ‘irrigated territory’, Lat ager ‘field’, IE *ag̑ro-s ‘field, field in cultivation’.
    814
    ▪ A relation to ‘hottest time of the day’ (HǦR_2, ↗hāǧiraẗ) and ‘obscene language; to talk nonsense, talk through one’s hat’ (HǦR_3, ↗huǧr) does not seem likely.
     
    – 
    For other items of the root see ↗HǦR, ↗haǧara ‘to depart, emigrate’, ↗huǧr ‘obscene language’, ↗hāǧiraẗ ‘midday heat, midday, noon’. 
    hāǧiraẗ هاجِرة , pl. hawāǧirᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √HǦR 
    n.f. 
    1 midday heat, midday, noon – WehrCowan1979. – 2 For another meaning see ↗huǧr
    Etymology obscure. ClassAr lexicography constructs a relation to ↗haǧara ‘to depart, emigrate’, but this is hardly to be trusted. 
    ▪ Hava1899 still has the (denom.) vbs. II haǧǧara ‘to be intensely hot (day)’; id., ʔahǧara (IV), and haǧǧara (V) ‘to journey in the middle of the day’; as well as the n. (nominalized adj.?) haǧūrī ‘midday-meal’. 
    DRS 5 (1995)#HGR-2 Ar haǧr, haǧīraẗ ‘milieu du jour, le plus fort de la chaleur’, HispAr hāžira ‘heure de la sieste’, Mhr hēgər ‘faire chaud à midi’, Jib hógər ‘midi’. 
    ▪ ClassAr lexicography constructs a relation between ‘midday heat’ and ↗haǧara ‘to depart, emigrate’, claiming that the former is dependent on the latter »because people [then] shelter themselves in their tents or houses, as though they forsook one another (tahāǧarū)« (Lane, quoting Qāmūs). But this looks very much as a late attempt at explaining, and unifying, semantic variety within the root.
    ▪ The word not only appears in the form hāǧiraẗ that looks like PA I f. (FāʕiL-aẗ-), but also as haǧr, haǧīr and haǧīraẗ (the latter two displaying a quasi-PP I pattern (FaʕīL-aẗ-). DRS lists haǧr and haǧīraẗ as the most original forms, but does not provide further explanation. 
    – 
    ḫaṭṭ al-hāǧiraẗ, n.f., meridian (geogr.)

    haǧr, n., 1haǧara. – 2 hottest time of the day.
    haǧīr, n., midday heat: quasi-PP I.
    haǧīraẗ, n.f., midday heat, midday, noon: quasi-PP I, f.
    hāǧirī, adj., midday (adj.); meridional (geogr.); excellent, outstanding: nsb-adj.
    mahǧūr, adj., 1 abandoned, forsaken, deserted: PP I of ↗haǧara. – 2 lonely, lonesome: ext. of v1. – 3 in disuse, out of use; obsolete (word), antiquated, archaic: ext. of v1. – 4 (Hava1899:) uncouth (word), absurd (speech): cf. ↗huǧr.

    For other values attached to the root, see ↗HǦR, ↗haǧara ‘to depart, emigrate’, ↗huǧr ‘obscene language’, ↗huǧraẗ ‘agricultural settlement of the Wahabi Ikhwān in Nejd’. 
    HDː (HDD) هدّ/هدد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20May2023
    √ HDː (HDD) 
    “root” 
    ▪ HDː (HDD)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HDː (HDD)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HDː (HDD)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to pull down, demolish; thud, thundering sound, devastating event; to frighten, threaten’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    HDF هدف 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √HDF 
    “root” 
    ▪ HDF_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ HDF_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    hadaf هَدَف 
    ID 889 • Sw – • BP 218 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √HDF 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    HDM هدم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20May2023
    √HDM 
    “root” 
    ▪ HDM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HDM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HDM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to wreck, demolish; to commit murder; a grave; a tattered garment; to be in a rage’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    HDHD هدهد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20May2023
    √HDHD 
    “root” 
    ▪ HDHD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HDHD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HDHD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to coo, murmur, gently pat a baby to sleep; hoopoe’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    HDY هدي 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √HDY 
    “root” 
    ▪ HDY_1 ‘to lead, guide; (right) way, path, road; manner, mode’ ↗hadà
    ▪ HDY_2 ‘to offer, give as present; present, gift’ ↗hadiyyaẗ
    ▪ HDY_3 ‘to totter, stagger, reel (in walking)’ ↗tahādà

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘guide, vanguard, to guide, to rightly guide; to explain, to clarify; road; daylight; objective; piety; mode; manner; a present, to give a present; a sacrificial offering, to offer a sacrificial offering’ 
    [v1] and [v2] are most probably connected to each other, perhaps also [v3]. With Zammit2002 it may be assumed that the meaning ‘to stretch out the hand’, preserved in Hbr, is possibly »more generic« than ‘to guide, lead, direct’ (but cf. “DISC” below). Thus, the meaning [v1] ‘to guide’ may have evolved from *‘to stretch out the hand to s.o. in order to guide him/her’, while [v2] ‘to give, offer, present’ may be from *‘to stretch out the hand in order to give s.th. to s.o.’ (unless dependent on ‘to guide’, as from *‘to direct s.th./make s.th. find its way to s.o.’). [v3] ‘to totter, stagger, reel (in walking)’ is seen as an independent value by DRS, but may well be a tentative/conative *‘to try to guide o.s., find the balance’. 
    – 
    DRS 5 (1995)#HDY–1 Hbr hādāh ‘tendre (la main)’, Syr haddī, Mand hda, Ar hadà ‘conduire, diriger’, istahdà ‘mener la nouvelle mariée (à son époux)’, Palm hdy, Syr hadāyā, Ar hadw ‘guide, conducteur’, Sab hdy ‘guide, chef’, TargAram ba-hᵃdē ‘avec, chez’, la-hᵃdē ‘à, vers, en direction de’; Ar hadà (li‑) ‘exposer, prouver à’, ʔahdà (bi‑) ‘présenter, adresser’, haddà ‘offrir, séparer, disjoindre’; hady‑ ‘manière, façon, coutume; politesse, offrande’, EgAr hada, hāda ‘offrir’, orient. hadà ‘guider’, ChadAr SudAr hidwe, hadi ‘conseil’, MġrAr hdā ‘pousser, orienter vers; faire un présent; continuer, ne pas cesser de’, Mhr hədū ‘changer d’attitude, retrouver le droit chemin, tourner la page’, Jib hédé ‘faire changer d’attitude’. – Mhr hōdi, Ḥrs hēd, Jib ohodi ‘diviser, partager’, Jib hede ‘faire un présent’, Te hadā ‘se marier, prendre femme’, tähadda ‘se marier (femme)’. –2 Ar hādà ‘se trainer lentement à côté de qn’, tahādà ‘marcher en chancelant, en se balançant’, SudAr ‘marcher seul, d’une démarche chancelante’. –3 Ar hadin, det. hadī ‘eau blanchâtre émise lors d’un accouchement’. –4 EAr hadā ‘s’inquiéter (de qn)’. –5 Ḥrs šhedō ‘connaître’. — See HD, and also HDʔ. –1 Le rapport entre ‘guider’ et ‘poursuivre, continuer à’ trouve son parallèle au Maghrib dans sāq qui signifie aussi ‘guider, conduire devant soi’ et ‘poursuivre, continuer à (après avoir été interrompu)’. Le Soq (y)hotidi ‘être partagé’ est à transcrire hʸótedi et appartient à la racine ŠDY. –2 Berbère touareg hədəddy ‘chanceler’ ? Le caractère originellement laryngal de la consonne initiale ne peut pas être affirmé. –3 Berbère tamazight aheddawi ‘vagabond, errant’? 
    DRS 5 (1995) distinguishes five values attached to the root in Sem, four of which are represented in Ar. Among these four, one (no. -4.) is to be found in EAr only, and one (no. -3.) has not survived into MSA. Thus, EtymArab has to deal with the first two only, i.e., according to DRS’ grouping, 1. ‘to stretch out the hand; to guide; to offer, present’, and 2. ‘to totter, stagger, reel (in walking)’.
    ▪ Badawi 2008 lists the following values for the root in ClassAr: ‘guide, vanguard, to guide, to rightly guide; to explain, to clarify; road; daylight; objective; piety; mode; manner; a present, to give a present; a sacrificial offering, to offer a sacrificial offering’. All of these seem to belong to DRS’ main value no. 1 (‘to explain, clarify’ = *‘to guide s.o. to the solution’; ‘road’ = *‘the way on which one is led/guided’; ‘daylight’ = *‘the light that guides, shows the right way/direction’; ‘objective’ = *‘what one is led/guided to’; ‘piety’ = the result of being led on, or following, the right path; ‘mode, manner’ = fig. use of *‘way, road’; ‘present’ = *‘what is presented/offered when stretching out the hand to s.o.’).
    ▪ Although they are with all probability etymologically connected, EtymArab treats ‘to lead, guide’ and ‘to offer, give as a present’ as two individual items, for the mere sake of making the semantic variety within the root easier to handle and to account for the fact that, from a modern perspective, the two do not have to much to do with each other any longer.
    ▪ If Zammit2002: 553 is right then »[t]he Hbr sense ‘to stretch out the hand’ might be more generic and neutral than the sense ‘to guide’ attested in Ar, SAr, Syr and which could have developed later.« Ar [v1] ‘to guide’ may thus properly be *‘to stretch out the hand to s.o. in order to guide him/her’, while [v2] ‘to give, offer, present’ could be explained as having developed from *‘to stretch out the hand in order to give s.th. to s.o.’. However, [v2] may also depend on ‘to guide’, the notion of ‘giving (as a present, or sacrifice)’ having evolved from *‘to direct s.th./make s.th. find its way to s.o.’. An expression which could be seen as a semantic link between both is Ar hadā-hā ʔilay-hi ‘he led/guided her [sc. the bride] to him [sc. the bridegroom]’, an expression in which ‘leading, guiding’ and ‘giving, handing over, presenting’ overlap and cannot be separated, cf. also the meaning of ↗hadiyyaẗ, in ClassAr, not only as ‘present’ but also as ‘bride’ and ‘beast of sacrifice’ (to be led to Mekkah and presented there) (Freytag1835, Steingass1884, Wahrmund1887). – [v3] ‘to totter, stagger, reel (in walking)’ is more difficult to relate to [v1] or [v2], but since it is unlikely that an Ar form VI stands there isolated both in its Ar and Sem “root environment”, and since also derivation from ‘to guide, lead, direct’ does seem possible, we may explain it as a tentative/conative *‘to try to guide o.s., find the balance’, not uncommon with form VI.
    ▪ For HDY_1, Huehnergard 2011 reconstructs WSem *HDY ‘to lead, extend’.
     
    – 
    – 
    hadà هَدَى / haday‑ هَدَيْـ , i (hady , hudan , det. hudà , hidāyaẗ
    ID … • Sw – • BP 3652 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √HDY 
    vb., I 
    to lead (s.o.) on the right way (DO), guide (s.o. on a course, 2x DO); to guide, show, direct (s.o. ʔilà to), show (s.o.) the way (ʔilà to); to lead (s.o., to the true faith); to supply, bring, procure (s.th.); — (hidāʔ) to bring, lead, conduct ( the bride ʔilà to the bridegroom) — WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ From WSem *hdy ‘to lead, extend’ (Huehnergard2011), probably developed from the notion of ‘to stretch out the hand’ (as preserved in Hbr hādā).
    ▪ The item is related to, or perhaps the etymon of, the semantic complex of ‘giving (as a present), offering’, treated under ↗hadiyyaẗ, as well as of ‘tottering, staggering (in walking)’, treated under ↗tahādà. For the broader context, cf. ↗HDY.
    ▪ In the Islamic context, the vb. and many of its derivatives have taken on a specifically religious-moral connotation (right path, right guidance, etc.) 
    ▪ eC7 hadà (to give the ability to know right from wrong, to give the ability to fend for o.s., to instil the instinct for survival) Q 20:50 rabbu-nā ’llaḏī ʔaʕṭà kulla šayʔin ḫalqa-hū ṯumma hadà ‘our Lord is He who gave everything its form then showed them how to find their way’, (to provide or offer guidance) 41:17 wa-ʔammā ṯamūdu fa-hadaynā-hum fa-’staḥabbū ’l-ʕamà ʕalà ’l-hudà ‘as for Thamūd, We called them to guidance, but they preferred blindness over guidance’, (to guide to the right path) 6:161 hadā-nī rabbī ʔilà ṣirāṭin mustaqīmin ‘my Lord has guided me to a straight path’, ((of God) to lead to Paradise, to guide to ultimate heavenly reward) 7:43 ▪ ĭhtadà (to use for guidance) 6:97, (to seek guidance) 2:53, (to find guidance) 3:20, (to follow in the footsteps of the guided, to accept guidance) 2:170, (to stay on the right course) 20:82 ▪ hādin (one guiding to the right path) 27:81, (a guide, resuer) 25:31 ▪ hudan (guiding, showing the right way) 16:37, (news, information, directions) possibly in 20:10, (spiritual guidance) 3:73, (the Revelation, the Qur’an) 72:13 ▪ ʔahdà (most guided; elat.) 67:22 ▪ muhtadin (one finding the way, one coming to a conclusion, one reaching the right decision) 2:70, (one who follows s.o.’s path) 43:22, (one who has found or accepted true guidance) 57:26 
    ▪ Zammit 2002: Hbr hādā ‘to stretch out the hand’, Aram Syr haddī, SAr hdy ‘to lead, guide, direct’. 
    ▪ Zammit2002: 553 »The Hbr sense ‘to stretch out the hand’ might be more generic and neutral than the sense ‘to guide’ attested in Ar, SAr, Syr and which could have developed later.«
    ▪ Huehnergard 2011: WSem *hdy ‘to lead, extend’.
    ▪ The item is related to, or perhaps the etymon of, the semantic complex of ‘giving (as a present), offering’, treated under ↗hadiyyaẗ. For the broader context, cf. ↗HDY. 
    mahdi, 1792, spiritual and temporal leader expected by some Muslims, from Ar mahdiyy ‘he who is guided aright, rightly guided (one), Mahdi’’, PP I of hadà, vb. I, ‘to lead in the right way’. Applied c.1880 to insurrectionary leaders in the Sudan who claimed to be him. (EtymOnline
    tahaddà, vb. V, to be rightly guided, be led well: quasi-pass.; to get (ʔilà to), reach (ʔilà a place, s.th.): resultative (of quasi-pass.).
    tahādà, vb. VI, to move forward, move on, advance; to glide along (e.g., a sailboat), to get (ʔilà to), reach (ʔilà a place); to get as far as, penetrate (ʔilà to); to flock (ʔilà to s.o.), rally (around s.o.): resultative (of quasi-pass.). – For other meanings see ↗s.v. and ↗hadiyyaẗ.
    ĭhtadà, vb. VIII, to be rightly guided, be led on the right way; to be led, be shown, be taken (ʔilà, li‑ to): quasi-pass.; to find the way (to); to find, detect, discover (ʔilà s.th.), come upon (ʔilà s.th.); to hit upon s.th. (ʔilà or li‑, e.g., an idea), be made aware, think (ʔilà or li‑ of), arrive (at): resultative (of quasi-pass.); to be led back, find one’s way back (ʔilà to the true faith, min away from evil); to be guided (bi‑ by s.o.), take (bi‑ s.o. or s.th.) as an example or model, follow s.o.’s (bi‑) lead: quasi-pass.
    ĭstahdà, vb. X, to ask to be rightly guided, pray for divine guidance, seek the right way: requestative.

    hady, n., guidance, direction; way, road, course, direction; manner, mode, fashion: lexicalized vn. I.
    BP#2341hudan, det. hudà, n., right guidance (esp., in a religious sense); guiding, leading (of s.o.); right way, true religion: lexicalized vn. I. | kāna ʕalà hudan, vb. I, to be on the right way; to embrace the true religion; ʕalà ġayri hudan, adv., aimlessly, at random; sāra ʕalà ġayri hudan, vb. I, to wander aimlessly.
    hadyaẗ, var. hidyaẗ, n., (line of) conduct, procedure, policy, course, way, direction; manner, mode, fashion: n.un. of vn. I hady (?).
    hidāyaẗ, n.f., guidance: vn. I | ʕalà ġayri hidāyaẗ, adv., without divine guidance, aimlessly, at random.
    ʔahdà, adj., better guided; more correct, more proper, better: elat.
    hādin, det. hādī, pl. ‑ūn, hudāẗ, adj., leading, guiding: PA I; n., leader, guide: nomin. PA I.
    mahdiyy, adj., rightly guided: PP I; n., Mahdi: nomin. PP I.
    muhtadin, det. muhtadī, adj., rightly guided; finding the right way; guided by the right feelings; certain, steady (manner of walking, steps, etc.): PA VIII; (pl. ‑ūn), n., a convert to Islam: nomin. PA VIII. 

    tahādà تهادَى / tahāday‑ تهادَيْـ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √HDY 
    vb., VI 
    to totter, stagger, reel (in walking); to walk with a sway or rolling gait – WehrCowan1979. – For other meanings see ↗hadà and ↗hadiyyaẗ
    See "Discussion", below. 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 5 (1995)#HDY–2 Ar hādà ‘se trainer lentement à côté de qn’, tahādà ‘marcher en chancelant, en se balançant’, SudAr ‘marcher seul, d’une démarche chancelante’. 
    ▪ In DRS, the item is given (in form III and VI) as a separate value, to be distinguished from ‘to lead, guide’. But it is perhaps related to the latter ↗hadà ‘to guide, lead, conduct’ as a derivation, not uncommon in form VI, with a tentative/conative reflexive meaning, i.e., *‘to try to guide o.s., to try to find the balance (for o.s.)’; ClassAr form III could be interpreted as associative *‘to take s.th./s.o. as a guide/point of orientation (when not being sure of o.’s own way, and thus tottering)’. The assumption gains plausibility through the fact that it is unlikely that an Ar form VI stands there isolated, both in its Ar and Sem “root environment”. On the other hand, the notion of ‘tottering, staggering’ is not sufficiently explainable from the usual meanings of form III and VI.
     
    – 
    – 
    hudaⁿ هُدىً , det. hudà 
    ID 890 • Sw – • BP 2341 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √HDY 
    n.f. 
    right guidance (esp., in a religious sense); guiding, leading (of s.o.); right way, true religion – WehrCowan1979. 
    The word is a vn. I of the vb. I, ↗hadà ‘to lead, guide, direct, show the way, conduct’ and has taken on a religious connotation since early times. In the religious field, the ‘right guidance’ became identified with the ‘right path’ a believer follows, hence ‘true religion’. 
    ▪ eC7 (guiding, showing the right way) 16:37 ʔin taḥriṣ ʕalā hudā-hum fa-ʔinna ’ḷḷāha lā yahdī man yuḍillu ‘if you (Muḥammad) are eager to guide them, [know that] God does not guide those who lead [others] astray [from the right way]’, (news, information, directions) possibly in 20:10 ʔiḏ raʔā nāran fa-qāla li-ʔahli-hī ’mkuṯū ʔin-nī ʔānastu nāran laʕall-ī ʔātī-kum min-hā bi-qabasin ʔaw ʔaǧidu ʕalā ’l-nāri hudan ‘when he saw a fire and said unto his folk: stay here, I have perceived a fire; maybe I will bring you a brand from it or find [guidance] directions there’, (spiritual guidance) 3:73 al-hudà hudà ’ḷḷāhi ‘true guidance is the guidance of God’, (the Revelation, the Qur’an) 72:13 wa-ʔannā lammā samiʕnā ’l-hudà ʔāmannā bihī ‘and when we heard the Guidance we came to believe in it’. 
    See ↗hadà
    See ↗hadà
    – 
    Cf. ↗hadà, esp.

    tahaddà, vb. V, to be rightly guided, be led well: quasi-pass.
    ĭhtadà, vb. VIII, to be rightly guided, be led on the right way; to be led back, find one’s way back (ʔilà to the true faith, min away from evil): quasi-pass.
    ĭstahdà, vb. X, to ask to be rightly guided, pray for divine guidance, seek the right way: requestative. 

    hadiyyaẗ هَدِيّة , pl. hadāyā 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 1438 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √HDY 
    n.f. 
    gift, present, donation; offering, sacrifice – WehrCowan1979. 
    The n. is a nominalized pseudo-PP of *hadà ‘to give (as a present)’, which is not attested with this general meaning, neither in MSA nor ClassAr but only as hadà, i (hidāʔ), vb. I, with the specialized meaning of ‘to bring, lead, conduct a bride to the bridegroom’ (which also shows the relation between ‘giving’ and ‘leading, conducting’, cf. ↗HDY and ↗hadà). The (hypothetical but quite likely) general sense survived in derivatives such as hādà (III) ‘to exchange presents’, tahādà (VI) ‘to make each other presents, exchange presents’, or ClassAr ĭnhadà, vb. VII, ‘to be offered, given as a present’, reflecting a general giving (of presents). The items listed below in the “Derivatives” section are, properly speaking, not from the lemma hadiyyaẗ but from this reconstructed vb. I. 
    ▪ eC7 hady (offering brought to the Sacred Mosque in Mecca in accordance with the teachings) Q 48:25 humu ’llaḏīna kafarū wa-ṣaddū-kum ʕani ’l-masǧidi ’l-ḥarāmi wa’l-hadya maʕkūfan ‘These it was who disbelieved and debarred you from the Inviolable Place of Worship, and debarred the offering from reaching its goal’ ▪ hadiyyaẗ (gift) 27:35 wa-ʔinnī mursilatun ʔilayhim bi-hadiyyatin ‘but I am sending them a present’
    hadiyyaẗ : until lC19 also ‘bride’ (Freytag1835, Steingass1884, Wahrmund1887). 
    ▪ Zammit 2002: Hbr hādā ‘to stretch out the hand’, Aram Syr haddī, SAr hdy ‘to lead, guide, direct’
    ▪ Cf. also the cognates given in the entry on ↗hadà
    ▪ Zammit2002: 553 #HDY: »The Hbr sense ‘to stretch out the hand’ might be more generic and neutral than the sense ‘to guide’ attested in Ar, SAr, Syr and which could have developed later.«
    ▪ Huehnergard 2011: WSem *hdy ‘to lead, extend’.
    ▪ The meanings ‘present; to give as a present’ etc. are either a development directly from a WSem *hdy ‘to stretch out the hand’ as an act performed in order to give s.th. to s.o. else, or from ↗hadà ‘to lead, guide, direct’ used with a metaphorical meaning, *‘to direct s.th. (esp. a present) to s.o., to make s.th. find its way’. A semantic “bridge” where the notions of ‘guiding, conducting’ and ‘giving away’ overlap, or merge, is the specialized meaning of ↗hadà, i, vb. I, ‘to bring, lead, conduct a bride to the bridegroom’ (vn. hidāʔ). Accordingly, the pseudo-PP I hadiyyaẗ is properly *‘s.th. that is brought (conducted, led) (to s.o., to a destination)’, whence developed the specialized values of ‘gift, present, donation’, ‘offering, sacrifice’ (Steingass1884: ‘beast of sacrifice (to be led to Mekkah and presented there’), and (attested until lC19) also ‘bride’. 
    – 
    hādà, vb. III, to exchange presents (DO with s.o.): assoc.
    ʔahdà, vb. IV, to bring, lead, conduct (‑hā the bride ʔilà to the bridegroom); to give as a present, present, make s.o. (li‑ or ʔilà) a present of (DO): from (hypothetical) vb. I, or denominative from hadiyyaẗ ?; to dedicate (s.th. to s.o.), confer, bestow, award (e.g., an order); to send, convey, transmit (s.th. li‑ or ʔilà to): fig. use.
    tahādà, vb. VI, to make each other presents, exchange presents; to exchange among each other (s.th., also al-taḥiyyaẗ, to exchange greetings, greet or salute each other); – For other meanings see ↗hadà and ↗s.v..

    ʔihdāʔ, n., presentation; donation, grant(ing); award, bestowal, conferment; dedication (of a book): vn. IV.
    muhdan, det. muhdà, adj., presented, given: PP IV.
     

    HḎB هذب 
    Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | created 9Jun2023
    √HḎB 
    “root” 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    tahḏīb تَهْذيب 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 9Jun2023
    √HḎB 
    n. 
    ▪ vn., II 
    HRB هرب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √HRB 
    “root” 
    ▪ HRB_1 ‘to flee, escape, desert; (D-stem) to traffic, smuggle’ ↗haraba
    ▪ HRB_2 ‘harp’ ↗hārb

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘1 to escape, flee, desert; to seek refuge; refuge; fugitive; to disappear from sight; 2 to become feeble’ 
    ▪ HRB_1: Out the 8 values listed in DRS for the root in Sem, 7 are represented in Ar. However, only 1 of these (‘to flee; D-stem: to smuggle’) can be found in MSA as documented in WehrCowan1979. The others appear either in dialects (#HRB-2, #HRB-3, #HRB-7) or form part of the ClassAr vocabulary that has become obsolete (#HRB-4, #HRB-5, #HRB-6). The notion of fleeing may be secondary, a result of an original ‘cry, noise’, as attested in Syr and SudAr.
    ▪ HRB_2 hārb ‘harp’ is clearly a modern borrowing from Engl. 
    – 
    DRS 5 (1995)#HRB-1 Syr hᵉrābā ‘tumulte, bruit’, Ar haraba, Liḥ Tham ‘fuir, s’enfuir’, harraba ‘mettre en fuite’; ʕOmAr EgAr ‘faire passer en contrebande’; EgAr ‘cacher’, ? SudAr hurrub, hurrēb : cri pour faire venir les vaches, SAr hrb ‘fuir, s’enfuir’, Mhr hōrəb, Ḥrs herōb ‘mettre en fuite; faire passer en contrebande’, Jib ohurb ‘s’enfuir; faire passer en contrebande’, hérəb, Mhr hērəb ‘craindre de faire qc’, Jib härbún ‘avare, chiche; trop porté sur la nourriture’, Te harbä ‘s’enfuir’. -2 YemAr harābah, PalAr hrubbe ‘citerne’, SudAr hurrub ‘trou dans le sol couvert de broussaille servant de piège; sol glissant ou qui s’écroule dès qu'on le foule’. -3 TchadAr hārib ‘prostituée’. -4 Ar hariba ‘être vieux, décrépit’. -5 Ar hurb : pellicule de graisse qui tapisse l’estomac ou les intestins. -6 mihrab : outil en bois pour élever et abaisser le semoir; morceau de tronc d’arbre qu'on traîne sur le sol après avoir semé. -7 YemAr mahrabah : sorte de grande hache. [-8 not represented in Ar.]
     
    ▪ The only value mentioned by BAH2008 in addition to ‘to escape, flee, ’ etc. (HRB_1 = DRS#HRB-1), namely ‘to become feeble’, evidently corresponds to DRS#HRB-4. This is also the only one that is still attested in Hava1899: hariba a (harb) ‘to be old, decrepit’.
    ▪ Some of the values DRS #HRB-2 through #HRB-7 may be connected to or derived from the notion of fleeing (#HRB-1); the exact relation however, if existant, remains obscure so far.
    ▪ The modern borrowing HRB_2 hārb ‘harp’ is not mentioned in DRS, see s.v. 
    – 
    – 
    harab‑ هَرَبَ , u (harab , hurūb , mahrab , harabān
    ID … • Sw … • BP 2200 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √HRB 
    vb., I 
    to flee; to escape (min a danger); to desert; to run away, elope (maʕa with) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Of obscure etymology. If DRS is right, the Ar vb. has cognates mostly in both old SAr and modSAr as well as Te (which may be loan), in addition to Syr which stands rather isolated against the rich Ar and SSem evidence. Zammit2002 extends the relation to Akk nērubu; if this is correct, the root may not only be WSem but perhaps ComSem.
    ▪ The notion, now dominant, of fleeing, escaping, etc. may be secondary, a result of an original ‘cry, noise’, as attested in Syr and preserved in SudAr (see section COGN below).
     
    ▪ eC7 harab (fleeing, running away) Q 72:12 wa-ʔannā ẓanannā ʔan lan nuʕǧiza ’llāha fī ’l-ʔarḍi wa-lan nuʕǧiza-hū haraban ‘we know we can never frustrate God on earth; we can never frustrate Him [by] fleeing’ 
    DRS 5 (1995)#HRB-1 Syr hᵉrābā ‘tumulte, bruit’, Ar haraba, Liḥ Tham ‘fuir, s’enfuir’, harraba ‘mettre en fuite’; ʕOmAr EgAr ‘faire passer en contrebande’; EgAr ‘cacher’, ? SudAr hurrub, hurrēb : cri pour faire venir les vaches, SAr hrb ‘fuir, s’enfuir’, Mhr hōrəb, Ḥrs herōb ‘mettre en fuite; faire passer en contrebande’, Jib ohurb ‘s’enfuir; faire passer en contrebande’, hérəb, Mhr hērəb ‘craindre de faire qc’, Jib härbún ‘avare, chiche; trop porté sur la nourriture’, Te harbä ‘s’enfuir’.
    ▪ Zammit2002: Akk nērubu [var. nerrubu, narrubu ] ‘to flee, run away, escape’ [CAD; cf. also arbu, n., fugitive, person without family; arbūtu ‘flight, rout; devastation, ruin; status of a person without a family (arbu)], Syr hᵉrābā ‘tumulte, bruit’, SAr hrb ‘to flee’, Ar (Q) harab ‘flight’. 
    ▪ The Akk nērubu, given as cognate by Zammit2002, is not mentioned in DRS. Has it been omitted on purpose?
    ▪ LandbergZetterstéen1942 notes, but dismisses as »assez problématique« the theory (put forward by Mez, OS, p. 252,) that haraba ‘to flee’ could be composed of h + rb, from rāba u ‘to curdle (milk), have a troubled mind (s.o.)’.
    ▪ Some of the values the root HRB displays in ClassAr and some dialects may be connected to or derived from the notion of fleeing; cf. ↗HRB. 
    – 
    harraba, vb. II, 1 to help to escape; to force to flee, put to flight; to liberate, free (a prisoner); to rescue (a distrained or impounded thing; jur.); 2 to engage in illicit trade, to traffic; to smuggle: D-stem, caus.; [v2] extended to non-human objects.
    taharraba, vb. V, 1 to escape, elude (min s.th.); to shirk, dodge, evade (min a duty, or the like); 2 to evade tax payment: tD-stem, intr.; [v2] modern extended usage.

    BP#3338harab, n., flight, escape, getaway; desertion; elopement: vn. I.
    BP#2993hurūb, n., flight: vn. I.
    harbān, adj., fugitive, runaway, on the run; n., a runaway, a fugitive, a refugee: ints. formation.
    harrāb, adj./n., coward: ints. formation.
    mahrab, pl. mahāribᵘ, n., (place of) refuge, retreat, sanctuary; flight, escape, getaway: n.loc. | mahrabᵃ min-hu, rel.cl., inescapable, unavoidable.
    BP#3982tahrīb, n., illicit trade, trafficking; smuggling, smuggle, contrabandism: vn. II, restricted to [v2].
    hārib, adj., fugitive, runaway, on the run; n., a runaway, a fugitive, a refugee; deserter: PA I.
    muharrib, n., illicit dealer, trafficker; smuggler: PA II, restricted to [v2] of corresponding vb.
    muharrab, pl. ‑āt, n.pl., smuggled goods, contraband: PP II, [v2]. 
    tahrīb تَهْرِيب 
    ID 891 • Sw – • BP 3982 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √HRB 
    n. 
    illicit trade, trafficking; smuggling, smuggle, contrabandism – WehrCowan1979. 
    The n. is a vn. of harraba, vb. II, properly ‘to help to escape; to force to flee, put to flight; to liberate, free (a prisoner); to rescue (a distrained or impounded thing; jur.)’, but then also applied to non-human objects and used with the extended meaning of ‘to traffic, smuggle’. Morphologically a D-stem with caus. meaning, *‘to let/make escape (sc. goods)’. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ ↗haraba, vb. I. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    Cf. also

    muharrib, n., illicit dealer, trafficker; smuggler: PA II, restricted to [v2] of corresponding vb.
    muharrab, pl. ‑āt, n.pl., smuggled goods, contraband: PP II, [v2]. 
    HRT هرت 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20May2023
    √HāRūT 
    “root” 
    ▪ HRT_1 ‘Hārūt’ : see alphabetically 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    HRʕ هرع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20May2023
    √HRʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ HRʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HRʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HRʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to go in haste, hurry, haste, hasty, walk briskly; to flow; a weak person’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    HRM هرم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √HRM 
    “root” 
    ▪ HRM_1 ‘to become senile and decrepit’ ↗harima
    ▪ HRM_2 ‘to mince, chop’ ↗harrama
    HRM_3 ‘the mind’ ↗harim
    ▪ HRM_4 ‘pyramid’ ↗haram
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    harim‑ هَرِمَ , a (haram , mahram , mahramaẗ
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √HRM 
    vb., I 
    to become senile and decrepit – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    … 
    harram‑ هَرَّمَ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √HRM 
    vb., II 
    to mince, chop – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    … 
    harim هَرِم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √HRM 
    n. 
    The mind – Lane viii (1893, Suppl.). 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    … 
    haram هَرَم , pl. ʔahrām , ʔahrāmāt 
    ID 892 • Sw – • BP 3342 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √HRM 
    n. 
    pyramid – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    haram nāqiṣ, n., frustum of pyramid, truncated pyramid (math.)

    haramī, adj., pyramidlike, pyramidical, pyramidal: nsb-adj.
    ʔahrāmī, adj., pyramid like, pyramidical, pyramidal: nsb-adj., from ʔahrām, pl. of haram
    HZː (HZZ) هزّ/هزز 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20May2023
    √ HZː (HZZ) 
    “root” 
    ▪ HZː (HZZ)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HZː (HZZ)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HZː (HZZ)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘shaking, vibrating, to swing; to walk briskly, (of God) to bring forth plants, (of barren land) to become alive; rumbling, quivering, trembling, commotion, movement’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    HZʔ هزء 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20May2023
    √HZʔ 
    “root” 
    ▪ HZʔ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HZʔ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HZʔ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to mock, scorn, ridicule, sneer at, derision; to break; to perish, cause death of cattle by allowing them to get too cold’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    HZL هزل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20May2023
    √HZL 
    “root” 
    ▪ HZL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HZL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HZL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to mock, joke, jest, take lightly; to be thin, be emaciated; to lose one’s cattle, become impoverished’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    HZM هزم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20May2023
    √HZM 
    “root” 
    ▪ HZM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HZM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HZM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘lowland; crevice, dent, groove, crack; to defeat, vanquish, rob s.o. of his rights; roll of thunder; disaster, to kill; emaciated animals’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    HŠː (HŠŠ) هشّ/هشش 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20May2023
    √ HŠː (HŠŠ) 
    “root” 
    ▪ HŠː (HŠŠ)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HŠː (HŠŠ)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HŠː (HŠŠ)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be brittle; to be pliant, (of bread etc.) to be thin, be soft; to be welcoming, wear a welcoming smile; to drive away; to beat down tree leaves with a stick; a horse that perspires too much’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    HŠM هشم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20May2023
    √HŠM 
    “root” 
    ▪ HŠM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HŠM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HŠM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to break down, crumble, crack; to be frail, be brittle; dry stalks, straw, dry herbage, land with dry, dead trees; lowlands’ 
    ▪ Ar root *√HŠM ‘to smash, shatter, destroy’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    – 
    HḌM هضم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20May2023
    √HḌM 
    “root” 
    ▪ HḌM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HḌM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HḌM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to digest; to deny s.o. his rights, oppress; to cleave; to be slender, be graceful, be soft and ripe; to be encased; lowland’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    HṬʕ هطع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20May2023
    √HṬʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ HṬʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HṬʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HṬʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to come rushing in fear, stretch the neck and head in agitation, transfix the eyes in horror, cower in fear; a wide road’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    HL هل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20May2023
    √HL 
    “root” 
    ▪ HL_1 ‘(interrogative particle)’ ↗hal
    ▪ HL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HL_3 ‘...’ ↗... 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    HLː (HLL) هلّ / هلل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √HLː (HLL) 
    “root” 
    ▪ HLː (HLL)_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ HLː (HLL)_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘new moon, (of the moon) to appear for the first time; (of the month) to start; crescent, crescent-šaped; to come forth; to exalt God, to invoke God’s name upon an animal at the moment of slaughter; (of the face) to lighten up, to show joy; (of clothes) to become tattered’ 
    ▪ …
    ▪ …
    ▪ From protSem *√HLL ‘to shout, boast’; in derived stem, ‘to praise’ – Huehnergard2011.
     
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl alleluia, hallelujah, from Hbr hallᵊlû-yāh ‘praise Yahweh’, from hallᵊlû ‘praise’, imp.m. of hillēl ‘to praise’, akin to Ar ↗hallala
    – 
    hilāl هِلال 
    ID 893 • Sw – • BP 5012 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √HLː (HLL) 
    n. 
    new moon; half-moon, crescent; parenthesis; any crescent-shaped object – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    HLB هلب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2021
    √HLB 
    “root” 
    ▪ HLB_1 ʻhair, bristles; (to be) hairy, shaggy’ ↗hulb
    ▪ HLB_2 ʻanchor, grapnel, grappling iron, boat hook’ ↗hilb
    ▪ HLB_3 ʻlochia (med., vaginal discharge after giving birth, postpartum bleeding)’ ↗hulābaẗ
    ▪ HLB_4 ʻmuhallabiya/mahallabiya (dessert resembling blancmange)’ ↗mahallabiyyaẗ

    Other values, now obsolete, include (Steingass1881, Lane viii 1893, Hava1899):

    HLB_5 ʻto drench s.o. (dew), moisten, wetten (by lasting rain or dew)’: halaba (u, hulb); cf. also hallāb ʻcold wind with rain’
    HLB_6 ʻto continue running, run uninterruptedly’: halaba (u, hulb) and ʔahlaba
    HLB_7 ʻto scold, revile, lampoon, satirize’: halaba (i, halb), hallaba
    HLB_8 ʻseverity (of fortune, of winter)’: hulbaẗ (al-šitāʔ), hulubbaẗ
    HLB_9 ʻto unsheath (a sword)’: ĭhtalaba
    HLB_10 ʻaffectionate; distant, shy (woman)’: halūb; cf. also ʔuhlūb ʻardour, impetuosity (in running; horse); (fig.) a kind of speech, way of praising\eulogizing’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ The root √HLB displays a large variety of values the relations betw. which is difficult to establish. DRS distinguishes eight main values in Sem, five of which are represented in Ar. Some of them contain in themselves are broad spectrum of meanings whose interrelatedness is not obvious. They are kept separate therefore here in EtymArab.
    ▪ HLB_1 (≙ DRS #HLB-1) hulb ʻhair, bristles; (to be) hairy, shaggy’: displays most of the obvious derivatives, both in MSA and ClassAr. – Of unknown etymology. DRS regards also [v7] ʻto scold, revile, lampoon, satirize’ and [v8] ʻseverity (of fortune, of winter)’ as belonging to this complex (see below).
    ▪ HLB_2 (≙ DRS #HLB-4) hilb ʻanchor, grapnel, grappling iron, boat hook’: for DRS , hilb is an EgAr var., while the actual item is halb. Etymology obscure; fig. use of [v1]? (Lane viii 1893 reports that hulb ʻpigs’ bristles’ were used to sew skins etc.). – Any relation to ↗ḥalbaẗ (pl. ḥalāʔibᵘ), which, accord. to Hava1899, also can mean ʻanchor’ (though the regular meaning is ʻarena, race track’, in itself without obvious relation to ʻanchor’)?
    ▪ HLB_3 (cf. DRS #HLB-3) hulābaẗ ʻlochia (med., vaginal discharge after giving birth, postpartum bleeding)’: etymology unclear; DRS puts the item together with [v5] ʻto drench, moisten, wetten (by lasting rain or dew)’. Should we add [v6] (≙ DRS #HLB-2) ʻto continue running, run uninterruptedly’?
    ▪ HLB_4 (≙ DRS #HLB-5) mahallabiyyaẗ, var. muhallabiyyaẗ, ʻa dessert resembling blancmange’: vowel in first syllable not secured, DRS has mahallabiyyaẗ. – Prob. a re-import from Tu which had borrowed the word from Ar (with loss of emphatic ). Traditionally, the name of the dish is derived from ↗ḥalab ʻmilk’, but derivation from ↗maḥlab ʻmahaleb, St Lucie cherry’ or ḥalbānaẗ ʻgalbanum; storax’ (↗ḥalab, ↗ḤLB) is more likely.
    ▪ HLB_5 (≙ DRS #HLB-3) halaba (u, hulb) ʻto drench, moisten, wetten (by lasting rain or dew)’; cf. also hallāb ʻcold wind with rain’; DRS sees also [v3] hulābaẗ ʻlochia’ as belonging here; perh. one has to add also [v6] (≙ DRS #HLB-2) ʻto continue running, run uninterruptedly’. – Etymology obscure. On account of alleged extra-Sem cognates, Orel&Stolbova1994 #1196 posit a protSem *h˅lib‑ ‘to soak, be wet’, from AfrAs *hulüb‑ ‘to soak’.
    ▪ HLB_6 (≙ DRS #HLB-2) halaba (u, hulb) and ʔahlaba ʻto continue running, run uninterruptedly’: etymology obscure. DRS lists it as a distinct value, but it may have to be seen together with [v3] hulābaẗ ʻlochia’ and [v5] ʻto drench, moisten, wetten (by lasting rain or dew)’.
    ▪ HLB_7 (cf. DRS #HLB-1) halaba (i, halb) and hallaba ʻto scold, revile, lampoon, satirize’: DRS juxtaposes this value to [v1] ʻhair, (pig’s, horse’s) bristles’ as well as [v8] ʻseverity, intensity (of fortune, of winter)’. An explanation for their grouping may be fig. use of ʻhair, bristles’: ClassAr halaba and hallaba normally mean ʻto pluck (the hair); to clip (a horse’s tail)’, but when combined with bi-lisānih ʻwith one’s tongue, i.e., with words’, the meaning changes to ʻto satirise, revile, carp severely’, prob. because of the “hair-raising” or “stinging” effect of satire (and likewise of the cold or winter or the blow of destiny). From the point of semantic vicinity, also [v5] ʻto drench, moisten, wetten (by lasting rain or dew)’ could seem to be a source of fig. use (ʻlampooning’ interpreted as a *ʻwettening’ of the object of satire by pouring down on him/her a *ʻrain/shower’ of biting comments). – Etymology obscure. Cf., however, Ehret1995#775, who sees Ar halaba ʻto scold, revile’ as an extension in »extendative« *‑b from a bi-consonantal »pre-protSem« root *hl ‘to shout’, from AfrAs *‑hāl‑/*‑hīl‑ ‘to cry, call out’ (↗√HLː (HLL)). (Other extensions from the same pre-protSem root would be ↗√HLHL ʻto repeat a voice, or raise and lower it alternatively; bewail the dead’, ↗√HLǦ ʻto tell incredible things’, and ↗√HLS ʻto laugh, jest, crack jokes’.
    ▪ HLB_8 (cf. DRS #HLB-1) hulubbaẗ, hulbaẗ (al-šitāʔ) ʻseverity, intensity (of fortune, of winter)’: DRS groups this value together with [v1] ʻhair, (pig’s) bristles’ and [v7] ʻto scold, revile, lampoon, satirize’, probably because of the “hair-raising” or “stinging” effect of both satire and the winter’s cold or a blow of destiny; cf. the expr. hālib al-šaʕr, lit., ʻhair-plucking’, as an attribute describing a ʻvehemently cold day’.150 – Further etymology obscure.
    ▪ HLB_9 ĭhtalaba ʻto unsheath (a sword)’: not registered in DRS, perh. fig. use of halaba (i, halb) ʻto pull out the long hairs of a horse’s tail or the bristles of a pig’ and thus from [v1]?
    ▪ HLB_10 halūb ʻaffectionate; distant, shy (woman)’: Accord. to ClassAr lexicographers (as summarized in Lane viii 1893), the adj. is used as an attribute either of a ʻ(woman) who draws near to her husband, or ingratiates herself with him; loving, affectionate, distant with respect to others’ or a woman who, contrary to the first, ʻis distant, or shy, with respect to her husband, or who alienates herself from him, or avoids or shuns him, and draws near to, or ingratiates herself with, her special friend’; the seeming contradiction is explained by some as stemming »from [v7] halabahū bi-lisānih ʻhe carped at him severely with his tongue’ because a wife carps either at her husband or at her friend, or from yawm hallāb ʻa day of gentle, constant, innocuous rain’ and in the latter sense from the same phrase as signifying ʻa day of rain attended by thunder and lightning and terrors, and destructive to dwellings’«. If this explanation reflects etymological truth, the value is fig. use of [v7] ʻto lampoon’ and/or [v5] ʻto drench, moisten, wetten; cold wind with rain’ as well as [v6] ʻto continue running, run uninterruptedly’; cf. also the double meaning in ʔuhlūb ʻardour, impetuosity (in running; said of a horse); (fig.) a kind\way of speech, of praising, or eulogizing’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ HLB_1: Other historically attested meanings derived from ʻhair’: halaba (i, halb) ʻto pull out the long hairs of a horse’s tail or the bristles of a pig’, haliba (a, halab) ʻto be hairy’, hulbaẗ ʻthe hair that is above the pubes, extending near to the navel’.
    ▪ …
     
    DRS 5 (1995) #HLB-1 Ar hulb ʻcrins, soies, cheveux’, haliba ʻavoir beaucoup de cheveux’, halaba ʻarracher les cheveux, etc’; mahlūb ʻcheval à la queue coupée’, halaba ʻse moquer de, injurier’; halbaẗ ʻrigueur (de l’hiver, du sort, etc.)’, HispAr halb ʻdéfilage du tissu’, mahlūb ʻfuselé, en forme de fuseau’; maraz. hallab ʻdéchirer, mettre en lambeaux’. -2 halaba ʻfournir sans répit plusieurs courses (cheval)’, Soud. haylūb ʻchameau rapide, vif’, ? hilib ʻbateau’, ? hēlūb ʻhaut de taille’, MarazAr hᵃlab ʻcourir vite, pousser vivement devant soi’. -3 Ar halaba ʻtremper de rosée, ou de pluie’, hulābaẗ ʻarrière-faix’; ? ʔahlab, LibAr hilbaẗ ʻabondant en produits de la terre (année)’. -4 halb ʻancre, grappin, trident’, EgAr hilb ʻgrappin; croc de boucher’, hallib ʻvivre aux crochets des autres’. -5 mahallabiyyaẗ ʻflan de farine de riz à 1’eau de rose’. -6 Gz holob: sac à provision en peau . -7 Te halbä ʻfaire des incisions, saigner’. -8 Te həlbät : corde passée dans les naseaux d’un chameau.
    ▪ HLB_5: For Ar halaba (i) ‘to soak, be wet’, Orel&Stolbova1994 #1196 see cognates in (WCh) Hs luḅuluḅū ‘sogginess’; in the items lūḅu-ri, ālub-tū, lup-ti, ləb-di, lub-ta, luḅwi-ti, luḅi-ke, luḅ‑, lub ‘to be/make wet’ in several CCh langs; and in the vb. lubi ‘to soak’ in an ECh lang.
    ▪ HLB_7: Ehret1995#775 suggests to regard Ar halaba ʻto scold, revile’ as an extension in »extendative« *‑b from a bi-consonantal »pre-protSem« root *hl ‘to shout’, from AfrAs *‑hāl‑ / *‑hīl‑ ‘to cry, call out’, cf. ↗√HLː (HLL). Other extensions from the same pre-protSem root would be ↗√HLHL ʻto repeat a voice, or raise and lower it alternatively; bewail the dead’, ↗√HLǦ ʻto tell incredible things’, and ↗√HLS ʻto laugh, jest, crack jokes’.
    ▪ …
     
    HLB_5: Orel&Stolbova1994 #1196 reconstructs protSem *h˅lib‑ ‘to soak, be wet’ (based exclusively on Ar), WCh *luḅ‑ < *luHub‑ (from the Hs word), CCh *luḅ‑ < *luHub‑ ‘to be/make wet’ (widely attested), and ECh *lub‑ (from 1 item) ‘to soak’, all from an hypothetical AfrAs *hulüb‑ ‘to soak’. An alternative reconstruction reflected by all Chad branches is *luhub‑.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    hulb هُلْب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2021
    √HLB 
    n.coll. (n.un. ‑aẗ
    hair, bristles – Wehr1976
     
    ▪ Within the root ↗√HLB, hulb ʻhair, bristles’ seems to be the source of most of the obvious derivatives, both in MSA and ClassAr.
    ▪ The word itself is of unknown etymology. No cognates outside Ar.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Other historically attested meanings derived from ʻhair’: halaba (i, halb) ʻto pull out the long hairs of a horse’s tail or the bristles of a pig’, haliba (a, halab) ʻto be hairy’, hulbaẗ ʻthe hair that is above the pubes, extending near to the navel’.
    ▪ …
     
    DRS 5 (1995) #HLB-1 Ar hulb ʻcrins, soies, cheveux’, haliba ʻavoir beaucoup de cheveux’, halaba ʻarracher les cheveux, etc’; mahlūb ʻcheval à la queue coupée’, halaba ʻse moquer de, injurier’; halbaẗ ʻrigueur (de l’hiver, du sort, etc.)’, HispAr halb ʻdéfilage du tissu’, mahlūb ʻfuselé, en forme de fuseau’; maraz. hallab ʻdéchirer, mettre en lambeaux’.
    ▪ …
     
    DRS regards the obsolete values ʻto scold, revile, lampoon, satirize’ (halaba, hallaba) and ʻseverity, intensity (of fortune, of winter)’ (hulbaẗ, hulubbaẗ) as belonging to this complex, prob. on account of the “hair-plucking, hair-raising” or “stinging” effect of both satire and the winter’s cold or a heavy blow of destiny.
    ▪ Should we also include ↗hilb ʻanchor, grapnel, grappling iron, boat hook’ in the picture? (Lane viii 1893 reports that accord. to some ClassAr lexicographers, pigs’ bristles were used to sew skins etc., hence *ʻbristles > needle > hook’?).
    ▪ ClassAr ĭhtalaba, vb. VIII, ʻto unsheath (a sword)’ is perh. fig. use of halaba (i, halb) ʻto pull out the long hairs of a horse’s tail or the bristles of a pig’, and thus from hulb.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    haliba, a (halab), vb. I, to be hairy, covered with hair
    halib, adj., hairy, covered with hair; shaggy, hirsute
    ʔahlabᵘ, f. halbāʔᵘ, pl. hulb, adj., hairy, hirsute, shaggy

    For other values attached to the root, see ↗hilb, ↗hulābaẗ, and ↗mahallabiyyaẗ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√HLB. 
    hilb هِلْب , pl. ʔahlāb 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2021
    √HLB 
    n. 
    anchor, grapnel, grappling iron, boat hook – Wehr1976
     
    ▪ Of obscure etymology. Is it akin to, and perh. even a development from, ↗hulb ʻhair, bristles’? Lane viii 1893 reports that accord. to some ClassAr lexicographers, pigs’ bristles were used to sew skins etc. – So, perh. *ʻbristles > needle > hook’?
    ▪ For DRS , hilb is an EgAr var., while the actual item is halb.
    ▪ Any relation to ↗ḥalbaẗ (pl. ḥalāʔibᵘ), which, accord. to Hava1899, also can mean ʻanchor’ (though the regular meaning is ʻarena, race track’, in itself without obvious relation to ʻanchor’)?
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ … 
    DRS 5 (1995) #HLB-4 LibAr halb ʻancre, grappin, trident’, EgAr hilb ʻgrappin; croc de boucher’, hallib ʻvivre aux crochets des autres’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    For other values attached to the root, see ↗hulb, ↗hulābaẗ, and ↗mahallabiyyaẗ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√HLB. 
    hulābaẗ هُلابة 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2021
    √HLB 
    n.f. 
    lochia (med.; vaginal discharge after giving birth) – Wehr1976
     
    ▪ Etymology obscure. – DRS puts the item together with ʻto drench, moisten, wetten (by lasting rain or dew)’. Should we add ʻto continue running, run uninterruptedly’? See root entry ↗HLB for more details.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ … 
    DRS 5 (1995) #HLB-3 Ar halaba ʻtremper de rosée, ou de pluie’, hulābaẗ ʻarrière-faix’; ? ʔahlab, LibAr hilbaẗ ʻabondant en produits de la terre (année)’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    For other values attached to the root, see ↗hulb, ↗hilb, and ↗mahallabiyyaẗ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√HLB. 
    mahallabiyyaẗ مَهَلَّبيّة , var. muhallabiyyaẗ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 20Feb2021
    √HLB 
    n.f. 
    a dessert resembling blancmange, made of rice flour, milk and sugar – Wehr1976
     
    ▪ Traditionally, the popular blancmange-like dessert called mahallabiyyaẗ or muhallabiyyaẗ is explained as a derivation from ↗ḥalab ʻmilk’ (see Nişanyan’s etymology, quoted below, section WEST). However, while the h instead of may be due to a re-import from Tu (where original Ar would have lost emphatic articulation), the morphological structure of the word – a f. nisba formation based on a PP II – runs contrary to such an interpretation, as form II is not attested and a nisba of PP II ʻmilk’ would mean *ʻbelonging to s.th. made milky, or milk-like’. In reality, we are prob. dealing with a popular re-interpretation of maḥlabiyyaẗ ʻperfume containing ↗maḥlab’, i.e., ʻmahaleb’, a substance produced from the kernels of the St Lucie cherry. Mahaleb may have been used to flavour the sweet milky dish. The var. mahallabiyyaẗ (with ma‑ instead of mu‑) would support such an etymology.
    ▪ Alternatively, one may think of muhallabiyyaẗ as *ʻdish flavoured with ḥalbānaẗ ʻstorax/galbanum’; see ↗ḥalab and root entry ↗√ḤLB.
    ▪ …
     
    muḥallabaẗ ‘gelée mince de lait, de riz, d’amidon et d’un peu de parfum’, muḥallabiyyaẗ ‘espèce de gelée’ – Dozy1881.
    ▪ …
     
    DRS 5 (1995) #HLB-5 mahallabiyyaẗ ʻflan de farine de riz à 1’eau de rose’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Tu mahallebi, var. muhallebi: 1451 muḥallebī ʻmilky’ (anon., Ferec baʕd eş-şiddeẗ) ḳalye-i Reşīdī, herīse-i muḥallebī, ḥalāve-i Meʔmūnī; 1665 ʻdessert made from milk’ (Evliyā Çelebī, Seyāḥatnāme) zülbiyāt u ḥulviyātı ve baklavası ve palūdesi ve muḥallebīsi ve ṣayf u şitāda [yaz kış] üçer kāse ḫoşābı. Nişanyan is convinced that the Tu word is from Ar *muḥallab ʻmilky, made with milk’ (< Ar ḥalab ʻmilk’), but adds as a note that »[a]lthough it is certain that it is of Ar origin, its Ar equivalent is not been attested« – Nişanyan_22Dec2014. – Nişanyan is not right: at least the dish mentioned by Evliyā Çelebī seems to be the muḥallabaẗ ‘gelée mince de lait, de riz, d’amidon et d’un peu de parfum’ or muḥallabiyyaẗ ‘espèce de gelée’ registered by Dozy1881 and others on the basis of Ar lexicographers. And: the Tu preference for the variant mahallebi instead of muhallebi indicates that a derivation from ↗maḥlab ʻmahaleb’, as suggested above (section CONC), should not be unlikely.
    ▪ …
     
    For other values attached to the root, see ↗hulb, ↗hilb, and ↗hulābaẗ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√HLB. – For the ʻtrue’ etymon, see ↗ḥalab and root entry ↗√ḤLB. 
    HLʕ هلع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20May2023
    √HLʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ HLʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HLʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HLʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be restless, be anxious, be fearful; to be mean, be greedy, become hungry; a cowardly person, dread, anxiety, fear; impatience; a fast-running she-camel’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    HLK هلك 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √HLK 
    “root” 
    ▪ HLK_1 ‘…’ ↗halaka
    ▪ HLK_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to die, to perish, to expire; to ruin; to harm, to consume, to spend; to lose one’s way; to run away fast; to apply o.s. in earnest, to do one’s utmost’ 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
    – 
    – 
    halak‑ هلك , i (halk, hulk, halāk, tahlukaẗ
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √HLK 
    vb., I 
    to perish; to die; to be annihilated, wiped out, destroyed – WehrCowan1979 
    From Sem *√HLK ‘to go, walk’. The meaning ‘to perish’ is a semantic extension, attested also in other Sem languages that have preserved the original basic meaning ‘to go, walk’. ClassAr still has tahallaka, vb. V, and tahālaka, vb. VI, both in the sense of ‘to swagger gracefully in one’s walk’ (said of a woman).
     
    ▪ … 
    DRS 5 (1995) #HLK- 1. Akk alāku, Ug hlk, Hbr hālak, Phoen Pun Moab hlk, oAram EmpAram BiblAram hlk, hk, Nab Palm hlk, Syr Mand hallek ‘aller, marcher, s’en aller’, Ar halaka ‘périr, être détruit’, tahālaka ‘marcher avec grâce (femme )’, ĭhtalaka ‘marcher avec fierté; se jeter sur qn’, ĭstahlaka ‘détruire, mettre hors d’usage; confisquer’, MSA ‘dépenser, consommer’; EgAr hālik ‘mortel; déchet industriel’, hālūk ‘plante parasite de certaines cultures’, SaudAr halākīt ‘mouvement’; Qat hlk ‘se comporter’, šhlk ‘achever’, Mhr hīlek, Jib helk ‘être très fatigué et assoiffé; regretter un disparu’, ehulk ‘annihiler’, héläk ‘difficulté, impasse’, Mhr hōlək ‘décédé’, hələkt ‘soif’, Soq htlk ‘périr’, Te halkä ‘s’efforcer de, s’exténuer; mourir, crever’, haläkä ‘troubler’, halkay ‘fatigué’, Tña haläkä ‘se fatiguer, s’agiter; aller et venir d’un endroit à l’autre sans raison’, halläkä, Amh tälaläkä ‘s’obstiner à faire qc.’, əlkam ‘têtu’. – […]
     
    ▪ For further discussion see Kogan 2015: 234, 264.
    ▪ Dolgopolsky 2012 #771 finds parallels (with metathesis) in Berb *√HKL ‘to walk’ and reconstructs Nostr *haL˅Ḳ˹u˺ ‘to step, to walk’.
     
    ▪ Not from Ar halaka but from pBibl Hbr hᵃlāḵāh ‘rule, tradition’ (from hālaḵ ‘to go’) is Engl Halacha – Huehnergard 2011.
     
    hallaka, vb. II, and ʔahlaka, vb. IV, to ruin, destroy: D- and *Š-stem, respectively; caus. of I | ʔahlaka ’l-ḥarṯ wa’l-nasl, expr., to destroy lock, stock and barrel
    tahālaka, vb. VI, to exert o.s., do o.’s utmost ( in); to pounce, fall, throw o.s. (ʕalà upon); to fight desperately (ʕalà for); to covet, crave (ʕalà s.th.); to feel enthusiasm (ʕalà for), devote o.s. eagerly (ʕalà to), go all out (ʕalà for); to become languid, tired, weak; to drop in utter exhaustion (ʕalà on); to break down, collapse
    ĭnhalaka, vb. VII, and ĭhtalaka, vb. VIII, to risk danger, imperil o.s., act desperately: N- and T-stem, respectively, both reflexive.
    ĭstahlaka, vb. X, to exert o.s., do o.’s utmost ( in); to waste, squander, spend, exhaust, use up, consume (s.th.); to discharge, pay off, amortize (a debt); pass. ŭstuhlika to perish, die: *Št-stem, self-reflexive of caus. (II, IV).

    hulk, n., death; destruction, ruin: vn. I
    halkaẗ, halakaẗ, n.f., total ruin, destruction; disaster; jeopardy, perilous situation, danger
    halāk, n., ruin, destruction; perdition, eternal damnation: vn. I.
    mahlakaẗ, mahlukaẗ, mahlikaẗ, pl. mahālikᵘ, n.f., dangerous place, danger spot; dangerous situation; danger, peril: n.loc.
    tahlukaẗ, n.f., ruin; jeopardy, perilous situation, danger: taFʕuLaẗ pattern.
    BP#3014 ĭstihlāk, n., consumption; attrition, wear and tear; discharge, amortization: vn. X.
    mutahālik, adj., broken down, downandout; exhausted: PA VI.
    tahāluk, n., enthusiasm, zeal, ardour (ʕalà for), (vivid) interest (ʕalà in); weakness, fatigue, languor
    BP#3014 ĭstihlāk, n., consumption; attrition, wear and tear; discharge, amortization: vn. X.
    BP#4698 ĭstihlākī, adj., consumer- (in compounds; e.g., goods, prices, etc.): nisba formation of the preceding.
    hālik, pl. halkà, hullak, hullāk, hawālikᵘ, adj., perishing, dying; dead; mortal, destructible, perishable; doomed to perdition, damned; irretrievably lost, irredeemable
    muhlik, adj., destructive, devastating, annihilating, scathing, withering; pernicious, ruinous, dangerous, perilous, deadly, lethal; n., medium of destruction or extermination
    BP#2985 mustahlik, n., consumer: PA X.
    mustahlak, n., consumption
     
    HLMM هلمّ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20May2023
    √HLMM 
    “root” 
    ▪ HLMM_1 ‘(interjection)’ ↗halumma
    ▪ HLMM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
     
    ▪ [v1] : interjection, quasi-imper. vb. used indeclinably. »It is said to consist of either attention-drawing particle + imper. vb. lumma ‘gather’ or interrogative particle hal + perf. vb. ʔamma ‘to intend, go for’) I [intrans. with prep. ʔilà] ‘come, come along’ (33:18) ‘God could take to task [lit. knows] the hinderers among you, and those who say to their brothers, “Come, join us”’; II [trans.] ‘bring forward, produce’ (6: 150) ‘produce your witnesses who testify that God has forbidden this’« – BAH2008
     
    – 
    – 
    – 
    HMː (HMM) همّ / همم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √HMː (HMM) 
    “root” 
    ▪ HMː (HMM)_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ HMː (HMM)_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘sorrow, anxiety, concern, to cause distress; importance, serious matter; errand, assignment; to go about one’s business, to fend for o.s.; to intend to do, to be about to do; ability, high capability, highly accomplished and capable person; vermin, pest, reptiles, insects in general; to plot, to have bad designs; murmuring sounds, to melt down’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ĭhtamm‑ / ĭhtamam‑ اِهْتَمَّ / اِهْتَمَمْـ 
    ID 894 • Sw – • BP 1625 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √HMː (HMM) 
    vb., VIII 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ …
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    – 
     
    HMǦ همج 
    Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | created 9Jun2023
    √HMǦ 
    “root” 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    hamaǧiyyaẗ هَمَجيّة 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 9Jun2023
    √HMǦ 
    n.f. 
    ▪ abstr. formation in -iyyaẗ 
    HMD همد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20May2023
    √HMD 
    “root” 
    ▪ HMD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HMD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HMD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘silence, death, to die away, die down, abate; (of land) to be barren, be lifeless, (of a garment) to fall to shreds’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    HMR همر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20May2023
    √HMR 
    “root” 
    ▪ HMR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HMR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HMR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to pour down, shed, a shower of rain, rain clouds; to talk too much, a talkative person; to give generously’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    HMZ همز 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20May2023
    √HMZ 
    “root” 
    ▪ HMZ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HMZ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HMZ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to prod, poke, push, prick, squeeze; to spur, goad on; to insinuate, inspire evil thoughts, set people against one another, backbite’ 
    ▪ Ar root *√HMZ ‘to prick, urge on, prod’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    – 
    HMS همس 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √HMS 
    “root” 
    ▪ HMS_1 ‘to mumble, mutter, whisper’ ↗hamasa
    ▪ HMS_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘1 to whisper, mumble, mutter; 2 to squeeze, move stealthily’ 
    ▪ Of the two values mentioned for ClassAr in BAH2008 and for Sem in DRS 5, only one is still found in MSA. 
    – 
    DRS 5 (1995)#HMS-1 Hbr *hāmas ‘imaginer’, TargAram hammes ‘réfléchir’, Syr hᵉmas ‘penser; se diriger vers’, Ar hamasa ‘marmotter, parler bas; mastiquer sans ouvrir la bouche’, hams ‘son très léger, secret’, EgAr hamas ‘toucher légèrement; chuchoter’, hamsaẗ ‘chuchotement; instant’. -2 Hbr hᵃmāsīm (pl.) ‘petit bois, branchages’. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    hamas‑ هَمَسَ , i (hams
    ID 895 • Sw – • BP 3461 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √HMS 
    vb., I 
    to mumble, mutter; to whisper (bi‑ s.th., ʔilà to s.o.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 hams (whispering, muttering, faint murmur) Q 20:108 wa-ḫašaʕat-i ’l-ʔaṣwāṭu lil-raḥmāni fa-lā tasmaʕu ʔillā hamsan ‘voices will be hushed for the Lord of Mercy, so you will hear only whispering’ 
    DRS 5 (1995)#HMS-1 Hbr *hāmas ‘imaginer’, TargAram hammes ‘réfléchir’, Syr hᵉmas ‘penser; se diriger vers’, Ar hamasa ‘marmotter, parler bas; mastiquer sans ouvrir la bouche’, hams ‘son très léger, secret’, EgAr hamas ‘toucher légèrement; chuchoter’, hamsaẗ ‘chuchotement; instant’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    hamasa fī ʔuḏni-hī, vb. I, to whisper in s.o.’s ear

    tahāmasa, vb. VI, to whisper together, exchange whispered remarks: tL-stem, recip.
    BP#4458hams, n., mutter(ing), mumble; whisper(ing): vn. I.
    hamsaẗ, n.f., pianissimo of a singer; whisper; pl. hamasāt, whispering, whispers: n.un. (?)
    hawāmisᵘ, n.pl., mumbled or whispered words: pl. of an obsol. PA *hāmis (?).
    mahmūs, adj., voiceless, unvoices (sound; phon.); pl. ‑āt, voiceless sounds: PP I.
     
    HNʔ هنء 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 20May2023
    √HNʔ 
    “root” 
    ▪ HNʔ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HNʔ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HNʔ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘benefits coming with no toil; to be healthy, (of food) to be wholesome, feed, give generously, bring pleasure; to congratulate; (of animals) to graze well; to cover the skin of a camel with pitch’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    HNDS هندس 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √HNDS 
    “root” 
    ▪ HNDS_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ HNDS_2 ‘…’
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    handasaẗ هَنْدَسَة 
    ID 897 • Sw – • BP 2448 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √HNDS 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
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    ▪ …
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    – 
     
    muhandis مُهَنْدِس 
    ID 896 • Sw – • BP 1134 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √HNDS 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
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    ▪ …
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    ▪ …
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    – 
     
    HW هو 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √HW 
    “root” 
    ▪ HW_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ HW_2 ‘…’
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    huwiyyaẗ هُوِيَّة 
    ID 898 • Sw – • BP 1485 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √HW 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
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    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    HWD هود 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21May2023
    √HWD 
    “root” 
    ▪ HWD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HWD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HWD_3 ‘the Jews’ ↗yahūd (arranged s.r. ↗√YHWD)
    ▪ HWD_4 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘repentance, to mend one’s ways; to proceed gently and solemnly; to be indulgent, be conciliatory, solemnity; to be a Jew, be Jewish, Jewry; to sing, intoxicate’ 
    ▪ Some philologists consider hāda and hūd (meaning to become Jewish) a borrowing from Hbr – BAH2008 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    HWR هور 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21May2023
    √HWR 
    “root” 
    ▪ HWR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HWR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HWR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to collapse, crash down, be weak; to pass away, come to an end, death; to be reckless, be rash; to endanger; to guess’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    HWS هوس 
    Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | created 9Jun2023
    √HWS 
    “root” 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    hawas هَوَس 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 9Jun2023
    √HWS 
    n. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    HWM هوم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 29Apr2024
    √HWM 
    “root” 
    ▪ HWM_1 ‘head; crown, vertex; top, summit’ ↗hāmaẗ
    ▪ HWM_2 ‘to nod drowsily (head of s.o. falling asleep); to doze off, doze, nap’ ↗hawwama

    Other items, now obsolete, include (Hava1899):

    HWM_3 ‘depressed tracts of land’: hawm; cf. also hawmaẗ, hawmāẗ ‘extensive plain’
    HWM_4 ‘medicinal plant, kind of jasmine used against calculus’: hawm al-maǧūs
    HWM_5 ‘…’:
     
    ▪ [gen] : DRS groups [v1] hāmaẗ ‘head, vertex’ and [v2] hawwama ‘to nod drowsily, doze off’ together with other items that EtymArab prefers to treat separately, under ↗HYM. Taken these doubtful cognates away, Ar hāmaẗ and hawwama seem to remain rather isolated.
    ▪ [v2] : probably dependent on [v1]. DRS seems to take their interrelatedness as an unquestionable given.
    [v3] : DRS likewise groups this value together with [v1]/[v2] and some HYM items. But what would link them semantically?
    [v4] : ?
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ [v1] : The adj. ʔahwamᵘ ‘big-headed’, now obsolete, is certainly related to hāmaẗ ‘head’, and a classical Ar al-hawwām for ‘the lion’ seems to be *‘the big-headed one’.
    ▪ …
     
    DRS #HW/YM-1 Hbr *hām ‘mettre en déroute’, məhūmāʰ ‘affolement, panique’, oAram hwm, thm ‘être hors de soi , se lamenter’, Syr hūmā ‘persécution ( ? )’. – Ar hāma ‘errer comme un fou; aimer éperdument; avoir soif’, huyām, hiyām ‘amour passionné, soif ardente’, haymiyāʔ ‘fascination, exorcisme des démons’; DaṯAr hām ‘disparaître’, EAr hāme ‘spectre, fantôme’. – hāmaẗ ‘tête, sommet de la tête; chouette’, hawwama ‘secouer la tête en sommeillant’, hāma ‘dormir’. – hawm ‘intérieur de la terre’, hawmaẗ ‘vaste plaine’, haymāʔ ‘désert’, hayām, huyām ‘sable mouvant’, ʔahyamᵘ ‘sombre (nuit)’. -2 tahayyum ‘démarche élégante’. -3 SaudAr hām ‘serpent’, hawām: insectes en général, reptiles, vers; ? hēm: irritation que provoquent certains petits insectes chez les gallinacés. -4 Amh homa ‘troupe d’éléphants’
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    hāmaẗ هامة , pl. -āt, hām
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 29Apr2024
    √HWM 
    n.f.
     
    1 head; 2 crown, vertex; 3 top, summit; 4 see also ↗HMː (HMM) – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ [gen] : DRS groups hāmaẗ ‘head, vertex’ and hawwama ‘to nod drowsily, doze off’ together with other items that EtymArab prefers to treat separately, under ↗HYM. Taken these doubtful cognates away, Ar hāmaẗ and hawwama seem to remain rather isolated.
    ▪ [v2] and [v3] are abstractions from [v1].
    DRS HW/YM-1 groups hāmaẗ together with the (now obsolete) hawm ‘depressed tracts of land’, hawmaẗ, hawmāẗ ‘extensive plain’ (↗HWM_3). But it remains unclear in which way the two values should be related.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ [v1] : The value ‘owl’ (chouette) given by DRS for hāmaẗ in addition to ‘head, top of head’ (tête, sommet de la tête) may be on account of the owl’s big head; see also next paragraph.
    ▪ [v1] : The adj. ʔahwamᵘ ‘big-headed’, now obsolete, is certainly related to hāmaẗ ‘head’, and a classical Ar al-hawwām for ‘the lion’ seems to be *‘the big-headed one’.
    ▪ …
     
    DRS #HW/YM-1 Hbr *hām ‘mettre en déroute’, məhūmāʰ ‘affolement, panique’, oAram hwm, thm ‘être hors de soi , se lamenter’, Syr hūmā ‘persécution ( ? )’. – Ar hāma ‘errer comme un fou; aimer éperdument; avoir soif’, huyām, hiyām ‘amour passionné, soif ardente’, haymiyāʔ ‘fascination, exorcisme des démons’; DaṯAr hām ‘disparaître’, EAr hāme ‘spectre, fantôme’. – hāmaẗ ‘tête, sommet de la tête; chouette’, hawwama ‘secouer la tête en sommeillant’, hāma ‘dormir’. hawm ‘intérieur de la terre’, hawmaẗ ‘vaste plaine’, haymāʔ ‘désert’, hayām, huyām ‘sable mouvant’, ʔahyamᵘ ‘sombre (nuit)’. -2 tahayyum ‘démarche élégante’. -3 SaudAr hām ‘serpent’, hawām: insectes en général, reptiles, vers; ? hēm: irritation que provoquent certains petits insectes chez les gallinacés. -4 Amh homa ‘troupe d’éléphants’
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    hawwama, vb. II, 1a to nod drowsily (head of s.o. falling asleep); b to doze off, fall asleep; c to doze, nap: D-stem, prob. denom.
    tahawwama, vb. V, 1a to doze off, fall asleep; b to doze, nap: tD-stem, t-stem of preceding item (underlining self-referentiality?), prob. denom.

    Cf. perhaps also ↗√HYM.  
    hawwam‑ هوّم (tahwīm)
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 29Apr2024
    √HWM 
    vb. II
     
    1a to nod drowsily (head of s.o. falling asleep); b to doze off, fall asleep; c to doze, nap – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ prob. dependent (denom.) on ↗hāmaẗ ‘head, top of head’
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See ↗hāmaẗ
     
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    tahawwama, vb. V, 1a to doze off, fall asleep; b to doze, nap: tD-stem (t- to underline self-referentiality?)

    Cf. perhaps also ↗√HYM.  
    HWN هون 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21May2023
    √HWN 
    “root” 
    ▪ HWN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HWN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HWN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘humiliation, disgrace; to ridicule, value lightly, be despicable; to be weak, be meek; to be easy; to be amiable; to be moderate; to be solemn, be gentle’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    HWY هوي 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √HWY 
    “root” 
    ▪ HWY_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ HWY_2 ‘…’

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘the atmosphere between the earth and the sky, air, emptiness, void; to fall down, to swoop down, to cause to fall, to speed up; inclination, desire, love, altruistic motives; foolish person; temptation, to tempt, to seduce, to enchant; (bottomless) abyss; narrow opening between mountains’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ …
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    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl 1 Yahweh, from Hbr yahweh, assumed ancient pronunciation of the name of the God of Israel, perh. meaning ‘he sends down (the hosts of heaven)’, caus. stem of hāwâ, hāyâ ‘to fall, happen, be’. – 2 Jehovah, modern mispronunciation (since C16) of Yahweh, in which the Hbr consonants Y-H-W-H were pronounced with the vowels of the Hbr word ʔă>dōnāy, which were added to the Hbr consonantal text of the Bible to indicate that the latter word was to be read instead of the divine name. – 3 Various short forms of Hbr yahweh, found mostly in personal names: (a) Jah, from Hbr yāh, short for yahweh, also appearing in the following personal names: Jedidiah, from Hbr yᵊdîdyāh ‘beloved of Yahweh’ (cf. Ar ↗wadda); Matthew, from Hbr mattayyāh (< *mattan-yāh) ‘gift of Yahweh’ (cf. Ar ↗ʔaʕṭà); Nehemiah, from Hbr nᵊḥemyāh ‘Yahweh comforted’; Obadiah, from Hbr ʕōbadyāh ‘servant of Yahweh’ (cf. Ar ↗ʕabd); Tobit, from Hbr ṭôbīyāh ‘my good (is) Yahweh’ (cf. Ar ↗ṭayyib); Uriah, from Hbr ʔûrîyāh ‘my light (is) Yahweh’ (Hbr ʔûr-î ‘my light’); Zechariah, from Hbr zᵊkaryāh ‘Yahweh has remembered’ (cf. Ar ↗ḏakara); Zephaniah, from Hbr ṣᵊpanyāh ‘Yahweh has hidden, Yahweh has treasured’; (b) with the longer yāh(û): Hezekiah, from Hbr ḥizqîyāh(û) ‘my strength (is) Yahweh’; Isaiah, from Hbr yᵊšaʕyāhû ‘salvation of Yahweh’; Jeremiah, jeremiad, from Hbr yirmᵊyāhû ‘Yahweh has established’; Elijah, from Hbr ʔēlîyāhû ‘my God (is) Yahweh’ (see ʔl); (c) from Hbr , short form of yahweh ‘Yahweh’: Joab, from Hbr yôʔāb ‘Yahweh (is) father’ (cf. Ar ↗ʔab / ʕabū); Joel, from Hbr yôʔēl ‘Yahweh (is) God’ (cf. Ar ↗ʔilāh, aḷḷāh); John, from Hbr yôḥānān ‘Yahweh has been gracious’ (cf. Ar ↗ḥanān); Jonathan, from Hbr yônātān ‘Yahweh has given’ (cf. Ar ↗ʔaʕṭà); (d) from the short form yᵊhô: Jehoshaphat, from Hbr yᵊhôšāpāṭ ‘Yahweh has judged’ (Hbr šāpāṭ ‘he has judged’; cf. perh. Ar ↗SFṬ); Jesus, from Hbr yēšûaʕ, shortening of yᵊhôšûaʕ ‘Joshua’ (see above); Joshua, from yᵊhôšûaʕ, perh. ‘Yahweh (is) lord’ (Hbr *šûaʕ ‘lord’, < protSem √*ṮWʕ) or ‘Yahweh is salvation’ (Hbr *šûaʕ ‘salvation’, from protSem √*WṮʕ).↗ 
    – 
    hawāʔ هَواء 
    ID 899 • Sw – • BP 1219 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √HWY 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    hawà / haway‑ هَوَى / هَوَيْـ 
    ID 900 • Sw – • BP 5588 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √HWY 
    vb., I 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ From protSem *√HWY/HYY ‘to fall, happen, be, become’ – Huehnergard2011.
     
    ▪ … 
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    HYʔ هيأ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √HYʔ 
    “root” 
    ▪ HYʔ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ HYʔ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘form, shape, bearing, to be shapely, to be well-formed; to make ready, to prepare things, to facilitate, to assist; to yearn for, to desire’ 
    ▪ … 
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    hayʔaẗ هَيْئَة 
    ID 901 • Sw – • BP 413 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √HYʔ 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
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    ▪ …
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    – 
     
    HYT هيت 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21May2023
    √HYT 
    “root” 
    ▪ HYT_1 ‘/an interjection?)’ ↗hayta
     
    ▪ [v1] : see ↗hayta
     
    – 
    – 
    – 
    hayta هَيْتَ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 21May2023
    √HYT 
    (interjection?) 
    (interjection) 
    ▪ BAH2008: »This word occurs once in the Qur’an and is subject to great controversy regarding the way it is read, the grammatical category to which it is assigned, and its language of origin. It is read most commonly as hayta, but may also be read as hiʔti, hiʔta, hiʔtu, hīta, hiʔti, hayti, huyyiʔtu, huyyītu, and hā ʔanā. Grammatically, it is classified as either a quasi-verb (ĭsm fiʕl), perfect (māḍī), or imperative (ʔamr), or a perfective verb which may be either a passive (maǧhūl) or active (maʕlūm) verb. Although some etymologists say the word is of Ar origin, others argue that it is a Hbr, Syr or Copt borrowing. In spite of these differences of opinion, there is general agreement as to the meaning of the word thanks to the clearly delimited linguistic context within which the word is used in the Qur’anic verse and thanks to the clearly defined role the entire verse plays within the context of the situation detailed in this sura: ‘come on’, ‘I am all yours’, ‘I am ready for you’ (12:23) ‘she securely bolted the doors and said, “Here, I’m yours”, and he replied, “God forbid [lit. , I seek refuge with God]”’
     
    – 
    – 
    – 
    HYǦ هيج 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21May2023
    √HYǦ 
    “root” 
    ▪ HYǦ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HYǦ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HYǦ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to get excited, be stirred up, be furious, be inflamed; war; to cause to dry up, wither away, shrivel, be thirsty’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    HYKL هيكل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √HYKL 
    “root” 
    ▪ HYKL_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ HYKL_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    haykal هَيْكَل 
    ID 902 • Sw – • BP 3376 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √HYKL 
    n. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ …
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    – 
     
    HYL هيل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21May2023
    √HYL 
    “root” 
    ▪ HYL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HYL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ HYL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to pour down, slide down, (of sand or earth in a pit) to trick.le down, heap up (sand or earth), cause to pour down, avalanching sand dunes, gang up; a halo’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    HYM هيم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21May2023, last updated 29Apr2024
    √HYM 
    “root” 
    ▪ HYM_1 ‘to roam, rove, wander about aimlessly’ ↗hāma; ‘burning thirst; passionate love’ ↗huyām, hiyām

    Other values, now obsolete, include (Hava1899):

    HYM_2 ‘quick-sand, drift-sand’: huyām (pl. huyum); cf. also haymāʔᵘ ‘waterless desert’
    HYM_3 ‘starless’: in layl ʔahyamᵘ, laylaẗ haymāʔᵘ ‘starless night’
    HYM_4 ‘to take care of o.s.’: ĭhtāma li-nafsi-h (vb. VIII); cf. also him (vb. I) li-nafsi-ka ‘mind thy own business!’
    HYM_5 ‘…’ :

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to wander about aimlessly, be confused, be bewildered, be puzzled, be robbed of the senses; to be infatuated, be enchanted, be carried away; to be demented by thirst, a waterless desert’
     
    ▪ [gen] : DRS HW/YM-1 arranges HWM and HYM items together in one group, while a relation between them is not obvious. For ‘head’ and ‘to doze off’ see therefore ↗HWM.
    ▪ [v1] : Given the Hbr and Aram cognates, it seems that the primary value was *‘(to wander about in) confusion, panic’. But should the reason for *‘confusion, panic’ be secondary? One may assume that *‘thirst’ was first and that all other values developed from there. ‘Passionate love’ would then be metaphoric use of *‘thirst’, and ‘wandering about aimlessly’ an extension built on ‘to be thirsty, be demented by thirst’. From there, it is not far to the next stage, that of ‘to be(come) confused, robbed of one’s senses (either as a result of thirst or of passionate love)’.
    [v2] : cf. ↗HWM_3? Or rather related to [v1] ‘to wander about aimlessly’?
    [v3] : dto. ?
    [v4] : prob. a var. of ĭhtamma, see ↗HMː (HMM).
    ▪ …
     
    –  
    DRS HW/YM-1 Hbr *hām ‘mettre en déroute’, məhūmāʰ ‘affolement, panique’, oAram hwm, thm ‘être hors de soi, se lamenter’, Syr hūmā ‘persécution ( ? )’. – Ar hāma ‘errer comme un fou; aimer éperdument; avoir soif’, huyām, hiyām ‘amour passionné, soif ardente’, haymiyāʔ ‘fascination, exorcisme des démons’; DaṯAr hām ‘disparaître’, EAr hāme ‘spectre, fantôme’. – hāmaẗ ‘tête, sommet de la tête; chouette’, hawwama ‘secouer la tête en sommeillant’, hāma ‘dormir’. – hawm ‘intérieur de la terre’, hawmaẗ ‘vaste plaine’, haymāʔ ‘désert’, hayām, huyām ‘sable mouvant’, ʔahyamᵘ ‘sombre (nuit)’. -2 tahayyum ‘démarche élégante’. -3 SaudAr hām ‘serpent’, hawām: insectes en général, reptiles, vers; ? hēm: irritation que provoquent certains petits insectes chez les gallinacés. -4 Amh homa ‘troupe d’éléphants’
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ DRS #HW/YM-1 suggests to compare also ↗ʔWM.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    hām‑ / him‑ هام / هِمْـ , i (haym, hayamān; huyām, hiyām)
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 29Apr2024
    √HYM 
    vb. I
     
    I (haym, hayamān) 1a to fall in love (bi‑ with); b to be in love (bi‑ with); 2a to be enthusiastic, ecstatic, frantic, beside o.s.; b to be in raptures, be crazy (bi‑ about), be gone on (bi‑); 3 to roam, rove, wander; – II (huyām, hiyām) to thirst (bi‑ for) – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ [gen] : DRS HW/YM-1 arranges HYM together with HWM items in one group, while a relation between them is not obvious. For ‘head’ and ‘to doze off’ see therefore ↗HWM.
    ▪ [gen] : Given the Hbr and Aram cognates, it seems that the primary value was *‘(to wander about in) confusion, panic’, i.e., [vI-3]. But should the reason for *‘confusion, panic’ be secondary? One may assume that [vII] *‘thirst’ was first and that all other values developed from there. ‘Passionate love’ would then be metaphoric use of *‘thirst’, and ‘wandering about aimlessly’ an extension built on ‘to be thirsty, be demented by thirst’. From there, it is not far to the next stage, that of ‘to be(come) confused, robbed of one’s senses (either as a result of thirst or of passionate love)’.
    ▪ See also below, section HIST.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Cf. also ʔahyamᵘ (f. haymāʔᵘ, pl. hīm) ‘affected with unquenchable thirst (camel)’
    ▪ Relation to huyām (pl. huyum) ‘quick-sand, drift-sand’ and haymāʔᵘ ‘waterless desert’ unclear (↗HYM_2).
    ▪ It is likewise unclear whether the hāma items treated in this entry are related to the idea of ‘starlessness’, as in layl ʔahyamᵘ, laylaẗ haymāʔᵘ ‘starless night’ (↗HYM_3).
    ▪ …
     
    DRS HW/YM-1 Hbr *hām ‘mettre en déroute’, məhūmāʰ ‘affolement, panique’, oAram hwm, thm ‘être hors de soi, se lamenter’, Syr hūmā ‘persécution ( ? )’. – Ar hāma ‘errer comme un fou; aimer éperdument; avoir soif’, huyām, hiyām ‘amour passionné, soif ardente’, haymiyāʔ ‘fascination, exorcisme des démons’; DaṯAr hām ‘disparaître’, EAr hāme ‘spectre, fantôme’. – hāmaẗ ‘tête, sommet de la tête; chouette’, hawwama ‘secouer la tête en sommeillant’, hāma ‘dormir’. – hawm ‘intérieur de la terre’, hawmaẗ ‘vaste plaine’, haymāʔ ‘désert’, hayām, huyām ‘sable mouvant’, ʔahyamᵘ ‘sombre (nuit)’. -2 tahayyum ‘démarche élégante’. -3 SaudAr hām ‘serpent’, hawām: insectes en général, reptiles, vers; ? hēm: irritation que provoquent certains petits insectes chez les gallinacés. -4 Amh homa ‘troupe d’éléphants’
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ DRS #HW/YM-1 suggests to compare also ↗ʔWM.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    hāma ʕalà wajhih, expr., to wander aimlessly about
    hāma fī widyān, expr., approx.: he was no longer himself, was floating in higher regions, was beside himself, out of his senses;
    hāma bi-ʔanẓārih, expr., to let one’s eyes wander

    hayyama, vb. II, 1a to confuse, bewilder, puzzle, mystify, mislead; b to infatuate, enchant, captivate, carry away, rob of his senses (s.o.; of love): D-stem, caus. (mainly of [v2])
    ŭstuhyima, vb. X, pass., 1a to be infatuated, enchanted, captivated, carried away; b to be passionately in love: pass. of *Št-stem, self-ref. of caus. *Š-stem

    huyām, hiyām, n., 1 passionate love; 2 burning thirst: vn. I
    hayūm, adj., confused, puzzled, baffled, mystified, perplexed: ints. adj. in FaʕūL
    haymānᵘ, f. haymà, pl. hiyām, adj., 1 madly in love; 2 very thirsty: ints. formation in ‑ān
    hāʔim, pl. huyyam, huyyām, adj., 1a perplexed, mystified, baffled, puzzled, confused; b out of one’s senses, beside o.s.; c in love, mad with love: PA I
    mustahām, adj., in love, mad with love: PP X

    Cf. perhaps also ↗√HWM. 
    HYMN هيمن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √HYMN 
    “root” 
    ▪ HYMN_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ HYMN_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to witness, to stand as witness, a witness; to allay fears; to provide proof; important issues; to take care of others, to be trusted with, to be in control of, to be in a position of trust, to be trustworthy’. – Some philologists consider this to be a trilateral root derived from the root ʔMN (q.v.). 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    haymanaẗ هَيْمَنَة 
    ID 903 • Sw – • BP 3291 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √HYMN 
    n.f. 
    … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    wāw واو 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ 
    R₁ 
    The letter w of the Arabic alphabet. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    WāḤ واح 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD – • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WāḤ 
    “root” 
    Only in ↗wāḥaẗ ‘oasis’. 
    See ↗wāḥaẗ ‘oasis’. 
    – 
    – 
    See CONC. 
    ▪ See ↗wāḥaẗ
    – 
    wāḥaẗ واحَة , pl. ‑āt 
    ID 904 • Sw – • BP 3639 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WĀḤ 
    n.f. 
    oasis – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Mostly thought to be a borrowing from Copt (S) waḥe ‘oasis; [properly:] dwelling place’, but thought to be older by Corriente2008, hence directly from Eg wḥ3.t ‘region of the Oases’ 
    ▪ No hit in HDAL for pre-Abbasid sources.
    ▪ Hava1899 lists also a masculine form: wāḥ (pl. -āt) ‘oasis’ 
    ▪ No entry in DRS.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Lokotsch1927 #2152, EtymOnline, Behnstedt2006, Westendorf2008: from Copt (S) waḥe ‘oasis; [properly:] dwelling place’ (< Eg wḥ3.t – ErmanGrapow1921, TLAe) (Lokotsch: and Eg sa-, ‘to drink’) > Ar wāḥaẗ, Grk óasis > lLat oasis > Fr oasis, Engl oasis (C16)
    ▪ Cf. however Corriente2008: in view of its presence in CA dictionaries, the borrowing must have happened much earlier, from Eg wḥ3.t ‘region of the Oases’. 
    ▪ (Eg wḥ3.t >) Copt (S) waḥe ‘oasis; [properly:] dwelling place’ not only gave Ar wāḥaẗ but also Grk óasis, whence lLat oasis > Fr oasis, Engl oasis (C16), Ge Oase (C18).
     
     
    WʔD وءد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21May2023
    √WʔD 
    “root” 
    ▪ WʔD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WʔD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WʔD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘loud thudding sound, sound of heavy steps on the ground; to be swallowed by the earth; to bury alive, particularly a newborn girl; to be deliberate, solemnity’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    WʔL وءل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21May2023
    √WʔL 
    “root” 
    ▪ WʔL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WʔL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WʔL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘place where floodwaters gather; close members of the family, protection; to run for one’s life’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    WBR وبر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21May2023
    √WBR 
    “root” 
    ▪ WBR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WBR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WBR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘hair of camels, goats, foxes or rabbits; Bedouin; to obliterate one’s tracks; to pollinate palm trees’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    WBQ وبق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21May2023
    √WBQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ WBQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WBQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WBQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘shameful act, grave offence; to humiliate, destroy, end in ruin; to detain’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    WBL وبل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21May2023
    √WBL 
    “root” 
    ▪ WBL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WBL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WBL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a large thick stick, a bundle of firewood; bad consequences; heavy rain; to be unhealthy, (of air) to be polluted, disasters’ 
    ▪ From Can root *√YBL or *√WBL. Can n. *yōbil‑ ‘ram, ram’s horn’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl jubilee, from Hbr yôbēl ‘ram, ram’s horn; jubilee’ (the latter prob. originally *‘year of the ram’s horn’; Hbr √YBL, ?cf. Ar ↗WBL). 
    – 
    WTD وتد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21May2023
    √WTD 
    “root” 
    ▪ WTD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WTD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WTD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘peg, pin, stake, tent peg, to fix firmly; to stay at home, be firmly established’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    WTR وتر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WTR 
    “root” 
    ▪ WTR_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ WTR_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘string of a bow; tendon; tension; injustice; odd number, individual mode, fashion, method; to detract, to give less than is due; to follow in an uninterrupted manner, to be in a sequence, one at a time; to avenge o.s’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ …
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    – 
    – 
    watar‑ وَتَرَ , yatiru (watr
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WTR 
    vb., I 
    1watar . – 2 to wrong, harm (s.o.), cheat, dupe (s.o., DO out of, with regard to) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    mawtūr, n., one who has been wronged by the murder of a relative, but to whom blood revenge is still denied

    For other items of the root, see ↗wātara, ↗watr, ↗watar, ↗WTR. 
    watar وَتَر , pl. ʔawtār 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WTR 
    n. 
    1 string (of a bow, of a musical instrument); 2 sinew, tendon (anat.); 3 chord (geom.); 4 hypotenuse (geom.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protWSem *wat(a)r‑ ‘tendon, sinew’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ḍaraba ʕalà ’l-~ al-ḥassās, expr., to touch on a sensitive spot, get to the heart of a matter
    šadda ʕalà ʔawtār al-qalb, expr., to oppress the heart
    fī ʔaʕmaq ʔawtār ṣadri-hī, expr., in the depths of his soul
    watar ṣawtī, n., vocal cord (anat.)

    watara yatiru (watr), vb. I, 1 to string, provide with a string (the bow). – 2 For another value see ↗watara.
    wattara, vb. II, to stretch, strain, draw tight, tighten, pull taut (a rope, a musical string, and the like)
    ʔawtara, vb. IV, to string, provide with a string (the bow)
    tawattara, vb. V, to be or become strained, stretched, tight, taut | tawattarat al-ʕalāqāt, expr., relations were strained
    watarī, adj., stringed, string- (in compounds) | mūsīqà watariyyaẗ, n.f., string music
    BP#1940tawattur, n., tension (also el. = voltage); strain | ~ al-ʔaʕṣāb, n., nervousness, nervous tension; ~ siyāsī, n., political tension
    mutawattir, adj., stretched, strained, taut, tense, rigid, firm, tight
    mutawattar, adj., strain, tension, pressure (on s.o.’s nerves)

    For other items of the root, see ↗watara, ↗wātara, ↗watr, ↗WTR. 
    watr وَتْر , var. witr 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WTR 
    adj. 
    uneven, odd (number) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    watran, adv., singly, one by one, separately

    watrī, var. witrī, adj., uneven, odd (number)

    For other items of the root, see ↗watara, ↗wātara, ↗watar, ↗WTR. 
    wātar‑ واتَرَ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WTR 
    vb., III 
    to do or perform (s.th.) at intervals, intermittently, with interruptions – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    tawātara, vb. VI, to follow in uninterrupted succession; to repeat itself, recur

    BP#4252watīraẗ, pl. watāʔirᵘ, n.f., manner, way, mode, fashion; procedura, method; style; tone | ʕalà hāḏihī ’l-~, adv., in this manner, this way; ʕalà ~ wāḥidaẗ, adv., in the same manner; uniformly, in unison; ĭstamarra ʕalà hāḏihī ’l-~, expr., he continued in this tone
    tatrà, adv., one after the other, one by one, in succession, successively
    tawātur, n., succession; repetition, recurrence; frequency, constancy, incessancy, continuance; persistence; frequency (el.) | ʕalà ~, adv., successively, one after the other, in succession
    mutawātir, adj., following one after another incessantly; continuous, unbroken; handed down in uninterrupted sequence (e.g., Koran, hadith, religious truth)

    For other items of the root, see ↗watara, ↗watr, ↗watar, ↗WTR. 
    WTN وتن 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21May2023
    √WTN 
    “root” 
    ▪ WTN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WTN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WTN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a feud; the main artery that feeds the body; to be firmly fixed; (of water) to be constant and flowing; (of women in particular) to have great literary ability’ 
    ▪ (BAH2008:) There is a great degree of overlap between derivatives of this root and the root ↗WṮN which perhaps suggests a historical sound change or (historical) dialectal variation in the second radical. 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    WṮB وثب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WṮB 
    “root” 
    ▪ WṮB_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ WṮB_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl moshav, from Hbr môšāb ‘seat, dwelling’, from yāšab (<*waṯaba) ‘to sit, dwell’. 
    – 
    waṯab‑ وَثَبَ , yaṯibu (waṯb , wuṯūb , waṯīb , waṯabān
    ID 905 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WṮB 
    vb., I 
    to jump, leap, spring, bound; to skip, hop, caper; to jump up, start; to jump up and run (ʔilà to); to rush, make a rush (ʔilà for); to jump, dash (ʕalà at s.o.), pounce, fall (ʕalà upon s.o.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    The idea of ‘jumping, making a leap’ that is prominent in MSA is an Ar innovation brought into an older Sem theme *wṯb that originally meant just the opposite: ‘to sit, dwell’. The older meaning is preserved in some ClassAr derivations as well as in Yemeni dialects. It is not clear how the innovation may have happened and how it possibly was motivated.
    The old meaning appears also in the word mawṯabān, signifying a ‘king who sits still and does not undertake military expeditions’ (Lane), which according to some is the origin of the European words for marzipan/marchpane (idea first brought up in 1904 by A. Kluyver).
    The Sem root and its original meaning also appear in the Engl loan-words Moshav and Yeshiva, both from Hbr (mōšāḇ ‘seat, dwelling’, yəšīḇā ‘sitting, session, academy’). 
    ▪ … 
    DRS ‘être assis, rester, habiter’ (cf. also Huehnergard2011: Sem *wṯb ‘to sit, dwell’): Akk (w)ašābu ‘s’asseoir, être assis, se tenir, résider’, šubt‑ ‘résidence’, Ug yṯb ‘s’asseoir, être assis’, mṯb ‘siège, demeure’, Phn šbt ‘séjour’, Syr īteb ‘s’asseoir, être assis, séjourner, habiter’, ʔawteb ‘se marier’, Ar waṯṯab‑ ‘faire assoir sur un coussin’, wiṯāb ‘siège, lit’, Liḥ mawṯib ‘camp’, YemAr waṯab ‘s’asseoir’, tawaṯṯab ‘s’accroupir sur le sol’, Sab Min wṯb ‘s’asseoir, résider’, hwṯb ‘placer’, Gz ʔawsaba ‘se marier’. 
    The idea of ‘jumping, making a leap, jumping up, pouncing’ that is present in all MSA items listed under the root in WehrCowan1979, is obviously not the original one, which is ‘to sit, dwell’. ClassAr dictionaries report that the vb. meant ‘to sit, sit down’ only in the dialect of Ḥimyar (Yemen). From this, DRS concludes that ‘to jump, etc.’ must be a NAr innovation. The older Sem meaning is preserved in ClassAr forms like wiṯāb ‘throne; couch, bed; place where persons sit’, mīṯab ‘plain, level, land’, and perhaps also ṯubaẗ ‘assembly, company, troop, congregated body’ (unless this belongs to ṮBY). (mawṯabān ‘king, or prince, who sits still and does not undertake military expeditions’ is said to be an Ḥimyarite expression, too, by Lane, but not by Freytag, Wahrmund or Kazimirksi). 
    ▪ According to Osman2002 (relying on Kluyver1904), the deriv. mawṯabān is the origin of the Eur words for marzipan / marchpane. mawṯabān ‘the sitting one’, it is held, was an Arabic nickname for a ruler who was reluctant to take action, i.e., wage war, against his enemies. The term was transferred to a Byzantine coin that showed the figure of Christ (the ‘ruler, king’) sitting on a throne with the gospels in his hands. In 1193, the Venetians named one of their coins matapan, reminding of the Byzantine coin the Arabs called mawṯabān, while in 1202 mawṯabān is attested in Syria where it meant a tax of 10% levied upon the inhabitants of the country (to be paid in matapan‑ coins?). From there, the word seems to have spread to Cyprus where it came to signify a little box in which a tenth (i.e., 10 %) of a Malter, an old unit for corn, was stored (as the tax due to the sovereign?). By C13 / C14, marzapane appears in Venetia as a term for a little box that featured a portrait of the sitting Christ that was similar to the one on the matapan‑ coin. The type of box was in use as a container for marchpane, esp. when packed for export/shipping. In C14 the term for the box was transferred to its contents, and with the latter then made its way into the rest of Europe. – Other theories agree with Osman/Kluyver’s in that they, too, assume a transfer of meaning from the little boxes to their contents. They differ, however, in tracing the name for the boxes back to Ar mawṯabān. For details ↗marṭabān
    waṯṯaba, vb. II, and ʔawṯaba, vb. IV, to make (s.o., s.th.) jump, bounce (s.th.) : causative of I.
    wāṯaba, vb. III, to pounce, fall (upon s.th.) :.
    ʔawṯaba, vb. IV = II.
    tawaṯṯaba, vb. V, to jump up, start; to rush, dash (to, at); to hop, skip, bound, leap, jump; to approach eagerly, with enthusiasm, tackle energetically (s.th.); to pounce (upon); to awaken, recover, rise.
    tawāṯaba, vb. VI, to jump, leap, spring, bound, make a jump; to be fast, short, come pantingly (breathing); to spring at each other : reciprocal of I.
    waṯb, n., jump(ing), leap(ing) : vn. I.
    waṯbaẗ, n.f., pl. waṯabāt, jump, leap, bound; attack; daring enterprise, bold undertaking; rise; awakening : n.vic..
    waṯṯāb, adj., given to jumping, bouncy, full of bounce; fiery, hotheaded, impetuous; dashing, daring, enterprising : ints..
    muwāṯabaẗ, n.f., prompt assertion of a claim in the presence of witnesses (Isl. Law) : vn. III.
    mutawaṯṯib, adj., awakening, rising; vigorous, energetic : PA V. 
    WṮQ وثق 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WṮQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ WṮQ_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ WṮQ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘shackles, bonds, to tie up, to secure; to be firm; to trust; to pledge, covenant, to give one’s solemn agreement’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ṯiqaẗ ثِقَة 
    ID 906 • Sw – • BP 894 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WṮQ 
    vb., I 
    1, n.f., trust, confidence, faith, reliance; – pl. ‑āt, 2 adj., trustworthy, reliable; 3 n., trustworthy person, trusted agent, informant, reliable authority or source; 4 pl. authorities – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ ….. 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ʕalà ṯiqaẗ, adj., trusting (min in), relying (min on), confident, certain, sure (min of)
    huwa ʕalà ṯiqaẗ min ʔanna-hū, expr., he is certain that he…
    ṯiqaẗ bi‑’l-naṣri, n.f., confidence in victory
    ṯiqaẗ bi‑nafsi-h or ṯiqaẗ bi‑’l-nafs, n.f., self-confidence, self-reliance
    ʔaḫū ṯiqaẗ, adj., trustworthy
    ʕadam al-ṯiqaẗ, n., distrust, mistrust
    ṭalab ʕadam al-ṯiqaẗ, n., motion of "no confidence" (parl.)
    ṯiqaẗ ʕaskariyyaẗ, n.f., military expert

     
    mīṯāq مِيثاق 
    ID 907 • Sw – • BP 3220 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WṮQ 
    n. 
    1 covenant, agreement, contract, treaty, pact, alliance; 2 charter – WehrCowan1979. 
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    ▪ …
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    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    mīṯāq hayʔaẗ al-ʔumam al-muttaḥidaẗ, n., the Charter of the United Nations
    mīṯāq ʕadam al-ĭʕtidāʔ, n., nonaggression pact

     
    WṮN وثن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WṮN 
    “root” 
    ▪ WṮN_1 ‘idol, graven image’ ↗waṯan
    ▪ WṮN_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘staying firm, being constant, (of land) being rained on, having great wealth, (of women) being endowed with literary talent, being an idol, being an object of worship’. – There is a great degree of overlap between derivatives of this root and the root WTN (q.v.), which perhaps suggests a historical sound change or (historical) dialectal variation in the second radical. 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    waṯan وَثَن 
    ID 908 • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WṮN 
    n. 
    graven image, idol – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
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    – 
     
    WǦB وجب 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21May2023
    √WǦB 
    “root” 
    ▪ WǦB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WǦB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WǦB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a loud thud, (of the heart) to beat strongly; to fall down, fall dead; to become due, (of the sun) to set, reach the appropriate time’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    WǦD وجد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21May2023
    √WǦD 
    “root” 
    ▪ WǦD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WǦD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WǦD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘affluence, to find; to perceive, experience, have a strong feeling, be deeply in love, be very angry, be sad; to create, fashion; to become strong’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    wiǧdān وِجْدان 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 9Jun2023
    √WǦD 
    n. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    wiǧdāniyyaẗ وِجْدانيّة 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 9Jun2023
    √WǦD 
    n.f. 
    ▪ abstr. formation in -iyyaẗ, from wiǧdān 
    WǦS وجس 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21May2023
    √WǦS 
    “root” 
    ▪ WǦS_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WǦS_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WǦS_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘evil premonition, mysterious or suspicious sound, to hear a suspicious sound, fear, become apprehensive; to be weary, be suspicious’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    WǦʕ وجع 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WǦʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ WǦʕ_1 ‘pain, ache’ ↗waǧaʕ
    ▪ WǦʕ_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
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    – 
    waǧaʕ وَجَع 
    ID 909 • Sw – • BP 4404 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WǦʕ 
    n. 
    1a pain, ache; b ailment – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
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    ▪ …
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    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    waǧaʕ al-sinn, n., toothache
    al-waǧaʕ bi‑kabidi-ka, expr., an imprecation (lit.: may pain strike your liver!)

     
    WǦF وجف 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21May2023
    √WǦF 
    “root” 
    ▪ WǦF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WǦF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WǦF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘fast-running, to move briskly, be agitated; (of the healt) to beat strongly; to be seized with love or fear’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    WǦL وجل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21May2023
    √WǦL 
    “root” 
    ▪ WǦL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WǦL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WǦL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘fear, dread, to be scared, be apprehensive’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    WǦH وجه 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WǦH 
    “root” 
    ▪ WǦH_1 ‘face, front’ ↗waǧh
    ▪ WǦH_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘face, front, facade; direction, point of view, variety; main point; correct method; person of distinction, honour; to face; to turn towards, to make for, to direct, to turn s.th. towards’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
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    – 
    – 
    waǧh وَجْه 
    ID 911 • Sw – • BP 170 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WǦH 
    n. 
    1 face, countenance; 2a front, face, facade; b outside; c surface; 3a right side of a fabric; b dial (of a clock or watch); c face, obverse (of a coin); 4 prominent personality; 5 exterior, look(s), appearance, guise, semblance; 6 side; 7 direction; 8a intention, intent, design, purpose, aim, goal, objective, end; b course, policy, guiding principle, precept; 9 way, manner, mode, procedure, method; 10 reason, cause; 11 sense, meaning, signification, purport; 12 beginning, start, outset, first part of a given period of time; – pl. ʔawǧūh and wuǧūh, 13a aspect; b approach, point of view; c viewpoint, standpoint; – pl. ʔawǧūh, 14 phase (of the moon; also el.) – WehrCowan1979. 
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    I Adverbial phrases:
    waǧhan, adv., apparently
    waǧhan bi‑\li‑waǧh, adv., in private, personally, directly
    waǧhan min al-wuǧūhi, adv., (with preceding negation) in no way (whatsoever)
    bi‑waǧh al-ʔiǧmāl, adv., on the whole, by and large, in general
    bi‑\ʕalà waǧh al-taqrīb, adv., approximately, roughly, nearly
    waǧh ḫāṣṣ or ʕalà waǧh ḫāṣṣ, adv., especially, in particular
    bi‑\ʕalà waǧh ʕāmm, adv., generally, in general
    bi‑waǧh mā, adv., 1 some way or other, somehow; 2 in a certain way, to a certain extent
    bi‑dūn waǧh ḥaqq, adv., without any legitimate claim, without being in the least entitled, in an entirely unlawful manner
    ʕalà waǧh…, prep., 1 in the manner of, in the form of, in the shape of; 2 with regard to, concerning, about
    ʕalà waǧhi-h, adv., 1 in his own way; 2 in the right manner, correctly, properly, as it should be
    ʕalà ġayr waǧhi-h, adv., improperly, incorrectly, wrongly
    maḍà ʕalà waǧhi-h and ḏahaba ʕalà waǧhi-h, vb., one’s own way, go one’s way
    ʕalà hāḏā ’l-waǧh, adv., in this manner, this way, thus
    ʕalà waǧh al-ʔiǧmāl, adv., 1 on the whole, by and large, in general; 2 altogether, in the aggregate
    ʕalà ’l-waǧh al-tālī, adv., in the following manner, as follows
    ʕalà waǧh al-tafṣīl, adv., at great length, in detail, elaborately
    ʕalà waǧh al-ḥaṣr, adv., in a condensed form, briefly stated, in a nutshell
    ʕalà waǧh al-ʕumūm, adv., in general, generally
    ʕalà waǧh al-yaqīn, adv., with certainty
    fī waǧhi-h, adv., 1 before him, in his presence; counter to him; 2 before his (very) eyes
    li‑waǧhi ’llāh, adv., 1 for the sake of God, regardless of any reward in this life; 2 for nothing, gratis
    min kull waǧh, adv., in every respect, from every point of view, on all grounds
    min wuǧūh kaṯīraẗ, adv., many points of view, in many respects
    min baʕḍ al-wuǧūh, adv., in some ways
    min kulli al-wuǧūh, adv., in every respect, in every way, all the way through, completely.

    II Verbal phrases:
    ĭbyaḍḍa waǧhu-h, vb., to enjoy an excellent reputation, stand in good repute
    ĭswadda waǧhu-h, vb., to fall into discredit, be discredited, be in disgrace
    ʔaḫaḏa waǧhan, vb., to win respect, gain prestige
    ʔaḫaḏa waǧh al-ʕarūsaẗ, vb., to consummate marriage
    ʔahāna-hū fī waǧhi-h, vb., to insult s.o. to his face
    bayyaḍa waǧha-h, vb., 1 to make s.o. appear blameless, in a favorable light, to whitewash, exculpate, vindicate, justify s.o., play s.o. up, make much of s.o.; 2 to honor s.o., show honor to s.o.
    ḥalā lahū waǧhu ’l-ṭarīq, expr., his way was unobstructed, he had clear sailing
    saffaha waǧha-h or sawwada waǧha-h, vb., to expose s.o. t show s.o. up, make a fool of s.o., bring s.o. into discredit, disgrace s.o., dishonor s.o.
    šawwaha waǧh al-ḥaqīqaẗ, vb., to distort the truth
    waǧh al-waẓīfaẗ, vb., to disgrace one’s profession or office
    ḍaraba waǧh al-ʔamr wa-ʕayna-h, vb., to touch on the very essence of a matter, hit the mark
    qāma fī waǧh fulān, vb., to stand up to s.o., take a stand against s.o.
    haraba min waǧh fulān, vb., to flee from s.o.

    III Nominal phrases:
    al-waǧh al-baḥrī, n., Lower Egypt
    al-waǧh al-qiblī, n., Upper Egypt
    waǧh al-ḥāl, n., the circumstances, the state of affairs, the factual situation
    waǧh al-šabah, n., point of resemblance
    waǧh al-nahār, adv., during the daytime
    kalām ḏū waǧhayn, n. pl., equivocal statement, ambiguous words
    ʔawǧuh al-qamar, n. pl., the lunar phases
    wuǧūh al-nās, n. pl., prominent people, leading personalities.

    IV With gen.neg.:
    lā waǧhᵃ li‑, expr., there is no reason for
    lā waǧhᵃ la-hū min al-ṣiḥḥaẗ, expr., it has no validity at all

     
    wāǧihaẗ واجِهَة 
    ID 910 • Sw – • BP 3394 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WǦH 
    n.f. 
    1 face, front; 2 outside; 3 facade; 4 show window – WehrCowan1979. 
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    wāǧihaẗ al-qitāl, n.f., front line, fighting front

     
    WḤD وحد 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WḤD 
    “root” 
    ▪ WḤD_1 ‘one’ ↗wāḥid, ‘unification, union; theology’ ↗tawḥīd, ‘concord, agreement, union’ ↗ĭttiḥād
    ▪ WḤD_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘one, single, unique, alone, to be alone; the same, one and the same; to be in solitude, to be singular, to be without equal, to be incomparable, to make into one, to unite (see ʔḤD)’ 
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    tawḥīd تَوْحِيد 
    ID 913 • Sw – • BP 2297 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WḤD 
    n. 
    1 unification, union, combination, fusion; 2a standardization, regularization; b consolidation, amalgamation, merger; 3a belief in the unity of God; b profession of the unity of God; c monotheism; 4 (myst.) mergence in the unity of the universe – WehrCowan1979. 
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    tawḥīd al-duyūn, n., consolidation of debts
    tawḥīd al-zawǧaẗ, n., monogamy
    tawḥīd al-kalimaẗ, n., unification, union, joining of forces, unanimity
    tawḥīd al-mantūǧāt, n., standardization of industrial products
    ʕilm al-tawḥīd, n., (Islamic) theology

     
    ĭttiḥād اِتِّحاد 
    ID 912 • Sw – • BP 301 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WḤD 
    n. 
    1 oneness, singleness, unity; 2 concord, accord, unison, harmony, unanimity, agreement; 3 combination; 4 consolidation, amalgamation, merger, fusion; 5a alliance, confederacy; b association; c federation; d union; 6 chemical compound – WehrCowan1979. 
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    bi‑’ttiḥād, adv., in unison, with combined efforts, together, jointly
    ĭttiḥād al-ārāʔ, n., unanimity
    bi‑’ttiḥād al-ārāʔ, adv., unanimously
    ĭttiḥād al-barīd al-ʕāmm, n., Universal Postal Union
    ĭttiḥād ǧanūb afrīqiyā, n., the Union of South Africa
    ĭttiḥād al-duwal al-ʕarabiyyaẗ, n., the United Arab States (i.e., the United Arab Republic and Yemen)
    ĭttiḥād sufyītī, n., the Soviet Union

     
    wāḥid واحِد 
    ID 914 • Sw 11/109 • BP 56 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WḤD 
    adj., num. 
    1 one (numeral); 2 someone, somebody, a certain person, a certain…; 3 sole, only; 4 (pl. wuḥdān) single, solitary, separate, individual, sporadic, isolated – WehrCowan1979. 
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    wāḥidan fa-wāḥidan or wāḥidan wāḥidan or wāḥidan baʕdᵃ ’l-ʔāḫar or wāḥid baʕdᵃ wāḥid, adv., one by one, single, separately, one after the other, one at a time, successively
    al-wāḥid, adj., the One (attribute of God)
    al-wāḥid min-hum, pronoun, each of them, every one of them
    wāḥid ka-hāḏā, pronoun, such a one, such a man, (any)one like that
    kullu wāḥidin, pronoun, everyone, everybody
    fī mawḍiʕin wāḥid, adv., in one and the same place
    wa-lā wāḥid, expr., not a single one, not one
    zarāfātin wa-wuḥdānan, expr., in groups and alone

     
    WḤŠ وحش 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21May2023
    √WḤŠ 
    “root” 
    ▪ WḤŠ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WḤŠ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WḤŠ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘wild beasts; wild fruit; the wrong side; to be desolate, be homesick’ 
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    WḤY وحي 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WḤY 
    “root” 
    ▪ WḤY_1 ‘inspiration; revelation (theol.)’ ↗waḥy
    ▪ WḤY_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to give a sign, to whisper, to send a secret message, to intimate; to write down, to record; to command; to call for assistance; to go in a hurry; to reveal, to inspire’ 
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    waḥy وَحْي 
    ID 915 • Sw – • BP 3799 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WḤY 
    n. 
    1 inspiration; 2 revelation (theol.) – WehrCowan1979. 
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    WDː (WDD) ودّ / ودد 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WDː (WDD) 
    “root” 
    ▪ WDː (WDD)_1 ‘to love; to want’ ↗wadda
    ▪ WDː (WDD)_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ WDː (WDD)_3 ‘…’ ↗

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘love, affection, friendship; to desire, to wish for; to be amicable’ 
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    wadd‑ / wadid‑ وَدَّ / وَدَدْـ , a (wadd, wudd, widd, wadād, wudād, mawaddaẗ
    ID … • Sw – • BP 1899 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WDː (WDD) 
    vb., I 
    to love, like, be fond of; to want, wish (s.th., ʔan or law or law ʔan, that s.th. be) – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2496: from protSem *wad‑ ‘to love, want’, perh. < AfrAs *wad‑ ‘dto.’. 
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    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘to love’) Akk wdd, Hbr (yāḏīḏ ‘darling’), Syr (ints) ydd, SAr wdd.
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2496: Ug ydd, Hbr ydd, Gz wdd. – Outside Sem: (CCh) ‑wuḍ‑, waḍ, wuḍ ‘to want’.
     
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2496: protSem*wad‑ ‘to love, want’, protCCh *waḍ‑ (with secondary emphatics) ‘to want’, both from AfrAs *wad‑ ‘love, want’.
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    ʔawaddu ʔan yafʕala ḏālika, expr., I should like him to do this.
    kamā yawaddu, adv., as he likes.
    wadidtu law kāna ġaniyyan, expr., I wish he were rich.
    wadda nafsah baʕīdan ʕan…, expr., I wish o.s. far away from.

    wādda, vb. Ill, to make friends, become friends (‑h with s.o.): L‑stem, assoc.
    tawaddada, vb. V, to show love or affection (li‑ or ʔilà to s.o.); to try to gain favor (ʔilà with), seek s.o.’s (JI) friendship; to curry favor, ingratiate o.s. (ʔilà with), flatter one’s way (ʔilà into); to attract, captivate (‑h s.o.), win s.o.’s love or friendship: Dt‑stem.
    tawādda, vb. VI, to love each other, be on friendly terms, be friends: Lt‑stem, recipr.

    wadd, widd, wudd, n., I 1 BP#2468(BP: wudd) love, affection, amity, friendship; 2 BP#4078(GulfAr widd) wish, desire: vn. I | kāna bi‑waddinā law, expr., we should be pleased if. – II pl. ʔawdād, ʔawudd, ʔawidd, adj., 1a loving; 1b affectionate, tender; 2 fond, attached, devoted; 3 n., lover
    waddī, widdī, BP#3066wuddī, adj., friendly, cordial, amicable, warm: nisba formation from w˅dd.
    wadād, widād, wudād, n., love, friendship: vn. I.
    wadādī, adj., amicable, friendly, of a friend: nisba formation from wadād.
    wadūd, and wadīd, adj., favorably disposed, attached, devoted, fond, friendly: ints.adj.
    BP#4735mawaddat, n.f., 1 love; 2 friendship: vn. I.
    tawādd, n., friendly relations, good terms: vn. VI.
     
    WDʕ ودع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21May2023
    √WDʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ WDʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WDʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WDʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a safe place, a depository; comfort, serenity, to place in good keeping; to bid farewell, see off, leave behind; to leave alone, cease hostility with, exchange pledges of mutual peace’ 
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    WDQ ودق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21May2023
    √WDQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ WDQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WDQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WDQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘rain; war; midday heat; a barrier, to approach, offer hospitality; (of the stomach) to sag’ 
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    WDY ودي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21May2023
    √WDY 
    “root” 
    ▪ WDY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WDY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WDY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a place where running water gathers, (of liquid) to run, a valley; a branch, palm tree saplings; blood money; death, to be taken by death’ 
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    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl wadi, from Ar ↗wādī ‘valley, ravine, river bed’, akin to ↗wadà ‘to pay blood money’, in *Š-stem ʔawdà ‘to cut off, kill’. 
    – 
    WḎR وذر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21May2023
    √WḎR 
    “root” 
    ▪ WḎR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WḎR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WḎR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a small boneless piece of flesh; to cut into small pieces; to leave alone, leave behind, forsake, cease’ 
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    *WR- ورــ 
    2-cons. "root nucleus" 
    DRS 7 (1997) : « cette séquence consonantique apparaît dans diverses racines comportant une R₃ = ʔ/W/Y : soit WRʔ, WRW, WRY. Pour autant que ces racines aient été rigoureusement distinctes à qq époque, on ne peut que constater dans les usages historiques des rapports sémantiques qui marquent au moins des échanges et des interinfluences. La répartition qu’on a cru pouvoir faire ici [i.e., dans DRS] sur la base de formes radicales à variantes : WRʔ~WRY, WRʔ/ʕ~YRʔ/ʕ, WRW~WRY (doublée d’une racine secondaire WRW~WRR) et WRY, est fondée sur des bases sémantiques parfois hypothétiques ; les hésitations et les doutes sont marqués par les points d’interrogation qui parsèment les articles. »
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    DRS 7 (1997) #WRʔ~WRY-1 Ar warāʔ ‘derrière, ce qui est derrière; petit-fils’, Tham wrʔ ‘postérité’, dial. uṛā ‘derrière (préposition)’; ? Sab hwrt ‘partie postérieure(?)’225 , ? Ar waraʔa ‘être rassasié’; Gz warʔa ‘soutenir dans la vieillesse’, warrəʔa ‘soutenir, alimenter, fournir le nécessaire pour vivre’; ? Ar waraʔa ‘repousser, pousser violemment’.226 – Rather reliable cognates also outside Sem.227 - ?2 Ar *tawarraʔa (ʕalà) ‘couvrir, enfermer’, warrà(y) ‘cacher, simuler, feindre, faire croire une chose à la place d’une autre; faire une allusion équivoque’, wārà(y) ‘cacher (quelque chose); enterrer sans cérémonie, enterrer’, tawarrà(y), tawārà(y) ‘être dissimulé, se cacher’,228 EAr PalAr EgAr wāṛa, wāra (i) ‘cacher, tenir secret, dissimuler’, ? SudAr orī(t) ‘erreur’, Gz warʔa ‘cacher, couvrir’.229 -3 Ar warà(y) ‘blesser au poumon’.230 -4 Gur wära ‘gentil, doux’.
    DRS 7 (1997) #WRʔ/ʕ~YRʔ/ʕ-1 Ug *yrʔ, Hbr yārēʔ ‘craindre’, *yāraʕ ‘trembler, manquer de courage’, EmpAram yrʕ ‘faire tort à’, JudPalAram yaraʕ ‘désespérer’, Ar wariʕa ‘être pieux, craignant Dieu, faible, peureux’, waraʕ ‘crainte pieuse, piété’, waraʕa ‘s’abstenir des choses illicites’, warraʕa, ʔawraʕa ‘détourner des choses illicites’, yariʕa ‘être peureux, poltron’, yarāʕ, waraʕ ‘poltron; faible, petit’, HispAr *wāriʕ ‘chaste’.231 -?2 Ar waraʔa ‘repousser, pousser violemment’,232 warraʕa ‘ramener (le troupeau) de l’abreuvoir’, wāraʕa ‘discuter’, warraʕa, ʔawraʕa, tawarraʕa ‘repousser, s’interposer’; HispAr warraʕ ‘effrayer’, tawarraʕ ‘craindre’, ʕOmAr warraʕ ‘ramener (bêtes, gens)’, Sab hwrʕ ‘intimider, arrêter, repousser; (faire) revenir’, Mhr həwrā ‘faire revenir, ramener (bêtes, gens); tenir à l’écart (les mauvais esprits)’, Ḥrs awrā ‘ramener (le bétail) au soir’, Te wära ‘menacer, battre’; ? wärʕ ‘eau bénite, magique’, wärʕa ‘asperger (d’eau bénite, magique)’; ? Tña wəruʕ ‘vaniteux’. -3 EAr waraʕ ‘se disperser, se répandre (bétail pour brouter, gens)’, warʕa ‘portion de terrain sillonnée de petites rigoles d’irrigation’. -4 Te wärʕe ‘chèvre de montagne’. -?5 Amh wärra ‘jaunir (feuilles, céréales), avoir mauvaise mine’. -6 nSyr wirā ‘qui louche, atteint de strabisme’.233
    DRS 7 (1997) #WRW~WRY-1 Akk wurrūm ‘couper, séparer, interrompre’. - ?2 Ug yr, Hbr yōrēʰ, mōrēʰ ‘pluie d’automne’.234 -3 Te wära ‘faire, essayer’, wärat ‘travail’, Tña waräyä ‘travailler, faire’. -4 Te woro(t) ‘un’.
    DRS 7 (1997) #WRW~WRR-1 Ug *yrw ‘tirer (une flèche)’, Hbr yārā ‘jeter, lancer, tirer (flèche, etc.)’, ? Syr ʔeštawrī ‘arriver par hasard, venir à la rencontre, percer; oser’; EAr warra ‘jeter, rejeter’, warwar ‘jeter, lancer’; Gz warawa, warrawa ‘jeter, lancer, rejeter’, Te Tña wärwärä, Amh Arg wäräwwärä, Gur wəräwwarä ‘jeter, lancer’.235 / 236 / 237 | Outside Sem: Cohen Essai 198 #512 considère que WR constitue la base d’une racine à réduplication incomplète qui correspondrait à WRW(~WRY) et une à réduplication totale WRWR, v. s. WR, WRWR; rapproche de Eg ‘harpon’ (avec ʕ pour r) et [Cush] Or worāna, Som waran ‘lance’ (avec -n suffixe). HSED 527 comp. (Chad) Kabalay wəri, weri, Dangale ore ‘jeter’; il y ajoute SAg wowər-əŋ, m. s.238 - ?2 SAr *wrw ‘attaquer’, ? Te wärra ‘assaillir, attaquer de tous côtés’, Tña wärärä, Amh wärrärä ‘fondre en masse sur un pays, faire une razzia, envahir, piller, saccager; pulluler, démanger’, Gur wärär dänägä ‘attaquer audacieusement’, Har woran ‘guerre, lance’.239 | Outside Sem : En dehors du SAr, la racine, avec le sens de ‘attaquer’, est présente dans de très nombreuses langues éthiopiennes, aussi bien couchitiques que sémitiques (Sem > Cush ?, […]). [L]es formes Cush […] associent les notions de ‘guerre’ et de ‘lance’ et justifieraient le rapprochement qui est fait habituellement entre les formes s. 1 et 2. Il est possible cependant, comme le suggère Cerulli ibid., qu’on ait affaire à deux racines originellement différentes et confondues ultérieurement “par étymologie populaire”, comme, selon lui, semblerait le montrer le Kafa. - V. aussi sub 1. – Hohenberger 227 signale des formes de racines de constitution proche dans des langues nilotiques. – Voir aussi WRW~WRY, WRWR et les renvois s. WR‑.
    DRS 7 (1997) #WRY-1 Akk (w)arū(m), oAkk oAss warāʔum ‘conduire’.240 – ?2 Hbr (Hi) hōrē ‘montrer (avec le doigt), instruire’; – ? tōrāʰ ‘direction, instruction, loi’; mōräʰ ‘enseignant, maître’; JudPalAram ʔōrī ‘enseigner, instruire’; Ar [dial.] warrà, ʔawrà ‘montrer, désigner’, MġrAr warra (i) ‘montrer, faire voir, enseigner’, OranAr wāri ‘évident’, ? YemAr *warā ‘violer l’honneur d’une femme’; Sab hwry ‘annoncer, publier’, Soq ʔere ‘marque (?)’, Gz waraya ‘dire les nouvelles, raconter’, Te wära ‘annoncer’, Tña wäre ‘nouvelle, avis, renommée’, ʔawräyä, Amh ʔawärra ‘donner des nouvelles’, Amh Arg Gur wäre, Har war ‘nouvelle’; Tña wäräyä ‘être utile, servir, aider, assister, être fécond’.241 -3 Gur wäriya, wērä, wäyä, Gaf wäyä ‘nouveau’ | Outside Sem: D’après EDG < Cush: Kam Sid hāro, Had hāri-ččo ‘nouveau’. -4 Ar warā(y) ‘s’allumer (feu)’, wariya, warā(y) ‘produire son feu (briquet)’.242 -5 warā(y) ‘corrompre et ronger les chairs (pus)’, wary ‘matière purulente, abcès, blessure qui émet pus et sang’. -6 wariya ‘être compacte (moelle, chair)’, warā(y) ‘être gras (chameaux)’.
    DRS 7 (1997) #WRR-1 ?Akk err- ‘intestin’.243 -2 nHbr wārīr ‘taches blanches dans l’œil, leucomes’. -3 Ar warr ‘os de la hanche’.244 -4 ‘fertilité, abondance des fruits de la terre’. -5 warraẗ ‘fossé’ | cognates outside Sem ?245 -6 wirr : sorte de bonnet de nuit. -7 EAr warr ‘jeter de haut’. -8 ‘vagir (bébé)’ -9 Tña wärär bälä ‘couler, dégouliner’. -10 Amh wərr, wərro : cri pour appeler le chat.246 -11 wärära ‘mine, visage’. -12 Gur wərra ‘seulement’. — Certaines formes qui en doublent d’autres relevant de ↗WRWR sont traitées sous cette dernière racine.
    DRS 7 (1997) #WRWR-1 Ar warwara, warra ‘regarder intensément’, warwarī ‘qui a la vue faible’, EAr warwar ‘être brillante et attirer le regard (couleur)’, SudAr warwar ‘agiter les doigts pour menacer, menacer, réprimander’; Malt werwer ‘terrifier’.247 - ?2 Ar warwara ‘parler vite’, SudAr warr (fi l-kalām) ‘parler vite’, EAr ‘parler vite pour ne rien dire, jaser’, Malt werwer ‘jacasser, jaser’; – MġrAr warwar ‘faire rru en roulant (voiture, boule)’, EAr waṛwaṛ ‘faire wör wör comme l’oiseau waṛwāṛ’, warwār ‘guêpier (oiseau)’, ? wirwir ‘revolver’ ; EgAr warr ‘bourdonner; tournoyer’. – ? Amh täwärawwärä ‘se railler mutuellement, échanger des pointes’.248 -3 MġrAr warwār, warwīrūr ‘sureau’.249 -4 Gz warwəre, warāwərre ‘topaze’, Amh wärawəre : pierre précieuse, ‘couleur bleue’. -5 wərwərta ‘crépuscule’. -6 Te wirwirro ‘premiers fruits’, EgAr wirwir ‘frais, tendre, sain’.250 -7 Gur wärwär : petite saison des pluies. -8 wərwər balä ‘faire une promenade’, wərr beä ‘marcher vite’. — V. aussi ↗WRW~WRR.
    ▪ Ehret1995 proposes four AfrAs bases containing *WR- : #972 AfrAs *-war-/-wir- ‘to call out’ : (Sem) Ar ↗warwar ‘to speak fast’ (redupl. stem as intens.), protCush *war‑ ‘to call out; news, report’, (Chad) Ng wə̀rd‑ ‘to cry out’ (stem + dur. *‑d), (Omot) Gonga *wor‑ ‘news’ (Mocha wóro). – #973 AfrAs *war ‘light’ : (Sem) Ar wary [↗warà] ‘to burn, blaze’ (stem + denom. *‑y), (Cush) Iraqw warʔes‑ ‘to flash (of lightning)’ (stem + n.suff. *‑ʔ + denom.caus. *‑s), (NOmot) SMao wəro ‘moon’. – #974 AfrAs *-wăr-/-wĭr- ‘to grow (person, animal)’ : pre-protSem *wr ‘to grow, increase in size’, Eg wr ‘greatness of size’, wr, wrr ‘great; much, many’, (Cush) SC: PR *war‑ ‘mature young person’, protCChad *wr ‘old’, (NOmot) Ometo *orde ‘big’ (stem + dur. *‑d > stat.), Gonga *wur‑ ‘male animal’ (i.e., in general larger sex; Mocha wuró < *wer‑). – #975 AfrAs *-waar- ‘to soak (intr.)’: (Sem) Ar warq ‘dropping blood or pus’ (↗WRQ: stem + andat. *-kʷ’), wary ‘festering pus’ (↗WRY_7: stem + deverb. *-y), Eg wryt ‘cloth for strain-liquids’ (stem + inchoat. *-y + n.suff. *-t), Cush *warb- ‘to hold water’ (stem + extend. *-b), Omot *waːr- ‘fish’ (SOm: Ari-Banna *waːr- ‘to swim’)
    ▪ ...
     
    225. Sab hwrt : sens douteux; DicSab 57 propose aussi : ‘citerne, pièce d’eau’, rac. HWR, v.s.  226. Ar waraʔa ‘repousser, pousser’ est relié à ‘arrière, dos’ par Cohen Essai 198, entre autres, mais comp. aussi sub W/YRʔ/ʕ.  227. Cohen Essai 198, n° 509. Comp. Eg yʔ.t ‘dos d’homme ou d’animal’? V. sur ce point Vycichl DELC 248 qui fait quelque réserve du fait que les formes nominales Eg et Ar ne concordent pas ; Berb: To arūri (Ahag, Ghat), əruru (Ifoghas), arori (Aïr) ‘dos’; Ouargla iri ‘côte, nuque’; Siwa ərrāo, ərraw ‘dos’, Sened ʕarut ‘épaule’, Kab iraw ‘dos, cou, épaule’, aʕrur ‘dos’; Tmz aruru ‘large dos’. La correspondance semble satisfaisante; en particulier, la finale w/u. Comment expliquer la pharyngale – et éventuellement la laryngale, si ahraw est confirmé à Siwa – qui apparaissent dans un certain nombre de formes ?; Cush : Bed niwa ‘queue’, Af Sa irō ‘dos’, Bilin Qw yewi, Kafa ilō ‘dos’, Iraqw ālu ‘derrière’; Dolgopol’skij 222 reconstruit une forme proto-Cush *ʔyVl(l)Vw- ‘partie arrière’.  228. Pour le sens ‘cacher’, l’expression ClassAr, telle qu’elle est fournie par des lexicographes, est : tawarraʔat ʕalayhi ‘(la terre) se ferma sur lui’ (mais peut-être ‘devint plane sur lui’), synonyme de tawaddaʔat ʕalayhi, selon Ibn Ǧinnī […].  229. CDG 671: Gz warʔa peut-être reconstruction à partir de morāʔ qui dépend du vb. marʔa ‘porter, transporter’.  230. Formation secondaire sur ↗riʔaẗ ‘poumon’, v. s. Rʔ.  231. (ad #1 and #2) On trouve aussi en Ar, s. ↗√ʕWR, les valeurs ici relevées s. 1 et 2. – EmpAram: lecture incertaine. – Perh. related to ↗Rʕʕ ‘casser en morceaux’; […] for Ar see esp. Nöldeke NBSS 206 : »Täuschend ist noch die Ähnlichkeit von WRʕ ‘scheu’ in mancherlei Formen und Bedeutungsnuancen mit ↗yarāʕ oder yarāʕaẗ ‘Feigling’ […], denn da haben wir das bekannte Wort, das ‘Rohr’ bedeutet und das als Bild für dem schwachen, feigen Menschen gebraucht wird. […] Wenn das Abstraktum yaraʕ ‘Feigheit’ (Qāmūs) echt ist, so ist es erst von yarāʕ in dieser Bedeutung gebildet.«  232. See also ↗WRʔ~WRY.  233. Sans doute < ʕWR.  234. Il s’agit des premières pluies qui tombent en Palestine en novembre. Les formes sont parfois rapportées à ‘jeter, lancer’ (v. s. WRW~WRR), mais expliquées aussi comme le produit d’une métathèse de la rac. RWY qui comporte la valeur ‘abreuver’ .... – Ug: forme conjecturale, d’après Hbr  235. La racine est présente à Ebla : /tiwriyum/, /tīriyum/ ‘jeter’. – Pour une discussion générale, Nöldeke ZDMG 36:42, 40:726. – Huehnergard2011 reconstructs protSem *√WRW ‘to lead, guide, cast, throw’.  236. Hbr: Gesenius TR. 366 ne sépare pas de mōräʰ ‘maître, enseignant’, interprété comme signifiant ‘lancer la main > désigner, montrer’, v. ici s. ↗WRY; peut-être faut-il invoquer l’usage de l’Ar dans l’expression négative (mā) wuriʔa, wurriʔa ‘(ne pas) savoir’ ?, mais v. s. ↗WRY.  237. Voir aussi s. ↗WRʔ, ↗WRW~WRY, ↗WRY.  238. Sur des formes similaires désignant la ‘lance’ dans des langues ‘nilo-hamitiques’, Hohenberger 230.  239. Comp. s. BRBR. – Praetorius AMS 56:132 pose, pour étymologie des formes éthiopiennes, Gz barbara, dont les valeurs sont tout à fait analogues, par “affaiblissement de b en w”; comment expliquer alors le SAr ? Faut-il supposer une base à alternance WR~BR ?  240. Le verbe est doublé en Akk par une forme secondaire tarū(m), de valeur analogue, qui connaît une dérivation propre, ...; vonSoden AHW 1473 rapproche l’Akk des formes Sem qui signifient ‘jeter’, v.s. WRW~WRY. Elle peut sembler dans un rapport sémantique plus vraisemblable, sans être certain, avec la notion de ‘montrer, instruire’ sous 2.  241. Cf also ↗WʔR. – .... – For the place of Hbr tōrāʰ among the cognates, see DISC in ↗tawrāẗ.  242. Il s’agit de la production du feu par frottement de deux morceaux (↗zand) d’une certaine espèce de bois, v. Lane 1257, LA III/51.  243. Akk err- (AHW 244; mais CAD 7:181 donne irrū) est proposé interrogativement ici; son appartenance à une racine wrr est présumée, sur la base d’une variante paléo-babylonienne wirr- […]. La forme Akk avait été rapprochée par Leslau LS 327 de Soq ʕérieh ‘intestin’.  244. Pour warr, certains dictionnaires semblent y voir un synonyme de ↗wark ‘hanche, ce qui est au-dessus de la cuisse’, et non pas seulement l’os, v. s. WRK.  245. HSED 53 1 signale en (Chad) Ngizim wuriya, Higi Nkafa wure ‘fossé, trou’.  246. wərro sert aussi de nom pour ‘chat’ […]; la forme est liée à d’autres qu’on trouvera s. ↗HRR, v. aussi s. ↗ʕRY.  247. Pour les formes signifiant ‘jeter, lancer, percer’, v. s. ↗*WR-, ↗WRW~WRY, ↗WRW~WRR.  248. Outside Sem : note (Berb) Kab aweṛwəṛ.  249. Cf., outside Sem (Berb): Beaussier 25 cite MġrAr (“du berbère”) ʔayrūrī, tāwrīra ‘sureau’.  250. Pour BadawiHinds 934, le mot EgAr est d’origine Copt. 
    ▪ ...
     

     
    DRS #WRʔ~WRY : ↗√WRY (warāʔ, ¹warrà, tawriyaẗ), ↗√ (riʔaẗ)
    DRS #WRʔ/WRʕ~YRʔ/YRʕ : ↗√WRʕ (wariʕa), ↗√YRʕ (yariʕa, ³yarāʕ)
    DRS #WRR : ↗√WRː (WRR) (warr, warr(aẗ), warraẗ)
    DRS #WRW~WRR : ? ↗√WRYwarrà)
    DRS #WRW~WRY : –
    DRS #WRWR : ↗√WRWR (warwār, EgAr wirwir), ↗√WRː (WRR) (EgAr warrᵃ)
    DRS #WRY : ↗√WRY (warà, ²warrà), ↗tawrāẗ (arranged s.r. ↗√TWR)
    ▪ Ehret1995 #972 AfrAs *-war-/-wir- ‘to call out’: ↗WRː (WRR) (EgAr warrᵃ), ↗WRWR_3 warwarᵃ ‘to speak fast, speak volubly’
    ▪ Ehret1995 #973 AfrAs *war ‘light’: ↗√WRY (warà ‘to burn, blaze’), ?ʔWR (ʔuwār ‘heat, blaze; thirst’)
    ▪ Ehret1995 #974 AfrAs *-wăr-/-wĭr- ‘to grow (person, animal)’: pre-protSem *wr ‘to grow, increase in size’, Eg wr ‘greatness of size’, wr, wrr ‘great; much, many’, ? Ar ↗waràⁿ ‘mortals, man’
    ▪ Ehret1995 #975 AfrAs *-waar- ‘to soak (intr.)’: (Sem) Ar warq ‘dropping blood or pus’ (↗WRQ: stem + andat. *-kʷ’), wary ‘festering pus’ (↗WRY_7: stem + deverb. *-y)
     
    WRː (WRR) ورّ / ورر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Jul2023
    √WRː (WRR)
     
    "root" 
    ▪ WRː (WRR)_1 ‘to whirr, produce a humming or buzzing sound; to revolve, move around quickly’: EgAr ↗warrᵃ (i, warr) – BadawiHinds1986

    Other values, now obsolete, include (Hava1899):

    WRː (WRR)_2 ‘haunch-bone’: warr(aẗ)
    WRː (WRR)_3 ‘ditch in the earth’: warraẗ
    WRː (WRR)_4 ‘to throw, reject’: SyrAr warrᵃ (u, warr)
     
    ▪ [v1] : The notions of ‘whirring, producing a humming or buzzing sound’ and ‘revolving, moving around quickly’ are grouped together as basically one value by DRS 7 (1997) under the reduplicated root #WRWR-2 (see below, section COGN), associated also with the ↗warwār bird (‘bee-eater’) and ‘speaking quickly\volubly’ (WRWR_3 warwara), as though the vb.s for ‘whirring, humming, buzzing’ and ‘moving around quickly’ were coined with the bee-eater bird in mind (or the warwār as *‘the humming\buzzing one, quickly moving’). Moreover, the authors of DRS ask (cf. the « ? » before #2) whether these notions may, or may not, be related to ‘looking intensely\fixedly’ (↗WRWR_4 warwara (’l-naẓarᵃ)) and ‘to wave menacingly with one’s fingers, menace, terrify’ (grouped under #WRWR-1). All these items seem to be inner-Ar developments (but very widespread there), akin to other Sem perh. only via their dependence on warwār. – Cf., however, Ehret1995 #972 who thinks Ar warwar ‘to speak fast’ has cognates outside Sem in Cush, Chad, and Omot languages and therefore posits AfrAs *-war-/-wir- ‘to call out’ as a common ancestor.
    [v2] : In DRS, Ar warr(aẗ) ‘haunch-bone’ is without cognates in Sem. The authors note that some ClassAr dictionaries seem to regard it as « synonyme » (and shortened variant?) of ↗wark ‘id.’. – In contrast, MilitarevKogan2000 (SED I) #10 give some Gur items for ‘leg’ as cognates and consider a connection of warr with the semantic complex of ‘back, behind, etc.’ (↗warāʔ, < Sem *ʔ˅rāw-, *w˅rāʔ- ‘back’ < AfrAs *ʔ/wiray/w- ‘back’), with an assumed shift of meaning *‘back > thigh > leg’.
    [v3] warraẗ ‘ditch in the earth’: no cognates in Sem, but according to OrelStolbova1994 perh. outside (WCh, CCh); the authors reconstruct Sem *warr‑ ‘pit’, WCh *wur‑ ‘pit, furrow’, and CCh *wur‑ (wure) ‘hole’, all from a hypothetical AfrAs *wur‑ ‘pit, hole’.
    [v4] SyrAr warrᵃ (u, warr) ‘to throw, reject’: The notion of ‘throwing, casting’ used to be connected to ‘leading, guiding > showing, teaching’ and thus also to Hbr tōrāhʰ (> Ar ↗tawrāẗ), cf., e.g., Huehnergard2011’s reconstruction of a protSem *√WRW ‘to lead, guide, cast, throw’; but this view has been contested, among others by the authors of DRS 7 (1997) who treat it as a distinct value, though withoug clear etymology: under #WRR-7, they list a EAr warrᵃ ‘jeter de haut’, while EAr warra ‘jeter, rejeter’, warwar ‘jeter, lancer’ is dealt with s.r. #WRW~WRR-1 (cognates in Ug, Hbr, ?Syr, and EthSem) ; for ‘showing’ etc., see ↗²warrà and ↗tawrāẗ (= WRY_4-5). Given that ‘throwing, casting’ sometimes also takes the meaning of ‘shooting’, there is some probability that the extra-Sem (Eg, Cush, Chad) forms quoted in DRS are valid cognates.
     
    – 
    ▪ [v1] EgArwarrᵃ (i, warr) ‘to whirr, produce a humming or buzzing sound; to revolve, move around quickly’: cf. DRS 7 (1997) #WRWR-1 Ar warwara, warra ‘regarder intensément’, warwarī ‘qui a la vue faible’, EAr warwar ‘être brillante et attirer le regard (couleur)’, SudAr warwar ‘agiter les doigts pour menacer, menacer, réprimander’; Malt werwer ‘terrifier’.251 - ?2 Ar warwara ‘parler vite’, SudAr warr (fi l-kalām) ‘parler vite’, EAr ‘parler vite pour ne rien dire, jaser’, Malt werwer ‘jacasser, jaser’; – MġrAr warwar ‘faire rru en roulant (voiture, boule)’, EAr waṛwaṛ ‘faire wör wör comme l’oiseau waṛwāṛ’, warwār ‘guêpier (oiseau)’, ? wirwirrevolver’ ; EgAr warrbourdonner; tournoyer’. – ? Amh täwärawwärä ‘se railler mutuellement, échanger des pointes’.252 -3-8 .... – ? Cf. also Ehret1995 #972 AfrAs *-war-/-wir- ‘to call out’: (Sem) Ar warwar ‘to speak fast’ (redupl. stem as intens.), protCush *war‑ ‘to call out; news, report’, (Chad) Ng wə̀rd‑ ‘to cry out’ (stem + dur. *‑d), (Omot) Gonga *wor‑ ‘news’ (Mocha wóro).
    [v2] : DRS 7 (1997) #WRR-1-2 .... -3 Ar warr ‘os de la hanche’. – Certains dictionnaires semblent y voir un synonyme de ↗wark ‘hanche, ce qui est au-dessus de la cuisse’, et non pas seulement l’os. -4-12 .... – MilitarevKogan2000 (SED I) #10 give Ar warr ‘os de la hanche’, [Gur] Cha Eža End Gyt wär ‘leg’ ; moreover, the authors think these items may be related (via a semantic shift *‘back > thigh > leg’) to ↗warāʔ ‘back side, behind, etc.’ (s.r. √WRY).
    [v3] : DRS 7 (1997) #WRR-1-4 .... -5 warraẗ ‘fossé’ | cognates outside Sem ? HSED 53 1 signale en (Chad) Ngizim wuriya, Higi Nkafa wure ‘fossé, trou’. -6-12 .... – See also OrelStolbova1994 (HSED) #2548): AfrAs *wur‑ ‘pit, hole’ > Sem *warr‑ ‘pit’: Arab warraẗ;253 WCh *wur‑ (> Ngizim wuriya) ‘pit, furrow’ (cf. also Higi Nkafa wure ‘to dig (a hole)’), CCh *wur‑ (wure) ‘hole’.
    [v4] : DRS 7 (1997) #WRW~WRR-1 Ug *yrw ‘tirer (une flèche)’, Hbr yārā ‘jeter, lancer, tirer (flèche, etc.)’, ? Syr ʔeštawrī ‘arriver par hasard, venir à la rencontre, percer; oser’; EAr warra ‘jeter, rejeter’, warwar ‘jeter, lancer’; Gz warawa, warrawa ‘jeter, lancer, rejeter’, Te Tña wärwärä, Amh Arg wäräwwärä, Gur wəräwwarä ‘jeter, lancer’.254 / 255 / 256 | Outside Sem: Cohen Essai 198 #512 considère que WR constitue la base d’une racine à réduplication incomplète qui correspondrait à WRW(~WRY) et une à réduplication totale WRWR, v. s. WR, WRWR; rapproche de Eg ‘harpon’ (avec ʕ pour r) et [Cush] Or worāna, Som waran ‘lance’ (avec -n suffixe). HSED 527 comp. (Chad) Kabalay wəri, weri, Dangale ore ‘jeter’; il y ajoute SAg wowər-əŋ, m. s.257 – Cf. also DRS 7 (1997) #WRR-1-6 .... -7 EAr warr ‘jeter de haut’. -8 ....
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
     
    – 
    – 
    EgAr warr- / warrē- وَرّ/وَرّيـــ , i (warr
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 27Jul2023
    √WRː (WRR)
     
    vb., I  
    1 to whirr, produce a humming or buzzing sound; 2 to revolve, move around quickly – BadawiHinds1986  
    ▪ The notions of [v1] ‘whirring, producing a humming or buzzing sound’ and [v2] ‘revolving, moving around quickly’ are grouped together as basically one value by DRS 7 (1997) under the reduplicated root #WRWR-2 (see below, section COGN), associated also with the ↗warwār bird (‘bee-eater’) and ‘speaking quickly\volubly’ (WRWR_3 warwara), as though the vb.s for ‘whirring, humming, buzzing’ and ‘moving around quickly’ were coined with the bee-eater bird in mind (or the warwār as *‘the humming\buzzing one, quickly moving’?). Moreover, the authors of DRS ask (cf. the « ? » before #2) whether these notions may, or may not, be related to ‘looking intensely\fixedly’ (↗WRWR_4 warwara (’l-naẓarᵃ)) and ‘to wave menacingly with one’s fingers, menace, terrify’ (grouped under #WRWR-1). All these items seem to be inner-Ar developments (but very widespread there), akin to other Sem perh. only via their dependence (if valid) on warwār. – Cf., however, Ehret1995 #972 who thinks Ar warwar ‘to speak fast’ has cognates outside Sem in Cush, Chad, and Omot languages and therefore posits AfrAs *-war-/-wir- ‘to call out’ as a common ancestor.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ ...
     
    DRS 7 (1997) #WRWR-1 Ar warwara, warra ‘regarder intensément’, warwarī ‘qui a la vue faible’, EAr warwar ‘être brillante et attirer le regard (couleur)’, SudAr warwar ‘agiter les doigts pour menacer, menacer, réprimander’; Malt werwer ‘terrifier’.258 - ?2 Ar warwara ‘parler vite’, SudAr warr (fi l-kalām) ‘parler vite’, EAr ‘parler vite pour ne rien dire, jaser’, Malt werwer ‘jacasser, jaser’; – MġrAr warwar ‘faire rru en roulant (voiture, boule)’, EAr waṛwaṛ ‘faire wör wör comme l’oiseau waṛwāṛ’, warwār ‘guêpier (oiseau)’, ? wirwirrevolver’ ; EgAr warrbourdonner; tournoyer’. – ? Amh täwärawwärä ‘se railler mutuellement, échanger des pointes’.259 -3-8 ....
    ▪ ? Cf. also Ehret1995 #972 AfrAs *-war-/-wir- ‘to call out’: (Sem) Ar warwar ‘to speak fast’ (redupl. stem as intens.), protCush *war‑ ‘to call out; news, report’, (Chad) Ng wə̀rd‑ ‘to cry out’ (stem + dur. *‑d), (Omot) Gonga *wor‑ ‘news’ (Mocha wóro).
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
     
    – 
    For other values attached to the root, cf. root entry ↗WRː (WRR) ; see also the 2-cons. nucleus ↗*WR‑ as well as ↗WRʔ, ↗WRʕ, ↗WRWR and ↗WRY, with partly overlapping semantics.
     
    WRṮ ورث 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021 | last updated 01May2021
    √WRṮ 
    “root” 
    ▪ WRṮ_1 ʻto inherit; inheritance, legacy’ ↗wariṯa, ↗turāṯ

    Other values, now obsolete (Hava1899):

    WRṮ_2 ʻto stir (the fire)’: warraṯa
    WRṮ_3 ʻ…’:

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘heirloom, inheritance, legacy; an inheritor; to cause s.o. to acquire s.th.; (of rain) to bring life to the land’. 
    ▪ WRṮ_1: (Kogan2015: 100 #66:) from protWSem *wrṯ ʻto inherit’.
    WRṮ_2: warraṯa, vb. II, ʻto stir (the fire)’ – Hava1899.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ WRṮ_1: DRS 7 (1997) #WRṮ-1, Kogan2015 100 #66 (abbr. K): Ug yrṯ, Hbr yāraš, modHbr yrš, oAram yrt, EmpAram SamAram yrt, Palm wrš ʻhériter’, Nab yrt ʻhéritier’, JudPal yᵊrēt, ChrPal yrwt, Syr ʔiret, nSyr yarit, Ar wariṯa ʻhériter’, ThamAr Liḥ wrṯ ʻhéritier’, HispAr waráṯ, reṯ ʻhériter’, werréṯ ʻdonner en héritage; engendrer’, MaltAr wiret ʻhériter, présenter des caractères dus à l’hérédité’, Sab twrṯ (K wrṯ), Min Qat wrṯ ʻhériter de’, Qat trṯ ʻhéritage’, Mhr wīreṯ (K wīrəṯ), Jib érṯ (K erɔ́ṯ), Soq ərət (K érət) ʻhériter de qn’; Ḥrs werōṯ, wēreṯ, Jib eróṯ ʻhériter qc’; Gz warasa, Te wärsa, Tña Gur wäräsä, Har warasa, Amh Gaf wärräsa ʻhériter’. -2 Ug mrṯ ʻvin nouveau ( ?)’, Hbr ? *yrš ʻpresser (?)’, ? tīrōš ʻmoût de raisin non fermenté’; ? Ar warṯ: ce qui est frais, juteux, humide.
    ▪ WRṮ_2: DRS 7 (1997) #WRŚ/Ṯ : Ar warraṯa ʻexciter, attiser (le feu)’, waraša (bi‑) ʻexciter (contre), soulever (le peuple)’.
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ WRṮ_1: »While not directly attested in Akk, the WSem root has a good chance of being related to Akk rašu ʻto acquire, obtain’ […]« – Kogan2015: 100 #66.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    wariṯ‑ وَرِثَ , yariṯu (wirṯ, ʔirṯ, ʔirṯaẗ, wirāṯaẗ, riṯaẗ, turāṯ
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 01May2021
    √WRṮ 
    vb., I 
    1a to be heir (to s.o.), be s.o.’s heir; b to inherit (ʕan or min s.th. from s.o.) – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ From protWSem *wrṯ ʻto inherit’ – Kogan2015: 100 #66.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ WRṮ_1: DRS 7 (1997) #WRṮ-1, Kogan2015 100 #66 (abb. K): Ug yrṯ, Hbr yāraš, modHbr yrš, oAram yrt, EmpAram SamAram yrt, Palm wrš ʻhériter’, Nab yrt ʻhéritier’, JudPal yᵊrēt, ChrPal yrwt, Syr ʔiret, nSyr yarit, Ar wariṯa ʻhériter’, ThamAr Liḥ wrṯ ʻhéritier’, HispAr waráṯ, reṯ ʻhériter’, werréṯ ʻdonner en héritage; engendrer’, MaltAr wiret ʻhériter, présenter des caract̀ères dus à l’hérédité’, Sab twrṯ (K wrṯ), Min Qat wrṯ ʻhériter de’, Qat trṯ ʻhéritage’, Mhr wīreṯ (K wīrəṯ), Jib érṯ (K erɔ́ṯ), Soq ərət (K érət) ʻhériter de qn’; Ḥrs werōṯ, wēreṯ, Jib eróṯ ʻhériter qc’; Gz warasa, Te wärsa, Tña Gur wäräsä, Har warasa, Amh Gaf wärräsa ʻhériter’. -2 […].
    ▪ … 
    ▪ »While not directly attested in Akk, the WSem root has a good chance of being related to Akk rašu ʻto acquire, obtain’« – Kogan2015: 100 #66.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    warraṯa, vb. II, 1 to appoint as heir (s.o.); 2 to transfer by will, leave, bequeath, make over (to s.o. s.th.): D-stem, ¹declar., ²caus.
    ʔawraṯa, vb. IV, 1 = II; 2 to draw down, bring down (on s.o. s.th.), cause (s.o., s.th.): *š-stem, ²caus.
    tawāraṯa, vb VI, 1a to have inherited (s.th.); b to possess as an inheritance (s.th.): Lt-stem

    ʔirṯ, n., 1 heritage, inheritance, legacy; 2 estate (of inheritance): vn. I.
    wirṯ, n., inheritance, legacy: vn. I.
    wirāṯaẗ, n.f., 1 inheritance, legacy; 2 hereditariness, hereditary transmission, heredity: vn. I.
    BP#4764wirāṯī, adj., hereditary: nisba formation from preceding. | ʔamrāḍ wirāṯiyyaẗ, non-hum.pl., hereditary diseases
    warīṯ, pl. wuraṯāʔᵘ, n., heir, inheritor: FaʕīL formation, ints.
    turāṯ, n., inheritance, legacy: vn. I.
    mīrāṯ, pl. mawārīṯᵘ, n., heritage, inheritance, legacy, estate: formally a n.instr.
    tawāruṯ, n., 1 transmission by inheritance; 2 heredity: vn. VI.
    wāriṯ, pl. waraṯaẗ, wurrāṯ, n., 1 inheriting; 2 heir, inheritor: PA I.
    mawrūṯ, adj., 1a inherited; b handed down, transmitted, traditional; c hereditary: PP I.
    muwarriṯ, var. mūriṯ, n., testator, legator: PA II, var. IV.
    mutawāraṯ, adj., inherited: PP VI.
     
    turāṯ تُراث 
    ID 916 • Sw – • BP 1821 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021 | last updated 01May2021
    √WRṮ 
    n. 
    inheritance, legacy – WehrCowan1979. 
    turāṯ serves as one of several vn.s. of ↗wariṯa ʻto be heir; to inherit’.
    ▪ … 
    eC7 (heritage, inheritance, heirloom, legacy): Q 89:19 wa-taʔkulūna ’l-turāṯa ʔaklan lamman ʻand you devour the inheritance [of the orphans] with devouring greed’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ See ↗wariṯa.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    wirāṯaẗ وِراثة 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 9Jun2023
    √WRṮ 
    n.f. 
    1 inheritance, legacy; 2 hereditariness, hereditary transmission, heredity - WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ vn., I 
    BP#4764wirāṯī, adj., hereditary: nisba formation | ʔamrāḍ wirāṯiyyaẗ, non-hum.pl., hereditary diseases 
    WRD ورد 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WRD 
    “root” 
    ▪ WRD_1 ‘rose(s), flowers’ ↗ward
    ▪ WRD_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘blossoms, flowers, to come out in flowers; tree with hanging branches; watering-place, drinking herd or flock, to drive (a flock) to drink (at a watering-hole); daily task, assignment; turn; road, destination, to approach, to arrive; jugular vein; to appear, to supply’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    ward وَرْد 
    ID 917 • Sw –/53 • BP 1584 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 11Apr2023
    √WRD 
    n.coll. 
    1 rose(s); 2 blossoms, flowers, bloom – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Cheung2017rev (wardaẗ ‘rose-red’): ultimately of Ir origin, but prob. borrowed indirectly, via Aram wrd, cf. Syr wardā ‘rose’ etc. < oIr *warda- ‘id.’. For details, see below, section DISC.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    WRŠ ورش 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WRŠ 
    “root” 
    ▪ WRŠ_1 ‘workshop’ ↗waršaẗ
    ▪ WRŠ_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    waršaẗ وَرْشَة , pl. wiraš 
    ID 918 • Sw – • BP 2371 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WRŠ 
    n.f. 
    workshop – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Prob. from Engl workshop (BadawiHinds).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    waršaẗ al-ʔiṣlāḥ, n.f., repair shop, service station
    waršaẗ ġasīl, n.f., laundry

     
    WRʕ ورع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Jul2023
    √WRʕ 
    "root" 
    ▪ WRʕ_1 ‘to be shy, timid, be cautious, hesitate; to be pious and godfearing’ ↗wariʕa

    Other values, now obsolete, include (Hava1899):

    WRʕ_2 ‘to consult, discuss’: wāraʕa
    WRʕ_ ‘...’:
     
    ▪ [v1] : Ar wariʕa has cognates not only in Ug, Hbr, and Aram, as well as in its own yariʕa ‘to be cowardly, faint-hearted’ (↗YRʕ), but prob. also in Sab, modSAr (Mhr, Ḥrs) and EthSem (Te, ?Tña), though DRS is slightly reluctant to see the former together with the latter. It seems legitimate, however, to assume an original (WSem) *WRʕ meaning ‘to shy away from, shrink back’. From this, both *‘cowardness’ and *‘refraining, abstention’ are easily derived (the latter coming close to ↗WRʔ ‘behind; to conceal, hide’ in some cases). In Ar, the sense of being ‘pious and godfearing, hence also: chaste’ is likely a later development. In the latter, however, there is some overlapping with √ʕWR (cf., e.g., ↗ʕawraẗ ‘defectiveness; weakness; pudenda’), √ʕYR (↗ʕār ‘shame, disgrace, dishonor, ignominy’), as well as √ʕRW/Y (↗ʕariya ‘to be naked, nude, be free, be bare’). – In contrast, Nöldeke1910 (NBSS): 206 would regard WRʕ ‘shyness, cowardness’ as abstract fig. use of the concrete ↗¹yarāʕ ‘cane, reed’ (*‘as flexible and “submissive” as reed’).
    [v2] wāraʕa (III) ‘to consult, discuss’ : prob. not a value in its own right but dependent on [v1], the L-stem expressing a *‘mutual intimidation and/or shying away’ during an exchange of words. Cf. also the *Š-stem ʔawraʕa (IV) ‘to interpose, intervene (baynᵃ betw.)’ (< * ‘to make abstain, refrain from s.th.’).
    ▪ …
     

     
    DRS 7 (1997) #WRʔ/ʕ~YRʔ/ʕ-1 Ug *yrʔ, Hbr yārēʔ ‘craindre’, *yāraʕ ‘trembler, manquer de courage’,260 EmpAram yrʕ ‘faire tort à’, JudPalAram yaraʕ ‘désespérer’, Ar wariʕa ‘être pieux, craignant Dieu, faible, peureux’, waraʕ ‘crainte pieuse, piété’, waraʕa ‘s’abstenir des choses illicites’, warraʕa, ʔawraʕa ‘détourner des choses illicites’, yariʕa ‘être peureux, poltron’, yarāʕ, waraʕ ‘poltron; faible, petit’, HispAr *wāriʕ ‘chaste’.261 -?2 Ar waraʔa ‘repousser, pousser violemment’,262 warraʕa ‘ramener (le troupeau) de l’abreuvoir’, wāraʕa ‘discuter’, warraʕa, ʔawraʕa, tawarraʕa ‘repousser, s’interposer’; HispAr warraʕ ‘effrayer’, tawarraʕ ‘craindre’, ʕOmAr warraʕ ‘ramener (bêtes, gens)’, Sab hwrʕ ‘intimider, arrêter, repousser; (faire) revenir’, Mhr həwrā ‘faire revenir, ramener (bêtes, gens); tenir à l’écart (les mauvais esprits)’, Ḥrs awrā ‘ramener (le bétail) au soir’, Te wära ‘menacer, battre’; ? wärʕ ‘eau bénite, magique’, wärʕa ‘asperger (d’eau bénite, magique)’; ? Tña wəruʕ ‘vaniteux’. -3 EAr waraʕ ‘se disperser, se répandre (bétail pour brouter, gens)’, warʕa ‘portion de terrain sillonnée de petites rigoles d’irrigation’. -4-6 ....
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Kogan2015 315#76 remarks that »[t]here is no immediate etymological parallel to protCan *yrʔ ‘to be afraid’ [> Ug yrʔ‘to be afraid’, Hbr yrʔ ‘to fear’] which, at least in Hbr, has become the basic verb with this meaning. Hypothetical cognates (DRS 483, 615‒616) involve either metathesis (Ar wʔr ‘to frighten’) or consonantal variation (wrʕ ‘to fear’).
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ ...
     
    – 
    – 
    wariʕ- وَرِعَ , i (waraʕ), and waruʕ- وَرُعَ (warāʕaẗ
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 23Jul2023
    √WRʕ 
    vb., I 
    to be pious and godfearing – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ Ar wariʕa has cognates not only in Ug, Hbr, and Aram, as well as in its own yariʕa ‘to be cowardly, faint-hearted’ (↗YRʕ), but prob. also in Sab, modSAr (Mhr, Ḥrs) and EthSem (Te, ?Tña), though DRS is slightly reluctant to see the former together with the latter. It seems legitimate, however, to assume an original (WSem) *WRʕ meaning ‘to shy away from, shrink back’. From this, both *‘cowardness’ and *‘refraining, abstention’ are easily derived (the latter coming close to ↗WRʔ ‘behind; to conceal, hide’ in some cases). In Ar, the sense of being ‘pious and godfearing, hence also: chaste’ is likely a later development. In the latter, however, there is some overlapping with √ʕWR (cf., e.g., ↗ʕawraẗ ‘defectiveness; weakness; pudenda’), √ʕYR (↗ʕār ‘shame, disgrace, dishonor, ignominy’), as well as √ʕRW/Y (↗ʕariya ‘to be naked, nude, be free, be bare’). – In contrast, Nöldeke1910 (NBSS): 206 would regard WRʕ ‘shyness, cowardness’ as abstract fig. use of the concrete ↗¹yarāʕ ‘cane, reed’ (*‘as flexible and “submissive” as reed’).
    ▪ ClassAr wāraʕa (III) ‘to consult, discuss’ (see section HIST) is prob. not a value in its own right, the L-stem expressing a *‘mutual intimidation and/or shying away’ during an exchange of words. Cf. also the *Š-stem ʔawraʕa (IV) ‘to interpose, intervene (baynᵃ betw.)’ (< * ‘to make abstain, compel to refrain from s.th.’).
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Hava1899 distinguishes (1) wariʕa, ip. yariʕu, yawraʕu (waraʕ, warʕ, warūʕ, wurūʕ, wariʕaẗ, waruʕ, warāʕaẗ) ‘to be pious, godly; to abstain from unlawful things’ and (2) (a) waraʕa, ip. yaraʕu, (b) waruʕa, ip. yaruʕu, both with vn.s. warāʕaẗ, warāʕ, warʕaẗ, wurʕaẗ, wurūʕ, wuruʕ, ‘to be faint-hearted, weak’. – Morevover, he lists ClassAr warraʕa (II) ‘to compel to abstain (ʕan from s.th.)’, ʔawraʕa (IV) ‘to interpose, intervene (baynᵃ betw.), and wāraʕa (III) ‘to consult’.
    ▪ …
     
    DRS 7 (1997) #WRʔ/ʕ~YRʔ/ʕ-1 Ug *yrʔ, Hbr yārēʔ ‘craindre’, *yāraʕ ‘trembler, manquer de courage’,263 EmpAram yrʕ ‘faire tort à’, JudPalAram yaraʕ ‘désespérer’, Ar wariʕa ‘être pieux, craignant Dieu, faible, peureux’, waraʕ ‘crainte pieuse, piété’, waraʕa ‘s’abstenir des choses illicites’, warraʕa, ʔawraʕa ‘détourner des choses illicites’, yariʕa ‘être peureux, poltron’, yarāʕ, waraʕ ‘poltron; faible, petit’, HispAr *wāriʕ ‘chaste’.264 -?2 Ar waraʔa ‘repousser, pousser violemment’,265 warraʕa ‘ramener (le troupeau) de l’abreuvoir’, wāraʕa ‘discuter’, warraʕa, ʔawraʕa, tawarraʕa ‘repousser, s’interposer’; HispAr warraʕ ‘effrayer’, tawarraʕ ‘craindre’, ʕOmAr warraʕ ‘ramener (bêtes, gens)’, Sab hwrʕ ‘intimider, arrêter, repousser; (faire) revenir’, Mhr həwrā ‘faire revenir, ramener (bêtes, gens); tenir à l’écart (les mauvais esprits)’, Ḥrs awrā ‘ramener (le bétail) au soir’, Te wära ‘menacer, battre’; ? wärʕ ‘eau bénite, magique’, wärʕa ‘asperger (d’eau bénite, magique)’; ? Tña wəruʕ ‘vaniteux’. -3-6 ....
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ Kogan2015 315#76 remarks that »[t]here is no immediate etymological parallel to protCan *yrʔ ‘to be afraid’ [> Ug yrʔ‘to be afraid’, Hbr yrʔ ‘to fear’] which, at least in Hbr, has become the basic verb with this meaning. Hypothetical cognates (DRS 483, 615‒616) involve either metathesis (Ar wʔr ‘to frighten’) or consonantal variation (wrʕ ‘to fear’).
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ ...
     
    – 
    tawarraʕa, vb. V, to pause (ʕan before), be cautious, hesitate (ʕan about), refrain, abstain (ʕan, min from): tD-stem, self-ref.
    waraʕ, n., 1 piety, piousness, godliness, godfearingness; 2 caution, cautiousness, carefulness; 3 timorousness, timidity, shyness, reserve : perh. the etymon proper
    wariʕ, adj., pl. ʔawrāʕ, 1 pious, godly, godfearing; 2 cautious, careful; 3 reticent, reserved: perh. the etymon proper

    For other values attached to the root, cf. root entry ↗WRʕ; see also the 2-cons. nucleus ↗*WR‑ as well as ↗WRː (WRR), ↗WRʔ, ↗WRWR and ↗WRY, with partly overlapping or related semantics.
     
    WRQ ورق 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WRQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ WRQ_1 ‘foliage, leaves; paper’ ↗waraq
    ▪ WRQ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘(tree) leaf; (book) leaf; (of animals and birds) green, brown or grey; gold or silver coin; to come into leaf’ 
    ▪ …
    ▪ …
    ▪ …
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *wrḳ ‘yellow-green’, one of the four basic colours in the protSem colour spectrum151 (see also Ar ↗LBN and BYḌ for ‘white’, ↗ẒLM and SWD for ‘black’, ↗ʔDM and ḤMR for ‘red’). However, the main Ar designation of ‘green’ is ↗ʔaḫḍarᵘ (perh. related to Hbr ḥāṣīr ‘grass; leek’).
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘¹yellow-green, ²vegetables’) ¹²Akk warqu, Hbr ¹yéreq, ²yārāq, ²Syr yarqā, Gz warq ‘gold’.
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
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    – 
    – 
    waraq وَرَق 
    ID 919 • Sw 25/86 • BP 558 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WRQ 
    n.coll. 
    1 foliage, leafage, leaves; 2 paper; 3 paper money, banknotes; 4 thin sheet metal, laminated metal – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
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    – 
    waraq tamġaẗ, n., stamped paper
    waraq al-rasm, n., drawing paper
    waraq al-zīnaẗ, n., wallpaper, paper hangings
    waraq al-sanfaraẗ, n., emery paper, glass paper, sandpaper
    waraq šaffāf, n., tracing paper
    waraq al-šāhidaẗ, n., carbon paper
    waraq maṭbūʕ (TunAr), n., stamped paper
    waraq ʕādim, n., wastepaper
    waraq muqawwan, n., cardboard, pasteboard
    waraq al-kitābaẗ, n., writing paper
    waraq al-laʕib, n., playing cards
    waraq al-laff, n., wrapping paper
    waraq naššāf (naššāš), n., blotting paper
    waraq naqdī, n., paper money
    waraq al-yā-naṣīb, n., lottery tickets
    ʔawrāq al-ʔišġāl, n. pl., business papers, commercial papers
    ʔawrāq al-ĭʕtimād, n. pl., credentials
    ʔawrāq al-ḥukūmaẗ, n. pl., government bonds
    ʔawrāq al-qaḍiyyaẗ, n. pl., court records
    ʔawrāq māliyyaẗ, n. pl., 1 securities, bonds; 2 banknotes, paper money
    ʔawrāq al-mūsīqā, n. pl., sheet music
    ʔawrāq naqdiyyaẗ, waraq al-naqd, n. pl., n., banknotes, paper money
    ḥibr ʕalà waraq, expr., mere ink on paper, of no effect (e.g., treaty, agreement)
    ṭaraḥa ’l-ʔawrāq ʕalà ’l-māʔidaẗ, expr., 1 to lay the cards on the table; 2 to show one’s hand

     
    WRK ورك
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Jul2023
    √WRK
     
    "root" 
    ▪ WRK_1 ‘hip, haunch; thigh’ ↗wark (~wirk, ~warik)
    ▪ WRK_2 ‘...’ ↗...
     
    ▪ [v1] MilitarevKogan2000 (SED I) #288 gives many cognates and reconstructs Sem *warik(-at)- ‘hip(-bone)’ as their common ancestor. – Ar wark (~wirk, ~warik) ‘hip, haunch; thigh’ may also be related (as a kind of “extension”?) to warr(aẗ) ‘haunch-bone’ (↗WRː (WRR)_2) and, perh., via the latter, to the semantic complex ‘behind, back, rear side’ (↗warāʔ, s.r. WRY).
    ▪ ...
     

     
    ▪ [v1] MilitarevKogan2000 (SED I) #288 : Akk (w)arkatu (Ass urkatu) ‘rear side’, ?Ug yrk ‘hip’, Hbr yārēk ‘upper thigh; side’, JudAram yərak (det. yarḵā) ‘haunch, thigh’, Sab wrk ‘hip, thigh’, Mhr wərkīt ‘hip, hip-bone and flesh’, Ḥrs wərkēt ‘thighbone, hip’, Jib irs̄ét ‘hip’, Ar wark, wirk ‘hanche, partie supérieure de la cuisse’, warak ‘l’os même de la hanche’, warik ‘le haut du fémur, hanche’, Te wärkät (?wäräkät, Amh wärč ‘foreleg of an animal’
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ ...
     

     

     
    wark وَرْك , var. wirk, warik, pl. ʔawrāk
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 27Jul2023
    √WRK
     
    n.f.
     
    1a hip, haunch; b thigh – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ MilitarevKogan2000 (SED I) #288 gives many cognates and reconstructs Sem *warik(-at)- ‘hip(-bone)’ as their common ancestor.
    ▪ Ar wark (~wirk, ~warik) ‘hip, haunch; thigh’ may also be related (as a kind of “extension”?) to warr(aẗ) ‘haunch-bone’ (↗WRː (WRR)_2) and, perh., via the latter, to the semantic complex ‘behind, back, rear side’ (↗warāʔ, s.r. WRY).
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ LibAr wirik ‘Oberschenkel’ (BehnstedtWoidich2011: 163), other dialects wirk (cf. ibid.: 155, 166, 179–180)
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ MilitarevKogan2000 (SED I) #288 : Akk (w)arkatu (Ass urkatu) ‘rear side’, ?Ug yrk ‘hip’, Hbr yārēk ‘upper thigh; side’, JudAram yərak (det. yarḵā) ‘haunch, thigh’, Sab wrk ‘hip, thigh’, Mhr wərkīt ‘hip, hip-bone and flesh’, Ḥrs wərkēt ‘thighbone, hip’, Jib irs̄ét ‘hip’, Ar wark, wirk ‘hanche, partie supérieure de la cuisse’, warak ‘l’os même de la hanche’, warik ‘le haut du fémur, hanche’, Te wärkät (?wäräkät, Amh wärč ‘foreleg of an animal’
    ▪ Cf. perh. also ↗WRː (WRR)_2 (warr(aẗ)) and, perh., with the latter also ↗warāʔ (√WRY).
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
     

     

     
    WRWR ورور
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Jul2023
    √WRWR
     
    "root" 
    ▪ WRWR_1 ‘bee-eater (bird of the species Merops; zool.)’ ↗warwār
    ▪ WRWR_2 ‘crisp and young; green, unexperienced’: EgAr ↗wirwir; cf. also EgAr wirwiraẗ ‘young chicken; [slang] girl; fresh produce! (vegetable vendor’s cry)’

    Other values, now obsolete, include (Hava1899):

    WRWR_3 ‘to speak volubly’: warwara (fī ’l-kalām)
    WRWR_4 ‘to look fixedly at’: warwara ’l-naẓarᵃ; cf. also warwarī ‘weak-sighted’
    WRWR_
     
    ▪ [v1] : MilitarevStolbova2007 (StarLingTB): from Sem *ʔarVr- ~ *warwar- ‘bee-eater’ < AfrAs *wary- (MilitarevKogan2005 SED II: *w˅r‑) ‘kind of bird’.
    ▪ [v2] : According to BadawiHinds1986, the EgAr adj. wirwir ‘crisp and young; green, unexperienced’, and the nominalized f. form, EgAr wirwiraẗ ‘young chicken; [slang] girl; fresh produce! (vegetable vendor’s cry)’ are of Copt provenance (Corriente2008 gives Copt brre or bēre ‘new, young’, repeated in some vendors’ cries; cf. also BehnstedtWoidich2011: 258, remarking that the word refers to lambs). – Cf. also DRS #WRWR-6 where the authors see it together with Te wirwirro ‘premiers fruits’.
    [v3] : In DRS #WRWR-2, Ar warwara (fī ’l-kalām) ‘to speak volubly’ is juxtaposed to EAr waṛwaṛ ‘faire wör wör comme l’oiseau waṛwāṛ’, thus regarded akin to [v1] warwār ‘guêpier (oiseau) | bee-eater’. – Cf. also Ehret1995 #972 AfrAs *-war-/-wir- ‘to call out’: ↗WRː (WRR) (EgAr warrᵃ), ↗WRWR_3 warwarᵃ ‘to speak fast, speak volubly’. – DRS is not sure whether ‘to speak volubly’ (= their #WRWR-2) should, or should not, be connected to [v4] ‘to look fixedly, intensely’ (= their #WRWR-1).
    [v4] warwara ’l-naẓarᵃ ‘to look fixedly at’, warwarī, adj.,weak-sighted : etymology obscure. DRS considers a possible relation betw. ‘to look fixedly, intensely’ (= their #WRWR-1) and [v3] ‘to speak volubly’ (= their #WRWR-2).
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ▪ [v1] MilitarevStolbova2007 (StarLingTB) #2678: Akk arru ‘bird used for decoy’, Syr warwārā ‘merops’ (< Ar?),266 Ar warwār ‘guépier (oiseau)’, Tña ʔirir, ʔǝrir ‘bird which has an instinct to lead a honey gatherer to where there is honey’; ? Tña wari ‘kind of blackbird whose feathers have a metallic sheen’, Amh wari ‘a kind of blackbird’. – Outside Sem: Eg (Pyr) wr ‘swallow’; (WChad) Ha wā́rà ‘eagle’, (CChad) Higi-Futu, H.-Nkafa waři, H.-Kamale (Kapsiki) wəři, H.-Ghye wǝrì ‘kite’; Beja ḗrʔe ‘white-tailed sea-eagle’, (SCush) Dahalo (Sanye) weere ‘peafowl’; (NOmot) Woleta awriya ‘cock’ (< Sem?)267
    ▪ [v1] : DRS 7 (1997) #WRWR-1 Ar warwara, warra ‘regarder intensément’, warwarī ‘qui a la vue faible’, EAr warwar ‘être brillante et attirer le regard (couleur)’, SudAr warwar ‘agiter les doigts pour menacer, menacer, réprimander’; Malt werwer ‘terrifier’.268 - ?2 Ar warwara ‘parler vite’, SudAr warr (fi l-kalām) ‘parler vite’, EAr ‘parler vite pour ne rien dire, jaser’, Malt werwer ‘jacasser, jaser’; – MġrAr warwar ‘faire rru en roulant (voiture, boule)’, EAr waṛwaṛ ‘faire wör wör comme l’oiseau waṛwāṛ’, warwārguêpier (oiseau)’, ? wirwir ‘revolver’ ; EgAr warr ‘bourdonner; tournoyer’. – ? Amh täwärawwärä ‘se railler mutuellement, échanger des pointes’. | Outside Sem : note (Berb) Kab aweṛwəṛ. -3-8 ....
    ▪ [v2] : DRS 7 (1997) #WRWR-1-5 .... -6 Te wirwirro ‘premiers fruits’, EgAr wirwir ‘frais, tendre, sain’. – Pour BadawiHinds 934, le mot EgAr est d’origine Copt. -7-8 ....
    [v3] : DRS 7 (1997) #WRWR-1 Ar warwara, warra ‘regarder intensément’, warwarī ‘qui a la vue faible’, EAr warwar ‘être brillante et attirer le regard (couleur)’, SudAr warwar ‘agiter les doigts pour menacer, menacer, réprimander’; Malt werwer ‘terrifier’.269 - ?2 Ar warwaraparler vite’, SudAr warr (fi l-kalām)parler vite’, EAr ‘parler vite pour ne rien dire, jaser’, Malt werwerjacasser, jaser’; – MġrAr warwar ‘faire rru en roulant (voiture, boule)’, EAr waṛwaṛ ‘faire wör wör comme l’oiseau waṛwāṛ’, warwār ‘guêpier (oiseau)’, ? wirwir ‘revolver’; EgAr warr ‘bourdonner; tournoyer’. – ? Amh täwärawwärä ‘se railler mutuellement, échanger des pointes’.270 -3-8 ....
    [v4] : DRS 7 (1997) #WRWR-1 Ar warwara, warra ‘regarder intensément’, warwarīqui a la vue faible’, EAr warwar ‘être brillante et attirer le regard (couleur)’, SudAr warwar ‘agiter les doigts pour menacer, menacer, réprimander’; Malt werwer ‘terrifier’.271 - ?2 Ar warwara ‘parler vite’, SudAr warr (fi l-kalām) ‘parler vite’, EAr ‘parler vite pour ne rien dire, jaser’, Malt werwer ‘jacasser, jaser’; – MġrAr warwar ‘faire rru en roulant (voiture, boule)’, EAr waṛwaṛ ‘faire wör wör comme l’oiseau waṛwāṛ’, warwār ‘guêpier (oiseau)’, ? wirwir ‘revolver’ ; EgAr warr ‘bourdonner; tournoyer’. – ? Amh täwärawwärä ‘se railler mutuellement, échanger des pointes’. -3-8 ....
     
    ▪ [v1] MilitarevStolbova2007 (StarLingTB) reconstruct Sem *ʔarVr- ~ *warwar- ‘bee-eater (used to find honey)’815 , Eg wr ‘swallow’, protChad *war- (> WChad *wara ‘eagle’, CChad *war- ‘kite’), Beja ḗrʔe ‘white-tailed sea-eagle’, Dahalo weere ‘peafowl’, protOmot *Hawriy- ‘cock’ (< *ʔa-wriy-? but perh. < Sem, see COGN, above).
     
    – 
    – 
    warwār وَرْوار , pl. warāwīrᵘ
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 27Jul2023
    √WRWR
     
    n.
     
    ▪ bee eater (bird of the species Merops; zool.) – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ According to MilitarevStolbova2007 (StarLingTB), Ar warwār ‘bee-eater’ is from Sem *ʔarVr- ~ *warwar- ‘id.’ < AfrAs *wary- (MilitarevKogan2005 SED II: *w˅r‑) ‘kind of bird’
     
    ▪ MilitarevStolbova2007 (StarLingTB) #2678: Akk arru ‘bird used for decoy’, Syr warwārā ‘merops’ (< Ar?),272 Ar warwār ‘guépier (oiseau)’, Tña ʔirir, ʔǝrir ‘bird which has an instinct to lead a honey gatherer to where there is honey’; ? Tña wari ‘kind of blackbird whose feathers have a metallic sheen’, Amh wari ‘a kind of blackbird’. – Outside Sem: Eg (Pyr) wr ‘swallow’; (WChad) Ha wā́rà ‘eagle’, (CChad) Higi-Futu, H.-Nkafa waři, H.-Kamale (Kapsiki) wəři, H.-Ghye wǝrì ‘kite’; Beja ḗrʔe ‘white-tailed sea-eagle’, (SCush) Dahalo (Sanye) weere ‘peafowl’; (NOmot) Woleta awriya ‘cock’ (< Sem?)273
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ MilitarevStolbova2007 (StarLingTB) reconstruct Sem *ʔarVr- ~ *warwar- ‘bee-eater (used to find honey)’816 , Eg wr ‘swallow’, protChad *war- (> WChad *wara ‘eagle’, CChad *war- ‘kite’), Beja ḗrʔe ‘white-tailed sea-eagle’, Dahalo weere ‘peafowl’, protOmot *Hawriy- ‘cock’ (< *ʔa-wriy-? but perh. < Sem, see COGN, above).
    ▪ ...
     
    – 
    For other values attached to the root, cf. EgAr ↗wirwir as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗WRWR.
     
    EgAr wirwir وِرْوِر
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 27Jul2023
    √WRWR
     
    adj.invar.
     
    1a crisp and young (vegetable vendor’s cry); b green, inexperienced (of people) – BadawiHinds1986
     
    ▪ According to BadawiHinds1986 of Copt provenance. Corriente2008 gives Copt brre or bēre ‘new, young’, repeated in some vendors’ cries; cf. also BehnstedtWoidich2011: 258, remarking that the word refers to lambs.
    ▪ Cf. also DRS #WRWR-6 where the authors see it together with Te wirwirro ‘premiers fruits’.
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ ...
     
    DRS 7 (1997) #WRWR-1-5 .... -6 Te wirwirro ‘premiers fruits’, EgAr wirwir ‘frais, tendre, sain’. – Pour BadawiHinds1986: 934, le mot EgAr est d’origine Copt. -7-8 ....
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ ...
     
    – 
    EgAr wirwiraẗ, n.f., pl. warāwir, 1a young chicken; b [slang] girl; c fresh produce! (vegetable vendor’s cry) – BadawiHinds1986

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗warwār as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗WRWR.
     
    WRY وري 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21May2023, last update 27Jul2023
    √WRY 
    “root” 
    ▪ WRY_1 ‘to kindle, fire, take fire (lighter)’ ↗warà
    ▪ WRY_2 ‘back, rear; behind’ ↗warāʔ ; ‘to hide, conceal, keep secret; to pretend, feign, simulate’ ↗¹warrà ; ‘double-entendre, allusion’ ↗tawriyaẗ
    ▪ WRY_3 ‘the mortals, mankind’: al-warà
    ▪ WRY_4 ‘to show’: (dial. Ar) ↗²warrà
    ▪ WRY_5 ‘Torah, Pentateuch; Old Testament’ ↗tawrāẗ (see alphabetically, *√TWRā)

    Other values, now obsolete, include (Hava1899):

    WRY_6 ‘to be compact (marrow, flesh)’: wariya (yarī, vn. wary)
    WRY_7 ‘pus, matter; purulent ulcer’: wary
    WRY_8 ‘disease of the lungs’: wāriyaẗ and waràⁿ, ‘disease of the lungs’; cf. also ³warrà ‘to cause (-h s.o.) irritation in the lungs (wound)’
    WRY_ ...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘behind, the rear; before, after, beyond; the lungs; the human race, the entire creation; to kindle fire, exercise one’s intelligence; to allude; to pretend; to conceal, disappear from sight’ 
    ▪ [v1] warà ‘to kindle, fire, take fire (lighter)’: an exclusively Ar value in DRS 7 (1997) (#WRY-4, see below, section COGN) where the authors (following Lane) only specify that fire is produced here with the help of ↗zand wood; else no cognates given. – In contrast, Ehret1995 #973 sees Ar wary [vn. of warà] ‘to burn, blaze’ (though without parallels in Sem) as cognate to extra-Sem (Cush, NOmot) items and reconstructs AfrAs *war ‘light’. – Akin also to ↗ʔuwār ‘heat, blaze’ (< protSem *ʔR ‘fire, light’)?
    ▪ [v2] warāʔ ‘back, rear’: On account of cognates in Akk and Gz (strange distribution!), MilitarevKogan2000 (SED I) #10 reconstruct Sem *ʔ˅rāw-, *w˅rāʔ- ‘back’ which in turn may go back (together with cognates outside Sem) to a hypothetical AfrAs *ʔ/wiray/w- ‘back’. – The D-stem ¹warrà ‘to hide, conceal, keep secret; to pretend, feign, simulate’ seems to be a caus. formation (*‘to make disappear behind..., hold back’); note, however, that for DRS, this dependence obviously is not self-evident, causing the authors to keep value #1 ‘back, rear, behind’ tentatively distinct from “?#2” ‘to hide’ etc. – tawriyaẗ ‘double-entendre, allusion’ is a regular vn. formed from the D-stem vb.; thus, the original meaning of tawriyaẗ as a key concept of literary aesthetics is *‘hiding, concealment’ (sc. of a less overt, parallel meaning).
    ▪ [v3] al-warà ‘the mortals, mankind’: etymology obscure. In DRS, the value is not mentioned at all. Unless it is fig. use of some other meaning of warà (which one?), could there be a connection to pre-protSem *wr ‘to grow, increase in size’ identified by Ehret1995 #974? In AfrAs *-wăr-/-wĭr- ‘to grow (person, animal)’, reconstructed by Ehret as the hypothetical common ancestor of Sem and extra-Sem items (Eg, SCush, CChad, NOmot), the *‘growing’ is a feature of human beings or animals... If valid, the meaning ‘mortals, mankind’ of Ar warà would have developed from *‘the growing ones’. – Cf. perh. also [v6] and [v7].
    ▪ [v4] : The value ‘to show’ seems to be lost in fuṣḥà Ar, but is preserved in many dialects, both eastern and western. According to DRS 7 (1997) #WRY-2, this dialAr ²warrà ‘to show’ can also mean ‘to teach’ in MġrAr, a value prominent, apart from Ar, in Hbr (hence prob. Hbr tōrāʰ, the Torah, which gave [v5] with the Ar loanword tawrāẗ), while notions of ‘announcing’ and ‘new(s)’ prevail among the EthSem cognates. DRS is not sure whether these values should, or should not (“?”), be connected to their value #WRY-1 ‘to lead, guide’, represented only by Akk (w)arū(m), oAkk oAss warāʔum (paralleled by secondary tarū(m) ‘id.’, with a derivation in its own right); vonSoden AHW 1473 regards the Akk forms as cognate to Sem items meaning ‘to throw, cast’, cf. #WRW~WRY, a view that is obviously shared also by Huehnergard2011 when he posits a reconstructed protSem root *√WRW ‘to lead, guide, cast, throw’. In EtymArab, ‘throwing, casting’ is treated as distinct, s.v. ↗WRː (WRR)_4 (SyrAr warrᵃ).
    ▪ [v5] tawrāẗ ‘Torah, Pentateuch; Old Testament’: see preceding paragraph as well as alphabetically, s.r. ↗*TWRā.
    [v6] wariya (yarī, vn. wary) ‘to be compact (marrow, flesh)’, warà ‘to be fat (camel)’: no Sem cognates mentioned in DRS. – In contrast, OrelStolbova1994 (HSED) #2529 think (on account of what they regard as extra-Sem parallels) there are good reasons to assume a Sem *w˅r˅y‑ (based on biconsonantal *w˅r‑) ‘to be fat’ (stipulated from Ar wry), from a hypothetical AfrAs *war‑/*ʔur‑ ‘to be big, be strong’ (which also gave Eg, WCh, and Rift forms). – Ehret1995 #974 does not mention Ar wariya or warà but likewise reconstructs a »pre-protSem« *wr ‘to grow, increase in size’, from AfrAs *-wăr-/-wĭr- ‘to grow (person, animal)’ (with attested descendants in Eg, SCush, CChad and NOmot – see below, section COGN). – Is there a relation betw. values [v6] ‘to be compact, fat’ (? *‘to grow, increase / be big, strong’) and [v3] ‘mortals, mankind’? – Cf. also [v7]?
    [v7] wary ‘pus, matter; purulent ulcer’: Like the preceding, this value too does not seem, according to DRS, to have cognates in Sem. – But cf. Ehret1995 #975 who sees it together with other Ar words with related meaning and also identifies extra-Sem (Eg, Cush, SOmot) candidates for cognateship on account of which the author posits AfrAs *-waar- ‘to soak (intr.)’ as an ancestor common to all. – Our own hypothesis would tend to group this value together with Ar ↗warima ‘to become tall (plants)’ and ↗waram ‘swelling, tumor’ (extension in *-m?) and rather derive it from Ehret’s #974 pre-protSem *wr ‘to grow, increase in size’ (< AfrAs *-wăr-/-wĭr- ‘to grow (person, animal)’), regarding the notion of ‘purulence’ as secondary and instead interpreting wary ‘pus, matter; purulent ulcer’ as from an orig. *‘growing thing, swelling’, thus related to [v6].
    [v8] wāriyaẗ, waràⁿ ‘disease of the lungs’, ³warrà ‘to cause (-h s.o.) irritation in the lungs (wound)’: according to DRS 7 (1997) #WRʔ~WRY-3, these items are secondary formations based on primary ↗riʔaẗ ‘lung’.
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ [v1] : DRS 7 (1997) #WRY-1-3 .... -4 Ar warā(y) ‘s’allumer (feu)’, wariya, warā(y) ‘produire son feu (briquet)’.274 -5-6 .... – Ehret1995 #973: (Sem) Ar wary [vn. of warà] ‘to burn, blaze’, (Cush) Iraqw warʔes‑ ‘to flash (of lightning)’, (NOmot) SMao wəro ‘moon’.
    ▪ [v2] : DRS 7 (1997) #WRʔ~WRY-1 Ar warāʔ ‘derrière, ce qui est derrière; petit-fils’, Tham wrʔ ‘postérité’, dial. uṛā ‘derrière (préposition)’; ? Sab hwrt ‘partie postérieure(?)’275 , ? Ar waraʔa ‘être rassasié’; Gz warʔa ‘soutenir dans la vieillesse’, warrəʔa ‘soutenir, alimenter, fournir le nécessaire pour vivre’; ? Ar waraʔa ‘repousser, pousser violemment’.276 – Rather reliable cognates also outside Sem.277 - ?2 Ar *tawarraʔa (ʕalà) ‘couvrir, enfermer’, warrà(y) ‘cacher, simuler, feindre, faire croire une chose à la place d’une autre; faire une allusion équivoque’, wārà(y) ‘cacher (quelque chose); enterrer sans cérémonie, enterrer’, tawarrà(y), tawārà(y) ‘être dissimulé, se cacher’,278 EAr PalAr EgAr wāṛa, wāra (i) ‘cacher, tenir secret, dissimuler’, ? SudAr orī(t) ‘erreur’, Gz warʔa ‘cacher, couvrir’.279 -3-4 .... – Cf. also DRS 7 (1997) #WRʔ/ʕ~YRʔ/ʕ-1 […]. -?2 Ar waraʔa ‘repousser, pousser violemment’, (↗WRʕ :) warraʕa ‘ramener (le troupeau) de l’abreuvoir’, wāraʕa ‘discuter’, warraʕa, ʔawraʕa, tawarraʕa ‘repousser, s’interposer’; HispAr warraʕ ‘effrayer’, tawarraʕ ‘craindre’, ʕOmAr warraʕ ‘ramener (bêtes, gens)’, Sab hwrʕ ‘intimider, arrêter, repousser; (faire) revenir’, Mhr həwrā ‘faire revenir, ramener (bêtes, gens); tenir à l’écart (les mauvais esprits)’, Ḥrs awrā ‘ramener (le bétail) au soir’, Te wära ‘menacer, battre’; ? wärʕ ‘eau bénite, magique’, wärʕa ‘asperger (d’eau bénite, magique)’; ? Tña wəruʕ ‘vaniteux’. -3-6 ....
    ▪ [v2] : Cf. also MilitarevKogan2000 (SED I) #10 : Akk erûtu (arûtu) ‘back’, Ar warāʔ ‘partie posterieure, de derriere’, Gz ʔurāʔu ‘waist’ (< *ʔurāw- or *w˅rāʔ- ?). | Outside Sem: (?) Eg (OK) i͗Ꜣ.t ‘Rückgrat; Rücken (der Menschen und Tiere)’ (< */ʔir-/ ?); (Berb :) Ahaggar a-rûri (pl. i-rûriaw-ən) (< *rawray, redupl.), Siwa ərrau ‘dos’, Qabyle iri (pl. iraw-ən) ‘dos; cou; épaule’, Zenaga ọ̄ʔri ‘épaule, creux de l’épaule’ (< *w˅ry ?); (ECush :) Sa Af irō ‘Rückseite, Rücken’, Or wiirtuu ‘spine, mid-back’, (SCush:) Iraqw oriya ‘thigh’ (< *wVriy ?), (WChad:) Tsagu āri, (EChad:) Dangaleat āro ‘back’. – Cf. perh. also Ar warr ‘os de la hanche’ (↗WRː (WRR)_2, ?with semantic shift *‘back > thigh > leg’).
    ▪ [v3] : ? Ehret1995 #974 AfrAs *-wăr-/-wĭr- ‘to grow (person, animal)’: pre-protSem *wr ‘to grow, increase in size’ [? Ar ↗waràⁿ ‘mortals, man’], Eg wr ‘greatness of size’, wr, wrr ‘great; much, many’, (Cush) SC: PR *war‑ ‘mature young person’, protCChad *wr ‘old’, (NOmot) Ometo *orde ‘big’, Gonga *wur‑ ‘male animal’ (i.e., in general larger sex; Mocha wuró < *wer‑).
    ▪ [v4] and [v5] : DRS 7 (1997) #WRY-1 Akk (w)arū(m), oAkk oAss warāʔum ‘conduire’.280 – ?2 Hbr (Hi) hōrē ‘montrer (avec le doigt), instruire’; – ? tōrāʰ ‘direction, instruction, loi’; mōräʰ ‘enseignant, maître’; JudPalAram ʔōrī ‘enseigner, instruire’; Ar [dial.] warrà, ʔawrà ‘montrer, désigner’, MġrAr warra (i) ‘montrer, faire voir, enseigner’, OranAr wāri ‘évident’, ? YemAr *warā ‘violer l’honneur d’une femme’; Sab hwry ‘annoncer, publier’, Soq ʔere ‘marque (?)’, Gz waraya ‘dire les nouvelles, raconter’, Te wära ‘annoncer’, Tña wäre ‘nouvelle, avis, renommée’, ʔawräyä, Amh ʔawärra ‘donner des nouvelles’, Amh Arg Gur wäre, Har war ‘nouvelle’; Tña wäräyä ‘être utile, servir, aider, assister, être fécond’.281 -3-6 ....
    ▪ [v5] : see also alphabetically, s.r. ↗*√TWRā.
    [v6] : DRS 7 (1997) #WRY-1-5 .... -6 wariya ‘être compacte (moelle, chair)’, warā(y) ‘être gras (chameaux)’. – OrelStolbova1994 (HSED) #2529: AfrAs *war‑/*ʔur‑ ‘to be big, be strong’ > Sem *w˅r˅y‑ (based on biconsonantal *w˅r‑) ‘to be fat’: Ar wry; Eg (Pyr) wr ‘big; strength’, WCh *war‑ (warr ‘strength’, war‑, wur‑ ‘to surpass’; cf. also one war-ŋ ‘big’), Rift *ʔur‑ (ur) ‘big, large’. – ? Cf. Ehret1995 #974: pre-protSem *wr ‘to grow, increase in size’ [? Ar ↗wariya ‘to be compact’, warà ‘be fat (camel)’], Eg wr ‘greatness of size’, wr, wrr ‘great; much, many’, (Cush) SC: PR *war‑ ‘mature young person’, protCChad *wr ‘old’, (NOmot) Ometo *orde ‘big’, Gonga *wur‑ ‘male animal’ (i.e., in general larger sex; Mocha wuró < *wer‑).
    [v7] : DRS 7 (1997) #WRY-1-4 .... -5 warā(y) ‘corrompre et ronger les chairs (pus)’, wary ‘matière purulente, abcès, blessure qui émet pus et sang’ -6 .... – Ehret1995 #975: (Sem) Ar ↗warq ‘dropping blood or pus’, wary ‘festering pus’, Eg wryt ‘cloth for strain-liquids’, Cush *warb- ‘to hold water’, (SOmot:) Ari-Banna *waːr- ‘to swim’
    [v8] : DRS 7 (1997) #WRʔ~WRY-1-2 ... -3 Ar warà(y) ‘blesser au poumon’.282 -4 ....
     
    274. Il s’agit de la production du feu par frottement de deux morceaux (↗zand) d’une certaine espèce de bois, v. Lane 1257, LA III/51.  275. Sab hwrt : sens douteux; DicSab 57 propose aussi : ‘citerne, pièce d’eau’, rac. HWR, v.s.  276. Ar waraʔa ‘repousser, pousser’ est relié à ‘arrière, dos’ par Cohen Essai 198, entre autres, mais comp. aussi sub W/YRʔ/ʕ.  277. Cohen Essai 198, n° 509. Comp. Eg yʔ.t ‘dos d’homme ou d’animal’? V. sur ce point Vycichl DELC 248 qui fait quelque réserve du fait que les formes nominales Eg et Ar ne concordent pas ; Berb: To arūri (Ahag, Ghat), əruru (Ifoghas), arori (Aïr) ‘dos’; Ouargla iri ‘côte, nuque’; Siwa ərrāo, ərraw ‘dos’, Sened ʕarut ‘épaule’, Kab iraw ‘dos, cou, épaule’, aʕrur ‘dos’; Tmz aruru ‘large dos’. La correspondance semble satisfaisante; en particulier, la finale w/u. Comment expliquer la pharyngale – et éventuellement la laryngale, si ahraw est confirmé à Siwa – qui apparaissent dans un certain nombre de formes ?; Cush : Bed niwa ‘queue’, Af Sa irō ‘dos’, Bilin Qw yewi, Kafa ilō ‘dos’, Iraqw ālu ‘derrière’; Dolgopol’skij 222 reconstruit une forme proto-Cush *ʔyVl(l)Vw- ‘partie arrière’.  278. Pour le sens ‘cacher’, l’expression ClassAr, telle qu’elle est fournie par des lexicographes, est : tawarraʔat ʕalayhi ‘(la terre) se ferma sur lui’ (mais peut-être ‘devint plane sur lui’), synonyme de tawaddaʔat ʕalayhi, selon Ibn Ǧinnī […].  279. CDG 671: Gz warʔa peut-être reconstruction à partir de morāʔ qui dépend du vb. marʔa ‘porter, transporter’.  280. Le verbe est doublé en Akk par une forme secondaire tarū(m), de valeur analogue, qui connaît une dérivation propre, ...; vonSoden AHW 1473 rapproche l’Akk des formes Sem qui signifient ‘jeter’, v.s. WRW~WRY. Elle peut sembler dans un rapport sémantique plus vraisemblable, sans être certain, avec la notion de ‘montrer, instruire’ sous 2.  281. Cf also ↗WʔR. – .... – For the place of Hbr tōrāʰ among the cognates, see DISC in ↗tawrāẗ.  282. Formation secondaire sur ↗riʔaẗ ‘poumon’, v. s. Rʔ. 
    ▪ [v2] : Sem cognates given by DRS and MilitarevKogan2000 (SED I) differ (vs. Akk, Ar, Gz, respectively), while there seems to be a rather broad consensus about the reliability of the extra-Sem cognates. MilitarevKogan2000 #10 reconstruct Sem *ʔ˅rāw-, *w˅rāʔ- ‘back’ and Berb *(H)˅r(r)āw ‘back’ (no proto-forms given for the Eg, Cush, and Chad items identified as cognates), from hypothetical AfrAs *ʔ/wiray/w- ‘back’. – Based on ‘back’ is perh. also Ar warr ‘os de la hanche’ (↗WRː (WRR)_2) (with cognates in Gur?); if so, a semantic shift *‘back > thigh > leg’ will have to be assumed. – MilitarevKogan further point out that this root has »[t]o be distinguished from #9 Sem *ʔir(r)-at- ‘chest, breast’«, which is not represented in Ar, but possibly related to metathetic Sem forms meaning ‘lung’, cf. #224 Sem *rayʔ(-at)- , > Ar ↗riʔaẗ ‘lung’.
    ▪ [v2]/[v4]: BadawiHinds1986 assigns EgAr warrà (II, vn. tawriyyaẗ) ‘to show’ to a root √¹WRY, distinct from √²WRY (with warā̆ ‘behind; after, following’, MSAtawriyaẗ ‘allusion’, MSAwārà (III, vn. miwāriyyaẗ) ‘to obscure, veil’, ĭtwārà (VI) ‘to hide o.s.’.
    ▪ ...
     
    – 
    – 
    warà / waray‑ وَرَى / وَرَيْــ , yarī (wary)
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 27Jul2023
    √WRY
     
    vb., I
     
    to kindle, fire, take fire (lighter) – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ In DRS 7 (1997) #WRY-4, warà ‘to kindle, fire, take fire (lighter)’ features as an exclusively Ar value; no cognates given. Following Lane, the authors only specify that fire is produced here with the help of ↗zand wood.
    ▪ In contrast, Ehret1995 #973 sees Ar wary [vn. of warà] ‘to burn, blaze’ (though without parallels in Sem) as cognate to extra-Sem (Cush, NOmot) items and reconstructs AfrAs *war ‘light’. – Akin also to ↗ʔuwār ‘heat, blaze’ (< protSem *ʔR ‘fire, light’)?
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ eC7 ʔawrà [vb. IV, to kindle a fire (of a flint or the like), to strike (to make fire)] Q 56:71 ʔa-fa-raʔaytumu ’l-nāra ’llatī tūrūna ‘have you considered the fire you kindle?’ | mūrⁱⁿ (PA IV, one who strikes fire) Q 100:1-2 wa-l-ʕādiyāti ḍabḥᵃⁿ; fa-l-mūriyāti qadḥᵃⁿ ‘by the charging steeds, panting [in their assault]; and striking sparks of fire [with their hoofs]’
    ▪ For the vb. I, Hava1899 lists not only warà but also wariya, yarī (wary, wury, riyaẗ). In addition to vbs. II and IV, he has also ĭstawrà (X) ‘to produce (fire: flint)’, and the n.s riyaẗ and waryaẗ (al-nār) ‘tinder, tow, dung (for striking fire)’; interesting also the use of the adj. wāriⁿ (PA) and wariyy (quasi-PP) ‘yielding fire (steel); lusty’ in the fig. expressions wārī ’l-zand fī ’l-ĭqtirāḥ ‘extemporiser’ and misk wāriⁿ ‘musk of good quality’
    ▪ ...
     
    DRS 7 (1997) #WRY-4 Ar warā(y) ‘s’allumer (feu)’, wariya, warā(y) ‘produire son feu (briquet)’. [note:] Il s’agit de la production du feu par frottement de deux morceaux (↗zand) d’une certaine espèce de bois, v. Lane 1257, LA III/51.
    ▪ Ehret1995 #973: (Sem) Ar wary [vn. of warà] ‘to burn, blaze’, (Cush) Iraqw warʔes‑ ‘to flash (of lightning)’, (NOmot) SMao wəro ‘moon’.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ ...
     

     
    warrà, vb. II, 1a = I; b to strike fire; 2warāʔ : D-stem, caus.
    ʔawrà, vb. IV, 1a = I; b to strike fire: *Š-stem, caus.
    tawarrà, vb. V, 1 = I; 2warāʔ: tD-stem, refl./intr.

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗warāʔ, ↗¹warrà, ↗tawriyaẗ, ↗²warrà (prob. related: ↗tawrāẗ), and al-warà (n.), as well as, for the larger picture, root entry ↗WRY.
     
    ¹warrà / warray- وَرَّى / وَرَّيْــ (tawriyaẗ)
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 27Jul2023
    √WRY
     
    vb., II
     
    1warà; 2a to hide, conceal, keep secret, secrete (s.th.); b to allude (ʕan bi‑ to s.th., with); c to pretend, feign, affect, simulate (bi‑ s.th.) – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ The D-stem vb. warrà appears with several meanings that seem to have different etymologies. While (1) ‘to strike fire’ is from ↗warà ‘to kindle, take fire’, (2) ‘to hide, conceal, etc.’ is prob. denom. from ↗warāʔ ‘back, rear’; a third warrà with the meaning (3) ‘to show’ is widespread in dialAr, but lost in fuṣḥà (see ↗²warrà).
    ▪ The D-stem vb. ¹warrà ‘to hide, conceal, keep secret; to pretend, feign, simulate’ seems to be a denom. caus. formation (*‘to make disappear behind..., hold back’) based on ↗warāʔ ‘back, rear’. Note, however, that, for DRS, this dependence is not self-evident: the authors tentatively keep their value #1 ‘back, rear, behind’ separate from #2 ‘to hide, conceal’.
    ▪ For warāʔ ‘back, rear’, MilitarevKogan2000 (SED I) #10 reconstruct (on account of cognates in Akk and Gz – strange distribution!) Sem *ʔ˅rāw-, *w˅rāʔ- ‘back’ which in turn may go back (together with cognates outside Sem) to a hypothetical AfrAs *ʔ/wiray/w- ‘back’.
    tawriyaẗ ‘double-entendre, allusion’ is a regular vn. formed from the D-stem vb. Thus, the original meaning of tawriyaẗ as a key concept of literary aesthetics is *‘hiding, concealment’ (sc. of a less overt, parallel meaning).
    ▪ ...
     
    wārà (vb. III), 1 (to cover) Q 5:31 fa-baʕaṯa ’llāhu ġurāban yabḥaṯu fī ’l-ʔarḍi li-yuriya-hū kayfa yuwārī sawʔaẗa ʔaḫī-hi ‘then God sent a raven scratching up the ground to show him how to cover his brother’s corpse’; 2 (to conceal, to hide’ Q 7:26 qad ʔanzalnā ʕalay-kum libāsan yuwārī sawʔāti-kum ‘We have given you garments to hide your shameful parts’
    tawārà (vb. VI, to hide o.s.) Q 16:56 yatawārā mina ’l-qawmi min sūʔi mā buššira bi-hī ‘he hides away from the people because of [what he considers to be] the evil of what he has been told’
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ ↗warāʔ
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ ↗warāʔ
    ▪ ...
     

     
    tawarrà, vb. V, 1 = IV; 2 to hide, conceal o.s. (ʕan, min from): tD-stem, self-ref.
    tawriyaẗ, n.f., 1 hiding, concealment; 2 dissemblance, dissimulation, hypocrisy; 3 equivocation, ambiguity, double-entendre, allusion: vn. II

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗warà (vb.), ↗warāʔ, ↗tawriyaẗ, ↗²warrà (prob. related: ↗tawrāẗ), and al-warà (n.), as well as, for the larger picture, root entry ↗WRY.
     
    dialAr ²warrà / warrē- وَرَّى / وَرَّيْــ (tawriyyaẗ)
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 27Jul2023
    √WRY
     
    vb., II
     
    to show – BadawiHinds1986
     
    ▪ The value ‘to show’ seems to be lost in fuṣḥà Ar, but is preserved in many dialects, both eastern and western. According to DRS 7 (1997) #WRY-2, this dialAr ²warrà ‘to show’ can also mean ‘to teach’ in MġrAr, a value prominent, apart from Ar, in Hbr (hence prob. Hbr tōrāʰ, the Torah, > Ar loanword ↗tawrāẗ, grouped s.r. ↗√*TWRā), while notions of ‘announcing’ and ‘new(s)’ prevail among the EthSem cognates. DRS is not sure whether these values should, or should not (“?”), be connected to their value #WRY-1 ‘to lead, guide’, represented only by Akk (w)arū(m), oAkk oAss warāʔum (paralleled by secondary tarū(m) ‘id.’, with a derivation in its own right); vonSoden AHW 1473 regards the Akk forms as cognate to Sem items meaning ‘to throw, cast’, cf. #WRW~WRY, a view that is obviously shared also by Huehnergard2011 when he posits a reconstructed protSem root *√WRW ‘to lead, guide, cast, throw’. In EtymArab, ‘throwing, casting’ is treated as distinct, s.v. ↗WRː (WRR)_4 (SyrAr warrᵃ).
    ▪ Both this ²warrà (D-stem) and an also attested (e.g. SyrAr, in Hava1899) ʔawrà (vb. IV, *Š-stem) ‘to show, expose s.th. to view’ are often derived from ↗raʔà ‘to see’ (√RʔY). In both cases, w as R₁ instead of ʔ as R₂ is difficult to explain – perh., first, as a make-up for “missing” R₂ in the MSA vb. IV, ʔarà (< *ʔarʔà), then thought to be missing also in vb. II?
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ Hava1899 lists SyrAr²warrà (II, vn. tawriyaẗ) ‘to show’, SyrAr ʔawrà (IV) ‘to show, expose s.th. to view’, said to be from *ʔarʔà (√RʔY), and ĭstawrà (X) ‘to ask (-h an advice, -h from s.o.)’
     
    DRS 7 (1997) #WRY-1 Akk (w)arū(m), oAkk oAss warāʔum ‘conduire’.283 – ?2 Hbr (Hi) hōrē ‘montrer (avec le doigt), instruire’; – ? tōrāʰ ‘direction, instruction, loi’; mōräʰ ‘enseignant, maître’; JudPalAram ʔōrī ‘enseigner, instruire’; Ar [dial.] warrà, ʔawrà ‘montrer, désigner’, MġrAr warra (i) ‘montrer, faire voir, enseigner’, OranAr wāri ‘évident’, ? YemAr *warā ‘violer l’honneur d’une femme’; Sab hwry ‘annoncer, publier’, Soq ʔere ‘marque (?)’, Gz waraya ‘dire les nouvelles, raconter’, Te wära ‘annoncer’, Tña wäre ‘nouvelle, avis, renommée’, ʔawräyä, Amh ʔawärra ‘donner des nouvelles’, Amh Arg Gur wäre, Har war ‘nouvelle’; Tña wäräyä ‘être utile, servir, aider, assister, être fécond’.284 -3-6 ....
    ▪ (given here only for the sake of completeness, as earlier research would often see Hbr tōrāʰ as akin to ‘to throw, cast’; DRS itself groups tōrāʰ under #WRY-2, see preceding paragraph) : DRS 7 (1997) #WRW~WRR-1 Ug *yrw ‘tirer (une flèche)’, Hbr yārā ‘jeter, lancer, tirer (flèche, etc.)’, ? Syr ʔeštawrī ‘arriver par hasard, venir à la rencontre, percer; oser’; EAr warra ‘jeter, rejeter’, warwar ‘jeter, lancer’; Gz warawa, warrawa ‘jeter, lancer, rejeter’, Te Tña wärwärä, Amh Arg wäräwwärä, Gur wəräwwarä ‘jeter, lancer’.285 / 286 / 287 / 288 -2 ....
     
    ▪ BadawiHinds1986 assigns EgAr warrà (II, vn. tawriyyaẗ) ‘to show’ to a root √¹WRY, distinct from √²WRY (with warā̆ ‘behind; after, following’ (MSA ↗warāʔ), ↗MSAtawriyaẗ ‘allusion’ (vn. of MSA ↗¹warrà ‘to hide, conceal; to allude’), MSAwārà (III, vn. miwāriyyaẗ) ‘to obscure, veil’, ĭtwārà (VI) ‘to hide o.s.’
    ▪ ...
     

     
    EgAr ĭtwarrà, vb. V, to be shown: t-stem, pass.

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗warà (vb.), ↗warāʔ, ↗¹warrà, ↗tawriyaẗ, and al-warà (n.), as well as, for the larger picture, root entry ↗WRY.
     
    warāʔ وَرَاء
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP 577 • APD … • © SG | 27Jul2023
    √WRY
     
    n.; (quasi-)prep. (warāʔᵃ)
     
    rear, back, backside – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ On account of cognates in Akk and Gz (strange distribution!), MilitarevKogan2000 (SED I) #10 reconstruct Sem *ʔ˅rāw-, *w˅rāʔ- ‘back’ which in turn may go back (together with cognates outside Sem) to a hypothetical AfrAs *ʔ/wiray/w- ‘back’.
    ▪ For the D-stem ¹warrà ‘to hide, conceal, keep secret; to pretend, feign, simulate’ and its vn. tawriyaẗ ‘double-entendre, allusion’, see s.v.
     
    ¹warrà (tawriyaẗ), vb. II: warrà baṣara-hū, to avert one’s eyes (ʕan from) – Hava1899
    ▪ ...
     
    DRS 7 (1997) #WRʔ~WRY-1 Ar warāʔ ‘derrière, ce qui est derrière; petit-fils’, Tham wrʔ ‘postérité’, dial. uṛā ‘derrière (préposition)’; ? Sab hwrt ‘partie postérieure(?)’289 , ? Ar waraʔa ‘être rassasié’; Gz warʔa ‘soutenir dans la vieillesse’, warrəʔa ‘soutenir, alimenter, fournir le nécessaire pour vivre’; ? Ar waraʔa ‘repousser, pousser violemment’.290 – Rather reliable cognates also outside Sem.291 - ?2 Ar *tawarraʔa (ʕalà) ‘couvrir, enfermer’, warrà(y) ‘cacher, simuler, feindre, faire croire une chose à la place d’une autre; faire une allusion équivoque’, wārà(y) ‘cacher (quelque chose); enterrer sans cérémonie, enterrer’, tawarrà(y), tawārà(y) ‘être dissimulé, se cacher’,292 EAr PalAr EgAr wāṛa, wāra (i) ‘cacher, tenir secret, dissimuler’, ? SudAr orī(t) ‘erreur’, Gz warʔa ‘cacher, couvrir’.293 -3-4 .... – Cf. also DRS 7 (1997) #WRʔ/ʕ~YRʔ/ʕ-1 […]. -?2 Ar waraʔa ‘repousser, pousser violemment’, (↗WRʕ :) warraʕa ‘ramener (le troupeau) de l’abreuvoir’, wāraʕa ‘discuter’, warraʕa, ʔawraʕa, tawarraʕa ‘repousser, s’interposer’; HispAr warraʕ ‘effrayer’, tawarraʕ ‘craindre’, ʕOmAr warraʕ ‘ramener (bêtes, gens)’, Sab hwrʕ ‘intimider, arrêter, repousser; (faire) revenir’, Mhr həwrā ‘faire revenir, ramener (bêtes, gens); tenir à l’écart (les mauvais esprits)’, Ḥrs awrā ‘ramener (le bétail) au soir’, Te wära ‘menacer, battre’; ? wärʕ ‘eau bénite, magique’, wärʕa ‘asperger (d’eau bénite, magique)’; ? Tña wəruʕ ‘vaniteux’. -3-6 ....
    ▪ Cf. also MilitarevKogan2000 (SED I) #10 : Akk erûtu (arûtu) ‘back’, Ar warāʔ ‘partie posterieure, de derriere’, Gz ʔurāʔu ‘waist’ (< *ʔurāw- or *w˅rāʔ- ?). | Outside Sem: (?) Eg (OK) i͗Ꜣ.t ‘Rückgrat; Rücken (der Menschen und Tiere)’ (< */ʔir-/ ?); (Berb :) Ahaggar a-rûri (pl. i-rûriaw-ən) (< *rawray, redupl.), Siwa ərrau ‘dos’, Qabyle iri (pl. iraw-ən) ‘dos; cou; épaule’, Zenaga ọ̄ʔri ‘épaule, creux de l’épaule’ (< *w˅ry ?); (ECush :) Sa Af irō ‘Rückseite, Rücken’, Or wiirtuu ‘spine, mid-back’, (SCush:) Iraqw oriya ‘thigh’ (< *wVriy ?), (WChad:) Tsagu āri, (EChad:) Dangaleat āro ‘back’. – Cf. perh. also Ar warr ‘os de la hanche’ (↗WRː (WRR)_2, ?with semantic shift *‘back > thigh > leg’).
    ▪ ...
     
    289. Sab hwrt : sens douteux; DicSab 57 propose aussi : ‘citerne, pièce d’eau’, rac. HWR, v.s.  290. Ar waraʔa ‘repousser, pousser’ est relié à ‘arrière, dos’ par Cohen Essai 198, entre autres, mais comp. aussi sub W/YRʔ/ʕ.  291. Cohen Essai 198, n° 509. Comp. Eg yʔ.t ‘dos d’homme ou d’animal’? V. sur ce point Vycichl DELC 248 qui fait quelque réserve du fait que les formes nominales Eg et Ar ne concordent pas ; Berb: To arūri (Ahag, Ghat), əruru (Ifoghas), arori (Aïr) ‘dos’; Ouargla iri ‘côte, nuque’; Siwa ərrāo, ərraw ‘dos’, Sened ʕarut ‘épaule’, Kab iraw ‘dos, cou, épaule’, aʕrur ‘dos’; Tmz aruru ‘large dos’. La correspondance semble satisfaisante; en particulier, la finale w/u. Comment expliquer la pharyngale – et éventuellement la laryngale, si ahraw est confirmé à Siwa – qui apparaissent dans un certain nombre de formes ?; Cush : Bed niwa ‘queue’, Af Sa irō ‘dos’, Bilin Qw yewi, Kafa ilō ‘dos’, Iraqw ālu ‘derrière’; Dolgopol’skij 222 reconstruit une forme proto-Cush *ʔyVl(l)Vw- ‘partie arrière’.  292. Pour le sens ‘cacher’, l’expression ClassAr, telle qu’elle est fournie par des lexicographes, est : tawarraʔat ʕalayhi ‘(la terre) se ferma sur lui’ (mais peut-être ‘devint plane sur lui’), synonyme de tawaddaʔat ʕalayhi, selon Ibn Ǧinnī […].  293. CDG 671: Gz warʔa peut-être reconstruction à partir de morāʔ qui dépend du vb. marʔa ‘porter, transporter’. 
    ▪ Sem cognates given by DRS and MilitarevKogan2000 (SED I) differ (?Sab, Ar, Gz vs. Akk, Ar, Gz, respectively), while there seems to be a rather broad consensus about the reliability of the extra-Sem cognates. MilitarevKogan2000 #10 reconstruct Sem *ʔ˅rāw-, *w˅rāʔ- ‘back’ and Berb *(H)˅r(r)āw ‘back’ (no proto-forms given for the Eg, Cush, and Chad items identified as cognates), from hypothetical AfrAs *ʔ/wiray/w- ‘back’. – Based on ‘back’ is perh. also Ar warr ‘os de la hanche’ (↗WRː (WRR)_2) (with cognates in Gur?); if so, a semantic shift *‘back > thigh > leg’ will have to be assumed. – MilitarevKogan further point out that this root has »[t]o be distinguished from #9 Sem *ʔir(r)-at- ‘chest, breast’«, which is not represented in Ar, but possibly related to metathetic Sem forms meaning ‘lung’, cf. #224 Sem *rayʔ(-at)- , > Ar ↗riʔaẗ ‘lung’.
    ▪ BadawiHinds1986 assigns EgAr warrà (II, vn. tawriyyaẗ) ‘to show’ to a root √¹WRY, distinct from √²WRY (with warā̆ ‘behind; after, following’, MSAtawriyaẗ ‘allusion’, MSAwārà (III, vn. miwāriyyaẗ) ‘to obscure, veil’, ĭtwārà (VI) ‘to hide o.s.’. For this dialAr warrà, see our entry ↗²warrà ‘to show’
    ▪ ...
     

     
    ʔilà ’l-warāʔⁱ, to the rear; backward;
    min warāʔⁱ..., prep., 1 behind, from behind; 2a beyond, past; b over and above; 3 by means of, through, by; al-takassub min warāʔⁱ ’l-diʕāraẗ, n., professional prostitution; kāna min warāʔⁱ maqduraẗ al-ʕaql al-bašarī, expr., to be beyond the power of human comprehension
    warāʔᵃ, prep., 1 behind, in the rear of, at the back of; 2 after; 3a beyond, past; b over and above, beside, in addition to | kāna warāʔa-hū, to be favorably disposed to s.o., stand behind s.o., support, back s.o.; mā warāʔᵃ ’l-ʔurdunn, n., Transjordan; mā warāʔᵃ ’l-ʔakamaẗ, n., what is at the bottom of it, what’s behind it; warāʔᵃ ’l-ʔakamaẗ mā warāʔa-hā, expr., there is more in it than meets the eye, there is s.th. wrong; mā warāʔa ’l-baḥr, n., overseas; mā warāʔᵃ ’l-ṭabīʕaẗ, n., 1 the supernatural, the transcendental; 2 metaphysics; mā warāʔᵃ ’l-nahr, n., Transoxania
    warāʔᵘ, adv., behind, in the rear, at the back

    warrà, vb. II, 1warà; 2a to hide, conceal, keep secret, secrete (s.th.); b to allude (ʕan bi‑ to s.th., with); c to pretend, feign, affect, simulate (bi‑ s.th.): D-stem, caus. (?)
    wārà, vb. III, 1a to try to keep secret (s.th.); b to hide, conceal (‑h ‑h s.th. in); c to disguise, mask | wārā-hu ’l-turābᵃ, to inhume, bury s.o.: L-stem, assoc.
    tawarrà, vb. V, 1 = IV; 2 to hide, conceal o.s. (ʕan, min from): tD-stem, self-ref.
    tawārà, vb. VI, 1a to hide, conceal o.s.; b to disappear from the sight (ʕan of s.o., also ʕan al-ʔanẓār): tL-stem, assoc. self-ref.
    warāʔī, adj., hind, rear, back, located at the back, directed backward: nsb-formation
    ʔawrà, adj., better concealing (li‑ s.th.): elat. formation
    tawriyaẗ, n.f., 1 hiding, concealment; 2 dissemblance, dissimulation, hypocrisy; 3 equivocation, ambiguity, double-entendre, allusion: vn. II

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗warà (vb.), ↗²warrà (prob. related: ↗tawrāẗ), and al-warà (n.), as well as, for the larger picture, root entry ↗WRY.
     
    al-warà الوَرَى
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 27Jul2023
    √WRY
     
    n.
     
    the mortals, mankind – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ Etymology obscure. In DRS, the value is not mentioned at all. Unless it is fig. use of some other meaning of warà (which one?), could there be a connection to pre-protSem *wr ‘to grow, increase in size’ identified by Ehret1995 #974? In AfrAs *-wăr-/-wĭr- ‘to grow (person, animal)’, reconstructed by Ehret as the hypothetical common ancestor of Sem and extra-Sem items (Eg, SCush, CChad, NOmot), the *‘growing’ is a feature of human beings or animals... If valid, the meaning ‘mortals, mankind’ of Ar warà would have developed from *‘the growing ones’.
    ▪ Any relation to ↗WRY_6 wariya (yarī, vn. wary) ‘to be compact (marrow, flesh)’, warà ‘to be fat (camel)’ and/or ↗WRY_7 wary ‘pus, matter; purulent ulcer’?
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ Hava1899 lists waràⁿ ‘creature’ together with the expression mā ʔadrī ʔayyu ’l-warà huwa ‘I do not know what a man he is’
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ ? Ehret1995 #974 AfrAs *-wăr-/-wĭr- ‘to grow (person, animal)’: pre-protSem *wr ‘to grow, increase in size’ [? Ar ↗waràⁿ ‘mortals, man’], Eg wr ‘greatness of size’, wr, wrr ‘great; much, many’, (Cush) SC: PR *war‑ ‘mature young person’, protCChad *wr ‘old’, (NOmot) Ometo *orde ‘big’, Gonga *wur‑ ‘male animal’ (i.e., in general larger sex; Mocha wuró < *wer‑).
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ ...
     

     
    ḫayr al-warà, n., the best of all men, the Prophet Mohammed

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗warà (vb.), ↗warāʔ, ↗¹warrà, ↗tawriyaẗ, and ↗²warrà (prob. related: ↗tawrāẗ), as well as, for the larger picture, root entry ↗WRY.
     
    tawriyaẗ تَوْرِيَة
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 27Jul2023
    √WRY
     
    n.f.
     
    1 hiding, concealment; 2 dissemblance, dissimulation, hypocrisy; 3 equivocation, ambiguity, double-entendre, allusion – WehrCowan1976
    vn. II
     
    tawriyaẗ is the vn. of ↗¹warrà ‘to hide, conceal, keep secret, secrete’ (which is likely from ↗warāʔ ‘back, rear’ (< Sem *ʔ˅rāw-, *w˅rāʔ- ‘back’ < AfrAs *ʔ/wiray/w- ‘back’ – OrelStolbova1994). Like the underlying vb., also its vn. shows [v1] a literary value, [v2] an extended, fig. value (‘to pretend, feign, affect, simulate’ / ‘dissemblance, dissimulation, hypocrisy’), and [v3] the use as a technical term in literary aesthetics (‘to allude to s.th.’ / ‘equivocation, ambiguity, double-entendre, allusion’).
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ ↗¹warrà.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ ...
     

     
    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗warà (vb.), ↗warāʔ, ↗¹warrà, ↗²warrà (prob. related: ↗tawrāẗ), and al-warà (n.), as well as, for the larger picture, root entry ↗WRY.
     
    WZR وزر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WZR 
    “root” 
    ▪ WZR_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ WZR_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ WZR_3 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ WZR_4 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ WZR_5 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘impregnable mountain, refuge, armament; support, counsellor; to bear, back up; to carry, heavy load, crime, sin’ 
    ▪ BAH2008: The word wazar ‘mountain’ or ‘refuge’ is said to be of Nab origin, and wazīr is said to be originally Pers. Cf., however, s.v.
    ▪ …
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ For Engl vizier see ↗wazīr). 
    – 
    wizr وِزْر , pl. ʔawzār 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WZR 
    n. 
    1 heavy load, burden, encumbrance. – 2 sin, crime. – 3 responsibleness, responsibility – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    wizr ▪ eC7 1 (load, burden, heavy weight) Q 20:87 walākin-nā ḥummilnā ʔawzāran min zīnāti ’l-qawmi fa-qaḏafnā-hā ‘but we were laden with burdens from the people’s ornaments, so we threw them [into the fire]. – 2 (guilt, crime, sin, responsibility) 20:100 man ʔaʕraḍa ʕan-hu fa-ʔinna-hū yaḥmilu yawma ’l-qiyāmati wizran ‘whoever turns away from it will bear a heavy responsibility on the Day of Resurrection’. – wāziraẗ (PA I f., a person/soul having the capacity to be responsible for his/her actions, a legal entity) Q 6:164 wa-lā taziru wāziratun wizra ʔuḫrà ‘no soul capable of carrying responsibility shall bear the guilt of another’. – wazar (refuge, place of refuge) Q 75:11 kallā lā wazara ‘truely, there will be no refuge’. – wazīr (counsellor, helper, supporter) Q 20:29 wa-’ǧʕal lī wazīran min ʔahlī ‘and provide for me a helper from my family’ 
    DRS 6 (1996)#WZR-1: Ar wazara ‘porter (un fardeau)’, wazira ‘porter [une charge de] faute, être accusé d’un péché, d’une faute, d’un crime’, wizr ‘lourd fardeau, charge, crime’, wazr ‘montagne pouvant servir de refuge’, wāzara ‘aider, assister qn’, ʔawzara ‘cacher, procurer un refuge’, ĭstawzara ‘emporter qc’, ʔawzar ‘armes’.
    ▪ Cf. however also ↗wazīr and ↗WZR in general. 
    … 
    – 
    ḥammala-hū wizra ‑hū, to make s.o. bear the responsibility for s.th., make s.o. answerable for s.th.
    waḍaʕat-i ’l-ḥarbu ʔawzāra ‑hā, the war has come to an end: cf. Q 47:4.

    wazara (1), yaziru (wizr), vb. I, to take upon o.s., carry (a burden): denom.?
    wazara (2), yaziru, and wazira, yawzaru (wizr, wazr, ziraẗ), vb. I, to commit a sin: fig. use of preceding?
    wāzara, vb. III, to help, assist, aid, support (ʕalà in s.th.): L-stem, associative (*‘to carry the burden together with s.o.’). Or var. of ↗ʔāzara ‘id.’, from ↗ʔazara ‘to surround, gird’?
    ʔawzara, vb. IV, to support, back up, strengthen s.o.’s (DO) arm: probably denom. from waz(a)r ‘(mountain-) refuge’ (see WZR_6 s.v. ↗WZR), lit. *‘to provide a refuge for s.o.’?
    tawazzara, vb. V, to become a (cabinet) minister: t-stem (quasi-pass.) of D-stem *wazzara ‘to appoint as vizier, minister’, appell., denom. from wazīr.
    tawāzara, vb. VI, to help each other: t-stem of III, recipr.
    ĭttazara, vb. VIII, 1wazraẗ. – 2 to commit a sin: t-stem (< *ĭwtazara), denom. from wizr [v2].
    ĭstawzara, vb. X, 1 to appoint as (cabinet) minister; 2 to be appointed as (cabinet) minister: Št-stem, request., denom. from wazīr (*‘to ask s.o. to be a minister’ or *‘to aspire to become a minister’).
    BP#96wazīr, pl. wuzarāʔ, n., 1 (cabinet) minister; 2 vizier; 3 queen (in chess): [v1] is modern, [v3] term.tech., both from [v2], which existed in the meaning of ‘helper’ as a quasi-PP of vb. I, lit. *‘loaded with a burden (wizr)’, but then merged with, and was superseded by, a loanword from mPers. – For details and compounds, see ↗s.v.
    BP#217wizāraẗ, pl. -āt, n.f., 1 ministry; 2 rank of minister; 3 cabinet, government: n.prof., from wazīr. – For compounds see ↗s.v.
    BP#2900wizārī, adj., ministerial: nsb-adj., from wizāraẗ.

    For other items of √WZR, cf. ↗WZR, ↗wizraẗ, ↗wazaraẗ
    wizraẗ وِزْرة , pl. wizarāt 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WZR 
    n.f. 
    loincloth – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    – 
    ĭttazara, vb. VIII, 1 to wear a loincloth; to put on (a garment): denom. – 2wizr 
    wazaraẗ وزرة , pl. ‑āt 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WZR 
    n.f. 
    skirt, skirting (arch.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    – 
    – 
    wazīr وَزِير , pl. wuzarāʔᵘ 
    ID 921 • Sw – • BP 96 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last update 11Apr2023
    √WZR 
    n. 
    1 (cabinet) minister. – 2 vizier. – 3 queen (in chess) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Cheung2017rev: rather not of Ir origin, but < Ar ↗wazara ‘to take upon oneself, carry a burden’. For details, see below, section DISC.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 (counsellor, helper, supporter) Q 20:29 wa-’ǧʕal lī wazīran min ʔahlī ‘and provide for me a helper from my family’ 
    DRS 6 (1996)#WZR-2: Ar wazīr, Mhr wəzayr, EJib ɛzayr, Gz wazir ‘vizir, ministre’, Amh wäzir, wazir ‘conseiller d’un monarque’.
    ▪ Cf. however also ↗wizr.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl vizier, from Ar wazīr ‘vizier, minister, burdened’, either from ʔāzara ‘to help’, L-stem of ↗ʔazara ‘to surround’ (see above), or from ↗wazara ‘to carry a burden, take upon oneself’. 
    wazīr al-dawlaẗ, n.f., minister of state, cabinet minister without portfolio
    wazīr mufawwaḍ, n., minister plenipotentiary (dipl.)
    wazīr muqīm, n., minister resident (Tun.)
    al-wazīr al-ʔakbar or al-wazīr al-ʔawwal, n., the Prime Minister
    maǧlis al-wuzarāʔ, n., cabinet, council of ministers; for the various departments see entry ↗wizāraẗ.

    tawazzara, vb. V, to become a (cabinet) minister: tD-stem, pass. of caus. *II, denom.
    ĭstawzara, vb. X, 1 to appoint as (cabinet) minister: tŠ-stem, appellative; 2 to be appointed as (cabinet) minister: intr./quasi-pass. use of [v1].
    BP#217wizāraẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., 1 ministry; 2 rank of minister; 3 cabinet, government: nomin. formation, designating the office of a wazīr. – For the various departments see separate entry ↗wizāraẗ
    BP#2900wizārī, adj., ministerial: nsb-adj., from wizāraẗ
    wizāraẗ وِزارَة , pl. ‑āt 
    ID 920 • Sw – • BP 217 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WZR 
    n.f.f. 
    1 ministry. – 2 rank of minister. – 3 cabinet, government – WehrCowan1979. 
    nomin. formation, designating the office of a ↗wazīr
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    wizāraẗ al-ʔiršād al-qawmī, n.f., ministry of national guidance (Eg.)
    wizāraẗ al-ʔašġāl al-ʕumūmiyyaẗ, n.f., ministry of public works
    wizāraẗ al-ʔiʕlām, n.f., ministry of information
    wizāraẗ al-ĭqtiṣād al-waṭanī, n.f., ministry of national economy
    wizāraẗ al-ʔawqāf, n.f., ministry of religious endowments, wakf ministry
    wizāraẗ al-baḥriyyaẗ, n.f., naval department, ministry of the navy
    wizāraẗ al-tiǧāraẗ, n.f., ministry of commerce
    wizāraẗ al-taḫṭīṭ, n.f., ministry of city planning and road construction
    wizāraẗ al-tarbiyaẗ wa’l-taʕlīm, n.f., ministry of education
    wizāraẗ al-tamwīn, n.f., ministry of supply
    wizāraẗ al-ḥarbiyyaẗ, n.f., war ministry
    wizāraẗ al-ḥaqqāniyyaẗ, n.f., ministry of justice
    wizāraẗ al-ḫāriǧiyyaẗ, n.f., foreign ministry
    wizāraẗ al-dāḫiliyyaẗ, n.f., ministry of the interior
    wizāraẗ al-difāʕ al-waṭanī, n.f., ministry of national defence
    wizāraẗ al-zirāʕaẗ and wizāraẗ al-filāḥaẗ, n.f., ministry of agriculture
    wizāraẗ al-šuʔūn al-ĭǧtimāʕiyyaẗ, n.f., ministry of social affairs
    wizāraẗ al-šuʔūn al-baladiyyaẗ wa’l-qarawiyyaẗ, n.f., ministry of municipal and rural affairs
    wizāraẗ al-ṣiḥḥaẗ al-ʕumūmiyyaẗ, n.f., ministry of public health
    wizāraẗ al-ṣināʕaẗ wa’l-ṭāqaẗ, n.f., ministry of industry and energy ressources
    wizāraẗ al-ṭayarān, n.f., air ministry
    wizāraẗ al-ʕadl (al-ʕadliyyaẗ), n.f., ministry of justice
    wizāraẗ al-quwà al-ʕāmilaẗ wa’l-tadrīb al-mihanī, n.f., ministry of labour and vocational training
    wizāraẗ al-māliyyaẗ, n.f., finance ministry
    wizāraẗ al-maʕārif, n.f., ministry of education
    wizāraẗ al-muwāṣalāt, n.f., ministry of communication

    BP#2900wizārī, adj., ministerial: nsb-adj., from wizāraẗ
    WZʕ وزع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21May2023
    √WZʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ WZʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WZʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WZʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to restrain, keep in line; to urge, encourage; one responsible for keeping the troops in line in battle, to marshall factions, groups; to distribute’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    WZN وزن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WZN 
    “root” 
    ▪ WZN_1 ‘weight’ ↗wazn, ‘balance, scales’ ↗mīzān
    ▪ WZN_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘weight, measure; scales; to weigh, to weigh out, to estimate, to compare; justice; to be wise; to be parallel with, to be equal or equivalent to’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    mīzān مِيزان 
    ID 922 • Sw – • BP 1958 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WZN 
    n. 
    1 balance, scales; 2 weight; 3 measure; 4 poetic measure, meter; 5 rule, method; 6 justice, equity, fairness, impartiality – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    al-mīzān, n., Libra, Balance (astron.)
    mīzān al-ḥarāraẗ, n., thermometer
    mīzān rāṣid, n., self-registering scales
    mīzān ṭablī, n., 1 weighing machine, platform scale; 2 weighbridge
    mīzān al-māʔ, n., spirit level, level

     
    WSṬ وسط 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WSṬ 
    “root” 
    ▪ WSṬ_1 ‘middle’ ↗wasaṭ, ‘mediator, agent’ ↗wāsiṭaẗ
    ▪ WSṬ_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘middle, centre; justice; heart, waist; inside; between; the choice, the select; to cause to be in the centre’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    wāsiṭaẗ واسِطَة 
    ID 923 • Sw – • BP 1669 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WSṬ 
    n.f. 
    1 mediator, mediatress, intermediary; 2 mediacy, agency, instrumentality, agent, device, means, medium; 3 expedient – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    bi‑wāsiṭaẗ, adv., 1 by means of, through, by, per; 2 on the part of, by
    bi‑’l-wāsiṭaẗ, adv., indirectly, immediately
    bi‑hāḏihi ’l-wāsiṭaẗ, adv., by this means or device, by that
    bi‑wāsiṭaẗ ḏālik, adv., by means of that, by that
    wāsiṭaẗ al-ĭttiṣāl, n.f., link

     
    mutawassiṭ مُتَوَسِّط 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 1172 • APD … • © SG | created 9Jun2023
    √WSṬ 
    adj. 
    ▪ PA V, from vb. V, tawassaṭa '…', t-stem (self-referential) of vb. II, wassaṭa 'to place in the middle, center', denom. from wasaṭ 'middle, center' 
    WSʕ وسع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21May2023
    √WSʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ WSʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WSʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WSʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘affluence, wealth; benefactor; capacity, ability; to be spacious, accommodate; to encompass; to assist’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    WSQ وسق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21May2023
    √WSQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ WSQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WSQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WSQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a camel’s load, a dry measure of a certain capacity; a flock of birds, a herd of animals; to load, a beast of burden; to cover up (of night), rise up in the sky (of the moon), become a full moon, shine upon the land below; to gather together, be complete, be in perfect order’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    WSL وسل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21May2023
    √WSL 
    ▪ WSL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WSL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WSL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘linkage, means, medium, device; rank, station; proximity; to ingratiate o.s.; to implore’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    WSM وسم 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21May2023
    √WSM 
    “root” 
    ▪ WSM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WSM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WSM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘brand, sign, branding iron; to cauterise; good looks; seasons, returning occasions, spring rain; to see signs of certain traits in s.o., to gauge; to ornament’ 
    ▪ From protSem *√WSM ‘to be(come) fitting, suitable’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl monsoon, from Ar ↗mawsim ‘season’, from ↗wasama ‘to mark’, wasuma ‘to be(come) beautiful’. 
    – 
    WSN وسن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WSN 
    “root” 
    ▪ WSN_1 ‘(to) sleep, slumber, to doze’ ↗sinaẗ, wasina
    ▪ WSN_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘slumber, napping, dozing, drowsiness; to be lazy’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    wasin‑ وَسِنَ , yawsanu (wasan , sinaẗ
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WSN 
    vb., I 
    to sleep, slumber – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ The Ar vb. wasina is of Sem origin (*w˅š˅n‑), but is no longer the main vb. used for ‘to sleep’ in Ar – this function has been taken by ↗nāma here. The corresponding n. ↗sinaẗ ‘slumber, sleep’ has cognates everywhere in Sem except EthSem, so that it is safe to assume a common Sem n. *šin-at‑ ‘sleep’ (which probably goes back to AfrAs *šin‑ ‘sleep’). 
    sinaẗ 
    ▪ Fronzaroli#2.10: Ug yšn, Hbr yāšēn ‘to sleep’.
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2226: Hbr yšn, Ar wsn ‘to sleep’.
    ▪ Cf. also the cognates given s.v. ↗sinaẗ ‘sleep (n.)’.
     
    ▪ Fronzaroli#2.10: Sem *šin-at‑ ‘sleep’, *wašin ‘asleep’.
    ▪ Kogan2011: A n. cognate to Ar sinaẗ is attested everywhere in Sem except in the Eth branch. It is safe, however, nevertheless to reconstruct Sem *šin-at‑ ‘sleep’.
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2226: Sem *w˅š˅n‑ ‘to sleep’ < AfrAs *siʔon‑ /*siwan‑ ‘to sleep’ (metathesis). – Cf. also AfrAs *šin‑ ‘sleep’ (n.) > WCh *s˅n‑ ‘sleep’, CCh *siʔwan‑ ‘dream’, ECh *suwan‑ ‘sleep, dream’, SaAf *son‑ ‘sleep’ (n.).
    ▪ Cf. also the reconstruction proposed for ↗sinaẗ ‘sleep (n.)’.
     
    – 
    wasan, n., slumber, doze: vn. I.
    sinaẗ, n.f., slumber, doze: vn. I | ~ min al-nawm, n., a short nap.
    wasin, adj., sleepy, drowsy, somnolent.
    wasnān ᵘ, f. wasnà, adj., sleepy, drowsy, somnolent: ints. formation. 
    sinaẗ سِنَة 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WSN 
    n.f. 
    slumber, doze – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Ar sinaẗ ‘slumber, sleep’ has cognates everywhere in Sem except EthSem, so that it is safe to assume a common Sem n. *šin-at‑ ‘sleep’ (which probably goes back to AfrAs *šin‑ ‘sleep’). 
    ▪ eC7 Q 2:255 lā taʔḫuḏuhū sinatun wa-lā-nawm ‘neither slumber nor sleep overtakes Him’ 
    ▪ Fronzaroli#2.10: Akk šittu ‘sleep’, šuttu ‘dream’, Ug šnt, Hbr šēnā, Syr šenᵉtā, Ar sinaẗ, wasnaẗ, SAr snt ‘sleep’; Akk Ug yšn ‘to sleep’, Hbr yāšēn, Ar wasin ‘asleep’.
    ▪ Kogan2011: Akk šittu, Ug šnt, Hbr šēnā, Syr šentā, Ar sinat‑, Sab snt, Mhr šənēt, Jib s̃ónút ‘sleep’.
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2226: (Sem as Fronzaroli and Kogan). – Outside Sem: (WCh) sunu, sine, sun, šan‑, sin, san, sən, sənasan, asin, sunsuni, sun-at, sunan ‘sleep’; (CCh) sənaʔ-ata, sin-ata, suni, sini, šəʔūnyi, saŋ, šine, suwana, šini, sənin, syon-cii, soʔoni, san, syɛne, siyena ‘dream’; (ECh) sōn, soone, suwən, suniyi, suun‑, suno, soona, suun‑, sonisoni ‘sleep, dream’; (SaAf) sonoo, sonoo ‘sleep’ (n.). 
    ▪ Fronzaroli#2.10: Sem *šin-at‑ ‘sleep’, *wašin ‘asleep’.
    ▪ Kogan2011: A n. cognate to Ar sinaẗ is attested everywhere in Sem except in the Eth branch. It is safe, however, nevertheless to reconstruct Sem *šin-at‑ ‘sleep’.
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2226: Sem *w˅š˅n‑ ‘to sleep’ < (metathesis) AfrAs *siʔon‑ /*siwan‑ ‘to sleep’. – Cf. also AfrAs *šin‑ ‘sleep’ (n.) > WCh *s˅n‑ ‘sleep’, CCh *siʔwan‑ ‘dream’, ECh *suwan‑ ‘sleep, dream’, SaAf *son‑ ‘sleep’ (n.). 
    – 
    sinaẗ min al-nawm, n., a short nap 
    WSWS وسوس 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21May2023
    √WSWS 
    “root” 
    ▪ WSWS_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WSWS_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WSWS_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘indistinct hidden sound, whisper; rustle, jingling of anklets; devilish insinuations; tempter; to insinuate bad thoughts, tempt; to be obsessed’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    WŠY وشي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22May2023
    √WŠY 
    “root” 
    ▪ WŠY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WŠY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WŠY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘blotch of colour; to ornament; to speak in a sweet deceptive manner, gossip; to increase in wealth, prise out information gently’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    WṢB وصب 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22May2023
    √WṢB 
    “root” 
    ▪ WṢB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WṢB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WṢB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘pain, illness, extreme fatigue; lasting, permanent; to nurse; to persist.’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    WṢD وصد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22May2023
    √WṢD 
    “root” 
    ▪ WṢD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WṢD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WṢD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘(This root overlaps with the root ↗ʔṢD because of the dialectal difference in pronouncing hamza as a pure vowel.) ‘courtyard, stone enclosure for animals; extreme midday heat; to shut, cover; to loom; to fix’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    WṢF وصف 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22May2023
    √WṢF 
    “root” 
    ▪ WṢF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WṢF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WṢF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘attributes; to describe, detail, become describable; a serving boy or a girl; to ornament, make s.th. seem attractive; to be youthful’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    WṢL وصل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WṢL 
    “root” 
    ▪ WṢL_1 ‘to connect, join, link; to arrive, come, reach’ ↗waṣala
    ▪ WṢL_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘joint; link, large expanse of land; prosperity, (of land) fertility; to arrive at, to reach; to deliver, to relate; to be kin; to deny one’s ancestors’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl muslinmawṣil, ↗waṣala
    – 
    waṣal‑ وَصَلَ 
    ID 924 • Sw – • BP 183 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WṢL 
    vb., I 
    1a to connect, join, unite, combine, link, interlock (bi‑ s.th. with), attach (bi‑ s.th. to); b to establish (ṣilaẗan, a contact, a connection; a relation bayna s.th. wa‑… wa‑… between… and…); to bring into relation); 2 to give (bi‑ s.o. s.th.), bestow, confer (bi‑ upon s.o. s.th.), award (bi‑ to s.o. s.th.); – (wuṣūl) 3a to arrive (ʔilà or at a place); b to come to s.o.’s (ʔilà) hands; c to reach (ʔilà or s.o., s.th.); d to come, get (ʔilà or s.th., s.o. to); e to reach (ʔilà or an amount), amount to (ʔilà or s.th.); f to enter (ʔilà a phase); g to get (bi‑ ʔilà s.o. to or to the point where) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl muslin, from Ar ↗mawṣil ‘place of joining’, from ↗waṣala ‘to join’. 
    waṣala-nī ḫiṭāb, expr., I have received a letter
    waṣala-hū ’l-ḫabar, expr., he received the news
    yaṣilu hāḏā ʔilà ḥadd kāḏā, expr., this gets to the point where…
    waṣala ʔilà ’l-ṣafḥaẗ al-ḥāsimaẗ, vb., to enter the decisive phase

     
    WṢY وصف 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22May2023
    √WṢY 
    “root” 
    ▪ WṢY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WṢY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WṢY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘thick, intertwined plants; a will, instruction; to bequeath, urge; to impress upon s.o., relate to s.o.; to obligate; to join together’ 
    ▪ From CSem *√WṢY, var. of *√¹ṢWY, ‘to command, order’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    – 
    – 
    WḌʔ وضأ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WḌʔ 
    “root” 
    ▪ WḌʔ_1 ‘to be brillantly clean’ ↗waḍuʔa
    ▪ WḌʔ_2 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ WḌʔ_3 ‘…’ ↗ 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    … 
    waḍuʔ‑ وَضُؤَ , u (yawḍuʔu) (wuḍūʔ, waḍāʔaẗ
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WḌʔ 
    vb., I 
    to be brillantly clean, be pure, clean – WehrCowan1976. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘to exit’) Akk ūṣī, Hbr yāṣā (ipfv yēṣē), Syr īʕā/ī ‘to grow’, Gz waḍʔa (ipfv yéḍāʔ).
     
    ▪ What is the semantic connection between ‘to go out’ (Akk, Hbr, Gz) and ‘to grow’ (Aram), on the one hand, and Ar ‘to be pure, clean’, on the other?
     
    … 
    tawaḍḍaʔa, vb. V, to perform the ritual ablution before prayer: Dt‑stem, intr./refl.
    wuḍḍāʔ, adj., brilliant, radiant, bright: ints.adj.
    waḍāʔaẗ, n.f., purity, cleanness, cleanliness: vn. I.
    C wuḍūʔ, n., 1 purity, cleanness, cleanliness; 2 ritual ablution before prayer: vn. I.
    waḍūʔ, n., water for the ritual ablution
    waḍīʔ, pl. wiḍāʔ, adj., pure, clean
    C tawaḍḍuʔ, n., ritual ablution: vn. V.
    mīḍaʔaẗ, var. mīḍāʔaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., fountain or basin for the ritual ablution: n.instr.
     
    WḌḤ وضح 
    Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | created 9Jun2023
    √WḌḤ 
    “root” 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    ĭttaḍaḥa اِتَّضَحَ 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP 2675 • APD … • © SG | created 9Jun2023
    √WḌḤ 
    vb., VIII 
    ▪ Gt-stem 
    WḌʕ وضع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22May2023
    √WḌʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ WḌʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WḌʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WḌʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘location, place; fixed taxes; luggage; debate, dialogue; to put down, place, fix into position; (of clothes) to wear, take off; to invent; to flatten; to (mutually) agree upon; to show humility; to postpone; to subside; to give birth’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    WḌN وضن 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22May2023
    √WḌN 
    “root” 
    ▪ WḌN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WḌN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WḌN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to plait, braid, interweave, trim with gold and precious stones; to bring close together; to ingratiate o.s.’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    WṬʔ وطء 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22May2023
    √WṬʔ 
    “root” 
    ▪ WṬʔ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WṬʔ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WṬʔ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘low land; force, gravity, pressure, to tread underfoot, defeat, raid; to have sexual intercourse; to facililate, be approachable, agree with, match, synchronise’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    WṬR وطر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22May2023
    √WṬR 
    “root” 
    ▪ WṬR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WṬR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WṬR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘purpose, goal, desire, want’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    WṬN وطن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WṬN 
    “root” 
    ▪ WṬN_1 ‘to dwell, live, reside, stay’ ↗waṭana, ‘homeland, fatherland, home’ ↗waṭan
    ▪ WṬN_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘habitat; a battlefield, a place where s.th. is done; to settle in, to reconcile o.s. to s.th.’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    DRS 6 (1996)#WṬN–1 Ar waṭana ‘séjourner, habiter’, ʔawṭana ‘se domicilier, s’établir’, waṭan ‘contrée, territoire, patrie’, mawṭin ‘demeure, pays, théâtre d’un combat’, mīṭān ‘but, fin’, MġrAr waṭṭan ‘appliquer, habituer son esprit à qc’, Sab mwṭn ‘champ (?), champ de bataille, temple’, Jib ōṭən ‘commencer à vivre dans un nouveau lieu’. [–24: not attested in Ar].
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994 #2562 connect (WCh) Tala ten ‘to sit’ to the Ar wṭn i ‘to dwell, stay’. 
    ▪ Out of the four values attested in Sem (accord. to DRS), only one is represented in Ar.
    ▪ BAH2008 give the variety of meanings in ClassAr as ‘habitat; a battlefield, a place where s.th. is done; to settle in, to reconcile o.s. to s.th.’
    ▪ From the Ar forms, Orel&Stolbova1994 #2562 reconstruct Sem *w˅ṭin‑ (in StarLing modified to Sem *w/y˅ṭin‑) ‘to dwell, stay’, from the WCh verb ten the WCh *ṭyan‑ ‘to sit’ (with loss of initial *w˅‑, which may be a prefix). For both items, the authors assume an origin in AfrAs *w˅ṭen‑ (in StarLing modified to AfrAs *y˅ṭin‑) ‘to dwell, stay’ 
    – 
    – 
    waṭan‑ وَطَنَ , yaṭinu (waṭn
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WṬN 
    vb., I 
    to dwell, live, reside, stay (bi‑ in a place) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Accord. to Orel&Stolbova from Sem *w/y˅ṭin‑ ‘to dwell, stay’, perhaps from AfrAs *y˅ṭin‑ ‘to dwell, stay’. Reconstruction weak. 
    ▪ eC7 mawṭin (place where battles are fought, battlefield (also battles, by extension) Q 9:25 la-qad naṣara-kumu ’ḷḷāhu fī mawāṭina kaṯīratin ‘God has helped you [believers] in many battlefields’ 
    DRS 6 (1996)#WṬN–1 Ar waṭana ‘séjourner, habiter’, ʔawṭana ‘se domicilier, s’établir’, waṭan ‘contrée, territoire, patrie’, mawṭin ‘demeure, pays, théâtre d’un combat’, mīṭān ‘but, fin’, MġrAr waṭṭan ‘appliquer, habituer son esprit à qc’, Sab mwṭn ‘champ (?), champ de bataille, temple’, Jib ōṭən ‘commencer à vivre dans un nouveau lieu’. [–24: not attested in Ar].
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994 #2562 connect (WCh) Tala ten ‘to sit’ to the Ar wṭn i ‘to dwell, stay’. 
    ▪ From the Ar forms, Orel&Stolbova1994 #2562 reconstruct Sem *w˅ṭin‑ (in StarLing modified to Sem *w/y˅ṭin‑) ‘to dwell, stay’, from the WCh verb ten the WCh *ṭyan‑ ‘to sit’ (with loss of initial *w˅‑, which may be a prefix). For both items, the authors assume an origin in AfrAs *w˅ṭen‑ (in StarLing modified to AfrAs *y˅ṭin‑) ‘to dwell, stay’ 
    – 
    The following items are either from vb. I waṭana or from the n. waṭan

    waṭṭana, vb. II, to choose for residence (a place), settle down, get settled, take up one’s residence (DO in a place) | ~ nafsa-hū ʕalà, vb., to get used to, adjust o.s. to, reconcile o.s. to, put up with; to prepare o.s. mentally for; to make up one’s mind to (do s.th.): D-stem, caus.
    tawaṭṭana, vb. V, to settle down (DO or bi‑ in a place): TD-stem.

    ĭstawṭana, vb. X, to choose for residence (a place); to settle (a country); to settle down, get settled, take up one’s residence (DO in); to live permanently (DO in a place); to take root, become naturalized, acclimated (DO in)

    BP#373waṭan, pl. ʔawṭān, n., C homeland, home country, fatherland; home | al-~ al-qiblī, n.prop.loc., Cape Bon (tun.); al-~ al-qawmī al-ʔisrāʔīlī, n., the Jewish National Home; ʔahl ~i-hī, n.pl., his countrymen, his compatriots; ḥubb al-~, n., patriotism; šāʔiʕ al-~, adj./n., cosmopolitan.
    BP#4087mawṭin, pl. mawāṭinᵘ, n., C residence, domicile; habitat; native place, home town, home; native country, home country, fatherland; place, locality, area, region, section, district, zone; point, spot; right place; right time: n.loc. | ~ al-ḍuʕf, n., soft or sore spot; weak spot, weakness; waḍaʕa yada-hū ʕalà ~ al-ʕillaẗ, expr., to lay one’s finger on an open sore, touch a sore spot; al-~ al-waḍīʕ, n., the lowest point, the low mark, the bottom.
    ĭstīṭān, n., immigration; settling down; settling, settlement, colonization; "istitan", a special impost in Tunisia: vn. X.
    mutawaṭṭin, adj., native, indigenous, domestic; resident; deep-rooted; endemic (med.): PA V.
    mustawṭin, adj., native, indigenous, domestic; resident; deep-rooted: PA X.
    BP#3811mustawṭanaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., C settlement, colony: n.loc. X | ~ zirāʕiyyaẗ, n., agricultural collective, kibbutz (in Israel): ↗ĭstīṭān.

    For other items belonging to √WṬN, cf. ↗waṭan
    ĭstawṭan‑ اِسْتَوْطَنَ , ‑stawṭin‑ (ĭstīṭān
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WṬN 
    vb., X 
    to choose for residence (a place); to settle (a country); to settle down, get settled, take up one’s residence (DO in); to live permanently (DO in a place); to take root, become naturalized, acclimated (DO in) – WehrCowan1979.
     
    See DISC below. 
    ▪ … 
    waṭan, ↗waṭana
    ▪ It is not clear whether one should regard form X (ĭstawṭana, vn. ĭstīṭān) as being derived from the n. ↗waṭan ‘permanent dwelling, residence; home; place where the cattle lie down or are tied up, stable’ or from the vb. I ↗waṭana ‘to be accustomed to a place, stay there permanently, abide, dwell’. In any case, the meaning is autobenefactive, combining the causative notion of a Š-stem with the reflexive one of the T-stem. 
    – 
    ĭstīṭān, n., immigration; settling down; settling, settlement, colonization; "istitan", a special impost in Tunisia: vn. X.
    BP#3811mustawṭanaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., settlement, colony: PP f. / n.loc. X. See also s.v.
    waṭan وَطَن , pl. ʔawṭān 
    ID 926 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 373 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WṬN 
    n., C 
    homeland, home country, fatherland; home – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ In ClassAr, the word meant ‘permanent dwelling, residence; home; place where the cattle lie down or are tied up, stable’, and the pl. al-ʔawṭān was used in the sense of ‘places between which nomads alternate’ (Steingass1884).
    ▪ In ClassAr, waṭan »is often used in the sense of ‘homeland’ or ‘birthplace,’ and appears frequently with a connotation of sentiment and nostalgia. Longing for one’s waṭan is often associated with lamenting for one’s departed youth. It had no political connotation, and there is no suggestion that the waṭan could in any sense be the focus of allegiance or identity or the basis of some political structure. / The new meaning dates from the last years of the eighteenth century, and can be traced to foreign influence. The earliest examples of its use in a clearly political sense that have so far come to light occur in the report of the Turkish ambassador to Paris after the French Revolution. There he uses the word vatan in a number of contexts where it obviously represents the French patrie, with the normal political connotations which the word held at that time and in that place. / In the course of the nineteenth century, the word waṭan, with derivatives for ‘patriot’ and ‘patriotism,’ passed into common use as part of the new nationalist terminology, and a number of older terms, part of the political language of Islam, began to acquire new meanings. The ideological influences coming from Europe after the French Revolution suggested new concepts of political identity and authority, based, not on communal loyalty and dynastic allegiances, as in the past, but on country or nation.«152  
    ▪ … 
    waṭana (vb.) 
    waṭana (vb.) 
    ▪ The word was borrowed into many other "Islamic" languages.

    ▪ In Tu, vaṭan is first attested in 1377 (Erzurumlu Darir, Ḳıṣṣa-i Yūsuf tercümesi). From the 1860’s onwards, the Ottoman word took on also a political meaning in the sense of Fr patrie – Nişanyan (23.06.2013) 
    al-waṭan al-qiblī, n.prop.loc., Cape Bon (tun.).
    al-waṭan al-qawmī al-ʔisrāʔīlī, n., the Jewish National Home.
    ʔahl waṭani-hī, n.pl., his countrymen, his compatriots.
    ḥubb al-waṭan, n., patriotism.
    šāʔiʕ al-waṭan, adj./n., cosmopolitan.

    BP#143waṭanī, adj., C home, native; indigenous, domestic; patriotic; national; nationalistic: nsb-adj. from waṭan; (pl. ‑ūn) nationalist, patriot: nominalized nsb-adj. | maṣnūʕāt ~iyyaẗ, n.pl., domestic products, products of the country
    BP#3547waṭaniyyaẗ, n.f., C nationalism; national sentiment, patriotism: abstr. formation in ‑iyyaẗ from waṭan.
    BP#3606muwāṭanaẗ, n.f., citizenship: vn. III.
    BP#327muwāṭin, n., countryman, compatriot, fellow citizen: PA III. | ~ ʕālamī, n., world citizen.

    The following items are either (denominative) from waṭan or (deverbative) from vb. I waṭana :

    waṭṭana, vb. II, to choose for residence (a place), settle down, get settled, take up one’s residence (DO in a place) | ~ nafsa-hū ʕalà, vb., to get used to, adjust o.s. to, reconcile o.s. to, put up with; to prepare o.s. mentally for; to make up one’s mind to (do s.th.): D-stem, caus.
    tawaṭṭana, vb. V, to settle down (DO or bi‑ in a place): TD-stem.
    ĭstawṭana, vb. X, to choose for residence (a place); to settle (a country); to settle down, get settled, take up one’s residence (DO in); to live permanently (DO in a place); to take root, become naturalized, acclimated (DO in).
    BP#4087mawṭin, pl. mawāṭinᵘ, n., C residence, domicile; habitat; native place, home town, home; native country, home country, fatherland; place, locality, area, region, section, district, zone; point, spot; right place; right time: n.loc. | ~ al-ḍuʕf, n., soft or sore spot; weak spot, weakness; waḍaʕa yada-hū ʕalà ~ al-ʕillaẗ, expr., to lay one’s finger on an open sore, touch a sore spot; al-~ al-waḍīʕ, n., the lowest point, the low mark, the bottom.
    ĭstīṭān, n., immigration; settling down; settling, settlement, colonization; "istitan", a special impost in Tunisia: vn. X.
    mutawaṭṭin, adj., native, indigenous, domestic; resident; deep-rooted; endemic (med.): PA V.
    mustawṭin, adj., native, indigenous, domestic; resident; deep-rooted: PA X.
    BP#3811mustawṭanaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., C settlement, colony: n.loc. X | ~ zirāʕiyyaẗ, n., agricultural collective, kibbutz (in Israel): ↗ĭstīṭān.
     
    waṭanī وَطَنِيّ 
    ID 927 • Sw – • BP 143 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WṬN 
    ¹adj.; ²n. C 
    home, native; indigenous, domestic; patriotic; national; nationalistic; (pl. ‑ūn) nationalist, patriot – WehrCowan1979. 
    A nsb-adj. coined from ↗waṭan
    ▪ … 
    waṭana
    waṭana
    – 
    maṣnūʕāt waṭaniyyaẗ, n.pl., domestic products, products of the country  
    waṭaniyyaẗ وَطَنِيَّة 
    ID 928 • Sw – • NahḍConBP 3547 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WṬN 
    n.f., C 
    nationalism; national sentiment, patriotism – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ An abstr. formation in ‑iyyaẗ from ↗waṭan. »The word appeared at the end of the 19th century, in the context of the extension to the field of state politics of ↗waṭan (pl. awṭān) ‘homeland’, hitherto applied to place of birth or of residence. The noun-adjective ↗waṭanī refers to the same sectors of meaning (autochthonous, national, patriotic), while the noun ↗muwāṭin denotes a compatriot or fellow-citizen.«153  
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    18.. ▪ … 
    waṭana
    waṭana
    – 
    – 
    mawṭin مَوْطِن , pl. mawāṭinᵘ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 4087 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WṬN 
    n., C 
    residence, domicile; habitat; native place, home town, home; native country, home country, fatherland; place, locality, area, region, section, district, zone; point, spot; right place; right time – WehrCowan1979. 
    n.loc. of vb. I, ↗waṭana
    ▪ eC7 mawṭin (place where battles are fought, battlefield (also battles, by extension) Q 9:25 la-qad naṣara-kumu ’ḷḷāhu fī mawāṭina kaṯīratin ‘God has helped you [believers] in many battlefields’.
    ▪ The old value of ‘battlefield’ is almost lost in MSA. Wahrmund1887 still gives ‘Schlachtfeld wo Märtyrer fielen; Märtyrerthum’ (= Steingass1884: ‘battlefield where martyrs fell; martyrdom’), and also Hava1899 still has mentions ‘battlefield’. 
    waṭan, ↗waṭana
    waṭan, ↗waṭana
    – 
    mawṭin al-ḍuʕf, n., soft or sore spot; weak spot, weakness.
    waḍaʕa yada-hū ʕalà mawṭin al-ʕillaẗ, expr., to lay one’s finger on an open sore, touch a sore spot.
    al-mawṭin al-waḍīʕ, n., the lowest point, the low mark, the bottom.

     
    muwāṭin مُواطِن , pl. ‑ūn 
    ID 925 • Sw – • BP 327 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WṬN 
    n., C 
    countryman, compatriot, fellow citizen – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ A PA III, coined from ↗waṭan. As »the modern Arabic word for ‘citizen’, in the legal sense of the term (meaning ‘one holding the citizenship or nationality of a sovereign state’)«, the term »was coined around the turn of the 20th century from ↗waṭan — initially a place of residence and, by extension, a country or patrie154
    18.. … 
    See above, section CONC, above. 
    waṭana
    A PA III, coined from ↗waṭan
    – 
    muwāṭin ʕālamī, n., world citizen.

    Cf. also:
    BP#3606muwāṭanaẗ, n.f., citizenship: vn. III.
     
    mustawṭanaẗ مُسْتَوْطَنَة , pl. ‑āt 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 3811 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WṬN 
    n.f., C 
    settlement, colony – WehrCowan1979. 
    The word is derived from vb. X, ↗ĭstawṭana. It can be interpreted as a PP f. X (‘[spot, city, etc.] which was chosen/made to be a ↗waṭan, i.e., a place to settle and live’) or a singulative (n.un.) of a n.loc. X (‘place that was chosen as waṭan ’, hence: ‘colony’). Given the fact that ‘place to stay, settle, live’ is already expressed in the old n.loc. I, ↗mawṭin, it is clear that the term was coined to express s.th. more specific, a technical term needed to address particularly the phenomenon of Israeli settlements in the Occupied Territories. This assumption is corroborated by the fact that WehrCowan1976 does not yet mention the term (although there is ĭstīṭān); so it seems to have come up only after the mid-1970s. 
    ▪ … 
    waṭana, ↗waṭan
    waṭana, ↗waṭan
    – 
    mustawṭanaẗ zirāʕiyyaẗ, n.f., agricultural collective, kibbutz (in Israel) 
    WẒF وظف 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WẒF 
    “root” 
    ▪ WẒF_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ WẒF_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ …
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    – 
    – 
    muwaẓẓaf مُوَظَّف 
    ID 929 • Sw – • BP 915 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WẒF 
    ¹adj.; ²n. 
    1 fixed (salary); 2 employed, appointed; II n., pl. ‑ūn, 3 employee; 4 official, officer, civil servant; functionary – WehrCowan1979. 
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    muwaẓẓaf al-ḥukūmaẗ, n., government official
    muwaẓẓaf ʕumūmī, n., public functionary
    ʔakbar al-muwaẓẓafīn, n. pl., senior official

     
    mutawaẓẓif مُتَوَظِّف 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 9Jun2023
    √WẒF 
    adj. 
    ▪ …PA, V 
    WʕB وعب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 01Jan2022
    √WʕB 
    “root” 
    … – 
    ▪ … – 
    – 
    … 
    … 
    – 
    – 
    waʕab‑ , yaʕibu (waʕb
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 01Jan2022
    √WʕB 
    vb., I 
    to take the whole, all (of s.th.) – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    … 
    … 
    – 
    ʔawʕaba, vb. IV, 1 to take the whole, all (of s.th.); 2 to insert (s.th. in): *Š-stem
    BP#3638ĭstawʕaba, vb. X, 1 to uproot, root out, extirpate, exterminate; 2a = I; b to embrace, enclose, encircle (s.o., bayna ḏirāʕayhi, with the arms); c to contain, hold; d to be able to take in, have room (for); 3 to comprehend, understand, grasp, take in (s.th.) *Št-stem, desid.

    BP#2773ĭstīʕāb, n., 1 capacity; 2a study; b full comprehension, grasp: vn. X

     
    ʔīʕāb إيعاب 
    Sw – • NahḍConBP … • APD … • © SG | created 9Jun2023
    √WʕB 
    n. 
    ▪ vn., IV 
    WʕD وعد 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WʕD 
    “root” 
    ▪ WʕD_1 ‘to promise’ ↗waʕada
    ▪ WʕD_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘promise, pledge, to promise; threat, to threaten; to make an appointment; to come to an understanding’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    waʕad‑ وَعَدَ 
    ID 930 • Sw – • BP 2682 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WʕD 
    vb., I 
    1a to make a promise; b to give one’s word; c to promise (bi‑ or s.o. s.th.); 2 to threaten (bi‑ s.o. with) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ …
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    – 
    waʕada nafsa-hū bi‑ʔan, vb., to promise o.s. to…, intend firmly to…
    waʕada bi‑šarafi-h, vb., to pledge o.s. on one’s honor, give one’s word of honor

     
    WʕẒ وعظ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22May2023
    √WʕẒ 
    “root” 
    ▪ WʕẒ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WʕẒ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WʕẒ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to admonish, exhort, advise, teach, learn by example; an example, to learn from’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    WʕY وعي 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WʕY 
    “root” 
    ▪ WʕY_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ WʕY_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘vessel, container; awareness, comprehension; noise; to collect, to gather, to comprise; to comprehend, to be aware, to be alert; (of a wound) to secrete; to exhaust’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
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    – 
    – 
    wāʕīⁿ واعٍ , det. wāʕī 
    ID 931 • Sw – • BP 4792 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WʕY 
    n. 
    1 attentive, heedful, careful; 2 conscious, in one’s senses, wide awake – WehrCowan1979. 
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    ▪ …
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    – 
     
    WFD وفد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22May2023
    √WFD 
    “root” 
    ▪ WFD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WFD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WFD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘the fastest camel in a caravan; distinguished group of travellers, honoured group arriving at the residence of a high-ranking person, an envoy between high-ranking people; to arrive’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    WFR وفر 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22May2023
    √WFR 
    “root” 
    ▪ WFR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WFR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WFR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘abundance; to be plentiful, increase; to receive in full; to complete’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    WFḌ وفض 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22May2023
    √WFḌ 
    “root” 
    ▪ WFḌ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WFḌ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WFḌ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘leather base for a grinding stone, place where water gathers, leather bag; mixture of people, rabble; to hurry, speed up, chase; to go separate ways’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    WFQ وفق 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22May2023
    √WFQ 
    “root” 
    ▪ WFQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WFQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WFQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to match, agree with, be in harmony with; to come upon by chance, occur at the time of s.th.; to succeed, be right; to be well-guided, inspire’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    WFY وفي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22May2023
    √WFY 
    “root” 
    ▪ WFY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WFY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WFY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘death; goal; loyalty, fidelity, faithfulness; to show up; to carry out a promise; (of debts) to pay back in full, give full measure, complete; to come at an appointed time, be recalled; to increase’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    WQB وقب 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22May2023
    √WQB 
    “root” 
    ▪ WQB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WQB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WQB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘holes in the rock where rainwater collects; foolish person; heavy drinker; to sink in, subside; to disappear, darken’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    WQT وقت 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WQT 
    “root” 
    ▪ WQT_1 ‘period of time, time span; moment, instant’ ↗waqt
    ▪ WQT_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘time, period of time, timespan, to appoint a time or place, to specify an amount of time, an appointed time’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
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    – 
    waqt وَقْت 
    ID 932 • Sw – • BP 98 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WQT 
    n. 
    1a time; b period of time, time span; c moment, instant – WehrCowan1979. 
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    – 
    waqtan, adv., once, at one time, one day
    bi‑waqt-hī, adv., at once, right away, immediately
    fī waqti-h, adv., 1a on time; b at the right time, in good time, timely
    fī ġayr waqti-h, adv., at the wrong time, untimely
    fī ’l-waqt nasfi-h or fī nafs al-waqt, adv., at the same time, simultaneously
    fī ʔawwal waqt, adv., one of these days, at the first opportunity
    lil-waqt or li‑waqti-h, adv., at once, right away, immediately
    li‑hādā al-waqt, adv., at this time
    maʕa ’l-waqt, adv., in (due) time, in the course of time, by and by, gradually
    min waqt li‑ʔāḫar, adv., from time to time
    ʔawqātan ʔawqātan, adv., do.
    fī baʕḍ al-ʔawqāt, adv., at times, sometimes
    fī kaṯīr min al-ʔawqāt, adv., often, frequently
    waqt al-farāġ, n., leisure, sparetime, free time
    al-waqt al-madanī, n., civil time
    waqt ʔurubbā al-wusṭà, n., Central European time
    ʔišāraẗ al-waqt, n.f., time signal (radio)

     
    WQD وقد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22May2023
    √WQD 
    “root” 
    ▪ WQD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WQD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WQD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘firewood, fuel, extreme heat of day, burn, heat up, kindle; to shine, glimmer; to be agile, be alert, be quick’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    WQḎ وقذ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22May2023
    √WQḎ 
    “root” 
    ▪ WQḎ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WQḎ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WQḎ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘an animal killed by striking with a stick, to strike violently, kill by striking; to be slow and dull; to be very ill; to be saddened’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    WQR وقر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WQR 
    “root” 
    ▪ WQR_1 ‘to break, fracture, crack (esp. a bone)’ ↗waqara
    ▪ WQR_2 ‘cavity, hollow’ ↗waqr
    ▪ WQR_3 ‘heavy load, burden’ ↗wiqr, ‘grave, sedate, dignified’ ↗waqūr
    ▪ WQR_4 ‘…’ ↗

    ♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a load; solemnity, respect, dignity; to be heavily pregnant; to show respect; to be hard of hearing; to exact, to take; to settle down, to be inactive, to stay at home’ 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928 identified 2 meanings of the root in Sem: 1) ‘valuable, precious, dear’ and 2) ‘heavy’. These form complex WQR_3 [v3]. But are also [v1] and [v2] related to [v3], or among each other? 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (waqur ‘grave, sedate, dignified’) Akk waqru, Hbr yāqār ‘rare, expensive, precious, valuable, dear’; Aram ʔīqar nēqar ‘be heavy’; SAr wqr ‘honour’. The Sem root has two meanings: ‘1. valuable, precious, dear; 2. heavy’
    ▪ … 
    See above, section CONC. 
    … 
    … 
    waqar‑ وَقَرَ , i (yaqiru) (waqr)
     
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WQR 
    vb., I 
    1 to break, fracture, crack (esp. a bone); – 2wiqr, ↗waqūr – WehrCowan1976.
     
    ▪ Related to other items of ↗√WQR, such as ‘cavity, hollow’ (↗waqr) and ‘heavy load, burden’ (↗wiqr), ‘grave, sedate, dignified’ (↗waqūr)? 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    ▪ See above, section CONC. 
    … 
    ▪ For other items of the root, see ↗waqr, ↗wiqr, ↗waqūr, and, for the whole picture, ↗√WQR. 
    waqr وَقْر , pl. wuqūr 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WQR 
    n. 
    cavity, hollow – WehrCowan1976.
     
    ▪ Related to other items of ↗√WQR, such as ‘to break, fracture, crack (esp. a bone)’ (↗waqara), ‘heavy load, burden’ (↗wiqr), and ‘grave, sedate, dignified’ (↗waqūr)? 
    ▪ … 
    … 
    See above, section CONC. 
    … 
    waqraẗ, n.f., cavity, hollow.

    ▪ For other items of the root, see ↗waqara, ↗wiqr, ↗waqūr, and, for the whole picture, ↗√WQR. 
    wiqr وِقْر , pl. ʔawqār 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WQR 
    n. 
    heavy load, burden – WehrCowan1976.
     
    ▪ The item seems to be the non-figurative twin of the value ‘grave, sedate, dignified’ and derivatives, cf. ↗waqūr).
    ▪ Related to other items of ↗√WQR, such as ‘to break, fracture, crack (esp. a bone)’ (↗waqara) and ‘cavity, hollow’ (↗waqr)? 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (waqur ‘grave, sedate, dignified’) Akk waqru, Hbr yāqār ‘rare, expensive, precious, valuable, dear’; Aram ʔīqar nēqar ‘be heavy’; SAr wqr ‘honour’. The Sem root has two meanings: ‘1. valuable, precious, dear; 2. heavy’
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
     
    … 
    ʔawqara, vb. IV, 1 to load, burden, overload (a beast of burden); 2 to oppress, weigh heavily (upon s.o.); 3 to be overloaden with fruit (tree): *Š‑stem, caus.

    ▪ For figurative use of ‘heavy’ in the sense of ‘grave, dignified, sedate; venerable’, see ↗waqūr. – For other (related?) items of the root, cf. ↗waqara and ↗waqr, as well as, for the whole picture, ↗√WQR. 
    waqūr وَقور 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WQR 
    adj. 
    1a grave, sedate; 1b dignified; 1c venerable, reverend – WehrCowan1976.
     
    ▪ Etymologically, ‘grave, sedate, dignified’ and derived meanings seem to be figurative use of ‘heavy load, burden’ (↗wiqr) or the result of a semantic shift from Sem *‘precious, valuable’.
    ▪ Related to other items of ↗√WQR, such as ‘to break, fracture, crack (esp. a bone)’ (↗waqara) and ‘cavity, hollow’ (↗waqr)?
    ▪ … 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (waqur ‘grave, sedate, dignified’) Akk waqru, Hbr yāqār ‘rare, expensive, precious, valuable, dear’; Aram ʔīqar nēqar ‘be heavy’; SAr wqr ‘honour’. The Sem root has two meanings: ‘1. valuable, precious, dear; 2. heavy’
    ▪ …
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
     
    … 
    waqara, i (yaqiru) (waqr), vb. I, 1waqara; – 2a to be settled, certain, an established fact; 2bto stay, remain: denom. from obs. waqur ‘grave, heavy’ ? | waqara fī nafsih\ḫaladih, expr., to him it was an established fact (ʔanna that…); waqarat il‑ṣūraẗ fī nafsih, expr., the picture stood vividly before his mental eye.
    waqura, u (yawquru) (waqār, waqāraẗ), vb. I, to be dignified, sedate, staid, grave: denom. from obs. waqur ‘grave, heavy’ ?
    waqqara, vb. II, 1 to respect, honor, revere, reverence; 2 to render grave or sedate: D‑stem, caus.
    ʔawqara, vb. IV, 1 to load, burden, overload (a beast of burden); 2 to oppress, weigh heavily (upon s.o.); 3 to be overloaden with fruit (tree): *Š‑stem, caus.

    waqār, n., 1a gravity, sobriety, dignity, deportment commanding respect; 1b sedateness, dignified bearing
    tawaqqur, n., dignified bearing: vn. V.
    muwaqqar, adj., 1a respected, held in respect; 1b venerable, reverend: PP II.

    ▪ For the item’s non-figurative twin, see ↗wiqr ‘heavy load, burden’. – For other (related?) items of the root, cf. ↗waqara and ↗waqr, as well as, for the whole picture, ↗√WQR. 
    WQʕ وقع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22May2023
    √WQʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ WQʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WQʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WQʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘calamity, war, battle; to fall, befall, occur; to alight upon, guess, expect, gossip, come face-to-face with; (of rain) to fall sporadically’ 
    ▪ From Ar root √WQʕ ‘to fall’ – Huehnergard2011.
    ▪ …
     
    – 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Vega, from Ar (an-nasr al-) ↗wāqiʕ ‘(the) falling (eagle)’, from ↗wāqiʕ ‘falling’, PA of ↗waqaʕa ‘to fall’. 
    – 
    WQF وقف 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WQF 
    “root” 
    ▪ WQF_1 ‘to stand, stand still; to stand up, rise’ ↗waqafa
    ▪ WQF_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to stand, to erect; to stop; to acquaint o.s. with s.th., to inform, to let know; to become silent, to pause, to be reticent; to fall into dispute; to elucidate, to make clear; bracelet, anklet’ 
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    waqaf‑ وَقَفَ 
    ID 933 • Sw 69/151 • BP 487 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WQF 
    vb., I 
    1a to come to a standstill, come to a stop; b to stand still; c to place o.s., post o.s., station o.s., take one’s stand, step (fawqa on s.th.), stand (fawqa on, dūn in the way of s.th.); d to stop (ʕindᵃ or ʕalà at; ʔilà at, short of); e to reach, extend to, go as far as; f to halt; g to pause; 2 to hesitate, waver, have doubts or scruples ( in s.th.); 3 to use the pausal form, pronounce a word without ʔirʕāb ending (gram.); 4a to rise, get up, stand up, get on one’s feet; b to plant o.s., station o.s., stand erect, hold o.s. erect; c to stand; d to stand on end (hair); e to withstand, resist, oppose; f to take up position (ʕalà at); g to stand (maʕa by s.o.), stick (maʕa to s.o.), side (maʕa with s.o.), support, back (maʕa s.o.); 5 with foll. participle: to continue to do s.th., keep doing s.th.; — (wuqūf) 6a to occupy o.s. (ʕalà with), attend (ʕalà to), go in for (ʕalà)6; b to apply o.s., devote o.s. (ʕalà to); c to take an interest, be interested (ʕalà in); d to inquire, seek information, inform o.s. (ʕalà about); e to learn, be informed (ʕalà of); f to understand, comprehend, grasp, learn (ʕalà s.th.); g to come to know (ʕalà s.th.), become acquainted (ʔalà with); h to know (ʕalà s.th.); 7 to read (ʕalà s.th.); — (waqf) 8a to bring to a standstill, to a stop, arrest, halt, stop (s.o., s.th.), put an end (to s.th.); b to hinder, prevent, hold back (s.o., s.th., or bi‑ s.o., s.th., dūn or ʕan from); 9 to make dependent, conditional (ʕalà s.th. on), pass. wuqifa to depend, be conditional (ʕalà on); 10a to apprise, inform, notify (ʕalà s.o. of), acquaint (ʕalà s.o. with), let s.o. know (ʕalà about); b to tell, advise, instruct (ʕalà s.o. about), call s.o.’s attention (ʕalà to); 11a to donate, grant, create, institute (ʕalà s.th. for a pious or charitable purpose), bequeath as a religious endowment or wakf (ʕalà s.th. to); b to make over, bequeath, transfer (ʕalà s.th. to); c to dedicate, consecrate, devote (s.th. ʕalà, to a purpose); d to assign, appoint (s.th., li‑ to, to a purpose), designate, set apart (s.th., li‑ for s.th., for a purpose); d to apply, devote (nafsa-hū o.s., li‑ to s.th., to a task) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
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    ▪ …
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    ▪ …
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    – 
    qif!, vb., 1a halt! (command); b stop! (e.g., on a traffic sign)
    waqafa ʔamāma-hū, vb., to resist, oppose, stop s.th., put an end to s.th.
    waqafa ʔilà ǧānibi‑hī, vb., to be on s.o.’s side
    waqafa ʔilà yasāri-hī, vb., to stand at his left
    waqafa saddan dūn, vb., to rise as an obstacle in the way to s.th., stand in the way to s.th.
    lā yaqifu dūni-hī šayʔun, vb., nothing will stand in his (or its) way, nothing can stop him (or it)
    waqafa ḥāʔiran, vb., to be in a quandary, at a loss what to do
    waqafa ʕalà ’l-ḥiyādi, vb., to remain neutral, observe strict neutrality
    waqafa ʕalà sāqi al-ǧiddi li‑, vb., to throw o.s. into s.th., identify o.s. with s.th., go to great lengths, make every effort in order to…
    waqafa ʕalà safīri al-halāk, vb., to be on the brink of ruin, be about to perish
    waqafa ʕindᵃ …ḥaddi, vb., to stop at or short of…, go as far as…
    waqafa fī waǧh fulān, vb., to offer s.o. resistance, stand up against s.o.
    waqafa mawqifan min, vb., to assume an attitude, take a stand toward or with regard to
    waqafa mawqifan milʔu-hū ’l-ḥazm, vb., to assume an attitude of utmost determination
    waqafa waqfan, vb., to assume a posture
    waqafa waqfaẗan, vb., 1 to stand still; 2 to assume an attitude
    waqafa-hū ʕan al-ʕamal, vb., to suspend s.o. from duty

     
    waqf وَقْف 
    ID 934 • Sw – • BP 889 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WQF 
    n. 
    1a stopping, stop; b halting, halt; c discontinuation, suspension, stay, stand still; d pausing, resting; 2 stagnation, dullness, listlessness (of the market); 3 pause (gram.); 4a cheeking, restraining, prevention; b interruption, hitch, impediment, obstacle, obstruction; c suspension from duty, removal from office, discharge, dismissal; d blocking (of an account), stoppage (of salaries); — (pl. ʔawqāf) 5a religious endowment, wakf, habous (lsl. Law); b endowment (in general), endowment fund; c unalienable property – WehrCowan1979. 
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    kana waqfan ʕalà, vb., to be completely dependent on
    waqfan ʕalà, adj., restricted to
    waqf ʔahlī or waqf ḥāṣṣ or (IrqAr) waqf ḏurrī, n., family endowment, private wakf, estate in mortmain entailed in such a manner that its proceeds will accrue to the members of the donor’s family, and, after the death of its last descendant, go to a charitable purpose
    waqf ḫayrī, waqf ʕāmm (TunAr), n., public endowment, endowment set apart for a charitable or religious purpose, public wakf
    nāẓir al-waqf, n., administrator of an endowment, trustee, curator
    al-ʔawqāf, n. pl., the wakf system, estates in mortmain
    wizāraẗ al-ʔawqāf, n.f., the ministry entrusted with government supervision of estates in mortmain, wakf ministry
    waqf ʔiṭlāq al-nār, n., cease-fire (mil.)
    waqf al-tanfīḏ, n., stay of execution (jur.)
    ʔakala ḫubz al-waqf, vb., to have independent means of subsistence, have a sinecure

     
    WQY وقي 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WQY 
    “root” 
    ▪ WQY_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ WQY_2 ‘fear, caution, prudence; dissimulation’ ↗taqiyyaẗ

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to guard, to safeguard; to prevent, to obviate; to avoid, to beware; protection, fear, caution’ 
    ▪ … 
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    – 
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    taqiyyaẗ تَقِيَّة 
    ID 935 • Sw – • BP??? • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WQY 
    n.f. 
    1 fear, caution, prudence; 2 (in Shiitic Islam) dissimulation of one’s religion (under duress or in the face of threatening damage) – WehrCowan1979. 
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    WKʔ وكء 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22May2023
    √WKʔ 
    “root” 
    ▪ WKʔ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WKʔ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WKʔ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘walking stick; food and nourishment; to lean, recline; to tie up, tighten up’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    WKD وكد 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22May2023
    √WKD 
    “root” 
    ▪ WKD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WKD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WKD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘saddle straps, leather belt; intention; to tighten up; to be on target, give support’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    WKZ وكز 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22May2023
    √WKZ 
    “root” 
    ▪ WKZ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WKZ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WKZ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to strike or poke with the fist, slap, thrust, spur; to break; (of a snake) to bite’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    WKL وكل 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WKL 
    “root” 
    ▪ WKL_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ WKL_2 ‘trust, confidence’ ↗tawakkul

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to depend on, to trust, to entrust, to take charge of; to be too lazy to do things for oneself; weakness; representative, proxy, guardian’ 
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    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Tiglathpileser, from Hbr tiglat pilʔeser, from Akk tukultī-apil-ešarra ‘my trusted one (is) the heir of Esharra’, from tukultī ‘my trusted one’, from tukultu ‘trust, object of trust’, from takālu ‘to trust’, alteration of earlier wakālum, cognate with Ar ↗wakala
    – 
    tawakkul تَوَكُّل 
    ID 936 • Sw – • BP??? • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WKL 
    n. 
    1a trust, confidence; b trust in God; 2 passivity of living (of the early ascetics and mystics) – WehrCowan1979. 
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    WLǦ ولج 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22May2023
    √WLǦ 
    “root” 
    ▪ WLǦ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WLǦ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WLǦ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘land depression, valley, cave; door, entrance, doorway; to enter, cause to enter; confidants, close friends, associates’ 
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    WLD ولد 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WLD 
    “root” 
    ▪ WLD_1 ‘to bear (a child), give birth; to beget, bring forth’ ↗walada, ‘descendent, child, son, boy’ ↗walad
    ▪ WLD_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘newly born baby, boy, child, offspring; mother, father, parents; to give birth, to assist in bringing forth a baby, midwife; to multiply in number; place or time of birth; playmates’ 
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    walad وَلَد 
    ID 937 • Sw – • BP 362 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WLD 
    n. 
    1a descendant, offspring, scion; b child; c son; d boy; e young animal, young one; f (coll.) progeny, offspring, children – WehrCowan1979. 
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    walad al-zināʔ, n., illegitimate child, bastard
    walad al-mulāʕanaẗ, n., child whose paternity is contested by liʕān (q.v.) (Isl. Law)

     
    walad‑ وَلَدَ 
    ID 938 • Sw – • BP 1612 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WLD 
    vb., I 
    1 to bear (a child), give birth (to); 2a to beget, generate, procreate; b to bring forth, produce (s.th.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *wld ‘to give birth’.
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    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘to give birth’) Akk ūlid, Hbr yālaḏ tēleḏ, Syr ʔīleḏ nēlaḏ, Gz waláda (ipfv yélad).
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    waladat min-hu, vb., to have a child by s.o. (woman)

     
    WLY ولي 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WLY 
    “root” 
    ▪ WLY_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ WLY_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘adjacency; to follow; to turn to/from; to befriend, to back up; to take control; helper, backer, guardian, benefactor; next of kin: patron, servant/master: companion, partner. As adjacency is the central meaning of this root some derivatives denote opposite meanings, e.g. master/servant’ 
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    ▪ Engl maulana, mullahmawlàⁿ; vilayetwilāyaẗ
    – 
    waliyy وَلِيّ 
    ID 941 • Sw – • BP 1394 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WLY 
    n. 
    1a near, nearby; b neighboring, adjacent; c close; — II n., pl. ʔawliyāʔᵘ, 2a helper, supporter, benefactor, sponsor; b friend, close associate; c relative; d patron, protector; e legal guardian, curator, tutor; 3a a man close to God, holy man, saint (in the popular religion of Islam); b master; c proprietor, possessor, owner – WehrCowan1979. 
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    waliyy allāh, n., the friend of God
    waliyy al-ʔamr, n., 1 the responsible manager, the man in charge; 2 ruler; 3 tutor, legal guardian
    waliyy al-dam, n., avenger of blood, executor of a blood feud
    waliyy al-saǧǧādaẗ, n., title of the leader of a Sufi order in his capacity of inheritor of the founder’s prayer rug
    waliyy al-ʕahd, n., successor to the throne, heir apparent, crown prince
    waliyy al-niʕmaẗ, n., benefactor

     
    wilāyaẗ وِلايَة 
    ID 940 • Sw – • BP 276 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WLY 
    n.f. 
    1a sovereign power, sovereignty; b rule, government; — (pl. ‑āt) 2 administrative district headed by a vali, vilayet (formerly, under the Ottoman Empire), province; 3 state – WehrCowan1979. 
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    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl vilayet, from Ar wilāyaẗ ‘province’, from ↗waliya ‘to be(come) near, adjacent, be in charge, manage, govern’.↗ 
    al-wilāyāt al-muttaḥidaẗ, n. pl., the United States
    wilāyaẗ al-ʕahd, n.f., succession to the throne

     
    mawlàⁿ مَوْلىً , det. mawlà 
    ID 939 • Sw – • BP 2225 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WLY 
    n. 
    n., 1 master, lord; 2 protector, patron; 3 client; 4 charge; 5 friend, companion, associate; 6 al-~, the Lord, God; 7 mawlāya and mawlānā, form of address to a sovereign – WehrCowan1979. 
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    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl maulana, mullah, from Ar mawlā ‘master, patron, friend’, from ↗waliya ‘to be(come) near, adjacent, be in charge, manage, govern’. 
     
    WNY وني 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22May2023
    √WNY 
    “root” 
    ▪ WNY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WNY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WNY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘place of rest, relaxation; slackness, weakness; to delay; shortcoming, delaying; docks’ 
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    WHB وهب 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WHB 
    “root” 
    ▪ WHB_1 ‘to give, donate’ ↗wahaba
    ▪ WHB_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘gift, donation, to give freely, to bestow; to last; to possess; small stream’ 
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    wahab‑ وَهَبَ , yahabu (wahb
    ID … • Sw – • BP 4449 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WHB 
    vb., I 
    to give, donate; to grant, accord; to present; to endow – WehrCowan1979. 
    From Sem *w˅h˅b‑ ‘to give’. 
    ▪ eC7 Out of the 4 values the root WHB shows in ClassAr according to Badawi2008 – ‘1. gift, donation, to give freely, to bestow; 2. to last; 3. to possess; 4. small stream’ – the Koran has only the first, cf. ‘to grant, to give freely, to bestow’, as in Q 19:19 li-ʔahiba la-ki ġulāman zakiyyan ‘to grant you a pure boy’, and ‘one who is given to bestowing favours’, as in Q 3:8 al-wahhāb ‘the Ever-Giving’ (an attribute of God). No other values given in Polosin1995 either. 
    DRS 6 (1996)#WHB: Hbr *yahab : hab, hābā (impér.) ‘donne!’, yəhab ‘fardeau, charge’, JP yəhab ‘donner, mettre, placer’, yəhᵃbat, yəhābīt ‘don, part’, yəhābā ‘charge’, Syr ya(h)b, yihab, Mand ɛhab, nAram app, appi, nSyr yāwil ‘donner’, Nab Palm yhb ‘déposer, placer’, mwhbh ‘don, donation’, Ar wahaba ‘donner’, hibaẗ, mawhab, mawhabaẗ, mawhibaẗ ‘don’, wāhib ‘donateur’, wahhāb ‘donateur; généreux, libéral’, ʔawhaba (li‑) ‘demeurer, rester (à qn)’, Ṣaf hb, Tham hbn (impér.) ‘donne!’, whb, hb ‘don’, Daṯ habā ‘donner’, HispAr hiba ‘dot’, SAr whb ‘donner concéder’, ythb ‘recevoir’, hbt, mwhbt ‘don’, Soq habu, hibo ‘donne!, donnez!’, weheb ‘généreux’, Gz wahaba, habt, habhab ‘don’, Te haba, Tña habä, Arg hawa, Gaf Gur wabä, Tña wähabi, Amh wabi ‘qui donne, généreux’, Gaf yəb ‘généreux’, Amh habt ‘bonne chance, fortune’, habtam ‘fortuné, riche’; ? wub ‘beau, gracieux’, täwabä ‘être beau, gracieux’. — Outside Sem: En Cush, de nombreuses langues présentent, avec le sens de ‘donner’, des formes qui ont été rapprochées de celles du sémitique: Bed hi(w), Ag Bil uw, Demb Qw yuw, Sa ʕAf uw. — Faut-il rapprocher aussi l’Eg qui atteste h3b dont le sens est ‘envoyer’?
    ▪ In addition to the Sem forms (as in DRS), TB2007 mentions, as cognate outside Sem, (WChad) Sura hwɔ́p ‘to borrow’, and perhaps also OEg h3b ‘to send’ (but this is doubtful since the function of ‑3‑ is not clear; rather < *hrb), and (Berb) Ahg hub-ǝt, Ayr hub-ǝt ‘to drag, pull along’. 
    DRS 6 (1996)#WHB: En Ug, on relève la forme mhbn comme épithète du dieu Rašap. — Many consider the root √WHB to have developed from √ʔHB (cf. Ar ʔuhbaẗ ‘équipement) [references given]. — Certain formes in modSAr (weheb ‘generous’), as well as Tna wähabi seem to be borrowed from Ar.
    ▪ TB2007 reconstructs Sem *w˅h˅b‑ ‘to give’, from AfrAs *h˅wab‑ ‘to give, send’, with initial *h˅w, not (as in Sem) *w˅h‑, evidently for now other reason than the possibility of a WChad parallel that is reconstructed as WChad *hwab‑ ‘to borrow’. Given that the latter is based on evidence in only 1 language (and OEg h3b ‘to send’ and Berb *hub‑ ‘to drag, pull along’ are not necessarily related), the AfrAs reconstruction seems rather weak. 
    – 
    wahabat ‑hu min ḏāti nafsihā, vb.f., she gave herself unreservedly to him.
    hab, vb.imp., suppose that…, assuming that…
    hab-nī faʕaltu, vb.imp., suppose I had done it.

    ʔawhaba, vb. IV, to give, present: ints. of vb. I, or denom. from hibaẗ ?
    ĭstawhaba, vb. X, to request as a gift: requestative (denom. from hibaẗ ?)
    BP#4067hibaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., gift, present, donation, grant. | ʕaqd al-hibaẗ, n., deed of gift.
    wahbaẗ, n.f., tip, gratuity: n.un. of vn. I.
    wahhābī, n., Wahabite; adj., Wahabi: nsb-adj from ʕAbd al-Wahhāb, PN of the founder of the W. sect.
    al-wahhābiyyaẗ, n.abstr., Wahabiism: abstr. in aẗ from ʕAbd al-Wahhāb, PN of the founder of the W. sect.
    BP#3022mawhibaẗ, var. mawhabaẗ, pl. mawāhibᵘ, gift; talent:.
    ʔīhāb, donation, grant(ing): vn. IV.
    wāhib, n., giver, donor: PA I.
    mawhūb, adj., given, granted; gifted; talented: PP I. | mawhūb lahū, n., recipient of a gilt or grant, donee. 

    WHǦ وهج 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22May2023
    √WHǦ 
    “root” 
    ▪ WHǦ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WHǦ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WHǦ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘intense midday heat; to burn brightly, blaze; to glitter, glimmer, twinkle, sparkle; (of scent) to waft about’ 
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    WHN وهن 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 22May2023
    √WHN 
    “root” 
    ▪ WHN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WHN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WHN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be weak, be feeble, be infirm, be languid, be lethargic; the last hours of the night’ 
    ▪ … 
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    WHY وهي 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023
    √WHY 
    “root” 
    ▪ WHY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WHY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WHY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘crack, weakness, to slacken, to collapse, to fall down, to become frayed; to act foolishly’ 
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    WYL ويل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 21May2023
    √WYL 
    “root” 
    ▪ WYL_1 ‘(interj.)’ ↗wayl
    ▪ WYL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ WYL_3 ‘...’ ↗... 
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    – 
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    wayl ويل 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 21May2023
    √WYL 
    n./interj. 
    affliction, distress, woe; (with li- or wayla- with pers.prn. suffix: woe! waylun la-ka or wayla-ka woe unto you! – WehrCowan1976 
    ▪ (BAH2008): interjection used either nominally, with or without a definite article, or adverbially 
    – 
    waylaẗ, pl. -āt, n.f., calamity, disaster, distress, affliction, woe, misfortune, adversity 
    WYN وين 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √WYN 
    “root” 
    wayn 
    wayn 
    wayn 
    wayn 
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    – 
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    wayn وَيْن , n.un. ‑aẗ 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © FG | 15Feb2021
    √WYN 
    n.coll. (n.un. ‑aẗ
    red/white grapes,21 black grapes.22  
    ▪ The term that the Arab grammarians gloss as either ‘black grapes’ (ʕinab ʔaswad) or ‘white grapes’ (ʕinab ʔabyaḍ) and which they derive from the root WYN (cf. LA, #WYN), goes back to the early stages of Ar (often referred to as pre-ClassAr), as it is attested at least as early as C8.155 Scholars have proposed two main interpretations so far regarding its origin: “the word may ultimately be Sem in origin (cf. Ar wayn, Hbr yáyin), but more likely it is an indigenous word taken into both IE and Sem languages from a third source”.156 For Sem, DRS, Kogan2011 and others reconstruct protSem *wayn‑ ‘vine, wine; grapes’.
    … 
    While the word is glossed as either ‘black grapes’ (ʕinab ʔaswad) or ‘white grapes’ (ʕinab ʔabyaḍ) in early dictionaries, the more modern ones (C19) give only ‘black grapes’. 
    DRS 6 (1996)#WYN-1:294 Hbr(Ostraca) īn‑, Ug yn, BiblHbr yáyin ‘wine’, Sab wyn, yyn ‘vineyard’, Gz wayn ‘wine, vine, raisin’, Tña wäyni ‘vine’, Amh wäyn ‘raisin’.295 . — Outside Sem: (Hit wijana 296 ), Grk ϝoînos (Myk wono), Lat vinum, Arm gini, Alb venë, Got wein, Ir fin, Bret gwyn
    The semantic similarity of wayn ‘grapes’ with the IE term for ‘wine’ (e.g. Lat vīnum) is intuitively clear (just as its formal similarity is), but no account is found in the literature concerning the semantic contrast that opposes Ar wayn ‘grapes’ to its IE and Sem counterparts that denote ‘wine’ (produce vs. processed food). 
    ▪ Engl wine, oEngl win ‘wine’, from pGerm *winam (cognates: oSax, oFris, oHGe win, oNor vin, Dutch wijn, Ge Wein), an early borrowing from Lat vinum ‘wine’, from pIE *woin-o‑, related to words for ‘wine’ in Grk (oînos), Arm, Hit, and non-IE Georgian and Sem (Ar wayn, Hbr yayin), probably from a lost Mediterranean language word *win-/*woin‑ ‘wine’. Also from Lat vinum are oChSlav vino, Pol wino, Rus vino, Lith vynas, Welsh gwin, oIr fin, Gaelic fion. Essentially the same word as vineEtymOnline.
    Engl vine ‘plant which bears the grapes from which wine is made’, c.1300, from oFr vigne ‘vine, vinyard’ (C12), from Lat vinea ‘vine, vineyard’, from vinum ‘wine’, from pIE *win-o‑ ‘wine’, an Italic noun related to words for ‘wine’ in Grk, Arm, Hit, and non-IE Georgian and Sem (Hbr yayin, Eth wayn); probably ultimately from a lost Mediterranean language word *w(o)in‑ ‘wine’. From late C14 in reference to any plant with a long slender stem that trails or winds around. The Eur grape vine was imported to California via Mexico by priests in 1564 – EtymOnline
    – 
    yāʔ ياء 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ 
    R₁ 
    ▪ Y_1 : The letter y of the Arabic alphabet.
    ▪ Y_2 : verbal prefix y˅-
    ▪ Y_3 : nominal prefix ya- 
    ▪ Y_1 : … .
    ▪ Y_2 : … .
    ▪ Y_3 : (DRS 10 (2012) #Y-2:) »Préformante nominale et élément d’accroissement radical. À quelque stade qu’on le prenne, y- comme préformante nominale, n’a qu’une existence vestigielle. Les formes lexicales dans lesquelles il apparaît, apparemment très anciennes dans toutes les langues sémitiques, sont au nombre de quelques dizaines, essentiellement des noms d’animaux ou de plantes. À quelques exceptions près, cette préformante caractérise un vocabulaire archaïque, peu usité, figé. Certaines langues, pourtant étroitement liées avec celles où une telle construction est la plus fréquemment représentée, ne la connaissent pratiquement pas. […] Les formes de ce type constituent trois groupes différenciés par la voyelle du thème, longue le plus souvent, brève parfois. A ya-R₁R₂āR₃, ya-R₁R₂ūR₃, ya-R₁R₂īR₃: cf. […] Ar ↗yaḥmūr ‘rouge; espèce d’antilope; onagre; montagne qui de loin paraît noire’ (treated s.r. ↗ḤMR), ↗yarbūʕ ‘gerboise’ (↗√RBʕ), ↗yaʕbūb ‘courrier, cheval rapide’ (↗√ʕBː~ʕBB), ↗yaʕqūb ‘perdrix mâle’ (↗√ʕQB), ↗yaʕmūr ‘chevreau, petit agneau’ (↗√ʕMR), ↗yaqṭīn ‘perdrix mâle’ (↗√QṬN), ↗yanbūʕ ‘source d’eau, fontanelle’ (↗√NBʕ). – B ya-R₁R₂aR₃ […]. – C ya-R₁R₂uR₃ […]. – La préformante serait, de l’avis de certains sémitisants, la marque de la 3sg de la conjugaison préfixale et les lexèmes constitueraient des transpositions catégorielles de formes verbales. Ainsi yalmaʕ ‘éclair’ signifierait littéralement ‘il brille’. – La transposition n’est pas aussi claire pour toutes les formes, dans cette perspective. Elle avait dû cesser de l’être à haute époque, puisque la plus grande partie d’entre celles qui nous sont parvenues témoignent de traits phoniques (longueur et timbres des voyelles) qui les différencient des formes verbales correspondantes, du moins de celles qui nous sont connues. Un exemple comme celui de yaʕmal ‘excellent chameau’, yaʕmalaẗ ‘excellente chamelle’ (<yaʕmal ‘il travaille’) où la forme verbale aurait reçu, au féminin, un suffixe nominal, illustrerait bien le statut morphologique du vocable. Comme parallèle à cette construction, on en évoque souvent une autre très répandue dans les langues du Nord, mais qui n’est pas absente de celles du Sud. C’est celle des noms propres théophores, composés par une forme verbale, à la 3sg de la conjugaison à préfixes, et un nom de divinité. C’est en effet l’une des constructions que l’on relève. Mais de manière générale, un grand nombre de noms propres sémitiques sont complexes et leurs éléments formatifs (dont l’un est un nom divin), sont soit en construction nominale comme l’Ar ʕAbd al-Raḥīm ‘Serviteur du Miséricordieux’ […], soit en construction phrastique, formant des phrases complètes nominales ou verbales. Parmi ces dernières, on relève des termes prédicatifs de formes diverses, nom, adjectif, verbe à la conjugaison suffixale, à la conjugaison à préfixes, etc. L’ordre des termes est, selon le cas, sujet – prédicat [SV] ou prédicat – sujet [VS]. C’est dans ce dernier cas, lorsque le prédicat verbal est à la conjugaison préfixale que le nom commence par le préfixe y- 3sg : Ass Iddin Bēl, Ibni Marduk, Hbr yišmaʕyah, yiftaḥʔēl, […] SAr ydʕʔb, ydʕʔl […]. Mais une autre hypothèse, qui mérite d’être prise en considération, a été proposée par Charles Pellat, Arabica IV (1957): 186, il s’agirait de restes très archaïques, antérieurs à la formation du verbe où yazīd signifierait ‘celui qui augmente’.« 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
     
    YʔS يأس 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023
    √YʔS 
    “root” 
    ▪ YʔS_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ YʔS_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ YʔS_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to despair, to give up all hope, desperation; to reach the age of infertility; to come to know’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    yāqūt ياقُوت , pl. yawāqītᵘ 
    ID 942 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √YĀQŪT, YQT 
    n. 
    a precious stone, (syr.) ruby (min.) – WehrCowan1979. 
    The word is one of only 17 words in the Q which, ultimately, are of Grk origin. Cf. EALL (Gutas, “Greek Loanwords”): a loan from Syr yaqūnṭā that goes back to Grk ὑάκινθος hyákinthos ‘hyazinth’. 
    ▪ eC7 Q 55:58 ‘ruby’ 
    DRS 10 (2012)#YQNT: Aram yaqīnton, Syr yaqundā, Gz yākənt, Amh yakənt ‘hyacinthe (pierre précieuse)’ 
    ▪ Jeffery1938, 289: »It was very generally recognized as a loan-word from Pers.817 Some Western scholars such as Freytag818 have accepted this at face value, but the matter is not so simple, for the ModPers yāqūt is from the Ar (Vullers, Lex, ii, 1507), and the alternative form yākand, like the Arm yakownd, is from the Syr yaqūndā.819 – The ultimate source of the word is the Grk hyákinthos, used as a flower name as early as the Iliad,820 and which passed into the Sem languages, cf. Aram YQYNṬWN 821 ; Syr yaqūntā, and into Arm as yakintʽ.822 It was from Syr yaqūntā that the word passed into Eth [Gz] as yākənt 823 and with dropping of the weak n into Ar.824 – It occurs in the old poetry (cf. Geyer, Zwei Gedichte, i, 119), and thus must have been an early borrowing.« 
    … 
     
    YBS يبس 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023
    √YBS 
    “root” 
    ▪ YBS_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ YBS_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ YBS_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘dry land (as opposed to the sea), hard, arid; to be afflicted with famine; to keep silent, to be too drunk; to have unpleasant countenances’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    YTM يتم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √YTM 
    “root” 
    ▪ YTM_1 ‘(to be, become) orphan’ ↗yatīm
    ▪ YTM_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be one of a kind, to be the best; to become detached; an orphan, weak’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    DRS 10 (2012)#YTM distinguishes 1 ‘orphelin’ from 2 ‘être las, fatigué’ (attested only in Ar).
    ▪ Cf. in this context also the basic values of YTM in ClassAr as given by Badawi2008: ‘to be one of a kind, to be the best; to become detached; an orphan, weak’.
    ▪ Given that the value ‘to be detached’ is attested only in Ar while ‘orphan’ clearly is Sem, I tend to see it not as a distinct value (from an etymological perspective) but rather as a semantic extension: ‘to be detached’ = ‘to be as alone and detached as an orphan ’. From the orphan’s isolation it is also easy to imagine the figurative value ‘one of a kind’ to be derived. However, should also the ClassAr value ‘to be tired, unable to continue with s.th.’ be connected to ‘orphan’, or should it be treated, with DRS, as a distinct value? The ‘weakness’ of the orphan could have developed into ‘lassitude, fatigue’… As long as we do not have further evidence there are no decisive answers to these questions.
     
    – 
    — 
    yatīm يَتِيم , pl. ʔaytām , yatāmà 
    ID … • Sw – • BP 3236 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √YTM 
    ¹adj.; ²n. 
    1 n., orphan. – 2 adj., unique of its kind, unequaled, unmatched, incomparable. – 3 single, sole, one only, isolated – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protWSem *yat˅m‑ ‘orphan’.
    ▪ … 
    lC6 ʕAntara b. Šaddād 130,10 taḍuǧǧu ’l-nisāʔu min ḫīfati ’l-sabyi wa-tabkī ʕalà ’l-ṣiġāri ’l-yatāmà ‘the women cry out of fear of being taken captive and they weep over (the destiny of) the little orphans’ (Polosin1995)
    ▪ eC7 Ḥuṭayʔa 31,1: ʔinnahū ṯimālu ’l-yatāmà ʕiṣmatun fī ’l-mahāliki ‘he is the refuge/support of the orphans (and) a defender in the state of perdition’ (Polosin1995)
    ▪ eC7 Q 6:152 wa-lā taqrabū māla ’l-yatīmi ʔillā bi-’llatī hiya ʔaḥsanu ‘and do not come near the property of the orphan except with the best [of intentions] until they reach their strength’ (Badawi2008) 
    DRS 10 (2012)#YTM–1 Ug Phn ytm, Hbr yātōm, TargAram yatōmā, Syr yatmā, Mhr (ḥə-)ytim, Jib otim, Soq äʔthim ‘orphelin’.2972 Ar yatima ‘être las, fatigué’.
    ▪ Kogan2011: (Ug Hbr Syr as in DRS, the modSAr forms in slightly different transliteration:) Mhr ḥə-ytīm, Jib ótím, Soq ɛ́ʔtim ‘orphan’. 
    ▪ Kogan2011 reconstructs WSem *yat˅m‑ ‘orphan’, but not without adding that although the root is usually thought to be missing from Akk and Eth, one has perhaps to compare Akk watmu ‘small young animal or man’ and Sod tamʷyä ‘orphan’.
    ▪ The value ‘be tired, unable to continue with s.th.’ is attested only in ClassAr and may have to be treated separately.
    ▪ In contrast, ‘(to be) unique, incomparable’ and ‘(to be) single, sole, isolated’ are interpreted here as extensions of ‘orphan’. 
    – 
    malǧaʔ al-ʔaytām and dār al-ʔaytām, n., orphanage.

    yatama i, yatuma u, and yatima a, vb. I, to be or become an orphan, be bereaved of one’s parents: denom.20
    ʔaytama, vb. IV, to orphan, deprive of his parents (s.o.): caus.
    tayattama, vb. V, = I.
    yatm, var. yutm, yatam, n., orphanhood: vn. I.
    maytam, pl. mayātimᵘ, n., orphanage: n.loc.
    muyattam, adj., orphaned, parentless: PP II; n., orphan: nominalization 

    YḤMR يحمر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √YḤMR 
    “root” 
    ▪ YḤMR_1 ‘roebuck’ ↗yaḥmūr (s.r. ↗ḤMR). 
    yaḥmūr s.r. ↗ḤMR. 
    – 
    yaḥmūr (s.r. ↗ḤMR). 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    YD يد 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √YD 
    “root” 
    ▪ YD_1 ‘hand’ ↗yad
    ▪ YD_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘hand, palm, forearm, handle, to be handy, possession; unity, power, assistance; to give, favour; to have influence on others; to scatter’ 
    yad 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Engl iota, jot, yodh, akin to Ar ↗yad
    – 
    yad يَد , pl. ʔaydin (def. al‑ʔaydī), ʔayādin (def. al‑ʔayādī
    ID 943 • Sw 48/66 • BP 148 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √YD 
    n. 
    hand; foreleg; handle; power, control, influence, authority; assistance, help, aid; (Isl.Law) (personal) possession, actual control; benefit; favor – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2015 (Sw#37): from protSem *yad‑ ‘hand’ (SED I #291).
    ▪ »Selon les langues et les dialectes, le mot peut signaler, outre la ‘main’ proprement dite, l’avant-bras ou le bras, […] ‘du bout des doigts à l’épaule’. – Le nom de la ‘main’, comme ceux d’autres parties du corps, est, dans de nombreuses langues sémitiques, à la base de valeurs et de formes dérivées, de mots outils, prépositions etc.« (DRS 10 (2012)). 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 10 (2012)#YD: Akk id ‘bras, côté, bord; aile’, Ug yd ‘main’, Hbr yād ‘avant-bras, main, côté, rive; part, possession; force’, Phn yd, EmpAram Nab Palm yd, BiblAram yᵊdā, Syr ʔīdā ‘main; côté; pouvoir’, Liḥ yd ‘main, pouvoir’, Sab yd ‘main; part; allégeance, loyalisme’, Mhr Ḥrṣ ḥayd, Soq ʔəd, əʔəd, Jib ed, Gz ʔəd, Te ʔəde, Tña ʔid, Amh ʔəǧǧ, Har iǧi, Arg ənǧ, Gur äǧ, ənǧi ‘main’; Ug yd ‘avec’, Phn Pun bd ‘par l’intermédiaire de’.
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: Akk īdu, Hbr yāḏ, Aram īḏ.ā, Gz ed ‘hand, arm, side’.
    ▪ Elmedlaoui 2012: For Sem yad ‘hand’ cf. Berb ta-yd-t ‘arm’. 
    ▪ From Sem *yad‑ ‘hand’ (Fronzaroli#2.79 ‘arm (with the hand)’).
    ▪ ….
     
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl iota, jot, from Grk iōta ‘iota’; yodh, from Hbr yōd ‘yodh’; both from Phoen *yōd ‘hand, tenth letter of the Phoen alphabet’, cf. Ar yad.
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Betelgeuse, ultimately from Ar yad al-ǧawzāʔ ‘hand of Gemini’, from yad ‘hand’. 
    BP#4671yadawī, adj., manual, by hand: nsb-adj.
     
    YRʕ يرع
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Jul2023
    √YRʕ
     
    "root" 
    ▪ YRʕ_1 ‘to be a coward, be chickenhearted’ ↗yariʕa (with ³yarāʕ ‘coward’)
    ▪ YRʕ_2 ‘reed; reed pen, (writing) pen’ ↗¹yarāʕ (n.un. ¹yarāʕaẗ, obs. also ‘reed pipe, clarinet’)
    ▪ YRʕ_3 ‘glowworm, firefly’ ↗²yarāʕ (n.un. ²yarāʕaẗ, obs. also ‘Cicindela; mosquito, gnat’)

    Other values, now obsolete, include (Hava1899) :

    YRʕ_4 ‘young calf’ : yarʕ
    YRʕ_5 ‘ostrich’ : yarāʕaẗ
     
    ▪ [gnrl] : The root √YRʕ displays an amazing variety of values for which it seems difficult to find a common denominator. We may distinguish 5 main ideas, of which only [v1] and [v2] may be connected (see next paragraph).
    ▪ Nöldeke1910 (NBSS) 206 thought [v1] *‘cowardness’ was fig. use based on [v2] ‘reed, cane’, a cowardly person being as weak and submissive as reed bowing under the wind. – Cf., however, verbal cognates for [v1] given in DRS 7 (see below, section COGN).
    ▪ [v1] : DRS lists yariʕa ‘to be a coward, be chickenhearted’ twice : once in entry DRS 10 (2012) #YRʕ-4 (without mentioning any cognates), and earlier in DRS 7 (1997) #WRʔ/ʕ~YRʔ/ʕ-1 where it is listed as cognate with (Ug), Hbr items as well as Ar parallels from √WRʕ meaning ‘to fear, shy away from s.th.’, perh. also with another group, #WRʔ/ʕ~YRʔ/ʕ-2 (see below, section COGN), about the belonging of which the authors express some doubt (»?«).
    ▪ [v2] = DRS #YRʕ-3 : ¹yarāʕ ‘reed; reed pen, (writing) pen’ : etymology obscure.
    ▪ [v3] = DRS #YRʕ-2 : ²yarāʕ ‘glowworm, firefly’, ²yarāʕaẗCicindela; mosquito, gnat’ : cognates in Aram, but elso without furthur etymology.
    [v4] = DRS #YRʕ-5 : yarʕ ‘young calf’: prob. metathesis of likewise obsol. yaʕr ‘goat, goat thrown into a pit to attrack lions or wolves’ which has cognates in Hbr and Te as well as outside Sem, all (accord. to MilitarevKogan2005 SED II #248) from AfrAs *w/yaʕr‑ / *w/yarʕ‑ ‘(young of) ungulate’ (≙ OrelStolbova1994 HSED #1112 AfrAs *ʕor‑ ‘goat’).
    [v5] yarāʕaẗ ‘ostrich’: etymology obscure; prob. related to [v1] (ostrich as *‘coward’) or [v2] (likening the ostrich’s long neck to a ‘reed’).
     

     
    ▪ [gnrl] DRS 10 (2012) #YRʕ-1 Hbr yᵉrīʕā, TargAram yərīʕtā, Syr yārīʕtā ‘toile de tente, étoffe de tente’.298 -2 yarrīʕā, Ar yarāʕ ‘ver luisant; sorte de cousin (insecte)’. -3 yarāʕaẗ ‘roseau pour écrire (taillé ou encore non taillé)’; yarāʕaẗ ‘clarinette’. -4 Ar yariʕa ‘être poltron’. -5 yarʕ ‘veau’.
    ▪ [v1] DRS 7 (1997) #WRʔ/ʕ~YRʔ/ʕ-1 Ug *yrʔ, Hbr yārēʔ ‘craindre’, *yāraʕ ‘trembler, manquer de courage’, EmpAram yrʕ ‘faire tort à’, JudPalAram yaraʕ ‘désespérer’, Ar wariʕa ‘être pieux, craignant Dieu, faible, peureux’, waraʕ ‘crainte pieuse, piété’, waraʕa ‘s’abstenir des choses illicites’, warraʕa, ʔawraʕa ‘détourner des choses illicites’, yariʕa ‘être peureux, poltron’, yarāʕ, waraʕ ‘poltron; faible, petit’, HispAr *wāriʕ ‘chaste’.299 -?2 Ar waraʔa ‘repousser, pousser violemment’,300 warraʕa ‘ramener (le troupeau) de l’abreuvoir’, wāraʕa ‘discuter’, warraʕa, ʔawraʕa, tawarraʕa ‘repousser, s’interposer’; HispAr warraʕ ‘effrayer’, tawarraʕ ‘craindre’, ʕOmAr warraʕ ‘ramener (bêtes, gens)’, Sab hwrʕ ‘intimider, arrêter, repousser; (faire) revenir’, Mhr həwrā ‘faire revenir, ramener (bêtes, gens); tenir à l’écart (les mauvais esprits)’, Ḥrs awrā ‘ramener (le bétail) au soir’, Te wära ‘menacer, battre’; ? wärʕ ‘eau bénite, magique’, wärʕa ‘asperger (d’eau bénite, magique)’; ? Tña wəruʕ ‘vaniteux’. -3-6 ....
    [v4] : if metathesis of yaʕr ‘goat, goat thrown into a pit to attrack lions or wolves’, then compare (with MilitarevKogan2005 SED II #248), Hbr yaʕᵃrā ‘kid’ and Te warʕe ‘mountain-goat’ ; outside Sem : Eg (Med) ʕr ‘goat’, (WCh) Montol Gerka ur, Kulere war ‘he-goat’, (ECh) Lele ōrē ‘goats’, (NOmot) Male wari ‘goat’ ....
     
    ▪ [v1] : Kogan2015: 315 #76: Ug yrʔ ‘to be afraid’, Hbr yrʔ ‘to fear’ : »There is no immediate etymological parallel to protCan *yrʔ ‘to be afraid,’ which, at least in Hbr, has become the basic verb with this meaning. Hypothetical cognates (DRS 483, 615‒616) involve either metathesis (Ar wʔr ‘to frighten’) or consonantal variation (↗wrʕ ‘to fear’).«
     

     

     
    yariʕ‑ يَرِعَ , a (yaraʕ)
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 27Jul2023
    √YRʕ
     
    vb., I
     
    to be a coward, be chickenhearted – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ The root √YRʕ displays an amazing variety of values for which it seems difficult to find a common denominator. Nöldeke1910 (NBSS) 206 thought *‘cowardness’ was fig. use based on ↗¹yarāʕ ‘reed, cane’ (itself of unknown etymology), a cowardly person being as weak and submissive as reed bowing under the wind. – Cf., however, the other verbal cognates suggested in DRS 7 (see below, section COGN).
    DRS lists yariʕa twice : once in entry DRS 10 (2012) #YRʕ-4 (without mentioning any cognates), and earlier in DRS 7 (1997) #WRʔ/ʕ~YRʔ/ʕ-1 where it is listed as cognate with Ug, Hbr items as well as Ar parallels from √WRʕ meaning ‘to fear, shy away from s.th.’, perh. also with another group, #WRʔ/ʕ~YRʔ/ʕ-2 (see below, section COGN), about the belonging of which the authors express some doubt (»?«).
    ▪ A relation to ↗²yarāʕ ‘glowworm, firefly’ (historically also Cicindela; mosquito, gnat’) is unlikely.
    ▪ Any connection betw. ↗YRʕ_4 yarʕ ‘young calf’ and *‘cowardness’ ?
    ▪ ↗YRʕ_5 yarāʕaẗ ‘ostrich’ may be related to yariʕa, the animal being seen as the *‘coward’.
     
    ▪ ...
     
    DRS 10 (2012) #YRʕ-4 Ar yariʕa ‘être poltron’.
    DRS 7 (1997) #WRʔ/ʕ~YRʔ/ʕ-1 Ug *yrʔ, Hbr yārēʔ ‘craindre’, *yāraʕ ‘trembler, manquer de courage’, EmpAram yrʕ ‘faire tort à’, JudPalAram yaraʕ ‘désespérer’, Ar wariʕa ‘être pieux, craignant Dieu, faible, peureux’, waraʕ ‘crainte pieuse, piété’, waraʕa ‘s’abstenir des choses illicites’, warraʕa, ʔawraʕa ‘détourner des choses illicites’, yariʕa ‘être peureux, poltron’, yarāʕ, waraʕ ‘poltron; faible, petit’, HispAr *wāriʕ ‘chaste’.301 -?2 Ar waraʔa ‘repousser, pousser violemment’,302 warraʕa ‘ramener (le troupeau) de l’abreuvoir’, wāraʕa ‘discuter’, warraʕa, ʔawraʕa, tawarraʕa ‘repousser, s’interposer’; HispAr warraʕ ‘effrayer’, tawarraʕ ‘craindre’, ʕOmAr warraʕ ‘ramener (bêtes, gens)’, Sab hwrʕ ‘intimider, arrêter, repousser; (faire) revenir’, Mhr həwrā ‘faire revenir, ramener (bêtes, gens); tenir à l’écart (les mauvais esprits)’, Ḥrs awrā ‘ramener (le bétail) au soir’, Te wära ‘menacer, battre’; ? wärʕ ‘eau bénite, magique’, wärʕa ‘asperger (d’eau bénite, magique)’; ? Tña wəruʕ ‘vaniteux’. -3-6 ....
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ Kogan2015: 315 #76: Ug yrʔ ‘to be afraid’, Hbr yrʔ ‘to fear’ : »There is no immediate etymological parallel to protCan *yrʔ ‘to be afraid,’ which, at least in Hbr, has become the basic verb with this meaning. Hypothetical cognates (DRS 483, 615‒616) involve either metathesis (Ar wʔr ‘to frighten’) or consonantal variation (↗wrʕ ‘to fear’).«
     

     
    yarāʕ, n./adj., 1 ↗¹yarāʕ; 2 ↗²yarāʕ; 3 coward; cowardly

    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗¹yarāʕ and ↗²yarāʕ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√YRʕ.
     
    ¹yarāʕ يَراع
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 27Jul2023
    √YRʕ
     
    n.
     
    1a cane, reed; b reed pen; 2 ↗²yarāʕ; 3 coward; cowardly – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ ¹yarāʕ ‘reed; reed pen, (writing) pen’, historically also attested as ¹yarāʕaẗ ‘reed pipe, clarinet’, is of unknown origin – no cognates identified by DRS 10 (2012) #YRʕ-3.
    ▪ Nöldeke1910 (NBSS) 206 thought that ↗yariʕa ‘to be cowardly, faint-hearted’ (cf. [v3] was fig. use based on ¹yarāʕ ‘reed, cane’, a cowardly person being as weak and submissive as reed bowing under the wind.
    ▪ Relation betw. ¹yarāʕ ‘reed, etc.’ and [v2] ↗²yarāʕ ‘glowworm, firefly’ (hist. also ²yarāʕaẗCicindela; mosquito, gnat’) rather unlikely.
    ▪ Unlikely also a relation betw. ¹yarāʕ ‘reed, etc.’ and yarʕ ‘young calf’ (↗YRʕ_4) as well as yarāʕaẗ ‘ostrich’ (↗YRʕ_5). Or is the ostrich perh. called *‘reed, cane’ on account of its long neck?
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ Hava1899, DRS : ¹yarāʕaẗ attested also as ‘reed pipe, clarinet’.
    ▪ ...
     
    DRS 10 (2012) #YRʕ-3 yarāʕaẗ ‘roseau pour écrire (taillé ou encore non taillé)’; yarāʕaẗ ‘clarinette’.
    DRS 7 (1997) #WRʔ/ʕ~YRʔ/ʕ-1 Ug *yrʔ, Hbr yārēʔ ‘craindre’, *yāraʕ ‘trembler, manquer de courage’ ...; Nöldeke[1910] NBSS 206 : »Täuschend ist noch die Ähnlichkeit von ↗wariʕa ‘scheu s.’ in mancherlei Formen und Bedeutungsnuancen mit ↗yarāʕ oder yarāʕaẗ ‘Feigling’ […], denn da haben wir das bekannte Wort, das ‘Rohr’ bedeutet und das als Bild für dem schwachen, feigen Menschen gebraucht wird. […] Wenn das Abstraktum yaraʕ ‘Feigheit’ (Qāmūs) echt ist, so ist es erst von yarāʕ in dieser Bedeutung gebildet.«.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
     

     
    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗yariʕa and ↗²yarāʕ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√YRʕ.
     
    ²yarāʕ يَراع
     
    ID – • Sw – • BP 7106 • APD … • © SG | 27Jul2023
    √YRʕ
     
    n.coll. (n.un. ‑aẗ)
     
    1 ↗¹yarāʕ; 2 glowworm, firefly; 3 ↗¹yarāʕ, ↗yariʕa – WehrCowan1976
     
    ▪ The root √YRʕ displays an amazing variety of values for which it seems difficult to find a common denominator though the identity of words like yarāʕ, used at the same time for ‘reed, cane’, ‘coward’ and ‘glowworm’, etc. raises suspicion about a possible belonging together. Until now, however, such a belonging together seems hard to prove or reject. For instance, the etymology of ²yarāʕ ‘glowworm, firefly’ (historically attested also ²yarāʕaẗCicindela; mosquito, gnat’) remains as obscure as that of the homonymous items. The fact that this entry’s ²yarāʕ has cognates in Aram does not help much to sort out things : In addition to ↗¹yarāʕ ‘reed, cane’ (hence also yarāʕaẗ ‘reed pipe, clarinet’) and ↗³yarāʕ ‘coward’ we find also yarʕ ‘young calf’ (↗YRʕ_4) and yarāʕaẗ ‘ostrich’ (↗YRʕ_5). What would the ²yarāʕ ‘glowworm, firefly’ have in common with all these?
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ ...
     
    DRS 10 (2012) #YRʕ-2 Syr yarrīʕā, Ar yarāʕ ‘ver luisant; sorte de cousin (insecte)’.
    ▪ ...
     
    ▪ See above, section CONC.
    ▪ ...
     

     
    For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗yariʕa and ↗¹yarāʕ, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗√YRʕ.  
    YSR يسر 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √YSR 
    “root” 
    ▪ YSR_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ YSR_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘left (side); game of chance; butcher, to divide up into small amounts; to facilitate, ease; to pave; to become lenient, become accommodating; to be(come) available, easy, comfortable (in means)’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    yas˅r‑
    • yasir‑ يَسِرَ , a (yasar)
    • yasur‑ يَسُرَ , u (yusr)
     
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √YSR 
    vb., I 
    (yasira) to be or become easy
    (yasura) 1 to be small, little, insignificant. – 2 to be or become easy – WehrCowan1979. 
    From Sem *yašar‑ ‘straight’ < AfrAs *yasar‑ ‘straight’ – Orel&Stolbova1994. 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 10 (2012)#YŠR: Akk ešēru ‘se redresser, marcher droit, charger (l’ennemi); se développer, prospérer’, šušuru ‘avancer, balayer; aller à la selle; préparer’, išar ‘normal, ordinaire; prospère, favorable; juste, correct’, Ug yšr ‘droit, honnêteté’, Hbr yāšar ‘marcher droit, plaire à’, yāšār ‘droit, juste, honnête’, Phn yšr ‘juste, droit’; Akk mišār , Ug mšr, Pun mysyrth ‘justice’, Hbr mēšārīm ‘ordre, justice’, mīšōr ‘plaine’, EmpAram hwšr ‘envoyer’, Ar yasara ‘être facile, aisé’, yassara ‘faire prospérer, réussir’, yassār ‘gauche’, maysir : sorte de jeu de hasard, Sab yšr, hyšr ‘envoyer, dépêcher’. – Voir aussi les indications données sous ʔ/YŠR.
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2582 sees Ar yasar ‘easy, tractable’ akin to Akk išaru, Hbr yāšār, Aram yašrā ‘easy, tractable’. Outside Sem: Or sirri, Sid sēra ‘straight’. 
    ▪ For Sem, Orel&Stolbova1994#2582 reconstruct *yašar‑ ‘straight’, for LEC *sir‑ < *s˅y˅r‑ (with metathesis), and for HEC *sayar‑ ‘straight’. The ancestor common to all of these may have been AfrAs *yasar‑ ‘straight’. 
    – 
    yassara, vb. II, (said of God) to easily attainable, provide, grant, let come; to make possible; to level, smoothen, pave, prepare; to ease, make easy, facilitate | y. al-sabīl ʔamāma… to pave the way for s.o., enable s.o. to (do s.th.): caus.
    yāsara, vb. III, to be lenient, indulgent, obliging, complaisant, humor (with s.o.):.
    ʔaysara, vb. IV, 1 to live in easy circumstances: denom. (from yusr ?); 2 to be or become rich: metaphorical use of v1; 3 to be lucky, fortunate; 4 to have an easy confinement (woman).
    tayassara, vb. V, to become easy; to be made easy, be facilitated; to go smoothly, be easily done; to be made possible, be possible:.
    ĭstaysara, vb. X, 1 to be easy; 2 to succeed, be successful : denom.?

    BP#4616yusr, n., 1 ease, easiness, facility; 2 easy, pleasant circumstances; 3 prosperity, affluence, wealth, abundance, luxury: perhaps the etymon proper.
    yasraẗ, n.f., left side :.
    yasār, n., 1 ease, easiness, facility; comfort; prosperity, affluence, wealth, abundance, luxury; BP#24242 left hand; left side:.
    yasārī, adj., leftist, left-wing (pol.) : nsb-adj of yasār.
    yusrà, pl. yusrayāt, n.f., left side; al-yusrà, n.f., the left hand: nominalized f., from ʔaysarᵘ.
    yasīr, adj., 1 easy; 2 small, little, slight, insignificant, (of time) short; 3 plain, homely; simple, uncomplicated : ints. adj.
    BP#2686ʔaysarᵘ, f. yusrā, adj., 1 easier; 2 smaller, leaser, slighter, more insignificant; 3 more prosperous, wealthier: el. formation; 4 left; left-handed; left-sided:.
    maysir, n., an ancient Arabian game of chance (forbidden by the Koran) played with arrows without heads and feathering, for stakes of slaughtered and quartered camels :.
    maysaraẗ, pl. mayāsirᵘ, n., 1 left side: n.loc.; 2 left wing (of an army): = the troops on the left side, metaphorical use of v1
    maysaraẗ, var. maysuraẗ, maysiraẗ, n., ease, comfort; prosperity, affluence, wealth, abundance, luxury: vn. I (?).
    taysīr, n., facilitation: vn. II.
    maysūr, pl. mayāsīrᵘ, adj., 1 easily done, easily accomplished, within easy reach, easy to carry out, feasible without difficulty; easy; 2 successful, fortunate, lucky; prosperous, well-to-do, in easy circumstances: PP I.
    muyassar, adj., facilitated, made easy, within easy reach; successful, fortunate, lucky; prosperous, well-to-do, wealthy, rich: PP II.
    mūsir, pl. ‑ūn, mayāsirᵘ, n., prosperous, well-to-do, wealthy, rich: PA IV.
    mutayassir, adj., 1 facilitated, made easy; easy; within easy reach; on hand, available; 2 taking a smooth and successful course, going smoothly; 3 successful, fortunate, prosperous, well-to-do: PA V | m. al-ḥāl, well off, in easy circumstances. 

    ʔaysarᵘ أَيْسَرُ , f. yusrā 
    ID 944 • Sw –/87 • BP 2686 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √YSR 
    adj. 
    1 easier. – 2 smaller, leaser, slighter, more insignificant. – 3 more prosperous, wealthier: el. formation. – 4 left; left-handed; left-sided – WehrCowan1979. 
    Belongs to the theme treated under ↗yas˅ra ‘to be or become easy; to be small, little, insignificant; to be or become easy. 
    ▪ … 
    yas˅ra… 
    yas˅ra
    – 
    See ↗yasVra
    YSMN يسمن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √YSMN 
    “root” 
    ▪ YSMN_1 ‘jasmine’ ↗yāsimīn
    ▪ YSMN_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
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    ▪ …
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    ▪ …
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    – 
    yāsimīn ياسمين , var. yāsmīn 
    ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √YSMN 
    n. 
    jasmine – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ from mPers yāsaman (Asbaghi).
    ▪ The word is one out of a plentitude of loans from mPers which testifies to the intense interaction between Arab and Iranian culture during the first centuries of the Muslim expansion. Arabic was then »invigorated by new elements of ideas and images, stimulated with fresh conceptions of excellence and eloquence, and enriched […] with a new vocabulary. Persian, in particular, was responsible for the introduction of new terms in the fields of luxury, ornaments, handicrafts, fine arts, government administration, and public registers."«157 . yāsmīn is one out of the significant number of botanical terms that found their way into Arabic. 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 10 (2012)#YSMN: Syr yasmā, yāsmīn, Ar yāsamīn, yāsamūn, dial. yāsmīn ‘jasmin’. Emprunt au persan où on relève yāsim, yāsam, yāsaman, yāsamīn, yāsamūn ‘jasmin’. 
    EALL (Asbaghi, »Persian Loanwords«): a loan from mPers yāsaman
    … 
    – 
    YQṬN يقطن 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 3Jun2023
    √YQṬN 
    "root" 
    ▪ YQṬN_1 ‘gourd’ ↗yaqṭīn
     
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    yaqṭīn يَقْطِين 
    ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Jun2023
    √YQṬN, QṬN
     
    n. 
    gourd – Jeffery1938 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ eC7 Q xxxvii, 146 – Jeffery1938.
     
    ▪ BDB1906: perh. Akk kukkānātu ‘garden plant’ (CAD ‘medicinal plant’)
     
    ▪ Jeffery1938: »The word occurs in the Jonah story for the gourd tree which Allah caused to grow up over the Prophet. The reference is obviously to the Biblical story in Jonah iv, 6-11, and yaqṭīn seems to be an attempt to reproduce the qîqāyôn of the Hbr story.825 The word was apparently heard during an oral recitation of the story, and then reproduced from memory in this garbled form.«
     
    – 
    – 
    YQẒ يقظ 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023
    √YQẒ 
    “root” 
    ▪ YQẒ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ YQẒ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ YQẒ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be awake, to be alert, to be attentive, to stir up, vigilance’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    YQN يقن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √YQN 
    “root” 
    ▪ YQN_1 ‘icon’ ↗ʔīqūnaẗ
    ▪ YQN_2 ‘certainty, certitude’ ↗yaqīn

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be certain, to verify; conviction, unshakeable belief’ 
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    – 
    yaqīn يَقِين 
    ID 945 • Sw – • BP 2285 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √YQN 
    n. 
    certainty, certitude, conviction – WehrCowan1979. 
    The common view is that the word is one of only 17 words in the Q which, ultimately, are of Greek origin: Grk eikṓn > Aram yūqənā > Ar yaqīn. DRS 2012, however, treats Ar yaqina (vb. I) as different from items derived from Grk eikṓn, such as ↗ʔayqūnaẗ / ʔīqūnaẗ ‘icon’ (Chr.). 
    ▪ eC7 Q 4:157, 15:99, 27:22, 56:95, 69:51, 74:47, 102:5,7 ‘certain’ 
    DRS 10 (2012)#YQN: Ar yaqina, ʔayqana, Sab *hyqn ‘apprendre, savoir avec certitude’.
    ▪ Cf. also ↗YQN. 
    ▪ Jeffery1938, 292: »The simple verb yaqina does not occur in the Qurʔān, but we find ʔayqana ii, 3; v, 55, etc.; ĭstayqana xxvii, 14; lxxiv, 31, and the participles mūqin and mustayqin, besides yaqīn. – At first sight it seems clearly to be a borrowing, for there is no Semitic √YQN, and yet we find both yaqīn and the verbal forms therefrom used in the oldest poetry, so it must have come into the language at an early date. The prevalent theory is that it is derived from Grk eikṓn through the Aramaic.826 Grk eikṓn means ‘image’, ‘likeness’, ‘similitude’, and from eikóna were borrowed the Aram yəqūnā 827 ; Syr yūqunā meaning ‘image’, ‘picture’. From yūqunā was formed a verb yāqen ‘to depict’, ‘describe’, whence hayqonnā and hayqonniyā mean ‘characteristic’. From some dialectal form of yūqənā the word must have passed into Ar.«
    EALL (Gutas, “Greek Loanwords”): a loan (from ???) that goes back to Greek εἰκών eikṓn ‘icon’. 
    – 
    yaqīnan, adv., certainly, surely, positively.
    ḥaqq al-yaqīn, n., absolute certainty.
    al-ḫabar al-yaqīn, n., certain knowledge of the truth, absolute certainty.

    yaqina, a (yaqn, yaqan), vb. I, to be sure, certain; to know for certain, be sure, be certain, be convinced (bi‑ of): denom.
    ʔayqana, vb. IV; tayaqqana, vb. V; ĭstayqana, vb. X, to ascertain, make sure; to know for certain, be sure, be certain, be convinced (bi‑ of): denom.

    yaqn, yaqan, n., certainty, certitude:.
    yaqan, yaqun, yaqin and yaqanaẗ, adj., credulous, ingenuous, unsuspecting:.
    yaqīnī, adj., definitely laid down, positive, absolute, indisputable: nsb-adj; yaqīniyyāt, n.f.pl., established truths, axioms: pl. of abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ.
    mīqān, adj., credulous:.
    mūqin, adj., convinced (bi‑ of); certain, sure (bi‑ of): PA IV, denom.
    mutayaqqin, adj., convinced, positive, sure, certain: PA V, denom. 

    ʔayqūnaẗ أيْقُونَة 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √ʔYQN, YQN 
    n.f. 
    ʔīqūnaẗ 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    – 
    … 
    – 
    YMː (YMM) يمّ / يمم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √YMː (YMM) 
    “root” 
    ▪ YMː (YMM)_1 ‘open sea’ ↗yamm
    ▪ YMː (YMM)_2 ‘pigeon’ ↗yamām
    ▪ YMː (YMM)_3 ‘to turn, head towards, venture in’ ↗
     
    ▪ [v1] : "said to be of Syr, Hbr or Copt origin" -- BAH2008
    ▪ … 
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    ▪ …
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    ▪ …
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    – 
    yamm يَمّ , pl. yumūm 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √YMː (YMM) 
    n. 
    1 open sea; 2 (syr.) side – WehrCowan1979. 
    While [v1] ‘sea’ is a loan from Hbr or Syr (< NWSem *yamm ‘sea’, in itself loanword, perh. from Eg ym), [v2] ‘side’ could be a dialectal form of Ar ↗ǧanb
    ▪ [v1] : eC7 Q 7:136, 20:39, 20:81, 20:97, 28:7, 28:40, 51:40 ‘sea, flood, river’ 
    [v1] ‘sea’ :
    ▪ Kogan2015: No genuine cognates but related are Ug ym, Hbr yām, Syr yammā ‘sea’.

    [v2] ‘side’ :
    ▪ Cf. perhaps Ar ↗ǧanb
    [v1] ‘sea’:
    ▪ Jeffery1938, 293: »It is used only in the Moses story, and refers sometimes to the Nile, sometimes to the sea. It was early recognized as foreign (Siddiqi, Studien, 13),828 though the early authorities were uncertain of its origin. al-Jawālīqī, Muʕarrab, 156, says it is Syr, which was also the opinion of Ibn Qutayba,829 according to as-Suyūṭī, Itq, 326. as-Suyūṭī, however, also tells us that Ibn al-Jawzī said it was Hebrew and Shaidala that it was Coptic.830 – It apparently came to Ar from Syr yamā, as Fraenkel, Vocab, 21, saw,831 though it may possibly have come into Ar from some primitive non-Sem source. The word clearly is not Sem, for Hbr yām; Phn ym; Aram YMā; and Ras Shamra ym cannot be explained from Sem material, and the word is a loan-word in Eg ym; Copt iam, iom, or eiom, and in Akk yamu. As the word occurs in the old poetry and was an early borrowing we cannot be absolutely sure that it was not primitive, having come into Ar, as into the other Sem languages, from some autochthonous source.«
    ▪ Kogan2015: Ar yamm is almost certainly borrowed from Hbr or Aram (cf. Jeffery 1938), which have a cognate only in Ug ym, but not farther outside NWSem. The pNWSem *yamm - obviously has gradually ousted *tihām (‑at)‑, perhaps the main designation of ‘sea’ in Sem (cf. Ar ↗tihāmaẗ).
    ▪ Youssef2003 suggests that the word is from Eg ym, Copt iom ‘sea’.
    ▪ Cf. also ↗ YMː (YMM).

    [v2] (syr.) ‘side’:
    ▪ Wellnhofer thinks this may be a dialectal loan *yamm ~ *yamb from Ar ↗ǧanb ‘side’, which could be loaned from the Gulf to Iraq and Syria (an option still to be checked) – personal communication, 02Feb2016. 
    – 
    min yammī, adv., from my side, on my part: belonging to [v2]. 
    YMN يمن 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √YMN 
    “root” 
    ▪ YMN_1 ‘…’ ↗
    ▪ YMN_2 ‘right, right side, right hand’ ↗yamīn

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘right hand, right side; oath; power; truth, generosity; to incline to the right; to be auspicious; to go towards Yemen’ 
    ▪ … 
    – 
    ▪ …
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    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    ▪ For Engl Benjamin, cf. Ar ↗yaman, ↗yamīn. – Engl Yemenyaman
    – 
    yamīn يَمِين (invar. for gender) 
    ID 946 • Sw –/118 • BP 1327 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √YMN 
    ¹adj.; ²n. 
    right, being on the right; right side; (f.) right hand – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *yamīn‑, *yamā̆n‑ ‘right hand (side)’.
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994: … < AfrAs *yamin‑ ‘right (side)’ (?). 
    ▪ … 
    DRS 10 (2012)#YMN: Akk imitt‑ ‘côté droit, main droite; aile droite (d’une armée)’, imn , Ebl i-me-tum /yimittum/ ‘droite’, Ug ymn ‘main droite, côté droit’, Hbr yāmīn ‘qui est à droite; sud’, EmpAram ymn, Nab Palm ymnynʔ, Syr Mand yamīnā ‘qui est à droite’, Ar yamīn ‘qui est à droite, côté droit; serment’, Liḥ ymn ‘qui est à droite’, Sab ymn ‘main droite’, ymnt ‘sud’, Qat ʔymnn adj. ‘ceux du sud’, Śḥr ĩn , Gz yamān, Tña yäman, Amh yämin ‘droite, main droite’.
    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: Akk imnu, Hbr yāmīn, Aram yammīn.ā, Gz yamā́n ‘right, right hand side’
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2578: Akk imnu, Ug ymn, Hbr yāmīn, Syr yāmināy, Gz yammān ‘right (hand)’. – Outside Sem: Berb mni, imna ‘direct’, and Eg (pyr) i͗mn ‘right (side)’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2578: Sem *yamīn‑ ‘right (hand)’, Berb *(y˅)m˅n‑ (mni, imna) ‘direct’, Eg (pyr) i͗mn ‘right (side)’. The AfrAs origin may be *yamin ‘right (side)’.
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Benjamin, from Hbr binyāmîn ‘son of the right hand’, from yāmîn ‘right (hand), south’,37 cf. Ar ↗yaman, ↗yamīn. – Engl Yemen, from Ar yaman ‘right side, south, Yemen’.↗ 
    yamana, u / yamina, a / yamuna, u (yumn, maymanaẗ), vb. I, to be lucky, fortunate:.
    yammana, vb. II, to go to the right:.
    tayammana, vb. V, and ĭstaymana, vb. X, to see a good omen:.

    yumn, n., good luck, good fortune, prosperity, success: vn. I.
    yaman and yamnaẗ, n.f., right side or hand:.
    al-yaman, n., f. and m., Yemen:
    BP#1689yamanī, adj., from or of Yemen, Yemenite: nsb-adj from al-yaman.
    yamānin, f. yamāniyaẗ, adj., Yemenite:.
    yamānī, adj., from or of Yemen, Yemenite: nsb-adj; (pl. ‑ūn a Yemenite: nominalized adj.
    yamīn, pl. ʔaymun, ʔaymān, n.f., oath:.
    yamīnī, adj., of or pertaining to the right side, right-hand, right; rightist, right-wing (pol.); al-yamīniyyūn the right-wing parties
    yumnā, pl. yumnayāt, n.f., right hand; right side:.
    BP#2322ʔaymanᵘ, f. yumnā, n., right-hand, right, on the right; lucky.
    maymanaẗ, pl. mayāminᵘ, n., right side; right wing (of an army): n.loc. (?).
    tayammun, n., auspiciousness, good augury, good omen: vn. V.
    maymūn, adj., pl. mayāmīnᵘ, adj., fortunate, lucky; blessed; n., monkey: PP I.
    muyamman, adj., lucky, auspicious: PP II.
    muyāmin, adj., standing on the right side (also pol.): PA III. 

    YNʕ ينع 
    ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023
    √YNʕ 
    “root” 
    ▪ YNʕ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ YNʕ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
    ▪ YNʕ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to blossom, to ripen, to mellow, to reach the glory of maturity, (of fruit and vegetables) to reach t~e picking stage, (of a woman) to be rosy-cheeked’ 
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    – 
    YHWD يهود 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √YHWD 
    “root” 
    ▪ YHD_1 ‘Jew, Jewish’ ↗yahūd
    ▪ YHD_2 ‘…’ ↗
     
    ▪ … 
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    ▪ …
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    ▪ …
    ▪ … 
    – 
    – 
    yahūdī يَهُودِيّ , pl. yahūd 
    ID 947 • Sw – • BP 702 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 3Jun2023
    √YHWD, (HWD) 
    ¹adj.; ²n. 
    ▪ (pl.) the Jews – Jeffery1938
    ▪ … – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ … 
    ▪ (pl.) eC7 Q ii, 107, 114; iii, 60; v, 21, 56, 69, 85; ix, 30. We also find the form hūd in ii, 105, 129, 134, and the denom. vb. hāda in ii, 59; iv, 48, etc. – Jeffery1938
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    ▪ (pl. ‘the Jews’ ) Jeffery1938: »The philologers recognized it as a foreign word, though they were uncertain whether to derive it from Hbr832 or Pers.833 It is curious that anyone should have sought for a Pers origin, and yet Addai Sher, 158, accepts the theory, claiming that hāda (yahūdᵘ, hawdᵃⁿ) with the meaning of raǧaʕa ʔilà ’l-ḥaqq is from the Pers hūdah. It is true that in Šāyast-ne-šāyast, vi, 7, we find Phlv Yahūt,834 and in Av the form Yahūd, but these, like the čaχūd of the Christian Soghdian texts (cf. Jansen’s Wörterverzeichnis to F. W. K. Müller’s Soghdische Texte, p. 93), are obviously derived from the Aram. Hirschfeld, New Researches, 27, thinks that Muḥammad’s use of the verb ḥāda shows that he got the word from JudAram sources,835 and not understanding it perfectly, gave it an Ar etymology by connecting it with the root hāda ‘to repent’, which is the reason for the form hūd beside yahūd. The fatal objection to this theory, however, is that we find the form yahūdī in the old poetry,836 so that it would have been well known in Arabia before Muḥammad’s day. Horovitz points out that in the Qurʔān yahūd always means the Jews of Muḥammad’s day, the Jews of antiquity being referred to as Banū Isrāʔīl. / The word yhd occurs in the SAr inscriptions (Glaser, 394/5),837 and Grimme, ZA, xxvi, 161, suggests that it came to the Ḥijāz from the South, which is very possible, though the ultimate origin, of course, will be the Jewish yᵊhûdî.« .
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    YWM يوم 
    ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √YWM 
    “root” 
    ▪ YWM_1 ‘day’ ↗yawm
    ▪ YWM_2 ‘…’ ↗

    Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘day; today, the present; age, era, time; a certain occurrence, a significant happening, occasion; battle; the universe’ 
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    ▪ Engl Yom Kippur, cf. Ar ↗yawm
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    yawm يَوْم , pl. ʔayyām 
    ID 948 • Sw – • BP 26 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021
    √YWM 
    n. 
    day (= 24 hours, as opposed to ↗nahār); pl. also: age, era, time – WehrCowan1979. 
    ▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *yawm‑ ‘day’ (both ‘daylight’ and ‘24 hours’). – Cf. also ↗šams < protSem *śamš‑ ‘sun’.
    ▪ Perh. … < AfrAs *yam‑ ‘day’. 
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    ▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘day’) Akk ūmu, Hbr yōm, Syr yawmā, Gz yōm ‘today’.
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    ▪ Fronzaroli#3.24, Kogan2011: From Sem *yawm‑ ‘day’.
    ▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2576: The Sem word for ‘day’, *yawm‑, seems to have a cognate in ECh *yam‑ and perhaps LEC *yawan‑. All from AfrAs *yam‑ ‘day’. The authors ask themselves if the Sem form was or was not based on a biconsonantal Sem *yam‑ already.
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    ▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Yom Kippur, from Hbr yôm ‘day’, cf. Ar yawm
    yāwama, vb. III, to hire by the day: denom.
    yawmaʔiḏin, adv., (on) that day, then, at that time: adv. of time in ‑iḏin.
    yawmaḏāka, adv., (on) that day, then: adv. of time, suffix ‑ḏāka.
    yawmī, adj., daily; by the day: nsb-adj; pl. yawmiyyāt, n.f.pl., everyday events; everyday chronicle; daily news; diary notes, daily notations; diary: nominalized nsb-adj.
    yawmiyyaẗ, n.f., dialy wages, a day’s wages; daily ration; a day’s work, daily task; diary, journal; daybook; calendar: nominalized nsb-adj., f.
    muyāwamaẗ, n.f., work by the day, day labor: vn. III.
    muyāwam: ʕummāl ~ūn, n.pl., day laborers: PP III.