Bibliotheca Polyglotta

hamza ء

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√

R₁

The letter ʔ of the Arabic alphabet.

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▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Not from Ar ʔalif but ultimately from the same source is Engl aleph, from Hbr ʔālep ‘aleph’; alpha, alphabet, from Grk alpha; all from Phoen *ʔalp ‘ox’, first letter of the Phoen alphabet.

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ʔBD أبد

ID 001 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔBD

“root”

▪ ʔBD_1 ‘to stay, abide; to last, persist; endless, eternal; (?) ^†liveforever, sempervivum ’ ↗ʔabada_1
▪ ʔBD_2 ‘to be wild, untamed, shy, run away (animal, game); to be unusual, prodigious’ ↗ʔabada_2

BAH2008: ‘[1]long time, eternity; [2] to go wild; to desert, be deserted; wild animals’

▪ Arab lexicographers relate ʔBD_1 and ʔBD_2 to each other via the participle ʔābid(aẗ) saying that ‘wild animals live long, unless killed by accident’– Lane i 1863.

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▪ DRS 1 (1994)#ʔBD/T-1 Akk abātu ‘jeter à terre, détruire, anéantir’ (réfl. à n- ‘être perdu, périr’); Ug ʔbd, oCan *abada, Phoen (impfv) yʔbd, Mo ʔbd, Hbr ʔābad, EpigAram ʔbd, JP ʔᵃbad, Mand abad ‘être perdu, périr, errer’; Ar ʔabida ‘s’irriter contre qn’; ʔabada ‘s’enfuir (animal), devenir sauvage (bétail)’; ʔabidaẗ ‘malheur; chose extraordinaire, étrange’; Gz ʔabda ‘fuir, errer; agir sottement, être fou’; Amh abbädä ‘être fou, furieux’; Te ʔabbädä ‘tromper’; ʔabəd, Tña ʔəbud, Amh Arg əbd ‘fou’. -2?Ug ʔubdy ‘(bail) de longue durée’; Hbr ʔobēd ‘toujours’; Ar ʔabada ‘s’arrêter, faire halte dans un lieu, durer’; ʔabadan ‘toujours, jamais’; ʔabad, ʔabaǧ ‘éternité’. -3 Ar taʔabbada ‘être marqué de taches de rousseur (visage)’. -4 ʔabid ‘joubarbe’. -5 ʔubayd ‘sorte de millet’.
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▪ The two values may belong together, cf. DRS I (1994), s.v. ʔBD, where it is asked whether √ʔBD_1 should be made dependent on ʔBD_2; the hypothesis of a general value of ‘transgression of limits/boundaries’ for ʔBD_2 would permit that.
▪ Arab lexicographers ‎relate √ʔBD_1 and √ʔBD_2 to each other via the participle ʔābid(aẗ) saying that »wild animals ‎live long, unless killed by accident« (Lane i 1863).
▪ The value ^†‘liveforever, sempervivum ’ (ʔabid) is listed as a distinct value by DRS I (1994), (#ʔBD-4 ‘joubarbe’). However, given the fact that sempervivum does not seem to occur endemically in Ar-speaking regions it may just be a calque from a language that termed it ‘liveforever’, perhaps from Lat?
▪ Accord. to DRS, the root belongs to a group of roots that can be assumed to be derived from a nuclear *BD because all show the basic meaning of ‘to prowl, wander around, to disappear’, cf. also BDBD, ↗BDW/Y, ↗BWD, ↗BYD.
▪ Gabal2012 makes a similar assumption, but thinks that the meaning of the biconsonantal nucleus *BD is ‘extended separation or longtime distancing as the result of the emergence of a gap’. Accord. to him, preceding *ʔ‑ underlines the persistence of the separation expressed in *BD, modifying it to give ‘to last long’. – Cf. also ↗badaʔa, ↗badara, ↗badaʕa, ↗badala, ↗badan, ↗bāda.¹

1. Ehret1989 too assumes a bi-consonantal nuclear *BD from which a number of 3-radical roots are derived by extension. For him, *BD has the basic meaning ‘to appear’. However, he does not include ʔBD in the list of roots that he thinks are derived from *BD.

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¹ʔabad‑ أَبَدَ , i (ʔubūd)

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√ʔBD

vb., I

1 to stay, linger (bi‑ at a place). – 2 For other meanings see ↗ʔabada_2 – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Arab lexicographers relate ʔabada_1 and ↗ʔabada_2 to each other via the participle ʔābid(aẗ) saying that ‘wild animals live long, unless killed by accident’ – Lane i 1863. For the overall picture cf. ↗ʔBD.

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▪ DRS 1 (1994)#ʔBD/T-2: ?Ug ʔubdy ‘(bail) de longue durée’; Hbr ʔobēd ‘toujours’; Ar ʔabada ‘s’arrêter, faire halte dans un lieu, durer’; ʔabadan ‘toujours, jamais’; ʔabad, ʔabaǧ ‘éternité’. – ? #ʔBD/T-4 ʔabid ‘joubarbe’.
▪ Cf., however, also the cognates of ↗ʔabada_2 (= DRS #ʔBD/T-1).

See section CONC, above.

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► ʔabbada, vb. II, to make lasting or permanent, perpetuate, eternize: D-stem, caus.
► taʔabbada, vb. V, 1 to be perpetuated, become lasting or permanent: tD-stem, intr./pass. of II. – 2 For other meanings see ↗ʔabada_2.

► ʔabad, pl. ʔābād, n., endless, eternal duration, eternity: may be the etymon proper, the vb. perhaps being denom. from ʔabad. | ʔabadan, adv., always, forever; ever, (with neg.) never (in the future), not at all, on no account; (alone, without negation) never! not at all! by no means!; ʔilà /ʕalà ’l-ʔabad, ʔabada ’l-dahr, adv., forever; ʔabada ’l-ʔabad, ʔabada ’l-ʔābidīn, ʔabada ’l-ʔabadiyyaẗ, adv., forever and ever.
► ʔabadī, adj., everlasting, eternal, endless: nsb-adj. of preceding item.
► ʔabadiyyaẗ, n.f., infinite duration, endless time, eternity: n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ.
► ʔābid, adj., 1 resident; nonmigratory (bird): PA I. – 2 ↗ʔabada_2.
► ʔābidaẗ, pl. ʔawābidᵘ, n.f., 1 resident bird: PA I, f. – 2 and 3 ↗ʔabada_2.
► muʔabbad, adj., eternal, endless, everlasting: PP II | siǧn ~, n., life imprisonment.

For other values attached to the root, see ↗ʔabada_2.

²ʔabad‑ أَبَدَ , i u

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√ʔBD

vb., I

1 ↗ʔabada_1 . – 2 to roam in a state of wildness, run wild, be shy, shy away, run away (animal, game) – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Arab lexicographers relate ʔabada_2 and ↗ʔabada_1 to each other via the participle ʔābid(aẗ) saying that ‘wild animals live long, unless killed by accident’ – Lane i 1863. For the overall picture cf. ↗ʔBD.

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▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘to get lost, comminute’) Akk (ībut ‘to destroy’), Hbr ʔāḇaḏ, Syr ʔeḇaḏ, Gz ʔbd – (a) ‘to be meaningless, mad’.
▪ DRS 1 (1994)#ʔBD/T-1: Akk abātu ‘jeter à terre, détruire, anéantir’ (réfl. à n- ‘être perdu, périr’); Ug ʔbd, oCan *abada, Phoen (impfv) yʔbd, Mo ʔbd, Hbr ʔābad, EpigAram ʔbd, JP ʔᵃbad, Mand abad ‘être perdu, périr, errer’; Ar ʔabida ‘s’irriter contre qn’; ʔabada ‘s’enfuir (animal), devenir sauvage (bétail)’; ʔabidaẗ ‘malheur; chose extraordinaire, étrange’; Gz ʔabda ‘fuir, errer; agir sottement, être fou’; Amh abbädä ‘être fou, furieux’; Te ʔabbädä ‘tromper’; ʔabəd, Tña ʔəbud, Amh Arg əbd ‘fou’.
▪ Cf., however, also the cognates of ↗ʔabada_1 (= DRS #ʔBD/T-2).

See section CONC, above.

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► taʔabbada, vb. V, 1 ↗ʔabada_1. – 2 to return to a state of wildness: tD-stem, intr.
► ʔābid, adj., 1 ↗ʔabada_1. – 2 wild, untamed: PA I.
► ʔābidaẗ, pl. ʔawābidᵘ, n.f., 1 ↗ʔabada_1. – 2 wild animal; monster: PA I, f. | ʔawābid al-dunyā, n.pl., the Wonders of the World. – 3 unusual thing, prodigious event: fig. use of [v2] (?).

For other values attached to the root, see ↗ʔabada_1.

ʔabad أَبَد , pl. ʔābād

ID 002 • Sw – • BP 584 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔBD

n.

endless, eternal duration, eternity – WehrCowan1979.

May be the etymon proper of the complex treated under ↗ʔabada_1. See also ↗ʔBD for the whole picture.

▪ eC7 ʔabadan 1 (forever, eternally, very long time) Q 4:122 wa’l-laḏīna ʔāmanū wa-ʕamilū ’l-ṣāliḥāti sa-nudḫilu-hum ǧannātin taǧrī min taḥti-hā ’l-ʔanhāru ḫālidīna fī-hā ʔabadan ‘as for those who believe and do goot deeds, We will admit them into gardens graced with flowing streams; there they are to remain for ever’; 2 (enhancing negation: ever) a) (expressively) Q 9:108 lā taqum fī-hi ʔabadan ‘don’t you ever pray in it’, b) (elliptically) Q 24:17 yaʕiẓu-kum-a ’llāhu ʔan taʕūdū li-miṯli-hī ʔabadan ‘God admonishes you [not] to revert to the like of this [sin] ever’.

↗ʔBD, ↗ʔabada_1

↗ʔBD, ↗ʔabada_1.

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► ʔabadan, adv., always, forever; ever, (with neg.) never (in the future), not at all, on no account; (alone, without negation) never! not at all! by no means!
► ʔilà / ʕalà ’l-ʔabad, ʔabada ’l-dahr, adv., forever.
► ʔabada ’l-ʔabad, ʔabada ’l-ʔābidīn, ʔabada ’l-ʔabadiyyaẗ, adv., forever and ever.

► ʔabadī, adj., everlasting, eternal, endless: nsb-adj.
► ʔabadiyyaẗ, n.f., infinite duration, endless time, eternity: n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ.

For other items related to ʔabad cf. ↗ʔabada_1.

ʔibrīsam إبْريسَم , var. ʔibrīsim

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔBRSM, BRSM

n.

silk – WehrCowan1979.

From mPers abrēšōm, akin to Av *upa-rēšma ‘silk’, derived from rīš‑ ‘to spin, yarn’ or rēš‑ ‘to twine, twist’ (Rolland2014).

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DRS 1 (1994)#ʔBRŠ: Syr Mand ʔbryšwm, Ar ʔibrīsam ‘soie’.

▪ Rolland2014: From mPers abrēšōm, akin to Av *upa-rēšma ‘silk’, derived from rīš‑ ‘to spin, yarn’ (Nourai) or rēš‑ ‘to twine, twist’ (Nişanyan).
▪ DRS 1 (1994)#ʔBRŠ: from nPers abrēšum ?

▪ Not from Ar, but from the same source is Tu ibrişim, first attested as ebrīşüm [ʕĀşıḳ Paşa, Ġarīb-nāme, 1330] < Pers abrīşum < mPers abrēşōm < etc. (as Ar) – Nişanyan2012.

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ʔBRQ أبرق

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√ʔBRQ

“root”

▪ ʔBRQ_1 ‘pitcher, jug’ ↗ʔibrīq
▪ ʔBRQ_2 ‘…’ ↗…

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ʔibrīq إبْريق , pl. ʔabārīqᵘ , TunAr ʔabāriqaẗ

ID 003 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 11Apr2023

√ʔBRQ, BRQ

n.

pitcher; jug – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Rolland2014a: from mPers āp-reḫ ‘ewer, jug’.
▪ Cheung2017rev: ultimately of Ir origin, but prob. borrowed indirectly, via Syr ʔābrēqā < *ʔābrēg < emPers *ābrēž. For details, see below, section DISC.
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▪ eC7 (pitcher, jug, flagon) Q 56:18 bi-ʔakwābin wa-ʔabārīqa wa-kaʔsin min maʕīnin ‘with glasses, flagons and a cup full of pure liquid’

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▪ Jeffery1938: 46-47. Q 56:18 ‘ewer, jug’, only in the pl. form in an early Meccan ‎description of Paradise. »It was recognized as a Pers loan-word and is given by al-Kindī [details], ‎al-Ṯaʕālibī [det.], al-Suyūṭī [fn] and al-Jawālīqī [fn] in their lists of Pers borrowings, as well as by ‎the Lexicons LA [det.], TA [det.] though some attempted to explain it as a genuine Ar word ‎derived from √BRQ. – In modPers, the word is ābrīz meaning ‘urn’ or ‘waterpot’. It ‎would be derived from āb ‘water’ (= Phlv āβ, i.e. oPers. āpi = Av…; Skt… aqua), and ‎‎rīḫtan (= Phlv rēχtăn from the old Iranian root *raek = linquere) […] generally accepted since ‎the time. It was from the Phlv form that the word was borrowed into Ar, the shortening of the ‎‎ā being regular. The word occurs in the early poetry, in verses of ʕAdī b. Zayd, ʕAlqama, and al-‎ʔAʕšā, and so was doubtless an early borrowing among the Arabs who were in contact with the ‎court at al-Ḥīra.«
▪ EALL : from mPers ābrēz (Asbaghi, “Persian Loanwords”).
▪ Rolland2014: from mPers āp-reḫ ‘ewer, jug’ (lit. water pourer) which is also the etymon of modPers āb-rez.

▪ According to Lokotsch1927#894, Ar ʔībrīq (signifying particularly a pitcher with water used for the ritual ablutions prescribed in Islam) went into Tu (first attested in Kāşġarī, Dīvān-i Luġati't-Türk, 1073, as iwriḳ)¹ , whence Rum ibric (pitcher), It bricco (coffee pot made of tin), Bulg Serb ibrik (ewer, jug, pitcher), Serb imbrik, Pol imbryk, imbryczek, Ukr imbryček (tea or coffee pot).

1. NişanyanSözlük 9Sept2015. Next attestation is Mesʕūd b. Aḥmed, Süheyl ü Nevbahār terc., 1354.

► barīq, n., = ʔibrīq

ʔBL أبل

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√ʔBL

“root”

▪ ʔBL_1 ‘camels’ ↗ʔibil
▪ ʔBL_2 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘camels, to acquire camels, to look after camels; to stay away from one’s wife, a monk; droves, flocks, bundles; successive waves’

↗ʔibil

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ʔibil , var. ʔibl, إِبِل

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔBL

n.coll.

camels – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Kogan2011: »There is no PS term for ‘camel’. […] The most widespread common terms are *gamal‑ (Ar ↗ǧamal), *ʔibil‑ (Ar ↗ʔibil = present entry), *nāḳ-at‑ (Ar ↗nāqaẗ), and *b˅kr‑ (Ar ↗bakr).«
▪ From (only Arabian?) Sem *ʔibil‑ ‘camel’, from AfrAs *ʔa/iba/il‑, *balbal‑ ‘camel’.

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▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#90: SAr ʔbl, Ḥrs ḥe-ybīt, Mhr ḥe-ybīt, and Jib yit ʻcamelʼ. – Outside Sem: bila-he ‘donkey’ in ECh Lele (< ECh *bil‑)?¹
▪ MilitarevKogan SED II (2005)#2: Syr ʔebbālətā ‘herd (of camels)’, Sab Qat ʔbl (f. ʔblt) ‘camel’, Mhr ḥǝ-ybīt, Jib yǝt, eyét, Ḥrs ḥǝ-ybīt ‘she-camel’. < (Ar)Sem *ʔibil ‘camel’. – Outside Sem: Berb Ghat abal ‘chameau en âge d’être monté’, Ayr abal, pl. abalăn ‘chameau noir et court d’une race particulière’ (also ‘autruche mâle’), Ahaggar ăbal, pl. âbalən ‘jeune chameau’, tăbalt ‘chamelle de selle d’âge qcq.’.² – Cush Beja baláabu ‘2-3 years old camel’.
▪ Kogan2011: (Akk ibilu, Syr ʔebbāltā,) Sab Qat ʔbl, ʔblt, Mhr ḥə-ybīl, Jib yət.

1. MilitarevKogan2005, SED II #2, think that for Lele bila-he one rather has to conform Sem *baġ/ḳl ‘mule’, see Ar ↗baġl. 2. »The vocalism of the Tuareg forms speaks against their Ar origin.«

▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#90 reconstruct Sem *ʔib(i)l‑ ʻcamelʼ and, if the Sem evidences should at all be akin to ECh, then perhaps all from AfrAs *ʔi-bil‑ ʻcamel, donkeyʼ. The initial *ʔi‑ in Sem would then be a prefix, preserved only there, or it is part of the root but lost in ECh for phonetic reasons. Another possible anlaut in AfrAs could have been *ʔe‑.
▪ MilitarevKogan SED II (2005)#2: »The present root is reliably attested in the Arabian area only which makes its Common Semitic status doubtful […]² . From […]< (Ar?)Sem *ʔibil‑ ‘camel’. – Reconstructions for non-Sem: Berb *Habal‑ ‘(young) camel’. – Cush *balbal‑ ? – All from AfrAs *ʔa/iba/il‑, *balbal‑ ‘camel’.

2. »… but cf. DRS 3 where Sem ʔ/hibil‑ ‘chameau, troupe de chameaux’, ‘bête de somme’ is apparently reconstructed as PS; for a similar opinion cf. already Nöldeke1879 1268 where the Syr forms are thought to provide a decisive argument in favor of the Common Semitic background of the present root. […] Akk ibilu ‘Arabian camel, dromedary’ […] is a late literary term of limited frequency […] which can hardly be regarded as genuine Akkadian.«

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ʔBLS أبلس

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔBLS

“root”

▪ ʔBLS_1 ‘Satan, the Devil’ ↗ʔiblīs
▪ ʔBLS_2 ‘…’ ↗…

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ʔIblīsᵘ إبْليس , pl. ʔabālisaẗ

ID 004 • Sw – • BP??? • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔBLS

n./n.prop.

devil, Satan – WehrCowan1979.

The word is one of only 17 words in the Qurʔān which, with a good degree of likelihood, ultimately are of Grk origin. It may even be one of only two among these which are believed to be direct loans.

▪ eC7 Q 2:34, 7:11, 15:31,32, 17:61, 18:50, 20:116, 26:95, 34:20, 38:74,75.

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▪ Jeffery 1938: 47-48: »The tendency among the Muslim authorities is to derive the name from balasa ‘to despair’, he being so called because God caused him to despair of all good — so Rāghib, Mufradāt, 59, and Ṭab. on ii, 32. The more acute philologers, however, recognized the impossibility of this (an-Nawawī, 138), and Zam. on xix, 57, says ʔiblīs ʔaʕǧamī wa-laysa mina l-ʔiblās kamā yazʕamūn [ʔiblīs is a foreign word, and not from ʔiblās as some argue]. al-Ǧawālīqī, Muʕarrab, 17, also justly argues against an Ar derivation. – That the word is a corruption of the Grk diábolos has been recognized by the majority of Western scholars.³ In the LXX diábolos represents the Hbr śāṭān in Zech. iii, but in the N.T. ho diábolos is more than ‘the adversary’, and particularly in the ecclesiastical writers he becomes the chief of the hosts of evil. It is in this sense that ʔiblīs appears in the Qurʔān, so we are doubly justified in looking for a Christian origin for the word. – One theory is that it came through the Syr, the ḏ being taken as the genitive particle,⁴ a phenomenon for which there are perhaps other examples, e.g. [Syr] YPNS for [Grk] diaphōnás (ZA, xxiv, 51), [Ar] qisṭās for [Grk] dikastḗs (ZDMG, 1, 620), zinṭāriyyaẗ for [Grk] dysentería (Geyer, ZweiGedichte, i, 119 n.). The difficulty is that the normal translation of ho diábolos is [Syr] ʔBLQRṢā, the ‘accuser’ or ‘calumniator’, both in the Peshitta (cf. Matt, iv) and in the ecclesiastical literature. There is a form [Syr] ḎYBLWS, a transliteration of diábolos, but PSm, 874, quotes this only as a dictionary word from BB. There is apparently no occurrence of the word in the old Ar literature,⁵ so it was possibly a word introduced by Muḥammad himself. If we could assume that some such form as ḎYBLWS was colloquially used among the Aramaic-speaking Christians with whom Muḥammad came in contact, the above explanation might hold, though one would have to assume that the ḏ had been dropped by his informants. The alternative is that it came into Ar directly from the Grk, and was used by the Ar-speaking Christians associated with the Byzantine Church.⁶ – Grimme, ZA, xxvi, 164, suggested that it might have come from SArabia, perhaps influenced by the Eth [Gz] diyāblos. This, however, is apparently a rare word in Eth [Gz], the usual translation for diábolos being sayṭān, though sometimes gānen is used (James iv, 7; 1 Pet. v, 8, etc.). Moreover, even if there were anything in Grimme’s theory that this was the form that crossed over into Arabia, his further supposition that the diyā‑ was taken to be the SAr ḏ = [Ar] ḏī is very far fetched.«
▪ EALL (Gutas, “Greek Loanwords”): probably a direct loan from Grk diábolos.
▪ Rolland2014 refers also to Nişanyan2001 who derived the word from Grk epíboulos ‘qui machine contre, qui tend des pièges, insidieux’ rather than from diábolos, but the Nişanyan’s online TES (as of 24Sept2014) has again diábolos. In any case, the word has probably undergone paronymic attraction from √BLS ‘despair’.

3. Geiger, 100; von Kremer, Ideen, 226 n.; Fraenkel, Vocab, 24; Sprenger, Leben, ii, 242; Wensinck, EI, ii, 351; Rudolph, Abhängigkeit, 35; Vollers, ZDMG, 1, 620; Sacco, Credenze, 61. However, Pautz, Offenbarung, 69, n. 3, and Eickmann, Angelologie, 26, hold to an Ar origin, though Sprenger, Leben, ii, 242, n. 1, had pointed out that words of this form are as a rule foreign. 4. So Horovitz, KU, 87. Mingana, Syriac Influence, 89, thinks rather that it was the fault of some early scribe or copyist who mistook the initial Dal for an Alif. 5. The verses in Ibn Hišām, 318 and 516, noted by Horovitz, are from the period of the Hijra and so doubtless influenced by Muḥammad’s usage. They would seem fatal, however, to Mingana’s theory. 6. Künstlinger, “Die Herkunft des Wortes Iblīs im Ḳurān,” in Rocznik Orjentalistyczny, vi (1928), proposes the somewhat far-fetched theory that Iblīs is derived from the Jewish Belial by deliberate transformation.

▪ Being taken from Grk diábolos, Ar ʔiblīs is of course related to Eur successors of the Grk word. Cf., e.g., entry devil in EtymOnline: “oEngl deofol ‘evil spirit, a devil, the devil, false god, diabolical person’, from lLat diabolus (also the source of Ital diavolo, Fr diable, Span diablo; Ge Teufel is oHGe tiufal, from Lat via Goth diabaulus). – The lLat word is from Ecclesiastical Grk diábolos, in Jewish and Christian use, ‘Devil, Satan’ (scriptural loan-translation of Hbr satan), in general use ‘accuser, slanderer’, from diabállein ‘to slander, attack’, lit. ‘throw across’, from dia‑ ‘across, through’ + bállein ‘to throw’ (see ballistics). Jerome re-introduced Satan in Lat bibles, and Engl translators have used both in different measures.”

► ʔiblīsī, adj., devilish, satanic, diabolic: nsb-adj.

ʔB(W)

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔB(W)

“root”

▪ ʔB(W)_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʔB(W)_2 ‘…’ ↗…

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▪ For Engl abba, abbacy, abbatial, abbé, abbess, abbey, abbot, baobab, borage, bwana, pataca, as well as the n.prop. Abraham, Ahab, Abigail, Job, Joab, Absalom, Barabbas, cf. ↗ ʔab.

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ʔab أَب , st.constr. ʔabū, pl. ʔābāʔ

ID 005 • Sw –/43 • BP 76 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔB(W)

n.

father – WehrCowan1979.

From Sem *ʔab‑ (perhaps from AfrAs *ʔab‑) ‘father’.

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▪ Bergsträsser1928: Akk abu, Hbr ʔāḇ, Aram ʔaḇā, Gz ‎‎ʔab ‘father’
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2: Akk abu, Ug ʔab, Phn ʔb, Pun ʔb, Hbr ‎‎ʔāb, Aram ʔab, (Syr) ʔabbā, SAr ʔb, Gz ʔab, Ar ʔab(ū). Outside Sem: Berb *ʔab(b)‑ , CCh *ʔab‑ , Eg 3b.t ʻfamilyʼ (OK), ‎ʻparentsʼ (n) (which »may well be a derivative of an initial word for ʻfatherʼ").

▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#2: The word and its Sem cognates go back to Sem *ʔab‑ ‎ʻfatherʼ. The Berb, CCh and Eg cognates suggest that the common ancestor of all is an AfrAs *ʔab‑ ʻfatherʼ.

▪ (Huehnergard2011:) In Western langs, several words and many personal names go back to Ar ʔab or its Hbr or Aram cognates.
▪ Directly from Ar ʔabū (bound form of ʔab ‘father’, also in the sense of ‘source’) are: baobab, from NAfrAr bū ḥibāb ‘tree (lit., father) of many seeds’; borage, prob. from Ar bū ʕaraq, short for ʔabū ʕaraq ‘father of sweat’; bwana, ultimately from Ar ʔabūnā ‘our father’; pataca, from Ar ʔabū ṭāqaẗ, lit. ‘father of the window’, a type of coin.
▪ From Aram ʔabbā ‘the father, my father’ (def. of ʔab) are Engl abba, abbacy, abbatial, abbé, abbess, abbey, and abbot.
▪ All Engl personal names that contain a ‘father’ element are from the Bible and thus of Hbr origin:

With no suffixes, Hbr ʔāb (or reduced or dialectal forms) is in Abraham (Hbr ʔabrāhām ‘the [divine] father is exalted’), Job (Hbr ʔiyyôb, perh. from an early NWSem dialectal name meaning ‘Where is the father?’, from dialectal ʔôb, akin to Hbr ʔāb),² Joab (Hbr yôʔāb ‘Yahweh is father’; for Yahweh cf. ↗√HWY), and Ahab (Hbr ʔaḥʔāb ‘father’s brother’; for Hbr ʔaḥ cf. Ar ↗ʔaḫ(ū) ‘brother’.
With the 1sg.poss.suff. ‑ī, ʔăbî, the Hbr ʔāb is contained (in reduced/shortened forms) in Abigail (Hbr ʔăbîgayil ‘my father is joy’; ?cf. Ar ↗ǧīl) and Absalom (Hbr ʔabšālōm, short for ʔăbîšālōm ‘my father peace’; for Hbr šālōm cf. Ar ↗salām ‘peace’).

2. Alternatively, ʔiyyôb may be akin to Hbr ʔōyēb ‘enemy’, cf. √ʔYB.

►

ʔBY أبي

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 7Mar2023

√ʔBY

“root”

▪ ʔBY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔBY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔBY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘aversion, disdain; to refuse, turn down, reject’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʔTW/Y أتو / أتي

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔTW/Y

“root”

▪ ʔTW_1 ‘tax, due, toll, tribute’ ↗ʔitāwaẗ
▪ ʔTY_1 ‘to come’ ↗ʔatà

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to come, to arrive, to bring, to bring forward; to commit; to direct; to afflict; to bestow; to become possible, to become suitable; to yield, to fruit’

▪ …

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In addtion to the items given under ↗ʔitāwaẗ ‘tax, due toll, tribute’ and ʔatà ‘to come’, DRS 1 (1994)#ʔTW/Y mentions 3 other values attached to the root, two without a reflex in Ar :
▪ (#ʔTW/Y-2) Akk atū ‘portier’; and
▪ (#ʔTW/Y-5) Akk ettūt, ettīt, uttūt ‘araigné’), and
▪ (#ʔTW/Y-4) one with a reflex in Ar that has become obsolete in MSA: Ar ^†ʔatw ‘personnage importante; maladie grave’.

▪ …
▪ …

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ʔitāwaẗ , pl. ‑āt , ʔatāwā

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔTW/Y

n.f.

duty, tax, due, toll; extorted payment; tribute – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ ? DRS 1 (1994)#ʔTW/Y-3: Ar ʔatā(w) ‘donner, produire’, ? Amh atet ‘fortune, richesse’, atat ‘usure’

▪ ? DRS 1 (1994)#ʔTW/Y-3: A rapprocher de ↗ʕṬW ?

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ʔatà / ʔatay‑ أَتَى , i (ʔityān , ʔaty , maʔtāẗ)

ID 006 • Sw 66/23 • BP 343 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔTY

vb., I

to come, arrive; bi‑ to bring, bring forward, produce, advance, accomplish or achieve s.th.; bi‑ to bring, give or offer s.o. s.th.; to do, perform (a deed), carry out, execute (e.g., movements); to commit, perpetrate (a sin, a crime); to mention (ʕalà s.th.); to finish off (ʕalà s.th., also s.o.); to finish, complete, carry through, dispose, settle, wind up, conclude, terminate, bring to a close (ʕalà s.th.); to destroy, annihilate, eradicate, wipe out (ʕalà s.th.); to eliminate, carry away, sweep away (ʕalà s.th.), do away (with); to use up, exhaust (also a subject), present exhaustively, in great detail (ʕalà s.th.), elaborate (on s.th.) – WehrCowan1979.

It seems to be safe to assume a Sem verb *‘to come’ (with unclear voweling; Orel&Stolbova1994 suggest *ʔ˅t‑ or *ʔ˅t˅w‑ / *ʔ˅t˅y‑). What seems to be parallels in other branches of the AfrAs family encourages them to reconstruct either AfrAs *ʔat‑ ‘to walk, come’ or AfrAs *taʔ‑ / *taw‑ / *tay‑ ‘to go, run’.

▪ …

▪ DRS 1 (1994)#ʔTW/Y-1: Sem ‘to come’, Ug ʔatw, Hbr ʔātā, oAram yʔth (ipfv), EmpAram ʔth, Nab yʔtʔ (ipfv), Palm ʔtʔ, JP ʔᵃtā, Syr ʔetā, Mand ata, Ar ʔatā(y), Tham ʔty, SAr ʔtw, ʔt, Soq ʔete ‘passer, traverser, courir, aller’, Gz Tña ʔatawa, Te ʔata ‘revenir chez soi, retourner’; Ar ʔatā u ‘courir (monture)’; ? Akk itū ‘confins, voisin’, itu ‘à, chez, du côté de’.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994 give two sets of cognates. a) #63: Ug ʔatw, Hbr ʔty, Syr ʔeta, SAr ʔtw, Gz ʔatawa. – Outside Sem perhaps ʔat ‘to ride’ in a WCh language (< WCh *ʔat‑ ‘to ride’), Bed ʔat‑ ‘to tread’, Afar ʕat‑ (< SA *ʕat‑ , with irregular ʕ) ‘to tread’, as well as ʔat‑ (< Omot *ʔat‑) ‘to come’ in an Omot language. b) #2345: Ug ʔtw, Aram ʔty, Ar ʔty, i, SAr ʔtw ‘to arrive home’; Gz ʔtw ‘to return’. – Outside Sem: te, tewi, təχ ‘to enter’, tawi ‘to go’ in some WCh languages (< WCh *ta‑ / *taw‑); tea ‘to follow’, ta ‘go’ in CCh dialects (< CCh *taʔ‑ / *tay‑); forms like tee, tayi ‘drive’, taaʔe ‘to go’ in ECh (< ECh *taʔ‑ / *tay‑); Agaw tu-ŋ (<*tuʔ‑) ‘to enter’; LEC: one ti‑ (< LEC *tiʔ‑) ‘to run’.

▪ Orel&Stolbova1994 suggest also two etymologies: a) #63: < Sem *ʔ˅t‑ ‘to come; pass; come back’ < AfrAs *ʔat‑ ‘to walk, come’. – b) #2345: Sem *ʔ˅t˅w‑ /*ʔ˅t˅y‑ (with prefix *ʔ˅‑) < AfrAs *taʔ‑ / *taw‑ / *tay‑ ‘to go, run’.

–

► ʔātà, vb. III, to offer, furnish, give, afford (bi‑ s.th.), provide, supply (bi‑ with); to be propitious, be favorable (DO for s.o.), favor (s.o.); to turn out well (DO for s.o.), be in favor of; to suit, befit, become (DO s.o.), be appropriate (for s.o.); to agree (with s.o.; food):.
► ʔātà, vb. IV, to bring; to give; to grant, bestow (upon s.o.) | ʔātà ‘l-zakāẗ to give alms:.
► taʔattà, vb. V, to originate, stem, derive, spring, arise, result (from); to end (with), result (in); to get (to), arrive (at); to be easy to do, be feasible without difficulty, be attainable, go well, progress; to go about s.th. (fī) gently, cautiously:.
► ĭstaʔtà, vb. X, to ask to come, induce to come:.
► ʔityān, n., performance (bi‑):.
► maʔt^an, pl. maʔātⁱⁿ, n., place where s.th. comes from; place at which one arrives; access; pl. maʔātⁱⁿ place of origin; origin, source, provenance; place where one has been or to which one has come; place where s.th. starts, where s.th. ends:.
► ʔātⁱⁿ coming, next; following:.
► muʔātⁱⁿ, var. muwātⁱⁿ favorable, propitious, opportune, convenient, suitable:.

ʔṮː (ʔṮṮ) أثّ/أثث

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 7Mar2023

√ʔṮː (ʔṮṮ)

“root” “root”

▪ ʔṮː (ʔṮṮ)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔṮː (ʔṮṮ)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔṮː (ʔṮṮ)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘abundance, great wealth; (of hair and tree branches) to be thick, intertwined; to be fleshy; furnishings’

▪ …

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ʔṮR أثر

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔṮR

“root”

▪ ʔṮR_1 ‘track, trace’ ↗ʔaṯar
▪ ʔṮR_2 ‘egoistic, selfish; to prefer; to monopolize’ ↗ʔaṯir
▪ ʔṮR_3 ‘ether’ ↗ʔaṯīr

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘trace, mark, track, remnants, remains; landmarks, monuments; authority, favour; to mark; deeds; to pass along, to transmit; to favour, to prefer’

▪ …

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DRS 2 (1994)#ʔṮR–1: Sem *ʔaṯar‑ ‘trace, pas, vestige’: Akk aš(a)r‑ ‘lieu, place’, Ug ʔaṯr ‘marcher’, Hbr ʔaš(š)ūr, Pun ʔšr, EmpAram Nab Palm ʔtr, JP Syr ʔatrā, Mand atra ‘lieu, région’, Ar ʔaṯar, ʔiṯr, Gz ʔašar ‘trace, vestige’, Tña assär ‘trace’, Saf ʔṯr ‘vestige, inscription’, Ug ʔaṯr, Nab bʔtr (b + ʔtr), Syr botar, Ar ʔaṯar, SAr ʔṯr ‘après’, Soq ʔihor ‘suivre’, Ug ʔaṯr, Hbr ʔᵃšer relatif ‘qui, que’. –2 [‘sanctuaire, temple, arbre sacré’]. –3 [‘beurre’?]. –4 Ar ʔuṯr ‘éclat de la lame d’un sabre’. –5 Ar ʔaṯira, SAr ʔṯr ‘choisir’. –6 [nom de déesse].

▪ For ʔṮR_1 ‘track, trace’ cf. DRS 2 (1994)#ʔṮR-1 (see Cognates).
▪ For ʔṮR_2 ‘egoistic, selfish; to prefer; to monopolize’ cf. DRS 2 (1994)#ʔṮR-5.
▪ ʔṮR_3 ‘ether’ not mentioned in DRS since it is from Grk aithḗr ‘upper air; bright, purer air; the sky’.

–

ʔaṯar أَثَر , pl. ʔāṯār

ID … • Sw – • BP 554 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔṮR

n.

track, trace, vestige; sign, mark (from the past); clue; slight touch; relic or remnant (preserved from the past); ancient monument; work of art, literary work (of former times); tradition, brief report (from early Islam); impression, effect, influence; – pl. آثار ʔāṯār antiquities; (religious) relics; works, writings (esp. of deceased or ancient authors) – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ Bergsträsser1928: Aram ʔaṯrā, Gz ʔašár ‘trace’ (n.); cf. also Akk ašru ‘place’, Hbr ʔāšūr ‘step’
▪ DRS 2 (1994)#ʔṮR-1: Akk aš(a)r‑ ‘lieu, place’, Ug ʔaṯr ‘marcher’, Hbr ʔaš(š)ūr, Pun ʔšr, EmpAram Nab Palm ʔtr, JP Syr ʔatrā, Mand atra ‘lieu, région’, Ar ʔaṯar, ʔiṯr, Gz ʔašar ‘trace, vestige’, Tña assär ‘trace’, Saf ʔṯr ‘vestige, inscription’, Ug ʔaṯr, Nab bʔtr (b + ʔtr), Syr botar, Ar ʔaṯar, SAr ʔṯr ‘après’, Soq ʔihor ‘suivre’, Ug ʔaṯr, Hbr ʔᵃšer relatif ‘qui, que’.
▪ Cf. also √ʔṮR.

According to DRS 2 (1994)#ʔṮR-1 we can reconstruct Sem *ʔaṯar ‘trace, pas, vestige’.

–

► ʕilm al-ʔāṯār, n., archeology:.

► ʔaṯara, u, i (ʔaṯr, ʔaṯāraẗ), vb. I, to transmit, pass along, report, relate (s.th., ʕan from, or based on the authority of, s.o.):.
► ^BP#1336ʔaṯṯara, vb. II, to affect, influence (fī or ʕalà s.o., s.th.), act (fī or ʕalà upon), produce an effect, make an impression, have influence (fī or ʕalà on); to induce (phys.):.
► taʔaṯṯara, vb. V, to be impressed, be influenced; to let o.s. be impressed, be impressible; to be moved, be touched (bi‑ or li‑ by, also min); to be excited, be stimulated; to be affected (bi‑ by, said of materials, e.g., iron by acid); to be induced (phys.); to follow in s.o.’s (DO) tracks, follow s.o.’s example, emulate s.o.; to pursue, follow up (a question, a problem); to perceive, feel (s.th.):.
► ^BP#4307ʔaṯarī, adj., archeologic(al); n., pl. ‑ūn, archeologist (also ʔāṯārī); old, ancient, antique | ʕālim ʔ. archeologist; luġaẗ ʔ.iyyaẗ dead language; ṣarḥ ʔ. historic castle:.
► ^BP#2257ʔiṯrᵃ, prep., immediately after, right after:.
► ʔaṯāraẗ, n.f., remainder, remnant; faint trace, vestige:.
► maʔṯaraẗ, var. maʔṯuraẗ, pl. maʔāṯirᵘ, n., exploit, feat, glorious deed; pl. maʔāṯirᵘ memorable events, achievements (handed down from the past) :.
► ^BP#1020taʔṯīr, n., action, effect, influence, impression (fī, ʕalà on); effectiveness, efficacy; induction (phys.): vn. II.
► taʔṯīrī, adj., produced by induction, inductive, inductional, induced (phys.): nsb-adj from taʔṯīr.
► ^BP#4160taʔaṯṯur, n., being influenced; agitation, emotion, feeling; excitability, sensitivity; (pl. ‑āt) feeling, sensation, perception | sarīʕ al-t. easily impressed, impressible, sensitive:.
► taʔaṯṯurī, adj.: al-maḏhab al-t. the impressionistic movement: nsb-adj of taʔaṯṯur.
► taʔaṯṯuriyyaẗ, n.f., impressionism: n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ coined from taʔaṯṯur.
► maʔṯūr, adj., transmitted, handed down | qawl m., kalimaẗ m.aẗ proverb; maʔṯūrāt šaʕbiyyaẗ folklore:.
► ^BP#2360muʔaṯṯir, adj., affecting, acting upon; affective; impressive; moving, touching, pathetic; (pl. ‑āt) influencing factor, influence, effect:.
► mutaʔaṯṯir, adj., under the influence (bi‑) of; (following) as a result or effect (bi‑ of):.

► For other values attached to root √ ʔṮR cf. ↗ʔaṯir and ↗ʔaṯīr.

ʔaṯarī أثريّ , pl. ‑ūn

ID … • Sw – • BP 4307 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔṮR

¹adj.; ²n.

1 archeologic(al). – 2 (pl. ‑ūn) archeologist (also ʔāṯārī). – 3 old, ancient, antique. – 4 antiquarian – WehrCowan1979.

A nisba formation from ʔaṯar. In the meaning of ‘archelogist’ a neologism.

v2: 1887 Buṭrus al-Bustānī, Encyclopedia (Wehr 1934b: 435)¹

1. according to Monteil1960: 192.

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↗ʔaṯar.

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ʔaṯir أثِر

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔṮR

adj.

egoistic, selfish – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

DRS 2 (1994)#ʔṮR-5: Ar ʔaṯira, SAr ʔṯr ‘choisir’.

▪ …
▪ …

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► ^BP#2475ʔāṯara, vb. IV, to prefer (ʕalà to), like (s.th.) more (ʕalà than); to have a predilection, a liking for, like s.th., be fond of; to choose, deem wise or advisable (ʔan to do s.th.); to honour, hold in high esteem:.
► ĭstaʔṯara, vb. X, to claim a monopoly; to possess alone, with the exclusion of others, monopolize (bi‑ s.th.); to appropriate (bi‑ s.th.), take exclusive possession (bi‑ of); to preoccupy (s.th.), engross (the attention); to lay claim on, demand (bi‑, e.g., s.o.’s interest | ĭ. ‘llāhu bih the Lord has taken him unto Himself:.

► ʔaṯaraẗ, n.f., selfishness, egoism:.
► ʔaṯīr, adj., favored, preferred, in favor (ʕind with s.o.); select, exquisite, noble; see also ʔaṯīr.:.
► ʔīṯār, n., preference; altruism; predilection; love, affection:.
► ʔīṯāriyyaẗ, n.f., altruism:.
► ĭstiʔṯār, n., arrogation of a monopoly; monopolization; complete absorption, demand, claim; presumption, presumptuousness; exclusive power:.

► For other items of √ʔṮR cf. ↗ʔaṯar and ↗ʔaṯīr

taʔaṯṯar‑ تَأَثَّرَ

ID 007 • Sw – • BP 2475 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔṮR

vb., V

to be impressed, be influenced; to let o.s. be impressed, be impressible; to be moved, be touched (bi‑ or li‑ by, also min); to be excited, be stimulated; to be affected (bi‑ by, said of materials, e.g., iron by acid); to be induced (phys.); to follow in s.o.’s (DO) tracks, follow s.o.’s example, emulate s.o.; to pursue, follow up (a question, a problem); to perceive, feel (s.th.) – WehrCowan1979.

↗ʔaṯar.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

↗ʔaṯar.

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► taʔaṯṯurī, adj.: al-maḏhab al-t., n., the impressionistic movement: nsb-adj from taʔaṯṯur.
► taʔaṯṯuriyyaẗ, n.f., impressionism: n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ coined from taʔaṯṯur.
► mutaʔaṯṯir, adj., under the influence (bi‑) of; (following) as a result or effect (bi‑ of): PA V.

taʔaṯṯur تَأَثُر

Sw – • NahḍCon • BP 4160 • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023

√ʔṮR

n.

.

▪ vn., V

.

ʔaṯīr أثير

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔṮR

n.

ether – WehrCowan1979.

From Grk aithḗr ‘upper air; bright, purer air; the sky’. – »In ancient cosmology, the element that filled all space beyond the sphere of the moon, constituting the substance of the stars and planets. Conceived of as a purer form of fire or air, or as a fifth element. From 17c.-19c., it was the scientific word for an assumed ‘frame of reference’ for forces in the universe, perhaps without material properties. The concept was shaken by the Michelson-Morley experiment (1887) and discarded after the Theory of Relativity won acceptance, but before it went it gave rise to the colloquial use of ether for ‘the radio’ (1899). – The name also was bestowed c.1730 (Frobenius; in English by 1757) on a volatile chemical compound known since 14c. for its lightness and lack of color (its anesthetic properties weren’t fully established until 1842).« – etymonline, s.v. »ether«.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

From Grk aithḗr ‘upper air; bright, purer air; the sky’., from aíthein ‘to burn, shine’ < PIE √*aidh‑ ‘to burn’ (cf. edifice).

…

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ʔṮL أثل

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 7Mar2023

√ʔṮL

“root”

▪ ʔṮL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔṮL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔṮL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘tamarisk tree; to be deep-rooted, be of noble origin; to acquire great wealth; to endure’

▪ …

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ʔṮM أثم

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 7Mar2023

√ʔṮM

“root”

▪ ʔṮM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔṮM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔṮM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘sin, crime, guilt, to sin, commit a crime’

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ʔǦː (ʔǦǦ) أجّ/أجج

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 7Mar2023

√ʔǦː (ʔǦǦ)

“root”

▪ ʔǦː (ʔǦǦ)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔǦː (ʔǦǦ)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔǦː (ʔǦǦ)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to inflame; to incite; to be fast; (of fire) to crackle; (of water) to be salty, be bitter’

▪ …

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.

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ʔǦR أجر

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔǦR

“root”

▪ ʔǦR_1 ‘wages, pay; rate, fee; to reward; to let, hire out’ ↗ʔaǧr
▪ ʔǦR_2 ‘baked bricks’ ↗ʔāǧurr

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘wages, reward for work done: to hire, to engage: rent, to rent; dowry’

▪ ʔǦR_1: from protSem √ʔGR ‘to hire, rent’
▪ ʔǦR_2: from Akk aǧurru ‘baked bricks’ (from a Sum alur ?)

–

▪ DRS 1 (1994)#ʔGR–1: Sem ‘prendre à gages, louer’: Akk agāru, Ug ʔagr, nHbr ʔᵃgar, EmpAram Nab Palm ʔgr, JP ʔᵃgar, Syr ʔegar; Akk agr‑ , Ar ʔaǧīr [↗ʔaǧr ], SAr ʔgr ‘serviteur à gages, domestique’; Akk igr, EmpAram ʔgr, JP ʔagrā, Soq ʔegare ‘salaire’, Hbr ʔᵃgōrā ‘paiement’; Palm ʔgwr ‘bail’, Mhr ḥauǧor ‘serviteur’. – 2 […] – 3 EmpAram ʔgr ‘mur, voûte’, Syr ʔaggārā ‘toit’, Mand angara, ɛngara, Ar ʔiǧǧar ‘toit’; Akk igār‑ ‘mur’. – 4 Akk agurr‑ , Syr ʔaggūrā, Ar (coll.) ʔuǧur, ʔaǧurr, ʔaǧūr ‘briques cuites’ [, Ar ↗ʔāǧurr ]. – 5 Akk ʔekurru ‘temple’, Aram ʔᵉgōrā, ʔēgorā ‘temple païen’, Mand ʔkorʔ ‘temple des idoles et démons’. – 6 Sem ‘message, lettre royale’: Akk egert, Hbr ʔiggeret, BiblAram ʔigrā, JP ʔiggartā. – 7 Sem ‘pied’: EastAr ʔəgr, Daṯ ʔiǧr, Gz Te ʔəgər, Amh ʔəgər; ? Te ʔagri, ʔagrəh ‘caravane’. [Cf. Ar ↗riǧl ] – 8 […].

DRS 1 (1994): 1. Western forms emerged from Akk. – 3. Ar dependent on Aram. – 4. < Sum alur ? – 5. < Sum ekur. – 6. Western forms borrowed from Akk? – 7. Forme évoluée de RGL; ses correspondantes non-sém. (cham.-sém.) pourraient attester cependant l’absence d’une liquide à l’initiale.

–

ʔaǧr أَجْر , pl. ʔuǧūr

ID 008 • Sw – • BP 2304 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔǦR

n.

1 wages, pay, ‎honorarium, recompense, emolument, remuneration; 2 price, rate, fee – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

Of common occurrence in the Qurʔān: ‘heward, ‎wages’.

▪ …
▪ …

▪ Jeffery1938, 49: ‎‎»Besides the noun and its pl. ʔuǧūr there occur [in the Qurʔān] also the verbal forms ʔaǧara and ĭstaʔǧara. – ‎The Muslim savants have no suspicion that the word is not pure Ar, though as a matter of fact ‎the verb ʔaǧara ‘to receive hire’, is obviously denominative. Zimmern, Akkad. Fremdw, ‎‎47,⁷ has pointed out that the ultimate origin of the ‎root in this sense is the Akk agru, agarru ‘hired servant’. From this come on the one hand the ‎Aram ‎אגירא ‏‎: Syr ʔᵃgīrā a ‘hireling’, and thence the denominative verbs ʔᵃgar and ʔegar ‘to hire’, ‎with corresponding nouns ‎ʔGR ‏and ʔagrā ‘hire’; and on the other hand (apparently from a popular ‎pronunciation *aggaru) the Grk ággaros, a ‘courier’.⁸ – It would have been from the Aram that ‎the word passed into Ar, probably at a very early period, and as the word is of much wider use ‎in Syr than in Jewish Aram,⁹ we are probably right in ‎considering it as a borrowing from Syriac.«

7. Cf. also Jensen in ZA, vii, 214, 215. 8. Even the latest edition of Liddell and ‎Scott persists in repeating the statement in Stephanus’ Thesaurus, that it is a borrowing from ‎Persian. It is, of course, possible that the word may be found in the oPers vocabulary, but if so it ‎was a loan-word there from the Akk, and there can be little doubt that the Grk ággaros with ‎‎aggaréuein and aggaréia came directly from the Akk, as indeed Ed. Meyer (Geschichte ‎des Alterthums, iii, 67) had already recognized. 9. For its occurrence in Aramaic incantations, see ‎Montgomery, Aramaic Incantation Texts from Nippur, Glossary, p. 281; and for the Elephantine ‎papyri see Cowley, Aramaic Papyri, p. 178 (No. 69, 1. 12).

▪ Huehnergard2011: Engl agora ‘(since 1960) a monetary unit and coin of Israel, the 100th part of a shekel ’, from Hbr ʔᵃgôrāʰ ‘payment, coin’, from Hbr ʔāgar ‘to hire’. ³

3. Not to be confused with agora in the sense of ‘assembly place’, which is from Grk agorá ‘open space’ (typically a marketplace), from ageireîn ‘to assemble’, from IE *ger- ‘to gather’.

► ʔuǧūr al-dirāsaẗ, n.pl.,(student) tuition, fees.
► ʔuǧūr al-safar, n.pl., fares.

► ʔaǧara, u ‏(ʔaǧr), vb. I, to reward, recompense, ‎remunerate: denom.?
► ʔaǧǧara, vb. II, to let for rent, let out, hire out, rent, lease: D-stem, denom.?.
► ʔāǧara, vb. IV, to let for rent, let out, rent, ‎lease; to rent, hire, lease, hold under a lease, take a lease; to hire, rent, take on, engage the services: Š-stem, denom.?
► taʔaǧǧara, vb. V, to hire o.s. out (also with bi-nafsihī): tD-stem, refl. of II.
► ĭstaʔǧara, vb. X, to rent, hire, lease, hold under a lease, take a ‎lease; to charter (a vessel); to hire, engage, take on, engage the services (of s.o.): Št-stem, autobenef.

‎► ʔuǧraẗ, n.f., 1 hire, rent, rental; 2 price, rate, fee; 3 fixed rate, (official) charge; 4 postage | ~ al-barīd, n.f., postage; ~ al-naql, n.f., transport charges, freight(age), carriage, cartage; sayyāraẗ ~, n.f., taxi.
► ʔaǧīr, pl.‎ ‏‎ʔuǧarāʔᵘ, n., hireling; workman, laborer, day laborer; employee: quasi-PP I.
‏‎ ► ʔaǧīraẗ, n.f., working woman, factory girl, female laborer; woman employee: f. of ʔaǧīr | ~ al-tanẓīf, n.f., cleaning woman, charwoman.
‏‎ ► taʔǧīr, n., letting, leasing, hiring out, letting on lease; lease: vn. II | mašrūʕ al-taʔǧīr wa’l-ʔiʕāraẗ, n., Lend-Lease Act.
► ʔīǧār, pl. ‑āt, n., rent; letting, leasing, hiring out, letting on lease: vn. IV | lil-ʔīǧār, adv., for rent, to let.
► ʔiǧāraẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., rent; letting, leasing, hiring out, letting on lease:…
‏‎ ► ĭstiʔǧār, n., rent, lease, tenure: vn. X.
‏‎ ► maʔǧūr, pl. ‑ūn, 1 adj., paid, salaried, on the payroll, gainfully employed; 2 n., employee; 3 adj., mercenary, venal, hired, bribed; (pl. ‑ūn) n., a bribable, venal, corruptible person : PP I.
‏‎ ► maʔǧūrī, pl. ‑ūn, bribable, venal, corruptible person: nsb-adj., from maʔǧūr.
‏‎ ► muʔaǧǧir, pl. ‑ūn, n., landlord, lessor: PA II.
‏‎ ► mustaʔǧir, n., leaseholder, lessee, tenant; employer : PA X.

ʔāǧurr آجُرّ

ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔǦR

n.coll. (n.un. ‑aẗ)

baked brick – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Rolland2014a: from Syr ʔâgûrâ and Akk agurru, from Sum SIG₄.AL.ÙR.RA

▪ Nābiġa 7,16; Dīw.Huḏ. 66,10; ʔAġānī xvi: 43,3 – Fraenkel1886

▪ DRS 1 (1994)#ʔGR–4: Akk agurr‑ , Syr ʔaggūrā, Ar (coll.) ʔuǧur, ʔaǧurr, ʔaǧūr ‘briques cuites’.

▪ Zimmern1914: Ar ʔāǧurr (~ ʔāǧūr) (and also Pers āgūr, Arm agur, Grk ágouros), from Aram ʔagurā, from Akk agurru ‘baked brick’
▪ R. Laffitte, Bulletin SELEFA 12 (2/2008)

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ʔǦL أجل

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 7Mar2023

√ʔǦL

“root”

▪ ʔǦL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔǦL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔǦL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a large ditch for collecting water, to collect water; an appointed time, to fix a date; a cause; to consent’

▪ …

–

.

▪ …
▪ …

–

ʔḤD أحد

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔḤD

“root”

▪ ʔḤD_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʔḤD_2 ‘…’ ↗…

▪ …

–

▪ …
▪ …

–

ʔaḥad أَحَد , f. ʔiḥdà

ID 009 • Sw 11/109 • BP 63 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔḤD

n.

one (of), ‎someone; anyone – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

‎‎▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘one’) Akk ēdu ‘single, alone’, Hbr ʔēḥāḏ, Syr ḥaḏ, Gz ʔaḥadū́.
▪ See also √WḤD.

▪ …
▪ …

–

► ^BP#1174(yawm) al-ʔaḥad, n., Sunday.

ʔḪḎ أخذ

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔḪḎ

“root”

▪ ʔḪḎ_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʔḪḎ_2 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to take, to hold; to acquire; to take to task, to put a stop to, to frustrate; to immobilise; to take after; to earn’

▪ …

–

▪ …
▪ …

–

ʔaḫaḏ‑ أَخَذَ , u (ʔaḫḏ)

ID 010 • Sw – • BP 198 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔḪḎ

vb., I

to take; ‎to begin to do – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘to take’) Akk īḫuz, Hbr ʔāḥaz, Syr ʔeḥaḏ, Gz ʔáḫza (ipfv yéʔḫez).
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#25: Akk ʔaḫāzu, Ug ʔḫd, Hbr ʔḥz, Moab ʔḥz, Epigr-Aram ʔḥd, Pal‎Aram ʔaḥad, Syr ʔeḥad, Mand ahad, SAr ʔḫḏ, Gz ʔḫz, Amh yazä). Outside Sem: ‎Agaw *ʔaʒ‑ (ad‑ , as‑ , az‑) and Sid aḍ‑ (< HEC *ʔaḍ‑ < *ʔaH˅ʒ) ‘take’.

▪ From the evidence in Sem, Orel&Stolbova1994#25 reconstructs a Sem ‎vb. *ʔ˅ḫuḏ‑ ʻto takeʼ. On account of what may be cognates in ‎Agaw and HEC they postulate a common source in AfrAs *ʔaḫuɜ̆‑ ‘to take’.

–

► ^BP#1475ittaḫaḏa, vb. VIII, to adopt, pass (a resolution): autoben. from I.
► ^BP#1785ʔaḫḏ, n., taking, seizure: vb. I.
► ^BP#1355ittiḫāḏ, n., adopting, passing (a resolution): vn. VIII.
► ^BP#4500wāḫid, adj., (Eg.) taking: PA I.
► ^BP#4500māḫiḏ, adj., (Lev.Irq.Gul.) taking: PA I.

ʔḪR أخر

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔḪR

“root”

▪ ʔḪR_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʔḪR_2 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to delay, to postpone; to put behind; the end; the other, the last’

▪ From protSem *√ʔḪR ‘(to be) late, behind, in back’ – Huehnergard2011.

–

▪ …
▪ check Cohen1969: 27 !

▪ …
▪ …

–

ʔāḫiraẗ آخِرَة

ID 011 • Sw – • BP 2992 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔḪR

n.f.

the hereafter – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Article “āḫira” (A. S. Tritton) in EI².

▪ …

Rajki2002: [ʔaḫḫara put off, delay] Sem *ʔḪR, Mal iehor ‘other’, l-aḥar ‘last’, Akk ‎aḫaru ‘be behind’, Hbr aḫer ‘behind; other’, aḫaron ‘last’, Syr aḫrena ‘other’, aḫraya ‘last’, JNA ʔḫr ‘be late’, ḫena ‘other’, ḫaraya ‘last’, BAram ʔḪRY ‘another’, Ug ʔḪR ‘restrain, ‎delay’, Phn ʔḤR, ʔḪR ‘behind’

▪ Pennacchio2011, 4: »Words such as al-ʔāḫiraẗ ‘last (life)’ […] should be revised. Indeed, one of the meanings of the former is ‘the end of days’ like in Judaism«, cf. BDB, p. 31: »bᵊ-ʔaḥᵃrît hay-yāmîm ‘in the end of the days,’ a prophetic phrase denoting the final period of the history so far as the speaker’s perspective reaches; the sense thus varies with the context, but it often = the ideal or Messianic future«.

▪ Rajki2002: Ful alahira, Hau lahira, Ind akhirat, Pers ʔāḫerat, Swa ahera.

►

ʔḪ(W) أخو

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔḪ(W)

“root”

▪ ʔḪ(W)_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʔḪ(W)_2 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘brother, brotherhood; friend, companion; to take as a friend, to fraternise; ties’

▪ …

–

▪ …
▪ …

–

ʔaḫ أخ , st.constr. ʔaḫū , pl. ʔiḫwaẗ , ʔiḫwān

ID 012 • Sw – • BP 66 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔḪ(W)

n.

brother; fellow man, neighbor; friend; (pl. ʔiḫwān, specif.) brethren or members of an order; al-ʔiḫwān religious brotherhood of the Wahabi sect, militant in character, established by Ibn Saʕūd – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *ʔaḫ‑ ‘brother’.
▪ …

▪ …

▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘brother’) Akk aḫu, Hbr ʔāḥ, Syr ʔaḥā, Gz ʔēḫʷ.
▪DRS 1 (1994)#ʔḪ(W)-1: Akk aḫ‑ , Ug ʔaḫ, ʔuḫ, ʔiḫ, Hbr ʔāḥ, Phn Pun ʔḥ, JP ʔᵃḥā, Mand aha, Syr ʔaḥā, Ṣaf Liḥ ʔḫ, SAr ʔḫ, Soq ʔaɛḥat, Mhr ga, Gz ʔəḫəw, ʔəḫw, ʔəḫʷ, Te ḥu ‘brother’.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#23: Akk aḫu, Ug ʔaḫ, Phn ʔḥ, Pun ʔḥ, Hbr ʔāḥ, Aram (epigr) ʔḥ Syr ʔaḥā, SAr ʔḫ, Gz ʔǝḫǝw. – Outside Sem: WCh *ʔah(ya)‑ ‘uncle’, ‘brother’, CCh *ʔaγ‑ ‘son’.
▪ Rajki2002: Mal hu, Tig ḥu, […]. – Per aḫ borrowed from Ar.

▪ Rajki2002: < Sem *ʔ-ḫ.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#23: < Sem *ʔaḫ‑ ‘brother’ < AfrAs *ʔaḫ‑ ‘brother’.
▪ DRS 1 (1994)#ʔḪ(W)-1: »la voyelle de flexion casuelle qui terminait ce mot était primitivement longue; elle s’est abrégée ou même a totalement disparu à l’état absolu, mais elle s’est maintenue, dans la plupart des dialectes, à l’état construit ou devant des suff. pronominaux.«

–

► ʔāḫà, vb. III, to fraternize, associate as brothers (tr.): denominative.
► taʔaḫḫà, vb. V, to act or show o.s. as a brother or friend: denominative.
► taʔāḫà, vb. VI, to fraternize, associate as brothers: denominative, reciprocal.
► ^BP#226ʔuḫt, pl. ʔaḫawāt, n.f., sister: f. formed from ʔaḫ ?; (gram.) cognate; counterpart | ʔuḫtuhā the other (of two), its mate, its counterpart (after a fem. noun):.
► ḫuwayy, n., little brother: dimin.
► ʔaḫawī, adj., brotherly, fraternal: nsb-adj.
► ʔaḫawiyyaẗ, n.f., brotherhood (as a religious association): n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ; hence also the group that is formed in the spirit of brotherliness.
► ʔuḫuwwaẗ, ʔiḫāʔ, n., brotherhood, brotherness, fraternity:. – See also ↗s.v.
► ʔiḫāwaẗ, n.f., fraternization; fraternity, brotherliness:.
► taʔāḫⁱⁿ (def. al-taʔāḫī) fraternization; fraternity, brotherliness: vn. VI.

ʔuḫt أُخْت , pl. ʔaḫawāt

ID 013 • Sw – • BP 226 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔḪ(W)

n.f.

sister; (gram.) cognate; counterpart | ʔuḫtuhā the other (of two), its mate, its counterpart (after a fem. noun) – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *ʔaḫ‑at‑ ‘sister’, f. of *ʔaḫ‑ (Ar ↗ʔaḫ) ‘brother’.
▪ …

▪ …

▪ DRS 1 (1994)#ʔḪ(W)-1: Akk aḫāt‑ , Ug ʔaḫt, Hbr ʔaḥōt, Phn Pun ʔḥt, JP ʔᵃḥātā, Mand ahata, Syr ḥātā, Ṣaf Liḥ ʔḫt, Soq ʔeɛḥet, Mhr gayt, Gz ʔəḫt, Te ḥət, Tña ḥawti, Amh ət.

▪ ….
▪ See also ↗ʔaḫ.

–

ʔDː (ʔDD) أدّ/أدد

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 7Mar2023

√ʔDː (ʔDD)

“root”

▪ ʔDː (ʔDD)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔDː (ʔDD)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔDː (ʔDD)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘abomination, hardship, disaster, affliction; to befall, afflict; shameful’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʔDB أدب

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔDB

“root”

▪ ʔDB_1 ‘culture, refinement; ‎good breeding, good manners; etiquette; literature’ (etc.) ↗ʔadab
▪ ʔDB_2 ‘to invite, entertain; party, banquet’ ↗ʔadaba
▪ ʔDB_3 ‘…’ ↗…

While Muslim lexicographers make ʔDB_1 depend on ʔDB_2, saying the concept of good manners and politeness etc. evolved from the culture of inviting to parties and hosting guests (cf. also grouping in DRS), the current opinion in Western research is that ↗ʔadab is not connected to ↗ʔadaba. But opinions differ.

–

▪ According to DRS 1 (1994)#ʔDB the situation in Sem is as follows: –1 Ar ʔadaba ‘inviter à un festin’; ʔadab ‘savoir-vivre, belles manières, coutume, pratique’; Soq ʔdb ‘inviter’; Te ʔadab ‘habitude, caractère, genre’; ?Amh aǧǧäbä ‘faire escorte à qu. pour le rendre honneur’. –2 Hbr ʔªdīb ‘faire languir, faire dépérir’. –3 Soq ʔidbeh ‘pied de devant’.
▪ According to others, however, items listed as ʔDB-1 by DRS do not belong together. See discussion.

▪ Like ClassAr lexicographers, DRS sees ʔDB_1 and ʔDB_2 as being one item.
▪ However, opinions differ on this view. See ↗ʔadab and ↗ʔadaba.
▪ The other values, listed in DRS, that the root displays in Sem, do not seem to be relevant for the discussion.

–

See ↗ʔadab and ↗ʔadaba.

ʔadub‑ أدُب , u (ʔadab)

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔDB

vb., I

to be well-bred, well-mannered, cultured, urbane, have refined tastes – WehrCowan1979.

Denominative from ↗ʔadab (?).

▪ …

↗ʔadab.

–

↗ʔadab.

ʔadab‑ أدب , i (ʔadb)

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔDB

vb., I

to invite (to a party or banquet), entertain – WehrCowan1979.

Connected to ↗ʔadab ? For discussion see ↗√ʔDB.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

–

► ʔādaba, vb. IV, to invite as a guest:…

► maʔdubaẗ, pl. maʔādibᵘ, n., banquet, formal dinner: n.loc.
► ʔādib, n., host: lexicalized PA I.

ʔadab أَدَب , pl. ʔādāb

ID 014 • Sw – • NahḍCon • BP 1195 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔDB

n.

1 culture, refinement; 2 ‎good breeding, good manners, social graces, decorum, decency, propriety, seemliness; 3 humanity, ‎humaneness; 4 the humanities; 5 belles-lettres | ‎‎ʔādāb, n.pl., rules, rules of conduct, ‎e.g., ‏‎ʔādāb al-sulūk, rules of decorum, etiquette; ‎‏‎al-ʔādāb, n.pl., decency, ‎morals – WehrCowan1979.

▪ A key concept of Ar-Isl culture and civilisation with a long and rich semantic history. In many contexts, it serves as the secular counterpart of the (more religiously connotated) ↗sunnaẗ. Based on pre-Isl manners, customs and tradition (which however should not be seen in isolation but in the wider context of Late Antiquity), it developed, after the spread of Islam into the Iranian sphere, under the influence of Pers court culture and was subsequently ‘codified’ in manuals and encyclopedias. In post-classical times, it came to signify ‘culture’ and ‘humanity’ in general. While the sg. today mostly means ‘literature’, the pl. is frequently met in the Ar equivalent of Fr ‘Faculté des Lettres’ or Engl ‘Faculty of Humanities’, kulliyyat al-ʔādāb.
▪ Etymology unclear, no obvious cognates in other Sem langs (those in Te are borrowed ‎directly from Ar); the most common theory is that the sg. was secondary, coined from ʔādāb, a pl. of daʔb ‘custom, habit, wont’, and that it originally ment ‘praiseworthy customs, ‎habits, inherited from the forefathers’. Rolland2014, however, gives Sum DUB > Akk ṭuppu ‘tablet, sacred text’ or oPers dipi ‘to write’ as the most plausible alternatives.
▪ Against Ar lexicographers EtymArab thinks that there is hardly any relation to the vb. I ↗ʔadaba ‘to invite to a banquet’.

▪ Horst1987: 208 sums up the development of the ‎concept (after Nallino) as follows:
“Tradition ↗ traditionelle (Herzens- und Verstandes-) ‎Bildung ↗ Bildung ↗ Bildungsliteratur ↗ Literatur”.²

2. In Engl, roughly: ‘tradition’ ↗ ‘formation (of the heart and mind) according to tradition’ ↗ ‘formation, learning, cultivation (in general)’ ↗ ‘the literature of formation, learning, culture (in general)’ ↗ ‘literature’.

See below, section DISC.

▪ The etymology of the term still remains rather vague. It does not seem to ‎have any real cognates in other Sem langs. Hbr ʔadīb ‘to let die off, or shrink, to weaken, ‎or make slacken, to let or make shrivel, or disrupt s.th.’ (faire languir, faire dépérir) and Soq ʔidbeh ‘front leg/foot’ (pied de devant), which David Cohen lists in his DRS (1970 ff.), would seem quite difficult to relate semantically to the meaning with which the Ar ‎‎ʔadab makes its appearance in the oldest sources, where it signifies “‘habit, ‎hereditary norm of conduct, custom’ derived from ancestors and other persons who are looked up ‎to as models (as, in the religious sense, was the sunna of the Prophet for his community)” (Gabrieli ‎‎1960). With this meaning, it has a parellel in Te, where ʔadab means, among other things ‎‎(probably later meanings), also ‘habit’ (habitude, DRS 1, 1970), but at least this form, Cohen says, ‎‎“est un emprunt direct à l’arabe” (is directly borrowed from Ar). A connection to the verb ʔadaba ‘to invite (to a banquet etc.)’, which Arab lexicographers usually assume and which ‎shows a counterpart in SAr-Soq ʔdb ‘to invite’ and perhaps also Amh aǧǧäbä ‘faire escorte à qu. ‎pour le rendre honneur’, seems rather unlikely, so that the notorious etymology put forward by ‎Nallino 1948/50 – “that the pl. ʔādāb was formed from daʔb [custom, habit], and that the ‎sg. ʔadab was subsequently derived from this plural” (Gabrieli 1960) – does not seem ‎completely unlikely. All the more so since Ilse Lichtenstädter’s cautious proposal (1974) to link ʔadab to a Sum é-dub-ba-a, signifying ‘school’ or ‘university’ (Horst 1987), seems a bit ‎far-fetched, and Asya Asbaghi’s (1988) tracing Ar ʔadab to a – or rather ‎two – earlier (!) Pers ʔadab s which, according to the author, go back to two mPers ‎expressions, is motivated too obviously by Iranian nationalism as to survive a critical check. (It ‎may suffice here to note that the Pers term adab does not appear in Pers sources earlier ‎than 325 aH/936 CE: Khaleghi-Motlagh1985, EIr, “Adab: i. Adab in Iran”, 432).
▪ Rolland2014, however, gives Sum DUB > Akk ṭuppu ‘tablet, sacred text’ or oPers dipi ‘to write’ as the most plausible alternatives, adding that there also is Soghdian dyb-yy ‘character, letter’.
▪ But even if there ‎is no direct borrowing from the Pers lexicon, the semantic development of the words from ‘good ‎old customs, praiseworthy habits’ into the whole later concept of ʔadab has certainly been ‎influenced, if not essentially shaped, by the Iranians. It is probably not wrong to follow the entry in ‎the Encyclopedia Iranica (Khaleghi-Motlagh 1985) here, which says that “[t]he origin of the ‎concept can be traced to pre-Islamic and especially Sasanian Iran” (431), and that it is, the ‎moment it appears in Pers sources, “the equivalent of the mPers frahang and nPers ‎‎farhang ” (432), although the coming of Islam by then had already “added to it many new ‎elements and brought about a specifically Islamic synthesis” (431).
▪ If in the beginning ʔadab ‎was more or less synonymous with sunnaẗ, and if it is no lexical borrowing, then the question arises ‎why a new expression was coined by forming a new sg. from a pl. that meant ‘customs, ‎habits, wonts’. A possibility I would suggest is that it was a calque rendering Pers ēwēn (n‎Pers āyīn) which means ‘custom, rule, correct manner, and the like’ (Khaleghi-Motlagh 1985: ‎‎432) and for the Arabs must have seemed something different from their own sunan and ‎ʔadʔub (another pl. of daʔb). The fact that after the rise of Islam and the term sunnaẗ being ‎applied to the Prophet’s usage, there was a need to have a term for the secular tradition.

–

► bayt al-ʔadab, n., toilet, water closet:.
► qalīl al-ʔadab and ʕadīm al-ʔadab, adj., ill-mannered, ill-bred, impolite, uncivil:.
► al-ʔadab al-ʕāmmī, n., popular literature:.
► riǧāl al-ʔadab, n.pl., literati, men of letters:.
► kulliyyaẗ al-ʔādāb, n., college of arts: calqued from Fr faculté des lettres.

► ʔaduba, u (ʔadab), vb. I, to be well-bred, well-mannered, cultured, urbane, have refined tastes: denominative from ʔadab ?
► ʔaddaba, vb. II, to refine, educate; to discipline, punish, chastise: causative of I.
► taʔaddaba, vb. V, to receive a fine education; to be well-bred, well-educated, cultured, have refined tastes; to show o.s. polite, courteous, civil, urbane; to behave properly or decently, maintain good manners; to educate o.s., refine one's tastes; to let o.s. be guided:.

► ^BP#2030ʔadabī, adj., moral, ethic(al); literary: nsb-adj | šaǧāʕaẗ ʔadabiyyaẗ moral courage; wāǧib ʔ. moral obligation, ʔadabiyyan wa-māddiyyan morally and physically, al-falsafaẗ al-ʔadabiyyaẗ ethics, moral science, al-qism al-ʔ. humanities division (higher education)
ʔadabiyyāt, n.pl., literature, belles-lettres; the humanities: n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ from ʔadab.
► ʔadabḫānaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., toilet, water closet: from ʔadab and ḫānaẗ (< Pers) ↗s.v.
► ^BP#3204ʔadīb, pl. ʔudabāʔᵘ, adj./n., cultured, refined, educated; well-bred, well-mannered, civil, urbane; a man of culture and refined tastes; man of letters, writer, author: PP/adj. formation from ʔadab.
► ʔadībaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., authoress, writer: f. of ʔadīb.
► maʔdubaẗ, pl. maʔādibᵘ, n., banquet, formal dinner: from the vb. ↗ʔadaba ‘to invite, entertain’ rather than from ʔadab.
► C taʔdīb, n., education; discipline; punishment, chastisement; disciplinary punishment | maǧlis al-t. disciplinary board
► taʔdībī, adj., disciplinary; punitive, retaliatory: nsb-adj from taʔdīb.
► taʔaddub, n., good breeding, good manners, civility, politeness, courteousness, tact: vn. V.
► ʔādib, n., host: lexicalized PA I from the vb. ↗ʔadaba ‘to invite, entertain’ rather than from ʔadab.
► muʔaddib, pl. ‑ūn, n. educator; teacher in a Koranic school (Tun.): nominalized PA II.
► muʔaddab, adj., well-bred, well-mannered, civil, urbane: PP II.
► mutaʔaddib, adj., polite, well-bred: PA V; pl. ‑ūn : n., educated people: nominalized PP V.

ʔādāb آداب (pl.)

Sw – • NahḍCon • BP 3204 • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023

√ʔDB

n., pl. of ↗ʔadab

.

▪ …

.

ʔadīb أديب

Sw – • NahḍCon • BP 3204 • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023

√ʔDB

n.

.

▪ …

.

ʔDM أدم

Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023

√ʔDM

“root”

.

▪ …

.

ʔādamiyyaẗ آدَمِيّة

Sw – • NahḍCon • BP … • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023

√ʔDM

n.f.

.

▪ …abstr. formation in -iyyaẗ

.

ʔDY أدي

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 7Mar2023

√ʔDY

“root”

▪ ʔDY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔDY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔDY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to ripen, become due; to snare, prepare; to convey, bring about; to pay’

▪ …

–

.

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ʔḎN أذن

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔḎN

“root”

▪ ʔḎN_1 ‘ear’ ↗ʔuḏn ; ‘call for prayer’ ↗ʔaḏān
▪ ʔḎN_2 ‘to allow, permit’ ↗ʔiḏn
▪ ʔḎN_3 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʔḎN_4 ‘…’ ↗…

▪ ʔḎN_1 : (Kogan2015 Sw#21:) from protSem *ʔuḏn‑ ‘ear’ (SED I #4).
▪ The two main values MSA shows today, are probably connected, ʔḎN_2 ‘to allow, give permission’ depending on ʔḎN_1 ‘ear’, as suggested by DRS where all values are grouped as one item, deriving from protSem *‘ear’. Ar ʔaḏān ‘call for prayer’ is *‘to make o.s. heard’ and thus from ‘ear’. The semantics of ʔḎN_2 could be similar to that of ‘call for prayer’: *‘ear’ > *‘to make o.s. heard’ > *‘to notify’ > *’ to notify about a permission’ > ‘to give permission’.

–

DRS 1 (1994)#ʔḎN: Sem ‘ear’: Akk uzn‑ , Ug ʔudn, Hbr ʔozen, Aram ʔudnā, Syr ʔednā, Emp ʔdn, Ar ʔuḏn, Soq ʔidihen, Śḥr iden, Mhr hayden, Gz Te ʔəzn, Tña ʔəzni, Har uzun; Ar ʔaḏina ‘permettre’, Tham ʔḏn ‘autorité’, Ug ʔidn ‘permission?’, SAr ʔdn ‘obéissance, ordre’; Ar ʔaḏḏana, Te ʔaddana, ʔazzana ‘appeler à la prière’.

Te ʔaddana, ʔazzana are clearly borrowed from Ar ʔaḏḏana.

▪ Engl azan, from Ar ʔaḏān ‘call to prayer’, from ʔaḏḏana ‘to call to prayer’, D-stem of ʔaḏina ‘to listen’, denom. from ʔuḏn ‘ear’; muezzin, from Ar muʔaḏḏin ‘muezzin’, PA of ʔaḏḏana (see above) – Huehnergard2011.

–

ʔiḏn إذْن , pl. ʔuḏūn , ʔuḏūnāt

ID … • Sw – • BP 1290 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔḎN

n.

permission, authorization; leave; license; warrant; (pl. ʔuḏūn, ʔuḏūnāt) (postal) order; bond (fin.) – WehrCowan1979.

Most probably, the item ‘to allow, give permission’ is dependent on ʔḎN_1 ‘ear’, as suggested by DRS where all values are grouped as one item, deriving from Sem *‘ear’. Cf. ↗ʔḎN for the general picture, and ↗ʔuḏn for ‘ear’.

▪ …

DRS 1 (1994)#ʔḎN: [apart from cognates meaning ‘ear’]: Ar ʔaḏina ‘permettre’, Tham ʔḏn ‘autorité’, Ug ʔidn ‘permission?’, SAr ʔdn ‘obéissance, ordre’.

See “Nutshell” above as well as ↗ʔuḏn and ↗ʔḎN.

–

► ʔaḏina, a, vb. I, to allow, permit: denominative?
► ĭstaʔḏana, vb. X, to ask permission to enter, have o.s. announced; to take leave, say good-bye: denominative.

► ʔiḏnī, adj.: sanad ʔ. promissory note, bill payable to order of s.o.: nsb-adj.
► ʔāḏin, n., door-keeper, porter: lexicalized PA I (*‘the one who gives permission to enter’).
► maʔḏūn, adj., authorized; licensed, legally allowed or recognized: PP I; n., holder of diploma; slave with limited legal rights (Isl.Law); = m. šarʕī, official authorized by the cadi to perform civil marriages (Isl.Law): lexicalized nominalized PP I (*person who has been authorized).
► maʔḏūniyyaẗ, n.f., leave, furlough (mil.Syr.); license, franchise (Syr.).

► For other values cf. ↗ʔuḏn and ↗ʔaḏān.

ʔaḏān أَذان

ID 015 • Sw – • BP 4457 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔḎN

n.

call to prayer – WehrCowan1979.

Akin to ↗ʔuḏn ‘ear’.

▪ …

DRS 1 (1994)#ʔḎN: [apart from those listed under ↗ʔuḏn ‘ear’ and ↗ʔiḏn ‘allowance, permit’]: Ar ʔaḏḏana, Te ʔaddana, ʔazzana ‘appeler à la prière’.

Te ʔaddana, ʔazzana are clearly borrowed from Ar ʔaḏḏana.

▪ Engl azan, from Ar ʔaḏān ‘call to prayer’, from ʔaḏḏana ‘to call to prayer’, D-stem of ʔaḏina ‘to listen’, denom. from ʔuḏn ‘ear’ – Huehnergard2011.

► ʔaḏḏana, vb. II, to call, esp. to call to prayer: denominative, or caus. of ʔaḏina ‘to listen, hear, learn, be informed’ (vb. I, ↗ʔuḏn).

► maʔḏanaẗ, var. miʔḏanaẗ, pl. maʔāḏinᵘ, n., minaret: n.loc./instr., from ↗ʔaḏān.
► muʔaḏḏin, n., muezzin, announcer of the hour of prayer: PA II, from vb. II, from ↗ʔaḏān.

For other values of ʔḎN, cf. ↗ʔuḏn and ↗ʔiḏn.

ʔuḏn أُذُن/أُذْن , var. ʔuḏun , pl. ʔāḏān

ID 016 • Sw 39/35 • BP 1853 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔḎN

n.

1 ear. – 2 handle (of a cup) – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Kogan2015 (Sw#21): from protSem *ʔuḏn‑ ‘ear’ (SED I #4) (perh. < AfrAs *ʔudun-/*ʔuз̆un‑ ‘ear’).
▪ v2 ‘handle (of a cup)’ is metaphorical use (the ‘ear’ of a cup).
▪ From ‘ear’ are also the vb.s ‘to hear’ (I) and ‘to announce, inform; to crow (rooster)’ (II, *‘to make o.s. heard’) as well as, with the advent of Islam, the ‘call for prayer’.
▪ Most probably, also the notion of ‘to allow, give permission’ is derived from here, cf. ↗ʔiḏn (and derivatives).

▪ …

▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘ear’) Akk uznu, Hbr ʔózen, Syr ʔuḏnā, Gz ʔezn.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#126: Akk ʔuzn‑ , Ug ʔudn, Hbr ʔōzen, Aram ʔudnā, Syr ʔednō, SAr ʔḏn, Gz ʔǝzn, Te ʔǝzn, Tña ʔǝzni ‘ear’. – Outside Sem: Eg i͗dn ‘ear’, ECh forms like ʔuduŋe or uduŋi ‘ear’.

▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#126: < Sem *ʔuḏn‑ ‘ear’ < AfrAs *ʔudun-/*ʔuз̆un‑ ‘ear’. – Eg i͗dn with i͗ palatalized from *3‑ under the influence of AfrAs *u; ECh forms < ECh *ʔudun-H‑.

–

► ʔaḏina, a, vb. I, to listen; to hear, learn, be informed: denominative. – For other values cf. ʔiḏn.
► ʔaḏḏana, vb. II, to call, esp. to call to prayer; to crow (rooster):.
► ʔāḏana, vb. IV, to announce, make known, inform, notify; to call to prayer; to call upon s.o., urge, admonish, exhort to do s.th.; to herald; to foreshadow; to be on the verge (of doing s.th.): caus. of I.
► taʔaḏḏana, vb. V, to herald, announce:.

► C ^BP#4457ʔaḏān, n., call to prayer:.
► ʔuḏayn, n., auricle (anat.): dimin.
► ʔuḏaynaẗ, n.f., little ear; ear lobe: dimin.f.
► maʔḏanaẗ, var. miʔḏanaẗ, pl. maʔāḏinᵘ minaret: n.loc. of ↗ʔaḏān.
► ʔīḏān, n., declaration, proclamation, announcement; advance notice; imminence, threat, menace: vn. IV.
► muʔaḏḏin, n., muezzin, announcer of the hour of prayer: PA II, from vb. II, from ↗ʔaḏān.

► For other values of ʔḎN ↗ʔiḏn.

ʔḎY أذي

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 7Mar2023

√ʔḎY

“root”

▪ ʔḎY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔḎY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔḎY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘harm, injury, damage; to wrong, harm; high tumultuous waves’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʔRB أرب

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 7Mar2023

√ʔRB

“root”

▪ ʔRB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔRB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔRB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘power, purpose, need; knot; intelligent, resourceful, able and fit’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʔRḪ أرخ

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔRḪ

“root”

▪ ʔRḪ_1 ‘date; history’ ↗ʔarraḫa, ↗tārīḫ
▪ ʔRḪ_2 ‘young bull’: ^†ʔirḫ
▪ ʔRḪ_3 ‘…’ ↗…

Of the five values listed for Sem √ʔRḪ in DRS, only one (‘date; history’) is realized in MSA. An earlier one (‘young bull’) is now obsolete.

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DRS 1 (1994)#ʔRḪ–1: Sem *ʔurḫ ‘voie, chemin’ > Akk ʔarḫ‑ , ʔurḫ‑ , Hbr ʔōraḥ, oAram ʔrḥʔ, EmpAram Palm ʔrḥ, JP ʔorḥā, Syr ʔawrḥā, Mand ʕwḥrʔ, nAram ʔurḥ; Akk arāḫu ‘se presser, se hâter’, erēḥu ‘s’avancer aggressivement’, Hbr ʔāraḥ ‘cheminer’, ʔorḥā ‘caravane’, Soq ʔeraḥ ‘venir, arriver’.
#ʔRḪ–2: SAr ʔrḫ ‘déterminer; être déterminé, prescrit (affaire)’, Ar ʔarraḫa ‘dater, mettre la date’, taʔrīḫ ‘date’, SAr ʔrḫn ‘temps déterminé, ère, époque’.
#ʔRḪ–3: Akk arāḫu ‘consommer, anéantir’, yārāḫ‑ ‘portion de céréal’, Hbr ʔᵃruḥā ‘portion journalière, ration’
#ʔRḪ–4: Akk arḫ‑ ‘taureau’, Ug ʔarḫ ‘vache’, ʔurḫ, Ar ʔirḫ ‘taurillon’, Te Tña ʔarḥi ‘vache qui n’a pas encore vêlé’
#ʔRḪ–5: Akk arḫ‑ , Syr ʔarḥā ‘demi-tuile’.

–

ʔarraḫ‑ أرّخ

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔRḪ

vb., II

1 to date (a letter, and the like). – 2 to write the history of s.th. – WehrCowan1979.

v2 is secondary, based on ↗tārīḫ rather than on v1.

▪ …

DRS 1 (1994)#ʔRḪ-2: SAr ʔrḫ ‘déterminer; être déterminé, prescrit (affaire)’, Ar ʔarraḫa ‘dater, mettre la date’, taʔrīḫ ‘date’, SAr ʔrḫn ‘temps déterminé, ère, époque’.

▪ …
▪ …

–

► taʔrīḫ, n., 1 dating (of a letter, etc.); 2 historiography: vn. II.
► ^BP#286tārīḫ, pl. tawārīḫᵘ, n., date; time; history; chronicle, annals; story, tale: from taʔrīḫ (*aʔ > ā), resultative.
► ^BP#1013tārīḫī, adj., historic(al): nsb-adj from tārīḫ.
► muʔarriḫ, n., historiographer, historian, chronicler, annalist: PA II (of v2).
► muʔarraḫ, adj., dated: PP II (of v1).

taʔrīḫ تأْريخ

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔRḪ

n.

1 dating (of a letter, etc.). – 2 historiography – WehrCowan1979.

vn. II, from ↗ʔarraḫa ‘1. to date (a letter, and the like); 2. to write the history of s.th.’ (where v2 is secondary).

▪ …

See ↗ʔarraḫa.

▪ …
▪ …

–

► ^BP#286tārīḫ, pl. tawārīḫᵘ, n., date; time; history; chronicle, annals; story, tale: *aʔ > ā, lexicalized.

Cf. also
► ʔarraḫa, vn. II, to write the history of s.th.
► muʔarriḫ, n., historiographer, historian, chronicler, annalist: PA II, from ↗ʔarraḫa_2.
► muʔarraḫ, adj., dated: PP II, from ↗ʔarraḫa _1.

tārīḫ تارِيخ , pl. tawārīḫᵘ

ID 017 • Sw – • NahḍCon • BP 286 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔRḪ

n.

1 date; time. – 2 history. – 3 chronicle, annals. – 4 story, tale – WehrCowan1979.

With *aʔ > ā from ↗taʔrīḫ ‘dating (of a letter, etc.); historiography)’, all lexicalizations of the results/products of ‘dating’.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

–

► tārīḫ al-ḥayāẗ, n., biography; curriculum vitae
► tārīḫ ʕāmm, n., world history
► tārīḫ qadīm, n., an old story
► ʕulamāʔ al-tārīḫ, n.pl., the historians
► mā qabla ‘l-tārīḫ, n.rel., pre-historic time

► ʔarraḫa, vn. II, to write the history of s.th. – See also ↗taʔrīḫ.
► ^BP#1013tārīḫī, adj., historic(al): nsb-adj.
► muʔarriḫ, n., historiographer, historian, chronicler, annalist: PA II, from ↗ʔarraḫa.

ʔRZ أرز

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔRZ

“root”

▪ ʔRZ_1 ‘cedar (bot.)’ ↗ʔarz
▪ ʔRZ_2 ‘rice’ ↗ʔaruzz

While ʔarz ‘cedar (bot.)’ goes back to a protWSem *ʔarz‑ ‘cedar (or pine?)’, the word for ‘rice’, (ʔa)ruzz is probably of Iranian origin.

–

DRS 1 (1994)#ʔRZ–1 Ug ʔarz (Tropper2008: */ʔarzu/), Hbr ʔäräz, EmpAram ʔrz, JP Syr ʔarzā, Mand arza, nAram arra, Ar ʔarz, Soq ʔarz, Gz Te ʔarz ‘cèdre’. –2 nHbr ʔārūz ‘solide, durable’, ?Ar ʔaraza ‘se contracter, être froide (nuit)’. –3 nHbr ʔōrez, Aram ʔūrzā, Ar ʔurz, ʔuruz(z), Soq ʔírhez, Mhr ḥayrez, Śḥr ʔiróz ‘riz’.

▪ ʔRZ_1 ↗ʔarz
▪ ʔRZ_2 ↗ʔaruzz

▪ ʔRZ_1 Ar ↗ʔarz akin to Engl larch ?
▪ ʔRZ_2 Ar ↗(ʔa)ruzz akin to Engl rice.

–

ʔarz أَرْز

ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔRZ

n.coll. (n.u. -aẗ)

cedar – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Kogan2011: from protWSem *ʔarz‑ ‘cedar’ or ‘pine’.
▪ …

▪ …

DRS 1 (1994)#ʔRZ–1 Ug ʔarz (Tropper2008: */ʔarzu/), Hbr ʔäräz, EmpAram ʔrz, JP Syr ʔarzā, Mand arza, nAram arra, Ar ʔarz, Soq ʔarz, Gz Te ʔarz ‘cèdre’.

▪ While Tropper2008, Huehnergard2011, and Kogan2011 only go back to the WSem level (reconstr. WSem *ʔarz‑ ‘cedar, pine’), DRS 1 (1994)#ʔRZ-1 reconstructs Sem *ʔarz‑ ‘cedar’, which, however, is said to be of unknown origin.
▪ According to DRS 1 (1994)#ʔRZ-1, the Ar and EthSem forms are borrowings from NSem.

▪ Lokotsch1927: Ar ʔarzaẗ ‘cedar, pinus cedrus’ > (+ def.art. al‑) > Span alerce ‘larch’, Sic arzanu ‘fir tree’. The author also thinks there is conspicuous similarity between Ar (al-)ʔarz and Lat larix, laric‑, which gave Ital larice, Portug larico, Ge Lärche ⁴ ‘larch’. In contrast, Kluge2002 does not mention a possible relation betw Lat larix, laric‑ and Ar ʔarz but says the word is of unknown origin. EtymOnline says that Engl larch (1540 s) is borrowed from Ge Lärche, via mHGe and oHGe (as in Kluge2002) from Lat larix, laric‑, the latter however not from Ar, but probably a loan-word from an Alpine Gaulish lang, corresponding phonetically to oCelt *darik‑ ‘oak’ (cf. Druid and tree).⁵
▪ Engl cedar, oEngl ceder, is definitely not from Ar ʔarz. In mEngl, ceder blended with oFr cedre, both from Lat cedrus, from Grk kédros ‘cedar, juniper’, origin uncertain. – EtymOnline.

4. Kluge2002: Ge Lärche, mHGe lerche, larche, oHGe lerihha. 5. Following these lines in EtymOnline we find: Engl druid, 1560s, from Fr druide, from Lat druidae (pl.), from Gaul Druides, from Celt compound *dru-wid‑, probably representing oCelt *derwos ‘true’/pIE *dru‑ ‘tree’ (especially oak; see tree) + *wid‑ ‘to know’. Hence, literally, perhaps, ‘they who know the oak’ (perhaps in allusion to divination from mistletoe). AnglSax, too, used identical words to mean ‘tree’ and ‘truth’ (treow). – Engl tree, oEngl treo, treow ‘tree’ (also ‘timber, wood, beam, log, stake’), from pGerm *treuwaz‑, from pIE *drew-o‑, from *deru‑ ‘oak’ (Skr dru ‘tree, wood’, daru ‘wood, log’; Grk drŷs ‘oak’, drȳmós ‘copse, thicket’, dóry ‘beam, shaft of a spear’, oChSlav drievo, Ru derevo ‘tree, wood’; Alb drusk ‘oak’). This is from pIE *drew-o‑, a suffixed form of the root *deru‑ ‘to be firm, solid, steadfast’ (see true), with specialized sense ‘wood, tree’ and derivatives referring to objects made of wood. – The widespread use of words originally meaning ‘oak’ in the sense ‘tree’ probably reflects the importance of the oak to ancient Indo-Europeans. In oEngl and mEngl also ‘thing made of wood’, especially the cross of the Crucifixion and a gallows (such as Tyburn tree, famous gallows outside London). mEngl also had pl. treen, adj. treen (oEngl treowen ‘of a tree, wooden’).

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ʔaruzz أَرُزّ

ID … • Sw – • BP 4015 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔRZ

n.

rice – WehrCowan1979.

See ↗ruzz.

▪ …

…

See ↗ruzz.

▪ See ↗ruzz.

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ʔRḌ أرض

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔRḌ

“root”

▪ ʔRḌ_1 ‘earth (as opposed to sky)’ ↗ʔarḍ
▪ ʔRḌ_2 ‘termites; to be worm-eaten (wood)’ ↗ʔaraḍ
▪ ʔRḌ_3 ‘trembling, epileptic fit’: ^†ʔarḍ

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘the earth, earth, land; to be flat; to be fatty; to be touched’

▪ Out of the three values of the root as given by DRS, only two (ʔRḌ_1 and ʔRḌ_2) are realized in MSA.
▪ ʔRḌ_1 : (Kogan2015 Sw#22:) from protSem *ʔarṣ́‑ ‘earth’ (HALOT 90). Passim except EthSem, Mhr and Soq.
▪ …

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▪ DRS 1 (1994)#ʔRD̮–1: Akk erṣet‑ , Ug ʔarṣ, Phn Pun Moab ʔrṣ, Hbr ʔereṣ, EmpAram ʔrq, Nab Palm ʔrʕ, BiblAram ʔᵃraʕ, JP Syr ʔarʕā, Mand arqa ‘terre (sol)’, arda ‘terre (champ)’; Akk irṣit‑ ‘terre, enfer, tombe’, EmpAram ʔrṣʔ ‘sarcophage’. (no Ar forms mentioned!)
▪ #ʔRD̮–2: Ar ʔariḍa ‘être rongé (bois)’, ʔarad̮, Te ʔarṣät ver rongeur du bois.
▪ #ʔRD̮–3: Ar ʔard̮ ‘tremblement, crise d’épilepsie’.

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ʔarḍ أَرْض , pl. أراضٍ ʔarāḍin (def. al-ʔarāḍī), ʔaraḍūn

ID 018 • Sw 79/36 • BP 116 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔRḌ

n.f.

land, country, region; area; terrain, ground, soil; lot, parcel of land, estate, real estate; al-ʔarḍ earth (as opposed to heaven or as a planet); globe, world – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *ʔarṣ́‑ ‘earth, land’ (as opposed to ‘heaven’ and ‘water’).
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994: From Sem *ʔarṣ̂‑ ‘earth’, from AfrAs *ʔarić̣‑ ‘earth’.
▪ …

▪ …

▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘land, earth’) Akk erṣetu, Hbr ʔéreṣ, Syr ʔarʕā, SAr ʔrḍ.
▪ DRS 1 (1994)#ʔRD̮-1: Akk erṣet‑ , Ug ʔarṣ, Phn Pun Moab ʔrṣ, Hbr ʔereṣ, EmpAram ʔrq, Nab Palm ʔrʕ, BiblAram ʔᵃraʕ, JP Syr ʔarʕā, Mand arqa ‘terre (sol)’, arda ‘terre (champ)’; Akk irṣit‑ ‘terre, enfer, tombe’, EmpAram ʔrṣʔ ‘sarcophage’.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#54: for Sem see DRS above, and SAr ʔrḍ, Jib ʔɛrḍ. – Outside Sem: WCh riṣ̂a, hīṣ̂e, rəṣ̂u, riṣ̂i ‘earth’ in some WCh languages, and iraaḍya ʻvalley’ in Bid (ECh).

▪ DRS 1 (1994)#ʔRD̮-1: From Sem *ʔard̮ ‘earth (as opposed to ‘sky’); country’.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#54: The authors reconstruct Sem *ʔarṣ̂‑ ‘earth’, WCh *H˅rić̣‑, and ECh *ʔirać̣‑, all from a hypothetical AfrAs *ʔarić̣‑ ‘earth’.

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► al-ʔarḍ al-suflà, n., the nether world.
► al-ʔarḍ al-muqaddasaẗ, n.f., the Holy Land, Palestine.
► al-ʔarāḍī al-munḫafiḍaẗ, n.prop.pl., The Netherlands.
► taḥt al-ʔarḍ, adv., underground.

► ʔarraḍa, vb. II, to ground, (Brit.) earth (antenna): caus., denom.

► ^BP#1955ʔarḍī, adj., terrestrial, of the earth; soil-, land- (in compounds); situated on or near the ground, on the ground flor; ground (adj.); earthly; undergrund, subterranean: nsb-adj.
► ^BP#4488ʔarḍiyyaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., floor, ground (also, e.g., of a printed fabric); background (of a painting and fig.); flooring, floor covering; ground floor, first floor (tun.); storage, warehouse charges; groundwork, foundation, fasis earth:.

For ► ʔarḍī šawkī ‘artichoke’ and ► ʔaraḍ ‘termite; woodworm’, see the respective entries.

ʔaraḍ أرض , n.un. ‑aẗ

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔRḌ

n.coll.

termite; woodworm – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ DRS#ʔRD̮–2: Ar ʔariḍa ‘être rongé (bois)’, ʔaraḍ, Te ʔarṣät ver rongeur du bois.

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ʔarḍī šawkī أرْضي شَوْكي

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔRḌ , ŠWK

n.

artichoke – WehrCowan1979.

From Ital articiocco (which, in turn, is from Ar al‑ ↗ḫaršūf ‘artichoke’). Popular etymology related the term to ↗ʔarḍ ‘earth’ and ↗šawk ‘thorn(s)’.

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▪ …

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ʔRK أرك

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 7Mar2023

√ʔRK

“root”

▪ ʔRK_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔRK_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔRK_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘lote-tree, to feed on such a tree, to stay put near such trees; couches, soft furnishings’

▪ …

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.

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ʔRNB أرنب

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔRNB

“root”

▪ ʔRNB_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʔRNB_2 ‘…’ ↗…

▪ …

–

▪ …
▪ …

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ʔarnab أرْنب , pl. ʔarānibᵘ

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔRNB

n.

hare; rabbit – WehrCowan1979.

▪ It seems safe to assume (with DRS) a protSem *ʔarnab‑ . Lipiński1997 thinks the word can be segmented into root plus ‎AfrAs “postpositive determinant” *‑b “for wild and dangerous animals”.
▪ Cf. also Kogan2011: from protSem *ʔarnab(‑at)‑ ‘hare’.
▪ …

▪ …..

DRS 1 (1994): Akk arnab‑ , annab‑ , Hbr ʔarnebet, EmpAram ʔrnb, JP ʔarᵊnbā, ʔarnabtā, Syr ʔarnᵊbā, Ar ʔarnab, Har harbañño, ?Ug ʔanhb; ?Ar ʔarnabaẗ ‘extrémité du nez, naseaux’

▪ DRS 1 (1994): Sem *ʔarnab‑ ‘lièvre’
▪ Lipiński1997#30.10 thinks the word can be segmented into root plus ‎AfrAs “postpositive determinant” *‑b “for wild and dangerous animals”, cf. also dubb ‘bear’, ḏiʔb‑ ‘wolf’, ḏubāb‑ ‘flies’, kalb ‘dog’, ʕankabūt‑ ‘spider’, ʕaqrab‑ ‘scorpion’, ġurāb‑ ‘crow, raven’, ṯaʕlab‑ ‘fox’.
▪ DRS 1 (1994) hesitates to derive ʔarnabaẗ in the sense of ‘tip of the nose’ from ‘hare’.

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► ʔarnab hindī, n., guinea pig.
► ʔarnabaẗ, n.f., female hare, doe: f.; ʔ.aẗ al-ʔanf tip of the nose; nose, muzzle (of an animal).

ʔZː (ʔZZ) أزّ/أزز

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 7Mar2023

√ʔZː (ʔZZ)

“root”

▪ ʔZː (ʔZZ)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔZː (ʔZZ)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔZː (ʔZZ)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to whiz, to buzz, to hum; to agitate, to shake up, to incite, to stir up’

▪ …

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.

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ʔZR أزر

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 8Mar2023

√ʔZR

“root”

▪ ʔZR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔZR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔZR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘back; strength; to encompass; wrap, loin cloth; to support, brace, back up’

▪ From CSem *√ʔZR ‘to surround, gird’ – Huehnergard2011.
▪ …

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.

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ʔZM أزم

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔZM

“root”

▪ ʔZM_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʔZM_2 ‘…’ ↗…

▪ …

–

▪ …
▪ …

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ʔazmaẗ أَزْمَة

ID 019 • Sw – • BP 675 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔZM

n.f.

emergency; crisis – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

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►

ʔSː (ʔSS) أسّ / أسس

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔSː (ʔSS)

“root”

▪ ʔSː (ʔSS)_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʔSː (ʔSS)_2 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘beginning, root, foundation, to found’

▪ …

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▪ …
▪ Borg2021 #10: For Ar ʔuss, pl. ʔasās ‘foundation, principle, basis’, the author compares Eg s.t (Pyr) ‘seat, throne, place, ground of house’; ‘Sitz, Wohnsitz, Platz; Ort, Stelle’ (Faulkner 1962: 206; Wb IV 1; Calice 1936: 79).

▪ …
▪ …

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ʔasās أَساس

ID 020 • Sw – • BP 485 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔSː (ʔSS)

n.

1 foundation (also, of a building), fundament, groundwork, ground, basis; 2 keynote, tonic (mus.) – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

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►

ʔSTBRQ أستبرق

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔSTBRQ

“root”

▪ ʔSTBRQ_1 ‘brocade’ ↗ʔistabraq

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▪ …
▪ …

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ʔistabraq إِسْتَبْرَق

ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 11Apr2023

√ʔSTBRQ

n.

brocade – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Rolland2014a: From mPers stapr, stavr ‘strong, thick, solid, big’, akin to Av stavra ‘firm’, IE *stebʰ‑ ‘soutenir, fixer’, cf. Engl stamp, staff.
▪ Cheung2017(rev): prob. a direct borrowing from emPers stabrak ‘shot silk’ (lmPers stabrag > Syr ʔestabr(a)gā ‘silk dress, brocade’. For details, see below, section DISC.
▪…

▪ eC7 (thick silk material, brocade) Q 55:54 muttakiʔīna ʕalà furušin baṭāʔinu-hā min ʔistabraqin ‘they are reclining on couches lined with brocade’

…

▪ Lane: »Arabicized word, from ʔstrwh which is Syr, or from Pers, in which stabr and ʔistabr signify ‘thick’, absolutely, whence stabrah and ʔistabrah are particularly applied to signify ‘thick ↗dībāǧ ’, then the latter is Arabicized by substituting q for the h.«
▪ Jeffery1938: »Used [in the Qurʔān] only in early passages in description of the raiment of the faithful in Paradise. It is one of the few words that have been very generally recognized by the Muslim authorities as a Pers loan-word, cf. al-Ḍaḥḥāk in al-Suyūṭī, Itq, 319; al-Aṣmaʕī in al-Suyūṭī, Muzhir, i,137; al-Sijistānī, 49; al-Jawharī, Ṣiḥāḥ s.v.; al-Kindī, Risāla, 85; Ibn al-Athīr, Nihāya, i, 38. Some, indeed, took it as an Ar word, attempting to derive it from √BRQ (cf. Bayḍ. on lxxvi, 21), but their argument depends on a variant reading given by Ibn Muḥayṣin which cannot be defended (Dvořák, Fremdw, 39, 40). / The philologers, however, were in some confusion as to the original Pers form. LA, xi, 285, quotes al-Zajjāj as stating it was from Pers ʔstqrh, and TA, vi, 292, quotes Ibn Durayd to the effect that it is from Syr ʔstwrh, neither of which forms exist. The Qāmūs, s.v. BRQ, however, rightly gives it as from ʔstbrh,¹⁰ which al-Jawharī, Ṣiḥāḥ, says is from SṬBR, meaning ġalīẓ.[…] Pers ʔstbr, sometimes written ʔsṭbr, as al-Jawharī gives it,¹¹ is a form of sitabr meaning ‘big, thick, gross’, apparently from a root ʔustuwār ‘firm, stable’ (cf. Skr stʰabir,¹² Av staura,¹³ Oss st‘ur,¹⁴ and Arm stowar.¹⁵ The Phlv staβr ‘thick’ (Nyberg, Glossar, 206, is used of clothing in eschatological writings, e.g. Arda Viraf, xiv, 14, ??? ‘and glorious and thick splendid clothing’. Phlv ???, with the suffix ???, gives the modPers istabrak, which BQ, 994, defines as dībāy-e kandeh va-setabr and Vullers, Lex, i, 94, as vestis serica crassior. / From mPers the word was borrowed into Armenian as əstawrak,¹⁶ and into Syr ʔestabragā or ʔestabrāgā.¹⁷ Ibn Durayd, according to TA, vi, 292, quoted ʔistabraq as a borrowing from Syr, but PSm, 294, gives the Syr forms only as dictionary words from BA and BB, and there can be little doubt that the word passed directly into Ar from the mPers.¹⁸ The Ar -q represents the Phlv suffix ???,¹⁹ which in Syr normally became g, as we see in such examples as Phlv avistāk (= Pers ʔbstʔ or ʔfstʔ),²⁰ which in Syr is ʔbstāgā and in Ar ʔbstāq (Ibn al-Athīr, Nihāya, i, 38).«

10. So TA, loc. cit., and al-Khafājī, in his supercommentary to Bayḍāwī, cf. also Addai Sher, 10. 11. Vullers, Lex, i, 97. 12. Lagarde, GA, 13. stʰabir means ‘thick, compact, solid’, cf. Monier Williams, Sanscrit Dictionary, 1265. 13. Bartholomae, AIW, 1592; Horn, Grundriss, p. 158; Hübschmann, Persische Studien, 74. 14. For this Oss form see Hübschmann, ZDMG, xxxix, 93. 15. Hübschmann, Arm. Gramm, i, 493. Cf. also Grk staurós. 16. Hübschmann, Arm. Gramm, i, 153. The form seems proof that the borrowing was from Pers and not from Ar, though the passage in Moses Kalankatuaci, which Hübschmann quotes, refers to əstawraks e zdipaks, a gift from the Caliph Muʕāwiya I. Cf. Stackelberg in ZDMG, xlviii, 490. 17. Fraenkel, Vocab, 25, quotes this as ʔestabragā, which is copied by Dvořák, Fremdw, 42, and Horovitz, Paradies, 16, but neither this form nor the ʔestabrā quoted by Addai Sher, 10, is to be found in the Syr Lexicons. 18. Mingana, Syriac Influence, 88, however, claims that the borrowing was from Syr into Ar. 19. The philologers had recognized, however, that Pers k did sometimes become q in Ar. Cf. Sībawayh in Siddiqi, 21. 20. West, Glossary, 13

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ʔSD أسد

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔSD

“root”

▪ ʔSD_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʔSD_2 ‘…’ ↗…

▪ …

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▪ …
▪ …

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ʔasad أَسَد

ID 021 • Sw – • BP 3148 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔSD

n.

1 lion; 2 Leo (astron.) – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Huehnergard2011 reconstructs CSem *ʔaš(a)d‑ ‘lion’. Cf., however, Kogan2011 who thinks the item is of obscure etymology.
▪ …

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

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►

ʔSR أسر

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔSR

“root”

▪ ʔSR_1 ‘strap, thong; to bind, tie; to take captive’ ↗ʔasara
▪ ʔSR_2 ‘entire body; family’ ↗ʔasr (3), ↗ʔusraẗ, ↗ʔasara

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘shield, shackles, bondage, to shackle, to capture; captive; family, limbs, physique, body structure’

▪ [v2] ‘entirety, wholeness; family’ is dependent on [v1] as ‘what is bound/tied/held together’.
▪ Although in a way suggesting itself, research literature does not assume the vb. to be denominative from a n. meaning ‘strap, thong’.
▪ OrelStolb1994 reconstruct Sem *ʔ˅sir‑ ‘to bind, join; to hobble’ and, on account of some extra-Sem vb.s that may be cognate, see even an AfrAs dimension, reconstructed as AfrAs *ʔacir‑ ‘to bind, tie’.
▪ The other values listed in DRS are not relevant to MSA.

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▪ DRS 1 (1994)#ʔSR–1 ‘lier, enchaîner’: Akk esêru ‘enfermer’; asirt‑ ‘prisonnier’; Ug ʔasr, Hbr *ʔāsar ‘lier, capturer’, ʔēsūr ‘entraves, liens’; oEmpAram Palm ʔsr, JP ʔᵃsar, Syr ʔesar, Mand asar ‘lier capturer’; BiblAram ʔᵉsūr, JP ʔᵃsūrā, Mand wswrʔ, nSyr yisūra ‘lien, emprisonnement’; Ar ʔasara ‘lier, emmener captif’, Tham ʔsr, SAr ʔsr, Gz ʔasara, ʔašara, Te ʔasärä, Amh ʔassärä ‘lier’. –2 Palm ʔsr : monnaie. –3 Akk assar‑ : conducteur de véhicule(?).

▪ From the values listed in DRS, only ʔSR-1 is relevant to Ar/MSA. For ʔSR-1, Eg aṯira, for ʔSR-2 Grk assarion.

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ʔasar‑ أَسَرَ , i (ʔasr)

ID … • Sw –/171 • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔSR

vb., I

to bind, fetter, shackle, chain; to capture, take prisoner; to captivate, fascinate, hold spellbound, absorb, arrest (the attention) – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Although in a way suggesting itself, research literature does not assume the vb. to be denominative from a n. meaning ‘strap, thong’.
▪ The values ‘to take as captive, prisoner’ and ‘entirety, wholeness; family’ are dependent on the original meaning, giving ‘to bind/tie a person’ and ‘what is bound/tied/held together’, respectively.
▪ OrelStolb1994 reconstruct Sem *ʔ˅sir‑ ‘to bind, join; to hobble [an animal]’ and, on account of some extra-Sem vb.s that may be cognate, see even an AfrAs dimension, reconstructed as AfrAs *ʔacir‑ ‘to bind, tie’.

▪ eC7 Q 33:26 farīqan taqtulūna wa-taʔsirūna farīqan ‘Some ye slew, and ye made captive some’; – (ʔasr physique, build, bodily structure; constitution) Q 76:28 naḥnu ḫalaqnā-hum wa-šadadnā ʔasra-hum ‘We it is who have fashioned them and strengthened their constitution’

▪ BDB1906, Bennett1998, CAD, Zammit2002: Akk esēru ‘to shut in, enclose, confine; to make capitve’, Ug ʔasr ‘to bind; to make captive’, Hbr ʔāsar ‘to tie, bind, imprison’, Phn ʔsr ‘to bind’, oAram ʔsr ‘to imprison, restrain’, BiblAram ʔᵉsūr ‘band, bond’, Syr ʔᵉsar ‘to bind, make fast, fast, tie,…’, UrmiAram sara, Sab ʔsr ‘to bind, make a prisoner’, Gz ʔasara (BDB; also ʔaśara) ‘ligare, nectare, jungere’, Tña ʔasärä, Amh assärä, Arg hassära ‘to tie’.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#12: Akk esēru, Ug ʔsr, Hbr ʔsr ‘to bind, join’, Jib ʔesɔr, Ḥrs Mhr wesōr, Śḥ ʔɛsor ‘to hobble [an animal]’. – Outside Sem: CCh Mofu sasər ‘to plait, weave’, Mafa cacar ‘to tie’; ECh Tum hīr, Kbl saːrr, Lele saar; HEC Sid Kmb usur ‘to tie’.

▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#12 reconstruct Sem *ʔ˅sir‑ ‘to bind, join; to hobble’, CCh *ca-car‑ (with partial reduplication) ‘to plait, weave; to tie’, ECh *saʔir‑ (with metathesis) ‘to tie’ and HEC *ʔusur‑ (unexpected *‑s‑ and irregular vocalism) ‘to tie’, all ultimately from AfrAs *ʔacir‑ ‘to bind, tie’.

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► ĭstaʔsara, vb. X, to surrender, give o.s. up as prisoner: requestative.

► ʔasr, n., (leather) strap, thong; capture: perhaps the etymon proper; ^BP#2268captivity: vn. I | šiddat al-ʔasr, n., vigor, energy
► ^BP#664ʔusraẗ, pl. ʔusar, ‑āt, n., family; dynasty; clan, kinsfolk, relatives: see ↗s.v..
► ^BP#2268bi-ʔasrihī, adv., entirely, completely, altogether, ǧāʔū bi-ʔasrihim all of them came, they came one and all: lit., as a coherent body, held together by some bond; cf. also ↗ʔusraẗ.
► ʔisār, n., (leather) strap, thong: the etymon proper, or derived from ʔasara ?; captivity; captivation, enthrallment: vn. I | waqaʕa fī ʔisārih, vb., to be subjected to s.th., fall into the clutches of s.th.
► ^BP#1292ʔasīr, pl. ʔusarāʔᵘ, ʔasrà, ʔasārà, n., prisoner, captive, prisoner of war: pseudo-PP; see also ↗s.v..
► ʔasīraẗ, pl. ‑āt, female prisoner, slave girl: f. of ʔasīr, pseudo-PP.
► ʔāsir, adj., winning, captivating, fascinating: PA I; n., captor: nominalized PA I.
► maʔsūr, adj., captivated, fascinated, enthralled: PP I.

ʔasr أَسْر

ID 022 • Sw – • BP 2268 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔSR

n.

1 (leather) strap, thong. – 2 capture. – 3 ^†physique, build, bodily structure; constitution – survived into MSA only in the expression šiddat al-ʔasr, vigor, energy – WehrCowan1979.

▪ In the meaning [v2] ‘capture; captivity’, the word is a lexicalized vn. of vb. I, ↗ʔasara.
▪ [v1] ‘(leather) strap, thong’, however, may not be deverbative from ʔasara but perhaps the latter’s proper etymon.
▪ [v3] is properly a ‘coherent structure, held together by a strong inner bond’. The value is attested in the Qur'ān but survived into MSA only in the expression šiddat al-ʔasr , lit. ‘strength, solidity of constitution’, hence ‘vigor, energy’.

▪ …

Cf. ↗ʔSR, ↗ʔasara.

–

If ʔasr itself is the etymon proper, all derivatives listed under the vb. ↗ʔasara should be grouped here.

ʔusraẗ أُسْرَة , pl. ʔusar , ‑āt

ID 023 • Sw – • BP 664 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔSR

n.f.

family; dynasty; clan, kinsfolk, relatives – WehrCowan1979.

The word depends on ʔasara ‘to bind, tie together’ and thus originally means a body that is held together by strong bonds. The idea of a coherent structure, a body, is also present in the adverbial structure bi-ʔasri-hī ‘entirely, completely, altogether’. For the wider context, cf. ↗ʔSR, ↗ʔasara, ↗ʔasr.

▪ eC7 (ʔasr physique, build, bodily structure; constitution) Q 76:28 naḥnu ḫalaqnā-hum wa-šadadnā ʔasra-hum ‘We it is who have fashioned them and strengthened their constitution’

↗ʔSR, ↗ʔasara

–

►

ʔasīr أسير , pl. ʔusarāʔᵘ , ʔasrà , ʔasārà

ID … • Sw – • BP 1292 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔSR

n.

prisoner, captive, prisoner of war – WehrCowan1979.

▪ A pseudo-PP from ʔasara ‘to tie, bind, imprison’, see ↗s.v..

▪ eC7 Q 8:70 qul li-man fī ʔaydī-kum mina ’l-ʔasrà ‘Say unto those captives who are in your hands’

The word has itself a number of cognates in other Sem languages, e.g. Hbr ʔāsîr, Syr ʔasīrā ‘bondman, prisoner’. – For the wider context cf. ↗ʔasara.

▪ ↗ʔasara.
▪ According to Kogan 2011, »Akk asīru ‘prisoner’, well documented already in oBab, is not to be treated as an internally Akk derivation from esēru ‘to enclose’, but rather as a loanword from an early WSem term continued by Hbr ʔāsīr‑ and Ar ʔasīr.«.
▪ Eg jṯr ‘captive’ is a Sem loan-word – ThesaurusLinguaeAegypticae.

▪ Lokotsch1927#118, Turek 2001: Ar ʔasīr gave Tu esir ⁶ , dial. Tu yesir, whence the word spread into Slav langs, cf. Serb (dial.) jesir, Ukr jasyr ‘captive’, Pol jasyr (C17) ‘(being) captive of the Turks’, Russ (old and dial.) jasyr’, jesyr’ ‘slave’.

6. Kutadgu Bilig, 1069; ʕĀşıḳ Paşa, Ġarīb-nāme, 1330: göŋlümi ve cānumı kıldı esīr ‘took my heart and soul captive’ – NişanyanSözlük 22Apr2015.

► ĭstaʔsara, vb. X, to surrender, give o.s. up as prisoner: requestative; perhaps denom. from ʔasīr.

ʔSṬR أسطر

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔSṬR

“root”

▪ ʔSṬR_1 ‘legend, fable, tale, myth, saga’ ↗ʔusṭūraẗ
▪ ʔSṬR_2 ‘…’ ↗…

▪ …

–

▪ …
▪ …

–

ʔusṭūraẗ أُسْطُورَة , pl. ʔasāṭīrᵘ

ID 024 • Sw – • BP 3258 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔSṬR, SṬR

n.f.

legend, fable, tale, myth, saga – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ eC7 Q 6:25, 8:31, 16:24, 23:83, 25:5, 27:68, 46:17, 68:15, 83:13 ʔasāṭīr ‘fables, idle tales’

▪ …
▪ …

▪ Jeffery1938, 56-57: »[In the Qurʔān, w]e find the word only in the combination ʔasāṭīr al-ʔawwalīn ‘tales of the ancients’, which was the Meccan characterization of the stories brought them by Muḥammad. Sprenger, Leben, ii, 396 ff., thought that the reference was to a book of this title well known to Muḥammad’s contemporaries, but this theory has been combated in Nöldeke-Schwally, i, 16 ff.,²¹ and its impossibility becomes clear from a passage in Ibn Hišām, 235, where Naḍr b. al-Ḥāriṯ is made to say "By Allah, Muḥammad is no better a raconteur than I am. His stories are naught but tales of the ancients (ʔasāṭīr al-ʔawwalīn) which he writes down just as I do." – The Muslim authorities take it as a form ʔafāʕīl from √SṬR ‘to write’, considering it as a pl. of ʔusṭūraẗ or ʔ˅sṭāraẗ (Sijistānī, 10), or the pl. of a pl. (LA, vi, 28). The verb saṭara, however, as Fraenkel has shown (Fremdw, 250), is a denominative from saṭr, and this itself is a borrowing from Aram ŠṬRā, Syr šṭārā (Nöldeke, Gesch. d. Qorans, 13). It is possible but not probable that ʔaṣāṭīr was formed from this borrowed saṭr. – Sprenger, Leben, ii, 395,²² suggested that in ʔasāṭīr we have the Grk historía, a suggestion also put forward by Fleischer in his review of Geiger (Kleinere Schriften, ii, 119), and which has been accepted by many later scholars.²³ The objections to it raised by Horovitz, KU, 70, are, however, insuperable. The word can hardly have come into Ar directly from the Grk, and the Syr ʔ˅sṭūriyā occurs only as a learned word (PSm, 298). The derivation from Syr ʔṣṭrā suggested by Nöldeke-Schwally, i, 16 n., is much more satisfactory. ʔŠṬRā (cf. Aram šəṭārā) is the equivalent of the Grk cheirógraphon ,²⁴ and is a word commonly used in a sense in which it can have come into Ar. It was doubtless borrowed in this sense in the pre-Islamic period,²⁵ for in a verse of the Meccan poet ʕAbdallāh b. az-Zibaʕrā, quoted in ʕAynī, iv, 140, we read ʔalhā Quṣayyan ʕan-i ‘l-maǧdi ‘l-ʔasāṭīrᵘ "the stories have averted Quṣay from glory". – In SAr, as D. H. Müller points out (WZKM, i, 29) we have ʔsṭr meaning an ‘inscription’, and sṭr is the usual verb for ‘scripsit’ (Rossini, Glossarium, 194), so it is not impossible that there was SAr influence on the form of the word.«
▪ Rolland2014: »Peut-être - comme l’avance prudemment Kazimirksi - du Grk ἱστορία [historía] ‘recherche, information; récit; histoire’. Mais ce mot est plus probablement un simple dérivé de la racine SṬR, dont l’un des sens est ‘raconter des histoires’.«
▪ …

–

► ʔusṭūriyyaẗ, n.f., mythologism: neologism, coined on the f. nisba pattern in -iyyaẗ.

ʔSF أسف

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 8Mar2023

√ʔSF

“root”

▪ ʔSF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔSF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔSF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘sadness, anger, sorrow, to offend’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʔSN أسن

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 8Mar2023

√ʔSN

“root”

▪ ʔSN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔSN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔSN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘relic; (of water) to become putrid, to be overcome with fumes from such water; to take after one’s father’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʔSW أسو

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔSW

“root”

▪ ʔSW_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʔSW_2 ‘…’ ↗…

▪ …

–

▪ …
▪ …

–

maʔsāẗ مَأْساة

ID 025 • Sw – • BP 2262 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔSW

n.f.

tragedy, drama – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

–

►

ʔSW/Y أسو/ي

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 8Mar2023

√ʔSW/Y

“root”

▪ ʔSW/Y_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔSW/Y_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔSW/Y_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘cure, medicine; to console; sadness; to treat equally; model, exemplar; pillar’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʔŠN أشن

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Jul2021

√ʔŠN

“root”

▪ ʔŠN_1 ‘potash; saltwort (Salsola kali; bot.)’ ↗ʔušnān
▪ ʔŠN_2 ‘moss’ ↗ʔušnaẗ

▪ [v1] : From Pers ʔušnān~ʔišnān ‘the herb alkali, and the ashes which are made from it, with which they wash clothes and the hands after eating’ (Steingass1892).
▪ [v2] : (Rolland2014a:) From Pers ʔušna »‘lichen, algue, mousse, usnée’. Peut-être apparanté à [v1] ‘potass (Salsola kali)’«.

▪ …

▪ [v2] Fr usnée , from Ar ↗ʔušnaẗ.

–

ʔušnaẗ أُشْنة

ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Jul2021

√ʔŠN

n.f.

moss – WehrCowan1976.

▪ (Rolland2014a:) From Pers ʔušna »‘lichen, algue, mousse, usnée’. Peut-être apparenté à ↗ʔušnān ‘potass (Salsola kali)’«.
▪ …

▪ …

▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ …

▪ Fr usnée : (1. ‘lichen de couleur grisâtre poussant sur les vieux arbres’) 1553 Usnea, usnech; (2. ‘mousse qui pousse sur le crâne des pendus’) 1694 usnée humaine. Via (bot.) mLat usnea from Ar ʔušnaẗ ‘mousse, lichen’ – CNRTL. – Lokotsch1927 #2139 explains that extraordinary healing power was believed to reside esp. in usnée humaine ‘Flechte, die auf den der Luft ausgesetzten Schädeln der Toten sprießt’ (lichen sprouting on skulls of the dead that are exposed to the air).

–

ʔušnān أُشْنان

ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Jul2021

√ʔŠN

n.

1 potash; 2 saltwort (Salsola kali; bot.) – WehrCowan1976.

▪ From Pers ʔušnān~ʔišnān ‘the herb alkali, and the ashes which are made from it, with which they wash clothes and the hands after eating’ (Steingass1892).
▪ Cf. also ↗ʔušnaẗ (< Pers ʔušna ‘lichen, algue, moss, usnea’) which, accord. to Rolland2014a, may be akin to ʔušnān.
▪ …

▪ …

▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ …

▪ Cf. prob. Fr usnée < Lat usnea < Ar ↗ʔušnaẗ which is prob. akin to ʔušnān.
▪ …

–

ʔṢD أصد

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 8Mar2023

√ʔṢD

“root”

▪ ʔṢD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔṢD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔṢD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): (this root overlaps with root WṢD because of the dialectal difference in pronouncing hamza as a pure vowel) ‘sleeveless undergarment, to wear such a garment; animal pen; courtyard; to shut tightly’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʔṢR أصر

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 8Mar2023

√ʔṢR

“root”

▪ ʔṢR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔṢR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔṢR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘rope, tie, connection, relation; an undertaking; promise, vow; load, burden’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʔṢL أصل

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔṢL

“root”

▪ ʔṢL_1 ‘root, source, origin’ ↗ʔaṣl, ‘firmness, purity of origin, authenticity’ ↗ʔaṣālaẗ
▪ ʔṢL_2 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘base, root, foundation; to be deep-rooted; to eradicate; time before sunset’

▪ …

–

▪ …
▪ check Cohen1969: 107 !

▪ …
▪ …

–

ʔaṣālaẗ أصالة

ID 026 • Sw – • BP??? • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔṢL

n.f.

firmness, steadfastness, strength of character; nobility of descent, purity of origin – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

–

►

ʔaṣl أَصْل

ID 027 • Sw –/121 • BP 547 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔṢL

n.

root; trunk (of a tree); origin, source; cause, reason; descent, lineage, stock (esp., one of a noble character); foundation, fundament, basis; the original (e.g., of a book); - pl. ʔuṣūl principles, fundamentals, rudiments, elements (e.g., of a science); rules; basic rules, principles, axioms; real estate, landed property; assets (fin.) – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

–

►

ʔFː (ʔFF) أفّ/أفف

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 8Mar2023

√ʔFː (ʔFF)

“root”

▪ ʔFː (ʔFF)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔFː (ʔFF)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔFː (ʔFF)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘dirt under the nails or in the ear; contamination; grumbling, complaint, to grumble’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʔFQ أفق

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 8Mar2023

√ʔFQ

“root”

▪ ʔFQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔFQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔFQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘rolls of tanned leather; ways, direction, horizon; to roam about’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʔFK أفك

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 8Mar2023

√ʔFK

“root”

▪ ʔFK_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔFK_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔFK_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘falsehood, to lie, deceive, beguile; to turn upside down, change the manner of things; to turn away, dissuade’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʔFL أفل

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 8Mar2023

√ʔFL

“root”

▪ ʔFL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔFL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔFL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘(of a female’s milk) to decrease; (of planets and stars) to set; to be absent or go away from’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʔFND أفند

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔFND

“root”

▪ ʔFND_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʔFND_2 ‘…’ ↗…

▪ …

–

▪ …
▪ …

–

ʔafandī أفنْدي

ID 028 • Sw – • NahḍCon • BP??? • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔFND

n.

gentleman (when referring to non-Europeans wearing Western clothes and the tarboosh); (after the name) a title of respect (eg.) – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

▪ Rolland2014: from Tu efendi ‘master’, itself from popGrk aphéntēs ‘lord, master’, from Grk authéntēs ‘responsible author’.

▪ From the same Grk etymon from which Eur languages have authentic, authenticity, etc.
▪…

►

ʔQLM أقلم

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔQLM

“root”

▪ ʔQLM_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʔQLM_2 ‘…’ ↗…

▪ …

–

▪ …
▪ …

–

ʔiqlīm إِقْلِيم

ID 029 • Sw – • BP 1813 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔQLM

n.

1 climate; 2a area, region; b province, district; c administrative district (Eg.; = mudīrīyyaẗ); pl. al-ʔaqālīm country, provinces (as distinguished from the city) – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

…

►

ʔKSR أكسر

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔKSR

“root”

▪ ʔKSR_1 ‘elixir’ ↗ʔiksīr
▪ ʔKSR_2 ‘…’ ↗…

↗ʔiksīr

▪ ↗ʔiksīr

–

ʔiksīr إكْسير

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔKSR , KSR

n.

elixir – WehrCowan1979.

Doubtful etymology, most probably from a Grk word. The Arabic term gave our word elixir.

▪ …

–

▪ Rolland2014: »Peut-être du grec ξηρίον [xēríon] ‘poudre siccative que l’on met sur les blessures’, dérivé de ξηρός [xērós] ‘sec’, d’étymologie obscure (Chantraine). Nişanyan propose un autre étymon grec, ἐξαίρεσις [eksaíresis] ‘extraction’, dérivé de αἱρέω [airéō] ‘prendre, enlever, saisir’, sans étymologie établie.«
▪ Hassan1986 suggested an origin in the Chinese term for ‘Cosmic soul’.²⁶ Highly doubtful!

26. »Ek-Chhi,[= 一质[質] yī zhì ?] the one-soul, the universal soul. This was Arabized as Ik-si-(R) or Iksīr «. S. Mahdi Hassan, “The Arabic word ḥarīr as traceable to the Chinese term signifying fine-silk”, Islamic Studies, 25/3 (Autumn 1986): 333-5.

▪ EtymOnline: elixir, »mC13, from mLat elixir ‘philosopher’s stone’, believed by alchemists to transmute baser metals into gold and/or to cure diseases and prolong life, from Arabic al-iksīr ‘the philosopher’s stone’, probably from lGrk xerion ‘powder for drying wounds’, from xeros ‘dry’ […]. Later in medical use for ‘a tincture with more than one base’. General sense of ‘strong tonic’ is 1590 s; used for quack medicines from at least 1630 s.«

–

ʔKL أكل

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔKL

“root”

▪ ʔKL_1 ‘to eat’ ↗ʔakala
▪ ʔKL_2 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘food; yield; morsel; to eat, to consume, to devour; to erode; to become enraged’

▪ ʔKL_1 : (Kogan2015 Sw#23:) from protSem *ʔkl ‘to eat’ (HALOT 46). Passim except EthSem and modSAr.
▪ …
▪ …

–

▪ …
▪ …

–

ʔakal‑ أَكَلَ , u (ʔakl, maʔkal)

ID 030 • Sw 55/37 • BP 1338 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔKL

vb., I

to eat; to eat up, consume, swallow, devour, destroy; to eat, gnaw (at), eat away, corrode, erode; to spend unlawfully, enrich o.s., feather o.’s nest (with) – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *ʔkl ‘to eat’.
▪ From Sem *ʔ˅kul- ‘to eat’. – Any relation to the theme ‘to be equal, sufficient > half’?
▪ …

▪ …

▪ Orel/Stolbova 1994 #148, DRS 1 (1994) #ʔKL- 1: Akk akālu, Ug ʔakl, Phoen ʔkl, Hbr ʔākal, Syr ʔekal; Gz ʔǝkl ‘food’, Te ʔǝkǝl, Amh ʔǝhǝl ‘grain’. – Outside Sem: Hs kālā-čī ‘food’.
▪ Do we also have to consider DRS 1 (1994) #ʔKL-2? : ‘être égal, suffisant > moitié’: SAr mʔkly ‘moitié’; Gz ʔakala, Te ʔaklä, Tña ʔahalä ‘être suffisant’; Amh ʔAkkälä ‘être égal’; Tña maʔkäl ‘milieu’; Te ʔakəl ‘comme, pareil à’; Amh əkkul ‘moitié’; Te ʔakəl ʔayi, Amh mən yahəl ‘combien?’; ?Gz ʔakāl, Te ʔakal ‘corps’; Amh akal ‘personne’.

▪ Orel/Stolbova 1994 #148: Sem *ʔ˅kul- ‘to eat’, WCh *kal- (< *kaʔ˅l) ‘food’, both from AfrAs *ʔ˅kul- ‘to eat’ (the WCh forms resulting from metathesis).
▪ Cf. also DRS 1 (1994) #ʔKL-2?

–

► ʔakala ʕalayhi ’l-dahrᵘ wa-šariba, expr., to be old and worn out, be timeworn
► ʔakala ’l-ribā, vb. I, idiom., to take usurious interest
► yaʕlamu min ayna tuʔkalu ’l-katif, expr., he knows how to tackle the matter properly
► ʔakalahū ǧilduhū, expr., his skin itched
► ʔakala fī ṣaḥn, vb. I, idiom., to eat off a plate
► ʔakala ḥaqqahū, vb. I, idiom., to encroach upon s.o.’s rights

► ʔakkala, vb. II, and ʔākala, vb. IV, to give s.o. s.th. to eat (2x DO), feed: D-stem, caus.
► ʔākala, vb. III, to eat, dine (DO with s.o.): L-stem, associative.
► taʔakkala, vb. V, and taʔākala, vb. VI, to be devoured, be consumed; to be eaten away, corrode, undergo corrosion; to become old, worn, time worn, full of cracks; to be destroyed by corrosion: tD- and tL-stem, respectively, both pass./intr.-self-refl.

► ^BP#1495 ʔakl, n., food; meal, repast; fodder, feed | ġurfaẗ al-ʔakl, n.f., dining room; (eg.) ʔakl al-baḥr, land washed away by the see or the Nile (as opposed to ṭarḥ al-baḥr)
► ʔuk(u)l, n., food; fruit | ʔatà ʔuk(u)luhū, expr., to bear fruit
► ʔaklaẗ, pl. ʔakalāt, n.f., meal, repast: n.un. of ʔakl
► ʔuklaẗ, n.f., bite, morsel: n.un. of ʔuk(u)l
► ʔukāl, n., prurigo, itch eruption (med.)
► ʔakkāl, ʔakīl, ʔakūl, adj., voracious, gluttonous; hearty eater, gourmand, glutton: ints.
► maʔkal, pl. maʔākilᵘ, n., food, eats: n.instr.
► taʔakkul and taʔākul, n., wear; corrosion; erosion (geol.): vn. V and VI
► ĭʔtikāl, n., erosion (geol.): vn. VIII
► ʔākil, n., eater: PA I.
► ʔākilaẗ, n.f., gangrenous sore: PA I, f., fig., lexicalization as med. term.
► maʔkūl, adj., eatable, edible: PP I; pl. ‑āt, food, foodstuffs, eatables, edibles: nominalisation of PP I.
► muʔākil, n., table companion: PA III.
► mutaʔakkil and mutaʔā kil, adj., corroded; eroded; worn, timeworn; full of cracks; rusty, rust-eaten: PA V and VI.

ʔLː (ʔLL) ألّ/ألل

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 8Mar2023

√ʔLː (ʔLL)

“root”

▪ ʔLː (ʔLL)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔLː (ʔLL)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔLː (ʔLL)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘lightening; sharpening; agitation; yearning; family ties; pledge, covenant’

▪ …

–

.

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ʔLT ألت

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 8Mar2023

√ʔLT

“root”

▪ ʔLT_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔLT_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔLT_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘oath; decrease, to decrease, reduce; to prevent, deny’

▪ …

–

.

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ʔLF ألف

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔLF

“root”

▪ ʔLF_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʔLF_2 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘thousand; to put together, bring together; to habituate; to get accustomed; to soften up; intimate; mate’

▪ From protSem *ʔalp‑ ‘ox’ – Huehnergard2011.

–

▪ …
▪ …

▪ Engl aleph, from Hbr ʔālep ‘aleph’; alpha, alphabet, from Grk alpha; all from Phoen *ʔalp ‘ox’, first letter of the Phoen alphabet.

–

taʔlīf تَأْليف

Sw – • NahḍCon • BP 3814 • APD … • © SG | created 31May2023

√ʔLF ()

n.

.

▪ vn., II

.

muʔallif مُؤَلِّف

ID 031 • Sw – • BP 2062 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔLF

n.

author, writer – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

–

►

ʔLM ألم

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 8Mar2023

√ʔLM

“root”

▪ ʔLM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔLM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔLM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘pain, ache, to feel pain; baseness’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʔLH أله

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔLH

“root”

▪ ʔLH_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʔLH_2 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): old Semitic root denoting deity of which various forms occur in all Semitic languages

▪ …

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▪ …
▪ …

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ʔilāh إله ، إلاه , pl. ʔālihaẗ

ID … • Sw – • BP 1326 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʔLH

n.

god, deity, godhead – WehrCowan1979.

From CSem *ʔilāh‑ ‘god, deity’, extension in *‑h from Sem *ʔil‑ ‘god’ – Huehnergard2011.

▪ …

▪ DRS I (1994)#ʔL: Akk il‑, el‑, Ug ʔil, Phn Pun ʔl, Hbr ʔēl, EmpAram ʔl, JP ʔēl, Tham ʔl; (with final ‑h) epigrHbr ʔlh, Hbr, ʔᵉlōha, Ug ʔlhm (pl.m.), ʔlht (pl.f.), epigrAram ʔlh, JP ʔᵉlhā, BabAram ʔelāh, Syr ʔalaha, Mand alaha, Ar ʔilāh, SAr ʔlh ‘god, deity’.

DRS 1 (1994), Huehnergard2011, et al.: From CSem *ʔilāh‑ ‘god, deity’, extension in *‑h from Sem *ʔil‑ ‘dto.’.

Biblical names ending in ‑el are often composed of two elements, the second being Hbr ʔēl ‘God’. Cf., e.g., Azazel, from Hbr ʕᵃzā(ʔ)zēl, of uncertain etymology, perhaps corrupt for ʕᵃzaz-ʔēl, a name meaning ‘God has been strong’ < ʕᵃzaz, reduced form of ʕāzaz ‘he is/was strong’ (cf. Ar ↗ʕZː (ʕZZ)); Bethel, from Hbr bêt ʔēl ‘house of God’ (cf. Ar ↗bayt ‘house’); Daniel, from Hbr dānīʔēl / dānīyē(ʔ)l ‘my judge is God’ < Hbr dān ‘judge’ (cf. Ar ↗dīn ‘religion’, ↗madīnaẗ ‘town, city’) + ‑ī ‘my’ (suffix 1sg) + ʔēl; Ezekiel, from Hbr yəḥezqē(ʔ)l ‘God has strengthened’ < yəḥezq ‘he has strengthened’ (cf. Ar ↗ḤZQ) + ʔēl; Israel, from Lat, from Grk Israēl, from Hbr yiśrāʔēl ‘Israel’, name meaning ‘God has striven, saved’ < yiśrā ‘he has striven, saved’ (see śry) + ʔēl; Joel, from Hbr yôʔēl ‘Yahweh is God’ < yô, short form of yahweh ‘Yahweh’ (see hwy) + ʔēl; Michael, from Hbr mîkāʔēl ‘who is like God?’ < mî ‘who?’ + kā ‘like’ (cf. Ar ↗ka‑) + ʔēl; Samuel, from Hbr šəmûʔēl ‘name of God’, or, ‘the name is God’ < šəmû, archaic form of šēm ‘name’ (cf. Ar ↗SMY) + ʔēl; cf. also Schlemiel, from Yidd, perhaps from the Hbr n.prop. šəlūmîʔēl ‘Shelumiel’, meaning ‘my well-being is God’ < šəlūm ‘well-being’ (cf. Ar ↗salām ‘peace’) + ‑î ‘my’ (suffix 1sg) + ʔēl.
For other Engl words that go back to Ar allāh ‘God’, cf. ↗s.v..

► ʔallaha, vb. II, to deify, make a god of s.o.: caus. denom.
► taʔallaha, vb. V, to become a deity, a godhead; to deify o.s.: T-stem of II, inchoat., refl.

► ʔilāhaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., goddess: f. of ʔilāh.
► ^BP#4130ʔilāhī, adj., divine, of God; theological: nsb-adj.; n.pl., al-ʔilāhiyyāt, theological, spiritual concerns: nominalized adj.f.pl., abstr. | ʕilm al-ʔilāhiyyāt, n., theology.
► aḷḷāh, n., Allah, God (as the One and Only): < *al-ʔilāh, see s.v.. | wa-ḷḷāhi, excl., by God!; bi-llāhi (ʕalayk), excl., for God’s sake, I implore you, I beg of you; li-llāhi darruka, exclamation of admiration and praise, see ↗darr.
► ^BP#784aḷḷāhumma, excl., O God!: see s.v. | ~ ʔillā, conj., unless, were it not that, except that, or at best (after a negative statement); ~ ʔiḏā, conj., at least if or when; if only; ~ naʕam, excl., by God, yes! most certainly!.
► ʔulūhiyyaẗ, n.f., divine power, divinity: abstr. formation.
► taʔlīh, n., deification, apotheosis: vn. II.
► ʔālih, n., (pagan) god: PA *I (?).
► ʔālihaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., goddess: f. of ʔālih.
► ʔālihī, adj., divine: nsb-adj. from ʔālih.
► mutaʔallih, adj., divine, heavenly: PA V.

allāh الله

√ʔLH

n.

Allah, God (as the One and Only) – WehrCowan1979.

From *al‑ ↗ʔilāh ‘the god, God’. Qurʔānic usage of the old Ar word may be influenced by Syr ʔalāhā.

▪ eC7 Q passim.

See ↗ʔilāh.

▪ Jeffery1938: »One gathers from al-Rāzī, Mafātīḥ, i, 84 (so Abū Ḥayyān, Baḥr, i, 15), that certain early Muslim authorities hold that the word was of Syr or Hbr origin. The majority, however, claimed that it was pure Ar, though they set forth various theories as to its derivation.²⁷ – Some held that it has no derivation, being murtaǧal : the Kūfans in general derived it from al-ʔilāhu, while the Baṣrans derived it from al-lāhu, taking lāhun as a vn. from √LYH ‘to be high’ or ‘to be veiled’. The suggested origins for a ʔilāh were even more varied, some taking it from ʔalaha ‘to worship’, some from ʔaliha ‘to be perplexed’, some from ʔaliha ʔilà ‘to turn to for protection’, and others from waliha ‘to be perplexed’. – Western scholars are fairly unanimous that the source of the word must be found in one of the older religions. In the Sem area ʔLH was a widely used word for ‘deity’, cf. Hbr ʔᵆlōᵃh, Aram ʔᵆlāh, Syr ʔalāhā, Sab ʔlh; and so Ar ʔilāh is doubtless a genuine old Sem form. The form allāh, however, is different, and there can be little doubt that this, like the Mandaean ʔlʔhʔ and the Pahlavi ideogram,²⁸ goes back to the Syr ʔalāhā (cf. Grünbaum, ZDMG, 39: 571; Sprenger, Leben, i, 287-9; Ahrens, Muhammad, 15; Rudolph, Abhängigkeit, 26; Bell, Origin, 54; Cheikho, Naṣrāniya, 159; Mingana, Syriac Influence, 86). The word, however, came into use in Arabian heathenism long before Muḥammad’s time (Wellhausen, Reste, 217; Nielsen in HAA, i, 218 ff.). It occurs frequently in the NArabian inscriptions,²⁹ and also in those from SArabia, as, e.g., ʕmn kl ʔlʔltm ‘with all the Gods’ (in Glaser, Abessinien, 50),³⁰ as well as in the pre-Islamic oath forms, such as that of Qays b. Ḫaṭīm given by Horovitz, KU, 140, and many in al-Šanqīṭī’s introduction to the Muʕallaqāt. It is possible that the expression ʔallāhu taʕāla is of SAr origin, as the name tʕlw occurs in a Qat inscription.³¹ «
▪ Kiltz2003, however, showed that »there is no reason to assume a loan from Syr into Ar, as allāh is perfectly motivated, i.e. phonetically regular, in (some dialects of) Ar and its development within Ar is safely accounted for […]. There is, however, a good possibility that the prominence of Syriac allāhā and its near homophony positively influenced the use of allāh in the Qurʔān. That is to say, we find allāh in the Qurʔān not only because it was the most ‘fitting’ word to be used, in spite of or because of allah’s prominent position within pre-islamic religion, but perhaps because pre-islamic connotations were more easily superseded taking into consideration that its near homophone Syr allāhā was already prominently used in a monotheistic context.«

27. They are discussed in detail by al-Rāzī on pp. 81-4, of the first volume of his Tafsīr. 28. Herzfeld, Paikuli, Glossary, 135. 29. Cf. Littmann, Entzifferung der thamudenischen Inschriften, p. 63 ff.; Sem. Inscr, p. 113 ff.; and Ryckmans, Noms propres, i, 2; RES, iii, 441. 30. Derenbourg in JA, viiiᵉ ser., xx, 157 ff., wants to find the word in the ʔlhn of a Minacan inscription, but this is usually taken as a reference to a tribal god ʔlhān, vide Halevy, ibid, p. 325, 326. 31. Rhodokanakis, “Die Inschriften an der Mauer von Koḥlān Timnaʕ,” in SBAW, Wien, 1924.

▪ As a matter of course, Engl Allah (1702) is from Ar aḷḷāh. – The title Ayatollah is the Pers āyatollāh, which is from Ar ʔāyatu ’ḷḷāh ‘sign of God’, < ʔāyaẗ ‘sign; Koranic verse’ (↗ʔWY) + (a)llāh, and the name Bahaullah < Ar bahāʔu ḷḷāh, is composed of Ar bahāʔ ‘splendor’ (↗BHW) + (a)llāh ‘God’. – Hezbollah, the name of an extremist Shiite group active in Lebanon, founded c. 1982, entered Engl via Pers ḥezbollāh, which is from Ar ḥizbu ’llāh, lit. ‘Party of God’ (↗ḥizb); »[t]he name of various Islamic groups in modern times, the name itself is attested in English by 1960 in reference to an Indonesian guerilla battalion of 1945 that “grew out of a similarly named organization formed by the Japanese to give training in military drill to young Moslems.”⁷ « – EtymOnline. – Other compositions with (a)ḷḷāh include inshallah (1857), phonetic spelling of Ar ʔin šāʔa ’ḷḷ̣āh ‘if God wills (it)’, and bismillah (first attested in Byron), from Ar bismi ’llāh(i) ‘in the name of God’.
▪ Less obviously related to Ar (a)ḷḷāh is Engl olé (1922). This is the Span expression of admiration olé ‘bravo!’, which—perhaps—is from Ar wa-llāh ‘by God!’ – Osman2002, Huehnergard2011.

7. Clifford Geertz, The Religion of Java, Chicago 1960.

► wa-ḷḷāhi, excl., by God!
► bi-llāhi (ʕalayk), excl., for God’s sake, I implore you, I beg of you.
► li-llāhi darruka, exclamation of admiration and praise, see ↗darr.

► ^BP#784aḷḷāhumma, excl., O God!: see ↗s.v. | ~ ʔillā, conj., unless, were it not that, except that, or at best (after a negative statement); ~ ʔiḏā, conj., at least if or when; if only; ~ naʕam, excl., by God, yes! most certainly!.

allāhumma الّهُمّا

√ʔLH

interj.

God! – WehrCowan1979.

From Hbr ʔᵆlōhîm ‘God’, properly a pl., but used as sg., of Hbr ʔᵆlōᵃh ‘god’, which is of course cognate with Ar ↗ʔilāh.

▪ eC7 Q 3:26, 5:114, 8:32, 10:10, 39:46, in all places an invocatory name for God, used in contexts of absolute supplication, cf. e.g. 10:10 daʕwā-hum fī-hā subḥāna-ka ’ḷḷāhumma ‘their prayer in it [sc. Paradise] is “Glory to You, God!”’

…

▪ Jeffery 1938: »The form of the word was a great puzzle to the early grammarians:³² the orthodox explanation being that it is a vocative form where the final m takes the place of an initial yā. The Kūfans took it as a contraction of yā ʔallāhu ʔāminnā bi-ḫayr (Bayḍ. on iii, 25), but their theory is ridiculed by Ibn Yaʕīš, i, 181. As a vocative it is said to be of the same class as halumma ‘come along’. al-Ḫafājī, 20, however, recognizes it as a foreign word. – It is possible, as Margoliouth notes (ERE, vi, 248), that it is the Hbr ʔᵆlōhîm which had become known to the Arabs through their contacts with Jewish tribes.³³ «
▪ …

32. Margoliouth, ERE, vi, 248. 33. There is to be considered, however, the Phoen ʔlm = godhead (see references in Harris’ Glossary, p. 77), which is evidence of a Sem form with final m. Cf. Nielsen in HAA, i, 221, n. 2.

▪ Not directly from Ar aḷḷāhumma, but from the same source as the latter, is Engl Elohim (c. 1600), a name of God in the Bible.

► allāhumma ʔillā, conj., unless, were it not that, except that, or at best (after a negative statement).
► allāhumma ʔiḏā, conj., at least if or when; if only.
► allāhumma naʕam, excl., by God, yes! most certainly!

ʔLW/Y ألو/ي

√ʔLW/Y

“root”

▪ ʔLW/Y_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔLW/Y_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔLW/Y_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘shortcoming, to be remiss; oath, to swear; to shine; favour’. – ‘Favour’, however, could also, on the basis of meaning and structure, be connected with the root ↗ʔLL.

▪ …

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.

–

ʔMː (ʔMM) أمّ / أمم

√ʔMː (ʔMM)

“root”

▪ ʔMː (ʔMM)_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʔMː (ʔMM)_2 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): »This root denotes two primary inter-related concepts of [1] ‘mother, race, roots and group’ on the one hand, and on the other, [2] ‘front, main road, leader, example direction’.«

▪ …

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▪ …
▪ …

–

ʔumm أُمّ , pl. ʔummahāt

√ʔMː (ʔMM)

n.f.

1 mother; 2a source, origin; b original, original version (of a book); 3 the gist, essence of s.th.; 4 basis, foundation; 5 pl. ʔummahāt matrix (typ.) – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *ʔimm‑ ‘mother’.
▪ …

▪ …

▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘mother’) Akk ummu, Hbr ʔēm, Syr ʔemmā, Gz ʔemm.
▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

–

► ʔumm ʔuwayq, n.f., screech owl (zool.)
► ʔumm ǧiʕrān, n.f., Egyptian vulture (zool.)
► al-ʔumm al-ǧāfiyaẗ, n.f., dura mater (anat.)
► ʔumm al-ḥibr, n.f., cuttlefish, squid (zool.)
► ʔumm al-ḥasan, n.f., (maġr.) nightingale
► ʔumm al-ḥanūn, n.f., pia mater (anat.)
► ʔumm al-ḫulūl, n.f., river mussel (zool.)
► ʔumm durmān, n.top.f., Omdurman (city in central Sudan, opposite Khartoum)
► ʔumm al-dimāġ, n.f., meninges (anat.)
► ʔumm al-raʔs, n.f., skull, brain; cerebral membrane, meninges (anat.)
► ʔumm ʔarbaʕ wa-ʔarbaʕīn, n.f., centipede (zool.)
► ʔumm šamlaẗᵃ, n.f., this world, the worldly pleasures
► bi-ʔumm al-ʕayn or bi-ʔumm ʕayni-hī, adv., with one’s own eyes; šāhadū-hu bi-ʔumm ʔaʕyuni-him, they saw it with their own eyes
► ʔumm al-qurʔān and ʔumm al-kitāb, n.f., the first sura of the Koran
► ʔumm al-qarn, n.f., rhinoceros (zool.)
► ʔumm al-qurà, n.f., Mecca
► ʔumm al-qaywayn, n.top.f., Umm al Qaiwain, name of an emirate on the Persian Gulf
► ʔumm al-kitāb, n.f., also: the original text of the Book from which Koranic revelation derives; the uncontested portions of the Koran
► ʔumm al-nuǧūm, n.f., the Milky Way
► ʔumm al-waṭan, n.f., capital, metropolis
► al-širkaẗ al-ʔumm, n.f., parent company (com.)
► al-ṣaḫr al-ʔumm, pl. al-ṣuḫūr al-ʔumm, n.f., primitive rock, parent rock
► al-luġaẗ al-ʔumm, n.f., mother tongue
► ʔummahāt al-ḥawādiṯ, n.f.pl., the most important events
► ʔummahāt al-ḥurūf, n.f.pl., matrix (typ.)
► ʔummahāt al-masāʔil, n.f.pl., the main problems
► ʔummahāt al-ṣuḥuf, n.f.pl., the leading, most highly-respected newspapers
► ʔummahāt al-faḍāʔil, n.f.pl., the principal virtues
► ʔummahāt al-kutub, n.f.pl., handbooks, basic books, essential works
► ʔummahāt al-muʔminīn, n.f.pl., Mohammed’s wives

► ʔamma / ʔamam‑, u (ʔumūmaẗ), vb. I., to be or become a mother: denom., from ʔumm. – For other values see ↗ʔamma and ↗ʔimām.
► ʔummī, adj., 1 maternal, motherly; 2 ↗ʔummaẗ.
► ʔumūmaẗ, n.f., 1 motherhood; 2 motherliness, maternity .

ʔummaẗ أُمَّة , pl. ʔumam

√ʔMː (ʔMM)

n.f.

1a nation, people; 1b community; 2 generation – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ eC7 1 (people, nation, community) Q 35:24 wa‑ʔin min ʔummaẗin ʔillā ḫalā fīhā naḏīrun ‘there has not been a community, but came to it [lit., passed away in it] a warner’; 2 (party, category of people) Q 3:104 wa‑l‑takun minkum ʔummaẗun yadʕūna ʔilà ’l‑ḫayri ‘let there be a community from among you [also interpreted as: let zou all turn out to be a community] that calls to goodness’; 3 (crowd) Q 28:23 wa‑lammā warada māʔa Madyana waǧada ʕalayhi ʔummaẗan min‑a ’l‑nāsi yasqūna ‘and when he arrived at the water of Midian, he found a crowd of people watering [their flocks]’; 4 (common belief, tradition) Q 43:22 bal qālū ʔinnā waǧadnā ʔābāʔanā ʕalà ʔummaẗin wa‑ʔinnā ʕalà ʔāṯārihim muhtadūna ‘no indeed!, they say, “We saw our fathers following this common belief; we are guided by their footsteps”’; 5 (period of time) Q 12:45 wa‑qāla ’llaḏī naǧā minhumā wa‑’ddakara baʕda ʔummaẗin ‘then the one who gained freedom of the two, remembering [Joseph] after a while, said’; 6 (fixed, determined time) Q 11:8 wa‑la‑ʔin ʔaḫḫarnā ʕanhum‑u ’l‑ʕaḏāba ʔilā ʔummaẗin maʕdūdaẗin ‘if We delay the chastisement till a determined point in time’; 7 (organised society) Q 6:38 wa‑mā min dābbatin fī ’l‑ʔarḍi wa‑lā ṭayrin yaṭīru bi‑ǧanāḥayhi ʔillā ʔumamun ʔamṯālukum ‘[there are] no creatures in the earth, nor birds that fly with their two wings, but [that they are] [organised] communities like yourselves’; 8 (epitome of Godliness, a man alone, one of a kind) Q 16:120 ʔinna ʔIbrāhīma kāna ʔummaẗan ‘Abraham was truly an example, an epitome of godniness’.

▪ …
▪ …

▪ Jeffery 1938: »Apparently a borrowing from the Jews.³⁴ Hbr אםה is a tribe, or people, and the אוםה of the Rabbinic writings was widely used. As the word is apparently not a native Sem word at all, but Akk ummatu; Hbr אםה; Aram אוםא, אוםתא; and Syr ʔūmṯā seem all to have been borrowed from the Sum,³⁵ we cannot deny the possibility that the Ar ʔummaẗ is a primitive borrowing from the same source. In any case it was an ancient borrowing, and if we can depend upon a reading בכש האםת ‘at the people’s costʼ in a Safaite inscription,³⁶ we have evidence of its early use in NArabia.«
▪ …

34. Horovitz, KU, 52; JPN, 190. 35. Zimmern, Akkad. Fremdw, 46; Pedersen, Israel, 505. 36. See Horovitz, KU, 52.

–

► ʔummaẗ Muḥammad, n.f., Mohammed’s community, the Mohammedans
► al-ʔumam al-muttaḥidaẗ, n.pl.f., the United Nations

► ʔammama, vb. II, 1 to nationalize; 2 to dispossess (private property, in a socialist economic system) : denom.

► ʔummī, adj., 1 ↗ʔumm; 2 adj., illiterate, uneducated; n., (pl. -ūn) an illiterate: nisba formation.
► ^BP#3833ʔummiyyaẗ, n.f., 1 ignorance; 2 illiteracy: abstract formation in iyyaẗ; 3 ↗ʔumawī.
► ʔumamī, adj., 1 international; 2 UNO (in compounds) : nsb-formation from ʔumam, pl. of ʔummaẗ | al-hayʔaẗ al-ʔumamiyyaẗ, al-munaẓẓamaẗ al-ʔumamiyyaẗ, n.f., the United Nations Organization, UNO.
► ʔumamiyyaẗ, n.f., Internationale (as federation of socialist parties): abstr. formation in -iyyaẗ, from ʔumam, pl. of ʔummaẗ.
► taʔmīm, n., nationalization: vn. II.

ʔimām إِمام , pl. ʔaʔimmaẗ

√ʔMː (ʔMM)

n.

1a imam, prayer leader; b leader; master; 2 plumb line – WehrCowan1979.

▪ From WSem *√ʔMM ‘to go toward, lead’ – Huehnergard2011.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl imam, from Ar ʔimām ‘leader, imam’, from ʔamma, vb. I, ‘to go, lead’.

► ʔaʔimmaẗ al‑ʔislām, n.m.pl., the old teaching authorities or spititual leaders of Islam; faḍīlaẗ al‑ʔimām al‑ʔakbar, n.f., title of high‑ranking religious dignitaries (esp. of the Rector of Azhar University)

► ʔamma, u (ʔimāmaẗ), vb. I, 1 to lead the way, lead by one’s example (s.o.); 2 to lead in prayer. – Cf. also 3 (vn. ʔamm) ↗ʔamma; 4 (vn. ʔumūmaẗ) ↗ʔumm
► ĭʔtamma, vb. VIII, to follow the example (bi‑ of s.o.)

► ʔimāmaẗ, n.f., 1a imamah, function or office of the prayer leader; 1b imamate; 1c leading position; 2 precedence
► ʔimāmiyyāt, n.f.pl., standards

ʔMBRāṬūR امبراطور

√ʔMBRāṬūR

“root”

.

▪ …

.

ʔimbarāṭūriyyaẗ إمْبَراطورِيّة

√ʔMBRāṬūR

n.f.

.

▪ abstr. in -iyyaẗ, from … -- loanword

.

ʔMT أمت

√ʔMT

“root”

▪ ʔMT_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔMT_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔMT_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘elevated places; hillocks, crookedness, weakness; measurement; to guess; doubt; to bend’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʔMD أمد

√ʔMD

“root”

▪ ʔMD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔMD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʔMD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘end, terminus; term, period, span, long time; to be angry’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʔMR أمر

√ʔMR

“root”

▪ ʔMR_1 ‘to order, command, bid, instruct’ ↗ʔamara; ‘order, command, instruction, decree; power; (gram.) imperative’ ↗¹ʔamr; ‘commander; prince, emir; tribal chief’ ↗ʔamīr; ‘government(al), state-owned, state, public’ ↗(ʔa)mīrī ; ‘commissioned, charged; commissioner; civil officer; head of a markaz or qism (Eg.)’ ↗maʔmūr
▪ ʔMR_2 ‘matter, affair, concern, business’ ↗²ʔamr; ‘to ask s.o.’s advice, consult (s.o.) [on an issue]’ ↗ʔāmara; ‘deliberation, counsel; conference’ ↗muʔtamar; ‘plot, conspiracy’ ↗muʔāmaraẗ
▪ ʔMR_3 ‘sign, token, symptom, mark, characteristic’ ↗ʔamāraẗ
▪ ʔMR_4 ‘simple-minded, stupid; ^†ram, lamb’ ↗ʔimmar
▪ ʔMR_5 ‘pericardium (anat.); soul, mind, spirit’ ↗taʔmūr
▪ ʔMR_6 ‘form, blank’ ↗ĭstiʔmāraẗ

Other values, now obsolete, include (Steingass1844, Hava1899):

▪ ^†ʔMR_7 ‘to be in good quantity; to have numerous flocks’: ^†ʔamira (a, ʔamar(aẗ)); cf. also caus. formation, ^†ʔāmara, vb. IV, ‘to multiply, make abundant (e.g., o.’s progeny, camels, etc.), render s.o. wealthy (God)’, as well as the adj. ^†ʔamir ‘multiplied, much, abundant; (hence also:) blessed’.
▪ ^†ʔMR_8 ‘serious, painful, very difficult (affair)’: ^†(ʔamr) ʔimr; cf. also corresp. vb. in the expr. ^†ʔamira ’l-ʔamr ‘the affair became severe, distressful, grievous, afflictive’
▪ ^†ʔMR_9 ‘passions’: ^†ʔammārāt (pl.)
▪ ^†ʔMR_10 ‘convent of monks’: ^†taʔmūr(aẗ)
▪ ^†ʔMR_11 ‘man’: ^†taʔmurī, ^†taʔmūrī, ^†tuʔmurī
▪ ^†ʔMR_12 ‘certain beast of the sea; (or:) small beast, kind of mountain-goat, having a single branching horn in the middle of his head’: ^†yaʔmūr or ^†taʔmūr.▪ ^†ʔMR_ ‘’: ^†...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘1 bolder, marker, landmark, hillock; 2 affliction; 3a chief, to appoint as chief; 3b command, to command; 4 affair; 5 to increase, multiply; 6 to guide’

▪ From protSem *√ʔMR ‘to see, know, make known, say’ – Huehnergard2011.
▪ Albright1954: »It should be noted that the original meaning of Hebrew √ʔMR ‘to say’ was ‘to see’, as in Akk and prob. in Ug […]. The shift in meaning came through the factitive sense ‘to show’, hence ‘to speak’.«¹ .With this theory, Albright reaffirms the findings of Moscati’s earlier study (Moscati1946) which concluded with the assumption that practically all values attached to the root √ʔMR in Sem should be regarded as developments from the one primary meaning *‘to see’, as preserved in Akk (and Ug). According to Moscati, the values found in Sem √ʔMR reflect several stages of a’logical development« (sviluppo logico) along the line *‘to see > to indicate > to command’ (vedere > indicare > comandare), which for Moscati has an »eloquent parallel« in Lat índico > dico > indíco (1946: 125). – Moscati’s study seems plausible in many respects, but it remains silent at least about [v5] ‘pericardium (anat.); soul, mind, spirit’ (taʔmūr), nor would Moscati exclude that [v4] ^†‘ram, lamb’ (and hence ‘simple-minded, stupid’) perh. is a separate item, unrelated to the remaining spectrum.
▪ Kogan2015:331 : »if one follows S. Moscati (1946:125) and W.F. Albright (1954:229) in regarding the meaning ‘to see’ as the most primitive one, Ug must be the only Sem lang where this archaic meaning is attested virtually side by side with the innovative ‘to say’, ‘to command’, normal for the rest of CSem.«
▪ Kogan2015:331 n.976: »Remnants of the original meaning ‘to see’ have been surmised for √ʔMR in other CSem langs as well (…; for Ar ʔamaraẗ, tuʔmur ‘sign, mark’ in Lane 97-98 v. Moscati 1946:124, Rundgren 1963:182), but they are much less certain. It would be tempting to regard the meaning shift ‘to see’ > ‘to say’ as a shared semantic innovation of CSem, but modSAr *ʕMR ‘to say’ (Mhr ʔāmōr, Jib ʕor, Soq ʕémor) is hard to separate from this root in spite of the irregular *ʕ‑.«
▪ Dolgopolsky2012 #42 reconstructs protSem *√ʔMR ‘to see, be seen’, but wants to keep this distinct from both protCush *√ʔMR (< AfrAs *ʔMR < #41 Nostr *ʔam˻˅˼R˅ or *ʔam˹o˺(˻R˅˼)) ‘morning, daylight, dawn’, and protBerb *√˹W˺MR (< AfrAs *ʔMR < #42 Nostr *˹ʔ˺Umr˅) ‘to burn (intr.); to shine, be bright; dawn’. He thinks that Sem *√ʔMR ‘to see, be seen’ and other »alleged cognates […] are semantically and\or phonetically unfit for comparison«. No further details given.
▪ Elaborating slightly on Moscati and Albright, and observing Dolgopolsky’s caveat, one may assume a semantic development along the line’(?0 Nostr *‘morning, daylight’ × *‘to burn (intr.); to shine, be bright; dawn’ > ) Sem ‘A to be visible, observable; fact, issue, matter, affair > B to see, take notice of s.th. (that is visible or comes into sight, a fact, an issue, etc.) > C to indicate, show, demonstrate, point to s.th. (a thing, matter, case, etc.) > D to say > E to command’. – Most of the values represented by Ar items can be seen as reflections of some stage in this development:

0 The only Sem words that in Dolgopolsky’s view have a Nostr dimension are those given in DRS as ʔMR-2 (Gz ʔamir, Gaf aymerä, Har īr ‘sun’). Dolgopolsky excludes a relation between these and the rest, but he seems to be slightly too apodictic about that. DRS holds that it is »not impossible« that the EthSem value ‘sun’ should be seen together with the complex of ‘visibility’ treated below as primary value (A) in Sem. However, while DRS suggests that the EthSem ‘sun’ originally may have been *‘the shining one’ and thus be derived from ‘visibility’, we would assume it more likely, in the light of Dolgoposky’s material, that it is the other way round, i.e., that the appearance of the sun at dawn, its becoming visible and catching the observer’s attention, is the primary value. –DRS also asks whether there may be a relation between the EthSem ‘sun’ and Sem √QMR (cf. Ar ↗qamar ‘moon’).
A ‘1 to be visible, observable; 2 fact, issue, matter, affair’: They main value belonging here is ʔMR_2, represented first and foremost by ²ʔamr ‘matter, affair, concern, business’ and derivatives, incl. ‘to consult s.o./each other on an issue’, hence (as a neologism) also ‘to conspire’. The quasi-PP ʔamīr ‘commander; prince, emir; tribal chief’, usually attributed to E, has also been interpreted as *‘person consulted, or to be consulted, in an affair/on all kinds of issues’, in which case it would belong to A2. Likewise, ʔimmar in the sense of ‘simple-minded, stupid’ is often explained in ClassAr lexica as meaning, literally, *‘(mostly children) who always ask others to explain things, seek advice on every issue’. – In an attempt to explain some values attached to Hbr ʔMR items such as ʔāmîr ‘top, summit’ and tîmārāʰ ‘column’, Barth1902 took as evident and sufficiently proven that one has to assume a homonymous Sem root √ʔMR meaning *‘to be high’ alongside ʔMR ‘to see > say > command’ (1902: 5-6). He saw reflexes of this *‘to be high’ also in [v7] ‘to be plentiful, many’ (Ar ^†ʔamira), [v8] ‘serious, painful, very difficult (affair)’ (^†ʔimr) (see also BAH2008 ‘to afflict’), or in ^†ʔamaraẗ~ʔamār(aẗ) ‘(high) heap of stones’ (ibid.). His theory comes close to others that derive Ar ^†tuʔmur ‘sign, mark’ from the root √TMR, particularly ↗tamr ‘date palm’, sharing with the latter the notion of ‘altitude’. (On Hbr tîmārāʰ ‘column’, DRS thinks it may be from ‘to be visible, to see’, but also adds: »Il n’est pas exclu cependant que nous ayons affaire à des racines différentes, v.s. TMR.«) Accordingly, ʔamīr, too, has not only been interpreted as *‘person (to be) consulted on all kinds of issues’ (< ²ʔamr ‘affair, issue’, etc. – see above) or *‘person who commands, gives orders’ (< ʔamara ‘to command’, etc. – see below), but also as *‘person of high standing’, or *‘person excelling among the people’. However, both ‘palm tree’ and ‘s.th. high’ are at the same time s.th. visible, observable from afar and/or attracting attention, so that *‘altitude’ and ‘palm tree’ are not really necessary to explain the semantics in this group. – The relative distance of [v7] ‘multitude, plentitude, abundance’ to ‘visibility’ has led some scholars to assume that [v7] should be explained as originally belonging to ↗ʕMR, not ʔMR (so, e.g., DRS s.v. #ʔMR-5). – Group A belongs closely together with B and especially C, as it is difficult to keep ‘visibility’ apart from its effect on the observer for whom s.th. visible may serve as a sign, an indicator, and thus makes him/her see.
B ‘to see, take notice of s.th. (that is visible or comes into sight, a fact, an issue, etc.), observe’ is the main value of ʔMR in Akk, to be found also in Ug. In Ar, its only immediate remnant seems to be ↗taʔammala, probably from taʔammara *‘to take s.th. as an indicator\sign for o.s.’ (see C), with assumed sound shift *r > l.²
C ‘to indicate, show, demonstrate, point to s.th. (a thing, matter, case, etc.)’: As mentioned above, this value is very close to the two preceding ones – it may be interpreted as a shift of perspective (an object that is visible for s.o. has at the same time also the “active” part of indicating s.th. for the observer and, thus, make him/her see it, take notice of it, etc.). The value that reflects this notion in its essence is certainly [v3] ‘sign, token, symptom, mark, characteristic’ (ʔamāraẗ, and – with emphasis on the object’s own “activity”³ – ^†tuʔmūr). The Qur’anic ʔamr meaning ‘revelation’ may also belong here, either directly or as a borrowing from Aram, as suggested by Jeffery1938.⁴
D ‘to say’: not represented in Ar, but central e.g. in Hbr. As pointed out by, e.g., Moscati, the value can easily be connected to C ‘to indicate, etc.’, as ‘to say s.th. to s.o.’ means ‘to draw his/her attention to it, point to it’ (1946: 121).
E ‘to command’: [v1], with the n. ¹ʔamr ‘order, command, etc.’, the vb. ʔamara ‘to order, command, bid, instruct’, and the quasi-PP ʔamīr ‘commander; prince, emir; tribal chief’, is the main representative of this value. Obviously, it overlaps, and is thus closely connected, with C and D, and ultimately A, as ‘commanding’ is a specific, imperative way of ‘saying’ s.th. (D), and it implies ‘pointing to, indicating’ s.th. (C), in this way drawing the addressed person’s attention to an ‘issue’, ²ʔamr (A). – As already mentioned above, the FaʕīL formation ʔamīr has been interpreted not only as *‘person endowed with authority, commander, chief’, but also as *‘person (to be) consulted in all kinds of affairs’ and *‘person of high standing’. – Clearly in group E belong [v9] the ‘passions’ (^†ʔammārāt, as these are the instincts or bad emotions that ‘command’ us to do evil, cf. the well-known term al-nafs al-ʔammāraẗ bi’l-sūʔ ‘the baser self (of man) that incites to evil’. According to ClassAr lexica, also taʔmūr in the sense of [v5] ‘soul, mind, spirit’ belongs to the complex of E ‘commanding’, »because it is that which is wont to command« (Lane i 1863). From ‘soul’ then also values like ‘intellect’ and ‘heart’, hence also ‘pericardium’ are derived. In a further step, taʔmūr(aẗ) may occasionally also signify the “soul” or “heart” of a monestry, or a community of believers, hence [v10] ^†‘convent of monks’. If taʔmūr is used synecdochically, the ‘soul’ comes to mean anybody having a ‘soul’, i.e., [v11] ^† ‘man’ in general (also expressed by nisba formations such as ^†taʔmurī, ^†taʔmūrī, or ^†tuʔmurī).

▪ The modern word ĭsti(ʔ)māraẗ, the standard term for [v6] ‘form, blank’, now in ubiquitous use, is obviously a singulative of a desiderative vn. X, thus meaning either *‘(document/move) to ask for a decree, ¹ʔamr’ (↗ʔamara), or *‘(document/move) to look into a matter, ↗²ʔamr’ (?).
▪ The only item that it might be difficult to assign to some of the above groups is probably ^†yaʔmūr~taʔmūr, signifying either a [v12] ‘certain beast of the sea’ or a ‘small beast, kind of mountain-goat, having a single branching horn in the middle of his head’. Lane suggests to regard this as a variant of ↗yaḥmūr ‘roebuck’.
▪ …

1. W. F. Albright, “Northwest-Semitic Names in a List of Egyptian Slaves from the Eighteenth Century B.C.”, JAOS, 74.4 (1954): 222-233, 229 n47. 2. Moscati1946: 116, reporting and confirming an idea put forward earlier by C. Brockelmann, Grundriss, I: 221, and J. Barth, “Verschiebung der Liquidae im Assyrischen”, ZA 3 (1888): 57-61, 60. 3. Barth1894: 300 thinks that the nominal pattern taFʕūL is an extension formed on the basis of the “transitive infinitive qŭtûl”, exhibiting the same transitivity. He thinks Ar taʔmūr and (with vowel assimilation) tuʔmūr are derived from √ʔMR in the sense of ‘to know’, giving taʔmūr ‘knowledge, to get to know’ and tuʔmūr (‘recognition’ =) ‘sign, mark, token (on the wayside)’. 4. »In the two senses (i) ‘command’ or ‘decree¬’, (ii) ‘matter’, ‘affair’, it is a genuine Ar word, and commonly used in the Qurʔān. – In its use in connection with the Qurʔānic doctrine of revelation, however, it would seem to represent the Aram מימרא (Rudolph, Abhängigkeit, 41; Horovitz, JPN, 188; Fischer, Glossar, Nachtrag to 86; Ahrens, Christliches, 26; Muḥammad, 134). The whole conception seems to have been strongly influenced by the Christian Logos doctrine [Grimme, System, 50 ff.], though the word would seem to have arisen from the Targumic use of מימרא« – Jeffery1938: 69.

–

▪ Zammit2002: Akk amāru ‘to see’, Ug ʔamr ‘saying, command; to be visible, to see’, Phoen ʔmr ‘to say’, Hbr ʔāmar ‘to utter, say’, lHbr maʔamär ‘word, command’, BiblAram ʔamar ‘to say, tell; command’, Syr ʔemar ‘to say, speak’, ʔamīrā ‘praefectus’, SAr ʔmr ‘to proclaim; command (of a god), oracle’, Gz ʔammara ‘monstrare, ostendere; notum facere; demonstrare’, Ar ʔmr ‘to command, order, enjoin’.
▪ DRS 1 (1994) #ʔMR‑ 1 Ar ʔamara ‘ordonner’; SAr ʔmr ‘ordonner, manifester’; Soq ʕemor, Śḥr ʕoñr, Mhr amor ‘dire’; EpigrAram ʔmr, JP ʔāmar, Syr ʔemar, Mand amar ‘dire, parler, ordonner’; Ya ʔmrh ‘ordre(?)’; Phoen Pun Moab EpigrHbr ʔmr, Hbr ʔāmar ‘dire’; Ug ʔamr ‘souhait, parole(?)’. – Akk amāru ‘voir, regarder’; Ug ʔamr ‘être visible, voir’; Ar taʔammala ‘examiner’; Gz ʔammara ‘montrer, indiquer’; təʔmərt ‘signe’; ʔəm(m)ur ‘clair, bien connu’; Tña ʔamära ‘savoir’; Te ʔammärä ‘être clair’; ʔamir ‘connaissance’; Amh ʔamro ‘raison, intelligence’; təmərt ‘signe, marque, science’. – Hbr ʔāmir ‘sommet d’arbre ou montagne’; tīmārā ‘colonne pilier’, Ar ʔamāraẗ ‘signe, indice, repère’, tāmūr(aẗ) ‘tour, tourelles’; ?Amh ʔamärä ‘être beau, plaisant, aimable’. -2 Gz ʔamir, Gaf aymerä, Har īr ‘soleil’. -3 Akk immer‑, Ug ʔimr, Phoen Pun ʔmr, oAram EmpAram Palm *ʔmr, BiblAram ʔimmar, JP ʔimmᵊrā, Syr ʔemmᵊrā, Ar ʔimmar ‘chevreau, agneau’. -4 Soq *emer ‘être oisif’; (intensif conatif) ʔomir ‘gâter, rendre oisif’; ?Ar ʔimmar ‘sans jugement, stupide’. -5 Ar ʔamira ‘être nombreux, abondant, croître’. -6 Akk emēru ‘soulever(?)’. -7 Hbr *ʔēmer ‘brindille’. -8 Tña ʔamora, Amh amora: oiseau de proie. -9 Ar ʔamāraẗ: sorte de millet. -10 Ar taʔmūr(aẗ) ‘sang, cœur’. -11 ‘antre du lion’. -12 ‘chèvre de montagne’. -13 Akk amīr ‘engorgement de l’oreille’. -14 amar‑ ‘tuiles’. -15 amr ‘ambre’.
▪ …

▪ …
▪ Dolgopolsky2012 #41 Nostr *ʔam˻˅˼R˅ (or *ʔam˹o˺(˻R˅˼)?) ‘morning, daylight’ > AfrAs *√ʔMR ‘morning, daylight’ (× #42 Nostr *˹ʔ˺Umr˅ ‘to burn’ (intr.), ‘to shine, be bright; dawn’) > Cush *√ʔMR ‘morning, dawn’ > Ag *ʔamɐr‑ ‘morning’ > Bln amari, Q amarē ‘morning, tomorrow’, Xm amir, Xm T amər ‘tomorrow’ (> Gz ʔamīr ‘sun, day, time’, Gaf aymɐra, Gur imir, yimɜr ‘sun’). || protIE *Hₓām(e)r / *Hₓām‑n‑ (*h₂eHmer) ‘day’ (× Nostr *˹ʔ˺Umr˅) > Grk (Hm) ē̂mar, gen. ē̂mat-os, D/AC âmar, ‑atos ‘day’ (> Grk A ʰēmérā ‘day’, with initial ʰ‑ on the analogy of ʰespéra ‘evening’); Arm awr ‘day’ (< *au̪mr < *amur < *āmōr), gen. awur. – Dolgopolsky2012 #42 *˹ʔ˺Umr˅ ‘to burn’ (intr.), ‘to shine, be bright; dawn’ > AfrAs *√ʔMR (× Nostr *ʔam˻˅˼R˅ ‘morning, daylight’): Berb *√˹W˺MR > Ahg əmmar ‘le soleil, le feu, tout corps en combustion qui chauffe à une distance; chaleur rayonnée’, ъsammər ‘rayons du soleil chauffant doucement’, Ty, ETwl asъsam̮m̮ər id., Rf summär ‘ensoleiller, se mettre au soleil’, Izd asammər̮ ‘sunny side of a mountain’, SrSn, Izn sammər id., ṯamiri ‘moonlight’. – Other alleged cognates within AfrAs (Sem *√ʔMR ‘to see, be seen’ etc., as well as some Ch, Eg and Berb words), are semantically and\or phonetically unfit for comparison. || protIE *Hₓām(e)r / *Hₓām‑n‑ (*h₂eHmer) ‘day’ (× Nostr *ʔam˻˅˼R˅, see #41).
▪ …

▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl emir, admiral ↗ʔamīr.

–

ʔamar‑ أَمَرَ , u (ʔamr)

√ʔMR

vb., I

(vn. ʔamr) 1 to order, command, bid, instruct, commission, charge, entrust (s.o. bi‑ with s.th. or to do s.th.); 2 (vn. ʔimāraẗ) to become an emir – WehrCowan1976.

▪ If semantics within the Sem root √ʔMR developed along the line sketched and discussed s.v.↗√ʔMR (section CONC), namely *(? Nostr *‘morning, daylight’ × *‘to burn (intr.); to shine, be bright; dawn’ >) Sem ‘to be visible, observable; fact, issue, matter, affair > to see, take notice of s.th. (that is visible or comes into sight, a fact, an issue, etc.) > to indicate, show, demonstrate, point to s.th. (a thing, matter, case, etc.) > to say > to command’, then Ar ʔamara ‘to order, command, etc.’ and derivatives represent the most recent stage of a long semantic history. Reflexes of most other stages seem to be preserved by many other items belonging to the root that exhibits a wide range of meanings.
▪ While the values attached to ¹ʔamr all seem to build on the vb. ʔamara, the meanings ‘matter, affair, issue, etc.’ (²ʔamr) and ‘(Qur’ānic) revelation’ (³ʔamr) probably belong to earlier stages (see ↗ʔamr for the former and ↗ʔamāraẗ for the latter); cf., however, also below, section DISC.
▪ …

▪ eC7 I ¹ʔamr (pl. ʔawāmirᵘ) 1 (command) Q 46:25 tudammiru kulla šayʔin bi‑ʔamri rabbihā ‘[the storm] destroys everything by the command of its Lord’; 2 (will) Q 9:48 wa‑ẓahara ʔamru ’llāhi wa‑hum kārihūna ‘and God’s will triumphed, much to their disgust’; 3 (teaching, ordinance, guidance, instruction) Q 49:9 fa‑qātilū ’llatī tabġī ḥattà tafīʔa ʔilà ʔamri ’llāhi ‘so fight the oppressive party until it returns to God’s ordinance’; 4 (system, order) Q 41:12 fa‑qaḍāhunna sabʕa samāwātin fī yawmayni wa‑ʔawḥà fī kulli samāʔin ʔamrahā ‘so He ordained them seven heavens in two days, and assigned in each heaven its order’; 5 (decision, decree) Q 9:106 wa‑ʔāḫarūna murǧawna li‑ʔamri ’llāhi ʔimmā yuʕaḏḏibuhum wa‑ʔimmā yatūbu ʕalayhim ‘And others are deferred to God’s decree, whether He chastises them or accepts their repentance’; 6 (domain, prerogative) Q 17:85 wa‑yasʔalūnaka ʕan‑i ’l‑rūḥi qul‑i ’l‑rūḥu min ʔamri rabb‑ī wa‑mā ʔūtītum min‑a ’l‑ʕilmi ʔillā qalīlan ‘And they ask you [Prophet] about the Spirit. Say: “The Spirit is [part] of the domain of my Lord,” you have only been given a little knowledge [lit., you have not been given of knowledge but a little]’; 7 (obligations, duties, tasks) Q 18:88 wa‑ʔammā man ʔāmana wa‑ʕamila ṣāliḥan fa‑lahū ǧazāʔan‑i ’l‑ḥusnà wa‑sa‑naqūlu lahū min ʔamrinā yusran ‘as for him who believed and did right, for him, as recompense, will be the ultimate reward, and We will assign to him of Our commands/tasks that which is easy [to fulfil]’; 8 (decree, verdict) Q 11:76 yā‑ʔIbrāhīmu ʔaʕriḍ ʕan hāḏā ʔinnahū qad ǧāʔa ʔamru rabbika wa‑ʔinnahum ʔātī‑him ʕaḏābun ġayru mardūdin ‘Abraham! Desist from this! Your Lord’s verdict has come about; and there is chastisement coming to them that cannot be turned back’; 9 (opinion, judgement) Q 18:82 wa‑mā faʕaltuhū ʕan ʔamrī ‘I did not do it by my own command’. – II ↗²ʔamr (pl. ʔumūr).

▪ Zammit2002: Akk amāru ‘to see’, Ug ʔamr ‘saying, command; to be visible, to see’, Phoen ʔmr ‘to say’, Hbr ʔāmar ‘to utter, say’, lHbr maʔamär ‘word, command’, BiblAram ʔamar ‘to say, tell; command’, Syr ʔemar ‘to say, speak’, ʔamīrā ‘praefectus’, SAr ʔmr ‘to proclaim; command (of a god), oracle’, Gz ʔammara ‘monstrare, ostendere; notum facere; demonstrare’, Ar ʔmr ‘to command, order, enjoin’.
▪ DRS 1 (1994) #ʔMR‑ 1 Ar ʔamara ‘ordonner’; SAr ʔmr ‘ordonner, manifester’; Soq ʕemor, Śḥr ʕoñr, Mhr amor ‘dire’; EpigrAram ʔmr, JP ʔāmar, Syr ʔemar, Mand amar ‘dire, parler, ordonner’; Ya ʔmrh ‘ordre(?)’; Phoen Pun Moab EpigrHbr ʔmr, Hbr ʔāmar ‘dire’; Ug ʔamr ‘souhait, parole(?)’. – Akk amāru ‘voir, regarder’; Ug ʔamr ‘être visible, voir’; Ar taʔammala ‘examiner’; Gz ʔammara ‘montrer, indiquer’; təʔmərt ‘signe’; ʔəm(m)ur ‘clair, bien connu’; Tña ʔamära ‘savoir’; Te ʔammärä ‘être clair’; ʔamir ‘connaissance’; Amh ʔamro ‘raison, intelligence’; təmərt ‘signe, marque, science’. – Hbr ʔāmir ‘sommet d’arbre ou montagne’; tīmārā ‘colonne pilier’, Ar ʔamāraẗ ‘signe, indice, repère’, tāmūr(aẗ) ‘tour, tourelles’; ?Amh ʔamärä ‘être beau, plaisant, aimable’.
▪ …

▪ The n. ʔamīr ‘commander; prince, emir; tribal chief’ is often regarded to derive from ʔamara. Ultimately, this may be true – but only via a concept like ʔimraẗ ‘power, influence, authority, command’, since, morphologically, ʔamīr is a FaʕīL formation and should therefore have adjectival or quasi-PP meaning. One could think of a semantic chain like: ʔamīr, lit., *‘endowed with authority’, from ¹ʔamr or ʔimraẗ ‘power, authority’, from ʔamara ‘to command’. – For other interpretations of the word, see entry ↗ʔamīr.
▪ It is not unthinkable that ²ʔamr ‘matter, affair, issue, etc.’ and ³ʔamr ‘(Qur’ānic) revelation’ both are from *‘what has been decreed, commanded’, the former in the sense of *‘command\issued word that has to be taken as a fact, or taken into account’, the second as *‘issued by God’. However, neither ClassAr dictionaries nor modern research have suggested such a relation so far.
▪ More obvious is the dependence of ↗taʔmūr ‘soul, mind, spirit’ and the n.f.pl. ^†ʔammārāt ‘passions’ on ʔamara. The latter is short for *‘the inner drives that command us to commit evil’ (cf. also the well-known term al-nafs al-ʔammāraẗ bi’l-sūʔ ‘the inner drive that incites the human being to do wrong, etc.’). The former, taʔmūr, an old taFʕūL formation, is usually explained as *‘commanding, she who commands’, »because it [sc. the soul] is that which is wont to command« (Lane i 1863). For further derivations from ‘soul’ etc., cf. entry ↗taʔmūr.
▪ The modern word ↗ĭstiʔmāraẗ (var. ĭstimāraẗ) ‘form, blank’ is either from ¹ʔamr (*‘to ask for a decree, for guidance’) or from ↗²ʔamr (< *‘to seek advice in some issue\case’).
▪ …
▪ …

▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl emir, admiral ↗ʔamīr.

► ʔamara, ʔamura, u (ʔimāraẗ), vb. I, to become an emir: prob. denom. from ʔamīr.
► ʔammara, vb. II, to invest with authority, make an emir (s.o., ʕalà over): D-stem, denom. from ʔamīr.
► taʔammara, vb. V, 1 to come to power; 2a to set o.s. up as lord and master; 2b to behave like an emir; 2c to assume an imperious attitude; 2d to be imperious, domineering: Dt-stem, intr., from ¹ʔamr in the sense of ‘power, authority’.

► ^BP#1667¹ʔamr, pl. ʔawāmirᵘ, n., 1a order, command, instruction (bi‑ to do s.th.); 1b ordinance, decree; 2 power, authority; 3 (gram.) imperative | ʔamr ʕālⁱⁿ, n., royal decree (formerly, Eg.); ʔamr ʕaliyy, n., decree, edict of the Bey (formerly, Tun.); ʔamr qānūnī, n., ordinance having the force of law (Tun.); al-ʔamr wa’l‑nahy, pl. al-ʔawāmir wa’l‑nawāhī (lit.: command and interdiction, i.e.) sovereign power; full power(s),supreme authority; ʔamr tawrīd, n., (delivery) order (com.); taḥtᵃ ʔamrika, expr., at your disposal, at your service.
► ʔimraẗ, n.f., power, influence, authority, command | taḥtᵃ ʔimratih, adv., under his command.
► ^BP#810ʔimāraẗ, n.f., 1 position or rank of an emir; 2 princely bearing or manners; 3 principality, emirate; 4 authority, power: vn. I of ʔamura, from ʔamīr (see below) | ʔimāraẗ al-baḥr, n.f., office or jurisdiction of an admiral, admiralty; ʔimārāt sāḥil ʕUmān, n.pl.f., Trucial Oman.
► ^BP#589ʔamīr, pl. ʔumarāʔᵘ, n., 1 commander; 2a prince, emir; 2b title of princes of a ruling house; 3 tribal chief: quasi-PP, lit. *‘endowed with power, authority’, from ¹ʔamr or ʔimraẗ ‘power, authority’. | ʔamīr ʔalāy, n., commander of a regiment (formerly, Eg.; approx.: colonel; as a naval rank, approx.: captain); ʔamīr al-ʔumarāʔ, n., approx.: major general (Tun.); ʔamīr al-biḥār, n., (Eg. 1939) approx.: admiral; kabīr ʔumarāʔ al-biḥār, n., (Eg. 1939) approx.: fleet admiral; ʔamīr al-baḥr, n., admiral (when referring to a non‑Arab officer of this rank; Eg. 1939 approx.: vice‑admiral); ʔamīr al-biḥār al-ʔaʕẓam, n., fleet admiral (when referring to a non‑Arab officer of this rank); ʔamīr al-liwāʔ, n., (Ir., since 1933) brigadier; ʔamīr liwāʔ al-ʕassaẗ, n., commandant of the Bey’s palace guard (formerly, Tun.); ʔamīr al-muʔminīn, n., Commander of the Faithful, Caliph.
► ʔamīraẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., princess: f. of ʔamīr.
► ʔamīrī (and mīrī), adj., government(al), state‑owned, state, public: nisba formation from ʔamīr in the sense of *‘holder of power, authority’. | ʔarḍ ʔamīrī, n., government land (Syr.); al-maṭbaʕaẗ al-ʔamīriyyaẗ, n.f., government press.
► ʔammār, adj., constantly urging, always demanding (bi‑ to do s.th.); inciting, instigating: ints. formation, quasi-PA. | al-nafs al-ʔammāraẗ bi’l-sūʔ, n.f., the baser self (of man) that incites to evil.
► taʔammur, n., 1a imperiousness, domineeringness; 1b imperious deportment, overbearing manners: vn. V.
► ĭstiʔmāraẗ (frequently written ĭstimāraẗ), n.f., form, blank: singulative of vn. X, from *‘(document/move) to ask for a decree, ¹ʔamr, or to look into a matter, ²ʔamr’ (?).
► ʔāmir, n., 1 commander; 2 lord, master; 3 orderer, purchaser, customer, client: PA I. | al-ʔāmir al-nāhī, n., absolute master, vested with unlimited authority.
► maʔmūr, 1 adj. commissioned, charged; 2 n., a commissioner; 2b civil officer, official, esp., one in executive capacity; 2c the head of a markaz and qism (Eg.): PP I. | maʔmūr al-būlīs, n., commissioner of police; maʔmūr al-taflīsaẗ, n., receiver (in bankruptcy; jur.); maʔmūr al-ḥarakaẗ, n., traffic manager (railroad); maʔmūr al-taṣfiyaẗ, n., receiver (in equity, in bankruptcy; jur.).
► maʔmūriyyaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., 1 order, instruction; errand; task, assignment, mission; 2 commission; 3 commissioner’s office, administrative branch of a government agency, e.g., maʔmūriyyaẗ qaḍāʔiyyaẗ, n.f., judicial commission charged with jurisdiction in outlying communities (Eg.): nisba formation from maʔmūr.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔamara, ↗ʔimmar, ↗ʔamāraẗ, ↗ʔamīr, ↗(ʔa)mīrī, ↗taʔmūr, ↗muʔāmaraẗ, ↗ĭstiʔmāraẗ, ↗muʔtamar, as well as, for the whole picture, ↗√ʔMR.

ʔamr أَمْر , pl. ʔumūr

√ʔMR

n.

I ¹ʔamr (pl. ʔawāmirᵘ) ↗¹ʔamara. – II matter, affair, concern, business – WehrCowan1976. –
^†III ³ʔamr (Q only) revelation ↗ʔamāraẗ.

▪ While ¹ʔamr ‘command, order’ belongs together with ↗ʔamara ‘to command, order, instruct’, and the Qur’ānic ³ʔamr ‘revelation’ probably is a borrowing from Syr, semantically close to the complex of ‘showing, demonstrating, indicating’ treated s.v. ↗ʔamāraẗ, ²ʔamr in the sense of ‘matter, affair, issue, case, etc.’ seems to reflect one of the primary values attached to √ʔMR in Sem: visibility. The original meaning may have been *‘s.th. visible (from afar), observable, attracting one’s attention’. – The idea of *‘visibility’ may ultimately stem from a Nostr *‘morning, daylight’ (> AfrAs *ʔMR ‘id.’) × *‘to burn (intr.), shine, be bright; dawn’ (though Dolgopolsky2012 rejected this possibility for phonological reasons).
▪ If ²ʔamr, interpreted as *‘visible, obvious, evident fact’, belongs to the complex of *‘visibility’, then its closest relatives within √ʔMR are ↗ʔamāraẗ ‘sign, token, mark’ and perh. ^†tāmūr(aẗ) ‘(little) tower’ (though the latter may derive from √TMR ‘date palm, dates’). Instead of a primary *‘visibility’, Barth1894 had assumed as sufficiently proven a basic *‘altitude, to be high’ to be the earliest sense of Sem √ʔMR, in which case ²ʔamr ‘matter, fact, etc.’ would originally by *‘s.th. high’, hence ‘noticeable, catching one’s attention, fact’. But neither ‘date palm, dates’ nor *‘altitude, to be high’ are needed to sketch a plausible theory of semantic development in Ar and Sem, *‘visibility’ being sufficiently convincing. – Other close relatives may be ^†ʔamir ‘multiplied, much, abundant’ (lit., *‘visible and calling for one’s attention due to its sheer quantity’), and ^†ʔimr ‘severe, distressful, grievous, afflictive (due to the fact that s.th. is obviously painful, hurting, etc.)’.
▪ …

▪ eC7 Q 16:1, 17:85, 32:5, 40:15, 42:52, 65:12, 97:4.
▪ eC7 I ¹ʔamr ↗ʔamara. – II ²ʔamr (pl. ʔumūr) 1 (affair, matter) Q 8:43 ʔiḏ yurī‑ka‑humu ’llāhu fī manāmika qalīlan wa‑law ʔarā‑ka‑hum kaṯīran la‑fašiltum wa‑la‑tanāzaʕtum fī ’l‑ʔamri ‘Remember when God made you see them in your sleep as few – had He shown them to you as many, you would certainly have lost heart and disputed over the affair’; *Q 12:102 ʔaǧmaʕū ʔamrahum ‘they settled upon their plans’; *Q 9:50 qad ʔaḫaḏnā ʔamranā ‘we have taken our precautions beforehand’; *Q 21:93 taqaṭṭaʕū ʔamrahum baynahum ‘they fell into disunity, caused a schism amongst themselves [lit., they fragmented their affairs between them]’; *Q 3:186 ʕazmi ’l‑ʔumūri ‘matters of great importance, serious undertakings, a task requiring great capability’; 2 (situation, condition) Q 18:21 ʔiḏ yatanāzaʕūna baynahum ʔamrahum ‘when they were discussing their situation among themselves’; 3 (what exists) Q 11:123 wa‑li‑llāhi ġaybu ’l‑samāwāti wa’l‑ʔarḍi wa‑ʔilayhi yurǧaʕu ’l‑ʔamru kulluhū ‘to God belongs all that is hidden in the heavens and earth, and to Him all that exists shall return’.
▪ …

▪ ¹ʔamr ↗ʔamara.
▪ Zammit2002: Akk amāru ‘to see’, Ug ʔamr ‘saying, command; to be visible, to see’, Phoen ʔmr ‘to say’, Hbr ʔāmar ‘to utter, say’, lHbr maʔamär ‘word, command’, BiblAram ʔamar ‘to say, tell; command’, Syr ʔemar ‘to say, speak’, ʔamīrā ‘praefectus’, SAr ʔmr ‘to proclaim; command (of a god), oracle’, Gz ʔammara ‘monstrare, ostendere; notum facere; demonstrare’, Ar ʔmr ‘to command, order, enjoin’.
▪ DRS 1 (1994) #ʔMR‑ 1 Ar ʔamara ‘ordonner’; SAr ʔmr ‘ordonner, manifester’; Soq ʕemor, Śḥr ʕoñr, Mhr amor ‘dire’; EpigrAram ʔmr, JP ʔāmar, Syr ʔemar, Mand amar ‘dire, parler, ordonner’; Ya ʔmrh ‘ordre(?)’; Phoen Pun Moab EpigrHbr ʔmr, Hbr ʔāmar ‘dire’; Ug ʔamr ‘souhait, parole(?)’. – Akk amāru ‘voir, regarder’; Ug ʔamr ‘être visible, voir’; Ar taʔammala ‘examiner’; Gz ʔammara ‘montrer, indiquer’; təʔmərt ‘signe’; ʔəm(m)ur ‘clair, bien connu’; Tña ʔamära ‘savoir’; Te ʔammärä ‘être clair’; ʔamir ‘connaissance’; Amh ʔamro ‘raison, intelligence’; təmərt ‘signe, marque, science’. – Hbr ʔāmir ‘sommet d’arbre ou montagne’; tīmārā ‘colonne pilier’, Ar ʔamāraẗ ‘signe, indice, repère’, tāmūr(aẗ) ‘tour, tourelles’; ?Amh ʔamärä ‘être beau, plaisant, aimable’.
▪ …▪ …

▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ Jeffery 1938: »In the two senses (i) ‘command’ or ‘decree’, (ii) ‘matter’, ‘affair’, it is a genuine Ar word, and commonly used in the Qurʔān. – In its use in connection with the Qurʔānic doctrine of revelation, however, it would seem to represent the Aram מימרא (Rudolph, Abhängigkeit, 41; Horovitz, JPN, 188; Fischer, Glossar, Nachtrag to 86; Ahrens, Christliches, 26; Muḥammad, 134). The whole conception seems to have been strongly influenced by the Christian Logos doctrine,³⁷ though the word would seem to have arisen from the Targumic use of מימרא.«
▪ …

37. Grimme, System, 50 ff.

▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl emir; admiral ↗ʔamīr.

► ʔamr wāqiʕ, n., (accomplished) fact
► ʔamr maʕrūf, n., common knowledge
► fī ʔawwal al-ʔamr, adv., at first, in the beginning
► li-ʔamrⁱⁿ mā, adv., for some reason or other
► ʔa‑laysa ’l-ʔamr kaḏālik?, expr., isn’t it so?
► ʔammā wa-ʔamr kaḏālik, expr., things being as they are, there will, no doubt
► mahmā yakun min ʔamr, expr., whatever may happen; however things may be
► huwa bayna ʔamraynⁱ, expr., he has two possibilities (or alternatives)
► al-ʔamr allaḏī, rel.n., which (introducing a relative clause the antecedent of which is another clause)
► quḍiya ʔamruh, expr., it’s all over with him; in the latter and similar phrases, ʔamruh is a frequent paraphrase of ‘he’.

► ʔāmara, vb. III, to ask s.o.’s (DO) advice, consult (s.o.): L-stem, assoc., from ²ʔamr.
► taʔāmara, vb. VI, 1 to take counsel, deliberate together, confer, consult with each other; 2 to plot, conspire (ʕalà against): Lt-stem, recipr., from ²ʔamr (lit., *‘to take each other’s advice on an issue, ʔamr); [v2] seems to be a rather late development.
► ĭʔtamara, vb. VIII, 1 to deliberate, take counsel (bi‑ about); 2 to conspire, plot, hatch a plot (ʕalà against s.o.): Gt-stem, self-ref., from ²ʔamr (lit., *‘to ponder for o.s. over an issue, ʔamr) | ĭʔtamara bi-ʔamrih, vb. VIII, to carry out s.o.’s orders.

► ʔamāraẗ, pl. ‑āt, ʔamāʔirᵘ, n.f., sign, token, indication, symptom, mark, characteristic: exact semantic relation to ²ʔamr unclear.
► ^BP#2838muʔāmaraẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., 1 deliberation, counsel, conference; 2 plot, conspiracy: vn. III.
► taʔāmur, n., 1 joint consultation, counsel, deliberation, conference; 2 plot, conspiracy: vn. VI.
► ĭʔtimār, n., 1 deliberation, counsel, conference; 2 plot, conspiracy: vn. VIII.
► ĭstiʔmāraẗ (frequently written ĭstimāraẗ), n.f., form, blank: singulative of vn. X, from *‘(document/move) to ask for a decree, ¹ʔamr, or to look into a matter, ²ʔamr’ (?).
► mutaʔāmirūn, n.pl., conspirators, plotters: PA VI, pl.m.
► muʔtamirūn, n.pl., 1 conspirators, plotters; 2 members of a congress, convention, or conference, conferees: PA VIII, pl.m.
► ^BP#394muʔtamar, pl. ‑āt, n., conference; convention, congress: n.loc. VIII, lit., *‘place to consult each other’. | muʔtamar al-ṣulḥ, n., peace conference.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔamara, ↗ʔimmar, ↗ʔamāraẗ, ↗ʔamīr, ↗(ʔa)mīrī, ↗taʔmūr, ↗muʔāmaraẗ, ↗ĭstiʔmāraẗ, ↗muʔtamar, as well as, for the whole picture, ↗√ʔMR.

ʔimmar إمّر

√ʔMR

¹adj.; ²n.

1 simple-minded, stupid; 2 ^†ram, lamb – WehrCowan1976.

▪ Kogan2011: from protSem *ʔimmar‑ ‘ram’.
▪ In ClassAr, ʔimmar can also mean ‘ram, lamb’. For systematic reasons, DRS 1 (1994) diffentiates between this ʔimmar ‘ram, lamb’ (#ʔMR-3) and ʔimmar~ʔammar in the sense of ‘simple-minded, stupid’ (#ʔMR-4), although the latter »peut représenter un usage figuré du nom de l’‘agneau’«. In contrast, ClassAr lexicographers explain the meaning ‘simple-minded, stupid’ as *‘who consults everyone respecting his case, resembling a kid, one who obeys the command of everybody, complies with everyone’s desires’, thus deriving the value ‘simple-minded, stupid’ either from ¹ʔamr (*‘one who obeys the command, ʔamr, of everybody’, ↗ʔamara) or from ↗²ʔamr (*‘asking advice in all kinds of affairs, ʔumūr, sg. ²ʔamr’). In this view, ‘lamb’ tends to be seen as dependent on ‘simple-minded, stupid’ (»resembling a kid…«).
▪ However, none of the above options may reflect etymological reality. In fact, the reason why DRS keeps ‘ram, lamb’ and ‘simple-minded, stupid’ apart is that ʔimmar in the sense of ‘ram, lamb’ is believed to be a borrowing, via Aram ʔemmᵊrā~ʔimmᵊrā, from Akk ʔimmeru ‘lamb’. »According to a widespread opinion (cf., e.g., (cf. Zimmern1914: 50), the WSem forms are Akkadisms« (SED II #5). Scholars like Hommel (1879: 237) who hold that Ar ʔimmar ‘lamb’ is from Aram »emphasize[.] the late attestation of the Ar term« (SED II: 8). Indeed, while the value ‘simple-minded’ is attested already in pre-Islamic poetry, DHAL has, as of 30Oct2020, no evidence for ‘lamb’ yet, which means that the value is not attested in the period covered by DHAL so far, i.e., up to 750 CE.
▪ …

▪ ca. 525 (‘weak, simple-minded, having no opinion’) in a verse by Imruʔ al-Qays – DHAL.

▪ DRS 1 (1994) #ʔMR‑ 1 Ar ʔamara ‘ordonner’; SAr ʔmr ‘ordonner, manifester’; Soq ʕemor, Śḥr ʕoñr, Mhr amor ‘dire’; EpigrAram ʔmr, JP ʔāmar, Syr ʔemar, Mand amar ‘dire, parler, ordonner’; Ya ʔmrh ‘ordre(?)’; Phoen Pun Moab EpigrHbr ʔmr, Hbr ʔāmar ‘dire’; Ug ʔamr ‘souhait, parole(?)’. – Akk amāru ‘voir, regarder’; Ug ʔamr ‘être visible, voir’; Ar taʔammala ‘examiner’; Gz ʔammara ‘montrer, indiquer’; təʔmərt ‘signe’; ʔəm(m)ur ‘clair, bien connu’; Tña ʔamära ‘savoir’; Te ʔammärä ‘être clair’; ʔamir ‘connaissance’; Amh ʔamro ‘raison, intelligence’; təmərt ‘signe, marque, science’. – Hbr ʔāmir ‘sommet d’arbre ou montagne’; tīmārā ‘colonne pilier’, Ar ʔamāraẗ ‘signe, indice, repère’, tāmūr(aẗ) ‘tour, tourelles’; ?Amh ʔamärä ‘être beau, plaisant, aimable’. -2 […] -3 Akk immer‑, Ug ʔimr, Phoen Pun ʔmr, oAram EmpAram Palm *ʔmr, BiblAram ʔimmar, JP ʔimmᵊrā, Syr ʔemmᵊrā, Ar ʔimmar ‘chevreau, agneau’. -4 Soq *emer ‘être oisif’; (intensif conatif) ʔomir ‘gâter, rendre oisif’; ?Ar ʔimmar ‘sans jugement, stupide’. -5-15 […].
▪ …
▪ …

▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ Lipiński1997#30.10 thinks the word can be segmented into root plus ‎AfrAs “postpositive determinant” *‑l or *‑r “for domestic or tamed animals”, cf. also ʔayyil ‘deer’, baqar‑ ‘cattle’, ṯawr‑ ‘ox’, ǧamal ‘camel’, ḥimār‑ ‘donkey’, ḫinzīr ‘swine, pig’, ʕiǧl ‘calf’, ʕayr‑ ‘ass-fowl’, ^†karr‑ ‘lamb’, naml ‘ant’.

–

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔamara, ↗ʔamr, ↗ʔamāraẗ, ↗ʔamīr, ↗(ʔa)mīrī, ↗taʔmūr, ↗muʔāmaraẗ, ↗ĭstiʔmāraẗ, ↗muʔtamar, as well as, for the whole picture, ↗√ʔMR.

ʔamāraẗ أَمارة , pl. ‑āt, ʔamāʔirᵘ

√ʔMR

n.f.

sign, token, indication, symptom, mark, characteristic – WehrCowan1976.

▪ If semantics within the Sem root √ʔMR developed along the line sketched and discussed s.v.↗√ʔMR (section CONC), namely *(? Nostr *‘morning, daylight’ × *‘to burn (intr.); to shine, be bright; dawn’ >) Sem ‘to be visible, observable; fact, issue, matter, affair > to see, take notice of s.th. (that is visible or comes into sight, a fact, an issue, etc.) > to indicate, show, demonstrate, point to s.th. (a thing, matter, case, etc.) > to say > to command’, then Ar ʔamāraẗ ‘sign, token, mark, etc.’ and items with related meaning reflect one of the earliest stages of a long semantic history. To the same group seem to belong ʔamr ‘matter, affair, issue, etc.’ (↗²ʔamr) and ʔamr in the (probably borrowed) Qur’ānic sense of ‘revelation’ (³ʔamr – see below, section DISC).
▪ ….

▪ Cf. also the ClassAr ^†ʔamaraẗ or ʔamār(aẗ) ‘heap of stones set up in order that one may be directed thereby to the right way, sign, mark by which s.th. is known’ (Lane).
▪ …

▪ DRS 1 (1994) #ʔMR‑ 1 Ar ʔamara ‘ordonner’; SAr ʔmr ‘ordonner, manifester’; Soq ʕemor, Śḥr ʕoñr, Mhr amor ‘dire’; EpigrAram ʔmr, JP ʔāmar, Syr ʔemar, Mand amar ‘dire, parler, ordonner’; Ya ʔmrh ‘ordre(?)’; Phoen Pun Moab EpigrHbr ʔmr, Hbr ʔāmar ‘dire’; Ug ʔamr ‘souhait, parole(?)’. – Akk amāru ‘voir, regarder’; Ug ʔamr ‘être visible, voir’; Ar taʔammala ‘examiner’; Gz ʔammara ‘montrer, indiquer’; təʔmərt ‘signe’; ʔəm(m)ur ‘clair, bien connu’; Tña ʔamära ‘savoir’; Te ʔammärä ‘être clair’; ʔamir ‘connaissance’; Amh ʔamro ‘raison, intelligence’; təmərt ‘signe, marque, science’. – Hbr ʔāmir ‘sommet d’arbre ou montagne’; tīmārā ‘colonne pilier’, Ar ʔamāraẗ ‘signe, indice, repère’, tāmūr(aẗ) ‘tour, tourelles’; ?Amh ʔamärä ‘être beau, plaisant, aimable’. -2-4. -5 Ar ʔamira ‘être nombreux, abondant, croître’. -6-15 […].
▪ ↗ʔamara.
▪ …

▪ In an attempt to explain some values attached to Hbr ʔMR items, such as ʔāmîr ‘top, summit’ and tîmārāʰ ‘column’, Barth1902 took as evident and sufficiently proven that one has to assume a homonymous Sem root √ʔMR meaning *‘to be high’ alongside ʔMR ‘to see > say > command’ (1902: 5-6). He saw reflexes of this *‘to be high’ also in ^†ʔamaraẗ~ʔamār(aẗ) ‘(high) heap of stones’ as well as in ^†ʔamira ‘to be plentiful, many’ and ^†ʔimr ‘serious, painful, very difficult (affair)’ (cf. also BAH2008 ‘to afflict’). His theory comes close to others that derive Ar ^†tuʔmur ‘sign, mark’ from the root √TMR, particularly ↗tamr ‘date palm’, sharing with the latter the notion of ‘altitude’. (On Hbr tîmārāʰ ‘column’, DRS thinks it may be from ‘to be visible, to see’, but also adds: »Il n’est pas exclu cependant que nous ayons affaire à des racines différentes, v.s. TMR.«) Accordingly, also ↗ʔamīr, usually interpreted as *‘person who commands, gives orders’ (< ↗ʔamara ‘to command’) is thought by some to have developed from an original *‘person of high standing’, or *‘person excelling among the people, being more visible than others’. However, both ‘palm tree’ and ‘s.th. high’ are at the same time s.th. visible, observable from afar and/or attracting attention, so that *‘altitude’ and ‘palm tree’ are not really necessary to explain the semantic variety in this group.
▪ ʔamāraẗ seems to be akin to the obsol. ^†tuʔmūr ‘sign, mark, token (on the wayside)’ which Barth1894: 300 analyzed as formed after the nominal pattern taFʕūL, thought to be an extension formed on the basis of the “transitive infinitive [protSem *]qŭtûl”, exhibiting the same transitivity. He thinks Ar taʔmūr and (with vowel assimilation) tuʔmūr are derived from √ʔMR in the sense of ‘to know’, giving taʔmūr ‘knowledge, to get to know’ and tuʔmūr (‘recognition’ =) ‘sign, mark, token (on the wayside)’.
▪ The Qur’anic ʔamr meaning ‘revelation’ may belong together with ʔamāraẗ etc., either directly or as a borrowing from Aram, as suggested by Jeffery1938: »In the two senses (i) ‘command’ or ‘decree¬’ [↗ʔamara], (ii) ‘matter’, ‘affair’ [↗²ʔamr], it is a genuine Ar word, and commonly used in the Qurʔān. – In its use in connection with the Qurʔānic doctrine of revelation, however, it would seem to represent the Aram מימרא (Rudolph, Abhängigkeit, 41; Horovitz, JPN, 188; Fischer, Glossar, Nachtrag to 86; Ahrens, Christliches, 26; Muḥammad, 134). The whole conception seems to have been strongly influenced by the Christian Logos doctrine,³⁸ though the word would seem to have arisen from the Targumic use of מימרא.«)]
▪ To the same complex of ‘visibility’ and/or ‘pointing to, indicating s.th.’ belongs prob. also ↗taʔammala ‘to observe’, (with assumed sound shift *r > l) from *taʔammara ‘to take s.th. as an indicator\sign for o.s.’.
▪ …

38. Grimme, System, 50 ff.

–

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔamara, ↗ʔamr, ↗ʔimmar, ↗ʔamīr, ↗(ʔa)mīrī, ↗taʔmūr, ↗muʔāmaraẗ, ↗ĭstiʔmāraẗ, ↗muʔtamar, as well as, for the whole picture, ↗√ʔMR.

ʔamīr أَمير , pl. ʔumarāʔᵘ

√ʔMR

n.

1 commander; 2a prince, emir; 2b title of princes of a ruling house; 3 tribal chief – WehrCowan1976.

▪ quasi-PP, lit. *‘endowed with power, authority’, from ʔimraẗ or ¹ʔamr in the sense of ‘power, authority’, from ↗ʔamara ‘to order, command, bid, instruct, commission, charge, entrust’. – In ClassAr, the term is also attested in the meaning ‘person with whom one consults, one of whom one begs counsel, or advice, in a case of fear’ etc.; cf., e.g., the expr. huwa ʔamīrī ‘he is the person with whom I consult’. This usage suggests a derivation from ²matter, case, issue, etc. rather than from ‘power, authority’. – Barth1894 who assumed *‘to be high’ to be the basic meaning of the Sem √ʔMR would interpret ʔamīr as *‘high-ranking, person of high standing’. If this etymology should be true, ʔamīr would belong together with other ʔMR items expressing ‘highness, altitude’ and, hence, *‘visibility’, such as ↗ʔamāraẗ ‘sign, token, mark’ and perh. ^†tāmūr(aẗ) ‘(little) tower’.
▪ »Although in early Islam this […] title used to denote the head of the Muslim community [ʔamīr al-muʔminīn], it was downgraded over the ages, and during Ayyūbid and Mamlūk times was given to military officers, including low-ranking ones. Under the Ottomans, the term resumed its initial importance and [the corresponding nisba adj., ↗ʔamīrī, Tu ʔemīrī, short mīrī] was singled out to designate assets that belong of right to the highest Muslim authority, the Sultan« – A. Cohen, »Mīrī«, in EI².
▪ …

▪ …
▪ See also above, section CONC.
▪ …

▪ Depending on which of the etymologies mentioned above, section CONC, is correct, cognates will be those listed s.v. ↗ʔamara ‘to order, command, etc.’, or ²ʔamr ‘matter, case, issue, etc., or ↗ʔamāraẗ ‘sign, token, mark’.
▪ ↗….
▪ …

▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ …

▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl emir; admiral, from Ar ʔamīr ‘commander, prince’, and ʔamīr al-... ‘commander of the ...’ (as in ʔamīr al-baḥr ‘commander of the sea’), from ↗ʔamara ‘to command, order’.

► ʔamīr ʔalāy, n., commander of a regiment (formerly, Eg.; approx.: colonel; as a naval rank, approx.: captain)
► ʔamīr al-ʔumarāʔ, n., approx.: major general (Tun.)
► ʔamīr al-biḥār, n., (Eg. 1939) approx.: admiral
► kabīr ʔumarāʔ al-biḥār, n., (Eg. 1939) approx.: fleet admiral
► ʔamīr al-baḥr, n., admiral (when referring to a non‑Arab officer of this rank; Eg. 1939 approx.: vice‑admiral)
► ʔamīr al-biḥār al-ʔaʕẓam, n., fleet admiral (when referring to a non‑Arab officer of this rank)
► ʔamīr al-liwāʔ, n., (Ir., since 1933) brigadier
► ʔamīr liwāʔ al-ʕassaẗ, n., commandant of the Bey’s palace guard (formerly, Tun.)
► ʔamīr al-muʔminīn, n., Commander of the Faithful, Caliph.

► ʔamara, ʔamura, u (ʔimāraẗ), vb. I, to become an emir: prob. denom. from ʔamīr.
► ʔammara, vb. II, to invest with authority, make an emir (s.o., ʕalà over): D-stem, denom. from ʔamīr.
► taʔammara, vb. V, 1 to come to power; 2a to set o.s. up as lord and master; 2b to behave like an emir; 2c to assume an imperious attitude; 2d to be imperious, domineering: Dt-stem, intr., from ¹ʔamr in the sense of ‘power, authority’.

► ^BP#810ʔimāraẗ, n.f., 1 position or rank of an emir; 2 princely bearing or manners; 3 principality, emirate; 4 authority, power: vn. I of ʔamura, from ʔamīr, from ¹ʔamr in the sense of ‘power, authority’ | ʔimāraẗ al-baḥr, n.f., office or jurisdiction of an admiral, admiralty; ʔimārāt sāḥil ʕUmān, n.pl.f., Trucial Oman.
► ʔamīraẗ, pl. ‑āt, n.f., princess: f. of ʔamīr.
► ʔamīrī (and mīrī), adj., government(al), state‑owned, state, public: nisba formation from ʔamīr in the sense of *‘holder of power, authority’. | ʔarḍ ʔamīrī, n., government land (Syr.); al-maṭbaʕaẗ al-ʔamīriyyaẗ, n.f., government press.
► taʔammur, n., 1a imperiousness, domineeringness; 1b imperious deportment, overbearing manners: vn. V.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔamara, ↗ʔamr, ↗ʔimmar, ↗ʔamāraẗ, ↗(ʔa)mīrī, ↗taʔmūr, ↗muʔāmaraẗ, ↗ĭstiʔmāraẗ, ↗muʔtamar, as well as, for the whole picture, ↗√ʔMR.

ʔamīrī أَميريّ , var. mīrī

√ʔMR

adj.

government(al), state‑owned, state, public – WehrCowan1976.

▪ Nisba formation from ↗ʔamīr in the sense of *‘holder of power, authority’.
▪ The shortened form, mīrī, seems to go back to Ottoman times when the term ↗ʔamīr resumed its initial importance and ʔamīrī, Tu (ʔe)mīrī, »was singled out to designate assets that belong of right to the highest Muslim authority, the Sultan. Throughout Ottoman history, it was used as a noun meaning ‘lands belonging to the government’, ‘land tax’ levied from them, as well as ‘the public treasury’. […] Muslim jurisprudence drew a distinction between privately-owned lands, mulk (either ʕušr or ḫarāǧ land, possessed by Muslims or by non-believers, respectively) and state property, ʔarḍ al-mamlakaẗ. In earlier years, the latter was designated by several names (e.g. ḫāṣṣ), and it was only under the Ottomans that it assumed the name mīrī. […] Upon the conquest of a given area by the Ottomans its agricultural lands, the most promising source of income, were declared mīrī« – A. Cohen, »Mīrī«, in EI².

▪ ↗ʔamīr.
▪ …

▪ ↗ʔamīr.
▪ See also above, section CONC.

▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ …

–

► ʔarḍ ʔamīrī, n., government land (Syr.)
► al‑maṭbaʕaẗ al‑ʔamīriyyaẗ, n.f., government press.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔamara, ↗ʔamr, ↗ʔimmar, ↗ʔamāraẗ, ↗ʔamīr, ↗taʔmūr, ↗muʔāmaraẗ, ↗ĭstiʔmāraẗ, ↗muʔtamar, as well as, for the whole picture, ↗√ʔMR.

taʔmūr تَأْمور

√ʔMR

n.

1 soul, mind, spirit; 2 pericardium (anat.) – WehrCowan1976.

▪ ClassAr dictionaries list several lexical items not only of the type taFʕūL, but also the f. taFʕūLaẗ as well as a variant with short u (taFʕuL(aẗ)) and or another with u also in the prefix (tuFʕuL(aẗ)). DRS classifies the lexeme that seems to correspond to the lemma of the present entry, taʔmūr(aẗ) ‘blood, heart’, as a value in its own right (#ʔMR-10), while tāmūr(aẗ) (~taʔmūr(aẗ)) ‘tower, little towers’ is grouped, together with ʔamāraẗ ‘signe, indice, repère’ and Hbr ʔāmir ‘tree or mountain top’ and tīmārā ‘column, pillar’ as the closest relatives, under the overarching #ʔMR-1, thus as belonging to the complex ‘to be visible > to take notice of, become aware of, observe > to see > to say > to command’ (the inner development of which is treated in root entry ↗√ʔMR).
▪ Unlike DRS where taʔmūr(aẗ) ‘sang, cœur’ remains without any relatives, neither in Ar nor outside, ClassAr lexica regard taʔmūr ‘soul, spirit’ as dependent on ↗ʔamara ‘to command’, »because it is that which is wont to command« (Lane i 1863). From ‘soul’ then also values like ‘intellect’ and ‘heart’ (as the *‘seat of the soul’), hence also ‘pericardium’ are derived. In a further step, taʔmūr(aẗ) may occasionally also signify, figuratively, the “soul” of s.th., i.e., its ‘essence’, its ‘life-blood’, which sometimes may turn out be ‘wine’, ‘water’, the ‘vizier (of a king)’, or the “heart” of a monastry, or a community of believers, hence the meaning ^†‘convent of monks’. Furthermore, if taʔmūr is used synecdochically, it can come to mean anybody having a ‘soul’, i.e., ‘man (in general), human being, anyone’ (also expressed by nisba formations such as ^†taʔmurī~taʔmūrī~tuʔmurī.
…

▪ …

▪ DRS 1 (1994) #ʔMR‑ 1 Ar ʔamara ‘ordonner’; SAr ʔmr ‘ordonner, manifester’; Soq ʕemor, Śḥr ʕoñr, Mhr amor ‘dire’; EpigrAram ʔmr, JP ʔāmar, Syr ʔemar, Mand amar ‘dire, parler, ordonner’; Ya ʔmrh ‘ordre(?)’; Phoen Pun Moab EpigrHbr ʔmr, Hbr ʔāmar ‘dire’; Ug ʔamr ‘souhait, parole(?)’. – Akk amāru ‘voir, regarder’; Ug ʔamr ‘être visible, voir’; Ar taʔammala ‘examiner’; Gz ʔammara ‘montrer, indiquer’; təʔmərt ‘signe’; ʔəm(m)ur ‘clair, bien connu’; Tña ʔamära ‘savoir’; Te ʔammärä ‘être clair’; ʔamir ‘connaissance’; Amh ʔamro ‘raison, intelligence’; təmərt ‘signe, marque, science’. – Hbr ʔāmir ‘sommet d’arbre ou montagne’; tīmārā ‘colonne pilier’, Ar ʔamāraẗ ‘signe, indice, repère’, tāmūr(aẗ) ‘tour, tourelles’; ?Amh ʔamärä ‘être beau, plaisant, aimable’. -2-9 […]. -10 Ar taʔmūr(aẗ) ‘sang, cœur’.
▪ …
▪ …

▪ ClassAr ^†taʔmurī~^†taʔmūrī~^†tuʔmurī ‘man’ is a nisba formed from taʔmur~taʔmūr~tuʔmur in the sense of ‘soul, spirit, mind’. Thus, ‘man’ is *‘the animate one, the one with a soul\spirit\mind’.
▪ In ClassAr ^†taʔmūr also appears as a variant of ^†yaʔmūr, which in its turn seems to be a modification of ↗yaḥmūr ‘small beast, kind of mountain-goat, having a single branching horn in the middle of his head, roebuck’ (grouped under ↗√ḤMR).

–

► ĭltihāb al-taʔmūr, n., pericarditis (med.).

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔamara, ↗ʔamr, ↗ʔimmar, ↗ʔamāraẗ, ↗ʔamīr, ↗(ʔa)mīrī, ↗muʔāmaraẗ, ↗ĭstiʔmāraẗ, ↗muʔtamar, as well as, for the whole picture, ↗√ʔMR.

muʔāmaraẗ مُؤامَرَة , pl. ‑āt

√ʔMR

n.f.

1 deliberation, counsel, conference; 2 plot, conspiracy – WehrCowan1976.

▪ vn. III, from ʔāmara ‘to ask s.o.’s (DO) advice, consult (s.o.)’, L-stem, associative, from ↗²ʔamr ‘matter, issue, affair’, lit., *‘to turn to s.o. to consult him/her on an issue (²ʔamr)’.
▪ [v2] seems to be a rather late development, shared also by some items of form VIII (see ↗muʔtamar).
▪ Monteil1960: 214 mentions muʔāmaraẗ ʻconspiracy, plot’ among the »mots-clefs« of the modern period.
▪ According to Høigilt2024, the term muʔāmaraẗ »appears and rises to prominence in the late nineteenth century in the emerging Arabic-speaking public sphere. The term was probably coined in response to influence from European public discourse at the same time, which included conspiracy theories. Unlike that European discourse and today's Arabic conspiracy talk, the early usage of muʔāmara had little to do with either conspiracy theories or religion. The word was used in a more sober way than in Europe.«
▪…

▪ First attested as vn. (‘to consult, consulting, consultation’) in a letter (quoted in Bayhaqī’s Sunan) attributed to ʕUmar b. al-Ḫaṭṭāb; tentatively dated 644 CE by DHDA.
▪ First attestation as n. (‘s.th. that has been negociated and been agreed upon’, esp. a due payment) is dated c. 815 CE by DHDA (source: al-Iṣfahānī, K. al-Aġānī).
▪ ClassAr dictionaries do not give the value ‘conspiracy’ yet. The first attestation I was able to find for this value is in Bocthor’s Fr-Ar dictionary (Bocthor1828) where Fr conspiration is first explained as ‘entreprise secrète de plusieurs’, then translated as muʔāmaraẗ, ĭttifāq nās ʕalà šarr. But even here, the words muʔāmaraẗ and ĭttifāq alone do not seem to have a negative connotation yet, they simply mean ‘agreement, mutual consultation’; in order to signify conspiracy, the addition ʕalà šarr ‘on s.th. bad, on an evil action’ is needed. None of the dictionaries of the 19th and early 20th century list the value ‘conspiracy’.
▪ …

▪ ↗²ʔamr.
▪ …

▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ …

–

► ʔāmara, vb. III, to ask s.o.’s (DO) advice, consult (s.o.): L-stem, assoc., from ²ʔamr.
► taʔāmara, vb. VI, 1 to take counsel, deliberate together, confer, consult with each other; 2 to plot, conspire (ʕalà against): Lt-stem, recipr., from ²ʔamr (lit., *‘to take each other’s advice on an issue, ʔamr); [v2] seems to be a rather late development.
► ĭʔtamara, vb. VIII, 1 to deliberate, take counsel (bi‑ about); 2 to conspire, plot, hatch a plot (ʕalà against s.o.): Gt-stem, self-ref., from ²ʔamr (lit., *‘to ponder for o.s. over an issue, ʔamr) | ĭʔtamara bi-ʔamrih, vb. VIII, to carry out s.o.’s orders.

► taʔāmur, n., 1 joint consultation, counsel, deliberation, conference; 2 plot, conspiracy: vn. VI.
► mutaʔāmirūn, n.pl., conspirators, plotters: PA VI, pl.m.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔamara, ↗ʔamr, ↗ʔimmar, ↗ʔamāraẗ, ↗ʔamīr, ↗(ʔa)mīrī, ↗taʔmūr, ↗ĭstiʔmāraẗ, ↗muʔtamar, as well as, for the whole picture, ↗√ʔMR.

ĭstiʔmāraẗ اِسْتِئْمارة , frequently written اِسْتِمارة , pl. ‑āt

√ʔMR

n.f.

form, blank – WehrCowan1976.

▪ singulative of vn. X, desiderative, lit. either *‘document filled in / move made to ask for a decree, ¹ʔamr’ (↗ʔamara), or *‘document filled in / move made to look into a matter, ↗²ʔamr’ (?).
▪ BadawiHinds1986 groups ĭstimāraẗ under ¹ʔamr.

▪ …

▪ ↗¹ʔamr, ↗²ʔamr.
▪ …

▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ …

–

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔamara, ↗ʔamr, ↗ʔimmar, ↗ʔamāraẗ, ↗ʔamīr, ↗(ʔa)mīrī, ↗taʔmūr, ↗muʔāmaraẗ, ↗muʔtamar, as well as, for the whole picture, ↗√ʔMR.

muʔtamar مُؤْتَمَر , pl. ‑āt

√ʔMR

n.

conference; convention, congress – WehrCowan1976.

▪ n.loc. VIII, lit., *‘place to consult each other’, from ĭʔtamara, vb. VIII, ‘to deliberate, take counsel’, Gt-stem, self-referential, lit., *‘to ponder (for o.s.) over an issue’, from ↗²ʔamr ‘matter, affair, issue, concern, business’.
▪ Some of the lexemes belonging to form VIII have, like those of form III (see ↗muʔāmaraẗ), developed the sense of ‘to conspire’. This is not the case for muʔtamar itself, but for most of the other form VIII lexemes (ĭʔtamara, ĭʔtimār, muʔtamirūn – see below, section DERIV).
▪ …

▪ …

▪ ↗²ʔamr.
▪ …

▪ The underlying vb. VIII, ĭʔtamara, is attested in ClassAr not only with the meaning ‘to consult s.o. (on an affair, case, issue)’, but also in the more original, self-referential sense of the Gt-stem, ‘to consult one’s own mind, form one’s own opinion, follow one’s own judgment’. This value may be derived either from ¹ʔamr ‘command, order’ (*‘to let o.s. be guided by one’s own commands’) or ²ʔamr ‘issue, affair’ (*‘to look o.s. into a matter, case’).
▪ …

–

► muʔtamar al-ṣulḥ, n., peace conference.

► ĭʔtamara, vb. VIII, 1 to deliberate, take counsel (bi‑ about); 2 to conspire, plot, hatch a plot (ʕalà against s.o.): Gt-stem, self-ref., from ²ʔamr (lit., *‘to ponder for o.s. over an issue, ʔamr) | ĭʔtamara bi-ʔamrih, vb. VIII, to carry out s.o.’s orders.

► ĭʔtimār, n., 1 deliberation, counsel, conference; 2 plot, conspiracy: vn. VIII.
► muʔtamirūn, n.pl., 1 conspirators, plotters; 2 members of a congress, convention, or conference, conferees: PA VIII, pl.m.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔamara, ↗ʔamr, ↗ʔimmar, ↗ʔamāraẗ, ↗ʔamīr, ↗(ʔa)mīrī, ↗taʔmūr, ↗muʔāmaraẗ, ↗ĭstiʔmāraẗ, as well as, for the whole picture, ↗√ʔMR.

ʔML أمل

√ʔML

“root”

▪ ʔML_1 ‘to hope’ ↗ʔamala
▪ ʔML_2 ‘to look attentively, regard, contemplate, meditate, ponder’ ↗taʔammala
▪ ʔML_3 ‘…’ ↗….

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘very long and broad distinct sand dune; to ascertain, to discriminate; to mull over; to hope, expectations’

▪ ʔML_1 : …
▪ ʔML_2 : from ↗²ʔamr or an item akin to ↗ʔamāraẗ.
▪ ʔML_3 : …

–

▪ DRS 1 (1994) #ʔML-1 Hbr ʔumlal ‘se faner (plante), se déssécher (huile)’. -2 Ar ʔamala ‘espérer’. -3 taʔammala ‘examiner’. -4 ʔamīl ‘dunes de sable’. -5 Syr ʔāmelā ‘manteau, tapis’. -6 Soq ʔamal ‘courge’. -7 Akk amal-: sorte de pin.
▪ …
▪ …

▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ …

…

–

ʔamal‑ أَمَلَ , u (ʔamal)

√ʔML

vb., I

to hope (DO or bi for), entertain hopes (of) – WehrCowan1976.

▪ Perh. denom. from the n. ʔamal ‘hope’.
▪ The vb. V, ↗taʔammala ‘to look attentively, observe, regard, contemplate, ponder, reflect’, is usually not derived from ʔamala ‘to hope’, but from ↗²ʔamr (*‘to observe an issue, a fact’) and/or ↗ʔamāraẗ (*‘to let o.s. be guided by a sign, a token, an indicator of s.th.’).
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▪ eC7 (hope, desire, expectation) Q 15:3 ḏar-hum yaʔkulū wa-yatamattaʕū wa-yulhi-himu ’l-ʔamalu fa-sawfa yaʕlamūna ‘Let them eat and enjoy life, and let (false) hope beguile them. They will come to know!’
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▪ …

▪ No direct cognates outside Ar.
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▪ See above, section CONC.
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…

► ʔammala, vb. II, 1a to hope; b to expect (s.th. min of s.o.): D-stem, ints., denom. from ʔamal. 2 to raise hopes (DO in s.o.), hold out hopes (for s.o.), give (s.o.) reason to hope or expect: D-stem, caus. of I. | ʔammalahū ḫayr^an, vb. II, to let s.o. hope for the best.
► ^BP#3097taʔammala, vb. V, ↗s.v.

► ^BP#648ʔamal, pl. ʔāmāl, n., hope, expectation (fī of s.th., also bi‑): vn. I, perh. the etymon proper from which vb. I is denom. | ʔamal kāḏib, n., fallacious hope.
► maʔmal, pl. maʔāmilᵘ, n., hope: n.loc., *‘place/object/aim to direct one’s hoping to, to put one’s hope in’.
► ^BP#4394taʔammul, pl. ‑āt, n., ↗taʔammala.
► ʔāmil, adj., hopeful: PA I.
► muʔammil, adj., hopeful: PA II.
► maʔmūl, adj., hoped for, expected: PP I.
► mutaʔammil, adj., ↗taʔammala.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗taʔammala, as well as, for the whole picture, ↗√ʔMR and ↗√ʔML.

taʔammal‑ تَأَمَّلَ (taʔammul)

√ʔML

vb., V

1 to look attentively (DO, fī at), regard, contemplate; 2a to meditate; b to consider, think over, ponder, reflect (DO, fī s.th.) – WehrCowan1976.

▪ vn. V, but prob. not from √ʔML, but from ʔMR, with assumed sound shift *r > l.⁵ . Thus, it may originally have been *taʔammara and meant s.th. like *‘to take notice of s.th., take s.th. as an indicator\sign for o.s.’, so that the word would be akin to ʔMR items that either express the visibility (=observability) and, hence, evident existence of facts, issues, cases, etc. (↗²ʔamr) or underline the deictic character of s.th. visible (↗ʔamāraẗ).
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5. Moscati1946: 116, reporting and confirming an idea put forward earlier by C. Brockelmann, Grundriss, I: 221, and J. Barth, “Verschiebung der Liquidae im Assyrischen”, ZA 3 (1888): 57-61, 60.

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▪ ↗²ʔamr, ↗²ʔamāraẗ.
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▪ See above, section CONC.
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…

►^BP#4394taʔammul, pl. ‑āt, n., 1 consideration; 2 contemplation; pl. taʔammulāt, meditations: vn. V.
►mutaʔammil, adj., 1a contemplative, meditative, reflective; b pensive, wistful, musing: PA V.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔamala, as well as, for the whole picture, ↗√ʔML and ↗√ʔMR.

ʔMN

√ʔMN

“root”

▪ ʔMN_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʔMN_2 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be safe, to be secure; guard, keeper; trust, to be trusted; belief, faith, to believe’

▪ From WSem *√ʔMN ‘to be firm, confirmed, reliable, faithful, have faith, believe’ – Huehnergard2011.

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▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl amen, from Hbr ʔāmēn ‘truly, certainly’; Mammon, from Aram māmonā, prob. from Mishnaic Hbr māmôn, prob. from earlier *maʔmōn (‘security, deposit’); both from Hbr ʔāman ‘to be firm’, cognate of Ar ↗ʔamina.

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ʔāman‑ آمَنَ

√ʔMN

vb., IV

to believe (bi‑ in) – WehrCowan1979.

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▪ Jeffery1938: »The primitive verb ʔamina with its derivatives is pure Arabic. Form IV, however, ʔāmana with its derivatives, muʔmin ‘believer’ and ʔīmān ‘believing, faith’, is a technical religious term which seems to have been borrowed from the older faiths, and intended to represent the Aram Syr hêmīn, [Gz] ʔamna.³⁹ The word actually borrowed would seem to have been the participle muʔmin from [Gz] māʔəmən.⁴⁰ / In 59:23, muʔmin meaning ‘faithful’, and in 59:9, ʔīmān meaning ‘certainty’, may be genuine Arabic (see Fischer, Glossar, 9a).«
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39. These Aram forms themselves, of course, are borrowed from the Hbr häʔä̆mîn (but see Lagarde, Übersicht, 121. 40. See Horovitz, KU, 55; JPN, 191; Fischer, Glossar, Neue Nachlasse to 9a.

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►

ʔamn أَمْن

√ʔMN

n.

1 safety; 2 peace, security, protection – WehrCowan1979.

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–

►

ʔīmān إِيمان

√ʔMN

n.

faith, belief (bi‑ in) – WehrCowan1979.

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▪ …
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▪ See also Jeffery1938 in entry ↗ʔāmana, section DISC.
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►

muʔmin مُؤْمِن

√ʔMN

n.

1a adj., believing, faithful; b n., believer – WehrCowan1979.

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▪ See also Jeffery1938 in entry ↗ʔāmana, section DISC.
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►

ʔNː (ʔNN)

√ʔNː (ʔNN)

“root”

▪ ʔNː (ʔNN)_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʔNː (ʔNN)_2 ‘…’ ↗…

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ʔann‑ / ʔanan‑ أَنَّ

√ʔNː (ʔNN)

vb., I

to groan, moan (min at) – WehrCowan1979.

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►

ʔanā أنا

√ʔNā

pron.1sg.

I – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Kogan2015 (Sw#42): from protSem *ʔanā(ku) ‘I’ (CDG 26). Passim except for modSAr.
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…

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►ʔanānī, adj., egotistic; egoistic(al), selfish
►ʔanāniyyaẗ, n.f., egoism, selfishness

ʔNBR أنبر

√ʔNBR

“root”

▪ ʔNBR_1 ‘warehouse, storehouse, storeroom’ ↗ʔanbār ; cf. also ↗ʕanbar
▪ ʔNBR_2 ‘…’ ↗…

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…

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ʔanbār أَنْبار , pl. ʔanābirᵘ , ʔanābīrᵘ , var. ʕanbar عَنْبَر , pl. ʕanābirᵘ

√ʔNBR

n.

warehouse, storehouse, storeroom – WehrCowan1979.

▪ From mPers hanbārak ‘id.’, akin to Skr sambhāra ‘collecte, accumulation de nourriture’ < IE *sem- ‘un, même, ensemble’ + *bʰer- ‘porter’ – Rolland2014a.
▪ Var. ↗ʕanbar_2, according to Rolland2014a »un bon exemple de la parenté—sonore et écrite—entre la hamza et le ʕayn, et de la possibilité pour l’un de se substituer à l’autre, notamment dans les emprunts.«

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–

…

▪ Tu ambar: 1330 ʕĀşıḳ Paşa, Ġarīb-nāme : kīler ü çārtāk ü ambārlar dolar. Loaned from Pers anbār ‘storeroom, magazine’ < mPers hanbārak ‘id.’, etc. (as Ar ʕanbar, see above, section CONC) – Nişanyan16Apr2015.

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ʔNṮ أنث

√ʔNṮ

“root”

▪ ʔNṮ_1 ‘feminine female’ ↗ʔunṯà
▪ ʔNṮ_2 ‘testicles’ ↗al- ʔunṯayānⁱ
▪ ʔNṮ_3 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘female; to be soft, to be lenient, to be accommodating’

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ʔunṯà أُنْثَى , pl. ʔināṯ, ʔanāṯà

√ʔNṮ

adj./n.f.

feminine; female; a female (of animals) – WehrCowan1976.

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▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘woman, female’) Akk aššatu ‘wife’, Hbr ʔiššā, Syr ʔattā, Gz ʔanést.

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►ʔanuṯa, u (ʔunūṯaẗ), vb. I, to be or become feminine, womanly, womanish, effeminate: denom.?
►ʔannaṯa, vb. II, to make feminine; to effeminate, make effeminate; to put into the feminine form (gram. ): D-stem, caus., denom.
►taʔannaṯa, vb. V, to become feminine (also gram. ): Dt-stem, intr.

►ʔunṯawī, adj., womanly, female, women’s (in compounds); effeminate, womanish: nisba formation.
► C ʔunūṯaẗ, n.f., feminitity, womanliness: vn. I; for the concept see also ↗s.v.
►taʔnīṯ, n., the feminine, feminine form (gram. ): orig. vn. II.
►muʔannaṯ, adj., (gram. ) feminine (adj.): orig. PP II.

al-ʔunṯayānⁱ الأُنْثَيانِ

√ʔNṮ

n.f.du.

the testicles – WehrCowan1976.

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ʔNǦL أنجل

√ʔNǦL

“root”

▪ ʔNǦL_1 (properly, NǦL) ‘large-eyed, wide (eye), gaping (wound)’ ↗ʔanǧalᵘ
▪ ʔNǦL_2 (ʔNGL) ‘anglification’ ↗ʔangalaẗ
▪ ʔNǦL_3 (ʔNǦīL) ‘gospel’ ↗ʔinǧīl
▪ ʔNǦL_4 (ʔNGūLā) ‘Angola’ ↗ʔanġōlā

4 different "roots", see s.v.

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ʔangalaẗ أنْجلة (Eg spelling)

√ʔNǦL

n.f.

anglicization – WehrCowan1979

vn. I, from vb. ʔangala, vb. I, ‘to anglify’, neologism formed after regular pattern for 4-rad. vb.s (FaʕLaLaẗ) from a hypothetical ↗√ʔNǦL/ʔNGL.

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…

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► taʔangala (Eg spelling), vb. II, to become English of anglicized; to take on English manners, imitate the English

ʔinǧīl إنْجيل , pl. ʔanāǧīlᵘ

√ʔNǦL

n.

gospel – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Probably via Gz wangēl from Grk εὐαγγέλιον.

▪ first attested 426 CE in a verse attributed to al-Ḥāriṯ b. Kaʕb al-Maḏḥiǧī – HDAL (1Jun2020)
▪ Jeffrey1938: »It is used [in the Q] always of the Christian revelation, is particularly associated with Jesus, and occurs only in Madinan passages.³ «

3. vii:156 is perhaps an exception, but though the Sūra is given as late Meccan, this verse seems to be Madinan.

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▪ Jeffery1938: »Some of the early authorities tried to find an Arabic origin for it, making it a form ʔifʕīl from √NǦL, but this theory is rejected with some contempt by the commentators Zam. and Bayḍ. both on general grounds, and because of al-Ḥasan’s reading ʔanǧīl, which clearly is not an Arabic form. So also the Lexicons LA, xiv, 171; TA, viii, 128; and al-Jawālīqī, 17 (al-Khafāǧī, 11), give it as a foreign word derived from either Hbr or Syr (cf. Ibn al-Athīr, Nihāya, iv, 136). / Obviously it is the Grk ἐυαγγέλιον euangélion, and both Marracci⁴¹ and Fraenkel⁴² have thought that it came directly into Ar from the Grk. The probabilities, however, are that it came into Ar through one of the other Sem tongues. The Hbr origin suggested by some is too remote. […] The suggestion of a Syr source is much more hopeful. It is true that ʔwnglywn is only a transliteration of the Grk εὐαγγέλιον, but it was as commonly used as the pure Syr sbartā [‘good tidings, gospel’] and may be assumed to have been in common use among the Christians with whom Muḥammad may have been in contact. Nöldeke has pointed out, however, that the Manichaean forms ʔnglywn of Persian origin,⁴³ and anglion of Turkish origin,⁴⁴ still have the Grk ‑ion ending, and had the Arabic, like these, been derived from the Syr we might have expected it also to preserve the final n. The shortened form, he points out (Neue Beiträge, 47), is to be found in the Eth [Gz] wangēl, where the long vowel is almost conclusive evidence of the Ar word having come from Abyssinia.⁴⁵ Grimme, ZA, xxvi, 164, suggests that it may have entered Ar from the Sab, but we have no inscriptional evidence to support this. It is possible that the word was current in this form in pre-Islamic days, though as Horovitz, KU, 71, points out, there is some doubt of the authenticity of the verses in which it is found.⁴⁶ «

41. Prodromus, i, 5, “corrupta Graeca voce.” 42. Vocab., 24. 43. Vullers, Lex, i, 136; Salemann, Manichaeische Studien, i, 50; BQ, 88, which latter knows that it is the name of the book of Jesus and the book of Mani […]. It is curious that Bagh. on iii, 2, gives ʔnqlyqn as an attempt to represent the Syr original. 44. In the phrase uluγ anglion bilig, cf. Le Coq, SBAW, Berlin, 1909, p. 1204. 45. Cf. Fischer, Islamica, i, 372, n. 5. 46. Cf. Cheikho, Naṣrāniyya, 185.

▪ Not from Ar ʔinǧīl, but ultimately from the same source is Engl evangel (mC14) ‘the gospel’, from oFr evangile, from Church Lat evangelium, from Grk ἐυαγγέλιον euangélion – EtymOnline. – Cf. also the derivatives: evangel|ical, ‑ist(ic), ‑ism, ‑ize, ‑ization, Evangeline (n.pr.), and similar words in other Eur langs.

► (LevAr) šilš il‑ʔinǧīl, n., couch-grass: dialectal (Christian) re-interpretation of ↗naǧīl?

► ʔinǧīlī, adj., evangelical; n., evangelist: nisba formation.
► ʔinǧīliyyaẗ, n.f., evangelical creed: abstract formation in ‑iyyaẗ.
► mangaliyyaẗ (EgAr), n.f., church lectern: n.loc. prefix ma‑, nisba f. (for instruments, tools, etc.).

ʔNS أنس

√ʔNS

“root”

▪ ʔNS_1 ‘people, folk’ ↗ʔunās
▪ ʔNS_2 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʔNS_3 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘humans, people; tamed animals, to tame; affable, friendly, intimate friend, to be sociable; to detect, to perceive, to come to know, to gather information, to seek gently’

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…

ʔunās, nās أُناس ، ناس

√ʔNS

n.coll.

men, people, folks – WehrCowan1976.

▪ The two Arabic words ʔunās and nās which Bergsträsser groups as one item, not differentiating between the forms with initial ʔ˅‑ and those without, may have different origins. Orel&Stolbova1994 hold such forms apart and trace them back to two separate, though related and synonymous origins: protSem *ʔin(a)š‑ < AfrAs *ʔi‑nas‑, and protSem *niš‑ < AfrAs *nüs‑ ‘man’, respectively. (At the same time, they think that AfrAs *ʔi‑nas‑ is derived from AfrAs *nüs‑.)
▪ See also ↗√ʔNS ‘to be sociable, nice, friendly’.

▪ …

▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘human beings, people’) Akk (nīšū), Hbr ʔĕnōš, Syr nāšā, SAr ʔnś.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#108: Hbr ʔenōš, Syr (ʔ)naš, Ar ʔins‑, SAr ʔns, Jib ʔɛnsi. – Outside Sem: (Berb) Ahg a‑ynəs ‘young man’; Agaw amš‑ən ‘in‑law’.

▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#108: The Sem words (Hbr ʔenōš, Syr (ʔ)naš, Ar ʔins‑, SAr ʔns, Jib ʔɛnsi ) go back to a common ancestor, protSem *ʔin(a)š‑ ‘man’. This having COGNates in Ahg a‑ynəs ‘young man’ (< Berb *ʔin˅s‑ ) and Agaw (amš‑ən ‘in‑law’, < protAgaw *ʔan˅š‑ ), the words could go back to AfrAs *ʔi‑nas‑ ‘man’. The authors suggest, however, that this is in turn derived from AfrAs *nüs‑ ‘man’.

…

ʔinsāniyyaẗ إِنْسانِيّة

√ʔNS

n.f.

.

▪ …abstr. formation in -iyyaẗ

.

ʔNF أنف

√ʔNF

“root”

▪ ʔNF_1 ‘nose’ ↗ʔanf
▪ ʔNF_2 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘nose; tip; foremost; chief; to begin, to go first; to go by; to disdain, to be angry’

▪ ʔNF_1 : (Kogan2015 Sw#61:) from protSem *ʔanp‑ ‘nose’ Preserved in Akk appu, Hbr ʔap, Ar ʔanf, Gz ʔanf and most of modEthSem.
▪ ʔNF_2 : …
▪ ʔNF_3 : …

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▪ ʔNF_1 : Outside Sem, Borg2021 #15 compares Eg nfj (LE) ‘ausatmen, hauchen’; nf ‘Hauch des Mundes, Wind’; nft ‘breath, wind’; nfyt ‘fan’; nfꜣ ‘blow’; m ‘(out of) nose’ (Wb II 250; Faulkner 1962: 131).
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ʔanf أَنْف

√ʔNF

n.

1 nose; 2 spur (of a mountain); 3 pride – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Kogan2015 (Sw#61): from protSem *ʔanp‑ ‘nose’. Preserved in Akk, Hbr, Ar, Gz and most of modEthSem.
▪ Cf. also ↗nuḫraẗ ‘nostril’ (with EgAr manāḫīr ‘nose’, lit. ‘nostrils’, pl. of minḫār).
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▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘nose’) Akk appu, Hbr ʔap̄, Syr ʔappayyā, Gz ʔaf.
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►

ʔNY أني

√ʔNY

“root”

▪ ʔNY_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʔNY_2 ‘vessel, container, receptacle’ ↗ʔināʔ
▪ ʔNY_3 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘divisions of the night; daytime; to become due, (of food) to become ready; proper time; utensils; to be deliberate, to be solemn; to await; to be very hot’

▪ …

▪ ʔNY_1: Borg2021 #16 (ʔ-n-y): Ar ʔanā ‘rechtzeitig kommen’; taʔannā ‘to act slowly, to procrastinate’ (Wahrmund I 143; Hava 1982: 15) ~ AlepAr tʔanna ‘agir avec lenteur, temporizer, prendre son temps’; stanna ‘attendre’ (qn ou qc)’ (Barthélemy 1935–69: 18) ~ DamAr tʔanna ‘to bide one’s time’; stanna ‘warten auf’ (Grotzfeld 1965: 22, 152) ~ Sinai taná ‘to wait for someone’ (Stewart 1990: 271); tiwanna ‘tarry’ (C. Bailey 1991: 430) ~ OmanAr teénne ‘sich verspäten’ (Reinhardt 1894: 229) ~ Rwala tawanna/tawāna ‘become tired, slacken’ (Musil 1928: 273) ~ PalAr ĭstanna/ ĭttanna ‘warten auf’ (Bauer 1957: 353): battanna fīk ‘ich erwarte dich’ (Schmidt & Kahle 1918 I 270) ~ EgAr ĭtanna/ ĭstaanna/ ĭstanna ‘to wait, expect’ (Spiro 1895: 22) ~ Khābūra twanna ‘to be late (a bedu word)’ (Brockett 1985: 223) ~ Hijaz astanna ‘to wait for’ (Omar 1975: 253) ~ SudAr assanna/ ĭstanna ‘wait for’ (LDA 39) ~ TunAr štənna ‘il a attendu’ (D. Cohen 1975: 132) ~ AlgAr stenna ‘attendre’ (Tapiéro 1971: 151) ~ MorAr tsenna ‘to expect’ (Sobelman & Harrell 1963: 67). – Eg i͗ni͗/i͗n (ME) ‘verweilen, langsam gehen, zögern etwas zu tun’ (Wb I 92; Brockelmann 1932: 101); si͗n ‘to wait, wait for’ (Caminos 1954: 579; DLE II 12).
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…

ʔināʔ إناء , pl. ʔāniyaẗ, ʔawāninⁱⁿ (def. al-ʔawānī)

√ʔNY

n.

1 vessel, container, receptacle; 2 plate; 3 dish; 4 pl. al‑ʔawānī, kitchenware, pots and pans – WehrCowan1976.

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▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘vessel’) Akk unūtu, Hbr ŏnī ‘ship’, Syr (mānā), Gz (newā́y).

…

ʔHL أهل

√ʔHL

“root”

▪ ʔHL_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʔHL_2 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘family, kin: to be populated: to be tamed; to be worthy, to be deserving; to take a wife’

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–

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ʔahl أَهْل , pl. ʔahlūn , ʔahāliⁿ (def. al-ʔahālī)

√ʔHL

n.

relatives, folks, ‎family; kin, kinfolk; wife; (with foll. genit.) people, members, followers, adherents, possessors, etc.; ‎inhabitants; deserving, worthy; fit, suited, qualified; eligible, competent; – pl. ʔahlūn members of the ‎family, relatives; (with foll. genit.) adherents, followers, members (of a movement, religion, etc.); – ‎pl. ʔahālⁱⁿ (def. al-ʔahālī) population, inhabitants (of a city, a country); ‏the ‎natives, the native population – WehrCowan1979… – WehrCowan1979.

“[O]riginally meaning ‘those who occupy with one the same ‎tent (Hebrew ōhel)’, thus ‘family, inmates’. Therefore ahl al-Bayt means literally ‘the ‎household of the Prophet’. When the ahl (pl. ahālī) of a town or a country is spoken of it ‎denotes its inhabitants […]. But this word is often connected with other concepts, and is in these ‎combinations more loosely used, so that it may come to mean ‘sharing in a thing, belonging to it’, ‎or ‘owner of the same’, etc.”.⁶

6. EI², art. “ahl” ‎‎(anon.).

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