Bibliotheca Polyglotta

(αἰσθήσεις) Καὶ τὰ μὲν δὴ σχήμασι κοινωνίαις τε καὶ μεταλλαγαῖς εἰς ἄλληλα πεποικιλμένα εἴδη σχεδὸν ἐπιδέδεικται· τὰ δὲ παθήματα αὐτῶν δι’ ἃς αἰτίας γέγονεν πειρατέον ἐμφανίζειν. πρῶτον μὲν οὖν ὑπάρχειν αἴσθησιν δεῖ τοῖς λεγομένοις ἀεί, σαρκὸς δὲ καὶ τῶν περὶ σάρκα γένεσιν, ψυχῆς τε ὅσον θνητόν, οὔπω διεληλύθαμεν· τυγχάνει δὲ οὔτε ταῦτα χωρὶς τῶν περὶ τὰ παθήματα ὅσα αἰσθητικὰ οὔτ’ ἐκεῖνα ἄνευ τούτων δυνατὰ ἱκανῶς λεχθῆναι, τὸ δὲ ἅμα σχεδὸν οὐ δυνατόν. ὑποθετέον δὴ πρότερον θάτερα, τὰ δ’ ὑποτεθέντα ἐπάνιμεν αὖθις. ἵνα οὖν ἑξῆς τὰ παθήματα λέγηται τοῖς γένεσιν, ἔστω πρότερα ἡμῖν τὰ περὶ σῶμα καὶ ψυχὴν ὄντα. πρῶτον μὲν οὖν ᾗ πῦρ θερμὸν λέγομεν, ἴδωμεν ὧδε σκοποῦντες, τὴν διάκρισιν καὶ τομὴν αὐτοῦ περὶ τὸ σῶμα ἡμῶν γιγνομένην ἐννοηθέντες. ὅτι μὲν γὰρ ὀξύ τι τὸ πάθος, πάντες σχεδὸν αἰσθανόμεθα· τὴν δὲ λεπτότητα τῶν πλευρῶν καὶ γωνιῶν ὀξύτητα τῶν τε μορίων σμικρότητα καὶ τῆς φορᾶς τὸ τάχος, οἷς πᾶσι σφοδρὸν ὂν καὶ τομὸν ὀξέως τὸ προστυχὸν ἀεὶ τέμνει, λογιστέον ἀναμιμνῃσκομένοις τὴν τοῦ σχήματος αὐτοῦ γένεσιν, ὅτι μάλιστα ἐκείνη καὶ οὐκ ἄλλη φύσις διακρίνουσα ἡμῶν κατὰ σμικρά τε τὰ σώματα κερματίζουσα τοῦτο ὃ νῦν θερμὸν λέγομεν εἰκότως τὸ πάθημα καὶ τοὔνομα παρέσχεν. τὸ δ’ ἐναντίον τούτων κατάδηλον μέν, ὅμως δὲ μηδὲν ἐπιδεὲς ἔστω λόγου. τὰ γὰρ δὴ τῶν περὶ τὸ σῶμα ὑγρῶν μεγαλομερέστερα εἰσιόντα, τὰ σμικρότερα ἐξωθοῦντα, εἰς τὰς ἐκείνων οὐ δυνάμενα ἕδρας ἐνδῦναι, συνωθοῦντα ἡμῶν τὸ νοτερόν, ἐξ ἀνωμάλου κεκινημένου τε ἀκίνητον δι’ ὁμαλότητα καὶ τὴν σύνωσιν ἀπεργαζόμενα πήγνυσιν· τὸ δὲ παρὰ φύσιν συναγόμενον μάχεται κατὰ φύσιν αὐτὸ ἑαυτὸ εἰς τοὐναντίον ἀπωθοῦν. τῇ δὴ μάχῃ καὶ τῷ σεισμῷ τούτῳ τρόμος καὶ ῥῖγος ἐτέθη, ψυχρόν τε τὸ πάθος ἅπαν τοῦτο καὶ τὸ δρῶν αὐτὸ ἔσχεν ὄνομα. σκληρὸν δέ, ὅσοις ἂν ἡμῶν ἡ σὰρξ ὑπείκῃ, μαλακὸν δέ, ὅσα ἂν τῇ σαρκί· πρὸς ἄλληλά τε οὕτως. ὑπείκει δὲ ὅσον ἐπὶ σμικροῦ βαίνει· τὸ δὲ ἐκ τετραγώνων ὂν βάσεων, ἅτε βεβηκὸς σφόδρα, ἀντιτυπώτατον εἶδος, ὅτι τε ἂν εἰς πυκνότητα συνιὸν πλείστην ἀντίτονον ᾖ μάλιστα. βαρὺ δὲ καὶ κοῦφον μετὰ τῆς τοῦ κάτω φύσεως ἄνω τε λεγομένης ἐξεταζόμενον ἂν δηλωθείη σαφέστατα. φύσει γὰρ δή τινας τόπους δύο εἶναι διειληφότας διχῇ τὸ πᾶν ἐναντίους, τὸν μὲν κάτω, πρὸς ὃν φέρεται πάνθ’ ὅσα τινὰ ὄγκον σώματος ἔχει, τὸν δὲ ἄνω, πρὸς ὃν ἀκουσίως ἔρχεται πᾶν, οὐκ ὀρθὸν οὐδαμῇ νομίζειν· τοῦ γὰρ παντὸς οὐρανοῦ σφαιροειδοῦς ὄντος, ὅσα μὲν ἀφεστῶτα ἴσον τοῦ μέσου γέγονεν ἔσχατα, ὁμοίως αὐτὰ χρὴ ἔσχατα πεφυκέναι, τὸ δὲ μέσον τὰ αὐτὰ μέτρα τῶν ἐσχάτων ἀφεστηκὸς ἐν τῷ καταντικρὺ νομίζειν δεῖ πάντων εἶναι. τοῦ δὴ κόσμου ταύτῃ πεφυκότος, τί τῶν εἰρημένων ἄνω τις ἢ κάτω τιθέμενος οὐκ ἐν δίκῃ δόξει τὸ μηδὲν προσῆκον ὄνομα λέγειν; ὁ μὲν γὰρ μέσος ἐν αὐτῷ τόπος οὔτε κάτω πεφυκὼς οὔτε ἄνω λέγεσθαι δίκαιος, ἀλλ’ αὐτὸ ἐν μέσῳ· ὁ δὲ πέριξ οὔτε δὴ μέσος οὔτ’ ἔχων διάφορον αὑτοῦ μέρος ἕτερον θατέρου μᾶλλον πρὸς τὸ μέσον ἤ τι τῶν καταντικρύ. τοῦ δὲ ὁμοίως πάντῃ πεφυκότος ποῖά τις ἐπιφέρων ὀνόματα αὐτῷ ἐναντία καὶ πῇ καλῶς ἂν ἡγοῖτο λέγειν; εἰ γάρ τι καὶ στερεὸν εἴη κατὰ μέσον τοῦ παντὸς ἰσοπαλές, εἰς οὐδὲν ἄν ποτε τῶν ἐσχάτων ἐνεχθείη διὰ τὴν πάντῃ ὁμοιότητα αὐτῶν· ἀλλ’ εἰ καὶ περὶ αὐτὸ πορεύοιτό τις ἐν κύκλῳ, πολλάκις ἂν στὰς ἀντίπους ταὐτὸν αὐτοῦ κάτω καὶ ἄνω προσείποι. τὸ μὲν γὰρ ὅλον, καθάπερ εἴρηται νυνδή, σφαιροειδὲς ὄν, τόπον τινὰ κάτω, τὸν δὲ ἄνω λέγειν ἔχειν οὐκ ἔμφρονος· ὅθεν δὲ ὠνομάσθη ταῦτα καὶ ἐν οἷς ὄντα εἰθίσμεθα δι’ ἐκεῖνα καὶ τὸν οὐρανὸν ὅλον οὕτω διαιρούμενοι λέγειν, ταῦτα διομολογητέον ὑποθεμένοις τάδε ἡμῖν. εἴ τις ἐν τῷ τοῦ παντὸς τόπῳ καθ’ ὃν ἡ τοῦ πυρὸς εἴληχε μάλιστα φύσις, οὗ καὶ πλεῖστον ἂν ἠθροισμένον εἴη πρὸς ὃ φέρεται, ἐπεμβὰς ἐπ’ ἐκεῖνο καὶ δύναμιν εἰς τοῦτο ἔχων, μέρη τοῦ πυρὸς ἀφαιρῶν ἱσταίη τιθεὶς εἰς πλάστιγγας, αἴρων τὸν ζυγὸν καὶ τὸ πῦρ ἕλκων εἰς ἀνόμοιον ἀέρα βιαζόμενος δῆλον ὡς τοὔλαττόν που τοῦ μείζονος ῥᾷον βιᾶται· ῥώμῃ γὰρ μιᾷ δυοῖν ἅμα μετεωριζομένοιν τὸ μὲν ἔλαττον μᾶλλον, τὸ δὲ πλέον ἧττον ἀνάγκη που κατατεινόμενον συνέπεσθαι τῇ βίᾳ, καὶ τὸ μὲν πολὺ βαρὺ καὶ κάτω φερόμενον κληθῆναι, τὸ δὲ σμικρὸν ἐλαφρὸν καὶ ἄνω. ταὐτὸν δὴ τοῦτο δεῖ φωρᾶσαι δρῶντας ἡμᾶς περὶ τόνδε τὸν τόπον. ἐπὶ γὰρ γῆς βεβῶτες γεώδη γένη διιστάμενοι, καὶ γῆν ἐνίοτε αὐτὴν ἕλκομεν εἰς ἀνόμοιον ἀέρα βίᾳ καὶ παρὰ φύσιν, ἀμφότερα τοῦ συγγενοῦς ἀντεχόμενα, τὸ δὲ σμικρότερον ῥᾷον τοῦ μείζονος βιαζομένοις εἰς τὸ ἀνόμοιον πρότερον συνέπεται· κοῦφον οὖν αὐτὸ προσειρήκαμεν καὶ τὸν τόπον εἰς ὃν βιαζόμεθα, ἄνω, τὸ δ’ ἐναντίον τούτοις πάθος βαρὺ καὶ κάτω. ταῦτ’ οὖν δὴ διαφόρως ἔχειν αὐτὰ πρὸς αὑτὰ ἀνάγκη διὰ τὸ τὰ πλήθη τῶν γενῶν τόπον ἐναντίον ἄλλα ἄλλοις κατέχειν - τὸ γὰρ ἐν ἑτέρῳ κοῦφον ὂν τόπῳ τῷ κατὰ τὸν ἐναντίον τόπον ἐλαφρῷ καὶ τῷ βαρεῖ τὸ βαρὺ τῷ τε κάτω τὸ κάτω καὶ τὸ ἄνω τῷ ἄνω πάντ’ ἐναντία καὶ πλάγια καὶ πάντως διάφορα πρὸς ἄλληλα ἀνευρεθήσεται γιγνόμενα καὶ ὄντα - τόδε γε μὴν ἕν τι διανοητέον περὶ πάντων αὐτῶν, ὡς ἡ μὲν πρὸς τὸ συγγενὲς ὁδὸς ἑκάστοις οὖσα βαρὺ μὲν τὸ φερόμενον ποιεῖ, τὸν δὲ τόπον εἰς ὃν τὸ τοιοῦτον φέρεται, κάτω, τὰ δὲ τούτοις ἔχοντα ὡς ἑτέρως θάτερα. περὶ δὴ τούτων αὖ τῶν παθημάτων ταῦτα αἴτια εἰρήσθω. λείου δ’ αὖ καὶ τραχέος παθήματος αἰτίαν πᾶς που κατιδὼν καὶ ἑτέρῳ δυνατὸς ἂν εἴη λέγειν· σκληρότης γὰρ ἀνωμαλότητι μειχθεῖσα, τὸ δ’ ὁμαλότης πυκνότητι παρέχεται.

Hactenus eas species quae figuris, commutationibusque invicem varian(6)tur, pene iam demonstravimus: quas vero ob causas passiones earum nascantur, dein(7)ceps demonstrare conabimur. Principio sensum his quae dicta sunt, adesse semper opor(8)tet. Carnis vero et eorum quae carnem attinent, generationem, animae quoque quan(9)tum mortale est, nondum declaravimus. Sunt enim haec a passionibus quaecunque cum (10) sensu sunt, minime separata, et illae sine his exponi sufficienter non possunt, simul vero (11)expleri ferme nequeunt. Prima igitur alia ponenda sunt: denique quae sequuntur, ex(12)pedienda. Ut ergo deinceps in disputando genera passiones ipsae sequantur, prima no(13)bis extent quae ad corpus et animam pertinent. In primis quae ratione ignis calidus di(14)citur, videamus. quod ita demum perspiciemus, si discretionem divisionemque ab eo in (15) nostro corpore facta, consideremus. quod enim acumen quoddam ea passio est, fer(16)me est omnibus manifestum. Tenuitatem vero angulorum laterumque subtilitatem, (17) parvitatem particularum, motus velocitatem, quibus omnibus vehemens et penetrans (18) est, velociterque quod occurrit, dividit semper et dissipat, considerare debemus, figurae (19) ipsius generationem memoria repetentes. ea quippe, non alia natura corpora nostra di(20)videns, et in partes exiguas partiens, merito passionem illam quae legitime calor nomi(21)natur, inducit. Contraria vero huic passio licet cuique manifesta, sua tamen explanati(22)one non careat. humidae nanque partes corporum, partibus nostris humidis grandio(23)res, cum in corpus influunt nostrum, minores quidem partes extrudunt, sed in earum (24) sedes sese insinuare non possunt, humorem autem nostrum coagulant, atque ex inaequa(25)li et agitato immobilem propter aequalitatem coagulumque faciunt, inque angustum co(26)gunt. Quod autem praeter naturam coactum est, secundum naturam renititur, seque revo(27)cat in contrarium. In hac reluctatione quassationeque tremor rigorque consistit, omnisque hu(28)iusmodi passio, frigus, quodve eam infert, frigidum nominatur. Durum autem dici(29)mus illud cui caro nostra cedit, molle quod carni: resque ipsas invicem et duras et mol(30)les, eadem ratione vocamus. Cedit autem quicquid parvo nititur. Quod vero ex trian(31)qularibus basibus firmantisque est, utpote plano vehementer innixum, renititur maxi(32)me atque restitit: quodve summopere densum est, contra venientia vehementer repercu(33)tit. Grave praeterea et leve cum ea natura simul quae sursum deorsumve dicitur, commo(34)dissime declarabitur. Sed illud dictu absurdum est, esse duo quaedam natura loca a se in(35)vicem longo intervallo distincta: et unum quidem deorsum vocari, ad quem locum ea (36) deferantur omnia quaecunque molem quandam corporis habent: alterum vero sursum, ad quem vi omnia moveantur. Cum enim coelum omne rotundum sit, quaecunque a me(37)dio aeque distantia extrema fata sunt, similiter esse oportet extrema. Medium quoque (38) aequalibus lineis ab extremis undique distans, eregione aeque omnia respicit. Quoniam (40) igitur ita mundus dispositus est, siquis dictorum quicquam sursum esse dixerit vel deor(41)sum, non inuria errare videbitur. Medius enim locus in ipso, neque sursum, neque de(42)orsum dici debet, sed medius. Quod rursus undique circuit, neque medium est, neque par(43)tem in se habet aliam ab alia differentem, quo ad ipsum medium, et omnino quicquid sit (44) eregione locatum. Ei vero quod sui ipsius simillimum est, contraria nomina iure nullus at(45)tribuet. Siquid enim solidum aequilibratumque in universi medio sit, ad nullam extremo(46)rum partem propter perfectam ipsorum similitudinem declinabit: at siquis circa illud ob(47)ambulet, saepe sibimet plantis stabit oppositis, eandemque illius partem, tum sursum, tum de(48)orsum vocabit. Itaque universum quemadmodum paulo ante diximus, cum sit rotun(49)dum, locum habere superiorem aut inferiorem vir prudens minime affirmabit. Sed unde (50) nomina sunt ista, et in quibus ea intuiti ex illis ad mundum totum transtulimus, huius(51)modi quaedam in primis ponentes, investigemus. Siquis in ea mundi regione quam ut (52) plurimum fortitus est ignis, et ad quam undique fertur, insideat, vimque aliquam nancisca(53)tur, per quam ignis partes arripiat libretque, aut ubi in staterae lancibus collocavit, ut deor(54)sum in dissimilem detorqueat aerem, constat plane minorem ignis portionem maiori fa(1)cilius coactum iri. Ubi enim duo simul uno rubore suspenduntur, minus quidem ma(2)gis, plus autem minus inferenti vim cedit. Et unum quidem grave deorsumque ferri di(3)citur, alterum vero sursum ac leve. Idem nobis terram habitantibus accidit. Nam terrae (4) innixi, perque eam gradientes, terrena genera invicem separamus atque distinguimus, (5) et saepe terram in dissimilem acrem iacimus violenter, praeterque naturam, saepe partes (6) utrasque cognatae naturae participes. Hic portio minor facilius quam maior ad dissimi(724,7)lem locum iacta, prius violentiae cedit, eamque levem cognominavimus: et locum ad (8) quem compellimus, sursum. Contrariam his affectionem grave quiddam, atque deor(9)sum. Haec utique differre invicem necessarium est, propterea quod generum multitudi(10)nes locum aliis contrarium obtinent. Quod enim in alio loco leve est, levi quod on lo(11)co est contrario: et grave similiter gravi: et ei quod deorsum dicitur, id quod deor(12)sum: eique quod sursum, id quod dicitur sursum. omnia enim haec transversa invicem et (13) contraria ac penitus differentia esse fierique reperientur. Unum tamen id de his omni(14)bus cogitandum, quod via gressioque singulorum ad simile atque cognatum ferens, gra(15)ve facit id quod fertur: locum vero in quem tale quid fertur, deorsum. Quae aliter se ha(16)bent, aliter efficit. Harum igitur passionum huiusmodi quaedam dictae sint causae. Lenis (17) item et asperae passionis causam quilibet intuitus aperire aliis poterit. Durities enim hanc (18) inaequalitati permixta, illam vero aequalitas exhibet densitati.

[From objects of sense we pass on to consider flesh, which perceives sensations, and sensations themselves.] I have thus shown the various classes of bodies as they are diversified by their forms and combinations and changes into one another, and now I must endeavour to set forth their affections and the causes of them. In the first place, the bodies which I have been describing are necessarily objects of sense. But we have not yet considered the origin of flesh, or what belongs to flesh, or of that part of the soul which is mortal. And these things cannot be adequately explained without also explaining the affections which are concerned with sensation, nor the latter without the former: and yet to explain them together is hardly possible; for which reason we must assume first one or the other and afterwards examine the nature of our hypothesis. In order, then, that the affections may follow regularly after the elements, let us presuppose the existence of body and soul. [i. Sensations common to the whole body:—(1) Heat, due to the sharpness of fire, which cuts the flesh. (2) Cold, due to contraction. (3) Hardness, and (4) Softness, the qualities in things which make them resist or yield. (5) Lightness, and (6) Heaviness, are not to be explained by dividing the world into an upper and a lower region. For the universe is shaped like a globe, and its extremes, being similarly related to the centre, cannot have opposite predicates applied to them. Lightness and heaviness are really due to attraction. Bodies are drawn towards the mass of their kindred with a force proportionate to their size. The greater this force, the greater the weight. (7) Roughness; and (8) Smoothness.] First, let us enquire what we mean by saying that fire is hot; and about this we may reason from the dividing or cutting power which it exercises on our bodies. We all of us feel that fire is sharp; and we may further consider the fineness of the sides, and the sharpness of the angles, and the smallness of the particles, and the swiftness of the motion;—all this makes the action of fire violent and sharp, so that it cuts whatever it meets. And we must not forget that the original figure of fire [i. e. the pyramid], more than any other form, has a dividing power which cuts our bodies into small pieces (κερματίζει), and thus naturally produces that affection which we call heat; and hence the origin of the name (θερμὸς, κέρμα). Now, the opposite of this is sufficiently manifest; nevertheless we will not fail to describe it. For the larger particles of moisture which surround the body, entering in and driving out the lesser, but not being able to take their places, compress the moist principle in us; and this from being unequal and disturbed, is forced by them into a state of rest, which is due to equability and compression. But things which are contracted contrary to nature are by nature at war, and force themselves apart; and to this war and convulsion the name of shivering and trembling is given; and the whole affection and the cause of the affection are both termed cold. That is called hard to which our flesh yields, and soft which yields to our flesh; and things are also termed hard and soft relatively to one another. That which yields has a small base; but that which rests on quadrangular bases is firmly posed and belongs to the class which offers the greatest resistance; so too does that which is the most compact and therefore most repellent. The nature of the light and the heavy will be best understood when examined in connexion with our notions of above and below; for it is quite a mistake to suppose that the universe is parted into two regions, separate from and opposite to each other, the one a lower to which all things tend which have any bulk, and an upper to which things only ascend against their will. For as the universe is in the form of a sphere, all the extremities, being equidistant from the centre, are equally extremities, and the centre, which is equidistant from them, is equally to be regarded as the opposite of them all. Such being the nature of the world, when a person says that any of these points is above or below, may he not be justly charged with using an improper expression? For the centre of the world cannot be rightly called either above or below, but is the centre and nothing else; and the circumference is not the centre, and has in no one part of itself a different relation to the centre from what it has in any of the opposite parts. Indeed, when it is in every direction similar, how can one rightly give to it names which imply opposition? For if there were any solid body in equipoise at the centre of the universe, there would be nothing to draw it to this extreme rather than to that, for they are all perfectly similar; and if a person were to go round the world in a circle, he would often, when standing at the antipodes of his former position, speak of the same point as above and below; for, as I was saying just now, to speak of the whole which is in the form of a globe as having one part above and another below is not like a sensible man. The reason why these names are used, and the circumstances under which they are ordinarily applied by us to the division of the heavens, may be elucidated by the following supposition: —If a person were to stand in that part of the universe which is the appointed place of fire, and where there is the great mass of fire to which fiery bodies gather— if, I say, he were to ascend thither, and, having the power to do this, were to abstract particles of fire and put them in scales and weigh them, and then, raising the balance, were to draw the fire by force towards the uncongenial element of the air, it would be very evident that he could compel the smaller mass more readily than the larger; for when two things are simultaneously raised by one and the same power, the smaller body must necessarily yield to the superior power with less reluctance than the larger; and the larger body is called heavy and said to tend downwards, and the smaller body is called light and said to tend upwards. And we may detect ourselves who are upon the earth doing precisely the same thing. For we often separate earthy natures, and sometimes earth itself, and draw them into the uncongenial element of air by force and contrary to nature, both clinging to their kindred elements. But that which is smaller yields to the impulse given by us towards the dissimilar element more easily than the larger; and so we call the former light, and the place towards which it is impelled we call above, and the contrary state and place we call heavy and below respectively. Now the relations of these must necessarily vary, because the principal masses of the different elements hold opposite positions; for that which is light, heavy, below or above in one place will be found to be and become contrary and transverse and every way diverse in relation to that which is light, heavy, below or above in an opposite place. And about all of them this has to be considered:—that the tendency of each towards its kindred element makes the body which is moved heavy, and the place towards which the motion tends below, but things which have an opposite tendency we call by an opposite name. Such are the causes which we assign to these phenomena. As to the smooth and the rough, any one who sees them can explain the reason of them to another. For roughness is hardness mingled with irregularity, and smoothness is produced by the joint effect of uniformity and density.

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