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Plato: Timaeus
    Click to Expand/Collapse Option Complete text
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionTitle
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionPreface
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionDramatis Personae
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionIntroduction
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionSpeech of Timaeus
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionThe soul of the world
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionTime
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionGods visible and generated
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionCreation of the souls
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionBody and sense perceptions
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionNecessity
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionThe triangles
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionThe forth genera
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionMovement and stillness
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionForms of the genera
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionThe forms of the earth
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionSense perceptions
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionPleasure and weaknesses
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionPowers of the soul
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionOn the rest of the body
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionIllnesses of the body
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionIllnesses of the soul
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionOrigination of the other living beings
Click to Expand/Collapse OptionConcluding remarks
Back to library
(τὸ τοῦ σώματος ἐπίλοιπον) Τὰ μὲν οὖν περὶ ψυχῆς, ὅσον θνητὸν ἔχει καὶ ὅσον θεῖον, καὶ ὅπῃ καὶ μεθ’ ὧν καὶ δι’ ἃ χωρὶς ᾠκίσθη, τὸ μὲν ἀληθὲς ὡς εἴρηται, θεοῦ συμφήσαντος τότ’ ἂν οὕτως μόνως διισχυριζοίμεθα·  τό γε μὴν εἰκὸς ἡμῖν εἰρῆσθαι, καὶ νῦν καὶ ἔτι μᾶλλον ἀνασκοποῦσι διακινδυνευτέον τὸ φάναι καὶ πεφάσθω.  τὸ δ’ ἑξῆς δὴ τούτοισιν κατὰ ταὐτὰ μεταδιωκτέον·  ἦν δὲ τὸ τοῦ σώματος ἐπίλοιπον ᾗ γέγονεν.  ἐκ δὴ λογισμοῦ τοιοῦδε συνίστασθαι μάλιστ’ ἂν αὐτὸ πάντων πρέποι.  τὴν ἐσομένην ἐν ἡμῖν ποτῶν καὶ ἐδεστῶν ἀκολασίαν ᾔδεσαν οἱ συντιθέντες ἡμῶν τὸ γένος, καὶ ὅτι τοῦ μετρίου καὶ ἀναγκαίου διὰ μαργότητα πολλῷ χρησοίμεθα πλέονι·  ἵν’ οὖν μὴ φθορὰ διὰ νόσους ὀξεῖα γίγνοιτο καὶ ἀτελὲς τὸ γένος εὐθὺς τὸ θνητὸν τελευτῷ, ταῦτα προορώμενοι τῇ τοῦ περιγενησομένου πώματος ἐδέσματός τε ἕξει τὴν ὀνομαζομένην κάτω κοιλίαν ὑποδοχὴν ἔθεσαν, εἵλιξάν τε πέριξ τὴν τῶν ἐντέρων γένεσιν,  ὅπως μὴ ταχὺ διεκπερῶσα ἡ τροφὴ ταχὺ πάλιν τροφῆς ἑτέρας δεῖσθαι τὸ σῶμα ἀναγκάζοι, καὶ παρέχουσα ἀπληστίαν,  διὰ γαστριμαργίαν ἀφιλόσοφον καὶ ἄμουσον πᾶν ἀποτελοῖ τὸ γένος, ἀνυπήκοον τοῦ θειοτάτου τῶν παρ’ ἡμῖν.  Τὸ δὲ ὀστῶν καὶ σαρκῶν καὶ τῆς τοιαύτης φύσεως πέρι πάσης ὧδε ἔσχεν.  τούτοις σύμπασιν ἀρχὴ μὲν ἡ τοῦ μυελοῦ γένεσις·  οἱ γὰρ τοῦ βίου δεσμοί, τῆς ψυχῆς τῷ σώματι συνδουμένης, ἐν τούτῳ διαδούμενοι κατερρίζουν τὸ θνητὸν γένος·  αὐτὸς δὲ ὁ μυελὸς γέγονεν ἐξ ἄλλων.  τῶν γὰρ τριγώνων ὅσα πρῶτα ἀστραβῆ καὶ λεῖα ὄντα πῦρ τε καὶ ὕδωρ καὶ ἀέρα καὶ γῆν δι’ ἀκριβείας μάλιστα ἦν παρασχεῖν δυνατά,  ταῦτα ὁ θεὸς ἀπὸ τῶν ἑαυτῶν ἕκαστα γενῶν χωρὶς ἀποκρίνων, μειγνὺς δὲ ἀλλήλοις σύμμετρα, πανσπερμίαν παντὶ θνητῷ γένει μηχανώμενος, τὸν μυελὸν ἐξ αὐτῶν ἀπηργάσατο,  καὶ μετὰ ταῦτα δὴ φυτεύων ἐν αὐτῷ κατέδει τὰ τῶν ψυχῶν γένη, σχημάτων τε ὅσα ἔμελλεν αὖ σχήσειν οἷά τε καθ’ ἕκαστα εἴδη, τὸν μυελὸν αὐτὸν τοσαῦτα καὶ τοιαῦτα διῃρεῖτο σχήματα εὐθὺς ἐν τῇ διανομῇ τῇ κατ’ ἀρχάς.  καὶ τὴν μὲν τὸ θεῖον σπέρμα οἷον ἄρουραν μέλλουσαν ἕξειν ἐν αὑτῇ περιφερῆ πανταχῇ πλάσας ἐπωνόμασεν τοῦ μυελοῦ ταύτην τὴν μοῖραν ἐγκέφαλον,  ὡς ἀποτελεσθέντος ἑκάστου ζῴου τὸ περὶ τοῦτ’ ἀγγεῖον κεφαλὴν γενησόμενον·  ὃ δ’ αὖ τὸ λοιπὸν καὶ θνητὸν τῆς ψυχῆς ἔμελλε καθέξειν, ἅμα στρογγύλα καὶ προμήκη διῃρεῖτο σχήματα, μυελὸν δὲ πάντα ἐπεφήμισεν,  καὶ καθάπερ ἐξ ἀγκυρῶν βαλλόμενος ἐκ τούτων πάσης ψυχῆς δεσμοὺς περὶ τοῦτο σύμπαν ἤδη τὸ σῶμα ἡμῶν ἀπηργάζετο, στέγασμα μὲν αὐτῷ πρῶτον συμπηγνὺς περὶ ὅλον ὀστέινον.  τὸ δὲ ὀστοῦν συνίστησιν ὧδε.  γῆν διαττήσας καθαρὰν καὶ λείαν ἐφύρασε καὶ ἔδευσεν μυελῷ,  καὶ μετὰ τοῦτο εἰς πῦρ αὐτὸ ἐντίθησιν, μετ’ ἐκεῖνο δὲ εἰς ὕδωρ βάπτει, πάλιν δὲ εἰς πῦρ, αὖθίς τε εἰς ὕδωρ·  μεταφέρων δ’ οὕτω πολλάκις εἰς ἑκάτερον ὑπ’ ἀμφοῖν ἄτηκτον ἀπηργάσατο.  καταχρώμενος δὴ τούτῳ περὶ μὲν τὸν ἐγκέφαλον αὐτοῦ σφαῖραν περιετόρνευσεν ὀστεΐνην, ταύτῃ δὲ στενὴν διέξοδον κατελείπετο·  καὶ περὶ τὸν διαυχένιον ἅμα καὶ νωτιαῖον μυελὸν ἐξ αὐτοῦ σφονδύλους πλάσας ὑπέτεινεν οἷον στρόφιγγας, ἀρξάμενος ἀπὸ τῆς κεφαλῆς, διὰ παντὸς τοῦ κύτους.  καὶ τὸ πᾶν δὴ σπέρμα διασῴζων οὕτως λιθοειδεῖ περιβόλῳ συνέφραξεν, ἐμποιῶν ἄρθρα, τῇ θατέρου προσχρώμενος ἐν αὐτοῖς ὡς μέσῃ ἐνισταμένῃ δυνάμει, κινήσεως καὶ κάμψεως ἕνεκα.  τὴν δ’ αὖ τῆς ὀστεΐνης φύσεως ἕξιν ἡγησάμενος τοῦ δέοντος κραυροτέραν εἶναι καὶ ἀκαμπτοτέραν, διάπυρόν τ’ αὖ γιγνομένην καὶ πάλιν ψυχομένην σφακελίσασαν ταχὺ διαφθερεῖν τὸ σπέρμα ἐντὸς αὑτῆς, διὰ ταῦτα οὕτω τὸ τῶν νεύρων καὶ τὸ τῆς σαρκὸς γένος ἐμηχανᾶτο,  ἵνα τῷ μὲν πάντα τὰ μέλη συνδήσας ἐπιτεινομένῳ καὶ ἀνιεμένῳ περὶ τοὺς στρόφιγγας καμπτόμενον τὸ σῶμα καὶ ἐκτεινόμενον παρέχοι,  τὴν δὲ σάρκα προβολὴν μὲν καυμάτων, πρόβλημα δὲ χειμώνων, ἔτι δὲ πτωμάτων οἷον τὰ πιλητὰ ἔσεσθαι κτήματα,  σώμασιν μαλακῶς καὶ πρᾴως ὑπείκουσαν, θερμὴν δὲ νοτίδα ἐντὸς ἑαυτῆς ἔχουσαν θέρους μὲν ἀνιδίουσαν καὶ νοτιζομένην ἔξωθεν ψῦχος κατὰ πᾶν τὸ σῶμα παρέξειν οἰκεῖον,  διὰ χειμῶνος δὲ πάλιν αὖ τούτῳ τῷ πυρὶ τὸν προσφερόμενον ἔξωθεν καὶ περιιστάμενον πάγον ἀμυνεῖσθαι μετρίως.  ταῦτα ἡμῶν διανοηθεὶς ὁ κηροπλάστης, ὕδατι μὲν καὶ πυρὶ καὶ γῇ συμμείξας καὶ συναρμόσας,  ἐξ ὀξέος καὶ ἁλμυροῦ συνθεὶς ζύμωμα ὑπομείξας αὐτοῖς, σάρκα ἔγχυμον καὶ μαλακὴν συνέστησεν·  τὴν δὲ τῶν νεύρων φύσιν ἐξ ὀστοῦ καὶ σαρκὸς ἀζύμου κράσεως μίαν ἐξ ἀμφοῖν μέσην δυνάμει συνεκεράσατο, ξανθῷ χρώματι προσχρώμενος.  ὅθεν συντονωτέραν μὲν καὶ γλισχροτέραν σαρκῶν, μαλακωτέραν δὲ ὀστῶν ὑγροτέραν τε ἐκτήσατο δύναμιν νεῦρα·  οἷς συμπεριλαβὼν ὁ θεὸς ὀστᾶ καὶ μυελόν, δήσας πρὸς ἄλληλα νεύροις, μετὰ ταῦτα σαρξὶν πάντα αὐτὰ κατεσκίασεν ἄνωθεν.  ὅσα μὲν οὖν ἐμψυχότατα τῶν ὀστῶν ἦν, ὀλιγίσταις συνέφραττε σαρξίν, ἃ δ’ ἀψυχότατα ἐντός, πλείσταις καὶ πυκνοτάταις,  καὶ δὴ κατὰ τὰς συμβολὰς τῶν ὀστῶν, ὅπῃ μήτινα ἀνάγκην ὁ λόγος ἀπέφαινεν δεῖν αὐ τὰς εἶναι, βραχεῖαν σάρκα ἔφυσεν, ἵνα μήτε ἐμποδὼν ταῖς καμπαῖσιν οὖσαι δύσφορα τὰ σώματα ἀπεργάζοιντο,  ἅτε δυσκίνητα γιγνόμενα, μήτ’ αὖ πολλαὶ καὶ πυκναὶ σφόδρα τε ἐν ἀλλήλαις ἐμπεπιλημέναι, διὰ στερεότητα ἀναισθησίαν ἐμποιοῦσαι, δυσμνημονευτότερα καὶ κωφότερα τὰ περὶ τὴν διάνοιαν ποιοῖεν.  διὸ δὴ τό τε τῶν μηρῶν καὶ κνημῶν καὶ τὸ περὶ τὴν τῶν ἰσχίων φύσιν τά τε περὶ τὰ τῶν βραχιόνων ὀστᾶ καὶ τὰ τῶν πήχεων, καὶ ὅσα ἄλλα ἡμῶν ἄναρθρα, ὅσα τε ἐντὸς ὀστᾶ δι’ ὀλιγότητα ψυχῆς ἐν μυελῷ κενά ἐστιν φρονήσεως, ταῦτα πάντα συμπεπλήρωται σαρξίν·  ὅσα δὲ ἔμφρονα, ἧττον - εἰ μή πού τινα αὐτὴν καθ’ αὑτὴν αἰσθήσεων ἕνεκα σάρκα οὕτω συνέστησεν, οἷον τὸ τῆς γλώττης εἶδος τὰ δὲ πλεῖστα ἐκείνως·  ἡ γὰρ ἐξ ἀνάγκης γιγνομένη καὶ συντρεφομένη φύσις οὐδαμῇ προσδέχεται πυκνὸν ὀστοῦν καὶ σάρκα πολλὴν ἅμα τε αὐτοῖς ὀξυήκοον αἴσθησιν.  μάλιστα γὰρ ἂν αὐτὰ πάντων ἔσχεν ἡ περὶ τὴν κεφαλὴν σύστασις, εἴπερ ἅμα συμπίπτειν ἠθελησάτην, καὶ τὸ τῶν ἀνθρώπων γένος σαρκώδη ἔχον ἐφ’ ἑαυτῷ καὶ νευρώδη κρατεράν τε κεφαλὴν βίον ἂν διπλοῦν καὶ πολλαπλοῦν καὶ ὑγιεινότερον καὶ ἀλυπότερον τοῦ νῦν κατεκτήσατο.  νῦν δὲ τοῖς περὶ τὴν ἡμετέραν γένεσιν δημιουργοῖς, ἀναλογιζομένοις πότερον πολυχρονιώτερον χεῖρον ἢ βραχυχρονιώτερον βέλτιον ἀπεργάσαιντο γένος, συνέδοξεν τοῦ πλείονος βίου, φαυλοτέρου δέ, τὸν ἐλάττονα ἀμείνονα ὄντα παντὶ πάντως αἱρετέον·  ὅθεν δὴ μανῷ μὲν ὀστῷ, σαρξὶν δὲ καὶ νεύροις κεφαλήν, ἅτε οὐδὲ καμπὰς ἔχουσαν, οὐ συνεστέγασαν.  κατὰ πάντα οὖν ταῦτα εὐαισθητοτέρα μὲν καὶ φρονιμωτέρα, πολὺ δὲ ἀσθενεστέρα παντὸς ἀνδρὸς προσετέθη κεφαλὴ σώματι.  τὰ δὲ νεῦρα διὰ ταῦτα καὶ οὕτως ὁ θεὸς ἐπ’ ἐσχάτην τὴν κεφαλὴν περιστήσας κύκλῳ περὶ τὸν τράχηλον ἐκόλλησεν ὁμοιότητι, καὶ τὰς σιαγόνας ἄκρας αὐτοῖς συνέδησεν ὑπὸ τὴν φύσιν τοῦ προσώπου·  τὰ δ’ ἄλλα εἰς ἅπαντα τὰ μέλη διέσπειρε, συνάπτων ἄρθρον ἄρθρῳ.  τὴν δὲ δὴ τοῦ στόματος ἡμῶν δύναμιν ὀδοῦσιν καὶ γλώττῃ καὶ χείλεσιν ἕνεκα τῶν ἀναγκαίων καὶ τῶν ἀρίστων διεκόσμησαν οἱ διακοσμοῦντες ᾗ νῦν διατέτακται,  τὴν μὲν εἴσοδον τῶν ἀναγκαίων μηχανώμενοι χάριν, τὴν δ’ ἔξοδον τῶν ἀρίστων·  ἀναγκαῖον μὲν γὰρ πᾶν ὅσον εἰσέρχεται τροφὴν διδὸν τῷ σώματι, τὸ δὲ λόγων νᾶμα ἔξω ῥέον καὶ ὑπηρετοῦν φρονήσει κάλλιστον καὶ ἄριστον πάντων ναμάτων.  τὴν δ’ αὖ κεφαλὴν οὔτε μόνον ὀστεΐνην ψιλὴν δυνατὸν ἐᾶν ἦν διὰ τὴν ἐν ταῖς ὥραις ἐφ’ ἑκάτερον ὑπερβολήν,  οὔτ’ αὖ συσκιασθεῖσαν κωφὴν καὶ ἀναίσθητον διὰ τὸν τῶν σαρκῶν ὄχλον περιιδεῖν γιγνομένην·  τῆς δὴ σαρκοειδοῦς φύσεως οὐ καταξηραινομένης λέμμα μεῖζον περιγιγνόμενον ἐχωρίζετο, δέρμα τὸ νῦν λεγόμενον.  τοῦτο δὲ διὰ τὴν περὶ τὸν ἐγκέφαλον νοτίδα συνιὸν αὐτὸ πρὸς αὑτὸ καὶ βλαστάνον κύκλῳ περιημφιέννυεν τὴν κεφαλήν·  ἡ δὲ νοτὶς ὑπὸ τὰς ῥαφὰς ἀνιοῦσα ἦρδε καὶ συνέκλεισεν αὐτὸ ἐπὶ τὴν κορυφήν, οἷον ἅμμα συναγαγοῦσα,  τὸ δὲ τῶν ῥαφῶν παντοδαπὸν εἶδος γέγονε διὰ τὴν τῶν περιόδων δύναμιν καὶ τῆς τροφῆς, μᾶλλον μὲν ἀλλήλοις μαχομένων τούτων πλείους, ἧττον δὲ ἐλάττους.  τοῦτο δὴ πᾶν τὸ δέρμα κύκλῳ κατεκέντει πυρὶ τὸ θεῖον, τρηθέντος δὲ καὶ τῆς ἰκμάδος ἔξω δι’ αὐτοῦ φερομένης  τὸ μὲν ὑγρὸν καὶ θερμὸν ὅσον εἰλικρινὲς ἀπῄειν, τὸ δὲ μεικτὸν ἐξ ὧν καὶ τὸ δέρμα ἦν, αἰρόμενον μὲν ὑπὸ τῆς φορᾶς ἔξω μακρὸν ἐτείνετο, λεπτότητα ἴσην ἔχον τῷ κατακεντήματι,  διὰ δὲ βραδυτῆτα ἀπωθούμενον ὑπὸ τοῦ περιεστῶτος ἔξωθεν πνεύματος πάλιν ἐντὸς ὑπὸ τὸ δέρμα εἱλλόμενον κατερριζοῦτο·  καὶ κατὰ ταῦτα δὴ τὰ πάθη τὸ τριχῶν γένος ἐν τῷ δέρματι πέφυκεν, συγγενὲς μὲν ἱμαντῶδες ὂν αὐτοῦ, σκληρότερον δὲ καὶ πυκνότερον τῇ πιλήσει τῆς ψύξεως, ἣν ἀποχωριζομένη δέρματος ἑκάστη θρὶξ ψυχθεῖσα συνεπιλήθη.  τούτῳ δὴ λασίαν ἡμῶν ἀπηργάσατο τὴν κεφαλὴν ὁ ποιῶν, χρώμενος μὲν αἰτίοις τοῖς εἰρημένοις,  διανοούμενος δὲ ἀντὶ σαρκὸς αὐτὸ δεῖν εἶναι στέγασμα τῆς περὶ τὸν ἐγκέφαλον ἕνεκα ἀσφαλείας κοῦφον καὶ θέρους χειμῶνός τε ἱκανὸν σκιὰν καὶ σκέπην παρέχειν, εὐαισθησίας δὲ οὐδὲν διακώλυμα ἐμποδὼν γενησόμενον.  τὸ δ’ ἐν τῇ περὶ τοὺς δακτύλους καταπλοκῇ τοῦ νεύρου καὶ τοῦ δέρματος ὀστοῦ τε, συμμειχθὲν ἐκ τριῶν, ἀποξηρανθὲν ἓν κοινὸν συμπάντων σκληρὸν γέγονεν δέρμα, τοῖς μὲν συναιτίοις τούτοις δημιουργηθέν, τῇ δὲ αἰτιωτάτῃ διανοίᾳ τῶν ἔπειτα ἐσομένων ἕνεκα εἰργασμένον.  ὡς γάρ ποτε ἐξ ἀνδρῶν γυναῖκες καὶ τἆλλα θηρία γενήσοιντο, ἠπίσταντο οἱ συνιστάντες ἡμᾶς, καὶ δὴ καὶ τῆς τῶν ὀνύχων χρείας ὅτι πολλὰ τῶν θρεμμάτων καὶ ἐπὶ πολλὰ δεήσοιτο ᾔδεσαν,  ὅθεν ἐν ἀνθρώποις εὐθὺς γιγνομένοις ὑπετυπώσαντο τὴν τῶν ὀνύχων γένεσιν.  τούτῳ δὴ τῷ λόγῳ καὶ ταῖς προφάσεσιν ταύταις δέρμα τρίχας ὄνυχάς τε ἐπ’ ἄκροις τοῖς κώλοις ἔφυσαν.  Ἐπειδὴ δὲ πάντ’ ἦν τὰ τοῦ θνητοῦ ζῴου συμπεφυκότα μέρη καὶ μέλη, τὴν δὲ ζωὴν ἐν πυρὶ καὶ πνεύματι συνέβαινεν ἐξ ἀνάγκης ἔχειν αὐτῷ, καὶ διὰ ταῦτα ὑπὸ τούτων τηκόμενον κενούμενόν τ’ ἔφθινεν, βοήθειαν αὐτῷ θεοὶ μηχανῶνται.  τῆς γὰρ ἀνθρωπίνης συγγενῆ φύσεως φύσιν ἄλλαις ἰδέαις καὶ αἰσθήσεσιν κεραννύντες, ὥσθ’ ἕτερον ζῷον εἶναι, φυτεύουσιν·  ἃ δὴ νῦν ἥμερα δένδρα καὶ φυτὰ καὶ σπέρματα παιδευθέντα ὑπὸ γεωργίας τιθασῶς πρὸς ἡμᾶς ἔσχεν,  πρὶν δὲ ἦν μόνα τὰ τῶν ἀγρίων γένη, πρεσβύτερα τῶν ἡμέρων ὄντα.  πᾶν γὰρ οὖν ὅτιπερ ἂν μετάσχῃ τοῦ ζῆν, ζῷον μὲν ἂν ἐν δίκῃ λέγοιτο ὀρθότατα·  μετέχει γε μὴν τοῦτο ὃ νῦν λέγομεν τοῦ τρίτου ψυχῆς εἴδους, ὃ μεταξὺ φρενῶν ὀμφαλοῦ τε ἱδρῦσθαι λόγος,  ᾧ δόξης μὲν λογισμοῦ τε καὶ νοῦ μέτεστιν τὸ μηδέν, αἰσθήσεως δὲ ἡδείας καὶ ἀλγεινῆς μετὰ ἐπιθυμιῶν.  πάσχον γὰρ διατελεῖ πάντα, στραφέντι δ’ αὐτῷ ἐν ἑαυτῷ περὶ ἑαυτό,  τὴν μὲν ἔξωθεν ἀπωσαμένῳ κίνησιν, τῇ δ’ οἰκείᾳ χρησαμένῳ, τῶν αὑτοῦ τι λογίσασθαι κατιδόντι φύσει οὐ παραδέδωκεν ἡ γένεσις.  διὸ δὴ ζῇ μὲν ἔστιν τε οὐχ ἕτερον ζῴου, μόνιμον δὲ καὶ κατερριζωμένον πέπηγεν διὰ τὸ τῆς ὑφ’ ἑαυτοῦ κινήσεως ἐστερῆσθαι.  Ταῦτα δὴ τὰ γένη πάντα φυτεύσαντες οἱ κρείττους τοῖς ἥττοσιν ἡμῖν τροφήν, τὸ σῶμα αὐτὸ ἡμῶν διωχέτευσαν τέμνοντες οἷον ἐν κήποις ὀχετούς, ἵνα ὥσπερ ἐκ νάματος ἐπιόντος ἄρδοιτο.  καὶ πρῶτον μὲν ὀχετοὺς κρυφαίους ὑπὸ τὴν σύμφυσιν τοῦ δέρματος καὶ τῆς σαρκὸς δύο φλέβας ἔτεμον νωτιαίας, δίδυμον ὡς τὸ σῶμα ἐτύγχανεν δεξιοῖς τε καὶ ἀριστεροῖς ὄν·  ταύτας δὲ καθῆκαν παρὰ τὴν ῥάχιν, καὶ τὸν γόνιμον μεταξὺ λαβόντες μυελόν, ἵνα οὗτός τε ὅτι μάλιστα θάλλοι,  καὶ ἐπὶ τἆλλα εὔρους ἐντεῦθεν ἅτε ἐπὶ κάταντες ἡ ἐπίχυσις γιγνομένη παρέχοι τὴν ὑδρείαν ὁμαλήν.  μετὰ δὲ ταῦτα σχίσαντες περὶ τὴν κεφαλὴν τὰς φλέβας καὶ δι’ ἀλλήλων ἐναντίας πλέξαντες διεῖσαν,  τὰς μὲν ἐκ τῶν δεξιῶν ἐπὶ τἀριστερὰ τοῦ σώματος, τὰς δ’ ἐκ τῶν ἀριστερῶν ἐπὶ τὰ δεξιὰ κλίναντες,  ὅπως δεσμὸς ἅμα τῇ κεφαλῇ πρὸς τὸ σῶμα εἴη μετὰ τοῦ δέρματος, ἐπειδὴ νεύροις οὐκ ἦν κύκλῳ κατὰ κορυφὴν περιειλημμένη,  καὶ δὴ καὶ τὸ τῶν αἰσθήσεων πάθος ἵν’ ἀφ’ ἑκατέρων τῶν μερῶν εἰς ἅπαν τὸ σῶμα εἴη διάδηλον.  τὸ δ’ ἐντεῦθεν ἤδη τὴν ὑδραγωγίαν παρεσκεύασαν τρόπῳ τινὶ τοιῷδε, ὃν κατοψόμεθα ῥᾷον προδιομολογησάμενοι τὸ τοιόνδε, ὅτι πάντα ὅσα ἐξ ἐλαττόνων συνίσταται στέγει τὰ μείζω, τὰ δὲ ἐκ μειζόνων τὰ σμικρότερα οὐ δύναται,  πῦρ δὲ πάντων γενῶν σμικρομερέστατον, ὅθεν δι’ ὕδατος καὶ γῆς ἀέρος τε καὶ ὅσα ἐκ τούτων συνίσταται διαχωρεῖ καὶ στέγειν οὐδὲν αὐτὸ δύναται.  ταὐτὸν δὴ καὶ περὶ τῆς παρ’ ἡμῖν κοιλίας διανοητέον, ὅτι σιτία μὲν καὶ ποτὰ ὅταν εἰς αὐτὴν ἐμπέσῃ, στέγει,  πνεῦμα δὲ καὶ πῦρ σμικρομερέστερα ὄντα τῆς αὑτῆς συστάσεως οὐ δύναται.  τούτοις οὖν κατεχρήσατο ὁ θεὸς εἰς τὴν ἐκ τῆς κοιλίας ἐπὶ τὰς φλέβας ὑδρείαν,  πλέγμα ἐξ ἀέρος καὶ πυρὸς οἷον οἱ κύρτοι συνυφηνάμενος, διπλᾶ κατὰ τὴν εἴσοδον ἐγκύρτια ἔχον, ὧν θάτερον αὖ πάλιν διέπλεξεν δίκρουν·  καὶ ἀπὸ τῶν ἐγκυρτίων δὴ διετείνατο οἷον σχοίνους κύκλῳ διὰ παντὸς πρὸς τὰ ἔσχατα τοῦ πλέγματος.  τὰ μὲν οὖν ἔνδον ἐκ πυρὸς συνεστήσατο τοῦ πλοκάνου ἅπαντα, τὰ δ’ ἐγκύρτια καὶ τὸ κύτος ἀεροειδῆ,  καὶ λαβὼν αὐτὸ περιέστησεν τῷ πλασθέντι ζῴῳ τρόπον τοιόνδε.  τὸ μὲν τῶν ἐγκυρτίων εἰς τὸ στόμα μεθῆκεν·  διπλοῦ δὲ ὄντος αὐτοῦ κατὰ μὲν τὰς ἀρτηρίας εἰς τὸν πλεύμονα καθῆκεν θάτερον, τὸ δ’ εἰς τὴν κοιλίαν παρὰ τὰς ἀρτηρίας·  τὸ δ’ ἕτερον σχίσας τὸ μέρος ἑκάτερον κατὰ τοὺς ὀχετοὺς τῆς ῥινὸς ἀφῆκεν κοινόν, ὥσθ’ ὅτε μὴ κατὰ στόμα ἴοι θάτερον, ἐκ τούτου πάντα καὶ τὰ ἐκείνου ῥεύματα ἀναπληροῦσθαι.  τὸ δὲ ἄλλο κύτος τοῦ κύρτου περὶ τὸ σῶμα ὅσον κοῖλον ἡμῶν περιέφυσεν, καὶ πᾶν δὴ τοῦτο τοτὲ μὲν εἰς τὰ ἐγκύρτια συρρεῖν μαλακῶς, ἅτε ἀέρα ὄντα, ἐποίησεν,  τοτὲ δὲ ἀναρρεῖν μὲν τὰ ἐγκύρτια, τὸ δὲ πλέγμα, ὡς ὄντος τοῦ σώματος μανοῦ, δύεσθαι εἴσω δι’ αὐτοῦ καὶ πάλιν ἔξω,  τὰς δὲ ἐντὸς τοῦ πυρὸς ἀκτῖνας διαδεδεμένας ἀκολουθεῖν ἐφ’ ἑκάτερα ἰόντος τοῦ ἀέρος, καὶ τοῦτο, ἕωσπερ ἂν τὸ θνητὸν συνεστήκῃ ζῷον, μὴ διαπαύεσθαι γιγνόμενον·  τούτῳ δὲ δὴ τῷ γένει τὸν τὰς ἐπωνυμίας θέμενον ἀναπνοὴν καὶ ἐκπνοὴν λέγομεν θέσθαι τοὔνομα.  πᾶν δὲ δὴ τό τ’ ἔργον καὶ τὸ πάθος τοῦθ’ ἡμῶν τῷ σώματι γέγονεν ἀρδομένῳ καὶ ἀναψυχομένῳ τρέφεσθαι καὶ ζῆν·  ὁπόταν γὰρ εἴσω καὶ ἔξω τῆς ἀναπνοῆς ἰούσης τὸ πῦρ ἐντὸς συνημμένον ἕπηται, διαιωρούμενον δὲ ἀεὶ διὰ τῆς κοιλίας εἰσελθὸν τὰ σιτία καὶ ποτὰ λάβῃ,  τήκει δή, καὶ κατὰ σμικρὰ διαιροῦν, διὰ τῶν ἐξόδων ᾗπερ πορεύεται διάγον, οἷον ἐκ κρήνης ἐπ’ ὀχετοὺς ἐπὶ τὰς φλέβας ἀντλοῦν αὐτά, ῥεῖν ὥσπερ αὐλῶνος διὰ τοῦ σώματος τὰ τῶν φλεβῶν ποιεῖ ῥεύματα.  Πάλιν δὲ τὸ τῆς ἀναπνοῆς ἴδωμεν πάθος, αἷς χρώμενον αἰτίαις τοιοῦτον γέγονεν οἷόνπερ τὰ νῦν ἐστιν. ὧδ’ οὖν.  ἐπειδὴ κενὸν οὐδέν ἐστιν εἰς ὃ τῶν φερομένων δύναιτ’ ἂν εἰσελθεῖν τι, τὸ δὲ πνεῦμα φέρεται παρ’ ἡμῶν ἔξω, τὸ μετὰ τοῦτο ἤδη παντὶ δῆλον ὡς οὐκ εἰς κενόν, ἀλλὰ τὸ πλησίον ἐκ τῆς ἕδρας ὠθεῖ·  τὸ δ’ ὠθούμενον ἐξελαύνει τὸ πλησίον ἀεί, καὶ κατὰ ταύτην τὴν ἀνάγκην πᾶν περιελαυνόμενον εἰς τὴν ἕδραν ὅθεν ἐξῆλθεν τὸ πνεῦμα, εἰσιὸν ἐκεῖσε καὶ ἀναπληροῦν αὐτὴν συνέπεται τῷ πνεύματι,  καὶ τοῦτο ἅμα πᾶν οἷον τροχοῦ περιαγομένου γίγνεται διὰ τὸ κενὸν μηδὲν εἶναι.  διὸ δὴ τὸ τῶν στηθῶν καὶ τὸ τοῦ πλεύμονος ἔξω μεθιὲν τὸ πνεῦμα πάλιν ὑπὸ τοῦ περὶ τὸ σῶμα ἀέρος, εἴσω διὰ μανῶν τῶν σαρκῶν δυομένου καὶ περιελαυνομένου, γίγνεται πλῆρες·  αὖθις δὲ ἀποτρεπόμενος ὁ ἀὴρ καὶ διὰ τοῦ σώματος ἔξω ἰὼν εἴσω τὴν ἀναπνοὴν περιωθεῖ κατὰ τὴν τοῦ στόματος καὶ τὴν τῶν μυκτήρων δίοδον.  τὴν δ’ αἰτίαν τῆς ἀρχῆς αὐτῶν θετέον τήνδε.  πᾶν ζῷον αὑτοῦ τἀντὸς περὶ τὸ αἷμα καὶ τὰς φλέβας θερμότατα ἔχει, οἷον ἐν ἑαυτῷ πηγήν τινα ἐνοῦσαν πυρός·  ὃ δὴ καὶ προσῃκάζομεν τῷ τοῦ κύρτου πλέγματι, κατὰ μέσον διατεταμένον ἐκ πυρὸς πεπλέχθαι πᾶν, τὰ δὲ ἄλλα ὅσα ἔξωθεν, ἀέρος.  τὸ θερμὸν δὴ κατὰ φύσιν εἰς τὴν αὑτοῦ χώραν ἔξω πρὸς τὸ συγγενὲς ὁμολογητέον ἰέναι·  δυοῖν δὲ τοῖν διεξόδοιν οὔσαιν, τῆς μὲν κατὰ τὸ σῶμα ἔξω, τῆς δὲ αὖ κατὰ τὸ στόμα καὶ τὰς ῥῖνας,  ὅταν μὲν ἐπὶ θάτερα ὁρμήσῃ, θάτερα περιωθεῖ, τὸ δὲ περιωσθὲν εἰς τὸ πῦρ ἐμπῖπτον θερμαίνεται, τὸ δ’ ἐξιὸν ψύχεται.  μεταβαλλούσης δὲ τῆς θερμότητος καὶ τῶν κατὰ τὴν ἑτέραν ἔξοδον θερμοτέρων γιγνομένων πάλιν ἐκείνῃ ῥέπον αὖ τὸ θερμότερον μᾶλλον, πρὸς τὴν αὑτοῦ φύσιν φερόμενον, περιωθεῖ τὸ κατὰ θάτερα·  τὸ δὲ τὰ αὐτὰ πάσχον καὶ τὰ αὐτὰ ἀνταποδιδὸν ἀεί, κύκλον οὕτω σαλευόμενον ἔνθα καὶ ἔνθα ἀπειργασμένον ὑπ’ ἀμφοτέρων τὴν ἀναπνοὴν καὶ ἐκπνοὴν γίγνεσθαι παρέχεται.  Καὶ δὴ καὶ τὰ τῶν περὶ τὰς ἰατρικὰς σικύας παθημάτων αἴτια καὶ τὰ τῆς καταπόσεως τά τε τῶν ῥιπτουμένων, ὅσα ἀφεθέντα μετέωρα καὶ ὅσα ἐπὶ γῆς φέρεται, ταύτῃ διωκτέον,  καὶ ὅσοι φθόγγοι ταχεῖς τε καὶ βραδεῖς ὀξεῖς τε καὶ βαρεῖς φαίνονται, τοτὲ μὲν ἀνάρμοστοι φερόμενοι δι’ ἀνομοιότητα τῆς ἐν ἡμῖν ὑπ’ αὐτῶν κινήσεως, τοτὲ δὲ σύμφωνοι δι’ ὁμοιότητα.  τὰς γὰρ τῶν προτέρων καὶ θαττόνων οἱ βραδύτεροι κινήσεις ἀποπαυομένας ἤδη τε εἰς ὅμοιον ἐληλυθυίας, αἷς ὕστερον αὐτοὶ προσφερόμενοι κινοῦσιν ἐκείνας, καταλαμβάνουσιν,  καταλαμβάνοντες δὲ οὐκ ἄλλην ἐπεμβάλλοντες ἀνετάραξαν κίνησιν, ἀλλ’ ἀρχὴν βραδυτέρας φορᾶς κατὰ τὴν τῆς θάττονος, ἀποληγούσης δέ, ὁμοιότητα προσάψαντες, μίαν ἐξ ὀξείας καὶ βαρείας συνεκεράσαντο πάθην·  ὅθεν ἡδονὴν μὲν τοῖς ἄφροσιν, εὐφροσύνην δὲ τοῖς ἔμφροσιν διὰ τὴν τῆς θείας ἁρμονίας μίμησιν ἐν θνηταῖς γενομένην φοραῖς παρέσχον.  καὶ δὴ καὶ τὰ τῶν ὑδάτων πάντα ῥεύματα, ἔτι δὲ τὰ τῶν κεραυνῶν πτώματα καὶ τὰ θαυμαζόμενα ἠλέκτρων περὶ τῆς ἕλξεως καὶ τῶν Ἡρακλείων λίθων, πάντων τούτων ὁλκὴ μὲν οὐκ ἔστιν οὐδενί ποτε,  τὸ δὲ κενὸν εἶναι μηδὲν περιωθεῖν τε αὑτὰ ταῦτα εἰς ἄλληλα, τότε διακρινόμενα καὶ συγκρινόμενα πρὸς τὴν αὑτῶν διαμειβόμενα ἕδραν ἕκαστα ἰέναι πάντα, τούτοις τοῖς παθήμασιν πρὸς ἄλληλα συμπλεχθεῖσιν τεθαυματουργημένα τῷ κατὰ τρόπον ζητοῦντι φανήσεται.  Καὶ δὴ καὶ τὸ τῆς ἀναπνοῆς, ὅθεν ὁ λόγος ὥρμησεν, κατὰ ταῦτα καὶ διὰ τούτων γέγονεν, ὥσπερ ἐν τοῖς πρόσθεν εἴρηται,  τέμνοντος μὲν τὰ σιτία τοῦ πυρός, αἰωρουμένου δὲ ἐντὸς τῷ πνεύματι συνεπομένου, τὰς φλέβας τε ἐκ τῆς κοιλίας τῇ συναιωρήσει πληροῦντος τῷ τὰ τετμημένα αὐτόθεν ἐπαντλεῖν·  καὶ διὰ ταῦτα δὴ καθ’ ὅλον τὸ σῶμα πᾶσιν τοῖς ζῴοις τὰ τῆς τροφῆς νάματα οὕτως ἐπίρρυτα γέγονεν.  νεότμητα δὲ καὶ ἀπὸ συγγενῶν ὄντα, τὰ μὲν καρπῶν, τὰ δὲ χλόης, ἃ θεὸς ἐπ’ αὐτὸ τοῦθ’ ἡμῖν ἐφύτευσεν, εἶναι τροφήν,  παντοδαπὰ μὲν χρώματα ἴσχει διὰ τὴν σύμμειξιν, ἡ δ’ ἐρυθρὰ πλείστη περὶ αὐτὰ χρόα διαθεῖ, τῆς τοῦ πυρὸς τομῆς τε καὶ ἐξομόρξεως ἐν ὑγρῷ δεδημιουργημένη φύσις.  ὅθεν τοῦ κατὰ τὸ σῶμα ῥέοντος τὸ χρῶμα ἔσχεν οἵαν ὄψιν διεληλύθαμεν ὃ καλοῦμεν αἷμα, νομὴν σαρκῶν καὶ σύμπαντος τοῦ σώματος, ὅθεν ὑδρευόμενα ἕκαστα πληροῖ τὴν τοῦ κενουμένου βάσιν·  ὁ δὲ τρόπος τῆς πληρώσεως ἀποχωρήσεώς τε γίγνεται καθάπερ ἐν τῷ παντὶ παντὸς ἡ φορὰ γέγονεν, ἣν τὸ συγγενὲς πᾶν φέρεται πρὸς ἑαυτό.  τὰ μὲν γὰρ δὴ περιεστῶτα ἐκτὸς ἡμᾶς τήκει τε ἀεὶ καὶ διανέμει πρὸς ἕκαστον εἶδος τὸ ὁμόφυλον ἀποπέμποντα,  τὰ δὲ ἔναιμα αὖ, κερματισθέντα ἐντὸς παρ’ ἡμῖν καὶ περιειλημμένα ὥσπερ ὑπ’ οὐρανοῦ συνεστῶτος ἑκάστου τοῦ ζῴου, τὴν τοῦ παντὸς ἀναγκάζεται μιμεῖσθαι φοράν·  πρὸς τὸ συγγενὲς οὖν φερόμενον ἕκαστον τῶν ἐντὸς μερισθέντων τὸ κενωθὲν τότε πάλιν ἀνεπλήρωσεν.  ὅταν μὲν δὴ πλέον τοῦ ἐπιρρέοντος ἀπίῃ, φθίνει πᾶν, ὅταν δὲ ἔλαττον, αὐξάνεται.  νέα μὲν οὖν σύστασις τοῦ παντὸς ζῴου, καινὰ τὰ τρίγωνα οἷον ἐκ δρυόχων ἔτι ἔχουσα τῶν γενῶν,  ἰσχυρὰν μὲν τὴν σύγκλεισιν αὐτῶν πρὸς ἄλληλα κέκτηται, συμπέπηγεν δὲ ὁ πᾶς ὄγκος αὐτῆς ἁπαλός, ἅτ’ ἐκ μυελοῦ μὲν νεωστὶ γεγονυίας, τεθραμμένης δὲ ἐν γάλακτι·  τὰ δὴ περιλαμβανόμενα ἐν αὐτῇ τρίγωνα ἔξωθεν ἐπεισελθόντα, ἐξ ὧν ἂν ᾖ τά τε σιτία καὶ ποτά,  τῶν ἑαυτῆς τριγώνων παλαιότερα ὄντα καὶ ἀσθενέστερα καινοῖς ἐπικρατεῖ τέμνουσα, καὶ μέγα ἀπεργάζεται τὸ ζῷον τρέφουσα ἐκ πολλῶν ὁμοίων.  ὅταν δ’ ἡ ῥίζα τῶν τριγώνων χαλᾷ διὰ τὸ πολλοὺς ἀγῶνας ἐν πολλῷ χρόνῳ πρὸς πολλὰ ἠγωνίσθαι,  τὰ μὲν τῆς τροφῆς εἰσιόντα οὐκέτι δύναται τέμνειν εἰς ὁμοιότητα ἑαυτοῖς, αὐτὰ δὲ ὑπὸ τῶν ἔξωθεν ἐπεισιόντων εὐπετῶς διαιρεῖται·  φθίνει δὴ πᾶν ζῷον ἐν τούτῳ κρατούμενον, γῆράς τε ὀνομάζεται τὸ πάθος.  τέλος δέ, ἐπειδὰν τῶν περὶ τὸν μυελὸν τριγώνων οἱ συναρμοσθέντες μηκέτι ἀντέχωσιν δεσμοὶ τῷ πόνῳ διιστάμενοι, μεθιᾶσιν τοὺς τῆς ψυχῆς αὖ δεσμούς, ἡ δὲ λυθεῖσα κατὰ φύσιν μεθ’ ἡδονῆς ἐξέπτατο·  πᾶν γὰρ τὸ μὲν παρὰ φύσιν ἀλγεινόν, τὸ δ’ ᾗ πέφυκεν γιγνόμενον ἡδύ.  καὶ θάνατος δὴ κατὰ ταὐτὰ ὁ μὲν κατὰ νόσους καὶ ὑπὸ τραυμάτων γιγνόμενος ἀλγεινὸς καὶ βίαιος,  ὁ δὲ μετὰ γήρως ἰὼν ἐπὶ τέλος κατὰ φύσιν ἀπονώτατος τῶν θανάτων καὶ μᾶλλον μεθ’ ἡδονῆς γιγνόμενος ἢ λύπης. 
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       
Quid igitur anima mor(23)tale, quid divinum habeat, et ubi, et quibuscum, et quare haec inter se disiuncta sint, di(24)ximus. At quod revera ita sit ut diximus, ita demum asseremus, si divinum confirma(25)ret oraculum.  Quod vero verisimile sit ita esse, et nunc et deinceps diligentius etiam in(26)vestigando asseverare non dubitamus, atque in praesentia ita sit nobis assertum.  Quod (27) autem haec sequitur, similiter est tractandum.  Reliquum est enim qua ratione cetera cor(28)poris membra digesta sunt, enarrare.  Itaque hac potissimum ratione constare haec de(29)cet.  Cognoscebant illi profecto nostri generis fabricatores nos ad cibum potumque intem(30)peratores fore, ac propter ingluviem plus quam modus aut necessitas postularit, ex his (31)sumpturos.  Igitur ne subitus propter morbos interitus proveniret, atque ita imper(32)fectum mox genus mortale desineret, inferiorem ventrem fabricaverunt ad esculento(33)rum poculentorumve superabundantiam capiendam. Eum praeterea spiris intestino(34)rum circumplicavere,  ne subito alimenta nobis assumpta deflerent, ac rursus novi ali(35)menti confestim necessitas immineret.  Ob illam enim inexplebilem perpetuamque vora(36)ginem genus nostrum philosophiae musicaeque et moderationis omnis expers relictum fu(37)isset, illi parti quae in nobis divinissima est, minime obsecutum.  Ossium vero et carnis (38) ceterorumque huiusmodi ita est natura composita.  His nempe omnibus medullae genera(39)tio initium praebuit.  Vincula enim vitae illius quam anima corpori iuncta ducit, applica(40)ta medullae, ex eaque per omne diducta, vinciunt fulciuntque corporis nostri constructio(41)nem.  Ipsa vero medulla est ex aliis generata.  Sunt quidem trianguli primi quidam et in(42)deflexi lenesque ad ignis, aeris, aquae, terrae, exactissimam generationem accommodatissi(43)mi,  e quorum generibus singulis deus secernens singulos et invicem contemperatos per(44)miscens totius generationis mortalium sementem fomitemque constituit, dum medullae (45) ex his substantiam procrearet.  Postea vero serens in ea, animarum genera alligavit. Figu(46)ras praeterea quotcunque et qualescunque ex singulis speciebus adesse medullae oportuit, (47) tot penitus, atque tales statim in prima illa distributione distinxit.  Et illam quidem medul(48)lae partem in quam velut agrum quendam divinum semen iaciundum erat, globosam et (49) undique teretem finxit. Atque encephalum, id est cerebrum, idcirco voluit nominari,  quia (50) unoquoque animali denique absoluto vasculum cerebri capax, cephalum, id est caput, (51) vocandum erat.  Quod reliquas mortalesque animae vires comprehensurum erat, (52) rotundis simul oblongisque figuris ornavit totumque medullam voluit nominari  atque (53) ex iis quasi quibusdam ancoris iaciens totius animae vincula, circa illas iam universum (729, 1) nostrum corpus absolvit officiumque textura extrinsecus eas fulcivit.  Os vero ipsum ita (2) composuit.  Terram atterens puram lenemque miscuit madefecitque medulla.  Id postea in (3) ignem iecit, deinde in aquam mersit, rursus in ignem, iterum et in aquam.  Atque ita sae(4)pe transferens in utrunque, tale reddidit ut a neutro liquefieri posset.  Hoc igitur usus (5) sphaera ossea quasi torno facta cerebrum circumsepsit. Huc angustos reliquit meatus  et (6) circa cervicis simul dorsique medullam ex ipso rotulas vertiginesque effingens quasi cardi(7)nes subdidit, ita ut a capite per totum protenderit.  Sic utique semen omne servavit, dum (8) lapideo ambitu circumvallavit. Articulos insuper addidit, alterius ipsius natura usus in (9) ipsis tanquam media quadam existente potentia motus flexionisque gratia.  Arbitratus ve(10)ro ossium naturam aridiorem rigidioremque quam oporteat fore, et cum ignita evase(11)rit atque etiam frigefacta illisuram corrupturamque cito semen internum, nervorum car(12)nisque genus effinxit,  ut nervis quidem membra reliqua vincientibus, intensis remissisque (13) circa cardines ipsos, corpus omnem ad flexionem tensionemve promptum et agile red(14)deret.  Caro vero tegmen foret adversus frigus atque calorem, et quemadmodum externa (15) corporis fulcimenta solent, ad casus varios munimentum, praesertim quia talis erat futu(16)ra,  ut molliter leniterque corporibus cederet. Cui calidum idcirco humorem indidit, ut ae(17)state quidem roscida madidaque extrinsecus, toti corpori domesticum praebeat refrige(18)rium,  hieme vero rursus proprio igni exteriorem glaciem moderate repellat.  Haec cum (19) fictor ille nostri corporis cogitaret, mixtione quadam ex aqua, igne et terra contempera(20)ta,  et acuto illis salsoque fermento adhibito, succi plenam ac mollem carnem conflavit.  Na(21)turam vero nervorum ex osse et carne non fermentata unam ex utrisque potentia medi(22)am temperavit flavoque infecit colore.  Hinc fit ut carne quidem tensior et aridior, ossibus (23) autem agilior molliorque sit nervorum substantia.  His deus medullam simul et ossa devin(24)xit et haec omnia carnibus cooperuit.  Quae igitur ossa animata maxime erant paucissi(25)mis carnibus adoperuit, quae vero minime, contra plurimis atque crassissimis.  Iuncturis (26) insuper ossium, praeterquam ubi necessitatis ratio aliter postulabat, paucas carnes adie(27)cit, ne flexionibus impedimento forent tardaque ad motum corpora facerent  neve sua qua(28)dam solida crassitudine obtusiorique mole sensuum aciem hebetarent, memoriam impedi(29)rent, ingenii acumen obtunderent.  Quamobrem inguinum, tibiarum, iliorum, brachio(30)rum, lacertorum ossa et cetera omnia quae articulis carent, quaeve intus latentia ossa pro(31)pter animae paucitatem in medulla prudentiae vacua sunt, multis sunt carnibus adoper(32)ta.  Paucioribus vero quae prudentiam habent, nisi forte carnosa quaedam moles proprie (33) ad sensum aliquem aptata sit, qualis est lingua.  In ceteris est ut diximus. Natura enim ex (34) necessitate genita atque nutrita nullo modo os compactum carnemque multam simul et (35) acutum sensum admittit.  Maxime namque omnium ea capitis compositio habuisset si (36) una concurrere potuissent, genusque hominum pingue, nervosum, robustumque ha(37)bens caput, vitam duplam, ac etiam multo diuturniorem, validiorem, placidiorem (38) quam nos possedisset.  Ceterum nostris illis fabricatoribus de nostro genere consul(39)tantibus utrum diuturnius quidem, sed deterius, an brevioris quidem vitae, sed melio(40)ris, efficerent, visum fuit vitam brevem melioremque diuturnae et deteriori esse omnino (41) anteponendam.  Itaque caput osse raro texere, sed carnibus nervisque quia flexiones non (42) erat habiturum, non fulciverunt.  His omnibus de causis caput membris acu(43)tius ad sentiendum prudentiusque, sed imbecillius est constitutum.  Nervos autem ob (44) hanc rationem atque hoc pacto deus extremae parti capitis circumponens spinae dorsi (45) eos quadam similitudine circumplicavit summasque illis maxillas sub vultu devinxit,  re(46)liquos per omnia membra disseminavit, articulum connectens articulo.  Nostri praeter(47)ea illi exornatores, oris naturam dentibus, lingua, labiis, ita ut nunc videmus, neces(48)sariorum simul et optimorum gratia ornaverunt.  Nam ingressum quidem necessario(49)rum, egressum vero optimorum gratia excogitavere.  Nempe necessarium est quic(50quid ad alimoniam in corpus admittitur. Verborum autem effluxio ministra pruden(51)tiae, effluxionum omnium optima est atque pulcherrima.  Caput praeterea nudo osse (52) relinqui omni alio tegmine destitutum non poterat propter caloris frigorisque excessum,  (53) neque rursus carnium pondere praegravatum, sensus expers obtusumque reddendum erat.  (730, 1) Carne igitur non penitus desiccata residuum quod maius supererat segregatum est,  cu(2)tisque ipsa circa cerebri humorem sibi ipsi iuncta et germinans caput circumvestivit.  Hu(3)miditas autem sub iuncturas scaturiens irrigavit compegitque ipsam ad verticem.  Iunctu(4)rarum vero species varia propter circuitionum alimoniaeque potentiam facta est et his (5) quidem magis invicem pugnantibus plures, minus vero pauciores.  Hanc omnem cutem (6) undique igne pupugit percussitque deus. Per cutis inde quasi sauciae rimulas humor efflu(7)xit,  quodve illic humidum calidumque syncerum erat, abiit. Quod vero ex iisdem quibus et (8) cutis, erat permixtum, emanationis impetu extra productum, in longum extensum est, te(9)nuitatem punctationi penetrationique illi aequalem habens.  Sed propter tarditatem a spiri(10)tu circumstante retusum rursusque sub cutem revolutum, radices egit.  His utique causis ca(11)pilli in cute sunt nati, secundum pellis coriique similitudinem cuti quam proximi, sed pro(12)pter coagulationem a frigiditate factem duriores cute atque densiores. Nempe capillus (13) extra cutem productus frigore riguit.  Hoc pacto constipatum hirsutumque caput nobis (14) deus instituit, causis quidem usus illis quas diximus.  Tegmen vero ipsum ad cerebri tute(15)lam non carnibus ponderosum, sed leve esse voluit, quod ad frigoris calorisve intempe(16)riem repellendam sufficeret et sensus acumen minime impediret.  Ea vero quae in digitis (17) est nervi, pellis, et ossis complexio, aridior facta, communi quodam uno duriorque cutis (18) tegmine est adoperta. Cuius quidem accessoria ministraque causa in iis quae diximus con(19)stitit, principalis autem causa in ea intelligentia quae id futurae commoditatis gratia fabri(20)cavit.  Quod enim ex viris quandoque mulieres et ceterae animantes erant futurae, nostri (21) illi opifices non ignorabant, quin etiam quod unguium usum bestiae quoque multae ad ope(22)ra multa erant habiturae, intelligebant.  Quapropter homines statim genitos unguibus ar(23)maverunt.  Hac utique ratione et his de causis pelle, capillis, unguibus extrema membra (24) operuere.  Quoniam vero partes et membra omnia mortalis animantis in mutua qua(25)dam cognatione genita erant vitamque necessario in igne ac spiritu possidebant, ne animal (26) ipsum an his resolutum exhaustumque cito deficeret, hoc dii consilio providere.  Quippe (27) humani generis naturam quandam cognatam aliis formis sensibusque miscentes, quasi (28) animal quoddam aliud plantaverunt.  Talia sunt domesticae arbores, plantae, semina, quae (29) consita nunc cultaque ab arte mitia nobis sunt,  quondam vero sine cultura, agrestia.  Quic(30)quid enim vitae est particeps, iure animal nominabitur.  Quod autem nunc dicimus, ter(31)tiae animae speciei est particeps, quam inter diaphragma et umbilicum locavimus.  Cui (32) opinio, ratio, mens nulla penitus inest. Sensus vero suavis et tristis una cum cupiditati(33)bus convenit.  Omnia siquidem continue patitur. Cum vero in seipso ad semet converta(34)tur,  externumque respuat motum et proprio motu domesticoque utatur, idcirco huic natu(35)ra non tribuit, ut quicquam pensi habens, suorum aliquid consideraret.  Quapropter vita (36) quidem fungitur nec est ab animali diversum, quia vero illa vi qua quid seipsum trans(37)fert, orbatum, stetit rigens et fixum radicibus haesit.  Cum haec omnia superiores il(38)li nostri ad nutrimentum nobis inferioribus suppeditassent, in nostro corpore quasi quo(39)dam horto meatus veluti aquaeductus varios diduxerunt, ut liquoris derivatione irriga(40)retur.  Principio meatus occultos sub conflatione cutis et carnis, duas scilicet venas in ter(41)go diviserunt, secundum geminam corporis ipsius figuram, ad dexteram et sinistram.  (42) Has utique ad spinam demiserunt mediamque medullam genitalem comprehendere, ut (43) et haec quam maxime vigeat pulluletque,  et uberior hinc ad alia quasi declivis effusio ir(44)rigationem aequabilem praebeat.  Post haec partientes circa caput venas, easque invicem ex (45) opposito implicantes,  partim a dextris ad sinistra, partim a sinistris ad dextra corporis (46) dispertierunt,  ut capiti ad reliquum corpus una cute connexio foret, postquam ner(47)vis quidem non erat circulo quodam secundum verticem comprehensum atque distin(48)ctum,  atque etiam ut sentiendi vis ab utrisque partibus per totum corpus undique dema(49)naret.  Hinc vero aquaeductum hoc ordine deduxerunt, quem plane perspiciemus, si hoc (50) inter nos primum asseverabimus. Quaecunque ex minutioribus componuntur maio(51)ra detinent, quae vero ex grandioribus, minutiora cohibere non possunt.  Ignis autem prae (52) ceteris generibus, minutissimis constat particulis. Ideoque aquam, aerem, terram, (53) et quae ex his componuntur omnia, penetrat, transilitque usque adeo, ut nihil ipsum (731, 1) valeat cohibere.  Idem quoque de nostro utero cogitandum. Nempe cibos et potus in(2)gestos retinet,  Spiritum vero et ignem, quia eius compositione tenuiores sunt, demora(3)ri non potest.  His igitur usus est deus ad irrigationem ab utero in venas perficiendam.  (4) Rete enim quoddam ex aere atque igne instar gibbosae sagenae contexuit. Ubi duo sunt (5) ad ipsum introitum gibbi convexa, quorum alterum bifariam bino pulsu iterum impli(6)cavit,  et ab ipsis gibbi convexis veluti funes per totum corpus usque ad texturae illius (7) extrema circumtendit.  Interiora igitur ipsius tricae omnia ex igne composuit, convexae ve(8)ro et receptaculum ipsum ex aere.  Demum haec assumens in animali formato hoc pa(9)cto disposuit.  Convexa quidem in os dimisit,  cum vero convexum gibbosumque sit (10) duplex, per arterias alterum in pulmonem usque traiecit, alterum circa arterias in uterum.  (11) Alterum vero partitus utramque illius partem ad fistulas narium communiter duxit, ita ut (12) quando alterum ad os non pervenit, ex hoc ipso omnes illius fluxus meatusque replean(13)tur.  Alteram vero gibbi retisque capacitatem circa omnes partes corporis concavas esse (14) voluit. Idque omne alias quidem in convexa incurvaque confluere molliter, quasi aer illic (15) sit, effecit,  alias autem convexa incurvaque ipsa refluere, Rete vero quoniam rarum sit (16) corpus penetrare per ipsum rursusque emergere.  Radios autem ignis interiores succesio(17)ne continua subsequi, in utramque partem aere transeunte. Idque donec mortale consistit (18) animal, fieri numquam cessat.  Huiusmodi agitationem merito expirationem respiratio(19)nemque nominatam esse censemus.  Omne autem hoc opus omnisque nostra haec passio in (20) corpore fit, irrigatione quadam et refrigerio ad vitam et nutrimentum.  Quando enim (21) expirante et respirante halitu ignis simul interior sequitur perque uterum diffusus pocu(22)lenta esculentaque offendit,  liquefacit protinus ipsa, partitur in minima, per exitus qua (23) progressio patet tamquam ex fonte quodam educit, in meatus videlicet venarum traiicit (24) quaecunque exhausit atque per corpus quasi vallem venarum fluenta diducit.  Sed vide(25)amus iterum quibus causis respiratio hunc in modum quam nunc cernimus fuerit insti(26)tuta. Cuius quidem rei talis erit consideratio.  Quoniam vacuum nusquam est, quo quic(27)quam eorum quae perferuntur, ingredi queat, spiritus autem e nobis evolat, cuivis con(28)stat non in vacuum quidem hunc spiritum evolare, sed proximum sibi e sua sede depel(29)lere,  depulsum rursus illum proximum sibi semper extrudere, ac secundum necessitatem (30) huiusmodi quicquid in sedem illam percutitur atque impellitur, unde exclusus est hali(31)tus, ingressum illuc replensque halitum ipsum subsequi.  Idque totum simul revolutione qua(32)dam, qua nusquam sit vacuum, fieri.  Quamobrem cum pectus pulmonesque spiritum ef(33)flaverint, mox aere corpori circumfuso meatus corporis penetrante replentur.  Ac rur(34)sus evolans a corpore aer et emissus anhelitus inspirationem intro retrahi cogit per oris (35) nariumque meatus.  Causas vero quae his principium dant, huiusmodi ponimus.  Om(36)ne universi huius animal in venis et sanguine calorem quasi fontem ignis aliquem possi(37)det,  idque reti sagenae comparavimus, per medium extensum, totumque ex igne contex(38)tum, cum exteriora omnia ex aere sint.  Calorem sane putandum est natura sua in regio(39)nem suam extra ad id quod sibi cognatum est emanare.  Cum vero discursiones duae sint, (40) una per corpus extra, altera rursus per os ac nares,  cum anhelitus ad alia impetum facit (41) detruditque alia contra retrahit atque repercutit. Quod autem retractum est, in ignem in(42)currens calescit, quod exhalavit, friget.  Dum ergo caliditas permutatur, et quae alio tran(43)situ utuntur, calescunt, ac rursus quod fervet ad naturam suam emigrat, et hac emigra(44)tione alia in aliud iter repercutit,  rursusque haec idem perpetiuntur aguntque semper, cer(45)te anhelitus hic circulo quodam hinc et illinc iugitur fluctuans expirationem et inspira(46)tionem continet.  Quin etiam causae passionum quae attractu ampullarum ex corpore (47) a medicis fiunt, atque etiam potionis, et eorum insuper quae iaciuntur, sive emittantur (48) sublimia seu deferantur humi, hac utique ratione tractandae videntur.  Voces praeterea, (49) quaecunque veloces et tardae, acutae et graves audire solent, alias dissonae propter mo(50)tus eius qui in nobis ab ipsis fit, dissimilitudinem, alias propter similitudinem conso(51)nae.  Priorum enim velociorumque cessantes motus iamque ad simile quiddam pro(52)gressos, tardiores ipsae voces succedentes illis eosque moventes occupant,  comprehen(53)dentes vero non alium quidem motum iniciendo perturbant, sed tardioris lationis in(54)itium secundum principium velocioris inducunt. Dum vero desinentis motionis similitu(732, 1)dinem sibi quandam accommodant, unum ex acuta et gravi concentum et gravi concentum contemperant.  (2) Unde insipientibus voluptatem, sapientibus gaudium propter divinae harmoniae imi(3)tationem in lationibus mortalibus repertam tribuunt.  Eadem ratio est de aquarum fluxi(4)bus, de fulminum impetu, de electri mirabili illo attractu, lapidisve illius qui Heraclius (5) nominatur. Revera nullius horum attractio fit,  sed cum nusquam sit vacuum, et haec (6) se invicem pulsent atque repulsent concretaque et discreta suum locum singula pos(7)cant, diligenti harum rerum investigatori ex his mutuis passionibus eventus illi mirabi(8)les contingere videbuntur.  Atqui respiratio, unde huc digressi sumus, ab his causis et (9) hunc in modum ut supra diximus provenit.  Dum videlicet ignis cibos dividit elevatur(10)que intrinsecus assecutus spiritum, venas a ventre communi elevatione huiusmodi re(11)plet, ex eo quod attrita inde haurit,  et ob hanc rationem per totum animalium omnium (12) corpus alimentorum liquores penitus diffunduntur.  Statim vero attrita et a cognatis su(13)is ablata partim fructibus graminibus, quae deus ad alimoniam corporis nostri (14) produxit,  colores propter mixtionem omnino varios habent, sed plurimus in his rube(15)us praevalet color, cuius natura ex ignis portione et abstersione in humido facta prove(16)nit.  Propterea eius quod in totum corpus permanat, color, talis aspectu est qualem di(17)ximus. Id sanguinem nominavimus, carnium et universi corporis pabulum, unde irri(18)gatio distributa exhausta cuncta replet.  Modus autem impletionis evacuationisve (19) talis est, qualis in universo cuiuslibet latio, per quam cognatum quodlibet ad seipsum se (20) confert.  Quae enim nobis extrinsecus circumfusa sunt, resolvunt nos assidue et singulas (21) nostri portiones ad species suas foras emittunt.  Sanguinea vero in nobis attrita inclusaque (22) visceribus, ut par est in quolibet animali fieri sub caelo constituto, totius lationem imita(23)ri coguntur.  Cum igitur attrita quaelibet in nobis cognatum poscant, exhausta quaelibet (24) implent.  Porro quando abscedit plus quam accesserit, decrescit animal, quando contra (25) fit, augetur.  Recens igitur animalis cuiuslibet conpositio cum novos velut ex ligneo quo(26)dam contextu triangulos habeat,  validam quidem eorum structuram possidet, moles (27) autem eius tenerior tota coaluit, quippe quae ex recentiori medulla concrevit nuper et (28) lacte nutrita est.  Susceptos ergo triangulos illos extrinsecus incidentes ex quibus cibi (29) potusque conflantur,  triangulis propriis antiquiores imbecillioresque iuniorum vi per(30)vincit et conterit et grande animal ipsum reddit, dum ex multis similibus alit.  At cum (31) triangulorum suorum radicem compagemque relaxat, ex eo quod magnis laboribus lon(32)go tempore adversus multa certando fatigata et domita sit,  tunc sane alimenta suscepta (33) in similitudinem suam non potest comminuendo redigere, sua vero membra ab ingredi(34)entibus facile dissipantur.  Hinc iam minui ac deficere omne incipit animal, cum supera(35)tur, detrimentumque istud senectus appellatur.  Finis vero tunc obvenit, quando triangu(36)lorum illorum ex quibus medullas conficitur, olim coaptata vincula, nihil amplius ne(37)ctunt, sed defatigatione iam nexus animae deserunt. Anima vero clam secun(38)dum naturam cum voluptate protinus evolat.  Quicquid enim contra naturam fit mole(39)stum, quod autem pro rei natura, iucundum.  Similiter et mors quam morbi et vulnera (40) intulerunt, violenta est atque molesta,  quae vero senio paulatim ad finem deducente natu(41)raliter surrepit, inter omnia mortis genera levissima est et cum voluptate potius quam (42) dolore contingit. 
[Our account of the soul is probable: God only knows if it is true.] Concerning the soul, as to which part is mortal and which divine, and how and why they are separated, and where located, if God acknowledges that we have spoken the truth, then, and then only, can we be confident;  still, we may venture to assert that what has been said by us is probable, and will be rendered more probable by investigation. Let us assume thus much.  The creation of the rest of the body follows next in order, and this we may investigate in a similar manner.    And it appears to be very meet that the body should be framed on the following principles:—  [The bowels intended to prevent the food from passing away too quickly, that men might not be perpetually occupied in eating and drinking.] The authors of our race were aware that we should be intemperate in eating and drinking, and take a good deal more than was necessary or proper, by reason of gluttony.  In order then that disease might not quickly destroy us, and lest our mortal race should perish without fulfilling its end—intending to provide against this, the gods made what is called the lower belly, to be a receptacle for the superfluous meat and drink, and formed the convolution of the bowels;  so that the food might be prevented from passing quickly through and compelling the body to require more food, thus producing insatiable gluttony,  and making the whole race an enemy to philosophy and music, and rebellious against the divinest element within us.  [Bone, flesh, and similar substances are all formed from marrow. Marrow is composed of the most perfect of the elementary triangles, mingled in due proportion. To the marrow of the head the divine soul is fastened, to the marrow of the spine the mortal soul.] The bones and flesh, and other similar parts of us, were made as follows.  The first principle of all of them was the generation of the marrow.  For the bonds of life which unite the soul with the body are made fast there, and they are the root and foundation of the human race.  The marrow itself is created out of other materials:  God took such of the primary triangles as were straight and smooth, and were adapted by their perfection to produce fire and water, and air and earth  — these, I say, he separated from their kinds, and mingling them in due proportions with one another, made the marrow out of them to be a universal seed of the whole race of mankind;  and in this seed he then planted and enclosed the souls, and in the original distribution gave to the marrow as many and various forms as the different kinds of souls were hereafter to receive.  That which, like a field, was to receive the divine seed, he made round every way, and called that portion of the marrow, brain,  intending that, when an animal was perfected, the vessel containing this substance should be the head;  but that which was intended to contain the remaining and mortal part of the soul he distributed into figures at once round and elongated, and he called them all by the name ‘marrow;’  and to these, as to anchors, fastening the bonds of the whole soul, he proceeded to fashion around them the entire framework of our body, constructing for the marrow, first of all, a complete covering of bone.  [Bone is made of fine earth, kneaded with marrow, and dipped repeatedly in fire and water. Of bone were fashioned coverings for the brain and the spinal marrow, i. e. the skull and vertebrae. Joints were inserted to give flexion; the sinews were intended to hold the bones together, the flesh to protect them. [Flesh was formed by blending earth, fire and water, and then mingling with them a ferment of acid and salt; the sinews by mixing bone and unfermented flesh. The most sensitive of the bones, as well as the joints, are thinly covered with flesh; the least sensitive are thickly covered. Flesh, however, without bone, is sometimes highly sensitive: e. g. the tongue. But this is exceptional; for the chief purpose of the flesh is to give protection, not sensation. And because God wished us to live a rational and not a long life, the head was not covered with flesh. The mouth was constructed with a view to the necessary and the good. The skull was not left bare, but enveloped with skin (= the film which forms on flesh as it dries). The sutures and their diversity. Out of punctures in the skin of the head grew the hair. Nails are compounded of sinew, skin and bone; they were made with a view to the time when women and animals should spring from man.] Bone was composed by him in the following manner.  Having sifted pure and smooth earth he kneaded it and wetted it with marrow,  and after that he put it into fire and then into water, and once more into fire and again into water  — in this way by frequent transfers from one to the other he made it insoluble by either.  Out of this he fashioned, as in a lathe, a globe made of bone, which he placed around the brain, and in this he left a narrow opening;  and around the marrow of the neck and back he formed vertebrae which he placed under one another like pivots, beginning at the head and extending through the whole of the trunk.  Thus wishing to preserve the entire seed, he enclosed it in a stone-like casing, inserting joints, and using in the formation of them the power of the other or diverse as an intermediate nature, that they might have motion and flexure.  Then again, considering that the bone would be too brittle and inflexible, and when heated and again cooled would soon mortify and destroy the seed within—having this in view, he contrived the sinews and the flesh,  that so binding all the members together by the sinews, which admitted of being stretched and relaxed about the vertebrae, he might thus make the body capable of flexion and extension,  while the flesh would serve as a protection against the summer heat and against the winter cold, and also against falls, softly and easily yielding to external bodies, like articles made of felt;  and containing in itself a warm moisture which in summer exudes and makes the surface damp, would impart a natural coolness to the whole body;  and again in winter by the help of this internal warmth would form a very tolerable defence against the frost which surrounds it and attacks it from without.  He who modelled us, considering these things, mixed earth with fire and water and blended them;  and making a ferment of acid and salt, he mingled it with them and formed soft and succulent flesh.  As for the sinews, he made them of a mixture of bone and unfermented flesh, attempered so as to be in a mean, and gave them a yellow colour;  wherefore the sinews have a firmer and more glutinous nature than flesh, but a softer and moister nature than the bones.  With these God covered the bones and marrow, binding them together by sinews, and then enshrouded them all in an upper covering of flesh.  The more living and sensitive of the bones he enclosed in the thinnest film of flesh, and those which had the least life within them in the thickest and most solid flesh.  So again on the joints of the bones, where reason indicated that no more was required, he placed only a thin covering of flesh, that it might not interfere with the flexion of our bodies and make them unwieldy because difficult to move;  and also that it might not, by being crowded and pressed and matted together, destroy sensation by reason of its hardness, and impair the memory and dull the edge of intelligence.  Wherefore also the thighs and the shanks and the hips, and the bones of the arms and the forearms, and other parts which have no joints, and the inner bones, which on account of the rarity of the soul in the marrow are destitute of reason — all these are abundantly provided with flesh;  but such as have mind in them are in general less fleshy, except where the creator has made some part solely of flesh in order to give sensation, — as, for example, the tongue.  But commonly this is not the case. For the nature which comes into being and grows up in us by a law of necessity, does not admit of the combination of solid bone and much flesh with acute perceptions.  More than any other part the framework of the head would have had them, if they could have co-existed, and the human race, having a strong and fleshy and sinewy head, would have had a life twice or many times as long as it now has, and also more healthy and free from pain.  But our creators, considering whether they should make a longer-lived race which was worse, or a shorter-lived race which was better, came to the conclusion that every one ought to prefer a shorter span of life, which was better, to a longer one, which was worse;  and therefore they covered the head with thin bone, but not with flesh and sinews, since it had no joints;  and thus the head was added, having more wisdom and sensation than the rest of the body, but also being in every man far weaker.  For these reasons and after this manner God placed the sinews at the extremity of the head, in a circle round the neck, and glued them together by the principle of likeness and fastened the extremities of the jawbones to them below the face,  and the other sinews he dispersed throughout the body, fastening limb to limb.  The framers of us framed the mouth, as now arranged, having teeth and tongue and lips, with a view to the necessary and the good,  contriving the way in for necessary purposes, the way out for the best purposes;  for that is necessary which enters in and gives food to the body; but the river of speech, which flows out of a man and ministers to the intelligence, is the fairest and noblest of all streams.  Still the head could neither be left a bare frame of bones, on account of the extremes of heat and cold in the different seasons,  nor yet be allowed to be wholly covered, and so become dull and senseless by reason of an overgrowth of flesh.  The fleshy nature was not therefore wholly dried up, but a large sort of peel was parted off and remained over, which is now called the skin.  This met and grew by the help of the cerebral moisture, and became the circular envelopment of the head.  And the moisture, rising up under the sutures, watered and closed in the skin upon the crown, forming a sort of knot.  The diversity of the sutures was caused by the power of the courses of the soul and of the food, and the more these struggled against one another the more numerous they became, and fewer if the struggle were less violent.  This skin the divine power pierced all round with fire, and out of the punctures which were thus made the moisture issued forth,  and the liquid and heat which was pure came away, and a mixed part which was composed of the same material as the skin, and had a fineness equal to the punctures, was borne up by its own impulse and extended far outside the head,  but being too slow to escape, was thrust back by the external air, and rolled up underneath the skin, where it took root.  Thus the hair sprang up in the skin, being akin to it because it is like threads of leather, but rendered harder and closer through the pressure of the cold, by which each hair, while in process of separation from the skin, is compressed and cooled.  Wherefore the creator formed the head hairy, making use of the causes which I have mentioned,  and reflecting also that instead of flesh the brain needed the hair to be a light covering or guard, which would give shade in summer and shelter in winter, and at the same time would not impede our quickness of perception.  From the combination of sinew, skin, and bone, in the structure of the finger, there arises a triple compound, which, when dried up, takes the form of one hard skin partaking of all three natures, and was fabricated by these second causes, but designed by mind which is the principal cause with an eye to the future.  For our creators well knew that women and other animals would some day be framed out of men, and they further knew that many animals would require the use of nails for many purposes;  wherefore they fashioned in men at their first creation the rudiments of nails.  For this purpose and for these reasons they caused skin, hair, and nails to grow at the extremities of the limbs.  [Seeing that mankind would need food, trees and plants were created. These are animals and have life, being endowed with the lower mortal soul.] And now that all the parts and members of the mortal animal had come together, since its life of necessity consisted of fire and breath, and it therefore wasted away by dissolution and depletion, the gods contrived the following remedy:  They mingled a nature akin to that of man with other forms and perceptions, and thus created another kind of animal.  These are the trees and plants and seeds which have been improved by cultivation and are now domesticated among us;  anciently there were only the wild kinds, which are older than the cultivated.  For everything that partakes of life may be truly called a living being,  and the animal of which we are now speaking partakes of the third kind of soul, which is said to be seated between the midriff and the navel,  having no part in opinion or reason or mind, but only in feelings of pleasure and pain and the desires which accompany them.  For this nature is always in a passive state, revolving in and about itself,  repelling the motion from without and using its own, and accordingly is not endowed by nature with the power of observing or reflecting on its own concerns.  Wherefore it lives and does not differ from a living being, but is fixed and rooted in the same spot, having no power of self-motion.  [Next the gods cut two channels down the back, one on either side of the spine. After this they diverted the veins on the right of the head to the left of the body, and vice versa. The underlying principle of the irrigation of the body is that finer elements can penetrate larger, but not larger elements finer.] Now after the superior powers had created all these natures to be food for us who are of the inferior nature, they cut various channels through the body as through a garden, that it might be watered as from a running stream.  In the first place, they cut two hidden channels or veins down the back where the skin and the flesh join, which answered severally to the right and left side of the body.  These they let down along the backbone, so as to have the marrow of generation between them, where it was most likely to flourish,  and in order that the stream coming down from above might flow freely to the other parts, and equalize the irrigation.  In the next place, they divided the veins about the head, and interlacing them, they sent them in opposite directions;  those coming from the right side they sent to the left of the body, and those from the left they diverted towards the right,  so that they and the skin might together form a bond which should fasten the head to the body, since the crown of the head was not encircled by sinews;  and also in order that the sensations from both sides might be distributed over the whole body.  And next, they ordered the water-courses of the body in a manner which I will describe, and which will be more easily understood if we begin by admitting that all things which have lesser parts retain the greater, but the greater cannot retain the lesser.  Now of all natures fire has the smallest parts, and therefore penetrates through earth and water and air and their compounds, nor can anything hold it.  And a similar principle applies to the human belly; for when meats and drinks enter it, it holds them,  but it cannot hold air and fire, because the particles of which they consist are smaller than its own structure.  [So the surface of the trunk was made like a weel of fire and air, containing within itself two lesser weels (the chest and belly) of air. Alternately the interior of the greater weel which consists of fire flows into the lesser weels, and the lesser weels into it. The outer weel also finds its way in and out of the body, — the fire within following the air in either direction. The motion of the fire into and out of the belly dissolves the food and pumps the blood into the veins.] These elements, therefore, God employed for the sake of distributing moisture from the belly into the veins,  weaving together a network of fire and air like a weel, having at the entrance two lesser weels; further he constructed one of these with two openings,  and from the lesser weels he extended cords reaching all round to the extremities of the network.  All the interior of the net he made of fire, but the lesser weels and their cavity, of air.  The network he took and spread over the newly-formed animal in the following manner:  — He let the lesser weels pass into the mouth;  there were two of them, and one he let down by the air-pipes into the lungs, the other by the side of the air-pipes into the belly.  The former he divided into two branches, both of which he made to meet at the channels of the nose, so that when the way through the mouth did not act, the streams of the mouth as well were replenished through the nose.  With the other cavity (i. e. of the greater weel) he enveloped the hollow parts of the body, and at one time he made all this to flow into the lesser weels, quite gently, for they are composed of air,  and at another time he caused the lesser weels to flow back again; and the net he made to find a way in and out through the pores of the body,  and the rays of fire which are bound fast within followed the passage of the air either way, never at any time ceasing so long as the mortal being holds together.  This process, as we affirm, the name-giver named inspiration and expiration.  And all this movement, active as well as passive, takes place in order that the body, being watered and cooled, may receive nourishment and life;  for when the respiration is going in and out, and the fire, which is fast bound within, follows it, and ever and anon moving to and fro, enters through the belly and reaches the meat and drink,  it dissolves them, and dividing them into small portions and guiding them through the passages where it goes, pumps them as from a fountain into the channels of the veins, and makes the stream of the veins flow through the body as through a conduit.  [Expiration and inspiration take place through the pores as well as through the mouth and nostrils. Expiration is due to the attraction of similars: the air on entering the body is heated, and then moves outward, seeking the place of fire. Inspiration is due to the impossibility of a vacuum; thus while air is breathed out of the body, other air must enter to fill the vacancy.] Let us once more consider the phenomena of respiration, and enquire into the causes which have made it what it is. They are as follows:  — Seeing that there is no such thing as a vacuum into which any of those things which are moved can enter, and the breath is carried from us into the external air, the next point is, as will be clear to every one, that it does not go into a vacant space, but pushes its neighbour out of its place,  and that which is thrust out in turn drives out its neighbour; and in this way everything of necessity at last comes round to that place from whence the breath came forth, and enters in there, and following the breath, fills up the vacant space;  and this goes on like the rotation of a wheel, because there can be no such thing as a vacuum.  Wherefore also the breast and the lungs, when they emit the breath, are replenished by the air which surrounds the body and which enters in through the pores of the flesh and is driven round in a circle;  and again, the air which is sent away and passes out through the body forces the breath inwards through the passage of the mouth and the nostrils.  Now the origin of this movement may be supposed to be as follows.  In the interior of every animal the hottest part is that which is around the blood and veins; it is in a manner an internal fountain of fire,  which we compare to the network of a creel, being woven all of fire and extended through the centre of the body, while the outer parts are composed of air.  Now we must admit that heat naturally proceeds outward to its own place and to its kindred element;  and as there are two exits for the heat, the one out through the body, and the other through the mouth and nostrils,  when it moves towards the one, it drives round the air at the other, and that which is driven round falls into the fire and becomes warm, and that which goes forth is cooled.  But when the heat changes its place, and the particles at the other exit grow warmer, the hotter air inclining in that direction and carried towards its native element, fire, pushes round the air at the other;  and this being affected in the same way and communicating the same impulse, a circular motion swaying to and fro is produced by the double process, which we call inspiration and expiration.  [Other phenomena to be explained on a similar principle: — Cupping-glasses, swallowing of drink, projection of bodies, sounds swift and slow, flowing of water, fall of thunderbolts, magnetic stones.] The phenomena of medical cupping-glasses and of the swallowing of drink and of the projection of bodies, whether discharged in the air or bowled along the ground, are to be investigated on a similar principle;  and swift and slow sounds, which appear to be high and low, and are sometimes discordant on account of their inequality, and then again harmonical on account of the equality of the motion which they excite in us.  For when the motions of the antecedent swifter sounds begin to pause and the two are equalized, the slower sounds overtake the swifter and then propel them.  When they overtake them they do not intrude a new and discordant motion, but introduce the beginnings of a slower, which answers to the swifter as it dies away, thus producing a single mixed expression out of high and low,  whence arises a pleasure which even the unwise feel, and which to the wise becomes a higher sort of delight, being an imitation of divine harmony in mortal motions.  Moreover, as to the flowing of water, the fall of the thunderbolt, and the marvels that are observed about the attraction of amber and the Heraclean stones, — in none of these cases is there any attraction;  but he who investigates rightly, will find that such wonderful phenomena are attributable to the combination of certain conditions,—the non-existence of a vacuum, the fact that objects push one another round, and that they change places, passing severally into their proper positions as they are divided or combined.  [The red colour of blood is due to the action of fire.] Such, as we have seen, is the nature and such are the causes of respiration,—the subject in which this discussion originated.  For the fire cuts the food and following the breath surges up within, fire and breath rising together and filling the veins by drawing up out of the belly and pouring into them the cut portions of the food;  and so the streams of food are kept flowing through the whole body in all animals.  And fresh cuttings from kindred substances, whether the fruits of the earth or herb of the field, which God planted to be our daily food,  acquire all sorts of colours by their intermixture; but red is the most pervading of them, being created by the cutting action of fire and by the impression which it makes on a moist substance;  and hence the liquid which circulates in the body has a colour such as we have described. The liquid itself we call blood, which nourishes the flesh and the whole body, whence all parts are watered and empty places filled.  [The bodily processes of repletion and evacuation are caused by attraction.] Now the process of repletion and evacuation is effected after the manner of the universal motion by which all kindred substances are drawn towards one another.  For the external elements which surround us are always causing us to consume away, and distributing and sending off like to like;  the particles of blood, too, which are divided and contained within the frame of the animal as in a sort of heaven, are compelled to imitate the motion of the universe.  Each, therefore, of the divided parts within us, being carried to its kindred nature, replenishes the void.  When more is taken away than flows in, then we decay, and when less, we grow and increase.  [When the body is young, the triangles of which it is composed are new and strong, and overcome the triangles of the food; but in old age they are overcome by them. Death takes place when the triangles of the marrow, becoming disunited, loosen the soul’s bonds. A natural death is pleasant, a violent, painful.] The frame of the entire creature when young has the triangles of each kind new, and may be compared to the keel of a vessel which is just off the stocks;  they are locked firmly together and yet the whole mass is soft and delicate, being freshly formed of marrow and nurtured on milk.  Now when the triangles out of which meats and drinks are composed come in from without, and are comprehended in the body,  being older and weaker than the triangles already there, the frame of the body gets the better of them and its newer triangles cut them up, and so the animal grows great, being nourished by a multitude of similar particles.  But when the roots of the triangles are loosened by having undergone many conflicts with many things in the course of time,  they are no longer able to cut or assimilate the food which enters, but are themselves easily divided by the bodies which come in from without.  In this way every animal is overcome and decays, and this affection is called old age.  And at last, when the bonds by which the triangles of the marrow are united no longer hold, and are parted by the strain of existence, they in turn loosen the bonds of the soul, and she, obtaining a natural release, flies away with joy.  For that which takes place according to nature is pleasant, but that which is contrary to nature is painful.  And thus death, if caused by disease or produced by wounds, is painful and violent;  but that sort of death which comes with old age and fulfils the debt of nature is the easiest of deaths, and is accompanied with pleasure rather than with pain. 
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       
 
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