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Plato: Timaeus
    Click to Expand/Collapse Option Complete text
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionTitle
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionPreface
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionDramatis Personae
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionIntroduction
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionSpeech of Timaeus
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionThe soul of the world
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionTime
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionGods visible and generated
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionCreation of the souls
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionBody and sense perceptions
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionNecessity
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionThe triangles
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionThe forth genera
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionMovement and stillness
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionForms of the genera
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionThe forms of the earth
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionSense perceptions
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionPleasure and weaknesses
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionPowers of the soul
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionOn the rest of the body
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionIllnesses of the body
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionIllnesses of the soul
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionOrigination of the other living beings
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionConcluding remarks
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(σῶμα καὶ αἰσθήσεις) Τὰς μὲν δὴ θείας περιόδους δύο οὔσας, τὸ τοῦ παντὸς σχῆμα ἀπομιμησάμενοι περιφερὲς ὄν, εἰς σφαιροειδὲς σῶμα ἐνέδησαν,  τοῦτο ὃ νῦν κεφαλὴν ἐπονομάζομεν, ὃ θειότατόν τέ ἐστιν καὶ τῶν ἐν ἡμῖν πάντων δεσποτοῦν·  ᾧ καὶ πᾶν τὸ σῶμα παρέδοσαν ὑπηρεσίαν αὐτῷ συναθροίσαντες θεοί, κατανοήσαντες ὅτι πασῶν ὅσαι κινήσεις ἔσοιντο μετέχοι.  ἵν’ οὖν μὴ κυλινδούμενον ἐπὶ γῆς ὕψη τε καὶ βάθη παντοδαπὰ ἐχούσης ἀποροῖ τὰ μὲν ὑπερβαίνειν, ἔνθεν δὲ ἐκβαίνειν, ὄχημα αὐτῷ τοῦτο καὶ εὐπορίαν ἔδοσαν·  ὅθεν δὴ μῆκος τὸ σῶμα ἔσχεν, ἐκτατά τε κῶλα καὶ καμπτὰ ἔφυσεν τέτταρα θεοῦ μηχανησαμένου πορείαν,  οἷς ἀντιλαμβανόμενον καὶ ἀπερειδόμενον διὰ πάντων τόπων πορεύεσθαι δυνατὸν γέγονε, τὴν τοῦ θειοτάτου καὶ ἱερωτάτου φέρον οἴκησιν ἐπάνωθεν ἡμῶν.  σκέλη μὲν οὖν χεῖρές τε ταύτῃ καὶ διὰ ταῦτα προσέφυ πᾶσιν·  τοῦ δ’ ὄπισθεν τὸ πρόσθεν τιμιώτερον καὶ ἀρχικώτερον νομίζοντες θεοὶ ταύτῃ τὸ πολὺ τῆς πορείας ἡμῖν ἔδοσαν.  ἔδει δὴ διωρισμένον ἔχειν καὶ ἀνόμοιον τοῦ σώματος τὸ πρόσθεν ἄνθρωπον.  διὸ πρῶτον μὲν περὶ τὸ τῆς κεφαλῆς κύτος, ὑποθέντες αὐτόσε τὸ πρόσωπον,  ὄργανα ἐνέδησαν τούτῳ πάσῃ τῇ τῆς ψυχῆς προνοίᾳ, καὶ διέταξαν τὸ μετέχον ἡγεμονίας τοῦτ’ εἶναι, τὸ κατὰ φύσιν πρόσθεν·  τῶν δὲ ὀργάνων πρῶτον μὲν φωσφόρα συνετεκτήναντο ὄμματα, τοιᾷδε ἐνδήσαντες αἰτίᾳ.  τοῦ πυρὸς ὅσον τὸ μὲν κάειν οὐκ ἔσχε, τὸ δὲ παρέχειν φῶς ἥμερον, οἰκεῖον ἑκάστης ἡμέρας, σῶμα ἐμηχανήσαντο γίγνεσθαι.  τὸ γὰρ ἐντὸς ἡμῶν ἀδελφὸν ὂν τούτου πῦρ εἰλικρινὲς ἐποίησαν διὰ τῶν ὀμμάτων ῥεῖν λεῖον καὶ πυκνὸν ὅλον μέν, μάλιστα δὲ τὸ μέσον συμπιλήσαντες τῶν ὀμμάτων,  ὥστε τὸ μὲν ἄλλο ὅσον παχύτερον στέγειν πᾶν, τὸ τοιοῦτον δὲ μόνον αὐτὸ καθαρὸν διηθεῖν.  ὅταν οὖν μεθημερινὸν ᾖ φῶς περὶ τὸ τῆς ὄψεως ῥεῦμα, τότε ἐκπῖπτον ὅμοιον πρὸς ὅμοιον, συμπαγὲς γενόμενον, ἓν σῶμα οἰκειωθὲν συνέστη κατὰ τὴν τῶν ὀμμάτων εὐθυωρίαν, ὅπῃπερ ἂν ἀντερείδῃ τὸ προσπῖπτον ἔνδοθεν πρὸς ὃ τῶν ἔξω συνέπεσεν.  ὁμοιοπαθὲς δὴ δι’ ὁμοιότητα πᾶν γενόμενον,  ὅτου τε ἂν αὐτό ποτε ἐφάπτηται καὶ ὃ ἂν ἄλλο ἐκείνου, τούτων τὰς κινήσεις διαδιδὸν εἰς ἅπαν τὸ σῶμα μέχρι τῆς ψυχῆς αἴσθησιν παρέσχετο ταύτην ᾗ δὴ ὁρᾶν φαμεν.  ἀπελθόντος δὲ εἰς νύκτα τοῦ συγγενοῦς πυρὸς ἀποτέτμηται·  πρὸς γὰρ ἀνόμοιον ἐξιὸν ἀλλοιοῦταί τε αὐτὸ καὶ κατασβέννυται, συμφυὲς οὐκέτι τῷ πλησίον ἀέρι γιγνόμενον, ἅτε πῦρ οὐκ ἔχοντι.  παύεταί τε οὖν ὁρῶν, ἔτι τε ἐπαγωγὸν ὕπνου γίγνεται·  σωτηρίαν γὰρ ἣν οἱ θεοὶ τῆς ὄψεως ἐμηχανήσαντο, τὴν τῶν βλεφάρων φύσιν,  ὅταν ταῦτα συμμύσῃ, καθείργνυσι τὴν τοῦ πυρὸς ἐντὸς δύναμιν,  ἡ δὲ διαχεῖ τε καὶ ὁμαλύνει τὰς ἐντὸς κινήσεις,  ὁμαλυνθεισῶν δὲ ἡσυχία γίγνεται, γενομένης δὲ πολλῆς μὲν ἡσυχίας βραχυόνειρος ὕπνος ἐμπίπτει,  καταλειφθεισῶν δέ τινων κινήσεων μειζόνων, οἷαι καὶ ἐν οἵοις ἂν τόποις λείπωνται,  τοιαῦτα καὶ τοσαῦτα παρέσχοντο ἀφομοιωθέντα ἐντὸς ἔξω τε ἐγερθεῖσιν ἀπομνημονευόμενα φαντάσματα.  τὸ δὲ περὶ τὴν τῶν κατόπτρων εἰδωλοποιίαν καὶ πάντα ὅσα ἐμφανῆ καὶ λεῖα, κατιδεῖν οὐδὲν ἔτι χαλεπόν.  ἐκ γὰρ τῆς ἐντὸς ἐκτός τε τοῦ πυρὸς ἑκατέρου κοινωνίας ἀλλήλοις, ἑνός τε αὖ περὶ τὴν λειότητα ἑκάστοτε γενομένου καὶ πολλαχῇ μεταρρυθμισθέντος,  πάντα τὰ τοιαῦτα ἐξ ἀνάγκης ἐμφαίνεται, τοῦ περὶ τὸ πρόσωπον πυρὸς τῷ περὶ τὴν ὄψιν πυρὶ περὶ τὸ λεῖον καὶ λαμπρὸν συμπαγοῦς γιγνομένου.  δεξιὰ δὲ φαντάζεται τὰ ἀριστερά, ὅτι τοῖς ἐναντίοις μέρεσιν τῆς ὄψεως περὶ τἀναντία μέρη γίγνεται ἐπαφὴ παρὰ τὸ καθεστὸς ἔθος τῆς προσβολῆς·  δεξιὰ δὲ τὰ δεξιὰ καὶ τὰ ἀριστερὰ ἀριστερὰ τοὐναντίον, ὅταν μεταπέσῃ συμπηγνύμενον ᾧ συμπήγνυται φῶς,  τοῦτο δέ, ὅταν ἡ τῶν κατόπτρων λειότης, ἔνθεν καὶ ἔνθεν ὕψη λαβοῦσα, τὸ δεξιὸν εἰς τὸ ἀριστερὸν μέρος ἀπώσῃ τῆς ὄψεως καὶ θάτερον ἐπὶ θάτερον.  κατὰ δὲ τὸ μῆκος στραφὲν τοῦ προσώπου ταὐτὸν τοῦτο ὕπτιον ἐποίησεν πᾶν φαίνεσθαι, τὸ κάτω πρὸς τὸ ἄνω τῆς αὐγῆς τό τ’ ἄνω πρὸς τὸ κάτω πάλιν ἀπῶσαν.  Ταῦτ’ οὖν πάντα ἔστιν τῶν συναιτίων οἷς θεὸς ὑπηρετοῦσιν χρῆται τὴν τοῦ ἀρίστου κατὰ τὸ δυνατὸν ἰδέαν ἀποτελῶν·  δοξάζεται δὲ ὑπὸ τῶν πλείστων οὐ συναίτια ἀλλὰ αἴτια εἶναι τῶν πάντων, ψύχοντα καὶ θερμαίνοντα πηγνύντα τε καὶ διαχέοντα καὶ ὅσα τοιαῦτα ἀπεργαζόμενα.  λόγον δὲ οὐδένα οὐδὲ νοῦν εἰς οὐδὲν δυνατὰ ἔχειν ἐστίν.  τῶν γὰρ ὄντων ᾧ νοῦν μόνῳ κτᾶσθαι προσήκει, λεκτέον ψυχήν - τοῦτο δὲ ἀόρατον, πῦρ δὲ καὶ ὕδωρ καὶ γῆ καὶ ἀὴρ σώματα πάντα ὁρατὰ γέγονεν  - τὸν δὲ νοῦ καὶ ἐπιστήμης ἐραστὴν ἀνάγκη τὰς τῆς ἔμφρονος φύσεως αἰτίας πρώτας μεταδιώκειν,  ὅσαι δὲ ὑπ’ ἄλλων μὲν κινουμένων, ἕτερα δὲ κατὰ ἀνάγκης κινούντων γίγνονται, δευτέρας.  ποιητέον δὴ κατὰ ταῦτα καὶ ἡμῖν·  λεκτέα μὲν ἀμφότερα τὰ τῶν αἰτιῶν γένη, χωρὶς δὲ ὅσαι μετὰ νοῦ καλῶν καὶ ἀγαθῶν δημιουργοὶ καὶ ὅσαι μονωθεῖσαι φρονήσεως τὸ τυχὸν ἄτακτον ἑκάστοτε ἐξεργάζονται.  τὰ μὲν οὖν τῶν ὀμμάτων συμμεταίτια πρὸς τὸ σχεῖν τὴν δύναμιν ἣν νῦν εἴληχεν εἰρήσθω·  τὸ δὲ μέγιστον αὐτῶν εἰς ὠφελίαν ἔργον, δι’ ὃ θεὸς αὔθ’ ἡμῖν δεδώρηται, μετὰ τοῦτο ῥητέον.  ὄψις δὴ κατὰ τὸν ἐμὸν λόγον αἰτία τῆς μεγίστης ὠφελίας γέγονεν ἡμῖν, ὅτι τῶν νῦν λόγων περὶ τοῦ παντὸς λεγομένων οὐδεὶς ἄν ποτε ἐρρήθη μήτε ἄστρα μήτε ἥλιον μήτε οὐρανὸν ἰδόντων.  νῦν δ’ ἡμέρα τε καὶ νὺξ ὀφθεῖσαι μῆνές τε καὶ ἐνιαυτῶν περίοδοι καὶ ἰσημερίαι καὶ τροπαὶ μεμηχάνηνται μὲν ἀριθμόν, χρόνου δὲ ἔννοιαν περί τε τῆς τοῦ παντὸς φύσεως ζήτησιν ἔδοσαν·  ἐξ ὧν ἐπορισάμεθα φιλοσοφίας γένος, οὗ μεῖζον ἀγαθὸν οὔτ’ ἦλθεν οὔτε ἥξει ποτὲ τῷ θνητῷ γένει δωρηθὲν ἐκ θεῶν.  λέγω δὴ τοῦτο ὀμμάτων μέγιστον ἀγαθόν·  τἆλλα δὲ ὅσα ἐλάττω τί ἂν ὑμνοῖμεν, ὧν ὁ μὴ φιλόσοφος τυφλωθεὶς ὀδυρόμενος ἂν θρηνοῖ μάτην;  ἀλλὰ τούτου λεγέσθω παρ’ ἡμῶν αὕτη ἐπὶ ταῦτα αἰτία, θεὸν ἡμῖν ἀνευρεῖν δωρήσασθαί τε ὄψιν, ἵνα τὰς ἐν οὐρανῷ τοῦ νοῦ κατιδόντες περιόδους χρησαίμεθα ἐπὶ τὰς περιφορὰς τὰς τῆς παρ’ ἡμῖν διανοήσεως,  συγγενεῖς ἐκείναις οὔσας, ἀταράκτοις τεταραγμένας,  ἐκμαθόντες δὲ καὶ λογισμῶν κατὰ φύσιν ὀρθότητος μετασχόντες, μιμούμενοι τὰς τοῦ θεοῦ πάντως ἀπλανεῖς οὔσας, τὰς ἐν ἡμῖν πεπλανημένας καταστησαίμεθα.  φωνῆς τε δὴ καὶ ἀκοῆς πέρι πάλιν ὁ αὐτὸς λόγος, ἐπὶ ταὐτὰ τῶν αὐτῶν ἕνεκα παρὰ θεῶν δεδωρῆσθαι.  λόγος τε γὰρ ἐπ’ αὐτὰ ταῦτα τέτακται, τὴν μεγίστην συμβαλλόμενος εἰς αὐτὰ μοῖραν,  ὅσον τ’ αὖ μουσικῆς φωνῇ χρήσιμον πρὸς ἀκοὴν ἕνεκα ἁρμονίας ἐστὶ δοθέν.  ἡ δὲ ἁρμονία, συγγενεῖς ἔχουσα φορὰς ταῖς ἐν ἡμῖν τῆς ψυχῆς περιόδοις, τῷ μετὰ νοῦ προσχρωμένῳ Μούσαις οὐκ ἐφ’ ἡδονὴν ἄλογον καθάπερ νῦν εἶναι δοκεῖ χρήσιμος,  ἀλλ’ ἐπὶ τὴν γεγονυῖαν ἐν ἡμῖν ἀνάρμοστον ψυχῆς περίοδον εἰς κατακόσμησιν καὶ συμφωνίαν ἑαυτῇ σύμμαχος ὑπὸ Μουσῶν δέδοται·  καὶ ῥυθμὸς αὖ διὰ τὴν ἄμετρον ἐν ἡμῖν καὶ χαρίτων ἐπιδεᾶ γιγνομένην ἐν τοῖς πλείστοις ἕξιν ἐπίκουρος ἐπὶ ταὐτὰ ὑπὸ τῶν αὐτῶν ἐδόθη. 
...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...urere...lucere...  ...per oculos emicare...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  defenstrix...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ... ii splendore consedit, tum vel eadem species  vel interdum inmutata redditur, cum ignis oculorum cum eo igne qui est ob os effusus se confudit et contulit.  Dextra autem videntur quae laeva sunt, quia contrariis partibus oculorum contrarias partes adtingunt.  Respondent autem dextra dexteris, laeva laevis conversione luminum, cum ea inter se non cohaerescunt:  id fit cum speculorum levitas hinc illincque altitudinem adsumpsit et ita dexteram detrusit in laevam partem oculorum laevamque in dexteram.  Supina etiam ora cernuntur depulsione luminum, quae convertens inferiora reddit quae sunt superiora.  Atque haec omnia ex eo genere sunt quae rerum adiuvant causas, quibus utitur ministeriis deus cum optimi speciem quoad fieri potest efficit;  sed existimant plerique non haec adiuvantia causarum sed has ipsas esse omnium causas, [quae vim habeant frigoris et caloris] quae vim habeant refrigerandi calefaciendi concrescendi liquendi,  careant autem omni intellegentia atque ratione,  quae nisi in animo nulla alia in natura reperiantur; animus autem sensum omnem effugit oculorum, at ignis aqua terra anima corpora sunt eaque cernuntur.  Illum autem qui intellegentiae sapientiaeque se amatorem profitetur necesse est intellegentis sapientisque naturae primas causas conquirere,  dein secundas earum rerum quae necessario movent alias cum ipsae ab aliis moventur.  Quocirca nobis sic cerno esse faciendum  ut de utroque nos quidem dicamus genere causarum, separatim autem de is quae cum intellegentia sunt efficientes pulcherrimarum rerum atque optumarum et de is quae vacantes prudentia inconstantia perturbataque efficiunt.  Ac de oculorum quidem causis, ut haberent eam vim quam nunc habent, satis ferme esse dictum puto;  maxuma autem eorum utilitas donata hominum generi deorum munere deinceps explicetur.  Rerum enim optumarum cognitionem nobis oculi adtulerunt. Nam haec quae est habita de universitate oratio a nobis haud umquam esset inventa, si neque sidera neque sol neque caelum sub oculorum aspectum cadere potuissent.  Nunc vero dies noctesque oculis cognitae, tum mensum annorumque conversiones et numerum machinatae sunt et spatium temporis dimensae, et ad quaestionem totius naturae inpulerunt;  quibus ex rebus philosophiam adepti sumus, quo bono nullum optabilius nullum praestantius neque datum est mortalium generi deorum concessu atque munere neque dabitur. [Hic finit Cicero]                       
Principio figuram capitis divinae potestates, quibus informandi corporis erat officium concreditum, ex mundi figura mutuatae teretem globosamque finxerunt eidemque duos circuitus venerandae divinitatis innexuerunt.  Est autem caput praeter caeterum corpus honoratius et optimati quadam eminentia;  cui reliqua membra dominanti parent atque obsequuntur iure meritoque subiecta,1   ne sine sede humiliter in imo plane iacens asperas, cum moveretur, terrenarum lacunarum offensiones proclivitatis et item declivitatis incurreret, maxime cui esset necesse cuncta motuum genera experiri. Hac igitur de causa vehiculo corporis utpote arx sustinetur.  Addita est crurum quoque et brachiorum porrigibilis et flexuosa substantia,  ut tenendi omittendi progrediendi resistendique usus ex arbitrio praesto foret eminente divino capitis gestamine.  See record above  Progrediendi porro commodius officium quam recedendi rata divina mens ire ulterius mage quam recessim voluit moveri; priores quoque corporis partes meliores posterioribus iudicans    in homine primo omnium e regione certa capitis personam subdidit vultus eamque appellavit faciem  eidemque instrumenta quae adminicularentur providis animae motibus assignavit.  E quibus primi luciferi oculorum orbes coruscant hac de causa dati.  Duae sunt, opinor, virtutes ignis, altera edax et peremptoria, altera mulcebris innoxio lumine. Huic igitur, ex qua lux diem invehens panditur, domesticum et familiare corpus oculorum divinae potestates commentae sunt,  intimum siquidem nostri corporis ignem, utpote germanum ignis perlucidi sereni et defaecati liquoris, per oculos fluere ac demanare voluerunt,  ut per leves congestosque et tamquam firmiore soliditate probatos orbes luminum, quorum tamen esset angusta medietas subtilior, serenus ignis per eandem efflueret medietatem.  Itaque cum diurnum iubar applicat se uisus fusioni, tunc nimirum incurrentia semet invicem duo similia in unius corporis speciem cohaerent, quo concurrunt oculorum acies emicantes quoque effluentis intimae fusionis acies contiguae imaginis occursu repercutitur.  Totum igitur hoc similem eandemque sortitum passionem  et ob indifferentem similitudinem eiusdem passionis effectum, cum quid aliud tangit uel ipsum ab alio tangitur, tactuum motu diffundens se per omne corpus perque corpus usque ad animam porrigens sensum efficit qui visus vocatur.  At postquam in noctem discesserit cognatus ignis, desertum lucis eius auxilio consortioque velut viduatum hebet,  ut quippe ad dissimile procedens, proptereaque immutatum extinguitur nullam habens cum proximo tunc aere naturae communicationem, utpote splendore ignis carenti,  videreque desinit factum illecebra somni.  Etenim divinae potestates salubre oculis tegmen palpebrarum machinatae sunt,  quibus obductis vis illa ignis intimi coniventia tegminis coercetur  compressaque fundit se per membra mollitisque  et relaxatis convalescit quies.  Quae cum est vehementior motuum reliquiis, cuius modi erunt et quibus in locis reliquiae,  talia pariaque somniorum simulacra nascentur eorumque expergefactos quoque memoria comitabitur.  At vero simulacrorum quae in speculis oboriuntur, umbrarum etiam quae in humida cernuntur superficie, facilis assecutio est,  siquidem utriusque ignis tam intimi quam extra positi concursu incidente in tersam aliquam levemque materiae superficie in formatique in multas et varias liguras  2 simulacra ex levigati corporis conspectu resultant.  Dextrae porro partes quae sunt sinistrae videntur in isdem speculis insolito quodam more, propterea quod dextris partibus visus contra sinistram partem speculi, sinistris item contra dextram positis, motu facto corporis ex adverso partis eius unde motus fit gesticulatur motus imago.  At uero dextrae corporis partes dextrae ita ut sunt in speculis quoque sinistraeque item sinistrae uidentur, cum ex coitu visus et splendoris e speculo corpulentior conglobata imago recidet;  quod fit, quotiens teres speculi serenitas hinc inde tumidioribus et provectis in molem lateribus dextram uisus partem in laeuam speculi, laevam item in dexteriora deiecit.  Cuius speculi demum si talis facta erit conversio, ut elatiores illae partes altera superior altera inferior locentur, resupini vultus apparebunt videntis splendore luminis e superiore margine cum summis oris partibus et ipso capite ad inferiora deiectis, similis porro ut mento genisque ad superiora sublatis.  Qui quidem sensus famulantur actibus opificis dei summam optimamque et primariam speciem molientis,  sed uulgo per semet ipsos sentire existimantur et agere aliquid, ut si quis non opifici sed serrae vel asciae tribuat effecti operis auctoritatem, cum a se plurimum distent causae et ea quae causam sequuntur. Licet enim corporea sint fundamenta omnium sensuum, quod tamen sentit, alienum a natura corporis, excipit sensus puro et incorporeo uigore; quippe corpora frigus et calorem, astrictionem et relaxationem recipiunt,  non sentiunt nec vero rationem intellectumque in rebus ratione prudentiaque agendis sciunt,  sed quod ex omnibus quae sunt intellectum prudentiamque habet, sola anima. Hoc porro inuisibile, at vero ignis et aqua caeteraeque materiae visibilia sunt corpora.  Oportet autem intellectus et disciplinae amatorem prudentissimae naturae principalem causam, non adminicula causae principalis inquirere,  illas uero, quae ab aliis motae mouent alias, secundas existimandum.  Nobis quoque igitur in eundem modum faciendum est  et de utroque causarum genere disserendum, sed separatim quidem de optimis, quae cum intellectu prudentiaque cuncta honesta et bona moliuntur, seorsum vero de his quae mente prudentiaque cassae temere et ut libet confusa et inordinata quae faciunt relinquunt.  Et de oculorum quidem ministerii causa, ob quam nacti sunt eam quam habent uirtutem, satis dictum,  de praecipua tamen utilitate operis eorum mox erit aptior disserendi locus.  Visus enim iuxta meam sententiam causa est maximi commodi plerisque non otiose natis atque institutis ob id ipsum quod nunc agimus; neque enim de universa re quisquam quaereret nisi prius stellis sole caeloque visis.  At nunc diei noctisque insinuata nobis alterna vice menses annorumque obitus et anfractus nati sunt eorumque ipsorum dinumeratio et ex dinumeratione perfectus et absolutus extitit numerus, tum temporis recordatio, quae naturam universae rei quaeri docuit curamque investigationis iniecit mentibus,  quasi quoddam seminarium philosophiae pangens, quo bono nihil umquam maius ad hominum genus divina munificentia commeavit.  Hoc igitur maximum beneficium visus oculorumque esse dico;  minora alia praetereo quibus qui a philosophia remoti sunt carentes debiles caecique maestam vitam lugubremque agunt.  Nobis vero causa dicenda demonstrandaque videtur divini muneris quod prouidentia commenta est salubriter hactenus: deum oculos hominibus idcirco dedisse, ut mentis prouidentiaeque circuitus, qui fiunt in caelo, notantes eorum similes cognatosque in usum redigerent suae mentis, circuitusque animae, qui animadversiones seu deliberationes vocantur,  quam simillimos efficerent divinae mentis providis motibus placidis tranquillisque, perturbatos licet,  confirmatoque ingeneratae rationis examine, dum imitantur aplanem mundi intellegibilis circumactionem, suae mentis motus erraticos corrigant.  Eadem uocis quoque et auditus ratio est ad eosdem usus atque ad plenam vitae hominum instructionem datorum,  siquidem propterea sermonis est ordinata communicatio, ut praesto forent mutuae voluntatis indicia;  quantumque per vocem utilitatis capitur ex musica, totum hoc constat hominum generi propter harmoniam tributum.  Harmonia vero, id est modulatio, utpote intentio modificata, cognatas et velut consanguineas habens commotiones animae nostrae circuitionibus, prudenter utentibus Musarum munere temperantiaeque causa potius quam oblectationis satis est commoda,  quippe quae discrepantes et inconsonantes animae commotiones ad concentum exornationemque concordiae Musis auxiliantibus revocet;  rhythmus autem datus ut medela contra illepidam numerorumque et modorum nesciam gratiaeque expertem in plerisque naturam. 
Principio dii figuram capitis ad rotunditatem mundi finxere, in eoque duos illos (8) animae divinos circuitus statuerunt.  Est autem caput membrorum corporis divinissimum,  (9) reliquorumque membrorum princeps: cui totum corpus connexum dii subesse et parere (10) iusserunt. Excogitaverunt enim motuum omnium quotcunque esse queant, compos id (11) fore.  Cum vero inaequalis et aspera, ac partim quidem acclivis, partim declivis terra sit, (12) si humi caput serperet, perque terrae superficiem volveretur, hos anfractus sine offensione (13) transire non posset. Quod sane malum ut vitaretur, procerum hunc habitum corporis (14) ad faciliorem progressum dii pro vehiculo capiti subiecerunt.  Corpori praeterea quatu(15)or in longum porrecta et flexibilia membra annexerunt,  quibus facile divina providen(16)tia moveretur, apprehenderet videlicet obiecta quaeque, staret, et sisteret, perque omnia (17) graderetur caput superne subsistens divinissimi sacrasissimique habitaculum.  Hanc igitur (18) ob causam nobis crura manusque dedere.  Anteriores autem partes posterioribus praestan(19)tiores et ad imperandum aptiores arbitrati, in anteriorem quoque partem moveri nos (20) ut plurimum volverunt.  Oportebat porro anteriora discreta et dissimilia esse.  Quapro(21)pter primum globo capitis faciem adiecere,  facieique instrumenta quae adminicularentur (22) omni animae providentiae, assignaverunt, decreveruntque naturale hominis imperium in (23) hac parte interiori priorique consistere.  Sed ex omnibus faciei partibus primi luciferi ocu(24)lorum orbes coruscant, hac causa dati.  Ignis certe illius qui non urit quidem sed illumi(25)nando suaviter diem invehit mundo, participes oculorum orbes dii fecerunt.  Intimum (26) siquidem nostri corporis ignem huius ignis germanum syncerumque per oculos emanare (27) volvuerunt,  in quibus lenis congestusque ubique ignis huiusmodi sit, sed per eorum dun(28)taxat solidiorem angustamque medietatem ignis purior evolet, crassior vero cohibeatur.  (29) Itaque cum diurnum lumen applicat se visus ratio, tunc ea duo inter se similia concurren(30)tia atque commixta, quo oculorum acies diriguntur, ibi in unius iam domestici corporis (31) cohaerent speciem, ubicunque videlicet tam intimi quam externi luminis concursus.  (32) Totum igitur hoc propter similitudinem passionem eandem fortitum,  cum quid aliud tan(33)git, vel ipsum ab alio tangitur, motum huiusmodi ad corpus omne perque id ad animam (34) usque ad diffundens sensum efficit, qui visus vocatur.  At postquam in noctem disscesserit co(35)gnatus ignis, visionis radius evanescit.  Nam in aerem sibi dissimilem erumpens permuta(36)tur atque extinguitur, cum nullam habeat cum proximo aere, utpote ignis splendore (37) carente, naturae communionem.  Idcirco videre definit, somnumque inducit.  Etenim salu(38)bre palpebrarum tegmen dii oculis machinati sunt:  quibus obductis vis illa ignis intimi (39) conniventia tegminis coercetur,  compressaque interiores motus perfundit et mulcet,  qui(40)bus relaxatis atque mollitis quies oritur. Si profundus ob multam quietem motuum nos oc(41)cupat sopor, exigua sequuntur insomnia.  Sin vehementiores aliqui motus quasi vigiliarum (42) reliquiae relicti sint, quales quidem et qualibus ex locis haustae reliquiae sunt,  talia somnio(43)rum simulacra nascuntur, eorumque nobis expergefactis restat memoria.  At vero simula(44)crorum quae vel in speculis oboriuntur, vel in perspicua lenique cernuntur superficie, faci(45)lis assecutio est.  Nam ex utriusque ignis tam intimi quam extra positi communione, eiusque (46) rursus concursu et congruentia, qui passim terso lenique corpori accommodatus est,  ne(47)cessario haec omnia oriuntur, cum ignis oculorum cum igne qui est e conspectu effusus, (48) circa lene nitidumque corpus sese confudit.  Dextera vero videntur quae laeve sunt, qui con(49)trariis partibus oculorum in solito more contrarias partes attingimus.  Respondent au(50)tem dextera dexteris, laeva laevis, quando commixtum lumen cum eo cui permiscetur; (51) transilit.  Id cum speculorum lenitas hinc illinque altitudinem assumpsit, et ita dextram o(52)culorum partem in laevam speculi, laevamque in dextram detorsit.  Quod si speculum ad (53) vultus lingitudinem convertatur, vultum reddit resupinum, cum superior luminis pars (54) ad inferiora, inferior vero ad superiora vertatur.  Atque haec omnia ex eorum genere(1)sunt, quae principiales rerum adiuvant causas, quibus ut ministris utitur deus ad optimi, (2) quoad fieri potest, ideam perficiendam.  Sed existimant plerique non adminacula haec (3) principalium causarum, sed has ipsas esse omnium causas, quae frigoris et caloris, rari et (4) densi, ceterorumque similium natura habeant,  rationem vero mentemque nequaquam.  (5) Mentem enim a nulla re alia nisi ab anima possideri convenit. hac [sic est] vero aspectum effu(6)git oculorum. Sed ignis, aqua, aer, ac terra corpora sunt, atque cernuntur.  Oportet au(7)tem mentis et scientiae amatorem principales sapientis naturae causas quaerere:  atque eas (8) quae necessario ab aliis quidem moventur, alia vero movent, secundas causas arbitrari.  (9) Quocirca a nobis sic censeo faciendum,  ut de utroque causarum genere differamus, sepa(10)ratim autem de his quae cum intelligentia effectrices sunt pulchrarum rerum atque bona(11)rum, de iis rursus quae vacantes prudentia quodlibet passim sine ordine faciunt.  Ac de (12) secundis quidem causis oculorum ad aem vim quam habent conducentibus, satis esse di(13)ctum puto.  Maximum vero opus cuius gratia utiliter nobis a deo donati sunt, deinceps (14) explicandum censeo.  Rerum enim optimarum, ut arbitror, cognitionem nobis oculi at(15)tulerunt. Nam haec quae de mundo disputantur, numquam inventa essent, si neque side(16)ra, neque sol, neque coelum suspici potuissent.  Cognitio vero diei ac noctis ab oculis orta (17) fecit, ut dinumeratione quadam mensium annorumque metiremur, tempus cog(18)nosceremus, universae naturae ordinem scrutaremur.  Quibus ex rebus philosophiam a(19)depti sumus. Quo bono nihil unquam maius mortalium generi datum est deorum munere, (20) neque dabitur.  Hoc igitur maximum oculorum beneficium esse dico.  Minora alia prae(21)tereo. Quibus qui a philosophia alieni sunt, orbati si querantur, frustra querentur.  No(22)bis vero asserendum est ob hanc potissimum rationem deum oculos genuisse, ut mentis (23) circuitus qui in coelo peraguntur, intuiti, in usum redigamus nostrae mentis:  cogitationis(24)que nostrae discursiones illis cognatas, sed perturbatas quodammodo ad illorum tempe(25)riem revocemus.  Et cum illos agnorevimus, et recta ratione secundum naturam praediti (26) singulorum ordinem percepimus, conversiones dei quae sine ullo errore aguntur, imi(27)temur, atque ad earum exemplum discursiones nostrae cogitationis vagas et erraticas con(28)ponamus.  Vocem quoque auditumque eiusdem rei gratia deos dedisse nobis existimo.  (29) Nam ad haec ipsa sermo pertinet, plurimumque conducit,  omnisque musicae vocis usus harmo(30)niae gratia est tributus.  Atqui et harmonia, quae motiones habet animae nostrae discursi(31)onibus congruas atque cognatas, homini prudenter musis utenti non ad voluptatem ra(32)tionis expertem, ut nunc videtur, est utilis:  sed a musis ideo data est, ut per dissonan(33)tem circuitum animae componamus, et ad concentum sibi congruum redigamus.  Rhyth(34)mus quoque ad hoc videtur esse tributus, ut habitum in nobis immoderatum gratiaque (35) carentem aptissime temperemus. 
[These courses were encased in the head, which, like the universe, is in the form of a sphere. The body, with its four limbs, is the vehicle of the head; it moves forward because the front part of us is the more honourable. In the front part of the head the face was inserted, and in the face, eyes. Sight arises thus:—The light from the eyes and the light of day, which is akin to it, combine; and when they meet with the light from an object, all three form one body, which transmits to the soul the motions of the object. In the case of reflections in plane mirrors, the transposition of right and left is due to the fact that the light from the eye and the object meet in an unusual manner. In a concavemirror, if held horizontally, there is no transposition; but if it be held vertically.] First, then, the gods, imitating the spherical shape of the universe, enclosed the two divine courses in a spherical body,  that, namely, which we now term the head, being the most divine part of us and the lord of all that is in us:  to this the gods, when they put together the body, gave all the other members to be servants, considering that it partook of every sort of motion.  In order then that it might not tumble about among the high and deep places of the earth, but might be able to get over the one and out of the other, they provided the body to be its vehicle and means of locomotion;  which consequently had length and was furnished with four limbs extended and flexible;  these God contrived to be instruments of locomotion with which it might take hold and find support, and so be able to pass through all places, carrying on high the dwelling-place of the most sacred and divine part of us.  Such was the origin of legs and hands, which for this reason were attached to every man;  and the gods, deeming the front part of man to be more honourable and more fit to command than the hinder part, made us to move mostly in a forward direction.  Wherefore man must needs have his front part unlike and distinguished from the rest of his body.  And so in the vessel of the head, they first of all put a face  in which they inserted organs to minister in all things to the providence of the soul, and they appointed this part, which has authority, to be by nature the part which is in front.  And of the organs they first contrived the eyes to give light, and the principle according to which they were inserted was as follows:  So much of fire as would not burn, but gave a gentle light, they formed into a substance akin to the light of every-day life;  and the pure fire which is within us and related thereto they made to flow through the eyes in a stream smooth and dense, compressing the whole eye, and especially the centre part,  so that it kept out everything of a coarser nature, and allowed to pass only this pure element.  When the light of day surrounds the stream of vision, then like falls upon like, and they coalesce, and one body is formed by natural affinity in the line of vision, wherever the light that falls from within meets with an external object.  And the whole stream of vision, being similarly affected in virtue of similarity,  diffuses the motions of what it touches or what touches it over the whole body, until they reach the soul, causing that perception which we call sight.  But when night comes on and the external and kindred fire departs, then the stream of vision is cut off;  for going forth to an unlike element it is changed and extinguished, being no longer of one nature with the surrounding atmosphere which is now deprived of fire;  and so the eye no longer sees, and we feel disposed to sleep.  For when the eyelids, which the gods invented for the preservation of sight,  are closed, they keep in the internal fire;  and the power of the fire diffuses and equalizes the inward motions;  when they are equalized, there is rest, and when the rest is profound, sleep comes over us scarce disturbed by dreams;  but where the greater motions still remain, of whatever nature and in whatever locality,  they engender corresponding visions in dreams, which are remembered by us when we are awake and in the external world.  And now there is no longer any difficulty in understanding the creation of images in mirrors and all smooth and bright surfaces.  For from the communion of the internal and external fires, and again from the union of them and their numerous transformations when they meet in the mirror,  all these appearances of necessity arise, when the fire from the face coalesces with the fire from the eye on the bright and smooth surface.  And right appears left and left right, because the visual rays come into contact with the rays emitted by the object in a manner contrary to the usual mode of meeting;  but the right appears right, and the left left, when the position of one of the two concurring lights is reversed;  and this happens when the mirror is concave and its smooth surface repels the right stream of vision to the left side, and the left to the right.  Or if the mirror be turned vertically, then the concavity makes the countenance appear to be all upside down, and the lower rays are driven upwards and the upper downwards the image is inverted.  [Enough of the secondary or irrational causes of sight; the first or intelligent cause is the purpose for which God gave it. From sight we derive number and philosophy; and the observation of the intelligent motions of the heavens enables us to correct the erring courses of our souls. Speech, hearing, harmony, and rhythm have the same object in view.] All these are to be reckoned among the second and co-operative causes which God, carrying into execution the idea of the best as far as possible, uses as his ministers.  They are thought by most men not to be the second, but the prime causes of all things, because they freeze and heat, and contract and dilate, and the like.  But they are not so, for they are incapable of reason or intellect;  the only being which can properly have mind is the invisible soul, whereas fire and water, and earth and air, are all of them visible bodies.   The lover of intellect and knowledge ought to explore causes of intelligent nature first of all,  and, secondly, of those things which, being moved by others, are compelled to move others.  And this is what we too must do.  Both kinds of causes should be acknowledged by us, but a distinction should be made between those which are endowed with mind and are the workers of things fair and good, and those which are deprived of intelligence and always produce chance effects without order or design.  Of the second or co-operative causes of sight, which help to give to the eyes the power which they now possess, enough has been said.  I will therefore now proceed to speak of the higher use and purpose for which God has given them to us.  The sight in my opinion is the source of the greatest benefit to us, for had we never seen the stars, and the sun, and the heaven, none of the words which we have spoken about the universe would ever have been uttered.  But now the sight of day and night, and the months and the revolutions of the years, have created number, and have given us a conception of time, and the power of enquiring about the nature of the universe;  and from this source we have derived philosophy, than which no greater good ever was or will be given by the gods to mortal man.  This is the greatest boon of sight:  and of the lesser benefits why should I speak? even the ordinary man if he were deprived of them would bewail his loss, but in vain.  Thus much let me say however: God invented and gave us sight to the end that we might behold the courses of intelligence in the heaven, and apply them to the courses of our own intelligence  which are akin to them, the unperturbed to the perturbed;  and that we, learning them and partaking of the natural truth of reason, might imitate the absolutely unerring courses of God and regulate our own vagaries.  The same may be affirmed of speech and hearing: they have been given by the gods to the same end and for a like reason.  For this is the principal end of speech, whereto it most contributes.  Moreover, so much of music as is adapted to the sound of the voice and to the sense of hearing is granted to us for the sake of harmony;  and harmony, which has motions akin to the revolutions of our souls, is not regarded by the intelligent votary of the Muses as given by them with a view to irrational pleasure, which is deemed to be the purpose of it in our day,  but as meant to correct any discord which may have arisen in the courses of the soul, and to be our ally in bringing her into harmony and agreement with herself;  and rhythm too was given by them for the same reason, on account of the irregular and graceless ways which prevail among mankind generally, and to help us against them. 
                                                                                                                   
 
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