Bibliotheca Polyglotta

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘clinging, to adhere, to be suspended, to hang; to be attached, creeper, blood clot; morsel of food; treasure’

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ʕalim‑ عَلِمَ , a (ʕilm)

ID 608 • Sw 59/83 • BP 377 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕLM

vb., I

to know, have knowledge, be cognizant, be aware (bi‑ of s.th.), be informed, be familiar, be acquainted (with s.th.); to perceive, discern (bi‑ or DO s.th.), find out, learn, come to know; to distinguish, differentiate (min from) – WehrCowan1979.

The vb. ʕalima is probably denominative, the meaning ‘to know’ having developed from an original *‘to recognize a sign, token, mark’ (↗ʕalam), perhaps one that had been made by ‘nicking, notching, incising’.

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The vb. ʕalima is probably denominative from ↗ʕalam ‘sign, token, mark’ and may originally have meant *‘to recognize’ (a sign, token, mark). Given that an obsolete trans. vb. ^†ʕalama, u, i (ʕalm) means ‘to mark (by slitting, nicking, notching?)’, the intr. vb. probably signified ‘to be able to read the signs, marks, traces’, hence ‘to orient o.s.’.

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► ^BP#3450ʕallama, vb. II, to teach, instruct, brief; to train, school, educate: caus. I, denom. – For other meanings ↗ʕalam.
► ʔaʕlama, vb. IV, to let know, tell, notify, advice, apprise, inform (bi‑ of or about s.th.), acquaint:.
► ^BP#1179taʕallama, vb. V, to learn, study; to know :.
► ĭstaʕlama, vb. X, to inquire, ask, query (ʕan about), inform o.s. (ʕan about), gather information:.

► ^BP#515ʕilm, n., knowledge, learning, lore; cognizance, acquaintance; information; cognition, intellection, perception, knowledge; ^BP#548(pl. ʕulūm) science; pl. al-ʕulūm the (natural) sciences. – For compounds etc. ↗s.v.
► ^BP#545ʕilmī, adj., scientific; erudite (book); learned (society): nsb-adj from ↗ʕilm.
► ʕilmiyyaẗ, n.f., scientific nature (of s.th.); scientificalness: n.abstr. from ↗ʕilm.
► ^BP#3467ʕalam, pl. ʔaʕlām, n., sign, token, mark, [etc.]: ↗ʕalam.
► ʕalīm, pl. ʕulamāʔᵘ, adj., knowing; cognizant, informed; learned, erudite; al-ʕ. the Omniscient (one of the attributes of God): ints.
► ʕallām, adj., knowing thoroughly, completely familiar (with): ints.
► ^BP#4161ʕallāmaẗ, adj., most erudite, very learned:; n., eminent scholar:.
► ^BP#1552ʕalāmaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., mark, sign, token [etc.]: ↗ʕalam.
► ʔuʕlūmaẗ, pl. ʔaʕālīmᵘ, n., road sign, signpost, guidepost: ↗ʕalam.
► tiʕlāmaẗ, adj., most erudite, very learned: ↗s.v...
► ^BP#2288maʕlam, pl. maʕālimᵘ, n., place, abode, locality, spot [etc.]: ↗ʕalam.
► maʕlamaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., encyclopedia: n.loc.
► ^BP#388taʕlīm, pl. ‑āt, taʕālīmᵘ, n., information, advice, instruction, direction; teaching, instruction; training, schooling, education; apprenticeship: vn. II, caus.; pl. ‑āt instructions, directions, directives; information, announcements | t. muḫtaliṭ coeducation; t. ʕālin higher education, academic studies; fann al-t. pedagogy, pedagogics; t. al-bāliġīn and t. al-kibār adult education; t. šaʕbī public education:.
► ^BP#1400taʕlīmī, adj., instructional; educational; didactic: nsb-adj from taʕlīm.
► ^BP#571ʔiʕlām, n., notification, advice; information; communication; notice: vn. IV, lexicalized | maʕhad al-ʔ., institute of communication; wazīr al-ʔ., minister of information; wasāʔil al-ʔ., communications media, the media:.
► ^BP#1075ʔiʕlāmī, adj., information, communication (in compounds): nsb-adj from ʔiʕlām.
► ^BP#3199taʕallum, n., learning, studying, study; education: vn. V.
► ĭstiʕlām, n., inquiry (ʕan about); (pl. ‑āt) information: vn. X | maktab al-ĭ. information office, information desk:.
► ^BP#869ʕālim, adj., knowing; familiar, acquainted (bi‑ with), cognizant (bi‑ of); n., expert, connoisseur, professional; (pl. ʕulamāʔᵘ), adj., learned, erudite; n., scholar, savant, scientist: PA I, later lexicalized | ʕ. ṭabīʕī physicist, natural scientist; al-ʕulamāʔ al-muḫtaṣṣūn the specialists, the experts:.
► ʕālimaẗ, n.f., woman of learning, woman scholar: PA I; (eg., pronounced ʕalmaẗ) singer, chanteuse, belly dancer: ↗s.v..
► ʕālimiyyaẗ, n.f., learnedness, scholarliness, erudition, rank or dignity of a ʕālim; rank of scholarship, conferred by diploma, of the Great Mosque in Tunis and of AI-Azhar in Cairo: n.abstr. from ʕālim.
► ^BP#3600ʔaʕlamᵘ, adj., having more knowledge; more learned; el. formation from ʕālim | ăllāhu ʔ. God knows best:.
► ^BP#2631maʕlūm, adj., known; fixed, determined, given; of course! certainly! sure! no doubt! (as an affirmative reply); known quantity (math.); al-m. the active voice (gram.): PP I; — (pl. maʕālīmᵘ) fixed sum, fixed rate (money); fixed income; tax, duty, fee; sum, amount, cost(s) | m. al-ḥayawānāt impost on livestock (Tun.):.
► ^BP#412maʕlūmaẗ, n.f., known fact, a given fact; given quantity (math.); pl. ‑āt knowledge, information; data, facts, details (which one has, or has received, ʕan about): n.u. of PP I | ǧamʕ al-m.āt data gathering:.
► ^BP#4695maʕlūmātī, adj., informatics, information science: nsb-adj from maʕlūmāt, pl. of maʕlūmaẗ.
► maʕlūmiyyaẗ, n.f., fact or state of being known, notoriety (of s.th.): n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ from maʕlūm.
► ^BP#899muʕallim, pl. ‑ūn, n., teacher, instructor; master (of a trade, etc.): nominalized PA II | m. al-ĭʕtirāf father-confessor, confessor:.
► muʕallimaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., woman teacher, woman instructor: nominalized PA II, f.
► muʕallam, adj., taught, instructed, trained, schooled: PP II; m. ʕalayh designated, marked | m. ʕalayh bi’l-ʔaḥmar PP II of ↗ʕalima, from ↗ʕilm.
► mutaʕallim, adj., educated; able to read and write, literate: PA V; n., an educated person: nominalization.
► ^BP#93ʕālam n.: ↗s.v..
► ^BP#308ʕālamī, adj.: ↗ʕālam.
► ʕālamiyyaẗ, n. ↗ʕālam.
► ^BP#4288ʕalmānī, var. ʕā̆lmānī, adj./n.: ↗s.v..

ʕilm عِلْم , pl. ʕulūm

ID 609 • Sw – • BP 548 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕLM

knowledge, learning, lore; cognizance, acquaintance; information; cognition, intellection, perception, knowledge; ^BP#548(pl. ʕulūm) science; pl. al-ʕulūm the (natural) sciences – WehrCowan1979.

vn. of ↗ʕalima.

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ʕilman wa-ʕamalan, theoretically and practically:.
li-yakun fī ʕilmih, be it known to him, may he know, for his Information:.
kāna ʕalà ʕilmin tāmmin, to know s.th. inside out, be thoroughly familiar with s.th.; to have full cognizance of s.th.:.
ʕilm al-wuṣūl, n., receipt; bi-ʕilm al-wuṣūl registered (mail), risālaẗ bi-ʕilm al-wuṣūl registered letter:.
ʕilm al-ʔadab, n., study of literature; ʕilm al-ʔadab al-muqāran comparative literature:.
ʕilm al-ʔinsān, n., anthropology:.
ʕilm al-ǧarāṯīm, n., bacteriology:.
ʕilm al-ĭǧtimāʕ, n., sociology; al-ʕulūm al-ĭǧtimāʕiyyaẗ the social sciences:.
ʕilm al-ǧamāl, n., aesthetics:.
ʕilm al-ḥisāb, n., arithmetic:.
ʕilm al-ḥafriyyāt, n., archaeology; paleontology; ʕilm al-ʔaḥāfīr, n., paleontology:.
ʕilm al-muḥīṭāt, n., oceanography:.
ʕilm al-ḥayāẗ, n., biology; ʕilm al-ʔaḥyāʔ, n., do.; ʕilm al-ḥayawān, n., zoology:.
ʕilm al-ʔaḫlāq, n., ethics:.
ʕilm al-dalālaẗ, n.f., and ʕilm al-maʕnà, n., semantics (linguistics):.
ʕilm al-ʔidāraẗ, n.f., study of administration; business management; al-ʕulūm al-ʔidāriyyaẗ, n.f., administrative sciences:.
ʕilm al-ḏarrāt, n., nuclear physics:.
ʕilm al-tarbiyaẗ, n.f., pedagogy:.
ʕilm al-ʔasāṭīr, n., mythology:.
ʕilm al-šuʕūb, n., ethnology:.
ʕilm al-ṣiḥḥaẗ, n.f., hygiene:.
ʕilm al-ṣarf, n., morphology (gram.):.
ʕilm al-ʔaṣwāt, n., and ʕilm al-ṣawtiyyāt, n., phonetics; phonology:.
ʕilm al-ṭabīʕaẗ, n.f., physics; natural science; ʕilm ṭabīʕaẗ al-ʔarḍ, n., geophysics:.
ʕilm ṭabaqāt al-ʔarḍ, n., geology:.
ʕilm al-maʕādin, n., mineralogy:.
ʕilm al-falak, n., astronomy; astrology:.
ʕilm al-luġaẗ, n.f., lexicography (of the Arabs); linguistics (Western); ʕilm al-luġaẗ al-ʕāmm, n., general linguistics:.
ʕilm al-nabāt, ʕilm al-nabātāt, n., botany:.
ʕilm al-nafs, n., psychology; ʕilm al-nafs al-ĭǧtimāʕī social psychology; ʕilm al-nafs al-fardī individual psychology:.
ʕilm al-wirāṯaẗ, n.f., genetics:.
ʕilm al-waẓāʔif al-ʔaʕḍāʔ, n., physiology:.

For other compounds look up the second word.

ṭālib ʕilm, n., student:.
kulliyyaẗ al-ʕulūm, n., the Faculty of Science (of a university):.

► ^BP#377ʕalima, a (ʕilm), vb. I, to know, have knowledge, be cognizant, be aware (bi‑ of s.th.), be informed, be familiar, be acquainted (with s.th.); to perceive, discern (bi‑ or DO s.th.), find out, learn, come to know; to distinguish, differentiate (min from): vn. I.
► ^BP#3450ʕallama, vb. II, to teach, instruct, brief; to train, school, educate: caus. I, denom. – For other meanings ↗ʕalam.
► ʔaʕlama, vb. IV, to let know, tell, notify, advice, apprise, inform (bi‑, of or about s.th.), acquaint: caus. of I.
► ^BP#1179taʕallama, vb. V, to learn, study; to know: pseudo-pass. of II.
► ĭstaʕlama, vb. X, to inquire, ask, query (ʕan about), inform o.s. (ʕan about), gather information: autoben., t-stem of IV.

► ^BP#545ʕilmī, adj., scientific; erudite (book); learned (society): nsb-adj.
► ʕilmiyyaẗ, n.f., scientific nature (of s.th.); scientificalness: n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ.
► ʕalīm, pl. ʕulamāʔᵘ, adj., knowing; cognizant, informed; learned, erudite; al-ʕ. the Omniscient (one of the attributes of God): ints. (possessing much ʕilm)
► ʕallām, adj., knowing thoroughly, completely familiar (with): ints.
► ^BP#4161ʕallāmaẗ, adj., most erudite, very learned: ints.; n., eminent scholar: nominalized and lexicalized.
► tiʕlāmaẗ, adj., most erudite, very learned: ↗s.v.
► maʕlamaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., encyclopedia: n.loc. (place where ʕilm can be found).
► ^BP#388taʕlīm, pl. ‑āt, taʕālīmᵘ, n., information, advice, instruction, direction; teaching, instruction; training, schooling, education; apprenticeship: vn. II, caus., denom.; pl. ‑āt instructions, directions, directives; information, announcements | t. muḫtaliṭ coeducation; t. ʕālin higher education, academic studies; fann al-t. pedagogy, pedagogics; t. al-bāliġīn and t. al-kibār adult education; t. šaʕbī public education:.
► ^BP#1400taʕlīmī, adj., instructional; educational; didactic: nsb-adj from taʕlīm.
► ^BP#571ʔiʕlām, n., notification, advice; information; communication; notice: vn. IV, lexicalized | maʕhad al-ʔ., institute of communication; wazīr al-ʔ., minister of information; wasāʔil al-ʔ., communications media, the media:.
► ^BP#1075ʔiʕlāmī, adj., information, communication (in compounds): nsb-adj from ʔiʕlām.
► ^BP#3199taʕallum, n., learning, studying, study; education: vn. V.
► ĭstiʕlām, n., inquiry (ʕan about); (pl. ‑āt) information: vn. X | maktab al-ĭ. information office, information desk:.
► ^BP#899muʕallim, pl. ‑ūn, n., teacher, instructor; master (of a trade, etc.): nominalized PA II | m. al-ĭʕtirāf father-confessor, confessor:.
► muʕallimaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., woman teacher, woman instructor: nominalized PA II, f.
► mutaʕallim, adj., educated; able to read and write, literate: PA V; n., an educated person: nominalization.

For other items of ʕLM cf. ↗ʕalam, ↗ʕalima, ↗ʕālim, ↗ʕālimaẗ, ↗ʕālam, ↗ʕalmānī.

ʕalam عَلَم , pl. ʔaʕlām

ID 607 • Sw – • BP 3467 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕLM

sign, token, mark, badge, distinguishing mark, characteristic; harelip; road sign, signpost, guidepost; flag, banner; a distinguished, outstanding man; an eminent personality, an authority, a star, a luminary; proper name (gram.) – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Originally a mark made by incision, nicking, notching? (cf. Ehret1989 in the DISC section below).
▪ The word may be the etymon not only of the derivatives of the ‘marking, signing, designating’ theme, but also of the ‘knowledge’ complex, since the vb. ↗ʕalima ‘to know’ may be denominative from ʕalam, ‘knowledge’ originally being the ability to read the signs and to find one’s way through the desert with the help of marks put up earlier.

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Ehret1989:163 considers ʕalam an extension in a »deverbative noun-forming suffix« ‑m from a bi-radical base *ʕal‑. In this type of application, the author says, »*m is clearly cognate with suffixes in *m in Cush and can therefore be traced back to AfrAs«. The sense that connects ʕalam with other extensions of the bi-rad. base is ‘to nick, notch’ (^†ʕalb ‘to mark by an incision or impression, cut off’, ^†ʕalṭ ‘to mark a camel across the neck’, ^†ʕalm ‘to split the upper lip’).

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► nār ʕalà ʕalam, n., a leading light or celebrity. ʔašhar min nār ʕalà ʕ., adj., very famous.
► ĭsm ʕalam, pl. ʔasmāʔ al-ʔaʕlām, n., proper name (gram.).
► ḫidmaẗ al-ʕalam, n., (Syr.) military service.

► ^BP#3450ʕallama, vb. II, to designate, mark, earmark, provide with a distinctive mark (ʕalà s.th.); to put a mark (ʕalà on): denom. – For other meanings ↗ʕalima, ↗ʕilm.
► ^BP#1552ʕalāmaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., mark, sign, token; (conventional) sign or symbol (also linguistics); punctuation mark; grade or mark (in school); badge, emblem; distinguishing mark, characteristic; indication, symptom | ʕ. tiǧāriyyaẗ trade-mark; ʕ. al-rutbaẗ insignia of rank; ʕ. al-taʔaṯṯur and ʕ. al-taʕaǧǧub exclamation point; ʕ. al-ĭstifhām question mark; ʕ. al-tanṣīṣ quotation mark; ʕ. al-waqf period, full stop (as punctation mark); naẓariyyaẗ al-ʕalāmāt theory of signs, semiotics:.
► ʔuʕlūmaẗ, pl. ʔaʕālīmᵘ, n., road sign, signpost, guidepost:.
► ^BP#2288maʕlam, pl. maʕālimᵘ, n., place, abode, locality, spot; track, trace; landmark, mark, distinguishing mark, characteristic; road sign, signpost, guidepost; peculiarity, particularity; pl. sights, curiosities; characteristic traits; outlines, contours (e.g., of the body), lineaments, features (of the face):.
► muʕallam ʕalayh, adj., designated, marked | m. ʕalayh bi’l-ʔaḥmar marked with red pencil: PP II, denom. – For other meanings ↗ʕalima, ↗ʕilm.

For other items of ʕLM ↗ʕalima, ↗ʕilm, ↗ʕālim, ↗ʕālimaẗ, ↗ʕālam, ↗ʕalmānī.

ʕaylam عَيْلَم , pl. ʕayālimᵘ

√ʕLM • ʕYLM

¹adj.; ²n.

1 adj., tender. – 2 (pl. ʕayālimᵘ), n., well with abundant water; sea – WehrCowan1979.

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▪ Do v1 and v2 belong together etymologically?
▪ Is the item, or any one of its values, related to other items of ↗ʕLM, such as ↗ʕalam, ↗ʕalima / ↗ʕilm, ↗ʕālimaẗ, or ↗ʕālam ?

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ʕālim عالِم , pl. ‑ūn ; ʕulamāʔᵘ

√ʕLM

¹adj.; ²n.

knowing; familiar, acquainted, cognizant; expert, connoisseur, professional; (pl. ʕulamāʔᵘ) learned, erudite; scholar, savant, scientist; (in Islam) theologian and expert in canonical law – WehrCowan1979.

PA I of ʕalima ‘to know’, later lexicalized as n.

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↗ʕalima, ↗ʕilm

↗ʕalima.

▪ Engl ulema ‘scholars of Muslim religious law’, 1680 s, from the pl. ʕulamāʔ ‘learned men, scholars’ – EtymOnline.

► ʕālim ṭabīʕī, n., physicist, natural scientist:.
► al-ʕulamāʔ al-muḫtaṣṣūn, n.pl., the specialists, the experts.

► ʕālimaẗ, n.f., woman of learning, woman scholar: f. of ʕālim. – For another value in Eg ↗ʕālimaẗ.
► ʕālimiyyaẗ, n.f., learnedness, scholarliness, erudition, rank or dignity of a ʕālim; rank of scholarship, conferred by diploma, of the Great Mosque in Tunis and of AI-Azhar in Cairo: n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ.

ʕālimaẗ , عالِمَة, pl. ‑āt , ʕawālimᵘ

√ʕLM

n.f.

1 woman of learning, woman scholar. – 2 (eg., pronounced ʕalmaẗ, pl. ʕawālimᵘ) singer, chanteuse, belly dancer – WehrCowan1979., woman leader of a troupe of women musicians and dancers – BadawiHinds1986

▪ v1 nominalized PA I of ↗ʕalima ‘to know’
▪ v2 from Hbr ʕalmā ‘young woman (ripe sexually; maid or newly married)’ ?

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▪ v1 ↗ʕalima, ↗ʕilm
▪ v2 BDB#ʕLM-2: perhaps orig. ‘to be mature (sexually)’, Aram ʕᵃlēm ‘to be strong’, Syr ʕālem ‘to rejuvenate’ (certainly denom.), Ar ġalima ‘be lustful’ (denom.), cf. also Sab ʕlm, ʕlmn ‘young man’, Ar ġulām ‘id.’, Phn ʕlmt‑ ‘girl’, Nab Palm ʕlm, ʕlym ‘slave’, Palm f.pl. ‘harlots’, Syr ʕalmā ‘young man’, ʕalmtā ‘young woman’

While the meaning ‘woman of learning, woman scholar’ (v1) is just a PA from the vb. ↗ʕalima ‘to know’, itself probably denom., the value ‘singing girl’, found in EgAr, may be a loan, most probably from Hbr ʕalmā ‘young woman (ripe sexually; maid or newly married)’.¹ As such, the word is related etymologically to ↗ĠLM (e.g., ġulām ‘boy, youth, lad; slave; servant, waiter’) rather than to ʕLM.

1. As already E. W. Lane thought: »There are also female professional singers. These are called ʕawālim, in the singular ʕālmeh, or ʕālimeh, an appellation, as an Ar word, literally signifying ‘a learned female’ but, as applied to these female singers, evidently, I think, derived from the Hbr or Phoen word ʕalmāh, signifying ‘a girl’ and ‘a virgin’, and particularly ‘a singing girl.’ ʕal-ʕalāmōṯ šīr (the title of Psalm xlvi) and nebālīm ʕal-ʕalāmōṯ (in I Chron. xv: 20) should, I doubt not, be rendered, ‘a song,’ and ‘harps’ or the like, ‘adapted to ʕalmāhs,’ that is, ‘singing girls.’ And as Jerome says that alma in the Punic language signified ‘a virgin’, it seems to be probable that, in old times, the most celebrated of the singing-girls in Egypt were Phoenicians.« – Manners and Customs…, London [etc.] 1908: 361.

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ʕālam عالَم , pl. ‑ūn , ʕawālimᵘ

√ʕLM, ʕWLM

world; universe, cosmos – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Paret, in his commentary on Q I:2, says that in Aram the word means ‘world’ (and the plural ‘worlds’), whereas in the Qurʔān it rather refers to the world’s ‘inhabitants’. He therefore translated rabb al-ʕālamīn as ‘Herr der Menschen in aller Welt’ [Lord of men all over the world, i.e. of all mankind].
▪ Article “ʕālam” (Tj. de Boer, L. Gardet) in EI², s.v.

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▪ Rajki 2002: Sem *ʕLM, Hbr ʕōlam, Syr ʕalmā, JNA ʕalam, BAram ʕalmā, Amh alem, Ug ʕLM, Phn ʕLM

▪ Ar lexicography generally holds that the word is derived from ↗ʕalima. But
▪ Paret 1980, in his commentary on sura 1:2, confirms that the Qurʔānic ‎word is a loan from Aram ʕālmā. Among his references he mentions also Jeffery 1938: 208-9, who confirms ‎‎ Fraenkel’s opinion that both the pattern ‎‎(CāCaC^un) and the plural in ‑īna point to a non-Ar provenance ‎‎(although there is a ʕLM meaning ‘world’ in SAr; but this may be a borrowing either, ‎since the plural is ʕLMYN, conforming to the Qur’anic form). Jeffery favours a Jewish (instead of a ‎Christian) origin, following (among others) Grünebaum (ZDMG 39: 571) who pointed out that ‎‎»the common Qurʔānic rabb al-ʕālamīn is precisely the rabbōn ha-ʕōlamīm of the Jewish ‎liturgy« (Jeffery1938: 209). »Hbr ʕōlam means any duration of time, and in the Rabbinic ‎writings it, like Aram ʕālᵉmā, comes to mean ‘age’ or ‘world’« (ibid.). – There are ‎however also evidences that make a Christian origin probable. The Syr ʕālmā, suggested by ‎Fraenkel, means both aiōn and kósmos [age and world].

▪ Rajki 2002: Aze alem, Ind alam, ‎Kyr aalam, Per ʕālam, Tat galem, Tur alem, Uzb olam, all borrowed from Ar.

► al-ʕālamānⁱ, n.du., the two worlds = Europe and America.
► ʕālamūn, n.pl., inhabitants of the world, specif. human beings:.

► ^BP#308ʕālamī, adj., worldly, secular, world (adj.); international; world-wide, worldfamous, enjoying world-wide renown
► ʕālamiyyaẗ, n.f., internationality: n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ.
► ^BP#4288ʕalmānī, var. ʕā̆lmānī, adj., laic, lay; (pl. ‑ūn) layman (in distinction from the clergy):.
► ^BP#4288ʕalmāniyyaẗ, n.f., secularism: n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ.
► ^BP#2842ʕawlamaẗ, n.f., globalization: neologism, calqued from ʕālam.

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Choose languages

Choose display