Bibliotheca Polyglotta

ʕayn عين

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√

R₁

The letter ʕ of the Arabic alphabet.

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ʕBʔ عبأ

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023

√ʕBʔ

“root”

▪ ʕBʔ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕBʔ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕBʔ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘load, weight; to care, to get ready, to pack’

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ʕBṮ عبث

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023

√ʕBṮ

“root”

▪ ʕBṮ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕBṮ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕBṮ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a mix up of things, adulteration, folly, to waste time in useless activity; to commit a folly’

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ʕBD عبد

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕBD

“root”

▪ ʕBD_1 ‘slave; bondsman, servant; worshipper’ ↗ʕabd
▪ ʕBD_2 ‘to make passable for traffic (a road)’: ʕabbada ↗ʕabd
▪ ʕBD_3 ‘a variety of melon’: EgAr ʕabdallāwī ↗ʕabd
▪ ʕBD_4 ‘Abadan (island and town in W Iran)’: ↗ʕabbādān

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘slave, servant, to enslave; obedience, submission, to worship, to adore; to tan camel hide, to tar a boat’. – Some scholars, apparently with no evidence save for the assumption that spiritual concepts are foreign to Arabic per se, attribute the concept of worshipping associated with some derivatives of this root to a borrowing from other Semitic languages. Al-Suyūṭī quotes Abū ’l-Qāsim’s suggestion that the sense of ‘to enslave’ is a borrowing from Nab.

▪ ʕBD_1 : from CSem *ʕabd ‘slave’
▪ ʕBD_2 : vn. II, from ʕabd (ʕBD_1), metaphorical use with caus. meaning of D-stem, lit. *‘to make (a road) subservient (to the users)’ (?)
▪ ʕBD_3 EgAr ʕabdallāwī : prob. from the n.prop. ʕabd allāh ‘servant of God’, from ʕabd (ʕBD_1)
▪ ʕBD_4 ʕabbādān, var. ʕabādān ‘Abadan (island and town in W Iran)’: n.prop.loc., prob. with Persian etymology, see ↗s.v..

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See section CONC, above.

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ʕabd عَبْد , pl. ʕabīd, ʕubdān, ʕibdān

ID 561 • Sw – • BP 694 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last update 3Jun2023

√ʕBD

n.

▪ worshipper – Jeffery1938
▪ 1 slave, serf; 2 bondsman, servant; — (pl. ʕibād) 1 servant (of God), human being, man; 2 humanity, mankind | al-ʕabd lillāh, al-ʕabd al-ḍaʕīf = I (form of modesty) – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Kogan2011: from protCSem *ʕabd‑ ‘male slave’, perh. from the verbal root *ʕBD ‘to work, to make’ (Huehnergard2011: CSem *√ʕBD ‘to serve, work’; n. *ʕabd‑ ‘servant, slave’).
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1029: From Sem *ʕabd- ‘slave’, from AfrAs *ʕabod- ‘slave’.

▪ eC7 Of very frequent occurrence in the Q – Jeffery1938.
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▪ Kogan2015: Ug ʕbd, Hbr ʕäbäd, Syr ʕabdā, Sab Min Qat ʕbd.
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1029: Hbr ʕebed, Syr ʕabdō, SAr ʕbd. – Outside Sem: WCh (metath.?) bad-am, bawəd-n ‘slave’, CCh (metath.?) vəḍa, vḍa, vuḍa ‘slave’.

▪ Jeffery1938: »The root is common Sem, cf. Akk abdu,¹ Hbr ʕBD [ʕäbäd], oAram ʕbd, Syr ʕabdā, Phoen ʕbd, Sab ʕbd (and perhaps Eth [Gz] ʕbṭ, Dillmann, Lex, 988). / The question of its being a loan-word in Arabic depends on the more fundamental question of the meaning of the root. If its primitive meaning is ‘to worship’, then the word retains this primitive meaning in Ar, and all the others are derived meanings. There is reason, however, to doubt whether ‘worship’ is the primitive meaning. In the oAram ʕbd means ‘to make, to do’, and the same meaning is very common in JudAram and Syr. In Hbr ʕābad is ‘to work’,² and so Hbr ʕäbäd primarily means ‘worker’, as Nöldeke has pointed out,³ and the sense of ‘to serve’ is derived from this.⁴ With Hbr ʕābad meaning ‘to serve’, we get Hbr ʕäbäd, Aram ʕabdā, Syr ʕabdā, Phoen ʕbd and Akk abdu, all meaning ‘slave’ or ‘vassal’, like the Arab ʕabd, Sab ʕbd. From this it is a simple matter to see how with the developing cults [Hbr] ʕäbäd comes to be ‘a worshipper’, and ʕabada ‘to worship’, i.e. ‘to serve God’. / The inscriptions from NArabia contain numerous examples of ʕbd joined with the name of a divinity, e.g. ʕbdddwšrʔ = ʕabd ḏī šarà, ʕbdmnt = ʕabd Manāẗ, ʕbdlt = ʕabd al-Lāt, ʕbdʔlhʔ = ʕabd Allāh, ʕbdʔlʕzʔ = ʕabd al-ʕUzzà, to quote only from the Sinaitic inscriptions.⁵ Also in the SAr inscriptions we find ʕbdʕṯtr ‘ʕAbd ʕAṯtar’, ʕbdkll ‘ʕAbd Kallal’, ʕbdšms ‘ʕAbd Šams’, etc.⁶ It thus seems clear that the sense of ‘worship’, ‘worshipper’ came to the Arabs from their neighbours in pre-Islamic times,⁷ though it is a little doubtful whether we can be so definite as Fischer, Glossar, 77, in stating that it is from Jewish ʕbd.«
▪ Kogan2015: 181: »CSem *ʕabd- ‘slave’ is undoubtedly connected with the verbal root *ʕbd, whose attestations are, however, also limited to CSem: Ug ʕbd ‘to work (a field), to cultivate, to produce’, Hbr ʕbd ‘to work’, Syr ʕbd ‘laboravit; fecit’, Ar ʕbd ‘to serve, worship, adore’. Besides, since the meaning ‘to serve’ is probably the original one (cf. Huehnergard1995: 276), it is not unlikely that we are faced with a denominative vb. rather than with a deverbal noun (note that the C₁aC₂C₃- pattern is not commonly used to produce nouns of agent either in protCSem or in protSem).«
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1029: The Sem vb. *ʕ˅b˅d- ‘to work’ seems to be a denominative. — If one takes the Chad evidence into consideration, where the modern words seem to go back to WCh *bawad-<*baHwad- ‘slave’ and CCh *buḍ- < *buH˅d- ‘slave’, an alternative reconstruction could be AfrAs *baʕod-. In this case, Sem *ʕabd- would be the result of metathesis.

1. Zimmern, Akkad. Fremdw, 47. 2. Notice particularly the Niph. näʕbād ‘to be tilled’, used of land. 3. ZDMG, xl, 741. He compares the Eth [Gz] gabra ‘to work’ and gabr ‘a labourer’. 4. Gerber, Verba Denominativa, p. 14. 5. Cook, Glossary, 87, 88. For the Safaitic see ʕbdʔm, ʕbdgd, etc., in Littmann, Semitic Inscriptions, 1904; Ryckmans, Noms propres, i, 155, 240, 241, and compare the Phoen examples in Harris’ Glossary, 128, 129. 6. Vide Pilter, Index of South Arabian Names, for references, and Rossini , Glossarium, 201. 7. It was commonly used in this sense in the old poetry, see Cheikho, Naṣrāniyya, 172. Ahrens, Christliches, 20, would derive ʕibādaẗ directly from the [Hbr] ʕᵃbōdâʰ; cf. Horovitz, JPN, 213.

▪ Not from Ar ʕabd but from its Hbr cognate are the Biblical names Obadiah, from Hbr ʕōbad-yāh ‘servant of Yahweh’, from ʕōbad, alternate form of ʕebed ‘servant, slave’, and Abednego, from Hbr ʕābēd-nəgô, probably alteration of ʕăbēd-nəbô ‘servant of Nabu’, from ʕābēd, alternate form of ʕebed ‘servant, slave’ (nəbô, Nabu, from Akk nabū) – Huehnergard2011.

► ʕabada, u (ʕibādaẗ, ʕubūdaẗ, ʕubūdiyyaẗ), vb. I, to serve, worship (a god), adore, venerate (a god or human being), idolize, deify (s.o.): denom.
► ʕabbada, vb. II, 1 to enslave, enthrall, subjugate, subject (s.o.); 2 to make passable for traffic (a road): D-stem., denom. from ʕabd, caus. of G.
► taʕabbada, vb. V, to devote o.s. to the service of God; to show (divine) veneration (li‑ for s.o.), deify, worship (li‑ s.o.): tD-stem, refl./autoref. of D.
► ĭstaʕbada, vb. X, to enslave, enthrall, subjugate (s.o.): Št-stem.

► ʕabdallāwī (eg. ), n., a variety of melon: from the n.prop. ʕabd allāh ?
► ʕabdaẗ, pl. -āt, woman slave, slave girl, bondwoman: f. of ʕabd.
► ʕabbād: ~ al-šams, n., and ~aẗ al-šams, n.f., sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.): ints., lit. ‘the worshiper of the sun’.
► ʕabbādānᵘ, var. ʕabādānᵘ, n.prop.loc., Abadan (island and town in W Iran, oil center): prob. with Iranian origin, but attributed to a certain ʕAbbād by folk etymology.
► ^BP#2719ʕibādaẗ, n.f., worship, adoration, veneration; devotional service, divine service (Chr. ); pl. -āt, acts of devotion, religious observances (Isl. Law): vn. I.
► ʕubūdaẗ, n.f, 1 humble veneration, homage, adoration, worship; 2 slavery, serfdom; servitude, bondage: vn. I.
► ^BP#4873ʕubūdiyyaẗ, n.f, 1 humble veneration, homage, adoration, worship; 2 slavery, serfdom; servitude, bondage: vn. I.
► maʕbad, pl. maʕābidᵘ, n., place of worship; house of God, temple: n.loc., from vb. I.
► taʕbīd, n., 1 enslavement, enthrallment, subjugation, subjection; 2 paving, construction, opening (of a road for traffic): vn. II | ~ al-ṭuruq, n., road construction.
► taʕabbud, n., 1 piety, devoutness, devotion, worship; 2 hagiolatry, worship or cult of saints (Chr. ): vn. V.
► taʕabbudī, adj., pertaining to divine worship or the relation of man to God: nsb-formation, from vn. V.
► ĭstiʕbād, n., enslavement, enthrallment, subjugation: vn. X.
► ʕābid, pl. -ūn, ʕubbād, ʕabadaẗ, n., worshiper, adorer: PA I.
► maʕbūd, 1 adj., worshiped, adored; 2 n., deity, godhead; idol: PP I.
► maʕbūdaẗ, n.f., ladylove, adored woman: f. of PP I.
► muʕabbad, adj., levelled, graded, paved, passable for traffic (road): PP II.
► mutaʕabbid, 1 adj., pious, devout; 2 n., pious worshiper (Chr.): PA V.

ʕabbādānᵘ عبّادانُ , var. ʕabādānᵘ

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕBD

n.prop.loc.

Abadan (island and town in W Iran, oil center) – WehrCowan1979.

Popular etymology relates the name to an alleged founder of the city, ʕAbbād. Most probably, however, it is of Iranian origin. One suggestion is that the meaning is ‘coastguard station’ (from Pers āb ‘water’, and the root pā ‘watch, guard’), see DISC below.

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»In medieval sources, and up to the present [20th] century, the name of the island always occurs in the Arabic form ʕAbbādān; this name has sometimes been derived from ʕabbād ‘worshiper’. Balāḏurī (d. 279/892), on the other hand, quotes the story that the town was founded by one ʕAbbād b. Ḥusayn Ḫabiṭī, who established a garrison there during the governorship of Ḥaǧǧāǧ (75-95/695-714). An Iranian etymology of the name (from āb ‘water’, and the root pā ‘watch, guard’, thus ‘coastguard station’) was suggested by B. Farahvašī (“Arvandrūd”, MDAT, nos. 71/72, 1348š./1969: 75-87). Possible supporting evidence is the name Apphana, which Ptolemy (2nd cent. A.D.) applies to an island off the mouth of the Tigris (Geographia 6.7). The 4th-cen¬tury geographer Marcian, who, in general, draws his in¬formation from Ptolemy, renders the name Apphadana (Geographia Marciani Heracleotae, ed. David Hoeschel, Augsburg, 1600: 48). Thus there may have been some grounds for revising the name to Ābādān; the latter form had begun to come into general use before it was adopted by official decree in 1314š./1935 (see, e.g., Kayhān, Ǧoġrāfiyā, I: 77, 111)« – L.P. Elwell-Sutton, “Ābādān, I. History”, in EIr, I/1: 51-53, available online at Encyclopaedia Iranica (as of 15 Feb 2017).

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ʕibādaẗ عِبادَة , pl. ‑āt

ID 560 • Sw – • BP 2719 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕBD

n.f.

worship, adoration, veneration; devotional service, divine service (Chr. ); pl. -āt, acts of devotion, religious observances (Isl. Law) – WehrCowan1979.

vn., from ʕabada, u, vb. I, ‘to serve, worship (a god), adore, venerate’, prob. denom. from ↗ʕabd ‘slave’, from CSem *ʕabd ‘id.’.

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↗ʕabd.

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Not directly derived from ʕibādaẗ, but semantically close are:

► taʕabbada, vb. V, to devote o.s. to the service of God; to show (divine) veneration (li‑ for s.o.), deify, worship (li‑ s.o.): tD-stem, refl./autoref. of D., from vb. I or denom. from ↗ʕabd
► taʕabbud, n., 1 piety, devoutness, devotion, worship; 2 hagiolatry, worship or cult of saints (Chr. ): vn. V.
► taʕabbudī, adj., pertaining to divine worship or the relation of man to God: nsb-formation, from vn. V.
► mutaʕabbid, 1 adj., pious, devout; 2 n., pious worshiper (Chr.): PA V.

ʕBR عبر

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕBR

“root”

▪ ʕBR_1 ‘the other/opposite side; to cross, traverse, pass over’ ↗ʕabara
▪ ʕBR_2 ‘contemplation; lesson’ ↗ʕibraẗ
▪ ʕBR_3 ‘expression, to express (a feeling, an opinion, etc.)’ ↗ʕibāraẗ
▪ ʕBR_4 ‘to interpret a dream’ ↗ʕabbara
▪ ʕBR_5 ‘tear, to shed tears’ ↗ʕabraẗ
▪ ʕBR_6 ‘(compound) perfume’ ↗ʕabīr
▪ ʕBR_7 ‘Hebrew’ ↗ʕibrī
Other values, now obsolete, include:

ʕBR_8 ‘great number, crowd’ : ^†ʕubr (Hava1899)
ʕBR_9 ‘sturdy, strong’ : ^†ʕ˅br (Hava1899)
ʕBR_10 ‘ewe or goat one year old’ : ^†ʕabūr, pl. ʕabāʔirᵘ (Hava1899)
ʕBR_11 ‘thick-woolled (sheep)’ : ^†muʕbar (Hava1899)

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘1 one side of the valley, to traverse, passer-by; 2 to interpret a dream; 3 contemplation, a lesson; 4 tear; 5 plenty, group of people; 6 mixture of perfumes’

▪ Several of the values that the root ʕBR can take in Ar seem to be based, in one way or another, on ʕBR_1 (cf. entry ↗ʕabara). They are distinguished here only for the sake of structuring the semantic diversity within the root.
▪ ʕBR_1 : Following Dolgopolsky whose presentation looks convincing, the etyma proper seem to be ^†ʕibr ~ ʕabr (preserved in MSA in the prep. ʕabrᵃ ‘across’) ~ ^†ʕubr ‘shore, bank, margin’, from Sem *ʕib(˅)r- ‘region beyond/across a body of water (river, lake, sea), (further) bank/shore’, and the (prob. denom.) vb. Sem *ʕ˅b˅r- (> Ar ʕabara) ‘to cross (a body of water), pass over’ > *‘to pass over a stream to the other side’. (According to Dolgopolsky, these items may even be related to words for ‘shore, river bank; mainland’ in some IE langs, like Grk ḗpeiros, or Ge Ufer). – From ‘crossing’ seem to have branched off, through figurative use, several other ideas, notably ʕBR_2-4, perh. also ʕBR_5 and ʕBR_7.
▪ ʕBR_2 : based on ʕBR_1 ‘to cross’, interpreted as *‘to cross, traverse mentally, ponder about, wander through a world of ideas or possibilities’, hence ‘to contemplate’ (> ‘to draw a lesson from’), and hence also ‘to examine, test’.
▪ ʕBR_3 : based on ʕBR_1 ‘to cross’, interpreted as *‘to make s.th. pass from the tongue of the speaker to the ear of the hearer’ or *‘…from the inner world of feelings and thought to the outer world of words, i.e., to articulate s.th.’, hence ‘to express (a feeling, an opinion, etc.)’; cf. Engl express < Lat ex-primere, lit., *‘to squeeze, make come out’.
▪ ʕBR_4 : based on ʕBR_1 ‘to cross’, interpreted as *‘to translate the symbolic meaning of a dream into a concrete meaning’, hence ‘to interpret a dream’.
▪ ʕBR_5 : Perh. based on ʕBR_1 ‘to cross’, interpreted as *‘to cross a border, reach a limit, a brim, overflow’ (esp. feelings, emotion), hence ‘tear, to shed tears’.
▪ ʕBR_6 : ʕabīr ‘(compound) perfume’ is hardly akin to ʕBR_1 ‘to cross’; etymology obscure.
▪ ʕBR_7 : Ar ʕibrī ‘Hebrew’, which is the same as the Hbr term ʕiḇrī, has been linked by earlier research to ʕBR_1 ‘to pass by, go beyond, cross’, interpreting the Biblical ʕiḇrīm either as ‘Bedouins’, i.e., a group of people who *‘cross, or wander around in, the desert’, or, more convincingly (because paying attention to the nisba form), as *‘those who come from, or inhabit, the other side of the river, the region beyond (Hbr ʕēḇär; sc. either the Jordan or the Euphrates)’. The ‘Hebrews’ seem to be identical with the ḫabiru (Akk ḫāpiru) of the Tell el-Amarna tablets (-C14), a term that is believed to have been applied to »displaced persons who leave their homeland and seek their fortunes in neighboring countries«; the word seems to have a social connotation here, while its use as a n.gent. obviously is post-exilic – Hoch1994. – For a similar idea, cf. also ↗ʕarab.
▪ ʕBR_8-11 : etymology unclear/obscure.

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ʕBR_1
▪ Zammit2002, Tropper2008, CAD: Akk ebēru (var. epēru, ḫabāru) ‘to cross (water); to extend beyond (s.th.)’, ebar (prep.) ‘beyond’, ¹ebertu (var. abartu) ‘the other bank/side’, ²ebertu ‘pace; step (of a staircase)’,¹ Ug ʕbr ‘to pass by/through/over; to cross’, Phoen ʕbr ‘to pass’, Hbr ʕābar ‘to pass over, through, by’, Aram (sf) ʕbr ‘to pass on, by’, BiblAram ʕᵃbar ‘region across, beyond’, Syr ʕᵉbar ‘to pass on, by’, (af.) ‘to translate’, SAr ʕbr ‘to pass, cross’, Ar ʕabara ‘to interpret’, ʕābir ‘one who passes over’. – Not in EthSem.
▪ LandbergZetterstéen1942: DaṯAr ʕabr ‘canal’, cf. Sab ʕbr ‘bank, side’ [Müller2010: ‘(Ufer)seite (eines Wadis)’, ʕbr-n (prep.) ‘opposite of’, ʕbrt ‘littoral (of a wadi)’], like ʕubr ~ʕibr in the luġaẗ; Sab ʕbr = Hbr ʕēḇär ‘river bank, opposite side, region beyond; field, [prob.] littoral field irrigated by water or close to the water course’; accord. to Rossi ‘terreno a terazzi coltivato (nel Yemen occidentale’ = Stein2012: ʕbrt ‘(lit., seitlich gelegene?) Felder, die an den Seitenrändern der Wadis gelegenen, terrassenförmigen Felder’.
▪ Militarev2006 (in StarLing)#1641: Akk ebēru ‘to cross (water); to extend beyond s.th.’, Ug ʕbr ‘to cross’, Hbr ʕbr ‘to move through, pass over, pass by, travel (along a road)’, ʕäbär ‘(river) bank’, Syr ʕbr ‘to cross; to inundate, invade’, Ar ʕbr [-u- ] ‘to cross; to move through, pass over, pass by, travel (along a road)’; ʕubr ‘(river) bank’, SAr ʕbr, Mhr ʔābōr ‘to cross’, Jib ʕɔ̄r ‘to cross; to go far away’ (caus. aʕbér). – Outside Sem: (Berb) Sokna ta-barutt, pl. burâw, Fojaha ta-bārû-t, Ayr Taw abǝr, pl. abǝr-ăn ‘road, way’; (3 WCh langs show the forms) var, vǝ̀rǝ ‘to go out’, and bār ‘to escape’; (2 ECh langs have:) bìre ‘to go by’, bĩrré ‘to go for a walk’; and in Dahalo (Sanye) we find ḅariy - ‘to go out, depart’.
▪ Dolgopolsky2012#141: BiblHbr ʕēḇär ‘opposite side (of a river, lake etc.); side, edge, bank’, SamHbr ʕēbā̊r ‘id.’, JudAram ʕiḇrā ~ ʕäḇrā ‘opposite side’, Syr ʕeḇrā ‘crossing (a river), further bank’, Mand ʕbra ‘coastland, foreshore’, Ar ʕibr ~ ʕabr ~ ʕubr ‘shore’, Akk eber-nāri (lit. ‘the region beyond the river’) (< WSem), Ebl a-bar-rí-iš = ʕabar-iš (/ʕabāriš/) loc. ‘on the other bank’; Akk ebēru ‘to cross (water)’, Ebl a-ba-rí-im = ʕabār-im inf. gen. ‘id.’, Hbr Phoen Pun Ug oAram EmpAram JudAram Syr Ar Sab √ʕBR G ‘to cross over (water etc.), pass’. – Outside Sem: (Can >) Eg (in syllabic script) ʕá-bí-ya ‘ford, crossing’ (Eg NK y < *r); (IE:) Grk (Att) ḗpeiros, (Dor) ápeiros (long ā), (Aeol) áperros (with ā) ‘mainland’ (< *āper-yo-), oEngl ōfer, Du oever, mHGe uover > nHGe Ufer ‘shore’ (< *āper-o-), mLGe ō̈ver ‘id.’ (< *āper-yo-).
▪ ʕBR_2 : As ʕBR_1.
▪ ʕBR_3 : As ʕBR_1. – A similar semantic development is also found in Syr.
▪ ʕBR_4 : As ʕBR_1. – Closest to the value ‘to interpret a dream’, attached in ClassAr not only to the D-stem ʕabbara but also to the G-stem ʕabara, comes prob. the Syr (likewise caus.) Š-stem, ʔaʕbar, in the sense of ‘to transfer, translate’.
▪ ʕBR_5 Probably related to Hbr ʕäḇrāʰ ‘overflow, excess outburst; arrogance; overflowing rage, fury’, (Št-stem, denom.) hiṯʕabbar ‘to be arrogant, infuriate o.s.’ (BDB1906), and Syr ʕbar ‘…; to surpass, exceed, be beyond, overcome’ (e.g., bᵊ-šūp̱rāh lᵊ-šemšā ʕābrā hᵊwāt ‘she surpassed the sun in fairness’), (eṯp) ‘…; to neglect, fail (of accomplishment), to transgress, sin’, (aph) ‘…; to go beyond, exceed’ (PayneSmith1903). – ? Cf. also Akk ebirtu (var. abirtu, ḫibirtu), name of a month? According to CAD, this word is »possibly to be connected with [Akk] ebēru, in the meaning ‘to overflow’, attested in WSem (Hbr, Aram), hence ‘the month of overflowing of the rivers’«. – Furthermore, it is not clear whether WSem ‘to overflow’ is or is not related to Sem ʕBR ‘to cross’.
▪ ʕBR_6 : No obvious cognates found so far. – Is there any connection between ʕabīr ‘(mixed) perfume’ and the word ↗ʕanbar ‘ambergris’ that Lane lists both under √ʕNBR and √ʕBR?
▪ ʕBR_7 : Probably related to ʕBR_1 – see discussion above in section CONC.
▪ ʕBR_8-11 : ?

▪ In addition to the values mentioned in the preceding paragraphs, Sem ʕBR has also

BDB1906, CAD, Militarev2006 (in StarLing)#1662: Akk ebūru ‘harvest; crop, produce, grain; harvest time; summer’, Hbr ʕāḇûr ‘produce, yield’, JudAram Syr ʕăbūrā ‘produce, grain, corn’. < Sem *ʕabūr- ‘harvest; produce; grain’, derived from Sem *ḥ˅b˅r- ‘to gather’.
PayneSmith1903: Syr ʕābartā, ʕābārtā ‘dysentery’.

1. Cf. perh. also Akk ebirtu, var. abirtu, ḫibirtu, name of a month, »possibly to be connected with ebēru, in the meaning ‘to overflow’, attested in WSem (Hbr, Aram), hence ‘the month of overflowing of the rivers.’«

ʕBR_1
▪ If Dolgopolsky’s assumption of a priority of the n. over the vb. is correct, then the only direct reflex of the etymon proper in MSA is the prep. ʕabrᵃ , originally a acc. of place/time from the now obsolete n. ^†ʕabr, in ClassAr more often appearing as ^†ʕibr (which is perh. the more original form), or also ^†ʕubr ‘shore, bank, margin’, from which we also find the adj. ^†ʕubrī ‘(species of lote-tree) that grows on the banks of rivers, and becomes large’ (Lane).
▪ Dolgopolsky2012#141: Sem *ʕib˻˅˼r- ‘the region beyond/across a body of water (river, lake, sea), (further) bank/shore’ (> denom. vb. Sem *ʕBR ‘to cross (a body of water), pass over’ > *‘to pass over a stream to the other side’), IE *āper-o-, *āper-yo- ‘shore, river bank; mainland’ (> [Kluge2002:] WGerm *ōbera-), both from Nostr *ʕ˅P˅R˅ ‘(river-)bank’.
▪ Militarev2008 (in StarLing): Sem *ʕ˅b˅r- ‘1 to cross; 2 to extend beyond (s.th.); 3 to move through, pass over, pass by, travel (along a road); 4 to inundate, invade; 5 (river) bank; 6 to go far away’, Berb *Habar- ‘road, way’, WCh *H˅bar- ‘to escape; to go out’, ECh *birr- ‘to go by; to go for a walk’, Dahalo (Sanye) ḅariy- (<*H˅bar- ?) ‘to go out, depart’, all from AfrAs *ʕabir- ‘traveling (along a road), passing by, crossing (rivers)’.
▪ ʕBR_2 : see above, section CONC.
▪ ʕBR_3 : ʕibāraẗ ‘speech that passes from the tongue of the speaker to the ear of the hearer; hence: passage in a book or writing; and hence also: word, expression, phrase; and: explanation, interpretation’ (Lane).
▪ ʕBR_4 : A notion that is close to that of interpreting a dream, namely that of ‘translating’, is also found in the Syr caus., here expressed not (as in Ar) in the D-, but in the Š-stem (aph) ʔaʕbar which, in addition to the lit. meaning ‘to cause/allow to pass; to allow to depart; to transfer, remove, transport, transplant’ and several other figurative usages (e.g., ‘to pass over, remit, sc. a transgression, a sin; to convert, turn, e.g., from paganism to the faith; [logic ] to pass over, e.g., from a part to the whole, from detail to generality; to go beyond, exceed; etc.)’ also shows the value ‘to transfer, translate’, e.g., men lešānā ʕebrānā lᵊ-yūnānā ‘from Hebrew to Greek’ – PayneSmith1903.
▪ ʕBR_5 : Cf. also ClassAr (G-stem) ^†ʕabara (ʕabr) and ^†ʕabira a (ʕabar) ‘to shed tears; to grieve, mourn, be sorrowful, sad, unhappy’, ^†ʕabrà (pl. ʕubr) ‘weeping (eye), hence: grieving (woman), bereft of her child’ – Lane/Hava1899. – If ʕabraẗ ‘tear’ is related to WSem *ʕBR ‘to overflow’, its original meaning would be *‘what overflows’ or *‘result of an overflow (of emotion, rage, fury, etc.)’. Gesenius1915 thinks it is obvious that WSem *ʕBR ‘to overflow’ has to be treated as a root in its own right, different from Sem *ʕBR ‘to cross’; but why should ‘to overflow’ not go back to an earlier ‘reaching/crossing a border, go beyond, pass over’ and thus probably have developed from the Sem etymon of ʕBR_1?
▪ ʕBR_6 : Hoch1994#68 thinks that Eg ʕbyr */ʕabīr/, which is of uncertain meaning but seems to be a loanword from Sem—»[cf.] Ar ʕabīr ‘fragrance; perfume’«—, perh. can be associated with BiblHbr (Song of Songs, 5:5) môr ʕōḇēr ‘liquid myrrh’ (cf. Ar ↗murr), where ʕōḇēr seems to be a PA (prop. ʕôḇēr) of ʕāḇar in the sense of *‘to overflow’. – The fact that Lane also lists ↗ʕanbar ‘ambergris’ under √ʕBR (though referring from there to √ʕNBR), prompts one to think of the possibility of an etymological relation between ʕabīr and ʕanbar, all the more so since ClassAr dictionaries render ʕabīr as ‘a mixture of perfumes, compounded with saffron [!]’ or sometimes even as a synonym for ‘saffron’ (Lane), while ʕanbar, too, often seems to take the meaning ‘saffron’ (Lane, Hava1899). However, even if there was some kind of relation between the two, it would still be difficult, phonologically speaking, to derive ʕabīr directly from ʕanbar.
▪ ʕBR_7 : The origin of the term Hbr ʕiḇrî (Ar ʕibrī) ‘Hebrew’ is, as Hopkins summarizes the state of affairs in etymological research about the word, still »a moot point, much discussed yet unresolved. None of the many etymologies proposed is satisfactory and so the origin of ‘Hebrew’ must be accounted unclear. Eccentricities apart, there are three main avenues of approach: (i) ʕiḇrî is an eponymous gentilic adjective, derived from the proper name ʕēḇär ‘Eber’, the great-grandson of Shem (Gen. 10.24; 11.14); (ii) ʕiḇrî is a geographical term, derived from ʕēḇär ‘across, beyond’, more particularly ʕēḇär han-nāhār ‘beyond the river’ (see especially Josh. 24.2). Depending upon the identity of the river in question, ʕiḇrî is to be understood as ‘trans-Euphrates’ or ‘trans-Jordan’; (iii) As opposed to (i) and (ii), which represent traditional views found in rabbinical sources, especially since the discovery of the Tel el-Amarna letters in the late 19th century it has been not uncommon in Biblical scholarship to find a connection between ‘Hebrew’ and the ḫabiru, groups of roving marauders mentioned in the Tel el-Amarna (and other) documents as having attacked Palestine in the mid-2nd millennium B.C.E.« – »Names of the Hebrew Language« (S. Hopkins), in Encyclopedia of Hebrew Language and Linguistics.
▪ ʕBR_8 : Cf. also ^†maǧlis ʕabr/ʕibr ‘numerous gathering’ – Hava1899. – Etymology obscure.
▪ ʕBR_9 ▪ Cf. also ^†ʕ˅br li-kull ʕamal ‘fit to every work’, ʕ˅br ʔasfār ‘bold traveller; strong to journey (camel)’ – Hava1899. – Etymology obscure.
▪ ʕBR_10-11 : Can ʕBR_10 ^†ʕabūr ‘ewe or goat one year old’ and ʕBR_11 ^†muʕbar ‘thick-woolled (sheep)’ be put together?

–

ʕabar‑ عَبَرَ , u (ʕabr , ʕubūr)

ID 562 • Sw – • BP 3333 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕBR

vb., I

1 to cross, traverse; 2 to ford, wade (DO through s.th.); 3 to swim (across s.th.); 4 to pass (over s.th.); 5 to ferry (a river, and the like); 6 to carry (bi‑ s.o., across or over s.th.); 7 to make cross over or go forward, lead (bi‑ s.o., ʔilà to, e.g., to a new life); 8 to pass, elapse (time), fade, dwindle; 9 to pass away, die, depart – WehrCowan1979.

▪ From Sem *ʕBR ‘to cross (a body of water), pass over’. According to Dolgopolsky whose presentation looks convincing and whom we therefore follow here, the vb. is denom. from Sem *ʕib(˅)r- ‘region beyond/across a body of water (river, lake, sea), (further) bank/shore’. While this n. still forms part of the ClassAr vocabulary (Ar ^†ʕibr ~ ʕabr ~ ^†ʕubr ‘shore, bank, margin’), the only direct reflex of it in MSA seems to be the prep. ʕabrᵃ ‘across’.
▪ If Dolgopolsky is right, then these items may even be related to words for ‘shore, river bank; mainland’ in some IE langs, like Grk ḗpeiros, or Ge Ufer.
▪ From the idea of ‘crossing’ seem to have branched off, through fig. use, several other themes:

*‘to cross or wander through s.th. mentally ’, hence: ‘contemplation; lesson’ ↗ʕibraẗ
*‘to make s.th. (a feeling, an opinion, etc.) cross one’s lips’, hence: ‘expression, to express’ ↗ʕibāraẗ
*‘to make the meaning of s.th., esp. dreams, cross from the realm of symbols into that of concrete meaning, translate the symbolic language into s.th. meaningful’, hence: ‘to interpret a dream’ ↗ʕabbara
perh. also *‘to cross a brim > to overflow’, hence: ‘tear, to shed tears’ ↗ʕabraẗ (but this item is held apart from ʕabara by some scholars)
traditionally, also *‘to cross the air, evaporate’, hence: ‘(compound) perfume’ ↗ʕabīr (but this explanation is rather far-fetched and the item should probably better kept apart from ʕabara)
possibly even *‘people who cross (sc. the desert), hence: ‘Hebrew’ ↗ʕibrī (but there are a number of other etymologies for this n.gent.).
For the whole picture cf. ↗ʕBR.

▪ eC7 ʕabara (I, tr., to traverse; to interpret [a dream]) Q 12:43 ʔin kuntum lil-ruʔyā taʕburūna ‘if you are [ones who] interpret dreams’. – ʕābir (PA, one who passes by or through, one who traverses) Q 4:43 ʔillā ʕābirī sabīlin ‘unless you are passing through [the mosque]’.
▪ Hava1899, too, has ʕabara still in the meanings ‘(vn. ʕabr, ʕubūr) to cross, pass over (a river); ^† to read (a book) mentally; to try (money); (vn. ʕibāraẗ, ʕabr) ^†to interpret (a dream)’; ^†ʕibr ‘shore, bank, margin’ (cf. also ^†banāt ʕibr ‘trifles, falsehood, vanity’).

▪ Dolgopolsky2012#141: BiblHbr ʕēḇär ‘opposite side (of a river, lake etc.); side, edge, bank’, SamHbr ʕēbā̊r ‘id.’, JudAram ʕiḇrā ~ ʕäḇrā ‘opposite side’, Syr ʕeḇrā ‘crossing (a river), further bank’, Mand ʕbra ‘coastland, foreshore’, Ar ʕibr ~ ʕabr ~ ʕubr ‘shore’, Akk eber-nāri (lit. ‘the region beyond the river’) (< WSem), Ebl a-bar-rí-iš = ʕabar-iš (/ʕabāriš/) loc. ‘on the other bank’; Akk ebēru ‘to cross (water)’, Ebl a-ba-rí-im = ʕabār-im inf. gen. ‘id.’, Hbr Phoen Pun Ug oAram EmpAram JudAram Syr Ar Sab √ʕBR G ‘to cross over (water etc.), pass’. – Outside Sem: (Can >) Eg (in syllabic script) ʕá-bí-ya ‘ford, crossing’ (Eg NK y < *r); (IE:) Grk (Att) ḗpeiros, (Dor) ápeiros (long ā), (Aeol) áperros (with ā) ‘mainland’ (< *āper-yo-), oEngl ōfer, Du oever, mHGe uover > nHGe Ufer ‘shore’ (< *āper-o-), mLGe ō̈ver ‘id.’ (< *āper-yo-).
▪ Zammit2002, Tropper2008, CAD: Akk ebēru (var. epēru, ḫabāru) ‘to cross (water); to extend beyond (s.th.)’, ebar (prep.) ‘beyond’, ¹ebertu (var. abartu) ‘the other bank/side’, ²ebertu ‘pace; step (of a staircase)’,² Ug ʕbr ‘to pass by/through/over; to cross’, Phoen ʕbr ‘to pass’, Hbr ʕābar ‘to pass over, through, by’, Aram (sf) ʕbr ‘to pass on, by’, BiblAram ʕᵃbar ‘region across, beyond’, Syr ʕᵉbar ‘to pass on, by’, (af.) ‘to translate’, SAr ʕbr ‘to pass, cross’, Ar ʕabara ‘to interpret’, ʕābir ‘one who passes over’. – Not in EthSem.
▪ LandbergZetterstéen1942: DaṯAr ʕabr ‘canal’, cf. Sab ʕbr ‘bank, side’ [Müller2010: ‘(Ufer)seite (eines Wadis)’, ʕbr-n (prep.) ‘opposite of’, ʕbrt ‘littoral (of a wadi)’], like ʕubr ~ʕibr in the luġaẗ; Sab ʕbr = Hbr ʕēḇär ‘river bank, opposite side, region beyond; field, [prob.] littoral field irrigated by water or close to the water course’; accord. to Rossi ‘terreno a terazzi coltivato (nel Yemen occidentale’ = Stein2012: ʕbrt ‘(lit., seitlich gelegene?) Felder, die an den Seitenrändern der Wadis gelegenen, terrassenförmigen Felder’.
▪ Militarev2006 (in StarLing)#1641: Akk ebēru ‘to cross (water); to extend beyond s.th.’, Ug ʕbr ‘to cross’, Hbr ʕbr ‘to move through, pass over, pass by, travel (along a road)’, ʕäbär ‘(river) bank’, Syr ʕbr ‘to cross; to inundate, invade’, Ar ʕbr [-u- ] ‘to cross; to move through, pass over, pass by, travel (along a road)’; ʕubr ‘(river) bank’, SAr ʕbr, Mhr ʔābōr ‘to cross’, Jib ʕɔ̄r ‘to cross; to go far away’ (caus. aʕbér). – Outside Sem: (Berb) Sokna ta-barutt, pl. burâw, Fojaha ta-bārû-t, Ayr Taw abǝr, pl. abǝr-ăn ‘road, way’; (3 WCh langs show the forms) var, vǝ̀rǝ ‘to go out’, and bār ‘to escape’; (2 ECh langs have:) bìre ‘to go by’, bĩrré ‘to go for a walk’; and in Dahalo (Sanye) we find ḅariy ‘to go out, depart’.

2. Cf. perh. also Akk ebirtu, var. abirtu, ḫibirtu, name of a month, »possibly to be connected with ebēru, in the meaning ‘to overflow’, attested in WSem (Hbr, Aram), hence ‘the month of overflowing of the rivers.’«

▪ If Dolgopolsky’s assumption of a priority of the n. over the vb. is correct, then the only direct reflex of the etymon proper in MSA seems to be the prep. ʕabrᵃ , originally an acc. of place/time from the now obsolete n. ^†ʕabr, in ClassAr more often appearing as ^†ʕibr (which is perh. the more original form), or also ^†ʕubr ‘shore, bank, margin’, from which we also find the adj. ^†ʕubrī ‘(species of lote-tree) that grows on the banks of rivers, and becomes large’ (Lane).
▪ Dolgopolsky2012#141: Sem *ʕib(˅)r- ‘the region beyond/across a body of water (river, lake, sea), (further) bank/shore’ (> denom. vb. Sem *ʕ˅b˅r- ‘to cross (a body of water), pass over’ > *‘to pass over a stream to the other side’), IE *āper-o-, *āper-yo- ‘shore, river bank; mainland’ (> [Kluge2002:] WGerm *ōbera-, Ge Ufer), both from Nostr *ʕ˅P˅R˅ ‘(river-)bank’.
▪ Militarev2008 (in StarLing): Sem *ʕ˅b˅r- ‘1 to cross; 2 to extend beyond (s.th.); 3 to move through, pass over, pass by, travel (along a road); 4 to inundate, invade; 5 (river) bank; 6 to go far away’, Berb *Habar- ‘road, way’, WCh *H˅bar- ‘to escape; to go out’, ECh *birr- ‘to go by; to go for a walk’, Dahalo (Sanye) ḅariy- (<*H˅bar- ?) ‘to go out, depart’, all from AfrAs *ʕabir- ‘traveling (along a road), passing by, crossing (rivers)’.

–

► ^BP#1168ʕabbara, vb. II, 1 to interpret (a dream); 2 to explain, illustrate, expound; 3 to state clearly, declare, assert, utter, express, voice (ʕan s.th.), give expression (ʕan to a feeling); 4 to designate (ʕan s.th., bi with or by); 5 to determine the weight of a coin, weigh (a coin): D-stem, caus., fig. use, lit. *‘to make cross’; see own entry ↗ʕabbara.
► ^BP#341ĭʕtabara, vb. VIII, 1 to be taught a lesson, be warned; 2 to learn a lesson, take warning, learn, take an example (bi from); 3 to consider, weigh, take into account or consideration (s.th.), allow, make allowances (DO for s.th.); 4 to acknowledge (DO a quality, li‑ in s.o.); 5 to deem, regard, take (2xDO s.o., s.th. as), look (DO at s.th., DO as); 6 to esteem, honour, revere, value, respect, hold in esteem (s.o.), have regard (DO for s.o.): tG-stem, either denom. from ʕibraẗ (see below and ↗s.v.) or self-referential in the sense of *‘to cross or wander around [for o.s., mentally] in a book, or in the realm of possible explanations, meanings, choices, etc.’

► ʕabr, n., 1 crossing, traversing, transit; 2 passage; 3 fording: vn. I; ^BP#3854 ~a…, prep., across, over; through, throughout; by way of, by means of: reflecting Sem *ʕib(V)r‑ ‘region beyond/across a body of water (river, lake, sea), (further) bank/shore’? | ~a ’l-madīnaẗ, adv., across/through the town; ~a ’l-ṣaḥrāʔ, adv., across/through the desert; ~a ’l-biḥār, adv., overseas; ~a ’l-tārīḫ, adv., throughout history; ~a ’l-ʕuṣūr, adv., through the centuries
► ^BP#3482ʕubūr, n., 1 crossing, traversing, transit; 2 passage; fording: vn. I.
► ^BP#3411ʕibraẗ, pl. ʕibar, n.f., 1 admonition, monition, warning; 2 (warning or deterring) example, lesson; 3 advice, rule, precept (to be followed); 4 consideration befitting s.th.; 5 that which has to be considered, be taken into consideration or account, that which is of consequence, of importance, s.th. decisive or consequential: prob. from ‘to cross’, interpreted as *‘to cross, traverse mentally, ponder about, wander through a world of ideas or possibilities’, hence ‘to contemplate’ (> ‘to draw a lesson from’), and hence also ‘to examine, test’. | mawṭin al-~, n., the salient point, the crucial point; lā ~a bi-hī, expr., it deserves no attention, it is of no consequence; al-~ fī/bi , expr., the crucial factor(s) is (are)…, decisive is (are)…; lā ~a li-man…, expr., it is of no consequence if s.o….
► ^BP#904ʕibāraẗ, pl. -āt, n.f., 1 explanation, interpretation; 2 (verbal) expression, utterance; 3 phrase; 4 clause; 5 way of expressing o.s.: quasi-vn. I; 6 term (math.) : prob. a neolog., extens. of [v3] or [v4] following the model of Engl Fr expression which is used for math. expressions too. | bi-~ ʔuḫrà, adv., in other words, expressed otherwise; ~an fa-~an, adv., sentence by sentence, word by word; ~ ʕan, n.f./adj./adv., consisting in; tantamount to, equivalent to, meaning…
► ^BP#3146maʕbar, pl. maʕābirᵘ, n., 1 crossing point, crossing, traverse, passage(way); 2 ford; 3 pass, pass road, defile: n.loc.; 4 means, way, medium (li‑ to): fig. use of n.loc.
► miʕbar, pl. maʕābirᵘ, n., 1 medium for crossing, ferry, ferryboat; 2 bridge: n.instr.
► ^BP#1062taʕbīr, n., 1 interpretation (of a dream); 2 assertion, declaration, expression, utterance (ʕan of a feeling); 3 (pl. -āt) expression (in general, also artistic); 4 (pl. taʕābirᵘ) (linguistic) expression, phrase, term: vn. II; for semantics, see ʕabbara above, and entry ↗ʕabbara. | bi-~ ʔāḫar, adv., in other words, expressed otherwise.
► taʕbīrī, adj., expressional, expressive, emotive: nsb-adj., from taʕbīr, vn. II. | al-ʔadab al-~, n., expressionistic literature; ḥarakāt ~aẗ, n.f.pl., mimic gestures or art; al-raqṣ al-~, n., interpretive dance, expressional dance; al-fann al-~, n., expressionism
► taʕbīriyyaẗ, n.f., expressionism: neolog., abstr. formation in -iyyaẗ, from taʕbīr, vn. II.
► ^BP#758ĭʕtibār, n., 1 respect, regard, esteem; 2 self-esteem, honour; 3 (pl. -āt) consideration, regard; 4 reflection, contemplation; 5 approach, outlook, point of view, view: vb. VIII. | ~an li-/bi-…, bi-~…, prep., with respect to, with regard to, in consideration of, considering…, in view of (s.th.); ~an min, prep., from, as of, beginning…, starting with…, effective from… (with foll. indication of time); bi-~i ʔan…, conj., considering (the fact) that…, with regard to the fact that…, in view of the fact that…; provided that…, with the proviso that…; bi-~i-hī… (+acc.), adv., in terms of, in the capacity of, e.g., wazīr al-ḫāriǧiyyaẗ bi-~i-hī ʔaqdama ’l-wuzarāʔ, the Foreign Minister in his capacity of senior-ranking minister; ʕalà / bi-hāḏā ’l-~, adv., from this standpoint, from this viewpoint; ʕalà ~-i ʔanna…, conj., considering (the fact) that…, with regard to the fact that…, in view of the fact that…; on the assumption that…; fī kull ~, adv., in every respect; ~an ʔaw ḥaqīqaẗan, adv., from a subjective point of view or in reality; ʔamr la-hū ~u-hū, expr., s.th. which one must take into consideration or pay attention to; radd al-~, n., rehabilitation
► ĭʕtibārī, adj., 1 based on a subjective approach or outlook; 2 relative: nsb-adj., from ĭʕtibār, vn. VIII | šaḫṣiyyaẗ ~aẗ, n.f., legal person (jur.)
► ^BP#2647ʕābir, adj., 1 passing; 2 crossing, traversing, etc. (see I); 3 fleeting (smile); 4 transient, transitory, ephemeral; 5 bygone, past, elapsed (time); 6 (pl. -ūn) passer-by : PA I. | ~ al-muḥīṭ, adj., crossing the ocean; ~āt al-muḥīṭ, n.f.pl., ocean liners; ~ al-sabīl, n., way-farer; passer-by, s.o. passing along in the street; ~ al-ṣaḥrāʔ, n., traverser of the Sahara; ṣārūḫ ~ al-qārrāt, n., intercontinental ballistic missile, ICBM
^BP#2741muʕabbir, n., 1 interpreter (ʕan of feelings); 2 expressive, significant: PA II. | raqṣ ~, n., interpretative dancing

For other values attached to the same root, cf. ↗ʕabīr, ↗ʕibrī, ↗ʕabraẗ, and, for the whole picture, ↗ʕBR.

ʕabbar‑ عَبَّرَ (taʕbīr)

ID … • Sw – • BP 1168 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕBR

vb., II

1 to interpret (a dream); 2 to explain, illustrate, expound; 3 to state clearly, declare, assert, utter, express, voice (ʕan s.th.), give expression (ʕan to a feeling); 4 to designate (ʕan s.th., bi with or by); 5 to determine the weight of a coin, weigh (a coin) – WehrCowan1979.

▪ [v1-2] are usually explained as fig. use, lit. *‘to make cross’, caus. D-stem, from ↗ʕabara ‘to cross’, from Sem *ʕ˅b˅r- ‘to cross’, from *ʕib(˅)r- ‘region beyond/across a body of water (river, lake, sea), (further) bank/shore’; cf. also: »taʕbīr ‘the passage of one thing to another, one sense to another’, hence ‘explanation’, like ↗tafsīr, lit. ‘commenting, explaining’. In current usage, ~ is confined to the sense of ‘interpretation of dreams [, oneiromancy]’ (taʕbīr al-ruʔya) while tafsīr is used for commentaries on e.g. the Bible and the Qurʔān« – EI², Glossary and Index of Terms.
▪ [v3] could be regarded as denom. from ↗ʕibāraẗ in the meaning of ‘(verbal) expression, utterance; way of expressing o.s.’; the basic idea is a *‘crossing from the inner world (of feelings, opinions, etc.) to the outer world, hence: verbal articulation’.
▪ [v4] ?
▪ Like [v1-2], [v5] too is traditionally explained as fig. use from ‘to cross’, interpreted as *‘to (make) cross, traverse mentally, ponder about, wander through a world of ideas or possibilities’, hence ‘to contemplate’ (> ‘to draw a lesson from’, cf. ↗ʕibraẗ), and hence also ‘to examine, test’.

▪ …

↗ʕabara.

Cf. above, section CONC, as well as ↗ʕabara and ↗ʕBR.

–

► ^BP#1062taʕbīr, n., 1 interpretation (of a dream); 2 assertion, declaration, expression, utterance (ʕan of a feeling); 3 (pl. -āt) expression (in general, also artistic); 4 (pl. taʕābirᵘ) (linguistic) expression, phrase, term: vn. II | bi-~ ʔāḫar, adv., in other words, expressed otherwise.
► taʕbīrī, adj., expressional, expressive, emotive: nsb-adj., from taʕbīr, vn. II. | al-ʔadab al-~, n., expressionistic literature; ḥarakāt ~aẗ, n.f.pl., mimic gestures or art; al-raqṣ al-~, n., interpretive dance, expressional dance; al-fann al-~, n., expressionism
► taʕbīriyyaẗ, n.f., expressionism: abstr. formation in -iyyaẗ, from taʕbīr, vn. II.
► ^BP#2741muʕabbir, n., 1 interpreter (ʕan of feelings); 2 expressive, significant: PA II. | raqṣ ~, n., interpretative dancing.

For other values attached to the same root, cf. ↗ʕabara, ↗ʕabīr, ↗ʕibrī, ↗ʕabraẗ, ↗ʕibraẗ, ↗ʕibāraẗ, and, for the whole picture, ↗ʕBR.

ʕabīr عَبِير

ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕBR

n.

1 fragrance, scent, perfume, aroma; 2 bouquet (of wine) – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Traditional etymologists tend to derive ʕabīr ‘(compound) perfume’ from ↗ʕabara ‘to cross, pass over’ in the sense of *‘to cross the air, evaporate’, but this explanation looks rather far-fetched.
▪ A relation to WSem *ʕBR ‘to overflow’ (as is sometimes assumed for ↗ʕabraẗ ‘tear’) seems to be suggested by Hoch1994#68 when he does not exclude the possibility that the Eg loanword ʕbyr */ʕabīr/ (of uncertain meaning) perh. should be associated with BiblHbr (Song of Songs, 5:5) môr ʕōḇēr ‘liquid myrrh’ where ʕōḇēr most probably is a PA of the Hbr vb. ʕāḇar ‘to overflow’, which some scholars put to Sem *ʕ˅b˅r- ‘to cross’ while others regard it as a homonymous root that should be separated from ‘to cross’.
▪ Another connection is insinuated, though only implicitly, by Lane when he lists not only ʕabīr but also ↗ʕanbar ‘ambergris’ under √ʕBR. What may look rather unlikely at first sight can gain some plausibility when attention is paid to the fact that ʕabīr and ʕanbar both are associated, and sometimes even identified, with ‘saffron’. Phonologically, however, it would be difficult to derive ʕabīr directly from ʕanbar.
▪ From the above it is evident that, for the moment, the etymology of ʕabīr remains rather obscure and that the item therefore better should be kept apart from ʕabara.

▪ In ClassAr ‘a mixture of perfumes, compounded with saffron’ or even used as a synonym for ‘saffron’ – Lane.

▪ ? – If related, cf. perh. ↗ʕabara.

▪ See above, section CONC.

–

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕabara, ↗ʕabbara, ↗ʕibrī, ↗ʕabraẗ, ↗ʕibraẗ, ↗ʕibāraẗ, and, for the whole picture, ↗ʕBR.

ʕibrī عِبْرِيّ

ID … • Sw – • BP 3673 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕBR

adj., n.gent.

1 Hebrew, Hebraic; 2 (pl. -ūn) a Hebrew; 3 al-~, n., or al-~iyyaẗ, n.f., Hebrew, the Hebrew language – WehrCowan1979.

▪ The origin of the term Hbr ʕiḇrî (Ar ʕibrī) ‘Hebrew’ is, as Hopkins summarizes the state of affairs in etymological research about the word, still »a moot point, much discussed yet unresolved. None of the many etymologies proposed is satisfactory and so the origin of ‘Hebrew’ must be accounted unclear. Eccentricities apart, there are three main avenues of approach: (i) ʕiḇrî is an eponymous gentilic adjective, derived from the proper name ʕēḇär ‘Eber’, the great-grandson of Shem (Gen. 10.24; 11.14); (ii) ʕiḇrî is a geographical term, derived from ʕēḇär ‘across, beyond’, more particularly ʕēḇär han-nāhār ‘beyond the river’ (see especially Josh. 24.2). Depending upon the identity of the river in question, ʕiḇrî is to be understood as ‘trans-Euphrates’ or ‘trans-Jordan’«; while the ultimate etymon here would be Sem *ʕib(˅)r- ‘region beyond’, another geographical reading interpreted the Biblical ʕiḇrīm as ‘Bedouins’, i.e., a group of people who *‘cross, or wander around in, the desert’ (< Sem *ʕ˅b˅R- ‘to pass by, go beyond, cross’); »(iii) As opposed to (i) and (ii), which represent traditional views found in rabbinical sources, especially since the discovery of the Tel el-Amarna letters in the late 19th century it has been not uncommon in Biblical scholarship to find a connection between ‘Hebrew’ and the ḫabiru, groups of roving marauders mentioned in the Tel el-Amarna (and other) documents as having attacked Palestine in the mid-2nd millennium B.C.E.« – »Names of the Hebrew Language« (S. Hopkins), in Encyclopedia of Hebrew Language and Linguistics.
▪ For more details see below, section DISC.

▪ …

▪ If from Sem *ʕ˅b˅r- ‘to cross’ or *ʕib(˅)r- ‘the region beyond/across a body of water (river, lake, sea), (further) bank/shore’, then ʕibrī is cognate to ↗ʕabara.

▪ LandbergZetterstéen1942: Sur Hbr ʕiḇrī = ‘bédouin’, voyez Spiegelberg, OLZ 1907, col. 618 ss.; sur ʕBR = ʕRB Paul Haupt, “Die Vorfahren der Juden”, OLZ 12 (1909), col. 163 n. 2: »Der Name Hebräer (ʕibr für ʕabĭr) bedeutet (mehr oder weniger unfreiwillig; vgl. JAOS 16: ci) ‘Umherziehender’ (OLZ 10: 620; AJSL 23: 261). ʕArab (eigentlich ‘das Durchzogene, worin man umherzieht’) ist nur eine Umstellung (JBL 19: 66; AJSL 24: 113) dieses Stammes; vgl. äthiop. ʕabra. Die Jordanspalte heisst ʕarabâ, weil sie überschritten werden muss. Kein Nomade würde ein Tal mit einem nie versiegenden Fluss als Wüste bezeichnen.«⁸
▪ BDB1906 connects the Hbr n.gent. ʕiḇrī with Sem √ʕBR (Ar ↗ʕabara ‘to cross’, Hbr ʕēḇär ‘region across or beyond, side’): it is »either a. put into the mouth of foreigners (Egypt, and Philist.), or b. used to distinguish Isr. from foreigners (= ‘one from beyond, from the other side’, i.e. prob. [in Hbr trad.] ‘from beyond the Euphrates’ […], but poss. in fact (if name given in Canaan) ‘from beyond the Jordan’«. However, BDB also mentions the »connexion […] with Ḫabiri (Tel Am.)«, cf. next paragraph.
▪ Are the ʕibrîm identical with the Ḫabiru of the Tell Amarna letters? — »The Ḫabiru-Hebrew parallelism was first suggested by F. J. Chabas in 1862. Soon after the discovery of the Amarna letters in 1887, the dispute over the above equation gained momentum. From the outset, scholars were split into two camps: those defending the identification, who endeavored to combine the two groups and to integrate them into the early history of Israel, and those rejecting it. In the course of time, it became clear that Ḫabiru is an appellative for a certain social element, namely displaced persons who leave their homeland and seek their fortunes in neighboring countries. However, whereas the nature of the Ḫabiru was unanimously recognized, the Ḫabiru-Hebrew equation remained as controversial as ever.«⁹
▪ Hoch1994#70: cf. Eg */ʕapīrū/, */ʕapūra/ ? — »The Eg contexts seem to indicate that the term designated social and not ethnic classification. […] Although the etymology is uncertain, the word is known in Akk texts as ḫabiru, and Ug as ʕprm. The word is also very likely related to the Biblical term/name ʕiḇrî ‘Hebrew’, but the nature of the relationship is not easily determined.« [fn. 33:] »Scholars have variously equated, loosely associated, or rejected any connection between the ʕIbrîm and the ʕApiru. Loretz, although admitting an etymological derivation from ʕprw=ʕprm=ḫabiru, considers that all the occurrences of the word in the Bible are as a gentilic, and not as a social term. This is certainly true of the post-exilic usage, but it is possible that in I Sam. 4-29 the word is used in its original sense, although put in the mouths of the Philistines, perh. with a certain degree of contempt. That ʕApiru groups were still active is shown by the narrative of I Sam. 22-30 where David leads a band of brigands that are all but called ʕApiru. The later usage as a gentilic may have arisen as a re-interpretation of the term, whose original sense had been forgotten, such social groups having long since disappeared. The view that the I Sam. instances are genuine Biblical examples of ʕApiru, but that the other examples are the gentilic was also expressed by N. P. Lemche, “‘Hebrew’ as a National Name for Israel”, Studia Theologica: Scandinavian Journal of Theology, 33 (1979): 1-23.«

8. Translation (omitting references in parathenses in the original German): ‘The Name Hebrews (ʕibr, from ʕabĭr) means ‘(more or less voluntarily) wandering around, nomad’. ʕArab (lit. ‘what is traversed, crossed, where one wanders around in’) is just a metathesis of [the name of] this tribe; cf. Gz ʕabra. The Jordan Valley is called ʕarabâ because it has to be crossed. No nomad would ever call a valley with a river that never runs dry, a desert’. 9. Nadav Naʔaman, review of Ḫabiru–Hebräer: Eine sozio-linguistische Studie über die Herkunft des Gentiliziums ʕibrî vom Appellativum ḫabiru, by Oswald Loretz (Berlin & New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1984), Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 47.3 (Jul. 1988): 192-194.

▪ Not from Ar ʕibrī, but ultimately from the same source is Engl Hebrew, loEngl, »from oFr Ebreu, from Lat Hebraeus, from Grk Hebraîos, from Aram ʕeḇrāʔī, corresponding to Hbr ʕiḇrî ‘an Israelite’. Traditionally from an ancestral name Eber [ʕēḇär ], but probably literally ‘one from the other side’, perhaps in reference to the River Euphrates, or perhaps simply signifying ‘immigrant’; from ʕēḇär ‘region on the other or opposite side’. The initial H- was restored in Engl from C16. As a noun from c. 1200, ‘the Hebrew language’; lC14 in reference to persons, originally ‘a biblical Jew, Israelite’ – EtymOnline.

► ʕibrānī, adj., 1 Hebrew, Hebraic; 2 a Hebrew; 3 al-~, n., or al-~iyyaẗ, n.f., Hebrew, the Hebrew language.

For other values attached to the same root, cf. ↗ʕabara, ↗ʕabbara, ↗ʕabīr, ↗ʕabraẗ, ↗ʕibraẗ, ↗ʕibāraẗ, and, for the whole picture, ↗ʕBR.

ʕabraẗ عَبْرة , pl. ʕabarāt , ʕibar

ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕBR

n.f.

tear – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Perh. akin to ↗ʕabara ‘to cross’, from Sem *ʕ˅b˅r- ‘id.’ (denom. of *ʕib(˅)r- ‘opposite side, region beyond’), interpreted as *‘to cross a border, reach a limit, a brim, overflow’ (esp. feelings, emotion), hence ‘tear, to shed tears’, or, in a narrower sense, to WSem *ʕBR ‘to overflow’.

▪ Cf. also ClassAr (G-stem) ^†ʕabara (ʕabr) and ^†ʕabira a (ʕabar) ‘to shed tears; to grieve, mourn, be sorrowful, sad, unhappy’, ^†ʕabrà (pl. ʕubr) ‘weeping (eye), hence: grieving (woman), bereft of her child’ – Lane/Hava1899.

▪ Probably related to Hbr ʕäḇrāʰ ‘overflow, excess, outburst; arrogance; overflowing rage, fury’, (Št-stem, denom.) hiṯʕabbar ‘to be arrogant, infuriate o.s.’ (BDB1906), and Syr ʕbar ‘…; to surpass, exceed, be beyond, overcome’ (e.g., bᵊ-šūp̱rāh lᵊ-šemšā ʕābrā hᵊwāt ‘she surpassed the sun in fairness’), (eṯp) ‘…; to neglect, fail (of accomplishment), to transgress, sin’, (aph) ‘…; to go beyond, exceed’ (PayneSmith1903). – ? Cf. also Akk ebirtu (var. abirtu, ḫibirtu), name of a month? According to CAD, this word is »possibly to be connected with [Akk] ebēru, in the meaning ‘to overflow’, attested in WSem (Hbr, Aram), hence ‘the month of overflowing of the rivers’«. – However, it is still not clear whether WSem ʕBR ‘to overflow’ really is related to Sem ʕBR ‘to cross’ or whether we are dealing with a homonymous root.

▪ If ʕabraẗ ‘tear’ is related to WSem *ʕBR ‘to overflow’, its original meaning would be *‘what overflows’ or *‘result of an overflow (of emotion, rage, fury, etc.)’. Gesenius1915, it is right, thinks that WSem *ʕBR ‘to overflow’ has to be treated as a root in its own right, different from Sem *ʕBR ‘to cross’; but why should ‘to overflow’ not go back to an earlier ‘reaching/crossing a border, go beyond, pass over’ and thus probably have developed from *‘to cross’?

–

► ʕabira, a (ʕabar) to shed tears
► ĭstaʕbara, vb. X, to shed tears, weep

For other values attached to the same root, cf. ↗ʕabara, ↗ʕabbara, ↗ʕabīr, ↗ʕibrī, ↗ʕibraẗ, ↗ʕibāraẗ, and, for the whole picture, ↗ʕBR.

ʕibraẗ عِبْرة, pl. ʕibar

ID … • Sw – • BP 3411 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕBR

n.f.

1 admonition, monition, warning; 2 (warning or deterring) example, lesson; 3 advice, rule, precept (to be followed); 4 consideration befitting s.th.; 5 that which has to be considered, be taken into consideration or account, that which is of consequence, of importance, s.th. decisive or consequential… – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Based on ↗ʕabara ‘to cross’ (from Sem *ʕ˅b˅r- ‘id.’, denom. of *ʕib(˅)r- ‘opposite side, region beyond’), interpreted figuratively as *‘to cross, traverse mentally, ponder about, wander through (a world of ideas or possibilities)’, hence ‘to contemplate’ (> ‘to draw a lesson from’), and hence also ‘to examine, test’.

▪ eC7 ʕibraẗ (lesson to be learned) Q 12:111 la-qad kāna fī qaṣaṣi-him ʕibraẗun li-ʔūlī ’l-ʔalbābi ‘in their stories is surely a lesson for those possessed of minds’. – ĭʕtabara (VIII, intr., to take heed, learn a lesson, consider) Q 59:2 fa-’ʕtabirū yā ʔūlī ’l-ʔabṣāri ‘so learn a lesson, you who have eyes’.

▪ As ↗ʕabara.

▪ See above, section CONC.

–

► mawṭin al-ʕibraẗ, n., the salient point, the crucial point
► lā ʕibraẗa bi-hī, expr., it deserves no attention, it is of no consequence
► al-ʕibraẗ fī / bi , expr., the crucial factor(s) is (are)…, decisive is (are)…
► lā ʕibraẗa li-man …, expr., it is of no consequence if s.o….

► ^BP#341ĭʕtabara, vb. VIII, 1 to be taught a lesson, be warned; 2 to learn a lesson, take warning, learn, take an example (bi from); 3 to consider, weigh, take into account or consideration (s.th.), allow, make allowances (DO for s.th.); 4 to acknowledge (DO a quality, li‑ in s.o.); 5 to deem, regard, take (2xDO s.o., s.th. as), look (DO at s.th., DO as); 6 to esteem, honour, revere, value, respect, hold in esteem (s.o.), have regard (DO for s.o.): tG-stem, either denom. from ʕibraẗ or self-referential in the sense of *‘to cross or wander around (for o.s., mentally, in a book, or the realm of possible explanations, meanings, choices, etc.)’.

► ^BP#758ĭʕtibār, n., 1 respect, regard, esteem; 2 self-esteem, honour; 3 (pl. -āt) consideration, regard; 4 reflection, contemplation; 5 approach, outlook, point of view, view: vn. VIII. | ~an li-/bi-…, bi-~…, prep., with respect to, with regard to, in consideration of, considering…, in view of (s.th.); ~an min, prep., from, as of, beginning…, starting with…, effective from… (with foll. indication of time); bi-~i ʔan…, conj., considering (the fact) that…, with regard to the fact that…, in view of the fact that…; provided that…, with the proviso that…; bi-~i-hī… (+acc.), adv., in terms of, in the capacity of, e.g., wazīr al-ḫāriǧiyyaẗ bi-~i-hī ʔaqdama ’l-wuzarāʔ, the Foreign Minister in his capacity of senior-ranking minister; ʕalà / bi-hāḏā ’l-~, adv., from this standpoint, from this viewpoint; ʕalà ~-i ʔanna…, conj., considering (the fact) that…, with regard to the fact that…, in view of the fact that…; on the assumption that…; fī kull ~, adv., in every respect; ~an ʔaw ḥaqīqaẗan, adv., from a subjective point of view or in reality; ʔamr la-hū ~u-hū, expr., s.th. which one must take into consideration or pay attention to; radd al-~, n., rehabilitation
► ĭʕtibārī, adj., 1 based on a subjective approach or outlook; 2 relative: nsb-adj., from ĭʕtibār, vn. VIII | šaḫṣiyyaẗ ~aẗ, n.f., legal person (jur.)

For other values attached to the same root, cf. ↗ʕabara, ↗ʕabbara, ↗ʕabīr, ↗ʕibrī, ↗ʕabraẗ, ↗ʕibāraẗ, and, for the whole picture, ↗ʕBR.

ʕibāraẗ عِبارة , pl. ‑āt

ID … • Sw – • BP 904 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕBR

n.f.

1 explanation, interpretation; 2 (verbal) expression, utterance; 3 phrase; 4 clause; 5 way of expressing o.s.; 6 term (math.) – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Quasi-vn. I, based on ↗ʕabara ‘to cross’ (from Sem *ʕ˅b˅r- ‘to cross’, from *ʕib(˅)r- ‘region beyond/across a body of water, opposite bank/shore’), interpreted as *‘to make s.th. pass from the tongue of the speaker to the ear of the hearer’ or *‘…from the inner world of feelings and thought to the outer world of words, i.e., to verbalilze, articulate s.th.’, hence ‘to express (a feeling, an opinion, etc.)’; cf. Engl express < Lat ex-primere, lit., *‘to squeeze, make come out’; cf. also ↗ʕabbara.
▪ In mysticism, ʕibāraẗ means »the ‘literal language’, which is unsuitable for exoteric topics, in contrast to the coded language of ↗ʔišāraẗ « – EI², Glossary and Index of Terms.
▪ [v6] ‘term (math.)’ is prob. a neolog., an extens. of [v3] or [v4], following the model of Engl Fr expression which is likewise used for math. expressions.

▪ …

▪ ↗ʕabara.

ʕibāraẗ ‘speech that passes from the tongue of the speaker to the ear of the hearer; hence: passage in a book or writing; and hence also: word, expression, phrase; and: explanation, interpretation’ (Lane).
▪ A similar semantic development is also found in Syr.

–

► bi-ʕibāraẗ ʔuḫrà, adv., in other words, expressed otherwise
► ʕibāraẗan fa-ʕibāraẗan, adv., sentence by sentence, word by word
► ʕibāraẗ ʕan, n.f./adj./adv., consisting in; tantamount to, equivalent to, meaning

► ^BP#1168ʕabbara, vb. II, 1 to interpret (a dream); 2 to explain, illustrate, expound; 3 to state clearly, declare, assert, utter, express, voice (ʕan s.th.), give expression (ʕan to a feeling); 4 to designate (ʕan s.th., bi with or by); 5 to determine the weight of a coin, weigh (a coin): While [v1-2] are fig. use of the caus. D-stem, lit. *‘to make cross’, [v3] can be regarded as denom. from ʕibāraẗ; [v4] : ?; [v5] : from ↗ʕabara ‘to cross’, in the fig. sense of *‘to go through (the many possibilities), check out, test’, cf. ↗ʕibraẗ.
► ^BP#1062taʕbīr, n., 1 interpretation (of a dream); 2 assertion, declaration, expression, utterance (ʕan of a feeling); 3 (pl. -āt) expression (in general, also artistic); 4 (pl. taʕābirᵘ) (linguistic) expression, phrase, term: vn. II; for semantics, see ʕabbara above, and entry ↗ʕabbara. | bi-~ ʔāḫar, adv., in other words, expressed otherwise.
► taʕbīrī, adj., expressional, expressive, emotive | al-ʔadab al-~, n., expressionistic literature; ḥarakāt ~aẗ, n.f.pl., mimic gestures or art; al-raqṣ al-~, n., interpretive dance, expressional dance; al-fann al-~, n., expressionism
► taʕbīriyyaẗ, n.f., expressionism: neolog., abstr. formation in -iyyaẗ, from taʕbīr, vn. II.
► ^BP#2741muʕabbir, 1 n., interpreter (ʕan of feelings); 2 adj., expressive, significant: PA II. | raqṣ ~, n., interpretative dancing

For other values attached to the same root, cf. ↗ʕabara, ↗ʕabīr, ↗ʕibrī, ↗ʕabraẗ, ↗ʕibraẗ, and, for the whole picture, ↗ʕBR.

ʕBS عبس

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023

√ʕBS

“root”

▪ ʕBS_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕBS_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕBS_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘dung, to be soiled, to be dismal; to frown, to look stern, to be austere’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʕBQR عبقر

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023

√ʕBQR

“root”

▪ ʕBQR_1 ‘(a kind of) rich carpet’ ↗ʕabqarī
▪ ʕBQR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕBQR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

▪ ‘This root is said to originate from the word ʕAbqar, the name of the place which the ancient Arabs believed to be the home of the wondrous jinn. It is said also to be a name of a town, either in the Yemen or in al-Ǧazīra, where cloth of great beauty is made. Some scholars, however, suggest that the word came into Ar from Pers long before the revelation of the Qur’an. The concepts associated with this root include: ‘genius, talent, poetical inspiration, rich floral types of carpet’ (the latter revealing perh. a Pers origin for the word)’ – BAH2008

–

.

–

ʕabqarī عَبْقَريّ

ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Jun2023

√ʕBQR

n.

(a kind of) rich carpet – Jeffery1938

▪ …

▪ eC7 Q iv, 76 – Jeffery1938.

.

▪ Jeffery1938: »It occurs only in an early Meccan Sūra in a passage describing the delights of Paradise.
The exegetes were quite at a loss to explain the word. Zam. says that it refers to ʕabqar, a town of the Jinn, which is the home of all wonderful things, and Ṭab., while telling us that ʕabqarī is the same as zarābī or dībāǧ states that the Arabs called every wonderful thing ʕabqarī.
It seems to be an Iranian word. Addai Sher, 114, suggests that it the Pers ābkār, i.e. āb kār, meaning ‘something splendid’, from āb ‘splendour’ and kār ‘something made’. That would be Phlv āb ‘lustre, splendour’¹⁰ (cf. Skt. ābʰā) and kār ‘labour, affair’¹¹ from Av kār (cf. Skt. kār),¹² so Phlv ābkār would mean a ‘splendid or gorgeous piece of work’. It must be admitted, however, that this derivation seems very artificial.«

10. PPGl, 87, and cf. Horn, Grundriss, 3. 11. West, Glossary, 194, and Horn, Grundriss, 831. 12. Bartholomae, AIW, 444 ff.

–

ʕTB عتب

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023

√ʕTB

“root”

▪ ʕTB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕTB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕTB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘flight of levelled stone steps up a mountain, threshold, lintel, stairs; anger, to be angry, to reprove, to have a bone to pick with s.o., to reproach a friend amicably because of an alleged hurtful action committed by him, to explain o.s., to seek forgiveness’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʕTD عتد

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023

√ʕTD

“root”

▪ ʕTD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕTD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕTD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘container for personal valuables, war materials including horses kept at the ready, to prepare, to be ready; to treasure’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʕTQ عتق

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023

√ʕTQ

“root”

▪ ʕTQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕTQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕTQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘shoulder; to set free, to go free; to mature, to be in the prime of condition; to be old, (wine and the like) mature’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʕatīq عَتيق

Sw – • NahḍCon • BP 3724 • APD … • © SG | created 7Jun2023

√ʕTQ

adj.

ancient, antique

▪ …

.

ʕTL عتل

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023

√ʕTL

“root”

▪ ʕTL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕTL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕTL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘crowbar; to drag violently; ruffian and cruel person’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʕTW/Y عتو/ي

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023

√ʕTW/Y

“root”

▪ ʕTW/Y_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕTW/Y_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕTW/Y_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be excessively fierce, arrogant, violent, aggressive, to be disobedient, to offer mutinous opposition; (of tree branches) to dry up; to reach very old age, to be infirm’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʕṮR عثر

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023

√ʕṮR

“root”

▪ ʕṮR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕṮR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕṮR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a hole in which irrigation water collects, palm trees that get water from such pools; to stumble upon, to find, to trip; a slip of the tongue; dusty land’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʕṮW/Y عثو/ي

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023

√ʕṮW/Y

“root”

▪ ʕṮW/Y_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕṮW/Y_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕṮW/Y_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘tangled hair, to go haywire; to act wickedly, to harm, to cause mischief; male hyena, a crude unkempt person, a fool’

▪ …

–

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ʕǦB عجب

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕǦB

“root”

▪ ʕǦB_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʕǦB_2 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʕǦB_x ‘sacrum’: ʕaǧb; cf. also ʔaʕǧabᵘ ‘having prominent buttocks’.

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘wonder, to admire, to like, a wondrous thing; conceit, conceited person’

▪ …
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▪ (ʕaǧb ‘sacrum’, ʔaʕǧabᵘ ‘having prominent buttocks’) Kogan2011: from protWSem *ʕag(a)b‑ ‘coccyx, buttocks’. – For items with similar meaning, cf. ↗ʕaṣà (ʕaṣaṣ, ʕuṣuṣ, ʕuṣʕūṣ), ↗ʔist, and ↗qaynaẗ.
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ʕaǧab‑ عَجَبَ

ID 563 • Sw – • BP 4086 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕǦB

vb., I

… – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ …
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ʕǦZ عجز

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕǦZ

“root”

▪ ʕǦZ_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʕǦZ_2 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘posteriors, buttocks, (of palm trees) stumps; to hang back, to fail to perform, lack of strength, lack of ability, failure, to grow old; miracle, to out-perform’

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ʕaǧiz‑ عَجِزَ

ID 566 • Sw – • BP 2607 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕǦZ

vb., I

… – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

–

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ʔiʕǧāz إعْجاز

ID 564 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕǦZ

n.

… – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

–

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ʕāǧiz عاجِز

ID 565 • Sw – • BP 2946 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕǦZ

adj.

… – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

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muʕǧizaẗ مُعْجِزَة

ID 567 • Sw – • BP 4217 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕǦZ

n.f.

… – WehrCowan1979.

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ʕǦF عجف

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023

√ʕǦF

“root”

▪ ʕǦF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕǦF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕǦF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be emaciated, to be lean, to refrain from eating; to encounter hardship, to be miserly’

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.

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ʕǦL عجل

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023

√ʕǦL

“root”

▪ ʕǦL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕǦL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕǦL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘calf; haste, to hasten, speed, rush; wheel, camel litter, hawdaj; a palm tree ladder’

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ʕǦM عجم

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023

√ʕǦM

“root”

▪ ʕǦM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕǦM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕǦM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘fruit stones (particularly those of dates), seed, solid; to test by biting on; to be dumb; beast; those who cannot speak Arabic, obscurity’

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ʕDː (ʕDD) عدّ/عدد

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023

√ʕDː (ʕDD)

“root”

▪ ʕDː (ʕDD)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕDː (ʕDD)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕDː (ʕDD)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘gear; group, number, to count, to number, to reckon, to enumerate, an appointed time; plenty of; to be reckoned with; to get ready, readiness’

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ĭstiʕdād اِسْتِعْداد

Sw – • NahḍCon • BP 1177 • APD … • © SG | created 7Jun2023

√ʕDː (ʕDD)

n.

.

▪ vn., X

.

ʕDS عدس

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023

√ʕDS

“root”

▪ ʕDS_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕDS_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕDS_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a cry used in urging on a mule, to walk with vigour, to travel far and wide; lentils’

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ʕDL عدل

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕDL

“root”

▪ ʕDL_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʕDL_2 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘one side of a camel litter; to be equal to, justice, to be straight, to be upright, to be temperate, the happy medium, to be of impeccable character; to change one’s mind, value’

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ʕadl عَدْل

Sw – • NahḍCon • BP 1223 • APD … • © SG | created 7Jun2023

√ʕDL

n.

.

▪ vn., I

.

ʕadālaẗ عَدالَة

ID 568 • Sw – • NahḍCon • BP 1549 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕDL

n.f.

… – WehrCowan1979.

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ʕDN عدن

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023

√ʕDN

“root”

▪ ʕDN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕDN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕDN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘metal, place of permanent residence, to settle in; group of people, Paradise’. – The last sense is attributed by al-Suyūṭī to a borrowing from Syr.

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.

▪ Not from Ar ↗ʕAdan ‘Aden’, but from the Hbr ancestor common to both is Engl Eden: from Hbr ʕēden ‘delight’.

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ʕDW عدو

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕDW

“root”

▪ ʕDW_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʕDW_2 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008, s.r. ʕDw/y): ‘the two sides of a valley, to cross from one side to the other, to run, to pass, to infect, infection, calamity; aggression, animosity, enemy, corruption; to boycott’

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ʕaduww عَدُوّ

ID 569 • Sw – • BP 799 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕDW

n.

… – WehrCowan1979.

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ʕḎB عذب

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023

√ʕḎB

“root”

▪ ʕḎB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕḎB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕḎB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘(of water) to be sweet, be pleasant, fresh, agreeable; to remove or deny sweet water, torture, cause pain; to be unable to eat because of extreme thirst; to go far; the tip of a pointed object’

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ʕḎR عذر

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023

√ʕḎR

“root”

▪ ʕḎR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕḎR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕḎR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘courtyard; a refuse dump; faeces; to cleanse; to excuse, justification; to forgive; virginity, modesty; hair growing on the cheeks; to become difficult; landmark’

▪ From CSem *√ʕḎR ‘to help’ – Huehnergard2011.
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.

▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Ezra, from Hbr ʕezrāʔ, hypocoristic form of a name such as ʕazrîʔēl ‘God (is) my help’, from ʕazr‑, ʕezr‑, presuffixal form of ʕēzer ‘help’, cf. Ar ↗ʕaḏara (ʔēl ‘God’, cf. Ar ↗ʔilāh, ↗allāh); Lazarus, from Hbr ʔelʕāzār ‘God has helped’, from ʕāzār ‘he has helped’, lengthened form of ʕāzar ‘to help (ʔel ‘God’); Hasdrubal, from Lat Hasdrubāl, from Phoen (Pun) *ʕazrō-baʕl ‘his help (is) Baal’, from *ʕazrō ‘his help’, from ʕazr ‘help’, from *ʕzr ‘to help’ + *-ō ‘his’ (*baʕl ‘Baal’, cf. Ar ↗baʕl).

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ʕRː (ʕRR) عرّ/عرر

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023

√ ʕRː (ʕRR)

“root”

▪ ʕRː (ʕRR)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕRː (ʕRR)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕRː (ʕRR)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘scabies; dirt, dung; shame, to disgrace, to be exposed; to be of bad character; to harm; needy, to seek hospitality, to seek alms’

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ʕRB عرب

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕRB

“root”

▪ ʕRB_1 ‘Arab(ic); (D-stem) to make Arabic, Arabicize, translate into Arabic; (*Š-stem) to use desinential inflection’ ↗ʕarab, ↗ʕarraba, ↗ʔiʕrāb
▪ ʕRB_2 ‘to express’ ↗ʕarraba, ↗ʔaʕraba
▪ ʕRB_3 ‘to give earnest money, make a down payment’ ↗ʕarraba, ↗ʕurbūn
▪ ʕRB_4 ‘godfather, sponsor’ ↗ʕarrāb
▪ ʕRB_5 ‘swift river’ ↗ʕarabaẗ (1)
▪ ʕRB_6 ‘carriage, wagon, cart, coach’ ↗ʕarabaẗ (2)

Other values, now obsolete, include (as given in F = Freytag1835 [vol. iii], H = Hava1899, L = Lane1874 [vol. v], LZ = LandbergZetterstéen1942, W = Wahrmund1887) :

ʕRB_7 ‘abundance (of water)’: ^†ʕarib ‘(well, river) containing/yielding much water, abundance of water’
ʕRB_8 ‘soul, mind’ : ^†ʕarabaẗ
ʕRB_9 ‘(a sort of) lizard’ : ^†ʕurbānaẗ
ʕRB_10 ‘loving, pleasing, of matching age’ : ^†ʕarūb (also [F] ʕarūbaẗ, ʕaribaẗ); cf. also (denom.) [F] vb. IV, ^†ʔaʕraba ‘matrimonium iniit cum femina ʕarūb appellata’; should we also compare [LZ] DaṯAr ʕarab li- ‘être bon pour’?
ʕRB_11 ‘(an old, pre-Isl name for) Friday’ : ^†ʕarūbaẗ
ʕRB_12 ‘¹to incite with lust, arouse (a partner’s) sexual appetite; ²to copulate, have sex’ : ¹^†ʕarraba, ²^†ʔaʕraba, [LZ] YemAr ʕarab ‘to have sex’; cf. also ^†ĭstaʕraba, vb. X, ‘[F] appetivit marem (vacca), [L] to desire the bull (said of a cow)’
ʕRB_13 ‘foul speech, obscene talk’ : ^†ʕarābaẗ ~ ʕirābaẗ ([W] ~ ʕurābaẗ), + denom. II, IV, X
ʕRB_14 ‘to eat (much), devour’ : [F,L,W] ^†ʕaraba i (ʕarb); cf. also [LZ] DaṯAr ʕarab ‘être glouton, grand mangeur’, ʕarūb ‘dévorateur, qui dévore, qui a la fringale’
ʕRB_15 ‘bad, corrupt, disordered (stomach)’ : ^†ʕarib ; cf. also ^†ʕariba a (ʕarab) ‘to be(come) disordered (stomach); to become disordered in the stomach by indegestion (s.o.)’
ʕRB_16 ‘to become swollen and purulent, break up again after it had healed (wound)’ : ^†ʕariba a (ʕarab) ‘[L] to become swollen and purulent (a camel’s hump), [F,H,W] intumuit et purulentum fuit (vulnus), [L] to become corrupt, break open again, [F,L,H] to leave a scar (wound), have a scar remaining after it has healed’. – Cf. also next item?
ʕRB_17 ‘inguinal region, groin; turgor of lymph node’ : [LZ] DaṯAr ʕurbiyyaẗ ‘aîne; bubon’
ʕRB_18 ‘(to be/make) clear, limpid, clean (water, a palmtree, a horse’s hoof, language, etc.); pure, genuine, hence: noble (horse etc., race)’ : ^†ʕarab ~ ʕarib, and also (with double -b-b for intensification) ^†ʕurbub ‘abundant water, such as is clear, or limpid’; ^†ʕarraba, vb. II ([H,W:] also ʔaʕraba, vb. IV) ‘to prune (a palm-tree); to make an incision in the bottom of the horse / to scarify (a horse) (to make clear that it is a good horse); [F] puram et a vitiis immunem protulit (loquelam) [= overlapping with ʕRB_1 in ↗ʔiʕrāb ]; to reproach, upbraid s.o. [i.e., point out clearly the faults in s.o.’s behaviour]’; ^†ʔaʕraba [F] ‘distinctam, manifestam effecit (rem)’. – [F] ^†ʕurb ‘noble horse’, ^†ʕarab ‘nobilitas generis (in equis)’, ^†ʕarāb ‘boum species glabra’; [overlapping with ʕRB_1 ‘Arabic’:] (ḫayl) ^†ʕirāb ‘Arabici nobilesque equi’, ^†ʕaruba ‘Arabica et vitiis immunis fuit (loquela), ^†(ʕarab) ʕaribaẗ / -āt / ʕāribaẗ ‘[F] (Arabum) gens pura / [L] the pure, or genuine Arabs’. – Cf. also next item?
ʕRB_19 ‘white/excellent (barley)’ : ^†ʕarabī
ʕRB_20 ‘dried buhmà plant’ : [F,L] ^†ʕirb, a species of barley-grass
ʕRB_21 ‘ordre, arrangement, convenance, résultat’ : DaṯAr ʕurb ~ ʕurub
ʕRB_22 ‘1 quarter tone; 2 device for adjusting the tone of the strings of the ↗qānūn (mus.)’ : EgAr ʕarbaẗ, pl. ʕurab – BadawiHinds1986.
ʕRB_23 ‘fruit of the ḫazam tree’ : ^†ʕarāb, [W] ʕarābaẗ
ʕRB_24 ‘bag with which the udder of a sheep, or goat, is covered’ : [F,L] ^†ʕarābaẗ, pl. -āt ; cf. also ^†ʕarrāb ‘one who makes ʕarābāt ’
ʕRB_25 ‘(a name of) The Seventh Heaven’ : [F,L] ^†ʕurūbāʔᵘ
ʕRB_26 ‘tetragonal stones’ : [LZ] DaṯAr taʕārīb
ʕRB_27 ‘somebody’ : [F,BK] ^†ʕarib, ʕarīb

Not in WehrCowan1979 but evidently still in use is

ʕRB_28 ‘the Arabah’ (depression to the south of the Dead Sea, Jordan Rift Valley) : (wādī) ↗ʕarabaẗ (3)

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘1 [≙ ʕRB_1] the Arabs, the Ar language; 2 [≙ ʕRB_2] to speak out, express one’s own thoughts, be eloquent; 3 [≙ ʕRB_10&12] to be affectionate; 4 [≙ ʕRB_1&18] to correct s.o.; 5 [≙ ʕRB_28] a geographical location’. – »Some scholars attribute [v3] to a possible borrowing from Syr on the disputable grounds that this particular sense has no semantic connection with the central meaning with which the root, as a whole, is associated.«

▪ Both Sem √ʕRB and, more specifically, Ar √ʕRB are among the most complex roots to disentangle. This is partly due to the fact that Sem √ʕRB comprises many values that in Ar not only correspond to √ʕRB but also to √ĠRB (see below). It seems to be due, however, also to the old age of the root within Ar itself, resulting in an immense semantic diversity. Since etymology and semantic history are still far from being clear, the following suggestions cannot be more than preliminary; they may serve as a starting point for further investigation.
▪ For some of the Sem ʕRB values that in Ar show ĠRB see the entries ↗ġarb ‘west’ [Sem *ʕRB ‘to set (sun)’], ↗ġarab ‘willow’ (cf. Hbr ʕᵃrāḇāʰ, Aram ʕᵃraḇtâ ‘willow’, perh. akin to Akk urbatu ‘rush, reed’), ↗ġurāb (Sem *ġārib-, *ġurā̆b-) ‘raven, craw’, and, for the whole picture, ↗ĠRB.
▪ Within the Ar root √ʕRB, we could identify six larger semantic complexes. These complexes are presented briefly and dealt with “from above”, from a macro-perspective, in this (CONC) section, while the DISC section will treat the items “bottom up”, leaving the details to the more specializing entries on the individual lemmata. The six complexes cover many of the most frequent values; however, they do not account for a considerable number of less frequent lexical items. The latter will, for the moment, remain isolated; this group includes:

in MSA only 2 items, namely: ʕarabaẗ ‘carriage, cart’ (ʕRB_6, probably a borrowing) and (wādī) ʕarabaẗ ‘the Arabah’ (depression to the south of the Dead Sea, Jordan Rift Valley) (ʕRB_28);
in ClassAr: ^†ʕarabī ‘white/excellent (barley)’ (ʕRB_19), ^†ʕirb ‘dried buhmà plant (a species of barley-grass)’(ʕRB_20), ^†ʕarāb(aẗ) ‘fruit of the ḫazam tree’ (ʕRB_23), ^†ʕarābaẗ ‘bag with which the udder of a sheep, or goat, is covered’ (ʕRB_24), ^†ʕurūbāʔᵘ ‘(a name of) The Seventh Heaven’ (ʕRB_25, quite certainly a loan word), ^†ʕarīb, ʕarīb ‘somebody’ (ʕRB_27);
in some dialects: DaṯAr ʕur(u)b ‘ordre, arrangement, convenance, résultat’ (ʕRB_21), EgAr ʕarbaẗ ‘quarter tone; device for adjusting the tone of the strings of the qānūn ’ (ʕRB_22), and DaṯAr taʕārīb ‘tetragonal stones’ (ʕRB_26).

▪ As larger semantic complexes within Sem and Ar √ʕRB emerge the following six (an asterisk * marking those cases where the basic meaning is not directly represented in Ar but some extant items seem to be reflexes of it):

*‘to enter ’ : According to many (Huehnergard, Kogan, Klein, et al.), this is the very basic value of the root in Sem [Akk erēbu ‘to enter, enter in the presence (of a god, king, etc.), come in (said of taxes), come (said of months), invade, penetrate; to return, arrive, come, go home’, (Š-stem) šūrubu ‘to penetrate’, Ug ʕrb ‘to enter, go in’, Phoen ʕrb ‘dto.’]. This value seems to be manifest however in Akk, Ug and Phoen only, while it has undergone a shift, or several shifts, of meaning in the remaining Sem area where it is mostly realized as one of five new semantic bases presented below. Retsö, meanwhile, seems to regard Ar ^†ʔaʕraba ‘to penetrate, copulate, have sex’ (ʕRB_12, *‘“enter” a woman’) and perh. also the n.gent. ʕarab itself (ʕRB_1) as possible reflexes of the original ‘to enter’, suggesting for the latter an original meaning of *‘those who have entered [, sc. ] into the service of a divinity and remain his slaves or his property’ (Retsö2003: 598); cf. also next but one paragraph.
*‘to set, go down (sun), evening, west ’ : This value is usually explained as an extension of the former, based on the idea of the sun “entering”, i.e., setting, behind/below the horizon. The value can be observed already in Akk erêb šamši, Ug ʕrb špš ‘sunset’ and is very frequent throughout Sem, incl. Ar (where it, however, shows initial Ġ- instead of ʕ- ¹ ), cf. Hbr ʕāraḇ (vn. ʕᵃrôḇ) ‘to become evening; to get dark’, ʕäräḇ ‘(sun)set, evening’, JudAram ʕrb, Syr ʕreḇ ‘to set, go down’, ʕerḇā, ʕᵊrābā ‘sunset’, Ar ġaruba, ġariba ‘to set’, ġarb ‘place of sunset, west’, Gz ʕaraba ‘to set (sun)’; Hbr maʕᵃrāḇ, Ar maġrib ‘west’. In addition, Rotter1993 suggested that also Ar ^†ʕarūbaẗ, a pre-Isl name for ‘Friday’ (ʕRB_11; cf. also Syr ʕarūbtā ‘the eve, day of preparation, esp. the eve of the Sabbath, Friday’) probably should be put here, though not with the conventional explanation that the word refers to the *‘evening’ before Sabbath, but that ^†ʕarūbaẗ originally was the *‘day of Venus’ (Lat dies Veneris, whence Fr vendredi, It venerdì, etc.), i.e., the day of the ancient deity of the evening star, the planet Venus (Rotter1993: 123, n. 56). The theory does not account for the stability of ʕ in this case while all ‘sunset, evening, west’ items show ġ; but if it should be correct, then one would probably also have to compare ^†ʕarūb ‘loving, pleasing, of matching age’ (ʕRB_10), which usually is derived from the notion of ‘affection’ (see below) rather than along a hypothetical line of semantic development such as *‘to enter > to set > setting sun > evening > evening star, Venus > like Venus’.
‘pledge, to step in, stand surety or bail for, give guarantee \ earnest money’: In ascribing the meaning *‘to enter, stand surety or bail for, guarantee’ to Sem ʕRB, Huehnergard 2011 obviously regards the idea of ‘stepping in for s.o.’ as integral aspect of the Sem root, going together with *‘to enter’. According to Klein1987, this is doubted by others (cf., e.g., the fact that BDB groups this value apart from ‘to enter’). In contrast, BDB mentions that the value usually is identified with ‘to mix’ (see next paragraph), but adds that this is »quite uncertain«. There is consensus nevertheless that the value ‘to step in for s.o., stand surety or bail for s.o., give (o.s. or s.th.) as guarantee, in pledge, etc.’ is a major basis around which a larger semantic field has built up in CSem (Ug, Can, Aram, Ar, SAr), cf., Ug ʕrb, Hbr ʕāraḇ ‘to take on pledge, give in pledge, go surety for; to barter, exchange’ (> lEg Copt arēb ‘pledge, security’), Phoen ʕrb ‘guarantor, surety’, oAram ʕrbʔ ‘pledge’, TargAram Syr ʕᵃraḇ ‘to vouch for, go surety for’, Targ ʕārēḇ ‘bondsman, surety’, Syr ʕreb ‘to promise solemnly, be surety, give security, pledge o.s.; (with b-, l-, ʕal-) esp. to stand sponsor (at baptism)’, ʕurāb(t)ā ‘surety sponsor, god-parent; security, bail’ (> Ar ʕarrāb ‘godfather’, ʕRB_4), ʕarābūtā ‘suretyship; pledge, surety’, Ar ʕarraba ‘to give earnest money’ (ʕRB_3), SAr ʕrb ‘give guarantee, stand surety\bail for’, Sab ʕrb ‘to give in pledge’, Min Qat ‘to offer as sacrifice’; Hbr ʕᵃrubbāʰ ‘thing exchanged, pledge, token’, ʕērāḇôn ‘pledge’, EgAram ʕrbn, JudAram, ChrPal ʕarbûnā (> Ar ʕarabūn ‘pledge, token’, usually treated as from 4-rad. √ʕRBN). Retsö even tends to see the n.gent. ʕarab (ʕRB_1) itself as belonging here (as an extension from ‘to enter’) when he suggests an interpretation of the name ʕarab as *‘those who have entered into the service of a divinity and remain his slaves or his property’ (Retsö2003: 598).
⁽*⁾‘mixture > confusion ’ : With the exception, perhaps, of Ar ^†ʕarib ‘bad, corrupt, disordered (stomach)’ (ʕRB_15), there seem to be no other direct reflexes of the basic value of ‘mixture, confusion’ in Ar. It figures on the list here nevertheless, for two reasons: first, because there is an old theory that would see the n.gent. ʕarab (ʕRB_1) as originally meaning *‘the mixed people’ (or even *‘riffraff’), a term applied by the Israelites on all types of foreigners and non-natives; and second, because it could serve as a semantic link between *‘to enter’ and *‘vehemence’ (see below), or (if *‘to enter’ has to be separated from ‘mixture’) as the origin from which *‘vehemence’ could have developed as an Ar innovation. The idea of *‘mixture > confusion’ seems to be realized mainly in Hbr and Aram, with a special aspect of it perh. also in Akk: Hbr ʕāraḇ, BiblAram ʕᵃraḇ, Syr ʕrab, ʕreb ‘to mix, mingle’, Targ ʕirbēb ‘to mix up, confound, disturb’, Targ ʕērāḇôn ‘mingling, suit of followers’; Hbr ʕēräḇ ‘mixture, mixed company; swarm (non-Israelites; foreign parts of the Egyptian population, the ethnic melting pot of Babel, foreigners in the land of Juda’ [=> cf. perh. Ar ↗ġarīb ?], ʕārōḇ ‘swarm of wild bees or flies—the forth plague of Egypt’ (prob. < *‘swarm of stinging flies’), (? >) Syr ʕᵊrûbâ, ʕarrûbâ ‘swarm of vermin and insect; mixed multitude, riff-raff, rabble; confusion (of words)’² (cf. also Akk urbatu, urubatu ‘harmful animals’, erbu, var. erebu, aribu ‘locust’?³ ). – Do we also have to compare Hbr ʕēräḇ ‘woof’ (as *‘mixed, interwoven, with warp’) and Ar ^†ʕurbānaẗ, ʕarabānaẗ ‘(a sort of) lizard’ (ʕRB_9)? — Klein1987 considers also the root Hbr Aram ʕrbl, Ar ġrbl as belonging here, as an extension in *-l : Hbr (pi) ʕirbēl ‘to mix; to cause to whirl; to confuse’, nHbr ʕarbāl ‘mixing machine; whirlpool, vortex, eddy’, ʕarb ᵊlān ‘mixer (of concrete)’, Syr ʕarbel, Ar ↗ġarbala ‘to sift’. In contrast, Schulthess1900: 47, treats ‘sieve, to sift’ as an independent value (in Syr realized also as ʕrb, without additional l). – Schulthess1900 further mentions that earlier research sometimes tried to derive the meaning ‘mixture, confusion’ from that of ‘stepping in’ (see above). He prefers to keep the two apart nevertheless, although he concedes that such a derivation would not per se seem to be impossible and that the value ‘mixture, confusion’ otherwise will remain without etymology.
‘vehemence (passion, vitality, agility, outburst, expression, excess, abundance, abundance of passion, exuberance, affection)’ : This value is one of the broadest bases for new derivations in Ar, but apparently only there, i.e., it seems to be an Ar innovation. It can be thought to be a development from the preceding basis when the ‘mixture, confusion’ was thought to exceed a certain limit or an emotional quality was attached to it; in many derivations from this basis there is also an element of the ungovernable, unmanageable, or of an uncontrollable eruption. The most frequent items belonging to this complex are probably: ‘abundance (of water)’ (ʕRB_7), esp. that to be found in a ʕarabaẗ ‘swift river’ (ʕRB_5) (of which ʕRB_8 ^†ʕarabaẗ ‘soul, mind’ is likely to be fig. use);⁴ the turbulences in a ^†ʕarib ‘corrupt, disordered’ stomach (ʕRB_15, sometimes seen as deriving directly from ‘mixture, confusion’) and the ^†ʕarab ‘swelling’ caused by it, an expression also used in connection with wounds that ‘become swollen and purulent’ and/or ‘break up again’ after they have healed, sometimes ‘leaving a scar’ (ʕRB_16); the dialectal (DaṯAr) ʕurbiyyaẗ ‘inguinal region, groin; lymphoma, turgor of lymph node’ (ʕRB_17) certainly also belongs here; the idea of excess is evident in the vb. ^†ʕaraba ‘to eat (much), devour’ (ʕRB_14), and that of passion and affection in the adj. ^†ʕarūb ‘loving, pleasing’ (ʕRB_10) that the Qurʔān uses as an epithet to describe the virgins of Paradise;⁵ if, as Rotter1993 suggested, the pre-Isl name for ‘Friday’, ^†ʕarūbaẗ (ʕRB_11), originally really means ‘Venus’, then one could perh. also interpret this name as *‘the Affectionate, Loving’ one (rather than *‘Deity of the Evening Star’, from *‘to set, go down < to enter’, as assumed by Rotter, see above); to ^†ʕarūb ‘loving, pleasing’ one could also put ^†ʕarraba ‘to incite with lust, arouse (a partner’s) sexual appetite’ and ^†ʔaʕraba ‘to penetrate, copulate, have sex’ (ʕRB_12),⁶ keeping in mind, however, that Retsö2003 interpreted the latter as a reflex of the basic meaning ‘to enter’; the same verbs ʕarraba and ʔaʕraba can, however, also remain free of all sexual connotation and instead refer to an eruption, an outburst, a letting out of feelings, emotions, thoughts, etc., i.e. an ‘expression’ (ʕRB_2), an outward showing of emotions or feelings or uttering of thoughts; if this ‘expression’ is not properly controlled, we get ^†ʕ˅rābaẗ ‘foul speech, obscene talk’ (ʕRB_13).⁷
The sixth large semantic cluster within Ar √ʕRB is that of ‘clarity, purity ’ and hence also ‘nobility ’ (ʕRB_18). Since this value, too, seems to be an Ar idiosyncrasy, it is perh. not too far-fetched to try to derive it from the preceding complex, in itself probably an Ar innovation, along the hypothetical line *‘vehemence > abundance > abundance of water > abundance of clear water > clear water > clear’. Indeed, the idea of ‘abundance’ mostly occurs in connection with water, and items like those indicating an ‘abundance (of water)’ (ʕRB_7) or a ‘swift river’ (ʕRB_5), mentioned in the preceding paragraph, are often characterized in the dictionaries simultaneously with the attribute ‘clear, pure’ and can thus easily serve as bridge between ‘abundance’ and ‘clarity, purity’, e.g., ^†ʕarab, ^†ʕarib, ^†ʕurbub ‘[F] Multa aqua pura / [BK] grande quantité d’eau pure / [L] abundant water, such as is clear, or limpid ’ (my italics, S.G.).⁸ . The basic idea of *‘clarity, purity’ is then transferred into quite a number of very different contexts, so that verbs like ^†ʕarraba (D-stem) or ʔaʕraba (*Š-stem), lit. meaning ‘to make clear, limpid, clean’ can come to mean such diverse actions as ‘to prune (a palm-tree)’, ‘to make an incision in the bottom of the horse, to scarify (a horse) [to make clear that it is a good one]’, ‘to express clearly’ (overlapping with ‘to express’ understood as a simple “outing” of emotions etc., see above, ‘vehemence’)’, ‘to speak correctly, without mistakes’, ‘to reproach, upbraid s.o. [i.e., point out clearly the faults in s.o.’s behaviour]’, etc. From ‘purity’ the step is not far to ‘nobility’, particularly that of horses (^†ʕurb ‘noble horse’, ^†ʕarab ‘purity of race’), but often overlapping with ethnic purity, esp. that of the Arabs (ʕRB_1) themselves, cf. such items as (ḫayl) ^†ʕirāb ‘noble Arabian (horses)’, or the very frequent epithet of ‘genuine’ Arabs, ^†(ʕarab) ʕaribaẗ / -āt / ʕāribaẗ . – With all probability also ^†ʕarabī ‘white/excellent’ as a characterisation of high-quality barley (ʕRB_19) is just a specific application of ‘purity’ on this type of corn.

▪ For details, and for those items that do not form part of the above-mentioned six major semantic complexes, cf. below, section DISC.

1. Nöldeke1900: 155, fn.1, regards ʕ (which also appears in SAr ʕrb ‘to set’) as the more original sound and explains the shift ʕ > ġ in Ar ĠRB as a “Steigerung” (augmentation), likely to have been caused by neighbouring -r-. 2. MilitarevKogan2005#36 reconstruct Sem *ʕa/urub ‘kind of vermin, worm’. 3. This item is treated s.r. √ʔRB rather than √ʕRB in DRS 1 (1994): Akk erbū-, arab-, erib-, Ug i͗rby, Hbr ʔarbē, oAram ʔrbh, Soq ʔerbhiyoh, Mhr harbiēt ‘sauterelle’. Cf., however, the remark that the item originally seems to signify ‘foule, essaim’ (swarm). 4. It is also tempting to draw a line from this swiftness and agility to that of a ^†ʕurbānaẗ ‘(kind of) lizard’ (ʕRB_9) or, outside Ar, a swarm of locusts; cf., however, what has been said in the preceding paragraph on the derivation of ‘swarm’ from the idea of ‘mixture, confusion’. 5. However, given the fact that this item, as the only one in the ‘vehemence’ group that we are suggesting here, does have cognates outside Ar (Hbr ʕārēḇ, TargAram ʕārîḇ ‘pleasant, sweet’, Aram miʕāraḇ ‘pleasing’), one should perh. be not too quick to derive it from ‘vehemence’. Klein1987, for instance, thinks the original meaning of Hbr ʕāraḇ may have been ‘to be well mixed, be duly arranged’, thus a »special sense development« of ʕāraḇ ‘to mix’. 6. Sometimes, the adj. ^†ʕarūb (ʕRB_10) is not only explained as ‘loving, pleasing’ but also as ‘frivolous, indecent, unseemly’. 7. Cf. also the interpretation of ^†ʕarūb ‘loving, pleasing’ (ʕRB_10) as ‘frivolous, indecent, unseemly’. 8. The fig. use of ʕarabaẗ ‘swift river’ as ^†‘soul, mind’ (ʕRB_8) does also fit into this picture: a swift mind is often also a clear mind.

–

▪ Given the complexity within the root and the dependence of what one regards as cognate(s) on the interpretation of this complexity, possible/probable cognates will be mentioned en passant, in section DISC below.
▪ Other Sem langs display an even larger variety of values attached to √ʕRB. Following is a list of attestations from non-Ar langs that—as it seems so far—are not related to any of the Ar values. However, given the considerable degree of uncertainty in the assessment of the Ar case it may be useful to have them available nevertheless (for Syr: Sch = Schulthess1900, PS = PayneSmith1903):

‘large bowl, vessel’ : Syr ʕarbā ‘[Sch] Trog / [PS] large wooden bowl, vessel, washtub, kneading-trough; cup, measure; olive-press’. – Acc. to Sch perh. belonging to ‘to mix’; cf. however Mand ʔrbʔ ‘boat’, and Ar ġar(a)b, designating any kind of vessel (‘Wasserschlauch’, ‘Brunneneimer’, ‘Trinkgefäss aus Silber’)
‘vetch, chick-pea’ : Syr ʕarbā [PS]
‘water-wheel, mill’ : Syr ʕarbā [PS]
‘sheep, ram’ : Syr ʕerbā [Sch,PS]. Sch is reluctant to see the item together with Phoen ṣäräb ‘id.’, but Nöldeke1900 accepts it as cognate, adding: perh. from Sem *ḍrb in a sexual sense; if so, then the original meaning was prob. only ‘male sheep, ram’.
‘(a waterfowl)’ : Akk (lBab) arabû (arabūa)
‘(a garment)’ : Akk (mBab) aribû, ? Hbr ʕēräḇ ‘woof’ (mentioned above in section CONC as possibly dependent on *‘mixture’)
‘(a part of the neck)’ : Akk (lBab) arūbu (or arūpu). CAD: »For possible Sem cognates in the meaning ‘neck’, see Holma, Körperteile, 141.«

▪ ʕRB_1 : Jan Retsö has written a whole book about the question who the ʕarab ‘Arabs’ actually were (The Arabs in Antiquity, Retsö2003). His thorough investigation into the pre-Isl sources concludes with the finding that they started out as »a group of initiates of a fellowship of warriors or guards around a divinity« (Retsö2003: 596). Consequently, Retsö tends to interpret the n.gent. ʕarab as related to ʕRB in the sense of *‘to enter’ which many consider to be the very basic value of the root in Sem. Thus, in Retsö’s opinion, the name originally carried a meaning that was close to one of the values the Akk erēbu could take, namely ‘to enter in the presence (of a god, king, etc.)’. With this, the n.gent. would also be close to the idea of a ‘pledge’ and of ‘giving s.th. or o.s. as guarantee, standing surety or bail, stepping in for s.o.’ that may be dependent on the basic ‘to enter’ and of which MSA ʕarraba ‘to give earnest money’, ʕarabūn ‘pledge, token’ (ʕRB_3) and ʕarrāb ‘godfather’ (ʕRB_4) are reflexes. Earlier theories, all dismissed by Retsö as little convincing, would connect the ethnonym with the ʕArabaẗ (ʕRB_28) region, or with the notion of *‘mixing’ (the Arabs as *‘mixed company’ or, more negatively, a ‘swarm’), or with its opposite, the *‘purity and nobility’ (ʕRB_18) of descent, or with *‘vehemence, excess’ (to have sex’ – ʕRB_12, to eat a lot, devour – ʕRB_14), or (by metathesis) with the ‘Hebrews’ (√ʕBR), by which the Arabs like the Hebrews are essentially seen as *‘the nomads, those who traverse, cross, wander around’ or *‘those who come from, or inhabit, the other side of the river, the region beyond’. – For further details cf. entry ↗ʕarab. — Derivatives: In the meaning ‘to make Arabic, Arabicize, translate into Arabic’ the D-stem ʕarraba is with all likelihood denominative from ʕarab. For another value cf. next paragraph. – In the *Š-stem ʔaʕraba the notions of ‘Arabicity’, ‘expression’ and ‘clarity, purity’ often overlap, particularly when ʔaʕraba takes the specific meaning of ‘pronouncing the final accents of a word, using desinential inflection (i.e., the ↗ʔiʕrāb)’. In these cases, the vb. has been interpreted as denominative from ‘Arab(ic)’ in the sense of *‘to make (one’s language obey to the rules of correct) Arabic’. According to Olivieri2020, this usage is a calque from Grk hellēnismós (in the Stoic tradition). Such a develeopment was certainly facilitated by the fact that it fitted well also with the notions of ‘(clear) expression’ and ‘purity, clarity’ (see below).
▪ ʕRB_2 ʕarraba, ʔaʕraba ‘to express’: This value can be thought to derive from the basic idea of *‘vehemence’, an expression being an *‘ex pression’, an act of releasing s.th. that had been locked inside where it had built up a pressure, a *‘letting flow, giving way’, or an *‘outburst, eruption’ (of passion, vitality, agility, passion, emotion, affect, etc., from *‘mixture, confusion’). Gabal2012 (III:1472) even identifies the »virulence/activity and outburst with inner vehemence in order to release what is imprisoned« (našāṭ wa-’nṭilāq bi-ḥiddaẗ ḏātiyyaẗ lil-ḫulūṣ mimmā yuḥbas) as the basic value of √ʕRB as such.¹³ With this, the value is closely related to the ‘swift river’ (ʕRB_5), the ‘abundance (of water)’ (ʕRB_7), the passion and affection in the adj. ‘loving, pleasing’ (ʕRB_10) or the one accompanying sexual intercourse (ʕRB_12), the expression of negative sentiments in the ‘foul speech, obscene talk’ (ʕRB_13), as well as the confusion of a ‘corrupt, disordered’ stomach (ʕRB_15) and the ‘swelling’ of such a stomach or the ‘breaking up’ of purulent wounds (ʕRB_16); combined with the idea of ‘clarity’ (ʕRB_18) we get ‘to express clearly’ which, according to Retsö, could also be the idea behind that of ‘stepping in (for s.o.)’ (ʕRB_3), interpreted as from *‘to speak out (ʕan on behalf of s.o.)’. – Apart from that, there may be interference from √ʕBR (showing BR instead of RB), where ↗ʕibāraẗ, which also means ‘expression’, is based on a similar idea of ‘letting out, releasing’, but with more attention to the action of crossing (↗ʕabara) than on that of vehemence.
▪ ʕRB_3 : The MSA vb. II ʕarraba ‘to give earnest money, make a down payment’ has preserved the Sem 3-cons. root while elsewhere the theme is treated as attached to 4-rad. √ʕRBN, from ↗ʕurbūn ~ ʕarabūn (ClassAr also ^†ʕurbān ~ ʕurubbān ‘earnest money, down payment’), hence the denom. ʕarbana, vb. I, ‘to give earnest money, give a handsel, make a down payment’, synonymous with ʕarraba.¹⁴ While Ar ʕurbūn ~ ʕarabūn without doubt is an inner-Sem borrowing (prob. from Syr¹⁵ ), ʕarraba is not necessarily derived from this and reduced back to 3 radicals, but probably reflects the older Sem *ʕRB ‘to stand surety or bail for, guarantee’, perh. from Sem *ʕRB ‘to enter’ (but this is doubted). However that may be, the value is widespread in (C)Sem and can count as one of the oldest in the whole spectrum of meanings attached to the root (cf. the cognates given above in section CONC). With Retsö2003 one could also think of an original meaning of *‘to speak out (ʕan on behalf of)’, so that the value could be interpreted as if from *‘expression’ (ʕRB_2) and *‘clear’ (ʕRB_18). – Closely related to the idea of a pledge is also that of ^†ʕarābaẗ ~ ʕirābaẗ ‘contract, treaty’ (+ the denom. vb.s II and IV, ʕarraba and ʔaʕraba, ‘to change, barter; to make a contract’). – ʕRB_4 ʕarrāb ‘godfather’ clearly belongs together with ʕRB_3. – For Engl arbiter and earnest as borrowings from Sem, see below, section WEST.
▪ ʕRB_4 ʕarrāb ‘godfather, sponsor’ : a specialisation of the preceding (ʕRB_3), with all likelihood borrowed from Syr ʕurāb(t)ā ‘surety sponsor, god-parent; security, bail’ (cf. Hava1899’s classification of ʕarrāb ‘godfather’, ʕarrābaẗ ‘godmother’ as LevAr; Dozy, too, classifies it as of Syr origin). Cf. also Syr ʕreb ‘to promise solemnly, be surety, give security, pledge o.s.; (with b-, l-, ʕal-) esp. to stand sponsor (at baptism)’.
▪ ʕRB_5 ʕarabaẗ ‘swift river’ : In our opinion, the ‘river that flows with a vehement, strong current’ reflects one of the earliest values that developed out of the basic Sem *ʕBR ‘mixture’, namely *‘briskness, liveliness, vehemence’, which is preserved in ClassAr ^†ʕar(a)b; cf. also the corresponding vb. I, [F] ^†ʕariba a (ʕarab) ‘alacer, lubens fuit’. Perhaps also ^†ʕurbānaẗ ‘(a sort of) lizard’ ([F] ‘lacerta agilis’, ʕRB_9) belongs here (on account of the animal’s agility, but see below for another theory), possibly (fig. use?) also ^†ʕarabaẗ ‘soul, mind’ (ʕRB_8). The value ‘swift river’ could also be seen as a specilisation of ʕRB_7 ‘abundance (of water)’, although the latter may of course be also be a generalisation of the former; it is certainly also related to the notion of *‘release, setting free, outburst’ on which of ʕRB_2 ‘to express’ is built.
▪ ʕRB_6 ʕarabaẗ ‘carriage, wagon, cart, coach’ : According to art. “Araba” in EI² (G.L.M. Clauson, M. Rodinson), the word was introduced into Ar in Mamluk Egypt via Tu (where it is first attested in C14), although the latter is in itself a corruption of Ar ʕarrādaẗ, properly ‘ballista [stone-throwing machine], military siege weapon’, but hence also ‘gun, mobile gun, carriage carrying a gun’ > ‘wagon, cart’.¹⁶ Rolland2014a however lists some more suggestions that have been made: »Pour Al-Tûnji, du Pers arāba ‘voiture, char; roue’. / Pour Nourai, qui croit que l’emprunt s’est fait dans le sens inverse, le mot arabe serait isu du Grk hárma ‘char de combat ou de course’. / Pour Nişanyan, du Skr rátha via l’Av ratha ‘char tire par un cheval’.¹⁷ Sa forme actuelle serait issue d’une forme intermédiaire hypothétique *ʕarrādaẗ.«
▪ ʕRB_7 : The value ‘abundance (of water)’ is represented in items such as ClassAr ^†ʕarab ~ ʕarib ‘[F L H] abundant water, such as is clear, or limpid’, ^†ʕarib ‘(well, river) containing/yielding much water, abundance of water’, (denom. vb. I) ^†ʕariba a (ʕarab) ‘to abound with water (well), to swell (river)’, ^†ʕārib ‘[F] profundum (flumen), [H] swollen, overflowing (river)’, ^†ʕarīb ‘[F] multa aqua’, ^†ʕurbub ‘[F] multa aqua pura’. – Cf. also [W] ^†ʕarraba ‘viel und süßes reines Wasser trinken’. – The value is closely related to, and often overlapping with, that of *‘outburst, gushing out’ (ʕRB_2 ‘expression’); it can be thought to be the “master value” of ‘swift river’ (ʕRB_5), though it could in its turn be an extension/generalization of the latter; the same applies for ‘(to be/make) clear, limpid, clean’ (ʕRB_18) which sometimes goes together with ‘abundance (of water)’, as in ^†ʕurbub ‘abundant water, such as is clear, or limpid’. An ‘abundance’ of a specific type of “water”, pus, is the background of ‘to become swollen and purulent, break up again after heal (wound)’ (ʕRB_16) and perh. also of the ‘corrupt, disordered (and therefore swollen)’ stomach’ (ʕRB_15).
▪ ʕRB_8 ^†ʕarabaẗ ‘soul, mind’ : prob. fig. use of ʕRB_5 ʕarabaẗ ‘swift river’, taking the quickness and vitality as the tertium comparationis that allows the transfer of meaning from ‘river’ to ‘mind’.
▪ ʕRB_9 ^†ʕurbānaẗ ‘(a sort of) lizard’ : related to ʕRB_5 ʕarabaẗ ‘swift river’ and the notion of ‘swiftness, agility’? – A relation with ^†ʔirbiyān ‘[F] locusta marina, [̄L] a species of fish resembling worms’ is rather unlikely, both phonologically (ʕ ≠ ʔ) and semantically (‘lizard’ ≠ ‘locust’¹⁸ ).
▪ ʕRB_10 ^†ʕarūb ‘loving, pleasing, of matching age’, cf. also (denom.) vb. IV, ^†ʔaʕraba ‘[F] matrimonium iniit cum femina ʕarūb appellata’; should we also compare [LZ] DaṯAr ʕarab li- ‘être bon pour’? – Jeffery1938 followed Sprenger in assuming thought that the word was borrowed from Hbr: »The word is found only in an early Meccan passage [Q 56:37] describing the delights of Paradise, where the ever-virgin spouses are ʕuruban ʔatrāban which is said to mean that they will be ‘well pleasing’ to their Lords and ‘of equal age’ with them. / The difficulty, of course, is to derive it from the Ar root ʕRB, which does not normally have any meaning which we can connect with ʕarūb in this sense. For this reason Sprenger, Leben, ii: 508, n., suggested that it was to be explained from Hbr ʕRB, one of the meanings of which is ‘to be sweet, pleasing’, used, e.g., in Ez. xvi, 37; Cant, ii, 14, very much as in the Qurʔānic passage. So in the Targums ʕārēḇ means ‘sweet, pleasing’ (Levy, TW, ii, 240), but the word is not a common one, and it is not easy to suggest how it came to the Arabs. It is commonly used in the old poetry, which would point to an early borrowing.« ▪ However, even if we disregard Luxenberg’s view that the Qurʔānic ʕurub is a complete misreading¹⁹ and still think of the word as forming part of the more genuine Ar vocabulary, we do not need to go outside Ar in order to find a plausible semantic context to which ʕarūb could belong. Cf. the fact that it not only can mean a woman ‘who manifests love to her husband and is obedient to him’, but also one ‘who loves him passionately, or excessively, or who manifests love to him, evincing passionate, or excessive, desire’, as well as one ‘who uses amorous gesture or behaviour, and coquettish boldness, with feigned coyness or opposition, or who makes a show of, or act with, lasciviousnes or passionately loving’ [L]; therefore F has also ‘rebellis contra maritum’ (my emphasis – SG). Considering these notions, ʕarūb can easily be derived from the idea of *‘vehemence (passion, emotion, affect, etc.)’ ▪ To this one can probably connect ʕRB_12 ^†ʕarraba, vb. II, ‘[F] libidine accendit (taurus vaccam), [W] brünstig machen (der Stier die Kuh) [to incite with lust]’, and ^†ĭstaʕraba, vb. X, ‘[F] appetivit marem (vacca), [L] to desire the bull (said of a cow)’. The corresponding *Š-stem, ^†ʔaʕraba, vb. IV, can even mean the act of copulating (‘[F] inivit feminam ’), and LZ reports that »chez les Bédouins du Yémen«, i.e., in YemAr, ^†ʕarab is the regular verb for ‘to have sex, [vulg. ] to fuck’. ▪ Retsö2003: 599 (n.28) thinks that the latter, together with the vn. ^†ʕarābaẗ ‘coition’, »must be a survival of the ancient meaning«, i.e., of Sem ʕRB *‘to enter’. However, the essential element in ‘arousing the partner’s sexual appetite’ seems to be the fact that it is done passionately, with a clear manifestation of desire; this is why there is semantic overlapping with ‘to speak out, express’ (ʕRB_2) and ‘clarity’ (ʕRB_18), and perh. even with ‘pledge, to stand in for s.o.’ (ʕRB_3), cf. the frequent interpretation of sexual stimulation as being effected by speaking and pleading or acting in a manner that expresses one’s desire (^†ʔaʕraba ‘[F] indicavit oblique verbis huius rei desiderium (feminae), [H] to afford [bi- clear arguments], [L] to plead one’s cause, speak and plead for the object of one’s want, speak of that act in an oblique, or indirect, manner’). – If ^†ʕarūbaẗ (ʕRB_11) originally is ‘Venus’ then there may also be a relation of ^†ʕarūb to the Evening Star and thus to *‘evening, sunset’, perh. from *‘to enter’.
▪ ʕRB_11 ^†ʕarūbaẗ (so also in DaṯAr) ‘(an old, pre-Isl name for) Friday’ : Syr ʕarūbətā ‘id.’. – L notes that »accord. to some, it is most chastely without the article; thus it occurs in old poetry of the Time of Ignorance; and it is thought to be not Arabic; and said to be Arabicized from the Nabataean ʔarubā […]; accord. to others, the article is inseparable from it; and its meaning, accord. to Ibn al-Naḥḥās, is ‘the manifest and magnified’, from ʔaʕraba ‘he made clear, plain’, etc.; or accord. to an authority cited in the R, its meaning is ‘mercy’«. All these explanations are easily identifiable as late attempts to give some meaning to s.th. that wasn’t understood any longer. In contrast to this tradition, Western research had for a long time assumed that ʕarūbaẗ was derived from Sem *ʕRB ‘to enter, set (sun)’, meaning *‘the evening (before Saturday)’, corresponding to Hbr ʕäräḇ šabbāṯ ‘evening before Sabbath’.²⁰ Rotter1993 modifies this assumption when he interprets the item as a name for ‘Venus’, the ancient deity of the evening star, the planet Venus. As a name for ‘Friday’, ʕarūbaẗ in his view thus corresponded to the Roman term for Friday, Lat dies Veneris (whence Fr vendredi, It venerdì, etc.). – Although this theory is not without some appeal and persuasive power, esp. when seen in the context of the other names for pre-Isl weekdays discussed by Rotter and framed by the idea of a shared heritage of Late Antiquity, it does not account for the fact that all other Ar items belonging to the ‘sunset, evening, west’ complex show /ġ /, not /ʕ / as first radical. Therefore, if the identification of ʕarūbaẗ with Venus shall be maintained we will either have to assume a borrowing in this meaning from a Sem lang that has preserved initial /ʕ / – but is there such a *ʕRB ‘Venus’ outside Ar? –, or derive the meaning ‘Venus’ from another value than that of Sem ‘sunset, evening, west’. Here, Ar ^†ʕarūb ‘loving, pleasing, affectionate (woman)’ (ʕRB_10) somehow suggests itself. As we saw in the preceding paragraph, Jeffery would tend to see also this item as foreign; but there is no real need to do so. Thus, ^†ʕarūbaẗ ‘Friday’ could indeed originally be the *‘Day of Venus’, but ‘Venus’ here would just be *‘the loving, affectionate one’, derived from ^†ʕarūb by extension in f. ending aẗ, along the line *‘(clear expression of) emotion, affect < vehemence < mixture (? < to enter)’.
▪ ʕRB_12 ^†ʕarraba ‘to incite with lust, arouse (a partner’s) sexual appetite, [F] libidine accendit (taurus vaccam), [W] brünstig machen (der Stier die Kuh)’ and ^†ʔaʕraba ‘to copulate, have sex’, ^†ĭstaʕraba ‘to desire the bull (said of a cow)’, [LZ] YemAr ʕarab ‘(vulg.) to fuck’ : Given that the Ar words are the same as those signifying value ʕRB_2, ʕRB_12 ^†ʕarraba seems to be a special meaning of ‘to show one’s emotions, express one’s feelings, give way to one’s affects, instincts, etc.’. One could however also think of ^†ʕarraba as denom. caus. from ^†ʕarūb (ʕRB_10), i.e., lit., *‘to make (a partner) behave as a ʕarūb, i.e., as s.o. who shows (passionate) affection’. For Retsö, the *Š-stem ʔaʕraba in the meaning ‘to penetrate’ is derived from Sem *ʕRB ‘to enter’.
▪ ʕRB_13 ^†ʕarābaẗ ~ ʕirābaẗ (~ [W] ʕurābaẗ) ‘foul speech, obscene talk’, hence (?) also ^†ʕarraba ‘[F] turpia dixit (in aliquem) / [W] zotig, gemein reden, gemeine Rede brauchen (ʕalà gegen); [F] turpia esse dixit (verba vel facta) / [W] (jd-s Worte/Taten) für gemein erklären; [H] to point out (ʕalà to s.o.) the unseemliness of s.th.’; ^†ʔaʕraba (vb. IV), ^†taʕarraba (vb. V), ^†ĭstaʕraba (vb. X) ‘turpiter et obscoene locutus fuit’ : In this value we have an overlapping of a number of notions that all can be thought to be based on the basic ideas of *‘mixture’ and *‘vehemence’. From the former we can draw a line *‘mixture’ > ‘(to be) corrupt, disordered (stomach)’ (ʕRB_15) > ‘to swollen and purulent (wound), pus’ (ʕRB_16) > *‘stinking like pus’ > *‘foul, obscene’ > ‘foul speech, obscene talk’. From *‘vehemence’ we get ‘abundance’ (as in ʕRB_7 ‘abundance of water’) > *‘excess’ (as in ʕRB_14 ‘to eat too much/fast, devour’) > *‘eruption of what had been kept closed inside (emotions, etc.)’ > ‘expression’ (ʕRB_2), and if the ‘expression’ is too vehement its ‘clarity’ (ʕRB_18) becomes offensive, obcene, too blunt.
▪ ʕRB_14 [F,L,W] ^†ʕaraba i (ʕarb) ‘to eat (much), devour’, [LZ] DaṯAr ʕarab ‘être glouton, grand mangeur’, ʕarūb ‘dévorateur, qui dévore, qui a la fringale’ : While we tend to see this item as derived from the basic idea of *‘vehemence’, then also ‘excess(iveness)’ and ‘(clear expression of) intense desire’ (cf. ʕRB_2 and ʕRB_12 above), LandbergZettersteen1942 wonders whether we aren’t possibly dealing with a case of metathesis here so that ʕRB_14 actually is from Sem √RʕB, cf. Hbr : rāʕēḇ ‘to be very hungry, voracious; to desire intensely’, Gz rəʔāba ‘to be hungry’, Ar ↗raġiba ‘to desire, crave for’ (perh. also Akk barû ~ berû ‘to be hungry, starve’, Copt lībe ‘to go mad for, desire intensely’ – so Jensen, acc. to Gesenius1915 s.r. Hbr RʕB).
▪ ʕRB_15 : As already mentioned above, ^†ʕarab ‘corruption, disorder (of the stomach, due to indigestion, etc.)’ and the corresponding adj. (^†ʕarib ‘bad, corrupt, disordered (stomach)’²¹ ) and vbs. (^†ʕariba ‘to be disordered (stomach); to become disordered in the stomach by indegestion (s.o.)’, ^†ʕarraba ‘[F] aegrotum reddidit aliquem (stomachi corruptio), [L] to treat medically, remove the disease of s.o. whose stomach is in a corrupt, disordered state’) seem to be reflexes of the basic idea of *‘mixture, confusion, turbulence’ from which also other values attached to √ʕRB probably are derived, particularly those related to *‘vehemence’.
▪ ʕRB_16 ^†ʕariba a (ʕarab) ‘[L] to become swollen and purulent (a camel’s hump), [F H W] intumuit et purulentum fuit (vulnus), [L] to become corrupt, break open again, [F L H] to leave a scar (wound), have a scar remaining after it has healed’ : The easiest way to explain this value would be to regard it as an extension of the former, the essential ‘disorder, corruption’ of ʕRB_15 leading to a swelling and eventually breaking up (cf. also ʕRB_2 ‘expression, (vehement) release of what had been locked inside’). – Cf., however, Ehret1995#695 where ʕariba ‘to swell and suppurate’ is interpreted as an extension in »extendative« *-b from a 2-cons. pre-protSem root nucleus *ʕr ‘to be raised’ (< AfrAs * ʕir ‘to be raised; sky’; cf. also ↗ʕaraǧa ‘to ascend, mount, rise’, ^†ʕarada ‘to shoot up, grow’, ↗ʕaraša ‘to build, erect a trellis’, D-stem ‘to roof over’). – See also ʕRB_17.
▪ ʕRB_17 [LZ] DaṯAr ʕurbiyyaẗ ‘aîne; bubon’ (inguinal region, groin; turgor of lymph node) : likely to be akin to ‘swelling’ (ʕRB_16, < *‘corruption, disorder < mixture, confusion’).
▪ ʕRB_18 ^†ʕarab ~ ʕarib and also (with double -b-b for intensification) ^†ʕurbub ‘[F] multa aqua pura / [L] abundant water, such as is clear, or limpid’ : As mentioned above, the idea of ‘clarity, purity’ can be thought to be derived, ultimately, and almost ironically, from what may seem to be its very opposite: *‘mixture, confusion’, along the hypothetical line *‘clear < clear water < abundance of clear water < abundance of water < abundance < excess(iveness) < vehemence < turbulence < confusion, mixture’. If this etymology should be correct, ‘clarity, purity’ is akin to the ‘abundance (of water)’ (ʕRB_7) and the ‘swift river’ (ʕRB_5) as well as the *‘outburst’ of ʕRB_2, which can also be seen as a kind of *‘clearing’. In contrast, Ehret1989#33 would tentatively interpret ʕaraba (vn. ʕarab) in the (related?) meaning ^†‘to separate, put by, put aside’ [which I however was unable to confirm from my own sources – S.G.] as an extension in »extendative« *-b from a pre-protSem 2-cons. root nucleus *ʕr ‘to take out, remove’.²² – Extended / figurative use: As mentioned above, the idea of *‘clarity, purity’ was then also transferred into many other contexts: “making clear/clearing, purifying” in this way coming to mean ‘pruning palm-trees’, ‘scarifying horses’, ‘expressing s.th./o.s. clearly’ (overlapping here with ʕRB_2 ‘expression’), ‘speaking correctly, without mistakes; using the ↗ʔiʕrāb ’, ‘reproaching, upbraiding s.o. (i.e., pointing out clearly the faults in s.o.’s behavior)’, etc.; ‘purity’ was also identified with purity of descent, hence ‘nobility’ (^†ʕurb ‘noble horse’, ^†ʕarab ‘purity of race’), and all these notions also merged with ‘Arabness’ (ʕRB_1; cf. the expression ^†ʕarab ʕaribaẗ / -āt / ʕāribaẗ are for ‘genuine Arabs = Arabs of pure descent’), so that, e.g., ḫayl ^†ʕirāb not only are ‘noble horses’ but also ‘noble Arabian horses’, and ‘to express o.s. clearly’ became synonymous with ‘to use pure and correct Arabic’ and ‘to make one’s speech truly Arabic’. – With all probability also ^†ʕarabī ‘white/excellent’ as a characterisation of high-quality barley (ʕRB_19) is just a specific application of ‘purity’ on this type of corn.
▪ ʕRB_19 ^†ʕarabī ‘white/excellent barley, [F] Hordeum praestantissimum, album, cuius grana duplicem seriem formant’ : properly *‘pure’ barley and thus special use of ʕRB_18?
▪ ʕRB_20 ^†ʕirb ‘dried buhmà plant’, a species of barley-grass, or any dried herb leguminous plant : etymology obscure. Any connection with the idea of ‘purity’ (ʕRB_18) or in particular the ‘white/excellent barley’ of the preceding paragraph (ʕRB_19)? Or, given the fact that the plant is dry, is there a relation to the notion of *‘aridity’ that some researchers (though not without opposition) found to be reflected in the n.topogr. ↗ʕArabaẗ (ʕRB_18)?
▪ ʕRB_21 [LZ] DaṯAr ʕurb ~ ʕurub ‘ordre, arrangement, convenance, résultat’ : etymology obscure. Any connection to the idea of ‘matching (age)’ that is sometimes attached to the ‘loving, pleasing’ virgins of paradise (see ʕRB_10 above)?
▪ ʕRB_22 EgAr ʕarbaẗ, pl. ʕurab ‘1 quarter tone; 2 device for adjusting the tone of the strings of the ↗qānūn (mus.)’ (BadawiHinds1986) : metathesis from RBʕ ‘four’ (↗ʔarbaʕ), rubʕ ‘quarter’?
▪ ʕRB_23 ^†ʕarāb(aẗ) ‘fruit of the ḫazam tree’ : accord. to F,L,Ǧ ropes used to be made of the bark of these trees, and from the fruits were made prayer-beads; accord. to Ǧ, these fruits taste bitter so that humans only ate them in times of famine (if at all), while monkeys did not refuse them. – Etymology obscure; Ǧ relates the item to the idea of strength/intensity and sharpness, either because of the fruit’s bitter taste or the solidity of the ropes made of the ḫazam bark.
▪ ʕRB_24 ^†ʕarābaẗ ‘bag with which the udder of a sheep, or goat, is covered’, ^†ʕarrāb ‘arâba maker’: etymology obscure.
▪ ʕRB_25 ^†ʕurūbāʔᵘ ‘(a name of) The Seventh Heaven’: probably (though phonologically unclear) from, or at least akin to, Targ ʕᵃrāḇôṯ (Ps. LXVIII, 5) ‘(a poetical name for) heaven, (Talm) Araboth, name of the seventh heaven (in which dwell Righteousness, Justice etc.)’ (as found in Jastrow1903), which is a pl., prob. used figuratively, of the word for the Jordan Rift Valley, the Wādī ↗ʕArabaẗ (ʕRB_28).
▪ ʕRB_26 DaṯAr taʕārīb ‘tetragonal stones’ : Should we conform Sab ʕrbw ‘to build with tetragonal stones’, mʕrbt ‘Quaderstein’ – Müller2010? Any relation (by metathesis) to ↗ʔarbaʕ ‘four’?
▪ ʕRB_27 ^†ʕarib, ʕarīb ‘somebody’, as in the expression mā bi’l-dāri ʕarīb ‘there is nobody at home’ : etymology obscure.
▪ ʕRB_28 (wādī) al-ʕArabaẗ ‘the Arabah’ (depression to the south of the Dead Sea, Jordan Rift Valley): »The Lisān al-ʕArab explains it as ‘the river with a strong current’ [ʕRB_5] comparing it to the expression nahr ʕarib, ‘river with abundant water’ [ʕRB_7]. The Hbr word (hā)-ʕaraba (with or without the definite article; pl. ʕarabot, construct ʕarbot) occurs in the Old Testament as a name for the Jordan Valley between the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea (2 Samuel 2:29, Deuteronomy 3:17, 4:49, Joshua 12:1, 3), especially in the southern part of the valley, where ʕarbot yerīḥo (Jericho) and ʕarbot moab (Moab) lie on the west and east banks of the river respectively (e.g., Numbers 22:1, 26:3, Deuteronomy 34:1, Joshua 4:13, 5:10). The Dead Sea is sometimes referred to as ‘The Sea of the ʕArabah” (e.g., Deuteronomy 3:17, Joshua 3:16). Unfortunately, the Hbr etymology is as uncertain as the Ar but perh. related to [Hbr] ʕarabah ‘willow’ (Koehler/Baumgartner Lexicon 1:879–80) [Ar ↗ġarab]« – art. “ʕAraba, Wādī” (J. Retsö), in EI³. – Cf., however, Jastrow1903, BDB1906, Klein1987 who assume a basic notion of *‘aridity’ from which Hbr ʕᵃraḇ ‘desert-plateau, steppe’, ʕᵃrāḇāʰ, Syr ʕārābā ‘desert-plain, desert, wilderness, steppe’ (and perh.—metath.—also Gz ʕabəra ‘to be arid, sterile’, but dubious!) allegedly are derived; to this, these authors then also tend to put the n.gent. ʕarab (ʕRB_1) as the *‘steppe-dwellers’. The idea of a basic *‘aridity’ has been refuted on account of the fact that the Jordan valley is not arid, but rather green and fertile; cf., however, the fact that ʕᵃrāḇôṯ also can mean the Araboth steppes in Babylonia (Jastrow1903) and Syr ʕarab ‘part of N Mesopotamia between Tigris and Nisibis and around Edessa’. Should there be any basic *ʕRB ‘aridity’ and a relation between this and the ʕArabaẗ, then one may have to compare Sem *ʕRW/Y ‘to be naked’ (Akk erû ‘naked; empty; empty-handed, destitute’, Ug ʕrw ‘to be naked, empty; to be destroyed’, Hbr ʕārāʰ ‘to be naked, bare’, Phoen D-stem ‘to lay bare’, Ar ↗ʕariya ‘to be naked, nude, bare’, etc.—all over Sem, exept Gz). As for the association between ʕArabaẗ and the Arabs, this is »probably a folk etymology, based on phonetic similarity« – art. “ʕAraba, Wādī” (J. Retsö), in EI³.

13. Cf. also his derivation of ʕRB from *ʕR plus modifying * B : fī ʕRB tuʕabbir al-bāʔ ʕan al-talāṣuq ʔaw al-taǧammuʕ al-raḫw, wa-yuʕabbir al-tarkīb [i.e., initial ʕR- ] ʕan ḥiddaẗ ḏātiyyaẗ, ʔay ṯābitaẗ fī ʔaṯnāʔ al-šayʔ… – Ǧabal2012 III:1466). 14. The expr. ʔalqà ʕarabūna-hū, lit. *‘he placed his deposit’ for ‘he ejected his excrement, or ordure’ [F,L,BK,W, etc.] is clearly metaphorical use, motivated either by politeness or to achieve irony. 15. Retsö2003 thinks ʕurbūn ~ ʕarabūn is from Syr, while the now obsol. form ^†ʕurbān looks genuine. 16. Like in a number of other langs, the Ar word for ‘catapult, kind of sieging engine’, ^†ʕarrādaẗ, seems to be derived from the word for ‘wild ass’, Ar ^†ʕard, Hbr ʕārōd, Syr ʕᵊrādā, etc., < Sem *ʕar(ā)d ‘wild ass’. »This usage is probably a calque from Grk onagros, Lat onager […], but it is worth noting that the meaning ‘a mechanical device’ (in particular, ‘a part of the battering ram’) is attested already for Akk imēru « – MilitarevKogan2005#37. 17. Le Lat raeda, même sens, supposé d’origine gauloise, pourrait bien avoir la même origine orientale. 18. Ar ^†ʔirbiyān is »almost certainly« connected with Akk erbu (erebu, aribu), Ug i͗rby, Hbr ʔerbā̈, oAram ʔrbh, Sab ʔrby, Mhr ḥarbyēt, harbiêt, etc., all from Sem *ʔa/irbay- ‘locust’ 19. Luxenberg2000:255-7 holds that the basis for this misreading is Syr ʕarrāyē ‘cold, ice-cold’. The verses Q 56:34-37, traditionally interpreted as meaning s.th. like »[…] And carpets raised. Verily We have produced them [sc. the Houris of v. 22] specially, And made them virgins, Loving and of equal age«, in Luxenberg’s reading become »Hochgezogene (Wein)lauben (werden sie haben); diese haben wir hochwachsen lassen und zu eisgekühlten, saftigen Erstlingsfrüchten gemacht«. 20. References given in Rotter1993: 123, n. 56. 21. According to Freytag, ʕarib means the disorder itself (‘corruptio stomachi’), while acc. to Lane it is ‘(s.o.) having the stomach in a bad, or corrupt, state’. 22. As other extensions from the same nucleus Ehret lists ^†ʕarʕara ‘to uncork, pull out an eye’, ^†ʕaraṯa ‘to remove, lift up, lay aside’, ^†ʕarada ‘(vn. ʕard) to throw or fling far; (vn. ʕarad) to flee, take to flight’, ^†ʕardasa ‘to throw to the ground’, ^†ʕaraza ‘to tear out violently’, ↗ʕaraḍa ‘to offer, present, show itself, happen, occur, come to meet, show, bring to mind, give or take in exchange’, ^†ʕaraqa ‘to depart, set out’, ↗ʕarā (√ʕRW) ‘to come up to, approach, visit, occur, happen, befall, strike, afflict’.

▪ For Engl arbiter, earnest, cf. ↗ʕarrāb and ↗ʕurbūn.
▪ Engl eruv, from postBiblHbr ʕêrûb ‘eruv’, vn. of ʕērēb ‘to mix’, denom. vb. from Hbr ʕēreb ‘mixture’ (perh. < *‘an entering among’), see above, sections CONC and DISC.
▪ For Ar root √ĠRB ‘to depart’ (akin to some items of Sem and Ar √ʕRB; see above, sections CONC , COGN, DISC) and pertinent borrowings Engl Maghreb, Morocco, see Ar ↗maġrib.

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ʕarrab‑ عَرَّبَ (taʕrīb)

ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 27Sep2022

√ʕRB

vb., II

1a to Arabicize, make Arabic; b to translate into Arabic; 2 to express, voice, state clearly, declare (ʕan s.th.); 3 to give earnest money, give a handsel, make a down payment – WehrCowan1976

D-stem, denom.:
▪ ¹ʕarraba: from ↗ʕarab;
▪ ²ʕarraba: from ^†ʕarab~ʕarib ‘clear, limpid, clean; pure, genuine’, see ↗ʕRB_18;
▪ ³ʕarraba: from ↗ʕurbūn ‘earnest money’, related to ↗ʕarrāb

▪ …

…

–

Deriv (only from ¹ʕarraba):

►taʕarraba, vb. V, to assimilate o.s. to the Arabs, become an Arab, adopt the customs of the Arabs: Dt-stem, self-referential, denom. from ʕarab

►taʕrīb, n., 1a Arabicizing, Arabization; b translation into Arabic; c incorporation (of loanwords) into Arabic: vn. II
►muʕarrib, n., translator into Arabic: PA II
►muʕarrab, adj., 1a Arabicized; b translated into Arabic: PP II

For other meanings attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔaʕraba, ↗ʕarab, ↗ʕarabī, ↗¹ʕarabaẗ, ↗²ʕarabaẗ, ↗³ʕarabaẗ, ↗ʕarrāb, ↗ʔiʕrāb, and ↗ʕurbūn, as well as, for the overall picture, root entries ↗√ʕRB and ↗√ʕRBN.

ʔaʕrab‑ أَعْرَبَ (ʔiʕrāb)

ID – • Sw – • BP 2018 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 27Sep2022

√ʕRB

vb., IV

1 to Arabicize, make Arabic, give an Arabic form (to s.th.); 2 to make plain or clear, state clearly, declare (ʕan or ‑h s.th.), express (unmistakably), utter, voice, proclaim, make known, manifest, give to understand (ʕan s.th., esp. a sentiment), give expression (ʕan to s.th., esp. to a sentiment); 3 (gram.) to use desinential inflection, pronounce the ʔiʕrāb – WehrCowan1976

▪ *Š-stem, denom. caus. (1 from ʕarab; 2 from ^†ʕarab ~ ʕarib ‘clear, limpid, clean; pure, genuine’; 3 special use of [v1] and [v2])

▪ …

…

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►taʕarraba, vb. V, to assimilate o.s. to the Arabs, become an Arab, adopt the customs of the Arabs: Dt-stem, self-referential, denom. from ʕarab
►ĭstaʕraba, vb. X, = V (understood as desiderative, *Št-stem)

For other meanings attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕarraba, ↗ʕarab, ↗ʕarabī, ↗¹ʕarabaẗ, ↗²ʕarabaẗ, ↗³ʕarabaẗ, ↗ʕarrāb, ↗ʔiʕrāb, and ↗ʕurbūn, as well as, for the overall picture, root entries ↗√ʕRB and ↗√ʕRBN.

ʕarab عَرَب , pl. ʕurūb, ʔaʕrub, ʕurbān, ʔaʕrāb

ID 570 • Sw – • BP 45 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 27Sep2022

√ʕRB

n.coll.

1a Arabs; b true Arabs, Arabs of the desert, Bedouins – WehrCowan1976

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

…

►ʕarraba, vb. II, 1a to Arabicize, make Arabic; b to translate into Arabic: D-stem, denom.; 2 ↗s.v.; 3 ↗s.v. and ↗ʕurbūn ‘earnest money’, ↗ʕarrāb ‘godfather’
►ʔaʕraba, vb. IV, 1 to Arabicize, make Arabic, give an Arabic form (to s.th.); 2 ↗s.v.; 3 (gram.) to use desinential inflection, pronounce the ʔiʕrāb: *Š-stem, denom. caus.
►taʕarraba, vb. V, to assimilate o.s. to the Arabs, become an Arab, adopt the customs of the Arabs: Dt-stem, self-referential, denom.
►ĭstaʕraba, vb. X, = V (understood as desiderative, *Št-stem)
►ʕarabī, 1 adj., a Arab, Arabic, Arabian; b truly Arabic; 2 n., an Arab: nsb-adj., from ʕarab.
►al-ʕarabiyyaẗ, n.f., 1 the ʕArabiya, the language of the ancient Arabs; b classical, or literary, Arabic: nominalized nsb-adj.f.
►ʔaʕrābī, n., pl. ʔaʕrāb, an Arab of the desert, a Bedouin: based on ʕarab
►^BP#2509ʕurūbaẗ, n.f., Arabism, Arabdom, the Arab idea, the Arab character: abstr. formation, from ʕarab
►taʕrīb, n., 1a Arabicizing, Arabization; b translation into Arabic; c incorporation (of loanwords) into Arabic: vn. II
►ʔiʕrāb, 1a manifestation, declaration, proclamation, pronouncement, utterance; b expression (ʕan of a sentiment); 2 desinential inflection (gram.): vn. IV, ↗³ʔaʕraba and s.v.
►muʕarrib, n., translator into Arabic: PA II
►muʕarrab, adj., 1a Arabicized; b translated into Arabic: PP II
►muʕrab, adj., desinentially inflective (gram.): PP IV, from ↗³ʔaʕraba
►mustaʕrib, n., Arabist: PA X, coined in analogy with ↗mustašriq ‘Orientalist’

For other meanings attached to the root, cf. ↗¹ʕarabaẗ, ↗²ʕarabaẗ, ↗³ʕarabaẗ, ↗ʕarrāb, and ↗ʕurbūn, as well as, for the overall picture, root entries ↗√ʕRB and ↗√ʕRBN.

ʕarabī عَرَبِيّ

ID 572 • Sw – • BP 45 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 27Sep2022

√ʕRB

¹adj.; ²n.

1 adj., a Arab, Arabic, Arabian; b truly Arabic; 2 n., an Arab – WehrCowan1976

nsb-adj., from ↗ʕarab.

▪ …

…

►al-ʕarabiyyaẗ, n.f., 1 the ʕArabiya, the language of the ancient Arabs; b classical, or literary, Arabic: nominalized nsb-adj.f.

For other meanings attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕarraba, ↗ʔaʕraba, ↗¹ʕarabaẗ, ↗²ʕarabaẗ, ↗³ʕarabaẗ, ↗ʕarrāb, ↗ʔiʕrāb, and ↗ʕurbūn, as well as, for the overall picture, root entries ↗√ʕRB and ↗√ʕRBN.

¹ʕarabaẗ عَرَبَة

ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 27Sep2022

√ʕRB

n.f.

a swift river – WehrCowan1976.

▪ …

…

–

For other meanings attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕarraba, ↗ʔaʕraba, ↗ʕarab, ↗ʕarabī, ↗²ʕarabaẗ, ↗³ʕarabaẗ, ↗ʕarrāb, ↗ʔiʕrāb, and ↗ʕurbūn, as well as, for the overall picture, root entries ↗√ʕRB and ↗√ʕRBN.

²ʕarabaẗ عَرَبَة , pl. -āt

ID 571 • Sw – • BP 2914 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 27Sep2022

√ʕRB

n.f.

a carriage, vehicle, wagon, cart; b (railroad) car, coach; c araba, coach – WehrCowan1976

From Tu araba

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

–

►ʕarabaẗ al-ʔuǧraẗ, cab, hack, hackney;
►ʕarabaẗ al-ʔakl, dining car, diner;
►ʕarabaẗ rašš, water wagon, sprinkling wagon;
►ʕarabaẗ al-rukūb, cab, back, hackney;
►ʕarabaẗ šaḥn, wagon, lorry; freight car;
►ʕarabaẗ maṭʕam, dining car, diner;
►ʕarabaẗ ʔaṭfāl, baby carriage;
►ʕarabaẗ naql, wagon, lorry, van; freight car;
►ʕarabaẗ nawm, sleeping car, sleeper;
►ʕarabaẗ yad, 1 handcart, pushcart; 2 wheelbarrow

►^BP#2509ʕarabiyyaẗ, pl. -āt, n.f., 1a carriage, vehicle; b araba, coach: var. of ²ʕarabaẗ; 2 see ʕarabī
►ʕarbaǧī, pl. -iyyaẗ, n., coachman, cabman: from ²ʕarabaẗ + Tu suffix -ǧī for professions
►ʕarbaḫānaẗ, n.f., car shed, coach house: from ²ʕarabaẗ + Pers ḫāna ‘house’

For other meanings attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕarraba, ↗ʔaʕraba, ↗ʕarab, ↗ʕarabī, ↗¹ʕarabaẗ, ↗³ʕarabaẗ, ↗ʕarrāb, ↗ʔiʕrāb, and ↗ʕurbūn, as well as, for the overall picture, root entries ↗√ʕRB and ↗√ʕRBN.

³ʕarabaẗ عَرَبَة

ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 27Sep2022

√ʕRB

n.topogr.

the (Wadi) Araba (depression to the south of the Dead Sea, Jordan Rift Valley)

▪ …

…

–

For other meanings attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕarraba, ↗ʔaʕraba, ↗ʕarab, ↗ʕarabī, ↗¹ʕarabaẗ, ↗²ʕarabaẗ, ↗ʕarrāb, ↗ʔiʕrāb, and ↗ʕurbūn, as well as, for the overall picture, root entries ↗√ʕRB and ↗√ʕRBN.

ʕarrāb عَرّاب

ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 27Sep2022

√ʕRB

n.

godfather, sponsor – WehrCowan1976

▪ related to ↗ʕurbūn, based on old *‘to step in for s.o.’

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl arbiter, from Lat arbiter judge, from Phoen (Pun) *ʕarb ‘surety, guarantee’; earnest, from Grk arrabōn, from Can *ʕirrabōn ‘pledge, surety’, akin to Hbr ʕērābôn, from *ʕaraba ‘to enter, stand surety for’, cf. Ar ʕarrāb and ↗ʕurbūn.

►ʕarrābaẗ, n.f., godmother, sponsor: f. of ʕarrāb

►ʕarraba, vb. II, 1 ↗ʕarab; 2 ↗s.v.; 3 to give earnest money, give a handsel, make a down payment: D-stem, denom., from ↗ʕurbūn ‘earnest money’, related to ʕarrāb

For other meanings attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔaʕraba, ↗ʕarab, ↗ʕarabī, ↗¹ʕarabaẗ, ↗²ʕarabaẗ, ↗³ʕarabaẗ, ↗ʔiʕrāb, and ↗ʕurbūn, as well as, for the overall picture, root entries ↗√ʕRB and ↗√ʕRBN.

taʕrīb تَعْريب

Sw – • NahḍCon • BP … • APD … • © SG | created 7Jun2023

√ʕRB

n.

.

▪ vn., II

.

ʔiʕrāb إعْراب

ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021, last updated 27Sep2022

√ʕRB

n.

1a manifestation, declaration, proclamation, pronouncement, utterance; b expression (ʕan of a sentiment); 2 desinential inflection (gram.) – WehrCowan1976

▪ vn. of ↗ʔaʕraba, vb. IV, where the notions of ‘making Arabic, giving an Arabic form’, ‘stating clearly, expressing unmistakably’ and that of ‘using desinential inflection’ have merged, so that the pronunciation of case endings etc. is conceived as ‘clear’ and ‘correct Arabic’
▪ According to Olivieri2020 calqued on the model of Grk hellēnismós (as used in the Stoic tradition).
▪ …

▪ …

…

–

►muʕrab, adj., desinentially inflective (gram.): PP IV, from ³ʔaʕraba

For other meanings attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕarraba, ↗ʔaʕraba, ↗ʕarab, ↗ʕarabī, ↗¹ʕarabaẗ, ↗²ʕarabaẗ, ↗³ʕarabaẗ, ↗ʕarrāb, and ↗ʕurbūn, as well as, for the overall picture, root entries ↗√ʕRB and ↗√ʕRBN.

ʕRBN عربن

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕRBN

“root”

…

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

…

▪ For Engl arbiter, earnest, cf. ↗ʕurbūn and ↗ʕarrāb.

–

ʕurbūn عُرْبون

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕRB, ʕRBN

n.

…

▪ …

…

▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl arbiter, from Lat arbiter judge, from Phoen (Pun) *ʕarb ‘surety, guarantee’; earnest, from Grk arrabōn, from Can *ʕirrabōn ‘pledge, surety’, akin to Hbr ʕērābôn, from *ʕaraba ‘to enter, stand surety for’, cf. Ar ʕurbūn and ↗ʕarrāb.

…

ʕRǦ عرج

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023

√ʕRǦ

“root”

▪ ʕRǦ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕRǦ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕRǦ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be lame, to walk with a limp; to ascend, flight of steps; zigzagging road, to zigzag; to call upon’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʕRǦN عرجن

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023

√ʕRǦN

“root”

▪ ʕRǦN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕRǦN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕRǦN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘type of truffle; date-palm stalk, dry date-palm stalks’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʕRS عرس

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕRS

“root”

▪ ʕRS_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʕRS_2 ‘…’ ↗…

▪ …

–

▪ …
▪ …

–

ʕarūs عَرُوس

ID 573 • Sw – • BP 2590 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕRS

n.f.

… – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪▪ …
▪ ʕarūsaẗ: Cf. Fück1950: 122.
▪▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

–

►

ʕarīs عَرِيس

ID 574 • Sw – • BP 3838 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕRS

n.

… – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

–

►

ʕRŠ عرش

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕRŠ

“root”

▪ ʕRŠ_1 ‘throne; trellis; arbour, pergola’ ↗ʕarš
▪ ʕRŠ_2 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʕRŠ_3 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘trellis, to erect a trellis, roof, thatching; couch, dais, throne; mechanism on the top of a well for drawing water; a group of stars’

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

…

ʕarš عَرْش , pl. ʕurūš, ʔaʕrāš

ID … • Sw – • BP 2464 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕRŠ

n.

1 throne; 2 tribe (maghr.) – WehrCowan1976.

▪ …

▪ Bergsträsser1928: Ar ʕarš ‘throne, nest, bier’ is related to Akk eršu, Hbr ʔéreś, Aram ʕarī́š, all meaning ‘bed’; cf. also Gz ʕarī́š ‘arbour, pergola’

▪ Ehret1995#695: an extension in »venitive« *‑ɬ from a bi‑consonantal »pre‑protSem« root *ʕR ‘to be raised’ < AfrAs *‑ʕir‑ ‘to be raised; sky’. – Other extensions from the same pre‑protSem root: ↗ʕRB, ↗ʕRǦ, ↗ʕRD_1.

…

►ʕaraša, i u, vb. I, to erect a trellis (for grapevines), train on a trellis or espalier, to trellis, to espalier (vines).
►ʕarraša, vb. II, to roof over

►ʕarīš, pl. ʕuruš, ʕarāʔišᵘ, n., arbor, bower; hut made of twigs; booth, shack, shanty; trellis (for grapevines); shaft, carriage pole | al‑ʕArīš, n.topogr., El Arish (town in N Egypt, on Mediterranean)
►taʕrīšaẗ, pl. taʕārīšᵘ, n.f., trellis, lattice‑word; arbor, bower; pergola

ʕRḌ عرض

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕRḌ

“root”

▪ ʕRḌ_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʕRḌ_2 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘width, to widen, broaden, the middle; to show, review; to offer; to contrast, barter, match up; to reject; to occasion, accost, happen accidentally; to hint, insinuate’

▪ …

–

▪ …
▪ …

–

muʕāriḍ مُعارِض

ID 575 • Sw – • BP 2483 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕRḌ

adj.

… – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

–

►

muʕāraḍaẗ مُعارَضَة

ID 576 • Sw – • BP 1200 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕRḌ

n.f.

… – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

–

►

ʕRF عرف

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕRF

“root”

▪ ʕRF_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʕRF_2 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘heights, facial features, mane; comb or crest of a bird; to recognise, to know, knowledge, to inform; mentor; divinations; to confess, confession; social norms, good deeds, charity; fragrance, perfumes’

▪ From CSem *√ʕRP ‘to reckon, know’ – Huehnergard2011.

–

▪ …
▪ …

▪ Engl tariff ↗ʕarafa.

–

ʕaraf‑ عَرَفَ

ID 577 • Sw 59/83 • BP 49 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕRF

vb., I

… – WehrCowan1979.

▪ From CSem *√ʕRP ‘to reckon, know’ – Huehnergard2011.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl tariff, from Ar taʕrīf ‘notification’, vn. of ʕarrafa ‘to announce, inform’, D-stem (caus.) of ʕarafa ‘to know’.

►

ʕirfān عِرْفان

Sw – • NahḍCon • BP … • APD … • © SG | created 7Jun2023

√ʕRF

n.

.

▪ vn., I

.

ʕRQ عرق

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕRQ

“root”

▪ ʕRQ_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʕRQ_2 ‘…’ ↗…

▪ ʕRQ_1: From WSem *√¹ʕRQ ‘to gnaw, strip’ – Huehnergard2011.
▪ ʕRQ_2: From Ar root √²ʕRQ ‘to sweat’. Perhaps a specialized semantic development of *√¹ʕRQ (< *‘to become emaciated’?) – Huehnergard2011.

–

▪ …
▪ …

▪ Engl erg ↗ʕirq. – Engl arak, arrack, raki, borage ↗ʕaraq.

–

ʕirq عِرْق

ID 580 • Sw – • BP 5662 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕRQ

n.

… – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl erg, from MġrAr ʕarq, ʕarg, coll. pronunciation of Ar ʕirq ‘vein; tract of sand extending along the ground’ (perh. < *‘s.th. stripped off, strip, strand’).

►

ʕaraq عَرَق

ID 579 • Sw – • BP 3225 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕRQ

n.

… – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl arak, arrack, raki (< Tu rakı), from Ar ʕaraq, originally short for ʕaraq al-tamr, lit. ‘sweat of the date’ (arak originally having been distilled from date wine); borage, prob. from Ar būʕaraq, from ʔabū ʕaraq ‘father of sweat’; all from Ar ʕaraq ‘sweat’, from ʕariqa ‘to sweat, perspire’.

►

ʕirāqī عِراقِيّ

ID 578 • Sw – • BP 177 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕRQ

¹adj.; ²n.

… – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

…

►

ʕRM عرم

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1Mar2023

√ʕRM

“root”

▪ ʕRM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕRM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕRM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘mound of grain; great inundation, dam built across a valley; multitude, strength, violence, evil; tree bark; to strip meat off bones; a mole-rat’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʕRW عرو

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 17May2023

√ʕRW

“root”

▪ ʕRW_1 ‘to befall, grip, seize, strike, afflict, happen to, take possession of’ ↗ʕarā
▪ ʕRW_2 ‘buttonhole; loop, noose, coil; ear, handle (of a jug, etc.); tie, bond’ ↗ʕurwaẗ
▪ ʕRW_ ...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘loop, handle, hold, grip, link, buttonhole and the like; to grip, to seize; to befall, to afflict, to come over; to desert, to let down; extreme coldness; forlorn camels’. A degree of overlappping between this root and the root √ʕRY exists, as might be expected of corresponding W and Y radicals.

▪ [v1] : denom. (?) from [v2] in the sense of ‘tie, bond’, i.e. *‘to take hold of s.o./s.th.’. – But cf. also ↗¹ĭʕtawara (√ʕWR) ‘to befall, affect, come over s.o. alternately, successively’
▪ [v2] : ...
▪ …

–

.

–

ʕarā / ʕaraw‑ عَرَا / عَرَوْــ , ū (ʕarw)

ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 16Jul2023

√ʕRW

vb., I

1a to befall, grip, seize, strike, afflict (s.o.), come, descend (‑h upon s.o.), happen (-h to s.o.); b to take possession (-h of s.o.) – WehrCowan1976

▪ denom. (?) from ↗ʕurwaẗ ‘tie, bond’, i.e. *‘to take hold of s.o./s.th.’. – But cf. also ↗¹ĭʕtawara (√ʕWR) ‘to befall, affect, come over s.o. alternately, successively’

.

▪ See perh. ↗ʕurwaẗ ‘tie, bond’, or ↗¹ĭʕtawara (√ʕWR)

.

–

►ĭʕtarà, vb. VIII, = ʕarā: Gt-stem

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕurwaẗ as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ʕRW.

ʕurwaẗ عُرْوَة , pl. ʕuràⁿ

ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 16Jul2023

√ʕRW

n.f.

1a buttonhole; b loop, noose, coil; c ear, handle (of a jug, and the like); 2 tie, bond, e.g., ʕurà ’l-ṣadāqaẗ, bonds of friendship; support, prop, stay – WehrCowan1976

▪ Prob. akin to ↗ʕarā, ĭʕtarà ‘to befall, strike, afflict’
▪ ...

.

▪ ...

–

►al-ʕurwaẗ al-wuṯqà, n.f., the firm, reliable grip or hold, the firm tie

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕarā as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ʕRW.

ʕRY عري

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1Mar2023, last update 17May2023

√ʕRY

“root”

▪ ʕRY_1 ‘to be naked, nude, be free, be bare’ ↗ʕariya
▪ ʕRY_2 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘remote open expanse of land, treeless area; nakedness, to be naked, to become emaciated, to strip off, to strip meat off bones; to evacuate’. A degree of overlapping between this root and root √ʕRW exists, as might be expected of corresponding W and Y radicals’

▪ [v1] Tropper2008: Sem (except Gz) ʕRW/Y ‘to be naked’. – Cf. also ↗ʕawraẗ (√ʕWR) ‘defectiveness; weakness; pudenda’ and ↗ʕār (√ʕYR) ‘shame, disgrace, dishonor, ignominy’.
▪ …

–

▪ [v1] Tropper2008, Borg2021 #454: Akk erû, Ug ʕrw ‘to be naked, empty; to be destroyed’, (D) ‘to empty’, Ar ʕariya ‘to be naked, without clothes’, Malt għarwien ‘naked’. – Outside Sem, Borg2021 compares Eg ḥꜢj (OK) ‘to be naked’, ḥꜢ ‘homeless’, ḥꜢwt ‘nakedness’, ḥꜢwy ‘naked man’

.

–

ʕariy‑ / ʕarī‑ عَرِيَ , à (ʕury, ʕuryaẗ)

ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 16Jul2023

√ʕRY

vb., I

1a to be naked, nude; b to be free, be bare (ʕan of)

▪ Tropper2008: Sem (except Gz) *ʕRW/Y ‘to be naked’. – Cf. also ↗ʕawraẗ (√ʕWR) ‘defectiveness; weakness; pudenda’ and ↗ʕār (√ʕYR) ‘shame, disgrace, dishonor, ignominy’.
▪ ...

.

▪ Tropper2008, Borg2021 #454: Akk erû, Ug ʕrw ‘to be naked, empty; to be destroyed’, (D) ‘to empty’, Ar ʕariya ‘to be naked, without clothes’, Malt għarwien ‘naked’. – Outside Sem, Borg2021 compares Eg ḥꜢj (OK) ‘to be naked’, ḥꜢ ‘homeless’, ḥꜢwt ‘nakedness’, ḥꜢwy ‘naked man’
▪ ...

.

–

►ʕariya ʕan ṯiyābi-h, to take off one’s clothes, strip (naked), undress, have no clothes on;
►ʕariya ʕan kull ʔasās, to be completely unfounded, be without any foundation

►ʕarrà, vb. II, 1a to disrobe, unclothe, undress (s.o.); b to strip (s.o., ʕan ṯiyābi-h of his clothes); 2a to bare, denude, lay bare, uncover (s.th.); b to deprive, divest, strip: D-stem, caus.
►ʕury, n., 1 nakedness, nudity; 2 unsaddled (horse): vn. I
►ʕuryaẗ, n.f., nakedness, nudity: vn. I
►ʕarāʔ, n., 1a nakedness, nudity; b bareness; 2 open space, open country: vn. I | fī ’l-ʕarāʔ, in the open air, under the open sky, outside, outdoors; masraḥ fī ’l-ʕarāʔ, open-air theater
►ʕuryān, pl. ʕarāyà, adj., naked, nude, undressed, bare | EgAr ʕuryān malṭ, stark-naked
►ʕuryāniyyaẗ, n.f., nudism
►al-maʕārī, n.pl., the uncovered parts of the body (hands, feet, face): n.loc.
►^BP#3718ʕāriⁿ, pl., ʕurāẗ, adj., 1a naked, nude, undressed, bare; b free, devoid, destitute, bare, deprived, stripped, denuded (min or ʕan of s.th.); c blank, bare (e.g., a room), stark (e.g., a narrative): PA I | ʕārī ’l-ʔaqdām, barefoot(ed), unshod

ʕZː (ʕZZ) عزّ / عزز

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕZː (ʕZZ)

“root”

▪ ʕZː (ʕZZ)_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʕZː (ʕZZ)_2 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʕZː (ʕZZ)_3 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘power, might, downpour, to be impregnable, to be hard, to be rough (e.g. land); to overcome; to support, to be near to one’s heart, to value highly; to be consoled; to cooperate, to be rare’

▪ From protSem *√ʕZZ ‘to be(come) strong’ – Huehnergard2011.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

…

▪ Engl n.prop. Azazel, from Hbr ʕăzāʔzēl, perh. corrupt for ʕăzaz-ʔēl ‘God has been strong’ (personal name) ↗ʕazza.

…

ʕazz‑/ ʕazaz‑ عَزَّ / عَزَزْـ , i (ʕizz, ʕizzaẗ, ʕazāzaẗ)

ID … • Sw – • BP 2055 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕZː (ʕZZ)

vb., I

1 to be or become strong, powerful, respected; 2 to be or become rare, scarce, be scarcely to be found; 3 to be or become dear, cherished, precious – WehrCowan1976.

▪ From protSem *√ʕZZ ‘to be(come) strong’ – Huehnergard2011.

▪ …

▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘strong, powerful’) Akk ezzu, Hbr ʕaz, Syr (vb. ʕaz, ipfv neʕʕaz), Gz (ʕazī́z).

…

▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl Azazel, from Hbr ʕăzāʔzēl, perh. corrupt for ʕăzaz-ʔēl ‘God has been strong’ (personal name), cf. Ar √ʕZː(ʕZZ) (and ↗ʔilāh, ↗allāh).

►ʕazza ʕalayhi ʔan, expr., he is sorry that…; to be hard, difficult (ʕalà for s.o.); to hurt, pain, be painful, be hard

►^BP#2785ʕazzaza, vb. II, to make strong, strengthen, reinforce, fortify, corroborate, confirm, solidify, invigorate, harden, advance, support; to consolidate; to honour; to raise in esteem, elevate, exalt; to make dear, endear.
►ʔaʕazza, vb. IV, to make strong, strengthen, fortify, reinforce, invigorate, harden, steel; to love; to honour; to esteem, value, prize; to make dear, endear.
►taʕazzaza, vb. V, to be or become strong, powerful, mighty, forceful, strengthened, fortified, reinforced, invigorated, hardened, solidified, consolidated; to be proud, boast (bi‑ of), pride o.s., glory, exalt (in).
►ĭʕtazza, vb. VIII, to feel strong or powerful (bi‑ because of, due to); to be proud, boast, pride o.s., glory, exult; to arrogate to o.s.
►ĭstaʕazza, vb. X, to overwhelm, overcome (ʕalà s.o.); to become powerful, mighty, respected, honored, be exalted; to make or hold dear, value highly, esteem.

►^BP#2356ʕizz, n., might, power, strength; intensity, very high degree; honour, glory; high rank, fame, renown
►^BP#3083ʕizzaẗ, n.f., might, power, strength; honour, glory; high rank, fame, renown; self‑esteem, pride
►^BP#641ʕazīz, pl. ʔaʕizzāʔᵘ, ʔaʕizzaẗ, adj., mighty, powerful, respected, distinguished, notable; strong; noble, esteemed, venerable, august; honorable; rare, scarce, scarcely to be found; difficult, hard (al for s.o.); precious, costly, valuable; dear, beloved, cherished, valued; n., friend; ruler, overlord
►^BP#4407ʔaʕazzᵘ, adj., mightier, more powerful; stronger; dearer, more beloved; al‑ʕUzzà, n.prop.f., a goddess of the pagan Arabs
►Taʕizz, n.topogr.,Taʕizz (city in Yemen Arab Republic)
►maʕazzaẗ, n.f., esteem, regard, affection, love
►^BP#1194taʕzīz, pl. ‑āt, n., strengthening, consolidation, support, backing; pl. ‑āt reinforcements, supplies (mil.).
►ʔiʕzāz, n., strengthening, fortification, reinforcement, consolidation; love, affection, esteem, regard
►ĭʕtizāz, n., pride (bi‑ in)
►muʕtazz, adj., proud; mighty, powerful

ʕZB عزب

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1Mar2023

√ʕZB

“root”

▪ ʕZB_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕZB_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕZB_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to move far away from inhabited areas, to be distant and to live apart from everyone, to he without a spouse, bachelorhood, celibacy’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʕZR عزر

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1Mar2023

√ʕZR

“root”

▪ ʕZR_1 ‘to help’ ↗ʕazzara
▪ ʕZR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕZR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to censure, to apply corporal punishment; to support; to be tough; to be bad tempered; to honour’.

▪ …

–

.

▪ Philologists classify under this root the proper name ʕUzayr, but recognised it as being of foreign origin -- BAH2008

–

ʕazzar عَزَّرَ

ID – • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 3Jun2023

√ʕZR

vb., II

to help – Jeffery1938

▪ …

▪ eC7 Q v, 15; vii, 156; xlviii, 9 – Jeffery1938.

.

▪ Jeffery1938: »It is used only in late passages in the technical sense of giving aid in religious matters. / Obviously it is not used in the normal sense of ‘to correct’ or ‘punish’, nor can it be a normal development of ʕazara ‘to reprove, blame’. The Lexicons are forced to illustrate this Qurʔānic use of the word from the Ḥadīth whose usage is obviously dependent on the Qurʔān itself (LA, vi, 237). / It thus seems probable that the verb is denominative, formed from a borrowed [Hbr] ʕēzär or ʕäzrâʰ meaning ‘help’, ‘succour’, which would have come to Muḥammad from his contact with the Jewish communities.²³ . As the Hbr and Phoen ʕzr, Aram ʕdr, Syr ʕdr are cognate with the Arab ʕaḏara ‘to aid’, it is possible to consider ʕazara as a by-form of ʕaḏara, just as [Palm] ʕdr occurs, though infrequently, beside ʕzr in the Palm inscriptions,²⁴ but the fact that it is ʕazzara and not ʕazara which means ‘to help’ is against this, and in favour of its being a denominative.«

23. So Horovitz, JPN, 214. 24. Lidzbarski, Handbuch, 338.

–

ʕZL عزل

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1Mar2023

√ʕZL

“root”

▪ ʕZL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕZL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕZL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to remove, to set aside, to isolate, to boycott, to part from; unarmed person, loner, weakness’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʕZM عزم

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1Mar2023

√ʕZM

“root”

▪ ʕZM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕZM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕZM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to decide, to urge, to intend, decision, resolution, resolute and stalwart’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʕZW عزو

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1Mar2023

√ʕZW

“root”

▪ ʕZW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕZW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕZW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a group of people, to attribute, to ascribe, to trace back, to console, to support’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʕSR عسر

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1Mar2023

√ʕSR

“root”

▪ ʕSR_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕSR_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕSR_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘left-handedness, pecuniary hardship, to be difficult, to disagree, to dispute; to be stuck; to be untamed’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʕSʕS عسعس

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1Mar2023

√ʕSʕS

“root”

▪ ʕSʕS_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕSʕS_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕSʕS_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘(quadrilatiral root derived from root ʕ-s-s) wolf, hunting dog; to roam by night; to hunt by night; to seek, to go after, to stalk; (of day light) to appear, (of night darkness) to descend’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʕSL عسل

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕSL

“root”

▪ ʕSL_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʕSL_2 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘honey, to sweeten with honey; to slip off; to deviate’

▪ …

–

▪ …
▪ …

–

ʕasal عَسَل

ID 581 • Sw – • BP 2051 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕSL

n.

… – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

–

►

ʕSW عسو

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1Mar2023

√ʕSW

“root”

▪ ʕSW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕSW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕSW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to hope, hope for, expect, anticipate, look forward to, be apprehensive, to fear’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʕŠB عشب

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕŠB

“root”

▪ ʕŠB_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʕŠB_2 ‘…’ ↗…

▪ …

–

▪ …
▪ …

–

ʕušb عُشْب

ID 582 • Sw –/62 • BP 3795 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕŠB

n.

… – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Kogan2011: from protCSem *ʕ˅śb‑ ‘grass’, replaces protSem *daṯʔ‑ ‘grass’ (> Ar daṯaʕī, from daṯṯ ‘weak rain’).
▪ …

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

–

►

ʕŠR عشر

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕŠR

“root”

▪ ʕŠR_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʕŠR_2 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘one’s own family, clan, spouse, to live with, to be on intimate terms, to mix with, cohabitation; number ten and its associates; to be with child (used specifically for female animals), to conceive’

▪ From protSem *ʕaśr‑ ‘ten’ – Huehnergard2011.

–

▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘ten’) Akk ešru, Hbr ʕéśer, Syr ʕsar, Gz ʕašrū́.
▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

▪ EnglAshura ↗ʕāšūrāʔ.

–

ʕāšūrāʔᵘ عاشوراء, var. ʕašūrā

ID 583 • Sw – • BP??? • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕŠR

n.

… – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

▪ (Huehnergard2011:) EnglAshura, from Ar ʕāšūrāʔ, the tenth of Muḥarram kept as a fast day by Arabs in pre-Islamic times, Ashura, ultimately (prob. via Aram *ʕāsorā) from Hbr ʕāśôr ‘a set of ten (days, etc.), decade’ (used in Leviticus to specify the date of Yom Kippur, the tenth of Tishri), from ʕeśer ‘ten’.

►

ʕŠQ عشق

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕŠQ

“root”

▪ ʕŠQ_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʕŠQ_2 ‘…’ ↗…

▪ …

–

▪ …
▪ …

–

ʕašiq‑ عَشِقَ

ID 584 • Sw – • BP 4144 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕŠQ

vb., I

… – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

–

►

ʕišq عِشْق

ID 585 • Sw – • BP 2588 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕŠQ

n.

… – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

–

►

ʕŠW/Y عشو / عشي

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕŠW/Y

“root”

▪ ʕŠW/Y_1 ‘bad eyesight, dim-sigthedness, night-blindness’ ↗ʕašan, ↗ʕišāʔ
▪ ʕŠW/Y_2 ‘evening; evening meal, dinner; evening prayer’ ↗ʕašāʔ, ↗ʕišāʔ
▪ ʕŠW/Y_3 ‘to wrong, treat unjustly, tyrannically’ ↗ʕašwāʔī, ↗ʕišāʔ
▪ ʕŠW/Y_4 ‘informal settlements, slum’ ↗ʕašwāʔiyyāt, ↗>ʕašwāʔī, ↗ʕišāʔ

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘1 bad eyesight, inability to see at night, to be dim-sighted; to feel around aimlessly, to veer away from. – 2 evening, darkness; to make a distant light at night; to give a night meal.

▪ Given that the root apparently does not have any cognates in Sem or outside, we have no clue as to which value is to be regarded as primary—‘dim-sigthedness’, ‘evening, darkness’, or even ‘withdrawal’. The present entry proceeds from the assumption that the verbs are denominative and that the primary meaning of the corresponding n. was s.th. like *‘time of the day when it gets dark and it becomes difficult to see’. The items whose value comes closest to this notion in MSA are ʕišāʔ, ʕašiyy and ʕašiyyaẗ, all signifying ‘evening’. In absence of a self-evident etymon, the author of the present and related entries has chosen ↗ʕišāʔ (as the most ‘basic’ of the three) to serve as the main entry under which to treat the whole complex.

▪ Three major lines of semantic development can be imagined:

1.a) ‘dim-sighted’ > ‘time of dim-sightedness, beginning darkness, evening, early night’ > actions performed at this time of the day: pasture of cattle, dinner; prayer
1.b) ‘dim-sighted’ > ‘to act blindly, overlook, withdraw from’ > ‘at random, haphazardly’
2.a) ‘time of beginning darkness’ > actions performed at this time of the day: pasture of cattle, dinner; prayer
2.b) ‘time of beginning darkness’ > ‘dim-sightedness’ > etc. (as 1.b)
3. ‘to withdraw, turn away’ > (sun) ‘to get dark’ > etc. (as 2.a and 2.b)

The author of the present entry thinks option (2) is the most probable.

▪ eC7 ʕašā (to fail to see, be blinded to) Q 43:36 wa-man yaʕšu ʕan ḏikri ’l-raḥmāni ‘and whoever is blind to the remembrance of the Lord of Mercy’. – ʕišāʔ (the first part of the night marked by the disappearing of the twilight, evening) 12:16 wa-ǧāʔū ʔabā-hum ʕišāʔan yabkūna ‘and they came to their father after nightfall weeping’, (night prayer) 24:58 ṣalāẗi ’l-ʕišāʔi ‘the night prayer’. – ʕašiyy (evening) 38:18 yusabbiḥna bi’l-ʕašiyyi wa-bi’l-ʔišrāqi ‘to sing the praises at evening and sunrise’. – ʕašiyyaẗ (one evening) 79:46 lam yalbaṯū ʔillā ʕašiyyaẗan ʔaw ḍuḥā-hā ‘they had not tarried but an evening or the mid-morning following’.

Zammit2002 #ʕašā (ʕŠW) ‘to withdraw from’: no cognates in Sem

See CONCISE and SEMHIST above

–

ʕišāʔ عِشاء

ID … • Sw – • BP 4644 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕŠW/Y

n.

1 evening. – 2 (f.) evening prayer (Isl. Law) – WehrCowan1979.

▪ The item belongs to a root that has the two basic connotations of ‘dim-sightedness’ and ‘(actions performed, or to be performed in the) evening, at nightfall’. Given that neither Sem nor AfrAs give any clue as to semantic development within the root, the author of the present entry assumes the etymon proper of both to be s.th. like the *‘time of the day when it gets dark and it becomes difficult to see’. ʕišāʔ has been chosen as the main entry to treat the whole ʕŠW/Y complex because it is one out of three MSA items whose semantic value comes closest to the hypothetical etymon’s value (‘the time of nightfall, i. e. the first, or beginnng, of the darkness of night’ – Lane) and among the three displays the simplest morphological pattern.
▪ The semantic development suggested here is:

a) ‘time of beginning darkness’ > actions performed at this time of the day: ^†pasture of cattle; dinner, supper; evening prayer
b) ‘time of beginning darkness’ > ‘dim-sightedness’ > ‘to act blindly, overlook, veer away from’ > ‘at random, haphazardly’ > ‘informal settlements, slum’

▪ eC7 ʕišāʔ (the first part of the night marked by the disappearing of the twilight, evening) 12:16 wa-ǧāʔū ʔabā-hum ʕišāʔan yabkūna ‘and they came to their father after nightfall weeping’, (night prayer) 24:58 ṣalāẗi ’l-ʕišāʔi ‘the night prayer’. – ʕašiyy (evening) 38:18 yusabbiḥna bi’l-ʕašiyyi wa-bi’l-ʔišrāqi ‘to sing the praises at evening and sunrise’. – ʕašiyyaẗ (one evening) 79:46 lam yalbaṯū ʔillā ʕašiyyaẗan ʔaw ḍuḥā-hā ‘they had not tarried but an evening or the mid-morning following’. – ʕašā (to fail to see, be blinded to) Q 43:36 wa-man yaʕšu ʕan ḏikri ’l-raḥmāni ‘and whoever is blind to the remembrance of the Lord of Mercy’.

–

Of obscure etymology.

–

► ʕašā u (ʕašw) and ʕašiya a (ʕašan, det. ʕašā), vb. I, to be dim-sighted; to be night-blind: denominative from the assumed etymon *‘time of the day when it gets dark and it becomes difficult to see’.
► ʕaššà, vb. II, 1 to make dim-sighted, make night-blind: caus. of I. – 2 to give a dinner (DO for s.o.): denom., from ʕišāʔ or ʕašāʔ.
► ʔaʕšà, vb. IV, to make dim-sighted: caus. of vb. I.
► taʕaššà, vb. V, to have dinner (or supper), to dine, to sup: t-stem of vb. II [v2], autobenefactive.
► ʕašan, det. ʕašā, n., dim-sightedness; nightblindness, nyctalopia: vn. I.
► ʕašan, det. ʕašà, n., nightblindness, nyctalopia: vn. I.
► ʕašiyy, n., evening: orig. a quasi-PP with ints.-adjectival meaning?
► ^BP#2239ʕašāʔ, pl. ʔaʕšiyaẗ, n., dinner, supper:… | al-~ al-sirrī, n., the Lord’s supper, the Eucharist (Chr.) ► ʕašwaẗ, n.f., 1 darkness, dark, gloom: could also have served as main entry. – 2 dinner, supper: transfer of meaning from [v1] to the meal that is (to be) taken at this time of the day. – ^†3 (also ʕišwaẗ, ʕušwaẗ) defectus prudentiae in re tractanda [absence of prudence in doing s.th.] (Freytag1830): fig. use of ‘dim-sightedness, night-blindness’.
► ʕašāwaẗ, n.f., dim-sightedness; nightblindness, nyctalopia: ints. n., quasi-vn. I.
► ^BP#2850ʕašiyyaẗ, pl. ʕašāyā, n., 1 evening; nightfall: could also have served as main entry. – 2 eve, day before a feast: extended meaning of [v1] | ~a ʔamsi, adv., last night, yesterday in the evening; bayna ~ wa-ḍuḥā-hā, adv., from one day to the other, overnight, all of a sudden.
► ʕašwāʔᵘ, n., darkness, dark, gloom: nominalized f. of ʔaʕšà.
► ʔaʕšà, f. ʕašwāʔᵘ, adj., dim-sighted; night-blind, nyctalopic; blind, aimless, haphazard, desultory, senseless: ʔafʕalᵘ formation (for physical handicaps), from the (secondary?) value of the root, ‘dim-sightedness’. | yaḫbiṭu ḫabṭatan ʕašwāʔa, expr., he acts blindly, thoughtlessly, at random, haphazardly.
► ^BP#3282ʕašwāʔī, adj., random, happening at random, without plan: lit., *‘blindly, as in the dark (ʕašwāʔ)’.
► ʕašwāʔiyyāt, n., haphazard communities, informal settlements, ‘mushroom city’, slums: nominalized nsb-adj., f.pl., from ʕašwāʔ, lit. *‘the haphazard(ly built) ones (sc., settlements)’.

ʕašaⁿ عَشًى , det. عَشَى ʕašà ; var. عَشًا ʕašaⁿ , det. عَشَا ʕašā

ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕŠW/Y

n.

dim-sightedness; nightblindness, nyctalopia – WehrCowan1979.

▪ The item belongs to a root that has the two basic connotations of ‘dim-sightedness’ and ‘(actions performed, or to be performed in the) evening, at nightfall’. Given that neither Sem nor AfrAs give any clue as to semantic development within the root, the author of the present entry assumes the etymon proper of both to be s.th. like the *‘time of the day when it gets dark and it becomes difficult to see’. This entry treats only the notion of dim-sightedness and what is derived directly from it. For the broader picture cf. ↗ʕišāʔ , the item whose semantic value comes closest to the hypothetical etymon’s value (‘the time of nightfall, i. e. the first, or beginnng, of the darkness of night’ – Lane).
▪ In some of its derivations, ‘dim-sightedness’ gave also the extended value of ‘to act blindly, overlook, veer away from’, hence also figurative use in the sense of ‘(to act) at random, haphazardly’, and from here the modern expression for ‘informal settlements, slum’ has been coined.

▪ eC7 ʕašā (to fail to see, be blinded to) Q 43:36 wa-man yaʕšu ʕan ḏikri ’l-raḥmāni ‘and whoever is blind to the remembrance of the Lord of Mercy’.

–

See ↗ʕŠW/Y and ↗ʕišāʔ.

–

► ʕašā u (ʕašw) and ʕašiya a (ʕašan, det. ʕašā), vb. I, to be dim-sighted; to be night-blind: denominative from the assumed etymon *‘time of the day when it gets dark and it becomes difficult to see’.
► ʕaššà, vb. II, 1 to make dim-sighted, make night-blind: caus. of I. – 2 For another value see ↗ʕišāʔ and/or ↗ʕašāʔ.
► ʔaʕšà, vb. IV, to make dim-sighted: caus. of vb. I.
► ʕašwaẗ, n.f., 1 darkness, dark, gloom: could also have served as main entry. – 2 For another value see ↗ʕišāʔ and/or ↗ʕašāʔ. – ^†3 (also ʕišwaẗ, ʕušwaẗ) defectus prudentiae in re tractanda [absence of prudence in doing s.th.] (Freytag1830): fig. use of ‘dim-sightedness, night-blindness’.
► ʕašāwaẗ, n.f., dim-sightedness; nightblindness, nyctalopia: ints. n., quasi-vn. I.
► ʔaʕšà, f. ʕašwāʔᵘ, adj., 1 dim-sighted; night-blind, nyctalopic; 2 blind, aimless, haphazard, desultory, senseless: ʔafʕalᵘ formation (for physical handicaps); [v2] is fig. use. | yaḫbiṭu ḫabṭatan ʕašwāʔa, expr., he acts blindly, thoughtlessly, at random, haphazardly.
► ^BP#3282ʕašwāʔī, adj., random, happening at random, without plan: lit., *‘blindly, as in the dark (ʕašwāʔ)’.
► ʕašwāʔiyyāt, n., haphazard communities, informal settlements, ‘mushroom city’, slums: nominalized nsb-adj., f.pl., from ʕašwāʔ, lit. *‘the haphazard(ly built) ones (sc., settlements)’.

ʕašāʔ عَشاء , pl. ʔaʕšiyaẗ

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√ʕŠW/Y

n.

dinner, supper – WehrCowan1979.

▪ The item belongs to a root that has the two basic connotations of ‘dim-sightedness’ and ‘(actions performed, or to be performed in the) evening, at nightfall’. Given that neither Sem nor AfrAs give any clue as to semantic development within the root, the author of the present entry assumes the etymon proper of both to be s.th. like the *‘time of the day when it gets dark and it becomes difficult to see’. This entry treats only the notion of ‘actions performed, or to be performed in the evening, at nightfall’. For the broader picture cf. ↗ʕišāʔ , the item whose semantic value comes closest to the hypothetical etymon’s value (‘the time of nightfall, i. e. the first, or beginnng, of the darkness of night’ – Lane).

See ↗ʕišāʔ.

–

▪ See ↗ʕŠW/Y and ↗ʕišāʔ.
▪ The value the word has in MSA is the result of a development that can be imagined to have happened along the following line: *‘time of beginning darkness’ > actions performed at this time of the day: ‘^†pasture of cattle; dinner, supper; ^†evening prayer’.

–

► al-ʕašāʔ al-sirrī, n., the Lord’s supper, the Eucharist (Chr.)

► ʕaššà, vb. II, 1 See ↗ʕišāʔ. – 2 to give a dinner (DO for s.o.): denom. (from ʕašāʔ or ↗ʕišāʔ).
► taʕaššà, vb. V, to have dinner (or supper), to dine, to sup: t-stem of vb. II [v2], autobenefactive.
► ʕašwaẗ, n.f., 1 See ↗ʕišāʔ. – 2 dinner, supper: transfer of meaning from [v1] to the meal that is (to be) taken at this time of the day. – ^†3 See ↗ʕišāʔ, ↗ʕašwāʔī.

ʕašwāʔī عَشْوائيّ

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√ʕŠW/Y

adj.

random, happening at random, without plan – WehrCowan1979.

▪ The adj. ʕašwāʔī is a nisba formation from ʕašwāʔᵘ ‘darkness, dark, gloom’. Literally, ʕašwāʔī thus means *‘blindly, as in the dark, without seeing what one is doing’.
▪ ʕašwāʔᵘ itself is originally the f. form of the ʔafʕalᵘ adj. ʔaʕšà ‘1 dim-sighted; night-blind, nyctalopic; (hence also) 2 blind, aimless, haphazard, desultory, senseless’.
▪ For the wider context see ↗ʕišāʔ.

See ↗ʕišāʔ.

–

See ↗ʕŠW/Y and ↗ʕišāʔ.

–

► minṭaqaẗ ʕašwāʔiyyaẗ, n.f., informal settlement, slum.

► ʕašwāʔiyyāt, n., haphazard communities, informal settlements, ‘mushroom city’, slums: nominalized nsb-adj., f.pl., from ʕašwāʔ, lit. *‘the haphazard(ly built) ones (sc., settlements)’.

ʕašwāʔiyyāt عَشْوائِيّات

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√ʕŠW/Y

n.f.pl.

haphazard communities, informal settlements, ‘mushroom city’, slums – ar/en.wikipedia

▪ ʕašwāʔiyyāt is not yet lexicalized in WehrCowan1979 as an item in its own right, as it is a term that evolved only towards the end of C20.
▪ Grammatically speaking, it is the nominalization of the f.pl. of ↗ʕašwāʔī ‘random, happening at random, without plan’ and thus means *‘the haphazard(ly built) ones (sc., settlements)’, short for al-manāṭiq (or al-mudun) al-ʕašwāʔiyyaẗ ‘the haphazard(ly built) areas (or towns)’. The adj. ʕašwāʔī is a nisba formation from ʕašwāʔᵘ ‘darkness, dark, gloom’, itself the f. form of the ʔafʕalᵘ adj. ʔaʕšà ‘1 dim-sighted; night-blind, nyctalopic; (hence also) 2 blind, aimless, haphazard, desultory, senseless’.
▪ For the wider context see ↗ʕišāʔ (= the item whose semantic value comes closest to the hypothetical etymon’s value *‘the time of nightfall, i. e. the first, or beginnng, of the darkness of night’).

▪ …

–

See ↗ʕŠW/Y and ↗ʕišāʔ.

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ʕṢB عصب

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√ʕṢB

“root”

▪ ʕṢB_1 ‘nerve; sinew’ ↗ʕaṣab; ‘nervous, neuro‑’ ↗ʕaṣabī; ‘nervosity’ ↗¹ʕaṣabiyyaẗ
▪ ʕṢB_2 ‘to wind, fold, tie, bind; to wrap (the head) with a band, turban, etc.’ ↗ʕaṣaba; ʻband(age), dressing; headcloth, brow band, frontlet; union, league, group, troop, gang’ ↗ʕiṣābaẗ; ʻto take sides, cling obdurately to; fanaticism, ardent zeal, bigotry’ ↗taʕaṣṣub; ʻtribal solidarity, tribalism’ ↗²ʕaṣabiyyaẗ; ʻstrike’ ↗ĭʕtiṣāb
▪ ʕṢB_3 ‘hot, crucial, critical (time, stage)’ ↗ʕaṣīb

Other values, now obsolete, include (Hava1899):
▪ ^†ʕṢB_4 ‘to take by force’: ^†ʕaṣaba (ʕaṣb) (ʕalà s.th.)
▪ ^†ʕṢB_5 ʻto dry in the mouth (saliva); to become unclean (teeth)’: ^†ʕaṣaba, ^†ʕaṣiba (ʕaṣb, ʕuṣūb)
▪ ^†ʕṢB_6 ʻto starve (people: dearth)’: ^†ʕaṣṣaba; cf. also ^†muʕaṣṣab ʻreduced to straitness by dearth’; ^†taʕaṣṣaba ‘to be satisfied (bi‑ with)’
▪ ^†ʕṢB_7 ʻto become red (horizon)’: ^†ʕaṣaba, ^†ʕaṣiba (ʕaṣb, ʕuṣūb); cf. also ^†ʕiṣābaẗ ʻred mist seen in a time of drought’
▪ ^†ʕṢB_8 ‘to walk at a quick pace (camel)’: ^†ʔaʕṣaba
▪ ^†ʕṢB_ ‘’ : …

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘1 tendons, bands, to wrap up; 2 to stick to; 3 gang, partisanship; to gang up; 4 to be prejudiced, prejudice, to be a fanatic; 5 creeper’.

▪ It is not clear whether all items in this root go back to one etymon (‘sinew, nerves, tendons’?) or whether we are dealing with two or more roots that have merged into one in Ar. It seems that previous research does not connect ‘sinew, nerves’ with the other values: SED I (Militarev&Kogan2000), on the one hand, only treats ‘sinew, nerves’ (with cognates in Mhr, Jib, and Te); Leslau2006 (CDG), on the other hand, does not mention ‘sinew, nerves’ at all and instead postulates a belonging together of Ar ʻto bind, fold, tighten’ [ʕṢB_2] as well as Ar ʻto be difficult’ [ʕṢB_3] with Hbr Aram ʻto hurt, pain, grieve’, and EthSem ʻharshness, trouble, distress, hunger, misery’.
▪ If ‘sinew, nerves’ should be related to the other values (which may belong together and be essentially one) the meaning ‘headache’ of Jib ʕaṣbɛ́t, alongside with ‘sinew, nerve’, may indicate a possible point of semantic transition from ‘sinew, nerve’ to the complex of ‘harshness, difficulty, pain, grievance’: according to MilitarevKogan, ‘headache’ could be »a late semantic development« (see below), i.e., the meaning ‘headache’ could be dependent on ‘sinew, nerve’. – In a similar vein, BK1860 interprets the obsol. Ar vb. XII, ^†ĭʕṣawṣaba ʻto gather one’s forces, make the highest effort’, as »proprem. tendre tous ses muscles pour aller au plus vite; de là (fig.) devenir très intense, violent«, in this way bringing together ʻsinews’ (muscles) and ʻintensity, violence’; cf. also the ClassAr expressions ^†ĭʕṣawṣaba ’l-šarr ʻle mal, le malheur, la guerre fut à son apogee’ and ^†ĭʕṣawṣaba ’l-yawm ʻla journée (du combat ou de la chaleur) fut dure’ (BK1860) – see [v3].
▪ If ‘sinew, nerves’ and the other values are etymologically related, one could imagine a semantic development within the root along a hypothetical line such as *ʻsinew, nerves > tightness, contraction > a) to bind, tie, wrap; b) harshness, difficulty, tension, etc.’ or *ʻsinew, nerves > to bind, tie, wrap (with a sinew or) > to tighten up, tightness, contraction, tension > (fig. use) harshness, difficulty, precariousness, (etc.)’. If this should turn out to be untenable, it is perh. only the rather isolated ʻto bind, tighten’ that depends on ‘sinew, nerves’, while ʻharshness, difficulty, pain, etc.’ represent a domain in its own right. The same may hold for the obsolete values ^†ʕṢB_7 ʻto become red (horizon), red mist seen in a time of drought’ and^†ʕṢB_8 ‘to walk at a quick pace (camel)’ both of which seem to be difficult to connect to any of the other values – at first sight, at least (for more details, see DISC below).
▪ For ‘sinew, nerves’, SED I (Militarev&Kogan2000) #16 reconstructs protSem *ʕa(n)ṣab‑ ~ *ʕa(n)c̣ab‑ ‘sinew, nerves’ but simultaneously underlines that the word is »poorly attested in Sem«.

–

▪ Militarev&Kogan2000 (SED I) #16: Mhr ʔāṣbīt, Ḥrs ʔāṣebét ‘sinew, nerve’, Jib ʕaṣbɛ́t ‘dto.; condition of having headaches³ ’, Ar ʕaṣab (coll.) ‘nerves’, Te ʕanṣäbät, ʔanṣäbät ‘sinew, (Munzinger: nerv, corde)’.
▪ Leslau2006 (CDG): Hbr ʕāṣab ‘to hurt, pain, grieve’ (BDB1906), (Ni) ‘to be grieved’, (Hi) ‘to grieve’, Aram ʕᵃṣaḇ ‘to be grieved’; Ar ʕaṣaba ‘to bind, tighten’, ĭnʕaṣaba ‘to be difficult’; Gz ʕəṣab ‘harshness, rigor, severity, difficulty, trouble, [etc.]’, ʕəṣub, (Y) ʕəḍub ‘hard, harsh, difficult, severe, serious, rough, rugged, harassed, oppressed, troublesome, vehement, grievous, fierce, austere, onerous […]’, Te ʕaṣba ‘to be in distress, suffer from hunger’, Tña ʕaṣäbä ‘to be in misery, be in distress’, Amh aṭṭäbä ‘to be in distress, marvel’, aṣäba ‘poverty, distress’, əṣub ‘distressed, astounding, marvelous’.⁴ – Buhl 609, Baumgartner 818 (following Gesenius and Lagarde)⁵ also compare Ar ↗ġaḍiba ‘to be angry’ [mentioned also in BDB1906 but qualified as »dubious« parallel there]; to Leslau, a comparison with Ar ↗ṣaʕuba (by metathesis) ‘to be hard, be difficult’ seems more likely.
▪ …

3. »Looks like a late semantic development«. 4. Passed into (Cu) Bil aṣab ‘laborious, troublesome’. 5. Frants Buhl, Wilhelm Gesenius’ Hebräisches und Aramäisches Handwörterbuch über das Alte Testament, bearb. v. F.B., 17^th ed., Leipzig: F.C.W. Vogel, 1921; Walter Baumgartner, Hebräisches und aramäisches Lexicon zum Alten Testament, von Ludwig Koehler und W.B., 3^rd ed., rev. by W.B., Leiden: Brill, 1967

▪ ʕṢB_1 : Militarev&Kogan2000 (SED I) #16 state that the word is »poorly attested in Sem. The modSAr terms may be Arabisms. The Te form is hardly an Ar loan pace. Note modHbr ʕāṣāb ‘nerve’ which does not seem to be attested in early Jewish writings and may be a medieval Arabism.«[(cn :: For Klein1987 the mHbr word is unquestionably »[f]rom Arabic ʕaṣab (= nerve).«]
▪ ʕṢB_2 : As mentioned above (section CONC), the idea of ‘binding, wrapping’ may be derived from ʻnerve, sinew’. BK1860 gives the primary value as ʻceindre tout autour, entourer un lieu (se dit, p.ex., des bestiaux qui entourent une pièce d’eau pour y boire); empoigner, prendre avec la main (de manière que la chose entre toute entière dans la main); saisir, p.ex., plusieurs rameaux ou herbes à la fois, pour les arracher’. In Ar, this basic theme has developed a larger semantic field in its own right, with no similar or directly corresponding developments in Sem (at first sight, at least). Two main lines of development can be distinguished: 1 ‘binding, wrapping’ > ‘headcloth, turban’; 2 ‘binding, wrapping’ > a ‘to stick to, gather around (*tie o.s. to) s.th./s.o.’ > ‘union, group, gang; clan solidarity’, etc.; b ‘to cling obdurately to s.th./s.o.; fanaticism, ardent zeal, bigotry’; ĭʕtiṣāb that was used for a long time to render the Engl ‘strike’ before it became replaced by ↗ʔiḍrāb is prob. a variant of ‘to form a group of fanatic followers’. – Leslau2006 thinks Ar ʕaṣaba ʻto wind, fold, tie, bind, wrap’ should be seen together with the semantic complex of ʻto hurt, pain, grieve; harshness, trouble, distress, hunger, misery’ as found in Hbr, Aram, and EthSem. Obviously meant as a kind of semantic link, he notes Ar vb. VII, ĭnʕaṣaba ‘to be difficult’ (from *ʻto tighten, get denser, contract’?). If this should reflect historical reality, one may feel tempted to connect also values ʕṢB_3-6 to this complex and assume a further development from ‘binding, wrapping’ via *3 ʻto tighten, contract’ into *3a ʻto become critical, crucial (< *suffocating)’ (ʕṢB_3), b ‘to take by force (< *to tighten a siege, intensify one’s attack)’ (^†ʕṢB_4), c ʻto dry in the mouth (saliva), become unclean (teeth) (*< contraction in the mouth)’ (^†ʕṢB_5), d ʻ(*to make s.o. tighten his/her belt =) ʻto reduce to straitness, make people starve, (*to tighten one’s own belt =) to be satisfied’ (^†ʕṢB_6). – Leslau also mentions that earlier research (Buhl, Baumgartner) had proposed a relation between these items and Ar ↗ġaḍiba ʻto be angry, vexed, irritated’, a suggestion Leslau himself is not comfortable with (without giving further reasons). Indeed, the regular correspondence of Ar √ĠḌB in Gz should be √ʕṢ́B, not √ʕṢB. To Leslau, a connection with Ar ↗ṣaʕuba (metathesis) seems more likely.
▪ ʕṢB_3-6 : As discussed in the preceding paragraph, all these values can be thought to be based on ʕṢB_2 ‘to bind, tie, wrap’ etc. There is, however, no clear evidence for such a dependence yet, so that one should not prematurely exclude the possibility of an independent complex *‘to be difficult, harsh, hard, (hence:) pain, suffering, etc.’ (which may be related to ↗√ṢʕB, as considered by Leslau). However, the degree of semantic overlapping between the Hbr Aram EthSem values and Ar ʕaṣīb ‘hot, crucial, critical (time, stage)’, ^†ĭnʕaṣaba ‘to be difficult’, ^†ĭʕṣawṣaba (vb. XII) ‘to be hot, dangerous, grow worse’, as well as the ideas of ʻdearth’, ʻhunger’ and ʻstarvation’ associated with the root suggests a closeness of ʻbinding, wrapping’ and ʻdifficulty, pain’, linked by the notion of ʻto tighten, make dense, be(come) tense, have to tighten one’s belt’. An ultimate dependence on ʕṢB_1 could be plausible in the light of Ar ^†ĭʕṣawṣaba ʻto gather one’s forces, make the highest effort’, interpreted by BK1860 as »proprem. tendre tous ses muscles pour aller au plus vite; de là (fig.) devenir très intense, violent«, in this way bringing together ʻsinews’ (muscles), ʻgathering, contraction’ and ʻintensity, violence’.
▪ ^†ʕṢB_7 : The value ʻto become red (horizon)’, represented by the vb. I ^†ʕaṣaba (ʕaṣb, ʕuṣūb), does, at first sight, not seem to be related to any other value found in the root. Cf., however, the n.f. ^†ʕiṣābaẗ ʻred mist seen in a time of drought’ in which the redness of the air is connected to a ʻtime of drought’. Thus, it may be related to the ʻheat’ of ʕṢB_3 and/or the ʻhunger, starvation, dearth’ of ^†ʕṢB_6, i.e., ultimately, depend on ʻdifficulty, hardship, etc.’.
▪ ^†ʕṢB_8 : The meaning ‘to walk at a quick pace (camel)’ is expressed with the help of a vb. IV, ^†ʔaʕṣaba. Given that form IV often produces causatives, it seems possible that ‘to walk at a quick pace’ originally is *ʻto accelerate, hasten, increase one’s speed (< intensify it, make it “tighter”)’. Should this be correct, the value would belong to ʕṢB_2 as a further notion developed from *3 ʻto tighten, contract’. BK1860 interprets the meaning ʻmarcher avec vitesse’ as »proprem. tendre tous les muscles à cet effet«, an explanation that connects the value to both ʕṢB_1 ʻnerve, sinew’ and ʕṢB_2 ʻto bind, tie, tighten’.
▪ …
▪ …

–

ʕaṣab‑ عَصَبَ , i (ʕaṣb)

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√ʕṢB

vb., I

1a to wind, fold, tie, bind, wrap (s.th. ʕalà around or about s.th.); b to bind up, bandage (s.th.); c to fold (s.th.); d to wrap (the head) with a brow band, sash, or turban – WehrCowan1976.

▪ For ClassAr, BK1860 gives the primary value of ʕaṣaba as ʻceindre tout autour, entourer un lieu (se dit, p.ex., des bestiaux qui entourent une pièce d’eau pour y boire); empoigner, prendre avec la main (de manière que la chose entre toute entière dans la main); saisir, p.ex., plusieurs rameaux ou herbes à la fois, pour les arracher’ (to gather round s.th.; to clasp, grasp, hold tight).
▪ It seems possible that the semantic complex based on ʻto bind, tie, wrap’ and, as its derivative (?), perh. also ʻharshness, hardship, difficulty, pain, grieve’ (↗ʕaṣīb), ultimately depends on ↗ʕaṣab ʻnerves, sinew, tendons’ (as the material with which s.th. is tied together, and/or which is associated with the idea of *contraction, tightening, becoming tense\dense’).
▪ Inside Sem, Ar is the only language that has developed the value ‘to bind, tie, tighten’ as a meaning of √ʕṢB. With this sense, Ar ʕaṣaba has no direct cognates. However, the fact that ‘to bind, tie, tighten’ evidently has produced a larger complex of derived meanings can serve as an indication of the old age of this value, prob. older than the theme of ʻharshness, hardship, difficulty, pain, grieve’ which is the main value of √ʕṢB in Hbr, Aram, and EthSem (represented also in Ar ↗ʕaṣīb). In fact, it seems not unlikely that this latter complex is derived from ʻto bind, tie, tighten’. Accordingly, Leslau2006 lists it, without further comment, as cognate to Ar ʕaṣaba ‘to bind, tie, tighten’ (giving also vb. VII, ĭnʕaṣaba, where the passive-refl. of the N-stem, lit. *ʻto be tied up, be tightened’, has assumed the fig. meaning ‘to be\become difficult’).
▪ Leslau2006 (CDG) reports that Buhl and Baumgartner⁹ also compared Ar ↗ġaḍiba ‘to be angry’, an idea that Leslau himself does not find convincing.¹⁰ To Leslau, a comparison with Ar ↗ṣaʕuba (with metathesis) ‘to be hard, be difficult’ would seem more likely.
▪ The semantic field that has grown out of the basic ‘binding, wrapping’ (or ʻgathering around, clasping, grasping’, as BK1860 sees it) is wide. Meanings seem to have developed mainly into two directions: 1 ‘binding, wrapping’ > ‘headcloth, turban’; 2 ‘binding, wrapping’ > a ‘to stick to, gather around (*tie o.s. to) s.th./s.o.’ > ‘union, group, gang; clan solidarity’, etc.; b ‘to cling obdurately to s.th./s.o.; fanaticism, ardent zeal, bigotry’; ĭʕtiṣāb that was used for a long time to render the Engl ‘strike’ before it became replaced by ↗ʔiḍrāb, is prob. a variant of ‘to form a group of fanatic followers’.– If ʻbinding, wrapping’ also belongs together with the complex of ʻto hurt, pain, grieve; harshness, trouble, distress, hunger, misery’ as found in Hbr, Aram, and EthSem, perh. via *ʻto tighten, get denser, contract’, then the values treated sub ʕṢB_3-6 in root entry ↗√ʕṢB will have to be counted as a third string of derivations: *3 ‘binding, wrapping’ > ʻto tighten, contract’ > *a ʻto become critical, crucial (< *suffocating)’ (↗ʕaṣīb); b ‘to take by force (< *to tighten a siege, intensify one’s attack)’ (^†ʕaṣaba); c ʻto dry in the mouth (saliva), become unclean (teeth) (*< contraction in the mouth)’ (^†ʕaṣaba, ^†ʕaṣiba); d ʻ(*to make s.o. tighten his/her belt >) ʻto reduce to straitness, (*to let the saliva dry out in s.o.’s mouth or on his\her lips >) to make people starve or die of thirst’ (^†ʕaṣṣaba), (*to tighten one’s own belt >) to be satisfied, content o.s. (^†taʕaṣṣaba)’. – Leslau also mentions that earlier research (Buhl, Baumgartner) had proposed a relation between these items and Ar ↗ġaḍiba ʻto be angry, vexed, irritated’, a suggestion Leslau himself is not comfortable with (without giving further reasons). Indeed, the regular correspondence of Ar √ĠḌB in Gz should be √ʕṢ́B, not √ʕṢB. To Leslau, a connection with Ar ↗ṣaʕb (metathesis) seems more likely.
▪ There is no clear evidence for such a dependence of 3 on 2 yet, so that one should not prematurely exclude the possibility of an independent complex *‘to be difficult, harsh, hard, (hence:) pain, suffering, etc.’ (which may be related to ↗√ṢʕB, as considered by Leslau). The degree of semantic overlapping between the Hbr Aram EthSem values and Ar ʕaṣīb ‘hot, crucial, critical (time, stage)’, ^†ĭnʕaṣaba ‘to be difficult’, ^†ĭʕṣawṣaba (vb. XII) ‘to make the highest efforts; to be hot, dangerous, grow worse’, as well as the ideas of ʻdearth’, ʻhunger’ and ʻstarvation’ associated with the root suggest a closeness of ʻbinding, wrapping’ and ʻdifficulty, pain’, linked by the notion of ʻto tighten, make dense, become tense, intensify, have to tighten one’s belt’.
▪ …
▪ …

9. Frants Buhl, Wilhelm Gesenius’ Hebräisches und Aramäisches Handwörterbuch über das Alte Testament, bearb. v. F.B., 17^th ed., Leipzig: F.C.W. Vogel, 1921: 609; Walter Baumgartner, Hebräisches und aramäisches Lexicon zum Alten Testament, von Ludwig Koehler und W.B., 3^rd ed., rev. by W.B., Leiden: Brill, 1967: 818. 10. The idea is mentioned also in BDB1906 s.v. ʕṢB ʻpain’, but qualified as a »dubious« by the authors, there too.

…

▪ Leslau2006 (CDG): Hbr ʕāṣab ‘to hurt, pain, grieve’ (BDB1906), (Ni) ‘to be grieved’, (Hi) ‘to grieve’, Aram ʕᵃṣaḇ ‘to be grieved’; Ar ʕaṣaba ‘to bind, tighten’, ĭnʕaṣaba ‘to be difficult’; Gz ʕəṣab ‘harshness, rigor, severity, difficulty, trouble, [etc.]’, ʕəṣub, (Y) ʕəḍub ‘hard, harsh, difficult, severe, serious, rough, rugged, harassed, oppressed, troublesome, vehement, grievous, fierce, austere, onerous […]’, Te ʕaṣba ‘to be in distress, suffer from hunger’, Tña ʕaṣäbä ‘to be in misery, be in distress’, Amh aṭṭäbä ‘to be in distress, marvel’, aṣäba ‘poverty, distress’, əṣub ‘distressed, astounding, marvelous’.⁶
▪ Cf. prob. also ↗ʕaṣab ʻnerves, sinews, tendons’.
▪ …
▪ …

6. Passed into (Cu) Bil aṣab ‘laborious, troublesome’.

▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ …

–

► ʕaṣaba ’l-rīqu famahū, expr., the saliva dried in his mouth, clogged his mouth: lit., *ʻmade it contract’.

► ʕaṣṣaba, vb. II, 1a to wind around, fold around, tie around, wrap around (s.th.); b to bind up, bandage (s.th.); c to wrap (the head) with a brow band, sash, or turban: D-stem, ints., and/or denom. from ʕṣabaẗ, ʕuṣbaẗ, ʕiṣāb(aẗ), or a similar n.
► taʕaṣṣaba, vb. V, 1a to wind the turban round one’s head, put on the turban; b to apply a bandage, bandage o.s.; 2a to take sides, to side (maʕa, li‑ with; ʕalà against); b to form a league, clique, group, team, gang, or coalition, gang up, team up; c to cling obdurately or fanatically (li‑ to); d to be fanatic, bigoted, be a fanatic, a zealot; e to plot, conspire, collude, connive (ʕalà against): Dt-stem, with [v1] as the primary value and [v2] extended use of [v1].
► ĭʕtaṣaba, vb. VIII, 1 to form a league, clique, group, team, gang, or coalition, gang up, team up; 2 to go on strike, to strike: Gt-stem, with [v1] as the primary value (from ʕaṣabaẗ, ʕuṣbaẗ, or ʕiṣābaẗ, see below), and [v2] extended use of [v1].

► ʕaṣab, pl. ʔaʕṣāb, n., 1 nerve; 2 sinew: related to ʕaṣaba ʻto wind, fold, tie’ or to be treated separately? – Cf. ↗s.v.
► ʕaṣabī, adj., 1 sinewy, nerved, nervy; 2 nervous, neural, nerve‑, neuro‑, neur‑ (in compounds); 3 nervous, high-strung: nisba formation of ʕaṣab (see preceding item and ↗s.v.) | ʕaṣabiyyu ’l-mazāǧ, adj., nervous, high-strung; al-ǧihāz al-ʕaṣabī, n., the nervous system; ḥālaẗ ʕaṣabiyyaẗ, n.f., nervousness, nervosity; al-ḍuʕf al-ʕaṣabī, n., neurasthenia.
► ʕaṣabiyyaẗ, n.f., 1 nervousness, nervosity: abstract formation in ‑iyyaẗ, from of ʕaṣab ʻnerve’ (see above and ↗s.v.); – 2a (pl. ‑āt) zealous partisanship, bigotry, fanaticism; b party spirit, team spirit, esprit de corps; c tribal solidarity, racialism, clannishness, tribalism, national consciousness, nationalism: abstract formation in ‑iyyaẗ, from of ʕaṣabaẗ ʻnerve’ (see below and ↗ʕaṣābaẗ).
► ʕaṣbaẗ, pl. ʕuṣab (EgAr), n.f., a black headcloth with red or yellow border: cf. also ^†ʕaṣabaẗ ʻblack head-kerchief worn by women’, marked as SyrAr in Hava1899.
► ʕaṣabaẗ, pl. ‑āt, and ʕuṣbaẗ, pl. ʕuṣab, n.f., 1a union, league, federation, association; b group, troop, band, gang, clique; 2 ʕaṣabaẗ, paternal relations, relationship, agnates | ʕuṣbaẗ al‑ʔumam, n.f., the League of Nations. – In Hava1899, ʕuṣbaẗ ʻfaction, gang’ is marked with the sign for SyrAr dialect.
► ʕaṣīb, adj., hot, crucial, critical (time, stage): related to ʕaṣaba ʻto wind, fold, tie’, or to ʕaṣab ʻnerves’, or to be treated separately? – Cf. ↗s.v.
► ʕiṣāb, n., band, ligature, dressing, bandage.
► ʕiṣābaẗ, pl. ʕaṣāʔibᵘ, n.f., 1a band, ligature, dressing, bandage; b headcloth, headband, fillet; c brow band, frontlet; – 2a (pl. ‑āt) union, league, federation, association; b group, troop, band, gang | ʕiṣābāt al-ḫaṭf, n.non-hum.pl., bands of robbers; ḥarb al‑ʕiṣābāt, n.f., guerrilla warfare.
► taʕaṣṣub, n., 1 fanaticism, ardent zeal, bigotry, fanatical enthusiasm; 2a party spirit, partisanship; b clannishness, racialism, race consciousness, tribalism: vn. V.
► ĭʕtiṣāb, pl. ‑āt, n., strike: vn. VIII.
► mutaʕaṣṣib, adj., 1 fanatically enthusiastic (li‑ for); 2 n., enthusiast, fanatic, bigot, zealot: PA V.

ʕaṣab عَصَب , pl. ʔaʕṣāb

ID 587 • Sw – • BP 4388 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕṢB

n.

1 (coll.) nerves; – 2 (pl. ʔaʕṣāb) a nerve; b vein, artery; c sinew – WehrCowan1979.

▪ The Ar term has only few cognates in Sem. Militarev&Kogan2000’s tentative reconstruction, based on the scarce evidence: protSem *ʕa(n)ṣab‑ ~ *ʕa(n)c̣ab‑ ‘sinew, nerves’.
▪ It seems possible that, ultimately, the semantic complex based on ʻto bind, tie, wrap’ (↗ʕaṣaba) and, as its derivative (?), perh. also ʻharshness, difficulty, hardship’ (↗ʕaṣīb), are dependent on ↗ʕaṣab ʻnerves, sinew’ (as the material with which s.th. is bound together, or being associated with the idea of *contraction, tightening, becoming tense\dense’); see discussion in root entry ↗√ʕṢB.
▪ …

▪ …

▪ Militarev&Kogan2000 (SED I) #16: Mhr ʔāṣbīt, Ḥrs ʔāṣebét ‘sinew, nerve’, Jib ʕaṣbɛ́t ‘dto.; condition of having headaches⁷ ’, Ar ʕaṣab (coll.) ‘nerves’, Te ʕanṣäbät, ʔanṣäbät ‘sinew, (Munzinger: nerv, corde)’.
▪ For further cognates, cf., perh., ↗ʕaṣaba.
▪ …
▪ …

7. »Looks like a late semantic development«.

▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ …
▪ …

–

► ʕaṣabī, adj., 1 sinewy, nerved, nervy; 2 nervous, neural, nerve‑, neuro‑, neur‑ (in compounds); 3 nervous, high-strung: nisba formation; see also ↗s.v. | ʕaṣabiyyu ’l-mazāǧ, adj., nervous, high-strung; al-ǧihāz al‑ʕaṣabī, n., the nervous system; ḥālaẗ ʕaṣabiyyaẗ, n.f., nervousness, nervosity; al-ḍuʕf al‑ʕaṣabī, n., neurasthenia
► ʕaṣabiyyaẗ, n.f., 1 nervousness, nervosity: abstract formation in ‑iyyaẗ, from of ʕaṣab ʻnerve’; – 2 ↗s.v.
► ʕaṣīb, adj., hot, crucial, critical (time, stage): related to ʕaṣab ʻnerve; sinew’, and\or to ↗ʕaṣaba ʻto bind, tie, wrap’, or to be treated separately? – Cf. ↗s.v.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕaṣaba, ↗ʕiṣābaẗ, ↗taʕaṣṣub, ↗ĭʕtiṣāb, as well as, for the general picture, ↗√ʕṢB.

ʕaṣabī عَصَبِيّ

ID 588 • Sw – • BP 2335 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕṢB

adj.

1 sinewy, nerved, nervy; 2 nervous, neural, nerve‑, neuro‑, neur‑ (in compounds); 3 nervous, high-strung – WehrCowan1976.

▪ nisba formation, from ↗ʕaṣab ʻnerves’, from protSem *ʕa(n)ṣab‑ ~ *ʕa(n)c̣ab‑ ‘sinew, nerves’ (Militarev&Kogan2000).
▪ [v2] : modern neologism – cf. Monteil1960: 123 (on ↗ʕaṣabiyyaẗ in the modern sense of ʻnervosity’).
▪ …

▪ …

▪ ↗ʕaṣab.
▪ …
▪ …

▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ …

–

► ʕaṣabiyyu ’l-mazāǧ, adj., nervous, high-strung
► al-ǧihāz al‑ʕaṣabī, n., the nervous system
► ḥālaẗ ʕaṣabiyyaẗ, n.f., nervousness, nervosity
► al-ḍuʕf al‑ʕaṣabī, n., neurasthenia

► ʕaṣabiyyaẗ, n.f., 1 nervousness, nervosity; – 2 ↗s.v.: abstract formation in ‑iyyaẗ; in the meaning ʻnervousness, nervosity’ a neologism (see Monteil1960: 123).

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕaṣaba, ↗ʕaṣab, ↗ʕaṣīb, ↗ʕiṣābaẗ, ↗taʕaṣṣub, ↗ĭʕtiṣāb, as well as, for the general picture, ↗√ʕṢB.

ʕaṣabiyyaẗ عَصَبيّة

ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕṢB

n.f.

1 nervousness, nervosity; – C 2a (pl. ‑āt) zealous partisanship, bigotry, fanaticism; b party spirit, team spirit, esprit de corps; c tribal solidarity, racialism, clannishness, tribalism, national consciousness, nationalism – WehrCowan1976.

▪ [v1] : modern neologism, from ↗ʕaṣab ʻnerves’ – cf. Monteil1960: 123.
▪ [v2]: From ↗ʕaṣaba ʻto wind, fold, tie, wrap, bind up, bandage; (in ClassAr also:) to gather round s.th.; to clasp, grasp, hold tight’.¹¹ – »ʻʕaṣabiyyaẗ’ referred in Arab antiquity to kinship solidarity. The verb ʕaṣaba means ʻto bind, fold, or wind,’ and the noun ʕaṣabaẗ denotes the blood relations in the male line. Various translations and interpretations of ʕaṣabiyyaẗ have been suggested by modern scholars, ranging from ʻgroup feeling,’ ʻesprit de corps,’ ʻcohesiveness,’ or ʻsolidarity’ to ʻidea of nationhood,’ but all of them refer to the later complex reading attributed to it by the philosopher Ibn Ḫaldūn (d. 808/1406)«.¹² – »Already used in the ḥadīṯ in which the Prophet condemns ʕaṣabiyyaẗ as contrary to the spirit of Islam, the term became famous as a result of the use to which it was put by Ibn Ḫaldūn, who made this concept the basis of his interpretation of history and his doctrine of the state. ʕAṣabiyyaẗ is, for Ibn Ḫaldūn, the fundamental bond of human society and the basic motive force of history […]. The first basis of the concept is undoubtedly of a natural character, in the sense that ʕaṣabiyyaẗ in its most normal form is derived from tribal consanguinity (nasab, ĭltiḥām), but the inconvenience of this racial conception was already overcome in Arab antiquity itself by the institution of affiliation (walāʔ), to which Ibn Ḫaldūn accords great importance in the formation of an effective ʕaṣabiyyaẗ. Whether it is based on blood ties or on some other social grouping, it is for Ibn Ḫaldūn the force which impels groups of human beings to assert themselves, to struggle for primacy, to establish hegemonies, dynasties and empires […]«.¹³
▪ …

11. BK1860 gives the primary value of ʕaṣaba as ʻceindre tout autour, entourer un lieu (se dit, p.ex., des bestiaux qui entourent une pièce d’eau pour y boire); empoigner, prendre avec la main (de manière que la chose entre toute entière dans la main); saisir, p.ex., plusieurs rameaux ou herbes à la fois, pour les arracher’. 12. A. Levanoni, »ʕAṣabiyya«, in EI³ (16Sept2020). 13. F. Gabrieli, art. »ʕAṣabiyya«, in EI² (online 2012).

…

▪ [v1] ↗ʕaṣab, [v2] ↗ʕaṣaba.
▪ …
▪ …

▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ …
▪ …

–

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕaṣaba, ↗ʕaṣab, ↗ʕaṣabī, ↗ʕaṣīb, ↗ʕiṣābaẗ, ↗taʕaṣṣub, ↗ĭʕtiṣāb, as well as, for the general picture, ↗√ʕṢB.

ʕaṣīb عَصيب

ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕṢB

adj.

hot, crucial, critical (time, stage) – WehrCowan1976.

▪ With all probability, the item belongs to the complex of ʻharshness, hardship, difficulty, hence also pain, grieve’ attached to the root ʕṢB mostly in Hbr, Aram and EthSem. Closer relatives in Ar may be (among others) the notions, now obsol., of ‘to be(come) difficult’ (^†ĭnʕaṣaba, vb. VII), ʻto dry in the mouth (saliva); to become red (horizon) (< due to dryness)’ (^†ʕaṣaba, ^†ʕaṣiba), ʻred mist seen in a time of drought’ (^†ʕiṣābaẗ), ʻto reduce s.o. to straitness, make (people) starve (dearth)’ (^†ʕaṣṣaba, vb. II). Leslau2006 would not exclude a (metathetical) relation to Ar ↗ṣaʕuba ʻto be(come) difficult, hard’. But the complex may also simply be dependent on the idea of *ʻtension, tightening, contraction’ implied in the vb. ↗ʕaṣaba ʻto bind, tie, wrap’, which, it its turn, may, ultimately, be derived from ↗ʕaṣab ʻnerves, sinews’.
▪ A more direct link (without the “detour” via ʻto bind, tie, wrap’) between ʻnerves, sinews’ and ʻhardship, pain’ can probably be seen in Jib ʕaṣbɛ́t which not only signifies ‘sinew, nerve’ but also ‘headache’.¹⁴ – In a similar vein, BK1860 interprets the obsol. Ar vb. XII, ^†ĭʕṣawṣaba ʻto gather one’s forces, make the highest effort’, as »proprem. tendre tous ses muscles pour aller au plus vite; de là (fig.) devenir très intense, violent«, in this way bringing together ʻsinews’ (muscles) and ʻintensity, violence’; cf. also the ClassAr expressions ^†ĭʕṣawṣaba ’l-šarr ʻle mal, le malheur, la guerre fut à son apogee’ and ^†ĭʕṣawṣaba ’l-yawm ʻla journée (du combat ou de la chaleur) fut dure’. The same relation can be observed in ^†ʔaʕṣaba, vb. IV, ‘to walk at a quick pace (camel)’, »proprem. tendre tous les muscles à cet effet« – BK1860.

14. According to MilitarevKogan2006 (SED I) #16 prob. »a late semantic development«.

…

▪ Leslau2006 (CDG): Hbr ʕāṣab ‘to hurt, pain, grieve’ (BDB1906), (Ni) ‘to be grieved’, (Hi) ‘to grieve’, Aram ʕᵃṣaḇ ‘to be grieved’; Ar ʕaṣaba ‘to bind, tighten’, ĭnʕaṣaba ‘to be difficult’; Gz ʕəṣab ‘harshness, rigor, severity, difficulty, trouble, [etc.]’, ʕəṣub, (Y) ʕəḍub ‘hard, harsh, difficult, severe, serious, rough, rugged, harassed, oppressed, troublesome, vehement, grievous, fierce, austere, onerous […]’, Te ʕaṣba ‘to be in distress, suffer from hunger’, Tña ʕaṣäbä ‘to be in misery, be in distress’, Amh aṭṭäbä ‘to be in distress, marvel’, aṣäba ‘poverty, distress’, əṣub ‘distressed, astounding, marvelous’.⁸
▪ See perh. also ↗ʕaṣab and ↗ṣaʕb.
▪ …
▪ …

8. Passed into (Cu) Bil aṣab ‘laborious, troublesome’.

▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ Leslau2006 (CDG) reports that Buhl and Baumgartner²⁵ also compared Ar ↗ġaḍiba ‘to be angry’, an idea that Leslau himself does not find convincing.²⁶ . To Leslau, a comparison with Ar ↗ṣaʕuba (with metathesis) ‘to be hard, be difficult’ would seem more likely.
▪ …
▪ …

25. Frants Buhl, Wilhelm Gesenius’ Hebräisches und Aramäisches Handwörterbuch über das Alte Testament, bearb. v. F.B., 17^th ed., Leipzig: F.C.W. Vogel, 1921: 609; Walter Baumgartner, Hebräisches und aramäisches Lexicon zum Alten Testament, von Ludwig Koehler und W.B., 3^rd ed., rev. by W.B., Leiden: Brill, 1967: 818 26. The idea is mentioned also in BDB1906 s.v. ʕṢB ʻpain’, but qualified as a »dubious« by the authors, there too.

–

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕaṣaba, ↗ʕaṣab, ↗ʕaṣabī, ↗ʕaṣabiyyaẗ, ↗ʕiṣābaẗ, ↗taʕaṣṣub, ↗ĭʕtiṣāb, as well as, for the general picture, ↗√ʕṢB.

ʕiṣābaẗ عِصابة , pl. ʕaṣāʔibᵘ

ID … • Sw – • BP 2300 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕṢB

n.f.

1a band, ligature, dressing, bandage; b headcloth, headband, fillet; c brow band, frontlet; – 2a (pl. ‑āt) union, league, federation, association; b group, troop, band, gang – WehrCowan1976.

▪ From ↗ʕaṣaba ʻto wind, tie, wrap’ and (in ClassAr also) ʻto gather around s.th./s.o. (e.g., cattle around a well)’.
▪ …

…

▪ ↗ʕaṣaba.
▪ …

▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ …

–

► ʕiṣābāt al-ḫaṭf, n.non-hum.pl., bands of robbers
► ḥarb al-ʕiṣābāt, n.f., guerrilla warfare

► taʕaṣṣaba, vb. V, 1a to wind the turban round one’s head, put on the turban; b to apply a bandage, bandage o.s.; 2a to take sides, to side (maʕa, li‑ with; ʕalà against); b to form a league, clique, group, team, gang, or coalition, gang up, team up; c to cling obdurately or fanatically (li‑ to); d to be fanatic, bigoted, be a fanatic, a zealot; e to plot, conspire, collude, connive (ʕalà against): Dt-stem, self-referential, based on ʕiṣābaẗ or an item of similar semantics (ʕaṣabaẗ, ʕuṣbaẗ, ʕiṣāb, etc. – see below).
► ĭʕtaṣaba, vb. VIII, 1 to form a league, clique, group, team, gang, or coalition, gang up, team up; 2 to go on strike, to strike: Gt-stem, self-referential, based on ʕiṣābaẗ or an item of similar semantics (ʕaṣabaẗ, ʕuṣbaẗ, ʕiṣāb, etc. – see below); [v2] seems to be a rather modern use.

► ʕaṣabiyyaẗ, n.f., 1 ↗ʕaṣab; – 2a (pl. ‑āt) zealous partisanship, bigotry, fanaticism; b party spirit, team spirit, esprit de corps; c tribal solidarity, racialism, clannishness, tribalism, national consciousness, nationalism: not directly from ʕiṣābaẗ, but from the semantically close ʕaṣabaẗ (see below); a key term in Ibn Ḫaldūn’s sociology.
► ʕaṣbaẗ, pl. ʕuṣab (EgAr), n.f., a black headcloth with red or yellow border: semantically close to ¹ʕiṣābaẗ. – Cf. also ^†ʕaṣabaẗ ʻblack head-kerchief worn by women’, marked as SyrAr in Hava1899.
► ʕaṣabaẗ, pl. ‑āt, and ʕuṣbaẗ, pl. ʕuṣab, n.f., 1a union, league, federation, association; b group, troop, band, gang, clique; 2 ʕaṣabaẗ, paternal relations, relationship, agnates: not derived from ʕiṣābaẗ, but semantically close to the latter’s [v2]. | ʕuṣbaẗ al‑ʔumam, n.f., the League of Nations. – In Hava1899, ʕuṣbaẗ ʻfaction, gang’ is marked with the sign for SyrAr dialect.
► ʕiṣāb, n., band, ligature, dressing, bandage: not derived from ʕiṣābaẗ, but semantically close to the latter’s [v1].
► taʕaṣṣub, n., 1 fanaticism, ardent zeal, bigotry, fanatical enthusiasm; 2a party spirit, partisanship; b clannishness, racialism, race consciousness, tribalism: vn. V (see above).
► ĭʕtiṣāb, pl. ‑āt, n., strike: vn. VIII, probably a rather modern (fig.?) use (cf. also ↗s.v.).
► mutaʕaṣṣib, adj., 1 fanatically enthusiastic (li‑ for); 2 n., enthusiast, fanatic, bigot, zealot: PA V.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕaṣaba, ↗ʕaṣab, ↗ʕaṣabī, ↗ʕaṣabiyyaẗ, ↗ʕaṣīb, ↗ʕiṣābaẗ, as well as, for the general picture, ↗√ʕṢB.

taʕaṣṣub تَعَصُّب

ID 586 • Sw – • NahḍCon • BP 4505 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕṢB

n.

1 fanaticism, ardent zeal, bigotry, fanatical enthusiasm; 2a party spirit, partisanship; b clannishness, racialism, race consciousness, tribalism – WehrCowan1976.

▪ vn. of taʕaṣṣaba, vb. V, in the meaning of ʻto take sides, side (with s.o., against s.o./s.th.); to form a league, clique, group, team, gang, or coalition, gang up, team up; to cling obdurately or fanatically (to s.th./s.o.); to be fanatic, bigoted, be a fanatic, a zealot; to plot, conspire, collude, connive (against s.o.)’, extension of the more original sense of ʻto wind the turban round one’s head, put on the turban; hence also: to apply a bandage, bandage o.s.’; Dt-stem, self-reflexive/self-referential, either from the vb. I, ʕaṣaba ʻto wind, tie, bind, bandage; to fold (s.th.); to wrap (the head) with a brow band, sash, or turban’, or directly from a n. akin to it (e.g., ʕaṣabaẗ, ʕuṣbaẗ, ʕiṣāb, or ʕiṣābaẗ).
▪ …

▪ …

▪ ↗ʕaṣaba.
▪ …

▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ …

–

► mutaʕaṣṣib, adj., 1 fanatically enthusiastic (li‑ for); 2 n., enthusiast, fanatic, bigot, zealot: PA V.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕaṣaba, ↗ʕaṣab, ↗ʕaṣabī, ↗ʕaṣabiyyaẗ, ↗ʕaṣīb, ↗ʕiṣābaẗ, ↗ĭʕtiṣāb, as well as, for the general picture, ↗√ʕṢB.

ĭʕtiṣāb اِعْتِصاب , pl. ‑āt

ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕṢB

n.

strike – WehrCowan1976.

▪ vn. of ĭʕtaṣaba, vb. VIII, ʻto form a league, clique, group, team, gang, or coalition, gang up, team up; (hence also:) to go on strike, to strike’, Gt-stem, self-referential, either from the vb. I, ʕaṣaba ʻto wind, tie, bind, bandage, fold, [etc.]’, or directly from a n. akin to it (e.g., ʕaṣabaẗ, ʕuṣbaẗ, ʕiṣāb, or ʕiṣābaẗ – see below, section DERIV).¹⁵
▪ ʻStrike’ being in itself a modern concept that first emerged in Europe, Ar words for it seem to be calques. According to Beinin and Lockman 1998, »early accounts used the term ĭʕtiṣāb, from a root connoting tying or wrapping, and by extension, banding together: the workers had formed a cohesive group and stopped work. Only in the 1920s did ʔiḍrāb, the standard term today and intrinsically closer to our own ʻstrike,’ come into general use.«¹⁶ ¹⁷
▪ …

15. BK1860 mentions as one of the meanings of ĭʕtaṣaba in ClassAr ʻse réunir et former une troupe, ʕuṣbaẗ. 16. Joel Beinin and Zachary Lockman, Workers on the Nile: Nationalism, Communism, Islam, and the Egyptian Working Class, 1882-1954, Cairo: AUC Press, 1998: 55. – Thanks to Neil Ketchley, Oslo, for alerting us to this reference. 17. Monteil1960: 169 notes that Wehr1934 classified ʔiḍrāb among »ʻles inventions autonomes’ (c’est-à-dire : sans influence étrangère). […] ʔiḍrāb ʻgrève’ (de ʔaḍraba ʻse détourner de’.« Later in his study Monteil mentions ʔiḍrāb among the »mots-clefs« of the modern period – ibid., 214.

…

▪ ↗ʕaṣaba.
▪ …
▪ …

▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ …

–

The following items are not derived from ĭʕtiṣāb but may rather be words on which ĭʕtiṣāb itself is dependent:

► ʕaṣabaẗ, pl. ‑āt, and ʕuṣbaẗ, pl. ʕuṣab, n.f., 1a union, league, federation, association; b group, troop, band, gang, clique; 2 ʕaṣabaẗ, paternal relations, relationship, agnates | ʕuṣbaẗ al‑ʔumam, n.f., the League of Nations. – In Hava1899, ʕuṣbaẗ ʻfaction, gang’ is marked with the sign for SyrAr dialect.
► ʕiṣāb, n., band, ligature, dressing, bandage.
► ʕiṣābaẗ, pl. ʕaṣāʔibᵘ, n.f., 1a band, ligature, dressing, bandage; b headcloth, headband, fillet; c brow band, frontlet; – 2a (pl. ‑āt) union, league, federation, association; b group, troop, band, gang | ʕiṣābāt al-ḫaṭf, n.non-hum.pl., bands of robbers; ḥarb al‑ʕiṣābāt, n.f., guerrilla warfare.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕaṣaba, ↗ʕaṣab, ↗ʕaṣabī, ↗ʕaṣabiyyaẗ, ↗ʕaṣīb, ↗ʕiṣābaẗ, ↗taʕaṣṣub, as well as, for the general picture, ↗√ʕṢB.

ʕṢR عصر

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕṢR

“root”

▪ ʕṢR_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʕṢR_2 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘time, age, era, period, the afternoon; to be a contemporary; to be of age; to squeeze, to wring; hurricane, whirlwind, cyclone, rain clouds’

▪ …

–

▪ …
▪ …

–

¹ʕaṣr عَصْر

ID 589 • Sw – • BP 880 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕṢR

n.

age, period, time, epoch … – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

–

►

ʕaṣrī عَصْريّ

Sw – • NahḍCon • BP 3794 • APD … • © SG | created 8Jun2023

√ʕṢR

adj.

contemporary, modern -- BP

▪ nsb-formation

.

ʕaṣriyyaẗ عَصْريّة

Sw – • NahḍCon • BP 3794 • APD … • © SG | created 8Jun2023

√ʕṢR

n.f.

.

▪ abstr. formation in -iyyaẗ

.

²ʕaṣr عَصْر

ID 590 • Sw – • BP 2443 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕṢR

n.

afternoon … – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

–

►

ʕaṣīr عَصِير

ID 591 • Sw – • BP 3797 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕṢR

n.

… – WehrCowan1979.

▪ From WSem *√ʕṢR ‘to press, restrain, retain’ – Huehnergard2011.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

–

►

muʕāṣaraẗ مُعاصَرة

Sw – • NahḍCon • BP 2370 • APD … • © SG | created 8Jun2023

√ʕṢR

n.f.

.

▪ vn., III

.

muʕāṣir مُعاصِر

ID 592 • Sw – • NahḍCon • BP 2370 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕṢR

adj.

contemporary; modern … – WehrCowan1979.

▪ PA, III

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

–

►

ʕṢF عصف

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕṢF

“root”

▪ ʕṢF_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʕṢF_2 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘chaff, straw, dried herbage, ears of corn; to ripen; storm, to storm, to blow away, (of wind) to blow’

▪ …

–

▪ …
▪ …

–

ʕaṣaf‑ عَصَفَ

ID 593 • Sw – • BP 3841 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕṢF

vb., I

… – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

–

►

ʕṢFR عصفر

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕṢFR

“root”

▪ ʕṢFR_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʕṢFR_2 ‘…’ ↗…

▪ …

–

▪ …
▪ …

–

ʕuṣfūr عُصْفُور , var. ʕaṣfūr

ID 594 • Sw – • BP 3860 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕṢFR

n.

… – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Kogan2011: may be due to contamination of protWSem *ṣ˅p(p)˅r‑ ‘bird’ (> Ar ↗ṣāfir, √ṢFR) and another, separate proto-form *ʕ˅ṣṣūr‑ (cf. Akk iṣṣūru, Ug ʕṣr).
▪ …

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

–

►

ʕṢM عصم

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕṢM

“root”

▪ ʕṢM_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʕṢM_2 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘neckband, dog collar; wrist; protection, bonds, to protect, impregnability; adherence to friendships’

▪ …

–

▪ …
▪ …

–

ʕāṣimaẗ عاصِمَة

ID 595 • Sw – • BP 696 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕṢM

n.f.

… – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

–

►

ʕṢW عصو

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1Mar2023

√ʕṢW

“root”

▪ ʕṢW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕṢW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕṢW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘stick, crook, rod, sceptre, to hit with a stick, to lean on a stick; to gather a group of people together’. Because a degree of overlapping exists between this root and the root ʕ-ṣ-y, philologists classify them together under a single heading.

▪ …

–

.

–

ʕṢY عصي

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1Mar2023

√ʕṢY

“root”

▪ ʕṢY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕṢY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕṢY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to disobey, to mutiny, to refuse, to defy, to be rebellious (also see: ʕ-ṣ-w)’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʕḌː (ʕḌḌ) عضّ/عضض

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1Mar2023

√ ʕḌː (ʕḌḌ)

“root”

▪ ʕḌː (ʕḌḌ)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕḌː (ʕḌḌ)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕḌː (ʕḌḌ)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to hold with the teeth, bite, bite into; food, fodder; to adhere to’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʕḌD عضد

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1Mar2023

√ʕḌD

“root”

▪ ʕḌD_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕḌD_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕḌD_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘upper arm; power; assistance, support, cooperation; door stop’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʕḌL عضل

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1Mar2023

√ʕḌL

“root”

▪ ʕḌL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕḌL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕḌL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘muscle, to be muscular; to prevent, to compel; problem, puzzle, puzzling, acute’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʕḌW عضو

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕḌW

“root”

▪ ʕḌW_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʕḌW_2 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘magic, sorcery; lying, falsehood, gossip; limb, to separate limb from limb, to dismember, part; to distribute’. – ʕiḍaẗ, which is derived from this root, is also classified by some philologists under the root ʕḌH which denotes ‘several types of great trees, (by camels) to defoliate such trees, to cut down such trees, to cut down’.

▪ …

–

▪ …
▪ …

–

ʕuḍw عُضْو

ID 596 • Sw – • BP 278 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕḌW

n.

… – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

–

►

ʕṬRD عطرد

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕṬRD

“root”

▪ ʕṬRD_1 ‘Mercury (planet)’ ↗ʕuṭārid

Other values, now obsolete, include
▪ ^†ʕṬRD_2 ‘apparatus prepared for the casualties of fortune’ ↗^†ʕuṭrūd
▪ ^†ʕṬRD_3 ‘high (mountain); tall (man); long (day); generous (man)’: ^†ʕaṭarrad ~ ʕaṭawwad
▪ ^†ʕṬRD_4 ‘quick (pace, rate of going)’: ^†ʕaṭarrad

Etymology obscure. The variety of meanings divided into four values above, is repeated (and surpassed!) in one Pers word, tīr. Nourai gives ‘pointed thing’, hence also ‘sharp; arrow’ as the basic meaning of this word (which also denotes the planet Mercury) and derives it from oPers/Av tiǧra ‘sharp, pointed’, taěža, taěǧa ‘sharp’. According to Asbaghi1988, the planet Mercury’s Ar name, ʕuṭārid, (but none of the other values?) is derived from oPers *tīra-dāta ‘Mercury’. In contrast, ClassAr lexicographers relate ʕuṭārid to the root ↗ṬRD ‘to chase’, which however is little likely. Should one consider a derivation from Grk hydrárgyros ‘mercury’, the metal associated with the planet since early Antiquity? In any case, value ʕṬRD_4 (^†ʕaṭarrad ‘quick pace/rate of going)’ may be connected to the ‘quickly moving, volatile’ planet (cf. the name ‘quicksilver’ for mercury, the corresponding metal). In contrast, the ‘apparatus prepared for the casualties of fortune’, ^†ʕuṭrūd (ʕṬRD_2), seems difficult to relate to either ‘Mercury’ or ‘quick’ (or is the ‘volatility’ of fortune a link?). The same holds for ^†ʕaṭarrad in the sense of ‘high, tall, long; generous’ (ʕṬRD_3). The ClassAr dictionaries suggest that the latter is a var. of ^†ʕaṭawwad (↗√ʕṬD).

–

▪ Whole complex (ʕṬRD_1-4) from oPers *tīra-dāta ‘Mercury’ (Asbaghi1988)? According to Nourai, the first part of this *tīra-dāta (from which is modPers tīr ‘pointed thing’, hence ‘sharp; arrow’; but also ‘Mercury’) derives from an oPers/Av tiǧra ‘sharp, pointed’, taěža, taěǧa ‘sharp’.
▪ ʕṬRD_1 ‘Mercury (planet)’: see ↗ʕuṭārid.
▪ ʕṬRD_2: The word ^†ʕuṭrūd that Lane treats as a n. meaning ‘apparatus prepared for the casualties of fortune’, is given by Kazimirski as an adj. meaning ‘tout prêt, preparé’. According to the latter, the corresponding vb., ^†ʕaṭrada, means ‘1 garder, conserver; 2 préparer, arranger et tenir prêt’, and the expression ʕaṭrid-hu la-nā signifies ‘tiens-le tout prêt pour nous’²⁷ .
▪ ʕṬRD_3: Lane does not distinguish this value from that of ʕṬRD_4, both falling together in one ^†ʕaṭarrad which, according to Lane’s sources, properly is ^†ʕaṭawwad (from √ʕṬD rather than √ʕṬRD). Hava1899 marks ^†ʕaṭawwad with a symbol signifying “new Arabic root”, without further explanation.
▪ ʕṬRD_4: According to ClassAr dictionaries, ‘quick (pace, rate of going)’ is only another of the many values attached to ^†ʕaṭarrad (which is usually seen as a var. of ^†ʕaṭawwad, see ʕṬRD_3 in preceding paragraph). However, the value ‘quick (pace, rate of going)’ does not seem to express the same notion of extension or copiousness that may be seen as the common denominator of ‘high (mountain); tall (man); long (day); generous (man)’. Rather, it could belong to ʕuṭārid ‘Mercury’ (ʕṬRD_1), given the fact that the planet was characterized, from Antiquity, as the quickly moving one, the mobile or volatile planet.

27. Accord. to Lane, ʕaṭrid-hu la-nā is equivalent to iǧʕal-hu la-nā ʕuṭrūdan, both meaning ‘Make thou it be to us with thee, or in thy estimation, like the promise’ (ka-’l-ʕidaẗ, and this is the only explanation given by the leading authorities on strange words), or ‘like the apparatus that is prepared for the casualties of fortune (ka-’l-ʕidaẗ, al-ʕatād)’.

▪ See ↗ʕuṭārid.

–

ʕuṭāridᵘ عُطارِدُ

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕṬRD

n.pr.

(the planet) Mercury – WehrCowan1979.

Etymology obscure. Some relate the name of the planet to an oPers *tīra-dāta ‘Mercury’, while ClassAr dictionaries usually derive it from ↗ṭarada ‘to chase’, which however is little likely. Given that the word does not seem to have cognates in Sem or AfrAs, should one consider a derivation from Grk hydrárgyros ‘mercury (quicksilver)’, the metal associated with the planet since early Antiquity? (Prepared from cinnabar, the silver-white element was one of the seven metals, bodies terrestrial, known to the ancients, which were coupled in astrology and alchemy with the seven known heavenly bodies.)

▪ …

–

▪ In Class times, ʕuṭārid also served as a personal name. Some sources say that it should be diptote (ʕuṭāridᵘ) only when used in this function; the planet name however should be triptote (ʕuṭāridᵘⁿ).
▪ According to Asbaghi1988, ʕuṭārid is borrowed from oPers *tīra-dāta ‘Mercury’ (no further explanation supplied). Nourai gives the basic meaning of the first component of this Pers word, tīr, as ‘pointed thing’, hence also ‘sharp; arrow’ (from oPers/Av tiǧra ‘sharp, pointed’, taěža, taěǧa ‘sharp’). Interestingly, this value is among the basic meanings that also the obsol. adj. Ar ^†ʕaṭarrad can take in ClassAr: ‘sharpened (spear-head)’. However, the semantic relation between ‘Mercury’ and ‘sharp, pointed’—if there was any—is not explained. In addition to the value ‘sharp, pointed’ of ^†ʕaṭarrad, Lane lists also ‘high (mountain), tall (man, camel), long (day; limit, term, reach, goal; heat, single run to a goal or limit; road); generous, noble, or liberal (man); quick (pace, rate of going)’. While all of these but the last seem to denote some kind of extension or copiousness, the last one is difficult to relate to this extension or the *extremity of ‘sharp, pointed’. Rather, the value ‘quick (pace, rate of going)’ could have s.th. to do with Mercury, the ‘quick, volatile’ planet. From this one may have to infer that ^†ʕaṭarrad not only has one, but two basic meanings (and perhaps also etymologies): 1 (from Pers tīr ‘pointed thing’) *‘extreme, extended (having some quality in excess)’, and 2 (akin to ʕuṭārid) ‘quick (pace, rate of going)’.
▪ In contrast, ^†ʕuṭrūd ‘apparatus prepared for the casualties of fortune’ (↗ʕṬRD_2) seems difficult to relate to both, ‘Mercury / quick’ and ‘high, tall, long, generous’—or could the ‘volatility’ of fortune be a link?
▪ According to ClassAr dictionaries, ^†ʕaṭarrad is a variant of ^†ʕaṭawwad, root ʕṬD,²⁸ while the planet name, ʕuṭārid, is said by some to derive from ↗ṭarada ‘to drive, chase’ (ṬRD), interpreting Mercury as ‘the chasing and pursued one’ (al-ṭārid wa’l-muṭarrad).
▪ Strangely enough, the Ar name of the planet, which was known already to the Sumerians²⁹ and Ancient Egyptians, does not have any cognates in Sem. The fact that, to the Ancient Egyptians, it was one of the many appearances of the gods Seth and Thot (the latter typically represented as a scribe), may account for the fact that Ar ʕuṭārid too is often called the ‘star of the scribes’, but not for the etymology of the name itself.
▪ Could it be that the Ar name was taken from Grk? In Ancient Greece, Mercury was believed to be the planet of the God and messenger Hermes (= Lat Mercurius), hence it was called ho toû Hermoû astḗr ‘the star of Hermes’. The GGA provides evidence (in [Ps.-] Plutarchus, Placita Philosophorum) to the fact that the Arabs knew of this association (Hermes is translated as kawkab ʕuṭārid there). Etymologically, however, it is not very likely that ʕuṭārid should have developed from ho toû Hermoû astḗr , even if we assume an (unlikely) development from only the last elements of this name, …oû astḗr. This seems too far-fetched.
▪ Another possibility, however, may be worth considering: a derivation of the Ar planet name from Grk hydrárgyr-os ‘(the metal) mercury’, lit. ‘water-silver’ (from hydr-, the root of hýdōr ‘water’, and árgyr-os ‘silver’). Should it be possible some day to prove that ʕuṭārid is from < hydrárgyros, then the Ar would be taken from the name of the metal with which the planet was associated since early times.³⁰ We would then have to assume that the meaning of the loaned word was transferred from the name of the metal associated with the planet to the planet itself.

28. Cf. Hava1899: ʕaṭad (?), n., hardship, severity; ʕaṭawwad, adj., hard, distant (journey); high (mountain); long (day); liberal (man). 29. Sum LU.BAT.GÙ.UD – EI¹ (W. Hartner). 30. The others were Sun/gold, Moon/silver, Mars/iron, Saturn/lead, Jupiter/tin, Venus/copper – EtymOnline.com .

▪ According to Lokotsch1927#2143, Ar ʕuṭārid ‘mercury’ (> Tu utarıd) gave the words for the metal in some Slav langs: Ru rtut’, Ukr ortut’, rtut’, Pol rtęć, trtęć, Cz rtut ‘id.’. Vasmer[1958]1987 however thinks that this derivation is “phonologically impossible”. Instead, he sees the Slav terms belonging to the notion of ‘to turn over, roll, writhe’, also ‘to fall off, drop off, part, split up, separate’, cf. Germ *wreit-a- ‘to tear (apart), scratch’ (> oEng wrītan ‘to score, outline, draw the figure of’, later ‘to set down in writing, to write’)

…

ʕṬF عطف

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1Mar2023

√ʕṬF

“root”

▪ ʕṬF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕṬF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕṬF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘side of the body, coats, robes; creeper plants; to fold, bend, lean on, incline towards; to show kindness; to beseech, implore’

▪ …

–

.

–

mutaʕāṭif مُتَعاطِف

Sw – • NahḍCon • BP … • APD … • © SG | created 8Jun2023

√ʕṬF

adj.

.

▪ …PA, VI

.

ʕṬL عطل

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1Mar2023

√ʕṬL

“root”

▪ ʕṬL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕṬL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕṬL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be without jewellery, without ornaments, be featureless, without arms, be idle, without work, without a leader, be unattached, to make s.o. idle, cause to be dysfunctional’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʕṬW عطو

ID … • Sw 70/60 • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕṬW

“root”

▪ ʕṬW_1 ^†‘to raise o.’s head and hands to take s.th., seek to attain’
▪ ʕṬW_2 ‘to take; to swallow; to take over, or upon o.s., undertake, pursue’
▪ ʕṬW_3 ‘to give, present, hand over, grant’

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to give, to offer, to donate, gift; to handle, to deal with; to search for; to dare; to practise or engage in a certain type of work’

▪ The two main values in MSA, ʕṬW_2 and ʕṬW_3, go probably back to the value, still found in ClassAr, (ʕṬW_1) ^†‘to raise the head and the hands to take s.th.’.¹⁸ [v2] ‘to take; to swallow; to take over, or upon o.s., undertake, pursue’ is still closer to this original ‘taking’ than [v3], a caus. in the sense of ‘to make s.o. raise his head and hands to take s.th.’
▪ There is only litte material to base a reconstruction on. But if Orel&Stolbova1994 are right, the ancestor in Sem is to be reconstructed as *ʕ˅ṭ˅w‑ ‘to give (a present)’. In its turn, the Sem may go back to AfrAs *ʕaṭuw‑ ‘to give, pay’. Given the values of Hbr and ClassAr, however, an original meaning of ‘to stretch out trying to reach or attain s.th.’ seems to be more likely.
▪ The scarcity of direct cognates in Sem has led some scholars to assume overlapping with, or contamination by, or of, Ar ↗ʔatā(w) ‘to give, produce’
▪ The forms that express ‘giving’ in many Ar dialects (ʔidda etc.) are probably not from ʕṬW (which would have afforded many irregular sound changes) but from a Sem *NTN ~ *YTN, a root that, with the exception perhaps of Ar ↗ʔaddà, does not seem to have found its way into ClassAr and MSA.

18. Cf. the vn. I ʕa/i/uṭw that, according to Lane, is ‘applied to a gazelle, or a kid, stretching itself up towards the tree, to take therefrom’, and the PA I, ʕāṭin, def. ʕāṭī is a gazelle ‘raising his head to take the leaves [of a tree].’

▪ lC6 ʕAntarah b. Šaddād 36,9 (PA I f. ʕāṭiyaẗ, pl. ʕawāṭī) muršiqātin ka-’l-ẓibāʔi ʕawāṭiyā ‘looking like the gazelles, stretching out (to reach the leaves of a tree)’ (Polosin1995)
▪ eC7 (ʔaʕṭà ‘to give, grant; [without obj.] to give alms, to donate to appropriate causes) Q 92:5; — (taʕāṭà ‘to commit; to take hold of; to give one another s.th.; to dare, become bold, rush’) 54:29 fa-nādaw ṣāḥibahum fa-taʕāṭà fa-ʕaqara ‘but they called upon their companion and he grabbed [a sword/the she-camel] and hacked [at the camel] (or: and he rushed and hacked)’; — ʕaṭāʔ ‘gift, favour, bounty, donation’) 17:20 wa-mā kāna ʕaṭāʔu rabbika maḥẓūran ‘your Lord’s bounty is not restricted’.

▪ Hbr ʕāṭâ ‘to grasp’
▪ OrelStolb1994#1076: cognates only outside Sem: àtùwe ‘to pay’ in 1 ECh lang.

▪ Zammit2002, 557: »The Hbr cognate meaning ‘to grasp’ is well within the semantic domain of Ar, as is attested in Ibn Fāris (ʔaḫḏ wa-munāwalaẗ) and in Lane, who defines ʕṭw as “… the act of raising the head and the hands… to take a thing”.«
▪ OrelStolb1994#1076: From Ar ʕṭw the authors reconstruct Sem *ʕ˅ṭ˅w‑ ‘give (a present)’, from the ECh form àtùwe ECh *ʔatuw‑. Taken together, the authors suggest AfrAs *ʕaṭuw‑ ‘to give, pay’ as a common ancestor.
▪ DRS 1 (1994)#ʔTW/Y-3 ask whether Ar ʔatā (w) ‘to give, produce’ may be related.
▪ While a number of Ar dialects show forms based on ʕṬW (MorAr ʕṭa, LevAr ʕaṭa, ḤiǧāzAr ʔaʕṭā, KuwAr ʕaṭā)³¹ , others render the notion of ‘giving’ by verbs that seem to be akin to another Sem root rather than to ʕṬW, namely Sem *NTN ~ *YTN.³² This root has no representative in MSA, but appears in³³ Akk nadānu, pret. iddin ³⁴ (< *yandin) ‘to give, to make a payment, offer a gift, a sacrifice, to grant a share, to hand over (a document, an insigne), to entrust (a boat), to proffer (water, a goblet), etc.’,³⁵ Ug ytn, Hbr nāṯan ‘to give, put, set’, Phoen ytn (n-tn), EmpAram BiblAram ntn, Nab yntn (ipfv), chrPA ntn, Syr netel (ipfv), Mand ntn, Sab ntn, EgAr ʔidda, ipfv yiddi ³⁶ , and as a reflex also in NAr/IrAr niṭa ³⁷ , which, because it shows /ṭ/, seems to be based on ʕṬW but influenced by the Aram forms with initial n‑ ³⁸ . It has been proposed that EgAr ʔidda developed from ʕṬW, but this seems—at least to Behnstedt and Corriente—as unlikely as a Copt origin (cf. note above).³⁹ — StarLing 2007 is not consistent in their etymologies. While #3143 assigns Akk nadānu (iddin) to a Sem *NTN ~ *YTN, the same nadānu is juxtaposed, in #865, with Ar √DYN (dān‑, i) and attributed to a Sem *d˅y˅n‑ ‘to give, grant’. The Sem evidence is then regarded as cognate with Eg (Pyr) wdn ‘offering’ and the word tūn ‘tuwo [sic!] as an offering’ in a WCh lang (< WCh *dun‑), all deriving from a reconstructed AfrAs *d˅w/y˅n‑ ‘to give, grant’.
▪ Corriente 2008: 63 is convinced that Sem *NTN (or *YTN) has found its way into ClassAr and MSA in the vb. II ↗ʔaddà, ipfv. yuʔaddī ‘to deliver; to pay’.

31. Bennett 1998: 205, isoglosses. 32. Reconstructed as in StarLing 2007 #3143. 33. Forms given as in BDB 1906 and Bennett 1998. 34. BDB: »rarely ittan «; CAD gives also tadānu as a variant. 35. Values as in CAD. 36. Said to be of Copt origin by Badawi/Hinds1986, but this is rather unlikely, cf. Corriente 2008: 63 (who argues against Bishai 1964: 42 who proposed a derivation from Copt ti ‘to give’): »However, the first syllable is left phonetically unexplained, and the fact that this item exists in other Ar dialects, more impervious to oEg influence, such as SyrAr (according to Barthelemy), YemAr, as well as in ClassAr (ʔaddà yuʔaddī ‘to deliver; to pay’), would require this borrowing, if it is such, to have taken place in much older times than the Copt period. This is also Behnstedt’s view in 1981:89 and 1997:37; as for Vittmann 219, while rejecting the Copt etymon, prefers to suppose an evolution of Ar aʕṭà which is, as Behnstedt states and we subscribe, unlikely and unnecessary.« 37. In his remarks on EgAr ʔidda, Corriente1986: 63, fn. 6, points also to Behnstedt1992: 15-16, who lists some peculiar idioms »which preclude a recent borrowing from EgAr, as well as phonetic variants with /ḍ/, suggesting contamination with oAr and EAr ʔanṭa ‘to give’, which can only have happened locally and in old times.« 38. …if not the other way round: basically Aram but influenced by Ar ʕṬW. We go for the reverse assumption, following the identification of niṭa as Ar, not Aram, in the map of isoglosses given in Bennett 1998: 2005. 39. The Hbr verb forms the main part of Engl names like Matthew (from Hbr mattayyan < *mattan-yāh ‘gift of Yahweh’, from mattan, bound form of mattān < *mantan ‘gift’, yāh ‘Yahweh’), Nathan (from nātān ‘he, i.e. God, gave’); Jonathan (from yônātān ‘Yahweh has given’, from nātān ‘he gave’ and yô ‘Yahweh’), Nathanael (Hbr nətan-ʔēl ‘God has given’, from nətan, reduced form of nātan, see above), while the pret. of Akk nadānu ‘to give’, iddin (< *yandin), forms the second part of the name Esarhaddon (Akk *Aššur-aḫa-iddin ‘Ashur has given a brother’, where *aḫa is ‘brother (acc.)’, cf. Ar ↗ʔaḫ(ū) — Huehnergard 2011.

▪ For the names Matthew, Nathan, Jonathan, Nathanael, Esarhaddon, cf. note 9 in DISC.

► ʕāṭà, vb. III, to give: associative.
► ^BP#346ʔaʕṭà, vb. IV, to give; to present, hand over, offer; to grant, award, accord; to present, bestow (s.th. upon s.o.): originally caus. (‘to make s.o. raise his head and hands to take s.th.’)?; pass. ʔuʕṭiya, to get, obtain, receive | ~ durūsan, vb., to give lessons; ~ ʔaqwālahū, vb., to give evidence, give o.’s testimony (jur.); ~ lahū ’l-kalimata, vb., to allow s.o. to speak; ~ bi-yadihī, vb., to surrender or submit to s.o.; ~ ǧahdahū li‑, to devote o.’s efforts to s.th.; ~ maṯalan, vb., to give or set an example.
► taʕaṭṭà, vb. V, to ask for charity, ask for alms; to beg: autobenef.caus., specialization in the charity domain.
► taʕāṭà, vb. VI, to take; to swallow, take (a medicine); to take over, assume, undertake, take upon o.s. (a task); to occupy o.s., be occupied or busy with, be engaged in, pursue, practice (an activity):…
► ĭstaʕṭà, vb. X = V.

► ʕaṭan, det. ‑à, n., gift, present: could be regarded as etymon but is probably already a specialisation.
► ^BP#2149ʕaṭāʔ, pl. ʔaʕṭiyaẗ, n., gift, present; (pl. ‑āt) offer, tender; bid (at an auction or on invitation of tenders); bid with cost estimate (com.); vn. I | qaddama ~an, vb., to make an offer or tender, submit a written bid.
► ʕaṭiyyaẗ, pl. ʕaṭāyā, n., gift, present: nominalized pseudo-PP.f.
► miʕṭāʔ, adj.m.f., very liberal, generous (person); productive, yielding well (land): ints.
► muʕāṭāẗ, n., exercise, practice, pursuit (of an activity): vn. III.
► ^BP#2215ʔiʕṭāʔ, n., donation; presentation, grant(ing), award(ing): vn. IV.
► ^BP#3612taʕāṭin, det. ‑ī, pursuit, practice (of an activity), handling: vn. VI.
► ĭstiʕṭāʔ, n., begging, mendicity: vn. X.
► muʕṭin, det. ‑ī, n., giver, donor: nominalized PA IV.
► ^BP#3030muʕṭan, det. ‑à, adj., given: PP IV; (pl. ‑āt), n., given quantity (math.); pl. al-muʕṭayāt, n., the given facts, data, factors: nomin. PP IV.
► mustaʕṭin, det. ‑ī, n., beggar: nominalized PA X.

ʔaʕṭà / ʔaʕṭay‑ أَعْطَى / أَعْطَيْـ

ID 597 • Sw 70/60 • BP 346 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕṬY

vb., IV

to give; to present, hand over, offer; to grant, award, accord; to present, bestow (s.th. upon s.o.) – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Originally probably a caus. (‘to make/cause s.o. to…’) from vb. I, now obsolete, ^†ʕaṭā ‘to raise o.’s head and hands to take s.th.’, see ↗ʕṬW.
▪ In some Ar dialects, the notion of ‘giving’ is expressed by verbs like EgAr ʔidda that some scholars consider to have developed from Ar ʕṬW while others think they are from, or akin to, Sem *NTN~YTN (if not Copt, in the case of EgAr ʔidda). For this discussion, see "DISC" in ↗ʕṬW.

▪ lC6 Many attestations in pre-Islamic poetry (Polosin1995).
▪ eC7 Q ‘to give, grant; [without obj.] to give alms, to donate to appropriate causes), e.g. 92:5

↗ʕṬW

–

► ʔuʕṭiya, pass., to get, obtain, receive
► ʔaʕṭà durūsan, vb. IV, to give lessons
► ʔaʕṭà ʔaqwālahū, vb IV., to give evidence, give o.’s testimony (jur.)
► ʔaʕṭà lahū ’l-kalimata, vb. IV, to allow s.o. to speak
► ʔaʕṭà bi-yadihī, vb. IV, to surrender or submit to s.o.
► ʔaʕṭà ǧahdahū li , vb. IV, to devote o.’s efforts to s.th.
► ʔaʕṭà maṯalan, vb. IV, to give or set an example

ʕẒM عظم

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕẒM

“root”

▪ ʕẒM_1 ‘bone’ ↗ʕaẓm
▪ ʕẒM_2 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘bones, a bone, to bone; to be or become powerful, great, grand, immense, to venerate, to measure up to; proud, arrogant’

▪ ʕẒM_1 : (Kogan2015 Sw#10:) from protSem *ʕaṯ̣ m‑ ‘bone’ (SED I #25). Passim except Syr and modSAr.
▪ ʕẒM_2 : …
▪ ʕẒM_3 : …
…

–

▪ …
▪ …

–

ʕaẓm عَظْم

ID 598 • Sw 31/17 • BP 2548 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕẒM

n.

… – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Kogan2015 (Sw#10): from protSem *ʕaṯ̣m‑ ‘bone’ (SED I #25). Passim except Syr and modSAr.
▪ …

▪ …

▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘bone’) Akk eṣemtu, Hbr ʕéṣem, Syr ʕaṭmā ‘Hüfte’, Gz (ʕaḍm).
▪ …
▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

–

►

ʕFː (ʕFF) عفّ/عفف

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1Mar2023

√ ʕFː (ʕFF)

“root”

▪ ʕFː (ʕFF)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕFː (ʕFF)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕFː (ʕFF)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘the small amount of milk which remains in the udder of a female animal after feeding her young, to suckle such an amount of milk, meagre quantity; austerity, modesty, chastity, to refrain from committing unlawful or shameful acts’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʕFRT عفرت

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕFRT

“root”

▪ ʕFRT_1 ‘demon’ ↗ʕifrīt
▪ ʕFRT_2 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Cf. semantic value spectrum of ʕFR in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘dust, to dust, to rub in the dust; genie, mighty; hair, mane’. – Some scholars attribute ʕifrīt to a borrowing from Pers, but philologists classify it under this root.

▪ …

–

▪ …
▪ …

–

ʕifrīt عِفْريت , pl. ʕafārītᵘ

ID 599 • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕFRT

n.

1a malicious, mischievous; b sly, cunning, crafty, wily; 2 afreet, demon, imp, devil; 3 (EgAr) naughty child – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Cheung2017rev: ultimately of Ir origin, but prob. borrowed indirectly, via JudBabAram ? < (learned) mPers/Parth *āfrīt < Av āfriti ‘spirit, force of benediction’. For details, see below, section DISC.
▪ …

▪ eC7 (a member of the jinn, genie, powerful, so called because, as it is said, he knocks down his adversaries and rolls them in the dust, ↗ʕafar) Q 27:39 qāla ʕifrītun min-a ’l-ǧinni ‘a powerful genie from among the jinn said’.

▪ …
▪ …

▪ Jeffery1938: »The philologers would derive it from √ʕFR ‘to rub with dust’, and tell us that the word is applied to Jinn or to men as meaning one who rolls his adversary in the dust (cf. LA, vi, 263). That the philologers had difficulty with it is evident from the number of possible forms given by Ibn Khalawaih, 109. – Grimme, ZA, xxvi, 1G7, 168, suggests that the word was formed under SAr influence, but there seems nothing in this, and Barth, ZDMG, xlviii, 17, would take it as a genuine Ar word.⁴⁰ Hess, ZS, ii, 220, and Vollers, ZDMG, 1, 646, however, have shown that it is Pers, derived from Phlv āfrītan ⁴¹ (cf. Av āfrīnāṭ ⁴² ), which in modPers is āfrīd, the participle from āfrīdan ‘to create’, Paz āfrīdan, Phlv ???? (Shikand, Glossary, 226), and used like the Ar maḫlūq [↗ḫalaqa ] for ‘creature’.«
▪ EALL : from mPers afrīt ‘creature’ (Asbaghi, »Persian Loanwords«).

40. Vide also his Nominalbildung, § 250. 41. Horn, Grundriss, § 39, and cf. Vullers, Lex, i, 44. 42. Reichelt, Awestisches Elementarbuch, Glossary, 428.

–

► taʕafrata, vb. II, to behave like a demon or devil: denominative.
► ʕifrītī, adj., devilish: nsb-adj.
► ʕafrītaẗ, n.f., (Eg.) lifting jack; overall:.
► ʕafrataẗ, n.f., devilry; dirty trick: vn. I.

ʕFW عفو

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1Mar2023

√ʕFW

“root”

▪ ʕFW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕFW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕFW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘wasteland, dust, to grow wildly, (of camels) to grow thick hair; to forgo, let go, relieve, forgive; to achieve without toil; to be in good health, multiply in number; to seek one’s livelihood’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʕQB عقب

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕQB

“root”

▪ ʕQB_1 ‘heel’ ↗…
▪ ʕQB_2 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘heels, to arrive at the heel of, to follow, pursue, investigate; eagle; to turn back; to repair; result; to avenge o.s.; to punish; to interlace; obstacle; to detain’

▪ [v1] Kogan2011: from protSem *ʕaḳib‑ ‘heel’. – See also the special designation ↗ʕurqūb (< protWSem *ʕarḳ˅b‑) ‘Achilles’ tendon’.
▪ Huehnergard2011: WSem *√ʕQB ‘to follow, guard, protect’.

–

▪ …
▪ …

▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl jack, jacket, Jacob, Jacobin, Jacquerie, James, from Hbr yaʕăqōb ‘(God) has protected’, from early NWSem *yaʕqub, pret. of *ʕaqaba ‘to follow, guard’.

–

ʕaqb عَقْب , var. ʕaqib

ID 600 • Sw – • BP 1423 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕQB

n.

… – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

–

►

ʕQD عقد

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕQD

“root”

▪ ʕQD_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʕQD_2 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘knot, tangle, to tie, to complicate, to make difficult; to put together; to contract; to thicken, to coagulate; oath, alliance, pact; necklace; sand dune’

▪ …

–

▪ …
▪ …

–

ʕaqīdaẗ عَقِيدَة

ID 601 • Sw – • BP 2558 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕQD

n.f.

… – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

–

►

ʕQR عقر

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕQR

“root”

▪ ʕQR_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʕQR_2 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘the main part of one’s dwelling, real estate, landed property, residence; furniture; to slay by stabbing, to wound, to be savaged by an animal; to be barren, to be sterile; to be alcoholic; medicine’

▪ …

–

▪ …
▪ …

–

ʕaqqār عَقّار

ID 602 • Sw – • BP 4153 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕQR

n.

… – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

–

►

ʕQRB عقرب

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕQRB

“root”

▪ ʕQRB_1 ‘scorpion; sting, prick; hand (of a watch or clock); lock, curl; Scorpio (astron.)’ ↗ʕaqrab
▪ ʕQRB_2 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʕQRB_3 ‘…’ ↗…

▪ ʕQRB_1 : (Orel&Stolbova1994:) From protSem *ʕaḳrab‑ ‘scorpion’ (and perh., with prefix *ʕa‑, from AfrAs *ḳurab‑ ‘insect’).
▪ ʕQRB_2 : …
▪ ʕQRB_3 : …

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

…

ʕaqrab عَقْرَب, pl. ʕaqāribᵘ

ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕQRB

n.

1 scorpion; 2 sting, prick; 3 hand (of a watch or clock); 4 lock, curl; 5 العقرب Scorpio (sign of the zodiac; astron.); 6 the eighth month of the solar year (Saudi Ar.; cf. ḥamal) – WehrCowan1976.

▪ Orel&Stolbova1994# 1609: From protSem *ʕaḳrab‑ ‘scorpion’ (and perh., with prefix *ʕa‑, from AfrAs *ḳurab‑ ‘insect’).

▪ …

▪ Bergsträsser1928: Akk aqrabu, Hbr ʕaqrāḇ, Aram ʕeqarḇā, Gz ʕaqráb ‘scorpion’
▪ Orel&Stolbova1994# 1609: Hbr ʕaqrāb, Syr ʕeqarbō. – Outside Sem: kurba ‘ant’ in a WCh language.

▪ Orel&Stolbova1994#1609: protSem *ʕaḳrab‑ ‘scorpion’, protWCh *ḳur˅b‑, both from hypothetical AfrAs *ḳurab‑ ‘insect’. The basis for reconstruction in WCh is only 1 lang, the AfrAs dimension therefore doubtful. The authors explain the initial consonant in Sem as a prefix *ʕa‑.
▪ Lipiński2001 thinks (with Diakonoff) the etymon may be segmented into a root plus AfrAs »key consonant« ‑b for strong and/or dangerous animals, cf. also ↗ʔarnab, ↗dubb, ↗ḏiʔb, ↗ḏubāb, ↗kalb, ↗labb, ↗ṯaʕlab.

▪ Sem *ʕaḳrab‑, more exactly Phoen ʕqrb, may have been the source of the Germ words for ‘crab’.
…

…

ʕQL عقل

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕQL

“root”

▪ ʕQL_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʕQL_2 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘tie, to tie up, stoppage, halter; brain, rational person, to judge as rational; to ransom, blood money; head of a group; fine woman; taking refuge’

▪ From WSem *√ʕQL ‘to bend, bind, confine’ – Huehnergard2011.

–

▪ …
▪ …

–

ʕaql عَقْل

ID 603 • Sw – • NahḍCon • BP 646 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕQL

n.

… – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

–

►

ʕQM عقم

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 1Mar2023

√ʕQM

“root”

▪ ʕQM_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕQM_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕQM_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘dryness, to be sterile, (of the womb or woman) be barren; devastating, destructive; gibberish, futile and archaic’ –

▪ …

–

.

–

ʕKF عكف

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 2Mar2023

√ʕKF

“root”

▪ ʕKF_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕKF_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕKF_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be curled or twisted, to cling to, be constant, devote o.s. to, apply o.s. singlemindedly to; to isolate, bar, turn away from’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʕLː (ʕLL) علّ/علل

Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | created 8Jun2023

√ʕLː (ʕLL)

“root”

.

▪ …

–

.

taʕlīliyyaẗ تَعْليليّة

Sw – • NahḍCon • BP … • APD … • © SG | created 8Jun2023

√ʕLː (ʕLL)

n.f.

.

▪ abstr. formation in -iyyaẗ, from taʕlīl ‘explanation’, vn. of ʕallala (II) ‘to explain’, D-stem, denom. from ↗ʕillaẗ

.

ʕLǦ علج

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕLǦ

“root”

▪ ʕLǦ_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʕLǦ_2 ‘…’ ↗…

▪ …

–

▪ …
▪ …

–

ʕilāǧ عِلاج

ID 604 • Sw – • BP 750 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕLǦ

n.

… – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

–

►

ʕLM علم

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕLM

“root”

▪ ʕLM_1 ‘knowledge; to know; knowing, scholar’ ↗ʕilm, ↗ʕalima, ↗ʕālim
▪ ʕLM_2 ‘sign, token; flag; eminent personality, authority’ ↗ʕalam
▪ ʕLM_3 ‘tender (adj.); well with abundant water’ ↗ʕaylam
▪ ʕLM_4 ‘singer, chanteuse, belly dancer’ ↗ʕālimaẗ
▪ ʕLM_5 ‘world, universe’ ↗ʕālam

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘mountain, landmark, mark, flag; a notch, slit, harelip; to mark; to know, learn, be acquainted, to inform, knowledge, learning, cognition and a learned person; the world, the universe’. – It has been suggested by some scholars that the word ʕālam, meaning the world or the universe, which philologists derive from this root, is a very early borrowing from either Hbr or Syr.

▪ Ar root √ʕLM ‘to know’ – Huehnergard2011.

–

▪ …
▪ …

▪ Engl ulema ↗ʕālim.

–

ʕilm عِلْم

Sw – • NahḍCon • BP 515 • APD … • © SG | created 8Jun2023

√ʕLM

n.

.

▪ …

.

ʕLQ علق

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023

√ʕLQ

“root”

▪ ʕLQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕLQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕLQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘clinging, to adhere, to be suspended, to hang; to be attached, creeper, blood clot; morsel of food; treasure’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʕalim‑ عَلِمَ , a (ʕilm)

ID 608 • Sw 59/83 • BP 377 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕLM

vb., I

to know, have knowledge, be cognizant, be aware (bi‑ of s.th.), be informed, be familiar, be acquainted (with s.th.); to perceive, discern (bi‑ or DO s.th.), find out, learn, come to know; to distinguish, differentiate (min from) – WehrCowan1979.

The vb. ʕalima is probably denominative, the meaning ‘to know’ having developed from an original *‘to recognize a sign, token, mark’ (↗ʕalam), perhaps one that had been made by ‘nicking, notching, incising’.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

The vb. ʕalima is probably denominative from ↗ʕalam ‘sign, token, mark’ and may originally have meant *‘to recognize’ (a sign, token, mark). Given that an obsolete trans. vb. ^†ʕalama, u, i (ʕalm) means ‘to mark (by slitting, nicking, notching?)’, the intr. vb. probably signified ‘to be able to read the signs, marks, traces’, hence ‘to orient o.s.’.

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► ^BP#3450ʕallama, vb. II, to teach, instruct, brief; to train, school, educate: caus. I, denom. – For other meanings ↗ʕalam.
► ʔaʕlama, vb. IV, to let know, tell, notify, advice, apprise, inform (bi‑ of or about s.th.), acquaint:.
► ^BP#1179taʕallama, vb. V, to learn, study; to know :.
► ĭstaʕlama, vb. X, to inquire, ask, query (ʕan about), inform o.s. (ʕan about), gather information:.

► ^BP#515ʕilm, n., knowledge, learning, lore; cognizance, acquaintance; information; cognition, intellection, perception, knowledge; ^BP#548(pl. ʕulūm) science; pl. al-ʕulūm the (natural) sciences. – For compounds etc. ↗s.v.
► ^BP#545ʕilmī, adj., scientific; erudite (book); learned (society): nsb-adj from ↗ʕilm.
► ʕilmiyyaẗ, n.f., scientific nature (of s.th.); scientificalness: n.abstr. from ↗ʕilm.
► ^BP#3467ʕalam, pl. ʔaʕlām, n., sign, token, mark, [etc.]: ↗ʕalam.
► ʕalīm, pl. ʕulamāʔᵘ, adj., knowing; cognizant, informed; learned, erudite; al-ʕ. the Omniscient (one of the attributes of God): ints.
► ʕallām, adj., knowing thoroughly, completely familiar (with): ints.
► ^BP#4161ʕallāmaẗ, adj., most erudite, very learned:; n., eminent scholar:.
► ^BP#1552ʕalāmaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., mark, sign, token [etc.]: ↗ʕalam.
► ʔuʕlūmaẗ, pl. ʔaʕālīmᵘ, n., road sign, signpost, guidepost: ↗ʕalam.
► tiʕlāmaẗ, adj., most erudite, very learned: ↗s.v...
► ^BP#2288maʕlam, pl. maʕālimᵘ, n., place, abode, locality, spot [etc.]: ↗ʕalam.
► maʕlamaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., encyclopedia: n.loc.
► ^BP#388taʕlīm, pl. ‑āt, taʕālīmᵘ, n., information, advice, instruction, direction; teaching, instruction; training, schooling, education; apprenticeship: vn. II, caus.; pl. ‑āt instructions, directions, directives; information, announcements | t. muḫtaliṭ coeducation; t. ʕālin higher education, academic studies; fann al-t. pedagogy, pedagogics; t. al-bāliġīn and t. al-kibār adult education; t. šaʕbī public education:.
► ^BP#1400taʕlīmī, adj., instructional; educational; didactic: nsb-adj from taʕlīm.
► ^BP#571ʔiʕlām, n., notification, advice; information; communication; notice: vn. IV, lexicalized | maʕhad al-ʔ., institute of communication; wazīr al-ʔ., minister of information; wasāʔil al-ʔ., communications media, the media:.
► ^BP#1075ʔiʕlāmī, adj., information, communication (in compounds): nsb-adj from ʔiʕlām.
► ^BP#3199taʕallum, n., learning, studying, study; education: vn. V.
► ĭstiʕlām, n., inquiry (ʕan about); (pl. ‑āt) information: vn. X | maktab al-ĭ. information office, information desk:.
► ^BP#869ʕālim, adj., knowing; familiar, acquainted (bi‑ with), cognizant (bi‑ of); n., expert, connoisseur, professional; (pl. ʕulamāʔᵘ), adj., learned, erudite; n., scholar, savant, scientist: PA I, later lexicalized | ʕ. ṭabīʕī physicist, natural scientist; al-ʕulamāʔ al-muḫtaṣṣūn the specialists, the experts:.
► ʕālimaẗ, n.f., woman of learning, woman scholar: PA I; (eg., pronounced ʕalmaẗ) singer, chanteuse, belly dancer: ↗s.v..
► ʕālimiyyaẗ, n.f., learnedness, scholarliness, erudition, rank or dignity of a ʕālim; rank of scholarship, conferred by diploma, of the Great Mosque in Tunis and of AI-Azhar in Cairo: n.abstr. from ʕālim.
► ^BP#3600ʔaʕlamᵘ, adj., having more knowledge; more learned; el. formation from ʕālim | ăllāhu ʔ. God knows best:.
► ^BP#2631maʕlūm, adj., known; fixed, determined, given; of course! certainly! sure! no doubt! (as an affirmative reply); known quantity (math.); al-m. the active voice (gram.): PP I; — (pl. maʕālīmᵘ) fixed sum, fixed rate (money); fixed income; tax, duty, fee; sum, amount, cost(s) | m. al-ḥayawānāt impost on livestock (Tun.):.
► ^BP#412maʕlūmaẗ, n.f., known fact, a given fact; given quantity (math.); pl. ‑āt knowledge, information; data, facts, details (which one has, or has received, ʕan about): n.u. of PP I | ǧamʕ al-m.āt data gathering:.
► ^BP#4695maʕlūmātī, adj., informatics, information science: nsb-adj from maʕlūmāt, pl. of maʕlūmaẗ.
► maʕlūmiyyaẗ, n.f., fact or state of being known, notoriety (of s.th.): n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ from maʕlūm.
► ^BP#899muʕallim, pl. ‑ūn, n., teacher, instructor; master (of a trade, etc.): nominalized PA II | m. al-ĭʕtirāf father-confessor, confessor:.
► muʕallimaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., woman teacher, woman instructor: nominalized PA II, f.
► muʕallam, adj., taught, instructed, trained, schooled: PP II; m. ʕalayh designated, marked | m. ʕalayh bi’l-ʔaḥmar PP II of ↗ʕalima, from ↗ʕilm.
► mutaʕallim, adj., educated; able to read and write, literate: PA V; n., an educated person: nominalization.
► ^BP#93ʕālam n.: ↗s.v..
► ^BP#308ʕālamī, adj.: ↗ʕālam.
► ʕālamiyyaẗ, n. ↗ʕālam.
► ^BP#4288ʕalmānī, var. ʕā̆lmānī, adj./n.: ↗s.v..

ʕilm عِلْم , pl. ʕulūm

ID 609 • Sw – • BP 548 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕLM

n.

knowledge, learning, lore; cognizance, acquaintance; information; cognition, intellection, perception, knowledge; ^BP#548(pl. ʕulūm) science; pl. al-ʕulūm the (natural) sciences – WehrCowan1979.

vn. of ↗ʕalima.

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ʕilman wa-ʕamalan, theoretically and practically:.
li-yakun fī ʕilmih, be it known to him, may he know, for his Information:.
kāna ʕalà ʕilmin tāmmin, to know s.th. inside out, be thoroughly familiar with s.th.; to have full cognizance of s.th.:.
ʕilm al-wuṣūl, n., receipt; bi-ʕilm al-wuṣūl registered (mail), risālaẗ bi-ʕilm al-wuṣūl registered letter:.
ʕilm al-ʔadab, n., study of literature; ʕilm al-ʔadab al-muqāran comparative literature:.
ʕilm al-ʔinsān, n., anthropology:.
ʕilm al-ǧarāṯīm, n., bacteriology:.
ʕilm al-ĭǧtimāʕ, n., sociology; al-ʕulūm al-ĭǧtimāʕiyyaẗ the social sciences:.
ʕilm al-ǧamāl, n., aesthetics:.
ʕilm al-ḥisāb, n., arithmetic:.
ʕilm al-ḥafriyyāt, n., archaeology; paleontology; ʕilm al-ʔaḥāfīr, n., paleontology:.
ʕilm al-muḥīṭāt, n., oceanography:.
ʕilm al-ḥayāẗ, n., biology; ʕilm al-ʔaḥyāʔ, n., do.; ʕilm al-ḥayawān, n., zoology:.
ʕilm al-ʔaḫlāq, n., ethics:.
ʕilm al-dalālaẗ, n.f., and ʕilm al-maʕnà, n., semantics (linguistics):.
ʕilm al-ʔidāraẗ, n.f., study of administration; business management; al-ʕulūm al-ʔidāriyyaẗ, n.f., administrative sciences:.
ʕilm al-ḏarrāt, n., nuclear physics:.
ʕilm al-tarbiyaẗ, n.f., pedagogy:.
ʕilm al-ʔasāṭīr, n., mythology:.
ʕilm al-šuʕūb, n., ethnology:.
ʕilm al-ṣiḥḥaẗ, n.f., hygiene:.
ʕilm al-ṣarf, n., morphology (gram.):.
ʕilm al-ʔaṣwāt, n., and ʕilm al-ṣawtiyyāt, n., phonetics; phonology:.
ʕilm al-ṭabīʕaẗ, n.f., physics; natural science; ʕilm ṭabīʕaẗ al-ʔarḍ, n., geophysics:.
ʕilm ṭabaqāt al-ʔarḍ, n., geology:.
ʕilm al-maʕādin, n., mineralogy:.
ʕilm al-falak, n., astronomy; astrology:.
ʕilm al-luġaẗ, n.f., lexicography (of the Arabs); linguistics (Western); ʕilm al-luġaẗ al-ʕāmm, n., general linguistics:.
ʕilm al-nabāt, ʕilm al-nabātāt, n., botany:.
ʕilm al-nafs, n., psychology; ʕilm al-nafs al-ĭǧtimāʕī social psychology; ʕilm al-nafs al-fardī individual psychology:.
ʕilm al-wirāṯaẗ, n.f., genetics:.
ʕilm al-waẓāʔif al-ʔaʕḍāʔ, n., physiology:.

For other compounds look up the second word.

ṭālib ʕilm, n., student:.
kulliyyaẗ al-ʕulūm, n., the Faculty of Science (of a university):.

► ^BP#377ʕalima, a (ʕilm), vb. I, to know, have knowledge, be cognizant, be aware (bi‑ of s.th.), be informed, be familiar, be acquainted (with s.th.); to perceive, discern (bi‑ or DO s.th.), find out, learn, come to know; to distinguish, differentiate (min from): vn. I.
► ^BP#3450ʕallama, vb. II, to teach, instruct, brief; to train, school, educate: caus. I, denom. – For other meanings ↗ʕalam.
► ʔaʕlama, vb. IV, to let know, tell, notify, advice, apprise, inform (bi‑, of or about s.th.), acquaint: caus. of I.
► ^BP#1179taʕallama, vb. V, to learn, study; to know: pseudo-pass. of II.
► ĭstaʕlama, vb. X, to inquire, ask, query (ʕan about), inform o.s. (ʕan about), gather information: autoben., t-stem of IV.

► ^BP#545ʕilmī, adj., scientific; erudite (book); learned (society): nsb-adj.
► ʕilmiyyaẗ, n.f., scientific nature (of s.th.); scientificalness: n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ.
► ʕalīm, pl. ʕulamāʔᵘ, adj., knowing; cognizant, informed; learned, erudite; al-ʕ. the Omniscient (one of the attributes of God): ints. (possessing much ʕilm)
► ʕallām, adj., knowing thoroughly, completely familiar (with): ints.
► ^BP#4161ʕallāmaẗ, adj., most erudite, very learned: ints.; n., eminent scholar: nominalized and lexicalized.
► tiʕlāmaẗ, adj., most erudite, very learned: ↗s.v.
► maʕlamaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., encyclopedia: n.loc. (place where ʕilm can be found).
► ^BP#388taʕlīm, pl. ‑āt, taʕālīmᵘ, n., information, advice, instruction, direction; teaching, instruction; training, schooling, education; apprenticeship: vn. II, caus., denom.; pl. ‑āt instructions, directions, directives; information, announcements | t. muḫtaliṭ coeducation; t. ʕālin higher education, academic studies; fann al-t. pedagogy, pedagogics; t. al-bāliġīn and t. al-kibār adult education; t. šaʕbī public education:.
► ^BP#1400taʕlīmī, adj., instructional; educational; didactic: nsb-adj from taʕlīm.
► ^BP#571ʔiʕlām, n., notification, advice; information; communication; notice: vn. IV, lexicalized | maʕhad al-ʔ., institute of communication; wazīr al-ʔ., minister of information; wasāʔil al-ʔ., communications media, the media:.
► ^BP#1075ʔiʕlāmī, adj., information, communication (in compounds): nsb-adj from ʔiʕlām.
► ^BP#3199taʕallum, n., learning, studying, study; education: vn. V.
► ĭstiʕlām, n., inquiry (ʕan about); (pl. ‑āt) information: vn. X | maktab al-ĭ. information office, information desk:.
► ^BP#899muʕallim, pl. ‑ūn, n., teacher, instructor; master (of a trade, etc.): nominalized PA II | m. al-ĭʕtirāf father-confessor, confessor:.
► muʕallimaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., woman teacher, woman instructor: nominalized PA II, f.
► mutaʕallim, adj., educated; able to read and write, literate: PA V; n., an educated person: nominalization.

For other items of ʕLM cf. ↗ʕalam, ↗ʕalima, ↗ʕālim, ↗ʕālimaẗ, ↗ʕālam, ↗ʕalmānī.

ʕalam عَلَم , pl. ʔaʕlām

ID 607 • Sw – • BP 3467 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕLM

n.

sign, token, mark, badge, distinguishing mark, characteristic; harelip; road sign, signpost, guidepost; flag, banner; a distinguished, outstanding man; an eminent personality, an authority, a star, a luminary; proper name (gram.) – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Originally a mark made by incision, nicking, notching? (cf. Ehret1989 in the DISC section below).
▪ The word may be the etymon not only of the derivatives of the ‘marking, signing, designating’ theme, but also of the ‘knowledge’ complex, since the vb. ↗ʕalima ‘to know’ may be denominative from ʕalam, ‘knowledge’ originally being the ability to read the signs and to find one’s way through the desert with the help of marks put up earlier.

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Ehret1989:163 considers ʕalam an extension in a »deverbative noun-forming suffix« ‑m from a bi-radical base *ʕal‑. In this type of application, the author says, »*m is clearly cognate with suffixes in *m in Cush and can therefore be traced back to AfrAs«. The sense that connects ʕalam with other extensions of the bi-rad. base is ‘to nick, notch’ (^†ʕalb ‘to mark by an incision or impression, cut off’, ^†ʕalṭ ‘to mark a camel across the neck’, ^†ʕalm ‘to split the upper lip’).

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► nār ʕalà ʕalam, n., a leading light or celebrity. ʔašhar min nār ʕalà ʕ., adj., very famous.
► ĭsm ʕalam, pl. ʔasmāʔ al-ʔaʕlām, n., proper name (gram.).
► ḫidmaẗ al-ʕalam, n., (Syr.) military service.

► ^BP#3450ʕallama, vb. II, to designate, mark, earmark, provide with a distinctive mark (ʕalà s.th.); to put a mark (ʕalà on): denom. – For other meanings ↗ʕalima, ↗ʕilm.
► ^BP#1552ʕalāmaẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., mark, sign, token; (conventional) sign or symbol (also linguistics); punctuation mark; grade or mark (in school); badge, emblem; distinguishing mark, characteristic; indication, symptom | ʕ. tiǧāriyyaẗ trade-mark; ʕ. al-rutbaẗ insignia of rank; ʕ. al-taʔaṯṯur and ʕ. al-taʕaǧǧub exclamation point; ʕ. al-ĭstifhām question mark; ʕ. al-tanṣīṣ quotation mark; ʕ. al-waqf period, full stop (as punctation mark); naẓariyyaẗ al-ʕalāmāt theory of signs, semiotics:.
► ʔuʕlūmaẗ, pl. ʔaʕālīmᵘ, n., road sign, signpost, guidepost:.
► ^BP#2288maʕlam, pl. maʕālimᵘ, n., place, abode, locality, spot; track, trace; landmark, mark, distinguishing mark, characteristic; road sign, signpost, guidepost; peculiarity, particularity; pl. sights, curiosities; characteristic traits; outlines, contours (e.g., of the body), lineaments, features (of the face):.
► muʕallam ʕalayh, adj., designated, marked | m. ʕalayh bi’l-ʔaḥmar marked with red pencil: PP II, denom. – For other meanings ↗ʕalima, ↗ʕilm.

For other items of ʕLM ↗ʕalima, ↗ʕilm, ↗ʕālim, ↗ʕālimaẗ, ↗ʕālam, ↗ʕalmānī.

ʕaylam عَيْلَم , pl. ʕayālimᵘ

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕLM • ʕYLM

¹adj.; ²n.

1 adj., tender. – 2 (pl. ʕayālimᵘ), n., well with abundant water; sea – WehrCowan1979.

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▪ Do v1 and v2 belong together etymologically?
▪ Is the item, or any one of its values, related to other items of ↗ʕLM, such as ↗ʕalam, ↗ʕalima / ↗ʕilm, ↗ʕālimaẗ, or ↗ʕālam ?

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ʕālim عالِم , pl. ‑ūn ; ʕulamāʔᵘ

ID 606 • Sw – • BP 869 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕLM

¹adj.; ²n.

knowing; familiar, acquainted, cognizant; expert, connoisseur, professional; (pl. ʕulamāʔᵘ) learned, erudite; scholar, savant, scientist; (in Islam) theologian and expert in canonical law – WehrCowan1979.

PA I of ʕalima ‘to know’, later lexicalized as n.

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↗ʕalima, ↗ʕilm

↗ʕalima.

▪ Engl ulema ‘scholars of Muslim religious law’, 1680 s, from the pl. ʕulamāʔ ‘learned men, scholars’ – EtymOnline.

► ʕālim ṭabīʕī, n., physicist, natural scientist:.
► al-ʕulamāʔ al-muḫtaṣṣūn, n.pl., the specialists, the experts.

► ʕālimaẗ, n.f., woman of learning, woman scholar: f. of ʕālim. – For another value in Eg ↗ʕālimaẗ.
► ʕālimiyyaẗ, n.f., learnedness, scholarliness, erudition, rank or dignity of a ʕālim; rank of scholarship, conferred by diploma, of the Great Mosque in Tunis and of AI-Azhar in Cairo: n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ.

ʕālimaẗ , عالِمَة, pl. ‑āt , ʕawālimᵘ

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕLM

n.f.

1 woman of learning, woman scholar. – 2 (eg., pronounced ʕalmaẗ, pl. ʕawālimᵘ) singer, chanteuse, belly dancer – WehrCowan1979., woman leader of a troupe of women musicians and dancers – BadawiHinds1986

▪ v1 nominalized PA I of ↗ʕalima ‘to know’
▪ v2 from Hbr ʕalmā ‘young woman (ripe sexually; maid or newly married)’ ?

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▪ v1 ↗ʕalima, ↗ʕilm
▪ v2 BDB#ʕLM-2: perhaps orig. ‘to be mature (sexually)’, Aram ʕᵃlēm ‘to be strong’, Syr ʕālem ‘to rejuvenate’ (certainly denom.), Ar ġalima ‘be lustful’ (denom.), cf. also Sab ʕlm, ʕlmn ‘young man’, Ar ġulām ‘id.’, Phn ʕlmt‑ ‘girl’, Nab Palm ʕlm, ʕlym ‘slave’, Palm f.pl. ‘harlots’, Syr ʕalmā ‘young man’, ʕalmtā ‘young woman’

While the meaning ‘woman of learning, woman scholar’ (v1) is just a PA from the vb. ↗ʕalima ‘to know’, itself probably denom., the value ‘singing girl’, found in EgAr, may be a loan, most probably from Hbr ʕalmā ‘young woman (ripe sexually; maid or newly married)’.⁴³ As such, the word is related etymologically to ↗ĠLM (e.g., ġulām ‘boy, youth, lad; slave; servant, waiter’) rather than to ʕLM.

43. As already E. W. Lane thought: »There are also female professional singers. These are called ʕawālim, in the singular ʕālmeh, or ʕālimeh, an appellation, as an Ar word, literally signifying ‘a learned female’ but, as applied to these female singers, evidently, I think, derived from the Hbr or Phoen word ʕalmāh, signifying ‘a girl’ and ‘a virgin’, and particularly ‘a singing girl.’ ʕal-ʕalāmōṯ šīr (the title of Psalm xlvi) and nebālīm ʕal-ʕalāmōṯ (in I Chron. xv: 20) should, I doubt not, be rendered, ‘a song,’ and ‘harps’ or the like, ‘adapted to ʕalmāhs,’ that is, ‘singing girls.’ And as Jerome says that alma in the Punic language signified ‘a virgin’, it seems to be probable that, in old times, the most celebrated of the singing-girls in Egypt were Phoenicians.« – Manners and Customs…, London [etc.] 1908: 361.

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ʕālam عالَم , pl. ‑ūn , ʕawālimᵘ

ID 605 • Sw – • BP 93 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕLM, ʕWLM

n.

world; universe, cosmos – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Paret, in his commentary on Q I:2, says that in Aram the word means ‘world’ (and the plural ‘worlds’), whereas in the Qurʔān it rather refers to the world’s ‘inhabitants’. He therefore translated rabb al-ʕālamīn as ‘Herr der Menschen in aller Welt’ [Lord of men all over the world, i.e. of all mankind].
▪ Article “ʕālam” (Tj. de Boer, L. Gardet) in EI², s.v.

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▪ Rajki 2002: Sem *ʕLM, Hbr ʕōlam, Syr ʕalmā, JNA ʕalam, BAram ʕalmā, Amh alem, Ug ʕLM, Phn ʕLM

▪ Ar lexicography generally holds that the word is derived from ↗ʕalima. But
▪ Paret 1980, in his commentary on sura 1:2, confirms that the Qurʔānic ‎word is a loan from Aram ʕālmā. Among his references he mentions also Jeffery 1938: 208-9, who confirms ‎‎ Fraenkel’s opinion that both the pattern ‎‎(CāCaC^un) and the plural in ‑īna point to a non-Ar provenance ‎‎(although there is a ʕLM meaning ‘world’ in SAr; but this may be a borrowing either, ‎since the plural is ʕLMYN, conforming to the Qur’anic form). Jeffery favours a Jewish (instead of a ‎Christian) origin, following (among others) Grünebaum (ZDMG 39: 571) who pointed out that ‎‎»the common Qurʔānic rabb al-ʕālamīn is precisely the rabbōn ha-ʕōlamīm of the Jewish ‎liturgy« (Jeffery1938: 209). »Hbr ʕōlam means any duration of time, and in the Rabbinic ‎writings it, like Aram ʕālᵉmā, comes to mean ‘age’ or ‘world’« (ibid.). – There are ‎however also evidences that make a Christian origin probable. The Syr ʕālmā, suggested by ‎Fraenkel, means both aiōn and kósmos [age and world].

▪ Rajki 2002: Aze alem, Ind alam, ‎Kyr aalam, Per ʕālam, Tat galem, Tur alem, Uzb olam, all borrowed from Ar.

► al-ʕālamānⁱ, n.du., the two worlds = Europe and America.
► ʕālamūn, n.pl., inhabitants of the world, specif. human beings:.

► ^BP#308ʕālamī, adj., worldly, secular, world (adj.); international; world-wide, worldfamous, enjoying world-wide renown
► ʕālamiyyaẗ, n.f., internationality: n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ.
► ^BP#4288ʕalmānī, var. ʕā̆lmānī, adj., laic, lay; (pl. ‑ūn) layman (in distinction from the clergy):.
► ^BP#4288ʕalmāniyyaẗ, n.f., secularism: n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ.
► ^BP#2842ʕawlamaẗ, n.f., globalization: neologism, calqued from ʕālam.

ʕLMN علمن

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕLMN

“root”

↗ʕalmānī, ↗ʕalmāniyyaẗ

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ʕalmānī عَلْمانِيّ , var. ʕā̆lmānī , pl. ‑ūn

ID … • Sw – • BP 4288 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕLMN

¹adj.; ²n.

laic, lay; (pl. ‑ūn) layman (in distinction from the clergy)

From ↗ʕālam ‘world’.

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► ^BP#4380ʕalmāniyyaẗ, n.f., laicism; secularism, secularization: n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ

ʕalmāniyyaẗ عَلْمانِيَّة

ID 610 • Sw – • BP 4380 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕLMN

n.f.

laicism; secularism, secularization – WehrCowan1979.

Abstract formation in ‑iyyaẗ from ↗ʕalmānī ‘laic, lay’.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

–

ʕLN علن

ID – • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 27Feb2023

√ʕLN

“root”

▪ ʕLN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕLN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕLN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to declare, to bring into the open, to announce, to reveal, declaration’

▪ …

–

.

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ʕLW علو

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕLW

“root”

▪ ʕLW_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʕLW_2 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʕLW_3 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): [√ʕLW/Y] »The overlap between root ʕLW (basically associated with the concept ‘to rise’) and root ʕLY (basically associated with the sense ‘to mount up’) is so great that in some cases it is not possible, or even desirable to draw a line of demarcation between them. The semantic scatter of these roots includes: ‘height, exaltation, loftiness, honour, grandeur, to rise, to ascend, to tower, to mount, to overcome, to be arrogant, to be proud, pride, notables, tops and extras’. – The word ʕilliyūn is regarded by some scholars as a borrowing from either Hbr or Gz.«

▪ From protSem *√ʕLY ‘to ascend, become high, exalted’ – Huehnergard2011.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

…

▪ Engl aliyah ↗ʕalā/ʕalà.

…

(1) ʕalā / ʕalaw‑ عَلا / عَلَوْـ , u (ʕuluww)
(2) ʕalà / ʕalay‑ عَلَى / عَلَيْـ , ī
(3) ʕaliy‑ / ʕalī‑ عَلِيـ , à (ʕalāʔ)

ID … • Sw – • BP 1901 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕLW

vb., I

(1) to be high, elevated, rise, loom, tower up; to rise, ascend; to ring out (voice); to heave (chest); to be higher or taller (ʕan than), (over)top, tower over, be located or situated higher; to be attached, fixed or fastened above or on top of s.th.; to rise (ʕan above); to exceed, excel, surpass (ʕan); to be too high; to overcome, overwhelm (ʕalà), get the better of s.o.; to be or become noisy; to be louder (ʕalà than), drown out; to turn upward; to ascend, mount, climb, scale (s.th.); to overspread, cover (s.th.); to come, descend (upon), befall, seize; ʕalā bihī, to raise s.th. or s.o.; to exalt, extol s.o., sing s.o.’s praises
(2) to climb (e.g., to the roof)
(3) to be high, elevated; to excel, stand out – WehrCowan1976.

▪ From protSem *√ʕLY ‘to ascend, become high, exalted’ – Huehnergard2011.

▪ …

▪ Bergsträsser1928: Akk ēlī, Hbr ʕālā yaʕlē ‘to rise'; cf. also Aram (intens.) ʕallī ‘to make grow, let increase’, Gz ʕaláwa yéʕlū ‘to transcend, go beyond’.
▪ Almedlaoui2012: For ClassAr √ṬLʕ and Sem √ʕLW/Y ‘to go up’ cf. Berb ġli, uly ‘to go up’.
▪ …

See above, section CONC.

▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl aliyah, from Hbr ʕălīyâ ‘ascent’, from ʕālâ ‘to ascend’, akin to Ar ʕLW/Y.

►ʕallà, vb. II, 1 to raise, make higher; 2 to raise aloft, lift, hoist, lift up, elevate, uplift, exalt: D‑stem, caus.
►ʔaʕlà, vb. IV, = II: *Š‑stem, caus. | ʔaʕlà šaʔnah, to play up, emphasize, stress; to further, promote, advance s.th.; to raise s.o.’s prestige
►taʕallà, vb. V, to rise, become high : Dt‑stem, intr.
► ^BP#420 taʕālà, vb. VI, to rise, lift, ascend, rise aloft; to be raised, become loud (noises, voices); to resound, ring out; to eem o.s. above s.o./s.th., look down on; to be sublime (ʕan above s.th., said of God); to stay away (ʕan from) : Lt‑stem. | taʕāla, impv., come (here)!, come on!, let’s go!, forward!; ʔallāh taʕālà, God the Sublime.
►ĭʕtalà, vb. VIII, to rise, lift, ascend, rise aloft; to rise high, tower up; to mount, ascend, climb, scale; to step (up); to be enthroned, be perched; to tower (above s.th.); to ascend the throne; to accede to a high office: Gt‑stem.
►ĭstaʕlà, vb. X, to rise, tower (ʕalà above s.th.); to master (ʕalà s.th.); to take possession (ʕalà of), appropriate (ʕalà s.th.): *Št‑stem.

►ʕalu, adv.: min ʕalu, from above.
►ʕuluww, n., height, tallness, elevation, altitude; greatness, grandeur, highness, exaltedness, sublimity: vn. I | ʕuluww al‑ṣawt, n., sound volume, sound intensity; ʕuluww al‑kaʕb, n., high, outstanding position
► ^BP#4381ʕulwī, adj., upper; high, lofty; built on a roof (apartment); sublime, exalted; heavenly, divine: nisba formation, from ʕalu, ʕuluww, or ʕul^an | ʔirādaẗ ʕulwiyyaẗ, n.f., supreme will, divine decree; bināʔ ʕulwī, n., superstructure (also fig.); ṭābiq ʕulwī, n., top floor; al‑ṭaraf al‑ʕulwī, n.def., the upper end.
►ʕalawī, adj., upper; heavenly, celestial; Alawi (adj. and n.): nisba formation, from ʕalà | al‑ʕalawiyyūn, n.pl., the Alawis (official name of the Nusairis inhabiting the coastal district of Latakia in NW Syria).
►ʕul^an (def. al‑ʕulà), n., height, tallness, elevation, altitude; highness, exaltedness, augustness, sublimity; high rank.
►^BP#7ʕalà / ʕalay‑, prep., on, above
► ^BP#3362ʕaliyy, adj., supreme, exalted: ints formation, quasi‑PP.
►ʕilyaẗ, n.f. (pl. of ʕaliyy): ʕilyaẗ al‑nās\al‑qawm, upper class, people of distinction, prominent people
►ʕulliyyaẗ, vAr ʕilliyyaẗ, pl. ʕalāliyy, n.f., upper room, upstairs room
►ʕilliyyūn, n., the uppermost heaven; loftiest heights
►ʕalāʔ, n., high rank, high standing, nobility
►ʕalāẗ, pl. ʕal^an (det. ʕalà), n.f., anvil
►ʕalyāʔᵘ, n.f., loftiness, exaltedness, sublimity, augustness; lofty height; heaven(s) | ʔahl al‑ʕalyāʔ, n., people of highest social standing
► ^BP#3649ʕilāwaẗ, n.f., addition; increase, raise, extra allowance, subsidy, bonus | ʕilāwaẗan ʕalà, quasi‑prep., in addition to
►ʕalāyaẗ, n.f., height, loftiness
►^BP#402ʔaʕlà, f. ʕulyā, pl. ʕul^an (det. ʕulà), ʔaʕālⁱⁿ (det. ʔaʕālī), adj., higher, highest; upper, uppermost: : elative; ʔaʕālⁱⁿ, the highest portion of s.th.; heights, peaks (fig.) | ʔaʕlāhu, adv., further up, above; maḏkūr ʔaʕlāhu, adj., above‑mentioned; muʔtamar (munʕaqid) ʕalà ʔaʕlà mustaw^an, n., top‑level conference; bi‑ʔaʕlà ṣawt, adv., very loud, at the top of one’s voice); safīnaẗ ʔaʕālī ’l‑biḥār, n.f., seagoing vessel; ʔaʕālī ’l‑Nīl, n.pl.f., the upper course of the Nile
►^BP#2282maʕālⁱⁿ (def. al‑maʕālī), n.pl.: maʕālī ’l‑ʔumūr, noble things; ṣāḥib al‑maʕālī \ maʕālīh, His Excellency; maʕālī ’l‑wazīr, His Excellency the Minister (title of cabinet minister)
►taʕliyaẗ, n.f., elevation, enhancement, uplift, exaltation; raising (e.g., of the voice): vn. II.
►ʔiʕlāʔ, n., elevation, enhancement, uplift, exaltation; raising, lifting; (psych.) sublimation: : vn. IV. | ʔiʕlāʔ šaʔn al‑šayʔ, n., boooting, furtherance, promotion, or advancement of s.th.
►ĭʕtilāʔ, n., ascension (e.g., to the throne) ; accension to office (e.g., of a cabinet minister): vn. VIII.
►ĭstiʕlāʔ, n., superiority: vn. X.
►^BP#505ʕālⁱⁿ (def. al‑ʕālī), adj., high, tall, elevated; loud, strong (voice); higher (as opposed to elementary); lofty, exalted, sublime, high‑ranking, of high standing; excellent, first‑class, first‑rate, outstanding, of top quality (commodity) : PA I | al‑bāb al‑ʕālī, n., the Sublime Porte; ḍaġṭ ʕālⁱⁿ, n., high voltage, high tension (el.); tawātur ʕālⁱⁿ, n., high frequency (el.); ʕāliyahū, adv., above, above‑mentioned (in letters; esp. in official and business style); maḏkūr bi‑ʕālīhi, adj., above‑mentioned; (EgAr) ʕāl il‑ʕāl, adj., excellent, first‑rate, top quality, A‑1 (merchandise); maʕhad ʕālⁱⁿ, n., institution of higher learning, college, academy.
►mutaʕālⁱⁿ (def. al‑mutaʕālī), adj., high, elevated, lofty, exalted; resounding, ringing; al‑mutaʕālī, n.def., the Most High, the Supreme Being (one of the attributes of God): PA VI.
►mustaʕlⁱⁿ (def. al‑mustaʕlī), adj. (PA X): al‑ʔaṣwāt al‑mustaʕliyaẗ, nhum.pl., the sounds articulated with the back part of the tongue raised (i.e., according to grammarians, ṣ, ḍ, ṭ, ẓ, q, ġ, and ḫ).

ʕMː (ʕMM) عمّ / عمم

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕMː (ʕMM)

“root”

▪ ʕMː (ʕMM)_1 ‘paternal uncle’ ↗ʕamm
▪ ʕMː (ʕMM)_2 ‘(to be\come) common, general, comprehensive, embracing; common people; people, nation’ ↗ʕamma
▪ ʕMː (ʕMM)_3 ‘turban’ ↗ʕimāmaẗ

Other values, now obsolete, include (after Lane and Hava1899):

ʕMː (ʕMM)_4 ‘large(ness), tall(ness), numerous(ness), abundance, density’ : ^†ʕamma ‘to make long, or tall; to be(come) long, or tall’, ^†ʕamʕama (ʕamʕamaẗ) ‘to have a numerous army, or military force (after paucity thereof)’, ^†ʕamam ‘[…]; numerous(ness), abundance; largeness, bigness; whole, complete, full-grown’, ^†ʕumum ‘completeness; largeness of body, youthful vigour’, ^†ʕamīm (pl. ʕumum) ‘abundant, numerous; […]; of tall stature (woman), lofty (palm-tree)’, ^†ʕamm ‘tall palm-tree, of full tallness and abundance and density’, ^†ʕummiyyaẗ ‘pride, haughtiness’, ^†ĭʕtamma (said of beast of the bovine kind) ‘to have all teeth grown’
ʕMː (ʕMM)_5 ‘(to be, become) chief, lord’: ^†muʕammam ‘[…]; made a chief; chief’
ʕMː (ʕMM)_6 ‘raft’: ^†ʕimāmaẗ, ^†ʕāmmaẗ ‘pieces of wood bound together, upon which one embarks on the sea, and upon which one crosses a river’: should properly be ʕāmaẗ < ↗ʕāma ‘to float, swim’

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘1 turban; 2 encompassing, general, common; 3 to be strong, become chief; 4 the common people; 5 uncle, paternal aunt’

▪ It cannot be excluded, or even seems likely, that all three values are related. Together with others, Kogan2015 thinks that »protCSem *ʕamm- ‘people’ [cf. ʕMː (ʕMM)_2] probably represents a semantic extension of the kinship term WSem *ʕamm- ‘grandfather, ancestor’ [cf. ʕMː (ʕMM)_1] «, which in Ar specialized into ‘paternal uncle’, replacing protSem *dād- ‘paternal uncle’.¹⁹ . The idea, put forward in BDB1906, that ‘people’ prob. originally means *‘those united, connected, related’, lets one think whether this “binding together” might be somehow related to the binding together of a ‘turban’, Ar ʕimāmaẗ. But neither this word nor a vb. *ʕmm ‘to bind together’ is attested throughout Sem, except in the fig. sense of ‘to encompass, comprise, cover’[ʕMː (ʕMM)_2], and this rarely outside Ar. Is ʕimāmaẗ an Ar spezialisation then, developed from the idea of ‘kinship’ and ‘belonging together’ (*‘uniting’ the hair, or the piece of cloth, or covering it completely, in its wholeness)? For another possibility see below.
▪ For ʕMː (ʕMM)_2, the most adequate entry to treat the corresponding semantic field in would be ^†ʕamm ‘company of men, crowd; numerous party’ rather than the (prob. denom.) verb ʕamma. The reason why the data nevertheless will be arranged under ʕamma is the fact that the more original n. has become obsolete in MSA and n.s with a similar value are derived from the vb.
▪ Given that ʕMː (ʕMM)_3 ʕimāmaẗ ‘turban’ stands rather isolated within Sem *ʕMM (see above), should one perh. put it together with WSem *ĠMM ~ ĠMY/W ‘to be dark, dim’, a root that in Ar usually has preserved initial *ġ- (cf. Ar ↗ġamma ‘to cover, veil, conceal’, ↗ġamām ‘clouds’, ʔaġammᵘ ‘covered with dense hair’), but in Can and Aram has undergone the regular sound shift *ġ > ʕ : Ug ʕmm (D pass.) ‘to be covered, veiled, darkened’, Hbr ʕāmam ‘to darken, dim’, JudAram ʕᵃmam ‘to be(come) dim, dark(ened)? Semantically, the ‘turban’ as *‘(head) cover, (kind of) veil’ would be quite plausible. But would it be justifiable also from a phonological point of view? Should initial *ġ- have been preserved in some places, but undergone an irregular shift *ġ > ʕ in ʕimāmaẗ ? Rather unlikely. ʕimāmaẗ would then have to be a loan from Hbr or Aram. But these langs have nothing that would fit, and Syr ʕᵃmamtā ‘a mitra’ is a loan from Ar…

19. Cf. however Huehnergard 2011 who assumes the meaning ‘paternal kinsman; kin, clan; people’ already for the ComSem n. *ʕamm .

–

▪ ʕMː (ʕMM)_1 : (Kogan2015) Ug ʕm ‘kinsfolk’, Hbr ʕam ‘kinsman (on father’s side)’, Syr ʕamtā (f.) ‘paternal aunt’, Ar ʕamm ‘paternal uncle’, Sab ʕm, Min ʕm, Ḥaḍ ʕm ‘uncle’, Te ʕammät (f.) ‘paternal aunt’, Mhr ʔōm, f. ʔāmēt, Jib ʕom, f. aʕĩt ‘grandfather, f. -mother’
▪ ʕMː (ʕMM)_2 ‘(to be, become) common, general, comprehensive, embracing; common people; people, nation’: Ug ʕm ‘kinsfolk, people’, Hbr ʕām, ʕam, Syr ʕammā ‘people’, Min ʕm , Ar ^†ʕamm ‘crowd; numerous party; dense (palm-trees, herbs). – Cf. prob. also the prep. Ug ʕm /ʕimma/, Hbr ʕim, JudPal ʕäm, Sab ʕm, Min ʕm, Qat ʕm- n ‘together with’, ? Ar maʕa (metath.) ‘with’, ʕinda (< *ʕim-da ‘by’, ? ʕan ‘from’⁹ .
▪ ʕMː (ʕMM)_3 ‘turban’ : Ar ʕimāmaẗ; ? items mentioned as cognates of ʕMː (ʕMM)_1 and _2; ? Ug ʕmm (D pass.) ‘to be covered, veiled, darkened’, Hbr ʕāmam ‘to darken, dim’, Ar ↗ġamma ‘to cover, veil, conceal’ (see also ↗ġamām ‘clouds’, ʔaġammᵘ ‘covered with dense hair’).
▪ ʕMː (ʕMM)_4-5 are akin to the preceding [ʕMː (ʕMM)_2-3], while ʕMː (ʕMM)_6 originally is ʕāmaẗ, from ↗ʕāma (√ʕWM) ‘to float, swim’.

9. Kogan 2015: »One is tempted to follow P. Jensen (apud LSyr 529), who compared protCSem *ʕimma also with Ar ʕan ‘from’, otherwise with no etymology. Given the fact that * m shifts to n in a few other non-lexical or semi-lexical morphemes in Ar (ʔin ‘if’ < *šim, nunation instead of mimation), this comparison seems to be acceptable from the formal point of view. More problematic is the semantic gap between ‘with’ and ‘from’, but note that both meanings clearly co-exist in Sab.«

▪ ʕMː (ʕMM)_1-2 : While Huehnergard2011 assumes the belonging to the paternal lineage to be a characteristic already of the noun he reconstructs as ComSem *ʕamm , Kogan2015 regards it as a secondary phenomenon, reconstructing the—lineage-wise still unspecific—kinship term WSem *ʕamm- ‘grandfather, ancestor’. According to Kogan, the latter value took on the more specific meaning ‘uncle’ in some langs, but was probably also extended to mean ‘kinsfolk, clan, tribe’ and then also ‘people’ in general.
▪ ʕMː (ʕMM)_2 : For the prep. ‘together with’, which according to the standard view underlies Ar maʕa ‘with’, as well as in ʕinda (< *ʕim-da) ‘by’, Kogan2015 reconstructs protCSem *ʕimm(-a) ‘together with’. Ar maʕa would then be the result of metathesis, while ʕinda is traditionallybelieved to go back to *ʕim-da.⁴⁴ )
▪ Ultimately from Sem *ʕamm- is perh. also Ar ↗ʔummaẗ ‘nation, people, community’. For details, see s.v.
▪ ʕMː (ʕMM)_3 : How Ar ʕimāmaẗ ‘turban’ fits into this picture remains unclear so far. (See above, section DISC.) Further research needed.
▪ ʕMː (ʕMM)_4 ‘large(ness), tall(ness), numerous(ness), abundance, density’ : is basically the same as ʕMː (ʕMM)_2.
▪ ʕMː (ʕMM)_5 ‘(to be, become) chief, lord’: result./fig. use of ʕMː (ʕMM)_3; since the ʕimāmaẗ is the “crown of the Arabs”, putting on the turban signifies a kind of coronation, and the one who is crowned becomes chief. For many other instances of fig. use cf. entry ↗ʕimāmaẗ.
▪ ʕMː (ʕMM)_6 : ^†ʕimāmaẗ, ^†ʕāmmaẗ ‘raft’ is a popular re-interpretation of original ʕāmaẗ, from ↗ʕāma (√ʕWM) ‘to float, swim’.

44. The second component is believed to be from ↗yad ‘hand’, as is the case also with the prep. la-dā ‘with’, cf. Militarev&Kogan2000#291.

▪ Engl n.prop. Jeroboam, cf. (↗RBː/RBB and) ↗ʕamm, ↗ʕāmm.

–

ʕamm‑ / ʕamam‑ عَمَّ / عَمَمْـ , u (ʕumūm)

ID … • Sw – • BP 3457 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕMː (ʕMM)

vb., I

1 to be or become general, universal, common, prevalent, comprehensive, all-embracing, to spread, prevail; 2 to comprise, include, embrace, encompass, pervade, extend, stretch, be spread, be diffused, be prevailing – WehrCowan1979.

▪ The most adequate lemma under which the semantic field that this entry deals with should be treated, would have been ^†ʕamm ‘company of men, tribe, people’ rather than the (prob. denom.) vb. ʕamma. The reason why the data nevertheless is presented s.v. ʕamma is the fact that the more original noun has become obsolete in MSA and nouns with a similar value all are derived from the vb.
▪ ^†ʕamm ‘company, tribe, people’ goes back to CSem *ʕamm- ‘people’ which generally is believed to represent a semantic extension of the kinship term WSem *ʕamm- ‘grandfather, ancestor’ (> Ar ↗ʕamm ‘paternal uncle’).
▪ The idea, put forward in BDB1906, that ‘people’ prob. originally means *‘those united, connected, related’, would lead one to ask whether this “binding together” might be somehow related to the binding together of a ‘turban’, Ar ʕimāmaẗ, from the same (or a homonymous?) root ʕMM. But neither this word nor a vb. *ʕmm ‘to bind together’ are attested in Sem, except in the fig. sense of ‘to encompass, comprise, cover’, and this rarely outside Ar. – For further discussion, see probably ↗ʕMː (ʕMM) and ↗ʕimāmaẗ.
▪ For the theory that also ↗ʔummaẗ ‘people, nation’ and ↗ʔummī (traditionally rendered as) ‘illiterate’—with initial ʔ- rather than ʕ- —are based on ^†ʕamm ‘company of men, tribe, people’, cf. below, section WEST, and entries ↗ʔummaẗ and ↗ʔummī for more details.

▪ …

▪ For the kinship term WSem *ʕamm- ‘grandfather, ancestor’ on which CSem *ʕamm- ‘people’ probably is based, cf. cognates given in entry ↗ʕamm ‘paternal uncle’.
▪ For the extended value treated in the present entry cf. (Kogan2015, Tropper 2008, et al.): Ug ʕm ‘kinsfolk, people’, Hbr ʕām, ʕam, Syr ʕammā ‘people’, Min ʕm , Ar ^†ʕamm ‘(Lane:) company of men, tribe; (Hava1899:) crowd; numerous party; dense (palm-trees, herbs)’. – Cf. prob. also the prep. Ug ʕm /ʕimma/, Hbr ʕim, JudPal ʕäm, Sab ʕm, Min ʕm, Qat ʕm-n ‘together with’, ? Ar maʕa (metath.) ‘with’, ʕinda (< *ʕim-da ‘by’, ? ʕan ‘from’).

▪ While Huehnergard2011 assumes the belonging to the paternal lineage to be a characteristic already of the noun he reconstructs as ComSem *ʕamm , Kogan2015 regards it as a secondary phenomenon, reconstructing the—lineage-wise still unspecific—kinship term WSem *ʕamm- ‘grandfather, ancestor’ from which the meaning ‘kinsfolk, clan, tribe’ and then also ‘people’ in general probably are semantic extensions.
▪ How Ar ʕimāmaẗ ‘turban’ fits into this picture remains unclear so far, see ↗ʕMː (ʕMM) and ↗ʕimāmaẗ. Further research needed.
▪ From CSem *ʕamm ‘kinsfolk, clan, tribe; people’ are perh. also Ar ↗ʔummaẗ ‘nation, people, community’ and, hence, the adj. ↗ʔummī, traditionally rendered as ‘illiterate’, but perh. properly meaning ‘of the (Arab) people’. See briefly below, section WEST, and s.v. for more details.

▪ Tu amme ‘common, general; the public, common people’: 1574 Hoca Saʕdeddīn Ef., Tāǧü’t-Tevārīḫ : ʕāmme-i bilād-i ʕOs̱māniyeyi nehbü iḥrāḳ itmeğe ittifāḳleri oldı. < Ar ʕāmmaẗ ‘the common people’ < Ar ʕamma ‘to encompass, be common, general’ – Nişanyan01Apr2015. – Cf. also amiyane ‘vulgarly (adv.); vulgar’ (< Ar ʕāmmī + Pers adv.suff. -āne), avam ‘the common people; rabble, mob; the commons’ (< Ar ʕawāmm), imece ‘work done for the community by the whole village; by the united efforts of the community’.
▪ Tu katliam (ḳatl-i âm) ‘massacre’: 1535 Fużūlī, Leylà ve Mecnūn : ḳatl-i ʕāmm içün verir cellāda tīġ-i āb-dār. < Ar qatl ʕāmm ‘mass murder, massacre’ (qatl ‘killing’ + ʕāmm ‘general, all-encompassing’) – Nişanyan15May2015.
▪ Tu umum ‘general, public’ : 1574 Hoca Saʕdeddīn Ef., Tāǧü’t-Tevārīḫ. – umumhane ‘brothel’ : 1930 Cumhuriyet (daily newspaper). < Ar ʕumūm ‘the public, people, everybody) – Nişanyan11Dec2015. – Cf. also alelumum ‘generally, in general, commonly (adv.)’ (< Ar ʕalà ’l-ʕumūm), umumi ‘general; universal; common; public’ (< Ar ʕumūmī), müddeiumumi ‘public prosecutor’ (< Ar muddaʕī ʕumūmī), umumiyet ‘universality; generality’ (< Ar ʕumūmiyyaẗ).
▪ ? Engl umma, from Ar ↗ʔummaẗ ‘nation, people, community’, from Aram ʔumməṯā, from Akk ummatu ‘troop’, probably from earlier *ʕammatum, f. of *ʕamm ‘paternal kinsman’ – Huehnergard2011.

► ʕammat il-balwà bi-hī, expr., it has become a general necessity

► ʕammama, vb. II, 1 to generalize; 2 to spread universally, universalize, popularize, democratize; 3 to make universally accessible, open to the public at large; 4 to introduce universally: D-stem, caus. – 5 ↗ʕimāmaẗ.
► ʕamīm, adj., 1 general, universal, common, prevalent; 2 all-comprehensive: quasi-PP I, ints.
► ^BP#1204ʕumūm, n., 1 generality, universality, prevalence; 2 whole, total, totality, aggregate; 3 al-~, n., the (general) public, the public at large: originally a pl. of ^†ʕamm ‘company of men, tribe, people’? | ~an, adv., in general, generally; ~an… ḫuṣūṣan, adv., in general… in particular; ʕalà ’l-~, adv., in general, generally; fī ~ al-quṭr, adv., throughout the country; maǧlis al-~, n., the House of Commons, the Lower House; ʕumūm frequently replaces ʕumūmī in compound terms of administrative language, e.g.: ǧāmiʕaẗ ~ al-ʕummāl, n.f., general federation of labour; ʔidāraẗ ~ al-ǧamārik, n.f., General Administration of Customs and Tariffs (Eg.); dīwān ~ al-maṣlaḥaẗ, n., administration headquarters, chief administration office; dīwān ~ al-māliyyaẗ, n., General Administration of Finances (Eg.); mufattiš ~ al-nīl al-ǧanūbī, n., Inspector General for the Southern Nile (Eg.).
► ^BP#3120ʕumūmī, adj., 1 public; 2 universal; 3 general; 4 common; 5 state, civil, public: nsb-adj. from ʕumūm. | ǧamʕiyyaẗ ~iyyaẗ, n.f., plenary session; general assembly; dār al-kutub al-~iyyaẗ, n.f., public library; ʔašġāl / ʔaʕmāl ~iyyaẗ, n.pl., public works; al-ṣundūq al-~, n., public treasure; wakīl ~, n., general agent, distributor (com.); al-ǧuzʔiyyāt wa’l-~iyyāt, n.f.pl., the particular and the general aspects, the minor and the major issues.
► ʕumūmiyyaẗ, n.f., public character, openness to the general public: abstr. in -iyyaẗ, from ʕumūm.
► ^BP#3727taʕmīm, n., 1 generalization, universalization, general propagation or diffusion, popularization, democratization; 2 vulgarization: vn. II.
► taʕmīmī, adj.: ʔamr ~, n., general order, governmental edict to all agencies and departments: nsb-adj., from taʕmīm, vn. II.
► ^BP#88ʕāmm, adj., 1 public; 2 universal, prevalent; 3 general; 4 common: quasi-PA I. | al-ʔamn al-~, n., public security; mudīr ~, n., director general, general manager; al-raʔy al-~, n., public opinion; al-ṣāliḥ al-~, n., or al-maṣlaḥaẗ al-~aẗ, n.f., public welfare, the common-weal; al-ḫāṣṣ wa’l-~, n., high and low, all men, all, everybody; ʕilm al-luġaẗ al-~, n., general linguistics. – For ʕāmm as the counter-concept of ↗ḫāṣṣ, cf. art. “al-ʕĀmm wa-l-khāṣṣ” (Joseph E. Lowry), in EI³.
► ^BP#2414ʕāmmaẗ, n.f., 1 general public, people at large; 2 al-~, n.f., the common people, the broad mass of the people; 3 ~an, adv., in general; generally; commonly, altogether, in the aggregate, collectively: nominalized f. of ʕāmm, quasi-PA I of ʕamma. | ḫāṣṣaẗan…~an, adv., in particular… in general; ~ al-nās = al-~; al-ḫāṣṣaẗ wa’l-~, n.f./pl., high and low, all men, all, everybody.
► al-ʕawāmm, n.pl., 1 the common people, the populace; 2 the laity (Chr.): pl. of ʕāmmaẗ, f. of ʕāmm, quasi-PA I.
► ʕāmmī, 1 adj., common, vulgar, plebeian, ordinary, popular: nsb-adj., from ʕāmmaẗ, nominalized f. of ʕāmm, quasi-PA I of ʕamma; 2 n., ordinary person, man in the street: nominalized adj. –; 3 al-ʕāmmiyyaẗ, n.f., popular language, colloquial language: short for al‑ ↗luġaẗ al-~ ‘the language of the ʕāmmaẗ ’.

For other values attached to the same root, cf. ↗ʕamm, ↗ʕimāmaẗ, and, for the whole picture, ↗ʕMː (ʕMM).

ʕamm عَمّ , pl. ʕumūm , ʔaʕmām

ID 612 • Sw – • BP 770 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕMː (ʕMM)

n.

father’s brother, paternal uncle – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Kogan2011: from protWSem *ʕamm‑ ‘relatives, clan, people’, which in Ar specialized into ‘paternal uncle’. – ProtWSem *dād‑ ‘paternal uncle’ (preserved in Hbr, Syr, modSAr, Gz) has left no trace in Ar.
▪ ? Or: A semantic extension from this WSem *ʕamm- ‘kinsman, grandfather, ancestor’ is usually believed to be CSem *ʕamm- ‘people’, cf. Ar ↗ʕamma, ↗ʕāmm, ↗ʕāmmaẗ.
▪ Is perhaps also ↗ʕimāmaẗ ‘turban’ related? Further research needed.

▪ eC7 ʕamm (paternal uncle) Q 33:50 wa-banāti ʕammi-ka ‘and the daughters of your paternal uncle’. – ʕammaẗ (paternal aunt) Q 4:23 ḥurrimat ʕalay-kum ʔummahātu-kum wa-banātu-kum wa-ʔaḫawātu-kum wa-ʕammātu-kum ‘forbidden to you [as wives] are your mothers, daughters, sisters, paternal aunts▪ …’

▪ ʕMː (ʕMM)_1 : (Kogan2015) Ug ʕm ‘kinsfolk’, Hbr ʕam ‘kinsman (on father’s side)’, Syr ʕamtā (f.) ‘paternal aunt’, Ar ʕamm ‘paternal uncle’, Sab ʕm, Min ʕm, Ḥaḍ ʕm ‘uncle’, Te ʕammät (f.) ‘paternal aunt’, Mhr ʔōm, f. ʔāmēt, Jib ʕom, f. aʕĩt ‘grandfather, f. -mother’
▪ For the wider context cf. ↗ʕMː (ʕMM) and/or the cognates given s.v. ↗ʕamma.

▪ See above, section CONC.

▪ Not from Ar ʕamm but from related terms in Sem are several Biblical names: Engl Jeroboam, from Hbr yārobʕām ‘the (divine) kinsman increased’ (yārob ‘he increased’; √RBB); Rehoboam, from Hbr rəḥabʕām ‘the (divine) kinsman has increased’ (rəḥab ‘he has increased’; see √RḤB); both from Hbr ʕām ‘people, clan’ (earlier also ‘kinsman’). – Ammonite, from Hbr ʕammônî ‘Ammonite’, from ʕammôn ‘Ammon’, perh. from Can *ʕamm ‘paternal kinsman, kin’. – Hammurabi, from Akk ḫammurāpi, from Amor *ʕammu-rāpiʔ ‘the (divine) kinsman (is) a healer’, from *ʕammu ‘kinsman’ (*rāpiʔ ‘healer’; √RPʔ > Ar RFʔ). – ? Cf. also: Engl umma, from Ar ↗ʔummaẗ ‘nation, people, community’, from Aram ʔumməṯā, from Akk ummatu ‘troop’, prob. from earlier *ʕammatum, f. of *ʕamm ‘paternal kinsman’ – Huehnergard2011.

► ibn al-ʕamm, n., 1 cousin on the father’s side; 2 periphrastically for husband
► bint/ĭbnaẗ al-ʕamm, n.f., 1 female cousin on the father’s side; 2 periphrastically for wife
► yā ʕamm-ī, exclam., uncle! old boy! (friendly address for older men of simple status)
► al-ʕamm Murād, “uncle” Murad, good old Murad

► ʕammaẗ, pl. -āt, n.f., paternal aunt: f. of ʕamm.
► ʕumūmaẗ, n.f., 1 uncleship, unclehood: abstr. formation; 2 pl. of ʕamm.

For other values attached to the same root, cf. ↗ʕamma, ↗ʕimāmaẗ, ↗ʕāmmiyyaẗ, and, for the whole picture, ↗ʕMː (ʕMM).

ʕumūmī عُمُوميّ

Sw – • NahḍCon • BP 3120 • APD … • © SG | created 8Jun2023

√ʕMː (ʕMM)

adj.

1 public; 2 state, civil, public; 3a universal; b general; c common – WehrCowan1976

▪ nsb-formation, based on ʕumūm …

.

ʕimāmaẗ عِمامة

ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕMː (ʕMM)

n.f.

turban – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Etymology uncertain. Related to the idea of ‘connecting, binding together, encompassing’ expressed in the root ↗ʕMM and otherwise represented in ↗ʕamm ‘paternal uncle’ (< WSem *‘kinsman, grandfather, ancestor’), CSem *ʕamm ‘kinsfolk, member of the clan/family, i.e., those united, connected, related’) and (denom. vb. I) ↗ʕamma ‘to be(come) general, universal, common, prevalent, comprehensive, all-embracing, to spread; to comprise, include, embrace, encompass, pervade, extend, stretch, be spread, be diffused, be prevailing’? – See below, section DISC, for further discussion.
▪ »The ʕimāmaẗ or turban has been worn by the Arabs since pre-Islamic times. […] The ʕimāmaẗ of Dj̲āhilī and early Islamic times was probably not the composite headgear of the mediaeval and modern periods consisting of one or two caps (↗ṭaqiyyaẗ or ↗ʕaraqiyyaẗ and/or ↗qalansuwaẗ, kulāh, or ↗ṭarbūš) and a winding cloth, but merely any strip of fabric wound around the head. G. Jacob has suggested that the later turban is a synthesis of Arab and Persian styles (Altarabisches Beduinenleben, Berlin 1897: 237). In the early ʔummaẗ, the ʕimāmaẗ certainly did not have any of the significance it was later to have as a “badge of Islam” (sīmā al-Islām) and a “divider between unbelief and belief” (ḥāǧizaẗ bayn al-kufr wa’l-ʔīmān). Nor was it yet—in the words of a proverb still heard in Morocco, at least—the “crowns of the Arabs” (tīǧān al-ʕarab). The many ḥadīth s which provide detailed descriptions of the Prophet’s ʕimāmaẗ are clearly anachronistic. For later generations, Muḥammad was “the wearer of the turban” (ṣāḥib al-ʕimāmaẗ), and like many of the accoutrements associated with a hero of epic proportions, his turban had a name—al-siḥāb or “the cloud”. According to a Shīʕī tradition, he willed it to ʕAlī. This ḥadīth may have been circulated in order to counteract any prestige accruing to the Umayyad and ʕAbbāsid caliphs by their possession of the Prophet’s ↗burdaẗ. One of the few reliable facts we know about the ʕimāmaẗ in early Islamic times is that it is one of the garments specifically forbidden to a person in a state of ↗ʔiḥrām. The ʕimāmaẗ must have consisted of a very long strip of fabric as in later periods, since there are reports of its being used for bandaging (e.g. Bukhārī, Ṣaḥīḥ, lxiv, 16, 2)« – art. “Libās – I.” (Y.K. Stillmann), in EI².

▪ In ClassAr, fig. use abounds: note particularly ʕammama ‘to attire s.o. with a ʕimāmaẗ ’, hence also ‘to make s.o. a chief, or lord’. – Cf. also ĭʕtammat il-ʔākāmᵘ bi’l-nabāt ‘the hills became crowned with plants, or herbage’; taʕammamat bi-hā ruʔūsᵘ ’l-ǧibāl ‘the heads of the mountains became crowned with its light [referring to the sun, when its light has fallen upon the heads of the mountains and become to them like the turban]’; ĭʕtamma ’l-labanᵘ ‘the milk frothed [as though its froth were likened to a turban]’; ĭʕtamma ’l-nabatᵘ ‘the plant, or herbage, became of its full height, and blossomed, became luxuriant, or abundant and dense’ (like ĭġtamma)]; ĭʕtamma ’l-šābbᵘ ‘the youth, or youg man, became tall’.

▪ No direct cognates identifiable so far.
▪ If akin to ‘to encompass, comprise, cover, be common, general, etc.’, cf. ↗ʕamma.
▪ If related to ‘to veil, cover, conceal, be dark, dim’, cf. ↗ġamma.

▪ The idea, put forward in BDB1906, that Hbr ʕam, ʕām ‘people’ prob. originally meant *‘those united, connected, related’, lets one think whether this “binding together” might be somehow related to the binding together of a ‘turban’, Ar ʕimāmaẗ. But neither this word nor a vb. *ʕmm ‘to bind together’ is attested throughout Sem, except in the fig. sense of ‘to encompass, comprise, cover’, and this rarely outside Ar. Is ʕimāmaẗ an Ar spezialisation then, developed from the idea of ‘kinship’ and ‘belonging together’ (*‘uniting’ the hair, or the piece of cloth)? For another possibility see below.
▪ Given that Ar ʕimāmaẗ ‘turban’ stands rather isolated within Sem *ʕMM, should one perh. put it together with WSem *ĠMM ~ ĠMY/W ‘to be dark, dim’, a root that in Ar usually has preserved initial *ġ- (cf. Ar ↗ġamma ‘to cover, veil, conceal’, ↗ġamām ‘clouds’, ʔaġammᵘ ‘covered with dense hair’), but in Can and Aram has undergone the regular sound shift *ġ > ʕ : Ug ʕmm (D pass.) ‘to be covered, veiled, darkened’, Hbr ʕāmam ‘to darken, dim’, JudAram ʕᵃmam ‘to be(come) dim, dark(ened)? Semantically, the ‘turban’ as *‘(head) cover, (kind of) veil’ would be quite plausible. But would it be justifiable also from a phonological point of view? Should initial *ġ- have been preserved in some places, but undergone an irregular shift *ġ- > ʕ- in ʕimāmaẗ ? Rather unlikely. ʕimāmaẗ would then have to be a loan from Hbr or Aram. But these langs have nothing that would fit. Syr ʕᵃmamtā ‘a mitre’ (PayneSmith) is said to be a loan from Ar…

–

► ʕammama, vb. II, 1 ↗ʕamma; 2 to attire with a turban: D-stem, denom., applicative.
► taʕammama, vb. V, to put on or wear a turban: tD-stem, denom., refl. of caus., applic.
► ĭʕtamma, vb. VIII, = V: Gt-stem, denom., applic.
► ʕimmaẗ, n.f., turban: originally the way to wear a turban
. ► muʕammam, adj., wearing a turban, turbaned: PP II.

For other values attached to the same root, cf. ↗ʕamm, ↗ʕamma, ↗ʕāmmiyyaẗ, and, for the whole picture, ↗ʕMː (ʕMM).

ʕāmmaẗ عامَّة

ID 611 • Sw – • BP 2414 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕMː (ʕMM)

n.f.

1 general public, people at large; 2 al-~, n.f., the common people, the broad mass of the people; 3 ~an, adv., in general; generally; commonly, altogether, in the aggregate, collectively – WehrCowan1979.

Nominalized f. of ʕāmm, quasi-PA I of ↗ʕamma.

▪ …

▪ ↗ʕamma.

–

► ʕāmmaẗ al-nās = al-ʕāmmaẗ
► al-ḫāṣṣaẗ wa’l-ʕāmmaẗ, high and low, all men, all, everybody.

► ^BP#3727taʕmīm, n., 1 ↗ʕamma; 2 vulgarization: vn. II.
► al-ʕawāmm, n.pl., 1 the common people, the populace; 2 the laity (Chr.): pl. of ʕāmmaẗ, f. of ʕāmm, quasi-PA I.
► ʕāmmī, 1 adj., common, vulgar, plebeian, ordinary, popular: nsb-adj., from ʕāmmaẗ, nominalized f. of ʕāmm, quasi-PA I of ʕamma; 2 n., ordinary person, man in the street: nominalized adj. –; 3 al-ʕāmmiyyaẗ, n.f., popular language, colloquial language: short for al‑ ↗luġaẗ al-~ ‘the language of the ʕāmmaẗ ’.

For other values attached to the same root, cf. ↗ʕamm, ↗ʕimāmaẗ, and, for the whole picture, ↗ʕMː (ʕMM).

al-ʕāmmiyyaẗ عامّيّة

ID … • Sw – • NahḍCon • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕMː (ʕMM)

n.f. (for al-luġaẗ al-ʕāmmiyyaẗ)

popular language, colloquial language – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Short for al-luġaẗ al-ʕāmmiyyaẗ, from ↗luġaẗ ‘language’ and ʕāmmiyyaẗ, f. of ʕāmmī, nsb-formation from n.f. ↗ʕāmmaẗ ‘the common people, broad mass of the people’, nominalized f. of adj. ʕāmm ‘public, general, common, universal’, from CSem *ʕamm- ‘people, nation’, probably a semantic extension of WSem *ʕamm- ‘kinsman, grandfather, ancestor’ (cf. Ar ↗ʕamm ‘paternal uncle’).

▪ …

↗ʕamma.

–

For other values attached to the same root, cf. ↗ʕamm, ↗ʕamma, ↗ʕimāmaẗ, and, for the whole picture, ↗ʕMː (ʕMM).

ʕMD عمد

ID … • Sw – • BP – • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕMD

“root”

▪ ʕMD_1 ‘pole, pillar, column, mast; to lean against, rely, depend on; to support, prop; to sanction, confirm, accredit’ ↗ʕamūd, ‘column, pole’ ↗ʕimād
▪ ʕMD_2 ‘firm resolution, intention; intent, purpose, aim; to intend, betake o.s., approach, repair to, aim at’ ↗ʕamada
▪ ʕMD_3 ‘village chief, mayor’ ↗ʕumdaẗ; ‘head, chief, dean’ ↗ ʕamīd
▪ ʕMD_4 ‘to baptize, christen’ ↗ʕammada

Other values, now obsolete, include (BK, Steingass1884, Hava1899):

▪ ^†ʕMD_5 ‘branch, twig’ : ʕimd (pl. ʔaʕmād).
▪ ^†ʕMD_6 ‘to pierce, empale’ : ʕamada.
▪ ^†ʕMD_7 ‘to cudgel, cause to fall, throw down’ : ʕamada.
▪ ^†ʕMD_8 ‘to oppress heavily, strike s.o. (a disease, love, anger, an idea, etc.), molest, vex, render gloomy, to grieve’: ʕamada. – The corresponding intr./pass. is ʕamida, which shows a broad spectrum of *‘being struck, oppressed, molested, vexed, etc.’: either mentally, in the sense of ‘to be(come) astonished, angry, etc., be taken (by an idea, etc.), cling to, adhere’, or physically, i.e., ‘to be seized with pain’, hence also, specifically, ‘to be sore at the inner side of the hump, swell’ and the corresponding n., ʕamid ‘backsore’.
▪ ^†ʕMD_9 ‘(to be\become) moistened and made sticky by the rain (earth)’: ʕamida (a, ʕamad), adj. ʕamid.
▪ ^†ʕMD_10 ‘in the full prime of youth’ : ʕumudd, ʕumnadānī.
▪ ^†ʕMD_11 ‘to dam in (a water-course), stop, obstruct (a stream)’: ʕammada.

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘pillar, support, to support, to stab in the part called ʕamūd al-baṭn (the pillar of the stomach); chief, master, to depend upon; to intend; to approach, to undertake; to afflict with illness, to be severely ill’. – Some scholars attribute the word ʕimād to an early borrowing from Aram.

▪ With the exception of [v4] ‘to baptize, christen’, which seems to be a borrowing from Syr, and perh. [v9] ‘to be(come) moistened’, all other values may (as Gabal2012:1554 sees it) derive from the basic idea of *‘firmness, strength, uprightness’, most clearly respresented in the ‘pillar, pole’ (ʕamad, ʕamūd, ʕāmūd) and the corresponding vb. ‘to support’ (ʕamada). – Gabal2012 regards the root √ʕMD as an extension in ‑D of the 2-rad. root nucleus *ʕM‑ to which he ascribes the basic meaning of ‘multitude or meeting/confluence (of several elements), combined with cohesion and uprightness’ (kaṯraẗ aw ĭǧtimāʕ maʕa ĭrtifāʕ wa-ĭltiḥām ʕulwī, ibid.: 1551).
▪ ʕMD_1 : Dolgopolsky2012#135 identifies two common protSem items: a vb. *ʕmd ‘to be raised\propped up, lean against; to stand upright’, and the corresponding n. *ʕamad- ‘support, pole’; in addition, he identifies a specifically WSem variant of the latter: protWSem *ʕa˻m˼mūd- ‘prop, pole of a tent, column, pillar’. As there also seem to be some possible Chad and Cush (and perh. even IE) cognates, the author assumes a Nostr dimension and reconstructs Nostr *ʕ˹o˺m˻˅˼dE ‘to stand upright, rise’. (No protAfrAs form given.)
▪ ʕMD_2 : Related to the preceding? No comparable developments in other Sem langs. But ʕamada seems to have developed (from ʕamūd ‘pole’ as a tool to strike with?) the sense of [v8] ‘to strike, afflict’, and the corresponding intr. vb. ʕamida signifies all kinds of (physical and mental) *‘struckness’. The firmness of resolution that is central to [v2] may thus stem from an original *‘being struck by an idea > to cling, adhere to it’. – Another explanation is given by Gabal2012: 1555-6: he compares the firmness of resolution and intent to the uprightness of a tent pole or the strength of supporting pillar and thus regards [v2] as fig. use of [v1]. – Ehret1995#683 thinks that Ar ʕamada (vn. ʕamd) ‘to purpose, resolve upon; attend to, undertake’ is an extension in »durative« ‑D from a bi-consonantal pre-protSem root *ʕM ‘to apply, put into effect’, from AfrAs *‑ʕīm‑ ‘to apply, put into effect’. Other extensions from the same pre-protSem root would be: ↗ʕMR, ↗ʕML.
▪ ʕMD_3 : ʕumdaẗ ‘village chief, mayor’ and ʕamīd ‘head, chief, dean’ are basically *‘pillars relied upon, or to rely on’ and as such dependent on ʕMD_1, esp. ʕamūd or ʕamad.
▪ ʕMD_4 : prob. a loan from Syr ʕmaḏ ‘to dive, plunge, sink; to penetrate; to dip (in\under water), bath, wash; to be baptized’. – Cf. also ^†[v9] ‘to be(come) moistened by rain’?
▪ ^†ʕMD_5 : Together with the semantically close words for ‘pole, pillar’ (ʕamad, ʕamūd etc.), the now obs. ^†ʕimd ‘branch, twig’ may represent one of the earliest values and in this case almost certainly belong together with [v1].
▪ ^†ʕMD_6 : In the now obs. sense of ‘to pierce, empale’ the vb. ʕamada is denom. from ʕamad or ʕamūd and thus dependent on [v1] ‘pole, prop, pillar’.
▪ ^†ʕMD_7 : Like [v6], [v7] ‘to cudgel, cause to fall, throw down’ represents a denom. derivation from ʕamūd; originally, it seems to mean *‘to cudgel, cause to fall, etc., by beating him/her with a ʕamūd’, the latter being attested also in the sense of ‘iron bar, rod of iron with which one beats or strikes’ (Lane v 1874).
▪ ^†ʕMD_8 : The value spectrum ‘to oppress heavily, strike s.o. (a disease, love, anger, an idea, etc.), to molest, vex, render gloomy, grieve’ attached to ʕamada seems to be fig. use of [v6] and/or [v7], meaning a *‘striking’ or *‘being struck by an idea or an emotion’. This meaning may be at the heart of [v2] ‘firm resolution’.
▪ ^†ʕMD_9 : The obs. meaning ‘(to be\become) moistened and made sticky by the rain (earth)’ of the intr. vb. ʕamida (a, ʕamad) may be another variant of [v7] *‘to strike / be struck’: earth becoming moistened because it is “struck” by the rain pouring down on it. However, the fact that there is also the adj. ʕamid, which looks rather “basic”, can arouse suspicion as to an assumed secondary character of the value. Therefore, do we perh. have to see it together with [v4] ‘to baptise’ and thereby assume that it is cognate to Syr ʕmaḏ ‘to dive, plunge, sink; to dip (in\under water) (etc.)’?
▪ ^†ʕMD_10 : The value ‘in the full prime of youth’ belongs to the ‘firmness, strength, uprightness’ of an upright, firm ‘pole, pillar’ etc. ([v1]), additionally underlined here by the doubling of d in ʕumudd or of m in ʕummadānī.
▪ ^†ʕMD_11 : The meaning ‘to dam in (a water-course), stop, obstruct (a stream)’ is taken from ʕamūd ‘pole, pillar’ and thus a specialised use of [v1] ‘to support’.

▪ …

▪ ʕMD_1 : (Bergsträsser1928:) Akk imdu ‘supporting wall’ (»Stützmauer«), Hbr ʕammūḏ, Aram ʕammūḏā, Gz ʕamd ‘post (n.)’, Ar ʕamūd. – Dolgopolsky2012#135 identifies three strings: (1) one for the basic notion of the root, expressed in a vb. meaning *‘to be raised\propped up, lean against; to stand upright’, (2) a nominal etymon meaning *‘support, pole’, and (3) a more or less synonymous, but specifically WSem variant, signifying a *‘prop, pole of a tent, column, pillar’. In group (2), he juxtaposes Akk imdu ‘stanchion, support’, (here?) Sab ʕmd ‘(?) vine support, vinestock’, Gz ʕamd ‘column, pillar, post’, and Ar ʕamad ‘pole of a tent, column, pillar’. From the WSem n. (3) are Ug ʕmd ‘column, ceiling beam’, BiblHbr ʕammûḏ, SamHbr ʕammod ‘id.’, Phoen Palm ʕmd, JudAram ʕammûḏ, JudAram Syr ʕammûḏ-â ‘column’, JEA ʕammūḏ-ā ‘pillar, column’, Sab (pl.) ʔʕmd ‘columns, pillars’, Mhr ʔamawd ‘ceiling beam’, Jib C ʕamud ‘beam, pillar’ (< Ar?), and Ar ʕamūd- ‘prop, support, column, base’. The Ar vb. ʕamada ‘étayer\appuyer\soutenir à l’aide d’un pilier \ d’une colonne’ is either a denom. derivation from this latter n., or it is directly (or perh. with contamination through the WSem n.) from (1) the protSem vb., from which the author derives also Akk emēdu ‘to lean against, cling to, stand near by’, BiblHbr ʕāmad ‘to take one’s stand’, JudAram ʕammeḏ ‘to place’; Mhr hāmōd ‘to prop up one’s head (with a pillow, arm)’, Jib C aʕmid ‘to put a pillow under the head’.
▪ ʕMD_2 : If related to [v1], cf. cognates given in preceding paragraph. – Ehret1995#683 regards Ar ʕamada (vn. ʕamd) in the sense of ‘to purpose, resolve upon; attend to, undertake’ is an extension in »durative« ‑D from a bi-consonantal pre-protSem root *ʕM ‘to apply, put into effect’. If this is correct, this ʕamada may be only one of several other extensions from the same pre-protSem root, such as ↗ʕMR (in the sense of ‘to cultivate and inhabit land’) and ↗ʕML (with the n. ↗ʕamal ‘deed, action; occupation; work’ and the denom. ↗ʕamila ‘to work, perform; to do; to practise, profess; to produce an effect’).
▪ ʕMD_3 : as fig. use of [v1], [v3] has no direct cognates in other Sem langs, but is of course dependent on ʕMD_1.
▪ ʕMD_4 : (Brockelmann1895, PayneSmith1903:) Syr ʕmaḏ ‘to dive, plunge, sink; to penetrate; to dip (in\under water), bath, wash; to be baptized’, Syr ʕmāḏā ‘setting (of the sun or stars); plunge, somersault; dipping; baptism’. – ? Cf. also [v9] below.
▪ ʕMD_5 : no direct cognates, but without doubt akin to ↗ʕMD_1.
▪ ʕMD_6-7 : Denom. deriv. from ʕamad or ʕamūd ‘pole, post’, ↗ʕMD_1.
▪ ʕMD_8 : Fig. use of [v6] and/or [v7], hence ultimately dependent on [v1], ↗ʕMD_1.
▪ ʕMD_9 : Either fig. use of [v6] and/or [v7] and hence ultimately dependent on [v1], ↗ʕMD_1, or perh. to be seen together with [v4] ‘to baptise’ and Syr ʕmaḏ ‘to dive, plunge, sink; to dip (in\under water) (etc.)’, ʕmāḏā ‘setting (of the sun or stars); plunge, somersault; dipping; baptism’.
▪ ʕMD_10 : no direct cognates, but without doubt akin to ↗ʕMD_1.
▪ ʕMD_11 : no direct cognates, but without doubt a D-stem formed from ↗ʕMD_1.

▪ ʕMD_1 Dolgopolsky2012#135 reconstructs three items: a protSem vb. *ʕmd ‘to be raised\propped up, lean against; to stand upright’, a protSem n. *ʕamad- ‘support, pole’, and a specifically WSem development, protWSem *ʕa˻m˼mūd- ‘prop, pole of a tent, column, pillar’; also some possible Chad and Cush (and perh. even IE) cognates, all from hypothetical Nostr *ʕ̱˹o˺m˻˅˼dE ‘to stand upright, rise’. (No protAfrAs form given.). – Klein1987 (s.v. Hbr ʕimmāḏī) notes that the Ar “prep.” ʕindᵃ ‘at, near, by’ »is formed from *ʕimdᵃ (lit., ‘on the stand of, in the position of’), from the stem of ʕamada (= he supported), ʕamūd (= post, prop)«. Cf., however, Kogan2015:182 #6 : »Ug ʕm, Hbr ʕim, JPA ʕäm, Sab ʕm, Min ʕm, Qat ʕm-n < protCSem *ʕimm(‑a) ‘together with’ ⇒ In its basic form, this protCSem prep. is not attested in Ar, but accord. to a widespread consensus, it is preserved there in the metathetic form maʕa ‘with’, as well as in ʕinda (< *ʕim-da) ‘by’. The origin of protCSem *ʕimm(‑a) ‘with’ is uncertain. Traditionally, it is thought to be derived from the verbal root *ʕmm ‘to be common, general, to embrace’[(cn: Kogan2015, n.513: E.g. Lipiński 1997:465 (“It is obviously related to the noun ʕam(m), ‘people,’ and to the vb. ʕamma, ‘to be common’”) or Voigt 1999:39 (“*ʕimm-a ‘Einschluss’”).)] [cf. ↗ʕāmm, ↗ʕāmmiyyaẗ], but this root is hardly attested anywhere beyond Ar ʕmm.«
▪ ʕMD_2-3 : see above, section CONC.
▪ ʕMD_4 : Although there is a faint possibility that ʕammada ‘to baptise’ is an inner-Ar derivation, it seems more likely that the item is a borrowing from Syr, because the original meaning of the underlying Grk term used in the NT for ‘to baptise’, baptízein, is ‘to immerse, dip in water’, rendered in Syr by ʕmaḏ ‘to dive, plunge, sink; to penetrate; to dip (in\under water), bath, wash; (hence also:) to be baptized’. The Ar D-stem would express the caus., *‘to immerse s.o., make s.o. dive, sink (etc.)’. Given that there is no Ar G-stem from √ʕMD meaning ‘to drown, be immersed’, dependence on Syr is highly probable (and was also suggested by Ar lexicographers themselves). – If ʕammada is from Syr it may, etymologically, belong together with ↗√ĠMD rather than √ʕMD. – For the vague possibility of an inner-Ar dependence, cf. above, section CONC.
▪ ʕMD_5-11 : cf. above, section CONC.

…

ʕamad‑ عَمَدَ , i (ʕamd)

ID … • Sw – • BP 4677 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕMD

vb., I

1 ↗ʕamūd; 2a to intend, purpose (li‑ or ʔilà s.th.); 2b to betake o.s., repair, go (li‑, ʔilà, ‑hu to); 2c to approach, undertake (li‑ or ʔilà s.th.), go, set (li‑ or ʔilà about s.th.), proceed, apply o.s., turn, attend (li‑ or ʔilà to), embark (li‑ or ʔilà upon); 2d to take up (ʔilà s.th.); 2e to be intent (ʔilà on); – 3 ↗ʕammada – WehrCowan1976.

▪ While one of the meanings of ʕamada (1 ‘to support, prop, shore, buttress’) evidently is denominative from ↗ʕamūd and another (3 ‘to baptize’) probably a loan from Syr, the semantic complex of ‘intention, purpose, aim’ stands within the root as an Ar idiosyncrasy without comparable developments in other Sem langs. Gabal2012: 1555-6 compares the firmness of resolution and intent to the uprightness of a tent pole or the strength of a supporting pillar and thus regards ʕamada in the sense of ‘to intend (etc.)’ as fig. use, lit. *‘to have s.th. as a ↗ʕamūd, a firm pillar, in one’s mind, follow an idea with a resolution as strong a pillar’. – Another form of fig. dependence on ʕamad~ʕamūd can be imagined on the basis of the meaning ‘iron bar\rod’, now obsolete but attested in ClassAr, as also the corresponding denom. vb. ʕamada ‘to beat with an iron bar\rod, strike, afflict’, hence also ‘to strike, afflict’ in general, and the corresponding intr. vb. ʕamida, signifying all kinds of (physical and mental) *‘struckness’. The firmness of resolution that is central to [v2] may thus stem from an original *‘being struck by an idea > to cling, adhere to it’.
▪ Ehret1995#683 suggests that Ar ʕamada (vn. ʕamd) ‘to purpose, resolve upon; attend to, undertake’ is an extension in »durative« ‑D from a bi-consonantal pre-protSem root *ʕM ‘to apply, put into effect’, from AfrAs *‑ʕīm‑ ‘to apply, put into effect’. Other extensions from the same pre-protSem root would be: ↗ʕMR, ↗ʕML.

▪ …

▪ If fig. use, then perh. dependent (as denom. vb.) on ↗ʕamūd.
▪ For Ehret’s suggestion of a derivation of Ar ʕamd from a 2-rad. pre-protSem root *ʕM and other “cognate” extensions, cf. above, section CONC.

Cf. above, section CONC.
▪ …

…

► taʕammada, vb. V, 1a to intend, purpose, do intentionally, do on purpose; b to approach with a definite aim in mind; c to single out, aim at: Dt-stem, intr., focus on self-referentiality. – 2 ↗ʕammada.

► ^BP#4282ʕamd, n., intention, intent, design, purpose; premeditation, willfulness (jur.): vn. I | ʕamdan, adv., intentionally, deliberately, on purpose; willfully, premeditatedly (jur.); šibh al‑ʕamd, n., quasi‑deliberate intent (Isl. Law)
►ʕamdī, adj., intentional, deliberate; premeditated, willful (jur.): nisba formation of preceding item.
►taʕammud, n., 1 intention, intent, design; 2 resolution, determination, purpose: : vn. V | taʕammudan , bi-taʕammud, intentionally, deliberately, willfully, on purpose, premeditatedly.
►taʕammudī, adj., intentional, deliberate, premeditated, willful: nisba formation from the preceding.
►mutaʕammad, adj., deliberate, premeditated, willful; intentional: PP V.

For other meanings of the root, cf. ↗ʕammada, ↗ʕamūd, ↗ʕumdaẗ, ↗ ʕamīd, as well as, for the overall picture, ↗√ʕMD.

ʕammad‑ عَمَّدَ (taʕmīd)

ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕMD

vb., II

to baptize, christen – WehrCowan1976.

▪ Ar ʕammada ‘to baptize’ is a D-stem belonging to the root √ʕMD which in general expresses the basic notion of *‘strength, firm support’, as, e.g., in the vb. ʕamada ‘to support, prop, shore, buttress’ or the n. ↗ʕamūd~ʕamad ‘post, pillar, column’ (Bergsträsser1928: *‘supporting wall’, for the protSem etymon). As it is not evident in which way the meaning ‘to baptize’ could be derived from this basic meaning of the root, it is quite likely that it we are dealing with a case of borrowing, all the more so since it is a Christian term. The giver language was probably Syr, where we find the vb. ʕmaḏ ‘to dive, plunge, sink; to penetrate; to dip (in\under water), bath, wash’ which in its turn is a calque from the Grk baptízein with the same original meaning, but also used in the NT to render the act of baptism.
▪ A derivation of Ar ʕammada ‘to baptize’ from the obsolete adj. ^†ʕamid ‘moistened by rain (earth)’ and the denom. intr. vb. ^†ʕamida ‘to be(come) moistened by rain’ seems less likely. But even in this case ʕammada would prob. be akin to Syr ʕmaḏ ‘to dive, plunge, sink; to penetrate; to dip (in\under water), bath, wash’.
▪ Should one consider also the possibility of an inner-Ar development according to which ʕammada ‘to baptize’ would be *‘to confirm’ (one’s belief in God)? In this case the vb. would depend on ↗ʕamūd~ʕamad ‘post, pillar, column’.

▪ …

▪ (If loaned from Syr): Syr ʕmaḏ ‘to dive, plunge, sink; to penetrate; to dip (in\under water), bath, wash; to be baptized’, ʕmāḏā ‘setting (of the sun or stars); plunge, somersault; dipping; baptism’ – Brockelmann1895, PayneSmith1903.
▪ (If lit. *‘to confirm/assert one’s belief, make one’s belief stronger’): ↗ʕMD_1.
▪ …

See above, sections CONC and COGN.

…

► ^BP4677ʕamada, i (ʕamd), vb. I, 1 ↗ʕamūd; 2 ↗ʕamada; 3 to baptize, christen.
► ʔaʕmada, vb. IV, 1 ↗ʕamūd; 2 to baptize, christen: *Š-stem.
► taʕammada, vb. V, 1-3 ↗ʕamada; – 4 to be baptized, be christened: Dt-stem, pass./self-refl.

► ^BP#3409ʕimād, pl. ʕumud, ʔaʕmidaẗ, n., 1-6 ↗ʕamūd; – 7 baptism
► Yūḥannā ’l‑maʕmadān, n., John the Baptist
►taʕmīd, n., baptism: vn. II.
►maʕmūdiyyaẗ, n.f., 1 baptism; 2 baptismal font: : n. formation in -iyyaẗ for the process of baptizing or the tool used to carry out baptism.
►muʕammad, adj., baptizee, one receiving baptism: PP II.

For other meanings of the root, cf. ↗ʕamada, ↗ʕamūd, ↗ʕumdaẗ, ↗ ʕamīd, as well as, for the overall picture, ↗√ʕMD.

ʕamūd عَمود , pl. ʔaʕmidaẗ, ʕumud

ID … • Sw – • BP 3015 • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕMD

n.

1a flagpole, shaft (of a standard); 1b pale, post, prop, shore, pier, buttress; 1c lamppost; 1d (telephone, telegraph) pole; 2 column, pillar, pilaster; item (of a glass); – 3a (pl. ʔaʕmidaẗ), n., column (of a newspaper); 3b element, cell (eI.) – WehrCowan1976.

▪ (Dolgopolsky2012#135): from protWSem *ʕa˻m˼mūd- ‘prop, pole of a tent, column, pillar’ (< protSem *ʕmd ‘to be raised\propped up, lean against; to stand upright’, *ʕamad- ‘support, pole’ < AfrAs [?] < Nostr *ʕ˹o˺m˻˅˼dE ‘to stand upright, rise’.
▪ Gabal2012 regards the root √ʕMD as an extension in ‑D of the 2-rad. root nucleus *ʕM‑ to which he ascribes the basic meaning of ‘multitude or meeting/confluence (of several elements), combined with cohesion and uprightness’ (kaṯraẗ aw ĭǧtimāʕ maʕa ĭrtifāʕ wa-ĭltiḥām ʕulwī, ibid.: 1551).
▪ ʕamūd figures among the terms that Bergsträsser1928 regarded as very old and widespread throughout Sem. The n. or the corresponding vb. is probably origin of most of the values found on ↗√ʕMD.

▪ …

▪ (Bergsträsser1928:) Akk imdu ‘supporting wall’ (»Stützmauer«), Hbr ʕammūḏ, Aram ʕammūḏā, Gz ʕamd ‘post (n.)’, Ar ʕamūd. ▪ (Dolgopolsky2012#135:) Ug ʕmd ‘column, ceiling beam’, BiblHbr ʕammûḏ, SamHbr ʕammod ‘id.’, Phoen Palm ʕmd, JudAram Syr ʕammûḏ-â ‘column’, Sab (pl.) ʔʕmd ‘columns, pillars’, Mhr ʔamawd ‘ceiling beam’, Jib C ʕamud ‘beam, pillar’ (< Ar?), and Ar ʕamūd- ‘prop, support, column, base’. – Cf. also Akk imdu ‘stanchion, support’, (here?) Sab ʕmd ‘(?) vine support, vinestock’, Gz ʕamd ‘column, pillar, post’, and Ar ʕamad ‘pole of a tent, column, pillar’, as well es Akk emēdu ‘to lean against, cling to, stand near by’, BiblHbr ʕāmad ‘to take one’s stand’, JudAram ʕammeḏ ‘to place’; Mhr hāmōd ‘to prop up one’s head (with a pillow, arm)’, Jib C aʕmid ‘to put a pillow under the head’.

See above, sections CONC and COGN.

…

► al-ʕamūd al-šawkī\faqrī, n., the vertebral colomn, the spine.
► ʕamūd kahrabāʔī, n., electrode.

► ^BP4677ʕamada, i (ʕamd), vb. I, 1 to support, prop, shore, buttress; 2 ↗ ʕamada; 3 ↗ ʕammada.
► ʕammada, vb. II, ↗ s.v..
► ʔaʕmada, vb. IV, 1 to support, prop, shore, buttress: *Š-stem. – 2 ↗ ʕammada.
► taʕammada, vb. V, 1a to intend, purpose, do intentionally, do on purpose; b to approach with a definite aim in mind; c to single out, aim at: Dt-stem. – 2 ↗ ʕammada.
► ^BP#1145ĭʕtamada, vb. VIII, 1 = V; 2 to lean (ʕalà against), support one’s weight (ʕalà on); 3a to rely, depend (‑hu or ʕalà on s.o., on s.th.); 3b to use as a basis (‑hu or ʕalà s.th.); 3c to employ, use, apply (‑hu s.th., e.g., a new method); 4a to confirm (‑hu s.th.); 4b to sanction, authorize (‑hu s.th.); 5 to loan, give on credit (‑hu to s.o. li‑ a sum): Gt-stem.

► ^BP#4282ʕamd, n., intention, intent, design, purpose; premeditation, willfulness (jur.): vn. I | ʕamdan, adv., intentionally, deliberately, on purpose; willfully, premeditatedly (jur.); šibh al‑ʕamd, n., quasi‑deliberate intent (Isl. Law)
►ʕamdī, adj., intentional, deliberate; premeditated, willful (jur.): nisba formation of preceding item.
►ʕumdaẗ, 1 n.f., support, prop, shore; 2main subject, main issue, basic issue (e.g., of a controversy); 3a (pl. ʕumad) n.m., chief of a village, chief magistrate of a small community (eg.); 3b mayor: [v3ab] is fig. use.
► ^BP#3409ʕimād, pl. ʕumud, ʔaʕmidaẗ, n., 1 support, prop, stay (also fig.); 2 bracket, buttress, post; 3 pole, pillar; 4 column; 5 mast; 6 major general (Leb; mil.); – 7 baptism.
►ʕimādaẗ, n.f., office of dean, deanship; (also ʕamādaẗ) office of the dean (university).
►^BP#2383ʕamīd, pl. ʕumadāʔᵘ, n., 1 support; 2a head, chief; 2b leading personality (in a cultural field); 2c dean (of a faculty); 2d director (of a college or academy); 2e doyen, dean (as, of a diplomatic oorps); 3 high commissioner (also al‑ʕamīd al‑sāmī), resident general; 4 brigadier general (Eg, Syr, Irq, etc.); colonel (Leb); (formerly, Irq) general, (formerly, Eg) lieutenant colonel: quasi-PP I | ʕamīd ʔawwal, n., brigadier general (Leb); ʕamīd al‑ʔadab al‑ʕarabī, n., the foremost representative of Arabic literature; ʕamīd al‑ʕāʔilaẗ, n., head of the family.
►ʕamīdaẗ, n.f., dean (f.); directress: quasi-PP I, f.
►ʕāmūd, pl. ʕawāmīd², n., = ʕamūd | ʕāmūd al-qiyādaẗ, n., steering column, steering mechanism (of an automobile).
►ʕamūdī, adj., 1a columnar, pillar-shaped; 1b vertical, perpendicular, upright: nisba formation of preceding item | ṭāʔiraẗ ʕamūdiyyaẗ, n.f., helicopter.
► Yūḥannā ’l‑maʕmadān, n., ↗ ʕammada.
►taʕmīd, n., ↗ ʕammada.
►taʕammud, n., 1-2 ↗ ʕamada.
►taʕammudī, adj., ↗ ʕamada.
► ^BP#1362ĭʕtimād, n., 1 reliance, dependence, reliance (ʕalà on), confidence, trust (ʕalà in); 2 confirmation; 3a sanction, approbation; b recognition; c accreditation (of diplomats); (pl. āt) credit, loan: : vn. VIII | ĭʕtimādāt, n.nhum.pl., funds, financial means (for an objective, a project) | al-iʕtimād ʕalà ’nafs, self-confidenoe, self-reliance; kutub\ʔawrāq al-iʕtimād, n.nhum.pl., credentials (of diplomats); ĭʕtimād ʔiḍāfī, n., supplementary loan; ĭʕtimādāt mutāḥaẗ, available funds.
►maʕmūdiyyaẗ, n.f., ↗ ʕammada.
►muʕammad, adj., ↗ ʕammada.
►mutaʕammad, adj., ↗ ʕamada.
► ^BP#2722muʕtamad, 1 adj., a reliable, dependable; b object of reliance, support; c sanctioned, approved, authorized; d accredited; e allocated, available: PP VIII. – 2 (pl. pl. ūn), n., a commissioner, authorized agent, proxy, envoy, representative; b commissary, commissar; c (Tun.) al-muʕtamad al-sāmī, n., the High Commissioner; d muʕtamad qunṣulī, n., consular agent (dipl.); 3 ʔasās muʕtamad ʕalayh, n., a reliable basis.
►muʕtamadiyyaẗ, n.f., legation (dipl.); (Tun.) administrative district (subdivision of a wilāyaẗ, province); district government.

For other meanings of the root, cf. ↗ʕamada, ↗ʕammada, ↗ʕamūd, ↗ʕumdaẗ, ↗ ʕamīd, as well as, for the overall picture, ↗√ʕMD.

ʕumdaẗ عُمْدة

ID … • Sw – • BP … • APD … • © SG | 15Feb2021

√ʕMD

n.f. (or m., if used for men)

1 support, prop, shore; 2 main subject, main issue, basic issue (e.g., of a controversy); 3a (pl. ʕumad) n.m., chief of a village, chief magistrate of a small community (eg.); 3b mayor – WehrCowan1976.

▪ [v1] means the support given by a ↗ʕamūd ‘pole, pillar, beam’, hence also fig. use in [v2] as the *‘pillar’ that ‘bears’ a conversation or discussion, and [v3ab] as *‘pillars’ of a community, i.e., reliable, trustworthy persons on whose steadfastness, resolution, strength etc. the structure of the “building” (of a village or city community) rests.

▪ …

See ↗ʕamūd.

See above, section CONC.

…

►muʕtamadiyyaẗ, n.f., 1 legation (dipl.); 2 (Tun.) administrative district (subdivision of a wilāyaẗ, province); district government: PP VIII, f., from ĭʕtamada ‘to relie upon, trust in’, lit., ‘to turn to s.o.\s.th. as one’s ʕamūd (pillar) or ʕumdaẗ (chief, mayor), Gt-stem, self-referential.

For other meanings of the root, cf. ↗ʕamada, ↗ʕammada, ↗ʕamūd, ↗ ʕamīd, as well as, for the overall picture, ↗√ʕMD.

ʕimād عِماد

ID – • Sw – • BP 3409 • APD … • © SG | 3Jun2023

√ʕMD

n.

column, pole – Jeffery1938

▪ …

▪ eC7 Q xiii, 2; xxxi, 9; civ, 9 (sing. A*P); lxxxix, 6 – Jeffery1938.

.

▪ Jeffery1938: »The word can hardly be derived from the Ar verbal root ʕamada ‘to afflict’ and was apparently borrowed from the Aram. / Zimmern, Akkad. Fremdw, 31, goes back to an Akk imdu meaning ‘a support’ for a house or a wall, from a root emēdu (< ʕmd) ‘to stand’, which he would consider as having influenced the Can and Aram areas, whence we find Hbr ʕammûd, Phoen ʕmd ‘pillar’, and Aram Palm ʕmwdʔ, Syr ʕamūdā ‘pillar’. If so it must also have influenced the SAr area, for there we find Sab ʕmd (D.H. Müller, Epigraphische Denkmäler aus Abessinien, 80)⁴⁵ and Eth [Gz] ʕamd, also meaning ‘pillar’. From the Aramaic, according to this theory, would have come the Arab ʕamūd ‘a pillar’, and thence the denominative verb ʕamada ‘to prop’, from which the Qurʔānic ʕimād would have been derived. In this case it would have been an early borrowing.«

45. Cf. Rossini, Glossarium, 209; Ryckmans, Noms propres, i, 166.

–

ʕamīd عَميد , pl. ʕumadāʔᵘ

√ʕMD

n.

1 support; 2a head, chief; 2b leading personality (in a cultural field); 2c dean (of a faculty); 2d director (of a college or academy); 2e doyen, dean (as, of a diplomatic oorps); 3 high commissioner (also al‑ʕamīd al‑sāmī), resident general; 4 brigadier general (Eg, Syr, Irq, etc.); colonel (Leb); (formerly, Irq) general, (formerly, Eg) lieutenant colonel – WehrCowan1976.

▪ ʕamīd is a quasi-PP from ʕamada, vb. I, ‘to support, prop, shore, buttress’ (itself perh. denom. from ↗ʕamūd ‘pole, pillar, beam’) and means as such a person like a “pillar” or “pole” that bears the structure of a “building” and can be relied upon and/or serve as a model for others. From the general meaning of a supporting “pillar” are several derived values such as [v2a-e] (in the cultural field, and for civilians), [v3] (in international politics), or [v4] (in the military).
▪ …

▪ …

No direct cognates in other Sem langs, but ultimately from, or akin to, ↗ʕamūd.

See above, section CONC.

…

►ʕamīd ʔawwal, n., brigadier general (Leb)
►ʕamīd al-ʔadab al‑ʕarabī, n., the foremost representative of Arabic literature
►ʕamīd al-ʕāʔilaẗ, n., head of the family.

►ʕimādaẗ, n.f., office of dean, deanship; (also ʕamādaẗ) office of the dean (university)
►ʕamīdaẗ, n.f., dean (f.); directress: quasi-PP I, f.

For other meanings of the root, cf. ↗ʕamada, ↗ʕammada, ↗ʕamūd, ↗ʕumdaẗ, as well as, for the overall picture, ↗√ʕMD.

ʕMR عمر

√ʕMR

“root”

▪ ʕMR_1 a ‘(to be/make) full, to prosper / make prosperous; to inhabit; to build, erect, construct; to repair’ ↗ʕam˅ra; b ‘to live long, lifespan; donation for life’ ↗ʕumr
▪ ʕMR_2 ‘to perform the ↗ʕumraẗ ’
▪ ʕMR_3 ‘headgear’ ↗ʕamraẗ
▪ ʕMR_4 ‘naval fleet’ ↗ʕamāraẗ
▪ ʕMR_5 ‘camel-borne sedan’ ↗ʕammāriyyaẗ
▪ ʕMR_6 ‘ʕImrān (father of Moses, Aaron, and Miriam)’ ↗ʕImrān

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘age, life, life-span, to live long, to grow old; to cultivate, to inhabit, to populate; a haunted house; to intend; to worship; headgear; a subgroup of a tribe’

▪ ʕMR_1 : Huehnergard2011 reconstructs CSem *ʕMR ‘to live, dwell, build’ and the n. CSem *ʕumr‑ ‘life’. – According to Ehret1995, ʕamara ‘to cultivate and inhabit land’ is an extension in *‑r from a »pre-Proto-Semitic« root *ʕm ‘to apply, put into effect’ that in its turn goes back to AfrAs *‑ʕīm‑ ‘to apply, put into effect’. – Other extensions from the same pre-Sem root: ↗ʕMD • ↗ʕML.

–

See references to individual subvalues, above.

▪ ʕMR_1 : ‘long life’ is seen as a form of ‘being full, prospering’. – From ʕMR_1 probably also the personal names ʕUmar, ʕAmr, ʕImrān, etc. ▪ ʕMR_1 : for ‘(to be/make) full, to prosper’ cf. also ↗ĠMR
. ▪ ʕMR_1 : Ehret1995#683: Ar ʕamr (vn.) ‘to cultivate and inhabit land’ is an extension in »diffusive« *‑r ⁴⁶ from a bi-consonantal »pre-Proto-Semitic« (pPS, i.e. preSem) root *ʕm ‘to apply, put into effect’. Other extensions from the same pre-Sem root: ↗ʕMD • ↗ʕml. – Pre-Proto-Sem *ʕm may in turn go back to AfrAs *‑ʕīm‑ ‘to apply, put into effect’, which lived on also in Eg imi ‘to give; place; cause (imper.)’, Iraqw (SCush) ʕim amis ‘to continue (doing)’, and Omot *im ‘to give’ (´im , i´m).
▪ ʕMR_2 ‘(to perform the) ʕumraẗ ’: traditionally explained as ‘visit’, or (Wellhausen1897) as ‘cult’. If this is true, then ʕumraẗ is related to ʕMR_1.
▪ ʕMR_3-5 : ??? any relation to one or more of items ʕMR_1-2 ?

46. Cf. Ehret1995_Verbext

–

► ʕamara, u, i (ʕamr, ʕumr), vb. I, to live long, be longevous.
► ʕamura, u (ʕamāraẗ), vb. I, to thrive, prosper, flourish, flower, bloom; to be or become inhabited, peopled, populated, civilized, cultivated; to be full (bi‑ of), filled, filled up (bi‑ with).
► ʕamara, u, vb. I, to fill with life, cause to thrive, make prosperous; to inhabit, live, dwell; to fill, pervade (jawāniḥahū s.o.’s heart), reign (in s.o.’s heart); to build, erect, construct, raise, rebuild, reconstruct, restore:
► ʕammara, vb. II, to let live, preserve alive; to prolong (s.o.’s) life, grant long life (to s.o.; of God); to populate, people; to build, erect, construct, raise, rebuild, reconstruct, restore, repair, overhaul, refurbish, recondition (s.th., esp. a building); to provide, furnish, supply, fill (bi‑ with, e.g., the lamp with oil, the censer with charcoal, the goblet with wine); to load (a gun); to fill (a pipe); to fill in (a form, a blank; tun.): caus. | ʕ. waqtahū to take up, or claim, s.o.’s time.
► ʔaʕmara, vb. IV, to bring growth and prosperity; to build up, develop (a country); to populate, people (s.th.): caus. – 2 to perform the ↗ʕumraẗ : denom., from the latter.
► ĭʕtamara, vb. VIII, to visit (s.o., s.th.); to perform the ↗ʕumraẗ : denom. from the latter.
► ĭstaʕmara, vb. X, to settle (s.o. fī in); to settle, colonize (s.th.); to turn (a country) into a colony: autoben., t-stem of IV.

► ^BP#281ʕumr (ʕamr in oaths), pl. ʔaʕmār, n., life, duration of life, life span, lifetime; age (of a person) | la-ʕamrī upon my life! la-ʕamru ’llāhi by the everlasting existence of God! by the Eternal God! ḏāt al-ʕumrayn amphibian (n.); ʕumruhū ʕišrūna sanatan he is twenty years old.
► ^BP#4721ʕumrī, adj., age-related, age-based, age group: nsb-adj from ʕumr.
► ʕamraẗ, n.f., 1 headgear (e.g., turban); 2 (eg.) repair, repair work:.
► ^BP#4852ʕumraẗ, n.f., pilgrimage to Mecca (the so-called ‘minor hadj’ which, unlike the hadj proper, need not be performed at a particular time of the year and whose performance involves fewer ceremonies):
► ʕumrà, donation for life (Isl. Law): el.f.
► ʕamāraẗ, n.f., (naval) fleet:.
► ^BP#2892ʕimāraẗ, pl. ‑āt, ʕamāʔirᵘ, n., building, edifice, structure; real estate, tract lot; al-ʕ., fann al-ʕ., or handasaẗ al-ʕ., architecture, art of building: vn. I.
► ʕumrān, n., inhabitedness, populousness, thriving, flourishing, prosperity (as opposed to ↗ḫarāb); luxuriance, lushness; civilization; construction of houses; building trade, architecture: vn. I.
► ^BP#4095ʕumrānī, adj., civilized; populous and flourishing (country, region); civilizational, serving or concerning the development of civilization; constructional, construction (in compounds), architectonic, architectural: nsb-adj from ʕumrān | taḫṭīṭ ʕ., n., architectural planning.
► ʕammāriyyaẗ, n.f., camel-borne sedan and the virgin riding in it into battle:
► ʔaʕmarᵘ, adj., more inhabited, more populated, more populous; more cultivated, more civilized; more flourishing, more thriving: elat.
► miʕmār, n., builder, architect; mason:
► miʕmārī, adj., architectonic, architectural: nsb-adj from miʕmār; — (pl. ‑ūn), n., builder, architect; mason: nominalized nisba | muhandis m., n., builder, architect; al-fann al-m., n., art of building, architecture.
► taʕmīr, n., building, construction, erection; restoration, repair, overhauling, refurbishing, reconditioning; renovation of old buildings; development (of an area); reconstruction (eg., of a country’s industry); filling, filling-up; (tun.) filling out (of a form): vn. II
► taʕmīraẗ, n.f., filling, fllling-up: vn. II, n.vic.
► ^BP#2592ʔiʕmār, n., construction, building, development: vn. IV.
► ^BP#3055ĭstiʕmār, n., colonizing, colonization, foundation of colonies; colonialism (pol.), colonial rule: vn. X | al-ĭ. al-jadīd, n., neo-colonialism:
► ^BP#4561ĭstiʕmārī, adj., colonial; colonizer: nsb-adj from ĭstiʕmār.
► ĭstiʕmāriyyaẗ, n.f., colonialism (pol.): n.abstr. in iyyaẗ, coined from ĭstiʕmār.
► ʕāmir, adj., inhabited; peopled, populated, populous; full, filled, filled up; jammed, crowded, filled to capacity (bi‑ with); amply provided, splendidly furnished; civilized; cultivated (land); flourishing, thriving, prosperous: PA I; al-ʕāmir is a frequent epithet of castles, palaces, etc., of ruling houses | ʕ. bi’l-ʔamal, adj., full of hope; ʕ. al-jayb, adj., with a full pocket; ʕ. al-ḏimmaẗi li obliged to s.o., committed to s.o.; ʕ. al-nafs bi , adj., obsessed by, possessed by; ʔumm ʕ., n., hyena (zool.); nuhūd ʕāmiraẗ, n.pl., voluptuous bosoms :
► ^BP#4930maʕmūr, adj., inhabited, populated, populous: PP I; al-m. or al-maʕmūraẗ, n., the (inhabited) world | fī kull ʔanḥāʔ al-m.(aẗ), adv., all over the world, throughout the world.
► muʕammir, pl. ‑ūn, adj./n., colonist; colonizer: PA II.
► muʕammar, pl. ‑ūn, adj., senior (in sports): PP II from ʕumr.
► mustaʕmir, adj., colonial, imperialistic: PA X; — (pl. ‑ūn), n., settler, colonist; colonizer; foreign conqueror, invader; imperialist: nominalized PA X.
► mustaʕmaraẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., colony, settlement: nominalized PP X. | m. mustaqillaẗ, n., dominion :

ʕamur‑ عَمُرَ , u (ʕamāraẗ)
ʕamar‑ , u, i (ʕamr, ʕumr)
ʕamar‑ , u

√ʕMR

vb., I

ʕamura, u (ʕamāraẗ), 1 to thrive, prosper, flourish, flower, bloom. – 2 to be or become inhabited, peopled, populated, civilized, cultivated. – 3 to be full (bi‑ of), filled, filled up (bi‑ with).
ʕamara, u, i (ʕamr, ʕumr), to live long, be longevous.
ʕamara, u, 1 to fill with life, cause to thrive, make prosperous. – 2 to inhabit, live, dwell. – 3 to fill, pervade (jawāniḥahū s.o.’s heart), reign (in s.o.’s heart). – 4 to build, erect, construct, raise, rebuild, reconstruct, restore

▪ Huehnergard2011 reconstructs CSem *ʕMR ‘to live, dwell, build’ and the n. CSem *ʕumr‑ ‘life’.
▪ According to Ehret1995, ʕamara ‘to cultivate and inhabit land’ is an extension in *‑r from a »pre-Proto-Semitic« root *ʕm ‘to apply, put into effect’ that in its turn goes back to AfrAs *‑ʕīm‑ ‘to apply, put into effect’. – Other extensions from the same pre-Sem root: ↗ʕMD, ↗ʕML.

▪ …

For ʕamura 3. ‘(to be) full’:
▪ BDB1906: Hbr ʕōmär ‘sheaf, heap of sheaves’, ʕōmär ‘omer (a measure)’ (cf. also Ar ġumar ‘small drinking cup, or bowl’), ʕāmîr ‘swath, row of fallen grain’

For ʕamara ‘to live long’:
▪ BDB1906: Hbr ʕāmrî ‘Omri, king of Israel’, Ar n.pr. ʕumar, ʕamr, ʕāmir, etc.

▪ From here (probably the n. ʕumr) also the personal names ʕUmar, ʕAmr, ʕĀmir, ʕImrān, etc., all meaning ‘full of live, prosperous’.
▪ For ‘(to be/make) full, to prosper’ cf. also ↗ĠMR.
▪ Ehret1995#683: Ar ʕamr (vn.) ‘to cultivate and inhabit land’ is an extension in »diffusive« *‑r ⁴⁷ from a bi-consonantal »pre-Proto-Semitic« (pPS, i.e. preSem) root *ʕm ‘to apply, put into effect’. Other extensions from the same pre-Sem root: ↗ʕMD, ↗ʕML. – Pre-Proto-Sem *ʕm may in turn go back to AfrAs *‑ʕīm‑ ‘to apply, put into effect’, which lived on also in Eg imi ‘to give; place; cause (imper.)’, Iraqw (SCush) ʕim amis ‘to continue (doing)’, and Omot *im ‘to give’ (´im , i´m).
▪ Is also ↗ʕumraẗ ‘the “lesser” pilgrimage’ connected?
▪ Unclear is also whether or not ↗ʕamraẗ ‘headgear’, ↗ʕamāraẗ ‘naval fleet’, and ↗ʕammāriyyaẗ ‘camel-borne sedan’ are to be seen in connection with ʕam˅ra.

47. Cf. Ehret1995_Verbext

–

► ʕammara, vb. II, to let live, preserve alive; to prolong (s.o.’s) life, grant long life (to s.o.; of God); to populate, people; to build, erect, construct, raise, rebuild, reconstruct, restore, repair, overhaul, refurbish, recondition (s.th., esp. a building); to provide, furnish, supply, fill (bi‑ with, e.g., the lamp with oil, the censer with charcoal, the goblet with wine); to load (a gun); to fill (a pipe); to fill in (a form, a blank; tun.): caus. | ʕ. waqtahū to take up, or claim, s.o.’s time.
► ʔaʕmara, vb. IV, to bring growth and prosperity; to build up, develop (a country); to populate, people (s.th.): caus. – For another meaning ↗ʕumraẗ.
► ĭstaʕmara, vb. X, to settle (s.o. fī in); to settle, colonize (s.th.); to turn (a country) into a colony: autoben., t-stem of IV.

► ^BP#281ʕumr (ʕamr in oaths), pl. ʔaʕmār, n., life, duration of life, life span, lifetime; age (of a person) | la-ʕamrī upon my life! la-ʕamru ’llāhi by the everlasting existence of God! by the Eternal God! ḏāt al-ʕumrayn amphibian (n.); ʕumruhū ʕišrūna sanatan he is twenty years old.
► ^BP#4721ʕumrī, adj., age-related, age-based, age group: nsb-adj from ʕumr.
► ʕumrà, donation for life (Isl. Law): el.f.
► ʕamraẗ, n.f., (eg.) repair, repair work:. – For another meaning see s.v..
► ^BP#2892ʕimāraẗ, pl. ‑āt, ʕamāʔirᵘ, n., building, edifice, structure; real estate, tract lot; al-ʕ., fann al-ʕ., or handasaẗ al-ʕ., architecture, art of building: vn. I.
► ʕumrān, n., inhabitedness, populousness, thriving, flourishing, prosperity (as opposed to ↗ḫarāb); luxuriance, lushness; civilization; construction of houses; building trade, architecture: vn. I.
► ^BP#4095ʕumrānī, adj., civilized; populous and flourishing (country, region); civilizational, serving or concerning the development of civilization; constructional, construction (in compounds), architectonic, architectural: nsb-adj from ʕumrān | taḫṭīṭ ʕ., n., architectural planning.
► ʔaʕmarᵘ, adj., more inhabited, more populated, more populous; more cultivated, more civilized; more flourishing, more thriving: elat.
► miʕmār, n., builder, architect; mason:
► miʕmārī, adj., architectonic, architectural: nsb-adj from miʕmār; — (pl. ‑ūn), n., builder, architect; mason: nominalized nisba | muhandis m., n., builder, architect; al-fann al-m., n., art of building, architecture.
► taʕmīr, n., building, construction, erection; restoration, repair, overhauling, refurbishing, reconditioning; renovation of old buildings; development (of an area); reconstruction (eg., of a country’s industry); filling, filling-up; (tun.) filling out (of a form): vn. II
► taʕmīraẗ, n.f., filling, fllling-up: vn. II, n.vic.
► ^BP#2592ʔiʕmār, n., construction, building, development: vn. IV.
► ^BP#3055ĭstiʕmār, n., colonizing, colonization, foundation of colonies; colonialism (pol.), colonial rule: vn. X | al-ĭ. al-jadīd, n., neo-colonialism:
► ^BP#4561ĭstiʕmārī, adj., colonial; colonizer: nsb-adj from ĭstiʕmār.
► ĭstiʕmāriyyaẗ, n.f., colonialism (pol.): n.abstr. in iyyaẗ, coined from ĭstiʕmār.
► ʕāmir, adj., inhabited; peopled, populated, populous; full, filled, filled up; jammed, crowded, filled to capacity (bi‑ with); amply provided, splendidly furnished; civilized; cultivated (land); flourishing, thriving, prosperous: PA I; al-ʕāmir is a frequent epithet of castles, palaces, etc., of ruling houses | ʕ. bi’l-ʔamal, adj., full of hope; ʕ. al-jayb, adj., with a full pocket; ʕ. al-ḏimmaẗi li obliged to s.o., committed to s.o.; ʕ. al-nafs bi , adj., obsessed by, possessed by; ʔumm ʕ., n., hyena (zool.); nuhūd ʕāmiraẗ, n.pl., voluptuous bosoms :
► ^BP#4930maʕmūr, adj., inhabited, populated, populous: PP I; al-m. or al-maʕmūraẗ, n., the (inhabited) world | fī kull ʔanḥāʔ al-m.(aẗ), adv., all over the world, throughout the world.
► muʕammir, pl. ‑ūn, adj./n., colonist; colonizer: PA II.
► muʕammar, pl. ‑ūn, adj., senior (in sports): PP II from ʕumr.
► mustaʕmir, adj., colonial, imperialistic: PA X; — (pl. ‑ūn), n., settler, colonist; colonizer; foreign conqueror, invader; imperialist: nominalized PA X.
► mustaʕmaraẗ, pl. ‑āt, n., colony, settlement: nominalized PP X. | m. mustaqillaẗ, n., dominion.

For other items of √ʕMR cf. ↗ʕumraẗ, ↗ʕamraẗ, ↗ʕamāraẗ, and ↗ʕammāriyyaẗ.

ʕumr عُمْر , var. ʕamr (in oaths), pl. ʔaʕmār

√ʕMR

n.

life, duration of life, life span, lifetime; age (of a person) – WehrCowan1979.

Akin to a vb. meaning ‘to be full, live, dwell, build’, cf. ↗ʕam˅ra.

▪ …

See ↗ʕam˅ra.

▪ Huehnergard2011 reconstructs CentrSem *ʕumr . For details and the connection to the vb. ‘to live, dwell, build’, see ↗ʕam˅ra.
▪ From here (probably the n. ʕumr) also the personal names ʕUmar, ʕAmr, ʕImrān, etc., all meaning ‘full of live, prosperous’.

–

► la-ʕamrī (oath), upon my life!
► la-ʕamru ’llāhi (oath), by the everlasting existence of God! by the Eternal God!
► ḏāt al-ʕumrayn, n., amphibian (n.).

► ʕamara, u, i (ʕamr, ʕumr), vb. I, to live long, be longevous: denom.?

► ^BP#4721ʕumrī, adj., age-related, age-based, age group: nsb-adj.
► ʕumrà, donation for life (Isl. Law): el.f.
► muʕammar, pl. ‑ūn, adj., senior (in sports): PP II from ʕumr.

Cf. also ↗ʕamVra.

ʕumraẗ عُمْرة

√ʕMR

n.f.

pilgrimage to Mecca (the so-called ‘minor hadj’ which, unlike the hadj proper, need not be performed at a particular time of the year and whose performance involves fewer ceremonies) – WehrCowan1979.

Wellhausen1897 translates the word simply as ‘cult’, in which case it would be from the vb. ↗ʕamara in the sense of ‘to make prosper, cultivate’. It may however have to do, more directly, with the ‘omer’ (Hbr ʕōmär), a central element in the Jewish Pessach rituals. Originally, the ʕumraẗ, like the Pessach, was a spring festival on which a lamb (from the current year) was sacrificed. There was intense exchange between the religions of Arabia of late antiquity, of which many similarities between Judaism, Christianity, pre-Islamic Arabian “paganism”, and Islam give ample evidence.

▪ …

▪ If belonging to ʕam˅ra, cf. ↗s.v..
▪ Connected to Hbr ʕōmär ‘heap/sheaf of grain; cupfull of barley, sacrificed during Pesach’? Cf. "Discussion" below.

▪ Traditionally explained as belonging to a vb. ^†‘to visit’. If this, or what Wellhausen (1897: 78) says, namely that ʕumraẗ means nothing else than »Cultus«, then it is clearly akin to ↗ʕam˅ra in the sense of ‘to cultivate’.
▪ BDB1906 (s.v. ʕMR-3) mentions ʕamara ‘to live long’ and ʕamara ‘to worship’ in the same lemma.
▪ Given that the ʕumraẗ goes back to pre-Islamic times⁴⁸ and evidently is related to the Jewish Pessach⁴⁹ (cf. Ar ↗fiṣḥ) in which the ‘omer’ rituals play an important role, we should also not exclude a relation between Ar ʕumraẗ and Hbr ʕōmär ‘(a measure)’ (which in turn is probably akin to Ar ʕamura ‘to be full’ and/or perhaps to Ar ġamura ‘to be abundant (of water), surpass, overtop’, ↗ĠMR).

48. Cf., e.g., art. “ʿUmra” (R. Paret-[E. Chaumont] in EI². 49. Cf., e.g., art. “ʿUmra” (R. Paret-[E. Chaumont] in EI², and Neuwirth2010: 103-4, both with further references.

–

► ĭʕtamara, vb. VIII, to visit (s.o., s.th.); to perform the ↗ʕumraẗ : denom. from the latter.

ʕamraẗ عَمْرة

√ʕMR

n.f.

headgear (e.g., turban) – WehrCowan1979. – For another meaning ↗ʕam˅ra .

Connection to other items of ↗√ʕMR unclear.

▪ …

…

▪ …
▪ …

–

ʕamāraẗ عَمارَة

√ʕMR

n.f.

naval fleet – WehrCowan1979.

Connection to other items of ↗√ʕMR unclear.

▪ …

…

▪ …
▪ …

–

ʕImrān عِمْران

√ʕMR

n.prop.

ʕImrān, the father of Moses, Aaron, and Miriam – Jeffery1938

▪ …

▪ eC7 Q iii, 30, 31; lxvi, 12 – Jeffery1938.

.

ʕMR
▪ eC7 Q iii, 30, 31; lxvi, 12 – Jeffery1938.
ʕImrān, the father of Moses, Aaren, and Miriam – Jeffery1938 ▪ Jeffery1938: »In these passages we have the well-known confusion between Miriam the sister of Moses and Aaron, and Miriam the mother of our Lord, and in spite of the attempts at defence made by Gerock,⁵⁰ Sale,⁵¹ and Weil,⁵² we have no need to look elsewhere than the [Hbr] ʕamrām of the O.T. for the ultimate source of the name, though the direct borrowing would seem to have been from the Syr ʕamrān.
Sycz, Eigennamen, 60, would take it as a genuine Ar name applied to [Hbr] ʕamrām because the name seems to be a formation from ʕamara, and used in pre-Islamic times. Ibn Durayd, Ištiqāq, 314, tells us of an ʕimrān among the Quḍāʕa, and Ibn Qutayba, Maʕārif, 223, speaks of an ʕImrān bin Maḫzūm at Mecca. D. H. Müller, WZKM, i, 25, says the name was known in SArabia, and evidence for its existence in NArabia is found in a Grk inscription from the Hauran given by Lidzbarski, Ephemeris, ii, 331, which reads Aúθou Salémou kè Emránou Bássou, as well as the Abū ʕImrān mentioned in Al-ʔAʕšà.⁵³ Horovitz, KU, 128, also quotes Littmann’s unpublished second volume No. 270 for an occurrence of the name in the Safaite inscriptions (cf. Ryckmans, Noms propres, i, 167).
This, however, hardly affects the Qurʔānic name, for though we may agree that there was an early Arabic name of this form, it is surely clear, as both Lidzbarski and Horovitz note, that the Qurʔānic name came to Muḥammad from his Jewish or Christian sources, though in the form it takes he may have been influenced by the Arabic name (Horovitz, JPN, 159).«

50. Christologie, pp. 22-8, followed by Sayous, Jésus-Christ d’apre Mahomet, Paris, 1880, pp. 35, 36. 51. Koran, p. 46, n. 3. 52. Muhammad der Prophet, 1843, p. 195, n. 53. Dīwān (ed. Geyer), xxvii, 18.

–

ʕammāriyyaẗ عَمّارِيّة

√ʕMR

n.f.

camel-borne sedan and the virgin riding in it into battle – WehrCowan1979.

Connection to other items of ↗√ʕMR unclear.

▪ …

…

▪ …
▪ …

–

ĭstiʕmār اِسْتِعْمار

√ʕMR

n., X

colonizing, colonization, foundation of colonies; colonialism (pol.), colonial rule – WehrCowan1979.

vn. X, coined from ↗ʕam˅ra ‘to be full, prosper, live, dwell, build’ and/or the vn. I, ↗ʕumrān.

▪ Not yet in Lane iii 1874, nor in Dozy1881.
▪ 1887 Wahrmund1887 has a lemma ĭstiʕmār and gives its meaning as ‘Colonisierung’.

See ↗ʕam˅ra.

–

► al-ĭstiʕmār al-jadīd, n., neo-colonialism.

► ^BP#4561ĭstiʕmārī, adj., colonial; colonizer: nsb-adj.
► ĭstiʕmāriyyaẗ, n.f., colonialism (pol.): n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ, coined from ĭstiʕmār.

ĭstiʕmāriyyaẗ اِسْتِعْماريّة

√ʕMR

n.f.

colonialism (pol.) – WehrCowan1979.

n.abstr. in ‑iyyaẗ, coined from ↗ĭstiʕmār, vn. of ↗ĭstiʕmara vb. X, ‘to settle, colonize; to turn (a country) into a colony’, autoben., from ↗ʕam˅ra ‘to be full, prosper, live, dwell, build’.

▪ …

See ↗ʕam˅ra.

–

Not derived, but related:
► ^BP#3055ĭstiʕmār, n., colonizing, colonization, foundation of colonies; colonialism (pol.), colonial rule: vn. X.
► ^BP#4561ĭstiʕmārī, adj., colonial; colonizer: nsb-adj from ĭstiʕmār.

mustaʕmaraẗ مُسْتَعْمَرة

√ʕMR

n.f.

settlement, colony

▪ nominalized PP X, f.

.

ʕMQ عمق

√ʕMQ

“root”

▪ ʕMQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕMQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕMQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘depth, distant road, deep, to deepen; to contemplate’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʕML عمل

√ʕML

“root”

▪ ʕML_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʕML_2 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘work, action, activity, labour, achievement, profession, to serve, to employ, maker, doer; respresentative, governor’

▪ …

–

▪ …
▪ …

–

ʕamaliyyaẗ عَمَلِيَّة

√ʕML

n.f.

… – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

–

►

ʕāmil عامِل

√ʕML

adj.; n.

.

▪ …PA, I

.

ʕMH عمه

√ʕMH

“root”

▪ ʕMH_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕMH_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕMH_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘perplexity; confusion; to be perplexed; to be puzzled’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʕMY عمي

√ʕMY

“root”

▪ ʕMY_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕMY_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕMY_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘blindness, uncharted lands, thick black rain clouds, to become blind; to become obscure, become misguided, be ignorant, be enigmatic’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʕNB عنب

√ʕNB

“root”

▪ ʕNB_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʕNB_2 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘grapes, vine, wine’

▪ …

–

▪ …
▪ …

–

ʕinab عِنَب

√ʕNB

n.

… – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Kogan2011: from protCSem *ʕinab‑ (or *ġinab‑) ‘grape’.
▪ …

▪ …

▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘grapes’) Akk inbu ‘fruit, tree, fruit’, Hbr ʕēnāḇ, Syr ʕenbṯā, SAr ʕnb ‘Rebe’.
▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

–

►

ʕNBR عنبر

√ʕNBR

“root”

▪ ʕNBR_1 ‘ambergris; sperm whale, cachalot (zool.)’ ↗ʕanbar_1
▪ ʕNBR_2 ‘storehouse, warehouse, depot’ ↗ʕanbar_2, ↗ʔanbār

Other values, now obsolete, include:

ʕNBR_3 ‘saffron’ : ^†ʕanbar (Lane, Hava1899)
ʕNBR_4 ‘shield’ : ^†ʕanbar (Lane, Hava1899)
ʕNBR_5 ‘bitter cold of winter’ : ^†ʕanbaraẗ (Hava1899)
ʕNBR_6 ‘nobility of a tribe’ : ^†ʕanbaraẗ (Hava1899)
ʕNBR_7 ‘belonging to the Banū ’l-ʕAnbar’ : ^†ʕanbarī

▪ ʕNBR_1 ʕanbar ‘ambergris’: of obscure etymology. Perhaps a transfer of meaning from ʕanbar ‘sperm whale, cachalot (zool.)’, which is of similarly unclear origin, to the solid, wax-like, flammable substance of a dull grey or blackish colour produced in the digestive system of the sperm whale, found floating in tropical seas and used in perfume manufacture. Or it is the other way round, the name for the type of whale stemming from its fragrant excrements? – Lane lists ʕanbar not only under √ʕNBR, but also under √ʕBR (referring the reader from there to √ʕNBR). Is ʕanbar in any way related to ↗ʕabīr then? According to ClassAr lexicography, ʕabīr is a mixture of perfumes, containing (among many other things) also saffron; in some places it is even quated with ‘saffron’, as is also ʕanbar (see ʕNBR_3). – Any connection of ʕanbar ‘ambergris’ with Grk lamprós ‘bright, brilliant, radiant’ (with initial l- interpreted as article al-)?
▪ ʕNBR_2 ʕanbar ‘storehouse, warehouse, depot’: The Ar word is believed by some to be of Pers origin, a var. of ↗ʔanbār. Others, however, think the Pers word is borrowed from Ar. Meanwhile, Roland2014a reminds us of the possibility that ʕanbar also may have been the original word for the ‘sperm whale, cachalot’; if this is true then the meaning ‘storehouse’ may be the result of a semantic development from ‘cachalot’ > ‘skin of the cachalot, used as a shield; shield’ (see ʕNBR_4, below) > *protection > ‘hangar (protecting food, etc.), storehouse’.

▪ ʕNBR_3 : In some ClassAr texts, ʕanbar seems to have the meaning ‘saffron’ (Lane, Hava1899). Are we dealing with a homonym here, or is it just the result of a confusion and/or transfer of meaning from ‘ambergris’ (ʕNBR_1) to ‘saffron’ (perh. due to its smell)?
▪ ʕNBR_4 : The value ‘shield’ that ʕanbar can take in ClassAr is explained by the lexicographers as the result of a semantic development from ʕanbar as the term for the ‘spermaceti whale’ (»a certain great fish, the length of which reaches to fifty cubits, called in Pers pāleh [apparently a mistranscription for (Pers) vāl, see (Ar) bāl ]«), via the ‘shields [that] are made of its skin’, »and hence, a shield, made of the skin of the fish above mentioned, and some say, coats of defence« – Lane.
▪ ʕNBR_5 ^†ʕanbaraẗ ‘bitter cold of winter’ (Hava1899): seems to be a fig. use of ‘ambergris’, though the nature of the relation is not really clear. Is the tertium comparationis the idea of ‘essence’ or ‘purity’—ambergris being the ‘essence’ of a perfume, and the bitter cold the ‘essence’ of winter? Cf. also the next two items.
▪ ʕNBR_6 ^†ʕanbaraẗ ‘nobility of a tribe (Hava1899), purity of the pedigrees of a people (Lane)’: like ʕNBR_5.
▪ ʕNBR_7 ^†ʕanbarī ‘ʕAnbarite’, »belonging to the Banū ’l-ʕAnbar, or Balʕanbar, a tribe of Tamīm who were the most skilful people as guides, hence the proverbial saying, ʔanta ʕanbarī bi-hāḏā ’l-balad ‘thou art an Amberee in this country, or district’« (Lane): like in ‘bitter cold’ (ʕNBR_5) or ‘nobility of a tribe’ (ʕNBR_6), the basic idea here too may be *‘essence, purity’, a fig. use of ʕanbar in the (original?) sense of ‘ambergris’.

▪ …

–

See above, section CONC.

–

¹ʕanbar عَنْبَر , pl. ʕanābirᵘ

√ʕNBR

n.

1 ambergris; 2 (pl. ʕanābirᵘ) sperm whale, cachalot (zool.) – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Whatever the primary value may have been—[v1] or [v2]—, the word is of obscure etymology.
▪ Accord. to Lokotsch1927, ʕanbar ‘ambergris’ is a »sehr teure, dunkelgraue Masse, die in früheren Zeiten in der Medizin hochgeschätzt war, während sie heute fast nur noch zur Herstellung von Parfümen benutzt wird. In rundlichen oder kantigen Stücken auf dem Meere schwimmend oder am Strande angespült, wird die Ambra im Indischen Ozean gefunden und für feine Sorten je kg 5000 Mark und mehr gezahlt.«

▪ …

▪ ?

▪ »Nişanyan rapproche le mot du [mPers] ambar ‘id.’. Pour Desmaisons et Johnson, le [Pers] ʕambar est d’origine arabe. Vu le nombre de mots construits sur cette base consonantique aux sens très divers que l’on trouve aussi bien chez Kazimirski que chez Lane [cf. ↗ʕNBR], on a probablement affaire à des homonymes et à plusieurs origines linguistiques. Il ne faut pas exclure la possibilité que ʕanbar soit un vieux mot racine désignant le cachalot« – Rolland2014a.
▪ [v1] ‘ambergris’ is perh. a transfer of meaning from ʕanbar [v2] ‘sperm whale, cachalot (zool.)’, which is of similarly unclear origin, to the solid, wax-like, flammable substance of a dull grey or blackish colour produced in the digestive system of the sperm whale, found floating in tropical seas and used in perfume manufacture (wiktionary/en.wikipedia). Or it is the other way round, the name for the type of whale stemming from its fragrant excrements?
▪ Lane lists ʕanbar not only under √ʕNBR, but also under √ʕBR (referring the reader from there to √ʕNBR). Is ʕanbar in any way related to ↗ʕabīr then? According to ClassAr dictionaries, ʕabīr is a mixture of perfumes, containing (among many other things) also saffron; in some places it is therefore even equated with ‘saffron’, as is also ʕanbar (see ʕNBR_3).
▪ Any connection betw. Ar ʕanbar ‘ambergris’ and Grk lamprós ‘bright, brilliant, radiant’ (with initial l- interpreted as article al-)?

▪ Tu amber ‘ambergris’: 1303 Codex Cumanicus : ladano = ʕanbar – Nişanyan10Apr2015.
▪ Ar ʕanbar ‘ambergris’ is also the source of corresponding words in many Eur langs—cf., e.g., Engl amber, mC14, ‘ambergris, perfume made from ambergris’, »from oFr ambre, from mLat ambar ‘ambergris’ (> It ambra, etc.), from Ar ʕanbar ‘id.’ – In Europe, the sense was extended, inexplicably, to fossil resins from the Baltic (lC13 in AngloLat; c. 1400 in Engl), which has become the main sense as the use of ambergris has waned. This formerly was known as ‘white or yellow amber ’ to distinguish it from ambergris, which word entered Engl eC15 from Fr, which distinguished the two substances as ambre gris and ambre jaune. The classical word for Baltic amber was electrum (cf. electric [cf. Ar ↗kahrabāʔ ])« – EtymOnline .

► ʕanbarī, adj., 1 perfumed with ambergris: nsb-adj. from ʕanbar in the sense of [v1] ‘ambergris’; 2 liqueur (also nabīḏ ʕanbarī): short for al-ʕaraq al-~ which, accord. to Dozy, is »la meilleure espèce de ʕaraq «; if from [v1] ‘ambergris’ then prob. in the latter’s fig. meaning of *‘essence’ (see ʕNBR_5-7 in entry ↗ʕNBR); 3 a variety of pigeon: etymology unclear.
► ʕanbaraẗ al-šitāʔ, n.f., the severity of winter, frost: belonging here, or to be kept apart from ‘ambergris’? Perh. the *‘essence’ of winter, cf. ʕanbarī [v2] above and ʕNBR_5-7 in entry ↗ʕNBR.

²ʕanbar عَنْبَر , pl. ʕanābirᵘ

√ʕNBR

n.

1 storehouse, warehouse, store, depot; 2 hold (of a ship); 3 shed; 4 locomotive shed, car shed; 5 aircraft shed, hangar; 6 factory hall; 7 sleeping quarters, dormitory; 8 ward (of a hospital or prison) – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Var. of ↗ʔanbār ‘hangar, grange, magasin, entrepôt, dépôt; pont (de vaisseau)’, from mPers hanbārak ‘id.’, akin to Skr sambhāra ‘collecte, accumulation de nourriture’ < IE *sem- ‘un, même, ensemble’ + *bʰer- ‘porter’ – Rolland2014a.²⁰
▪ Cf., however, also ↗ʕanbar_1 in the meaning of ‘sperm whale, cachalot’, hence also ^†‘skin of the cachalot, used as a shield; shield [see ʕNBR_4 in root entry ↗ʕNBR]’ from where it is not a big step to > *protection, and hence ‘hangar (protecting food, etc.), storehouse’.

20. According to Rolland, »[c]e mot est un bon exemple de la parenté—sonore et écrite—entre la hamza et le ʕayn, et de la possibilité pour l’un de se substituer à l’autre, notamment dans les emprunts.«

▪ …

…

–

ʕNT عنت

√ʕNT

“root”

▪ ʕNT_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕNT_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕNT_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘a mountain which is difficult to climb, hardship, to cause hardship; corruption, sinning; to be overbearing, to be fastidious, to be finicky’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʕND عند

√ʕND

“root”

▪ ʕND_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕND_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕND_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘side, location, being at a point in time or place; to deviate, to oppose stubbornly, obstinacy, to be headstrong’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʕinda-ʔiḏⁱⁿ عِنْدَئِذٍ

√ʕND, ʔḎ

adv.

then, at that time

▪ …

.

ʕNṢR عنصر

√ʕNṢR

“root”

▪ ʕNṢR_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʕNṢR_2 ‘…’ ↗…

▪ …

–

▪ …
▪ …

–

ʕunṣuriyyaẗ عُنْصُرِيَّة

√ʕNṢR

n.f.

… – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

–

►

ʕNQ عنق

√ʕNQ

“root”

▪ ʕNQ_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʕNQ_2 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘neck, to twist the neck, notables; to hug, to wrestle, to struggle; legendary bird (the phoenix)’

▪ …

–

▪ …
▪ …

–

ʕunq عُنْق , var. ʕunuq

√ʕNQ

n.

… – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Kogan2011: an alternative term for ‘neck’ for which protSem *ʕ˅nḳ‑ can be reconstructed. But the basic protSem term for ‘neck’, *kišād‑, does not seem to have left reflexes in Ar. – Cf. also ↗ṣawar, √ṢWR.
▪ …

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

–

►

ʕNKB عنكب

√ʕNKB

“root”

▪ ʕNKB_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʕNKB_2 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘spider, worms that infest honeycombs, to be twisted almost into the shape of a ram’s horns’

▪ …

–

▪ …
▪ …

–

ʕankabūt عَنْكَبُوت

√ʕNKB

n.

… – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Kogan2011: from protWSem *ʕankab‑ ‘spider’.
▪ …

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

–

►

ʕNW عنو

√ʕNW

“root”

▪ ʕNW_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕNW_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕNW_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to be humble, be subservient, yield, show humility, submit, humble o.s.; to take by force, force, to take as prisoner of war, to be imprisoned; to show interest; to take s.th.; to mean, meaning; title’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʕHD عهد

√ʕHD

“root”

▪ ʕHD_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʕHD_2 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘covenant, agreement, promise; purity; safe conduct; to enjoin; to frequent; agreed time; known place; to inspect, to look for’

▪ …

–

▪ …
▪ …

–

ʕahd عَهْد

√ʕHD

n.

… – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

–

►

ʕHN عهن

√ʕHN

“root”

▪ ʕHN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕHN_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕHN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘wool dyed in several colours, broken branches still attached to the tree; to relax’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʕWǦ عوج

√ʕWǦ

“root”

▪ ʕWǦ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕWǦ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕWǦ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘ivory, to be crooked, to be curved/twisted around, to bend up, to twist, to lean to; to divert’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʕWD عود

√ʕWD

“root”

▪ ʕWD_1 ‘to return’ ↗ʕāda; ‘custom, habit’ ↗ʕādaẗ; ‘clinic’ ↗ʕiyādaẗ (√ʕWD); ‘feast, festival’ ↗ʕīd (√ʕYD)
▪ ʕWD_2 ‘1 wood; 2 lute’ ↗ʕūd
▪ ʕWD_3 ‘old, ancient, antique’: ↗ʕādī
▪ ʕWD_4 ‘(Lev.Gul) so; (Irq) already’: ↗ʕād

Other values, now obsolete, include:
▪ ^†ʕWD_5 ‘1 ≅ ʔinna; 2 ≅ hal; 3 not (negative answer to a question)’: ^†ʕādi
▪ ^†ʕWD_6 ‘ʕĀd’ (an ancient Arabian tribe): ^†ʕĀd
▪ ^†ʕWD_7 ‘…’ : …

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘1 stick, pole, branch of a tree; 2 to go back, rescind, accrue; 3 to be accustomed, habits, to repeat, be experienced; 4 appointed time or place, anniversary, feast day; 5 to change to, change; to visit’.

▪ ʕWD_1 : from protWSem *√ʕWD ‘to turn’. – ʕādaẗ ‘custom, habit’ is *‘s.th. returning regularly’, and dto. the ʕīd ‘feast, festival’ (which in itself is considered an inner-Sem loan, from Syr, see ↗ʕīd); ʕiyādaẗ ‘clinic’ is from ʕāda in the sense of ‘to return regularly to s.o., visit (a patient)’
▪ ʕWD_2 : etymology obscure; a relation to Sem *ʕiś‑ ‘tree’ can be excluded. – 1 Accord. to A. Dietrich (in entry »ʕūd« in EI²), the widespread use of the term ʕūd as ‘aloe wood’ is wrong as ʕūd originally signifies »certain kinds of resinous, dark-coloured woods with a high specific weight and a strong aromatic scent, which were used in medicine as perfume and incense (ʕūd al-baḫūr) and were highly coveted because of their rarity and value«. – 2 The Ar lute was called ʕūd ‘wood(en)’ prob. because its upper part was made of precious ʕūd wood.
▪ ʕWD_3 : explained in the ClassAr dictionaries as based on ʕWD_6 ʕĀd, the ancient Arab tribe, not as semantic extension of the more common sense of ʕādī, which is ‘customary, usual, common, ordinary; hence also simple, plain, ordinary (man)’, derived as a nsb-adj. from ʕādaẗ ‘custom, habit’ (i.e., * ‘s.th. returning regularly’, from [v1] ‘to return’).
▪ ʕWD_4 : The modern dialectal meanings ‘so’ (LevAr, GulfAr) and ‘already’ (IrqAr) of the adv. ʕādⁱ have an old Sem background and can be traced back to protWSem *ʕād- ‘(he is) still’ (Kogan2015: 76-77 #6), which is prob. related to ʕWD_1 ‘to return’.
▪ ^†ʕWD_5 : prob. same as preceding, though semantics seem to differ slightly.
▪ ^†ʕWD_6 : »ʕĀd, an ancient Arab tribe, is mentioned by name twenty-four times in the Qurʔān, as the people to whom the prophet Hūd was sent. One of the peoples associated with the long-lost past, they are named in pre-Islamic poetry and are a part of ancient Arabian mythology. They represent the origin of the Arabs in the distant past and exemplify their power, longevity, and pride; this sense is found in dictionaries, with the word ʕādī, meaning ‘very ancient,’ connected etymologically to the ʕĀd (see Lane, s.v.)« – A. Rippin, art. »ʕĀd«, in EI³. – The tribe’s name itself is of obscure etymology. »Wellhausen pointed out that instead of the expression ‘since the time of ʕĀd’ the expression min al-ʕād also occurs; therefore he supposed that originally ʕĀd was a common noun (‘the ancient time’; adj. ʕādī ‘very ancient’) and that the mythical nation arose from a misinterpretation of that expression« – F. Buhl, art. »ʕĀd«, in EI².
▪ …

▪ ʕWD_3 : cf. ^†ʕawd, pl. ʕiyadaẗ, ʕiwadaẗ, adj., ‘old (animal); ancient (road)’ – Hava1899.
▪ ^†ʕWD_5 : ^†ʕādi ‘(1) indeclinable particle having the sense of ʔinna, e.g., raqadtu wa-ʕādi ʔabāka sāhir “I slept while thy father remained awake”; (2) interrog. part. in the sense of hal, e.g., ʕādi ʔabūk muqīm “Is thy father abiding?”; (3) negative answer to a question, e.g., ʕādi ḫaraǧa Zayd? ʕādi-h “Has Zeyd gone forth? He has not”’ – Hava1899.
▪ ^†ʕWD_6 : ʕĀd, »an ancient Arab tribe descended from Shem, a son of Noah and ancestor of the Semites (Gen. X.21), and described as being of giant stature *(7:74) wa-ḏkurū ʔiḏ ǧaʕala-kum ḫulafāʔa min baʕdi ʕĀdin ‘and remember when He made you successors after ʕĀd’. The people of ʕĀd were a great tribe that dwelled in al-ʔAḥqāf (q.v.), a vast hilly desert region said to have extended between Oman and Ḥaḍramawt in Arabia. Their main city ʔIram (q.v.) was described in the Qurʔān (89:7-8), as ‘the city of lofty pillars, the like of which has never been created in the land’. When their brother, the prophet Hūd, warned them against their worshipping of idols (said to have been the Goddess Allāt, q.v.) they called him a liar. They were punished for denying God and their mighty city was destroyed by a terrible wailing wind (69:6) that levelled everything to the ground and left the inhabitants strewn around like felled palm trees« – BadawiAbdelHaleem2008.
▪ …

▪ ʕWD_1: (Klein1987:) Hbr ʕwd ‘to return, repeat, do again’, Aram ʕîdâ ‘festival’, Syr ʕyādâ ‘usage, ceremony’, SAr ʕwd ‘to return’. – (Kogan2015, 76-77 #6 n219:) »reliably attested in a rather narrow circle of WSem languages«: Hbr ʕwd ‘to surround’ (very marginal), Ar ʕwd ‘to return’, Sab ʕwd ‘to return’, Min ʕwd ‘retourner’, Gz ʕoda ‘to go around, turn around’. – (Tropper2008:) Cf. also Ug ʕwd (D-stem) ‘to return (s.th.), bring back’ (?)
▪ ʕWD_2: – (modHbr ʕūd ‘lute’ is from Ar).
▪ ʕWD_3: [v1] based on ʕādaẗ ‘custom, habit’, see ʕWD_1; [v2] from ʕĀd, the ancient Arab tribe, see ʕWD_6.
▪ ʕWD_4: (Kogan2015, 76-77 #6:) Hbr ʕōd, BiblAram ʕōd, Ar ʕād(a), Gz ʕādi, Mhr ʔād, Jib ʕɔd, Soq ʕad.
▪ ^†ʕWD_5: = ʕWD_4?
▪ ^†ʕWD_6: of unknown etymology (but see DISC below).
▪ …

▪ It seems that, etymologically, we can distinguish three main complexes: A ‘to return’, comprising the broad value spectrum of [v1] and [v4], and prob. also [v5], B ‘wood; lute’, with [v2] as the only representative, and C the tribal name ‘ʕĀd’ [v6], with [v3] ‘ancient’ derived from it.
▪ Within complex A, the exact semantic relation (and dependence) between [v1] ‘to return’ and [v4] ‘(is) still’ should be further explored. Probably, the meaning ‘still’ is resultative: when one ‘returns’ and finds s.th. ‘repeatedly’ or ‘again’ in the same condition as before, one qualifies it as ‘still’ having an unchanged status.
▪ …

▪ ʕWD_2: Engl lute (lC13) < oFr lut, leut < oProv laut < Ar al-ʕūd. – Cf. also Ar al-ʕūd > mLat lutana > Span laud, Port alaude, It liuto – EtymOnline. | Ge Laute < mHGe lūte, mDu lute, luyte, Du luit < oFr leüt (C13) (> Fr luth), oProv laüt (c1300), It liuto (lC13) < Span laúd, older form alaúd (eC14), alod (mC13) < Ar al-ʕūd – DWDS (< Pfeiffer, Etym. Wb.)
▪ …

–

ʕād‑ / ʕud‑ عادَ / عُدْـ

√ʕWD

vb., I

1a to return, come back (li or ʔilà to); b to flow back; 2a to go back, be traceable, be attributable (ʔilà to); b to revert, redound, accrue (ʕalà to); c to refer, relate (ʕalà to); 3a to be due, go back (ʔilà to); b to fall to s.o.’s (ʔilà) lot or share, fall in s.o.’s (ʔilà) bailiwick; c to belong, (ap)pertain, be proper (ʔilà or li to); 4 to give up, abandon, relinquish (ʕan s.th.), withdraw, resign (ʕan from); ʕāda bi to return with = to lead back, bring back, take back, return, reduce, revert s.o. or s.th. (ʔilà to); ʕāda ʕalayhi bi to bring about, entail s.th. for s.o., result in s.th. for s.o., yield, bring in, return s.th. to s.o.; (with predicate adjective or noun in acc.) to become, grow (into), turn into; (with foll. imperf. or ʔilà) to resume, renew (an activity); (with neg. and foll. imperf.) to do s.th. no more or no longer; (with foll. finite verb) to do s.th. again or anew; — 5 (ʕiyādaẗ) to visit (DO a patient), have under treatment (DO; of a physician) – WehrCowan1979.

▪ From protWSem *√ʕWD ‘to turn’ – Kogan2015.
▪ Related also to protSem *ʕād- ‘(he is) still’ – Kogan2015: 76-77 #6, see ↗ʕād.
▪ Kogan2015, 203 #66: In Ar, ʕāda and ↗raǧaʕa have largely ousted ↗ṯāba, the Ar reflex of the main exponent of the meaning ‘to return’ in protCSem, *ṯwb.
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▪ Klein1987: Hbr ʕwd ‘to return, repeat, do again’, Aram ʕîdâ ‘festival’, Syr ʕyādâ ‘usage, ceremony’, SAr ʕwd ‘to return’.
▪ Kogan2015, 76-77 #6 n219: (reliably attested in a rather narrow circle of WSem languages:) Hbr ʕwd ‘to surround’ (very marginal), Ar ʕwd ‘to return’, Sab ʕwd ‘to return’, Min ʕwd ‘retourner’, Gz ʕoda ‘to go around, turn around’.
▪ Tropper2008: cf. prob. also Ug ʕwd (D-stem) ‘to return (s.th.), bring back’ (?).
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▪ …
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►taʕawwud, n., contraction of a habit, habituation: vn. V.
►ĭʕtiyād, n., contraction of a habit, habituation: vn. VIII.
►ĭʕtiyādī, adj., 1a ordinary, common; b usual, customary, habitual; c normal, regular; d plain, simple, ordinary (man): nsb-formation of preceding
►^BP#2502ĭstiʕādaẗ, n.f., reconquest, recovery, recuperation, regaining, reclamation, retrieval: vn. X.
►^BP#2061ʕāʔid, adj., 1a returning, reverting, recurrent; b (pl. ūn), n., returning emigrant, re-emigrant; c (pl. ʕuwwād), n., visitor (to a sick person); 2a accruing (profit, merit); b belonging, (ap)pertaining, proper (li or ʔilà to s.o./s.th.); 3 pl. ʕāʔidāt, nonhum.pl., revenues: PA I. | ʕāʔid al-ʔarbāḥ, n., net profit, net gain
►ʕāʔidaẗ, pl. ʕawāʔidᵘ, n.f., benefit, profit, advantage, gain (ʕalà for s.o.): PA I.f.
►ʕāʔidiyyaẗ, n.f., a belonging (to), a being part (of), membership: abstr. formation in iyyaẗ, based on ʕāʔid (2b).
►muʕawwad, adj., 1a used, accustomed, habituated, conditioned, inured, seasoned (ʕalà to); b wont (ʕalà to do s.th.), being in the habit (ʕalà of doing s.th.): PP II.
►muʕīd, pl. -ūn, n., 1 repetitor, tutor, coach; 2 assistant conducting drill sessions (university): PA IV.
►muʕād: muʕād taṣdīruh, forwarded (mail): PP IV.
►mutaʕawwid, adj., 1a used, accustomed, habituated, conditioned, inured, seasoned (ʕalà to); b wont (ʕalà to do s.th.), being in the habit (ʕalà of doing s.th.): PA V.
►^BP#3431muʕtād, adj., 1a used, accustomed, habituated, conditioned, inured, seasoned (ʕalà to); b wont (ʕalà to do s.th.), being in the habit (ʕalà of doing s.th.); 2 usual, customary, normal: PA/PP VIII | ka-’l-muʕtād, adv., as usual; muʕtād al-ǧarāʔim, n., habitual criminal

For other items pertaining to √ʕWD/ʕYD, cf. ↗ʕūd, ↗ʕādaẗ, ↗ʕādī, ↗ʕiyādaẗ, ↗ʕād, and ↗ʕīd (√ʕYD), as well as, for the whole picture, root entries ↗√ʕWD and ↗√ʕYD.

ʕūd عُود , pl. ʔaʕwād, ʕīdān

√ʕWD

n.

1a wood; b stick, rod, pole; c branch, twig, switch; d item, stalk; e cane, reed; 2 aloes (wood); 3 lute (musical instrument); 4a body, build, physique; b strength, force, intensity; c pl. ʔaʕwād, full intensity (e.g., of a disease) – WehrCowan1979.

▪ [v1] : etymology obscure; a relation to Sem *ʕiś ‘tree’²¹ can be excluded.
▪ [v2] : Accord. to A. Dietrich, the widespread use of ʕūd for ‘aloe wood’ is incorrect; originally, ʕūd rather signifies »certain kinds of resinous, dark-coloured woods with a high specific weight and a strong aromatic scent, which were used in medicine as perfume and incense (ʕūd al-baḫūr) and were highly coveted because of their rarity and value« (entry »ʕūd« in EI²).
▪ [v3] : The ʕūd is »the most important musical instrument of Islamic peoples from the Atlantic shores to the Persian lands« – Dietrich, ‘ʕūd’, in EI². — Lute-like instruments are attested far back in the history of the Middle East and have been part of musical culture in Mesopotamia and the Fertile Crescent since a very long time. While long-necked lutes (or harps) ultimately may be related to the Persian setār and Indian sitar (see ↗qīṯāraẗ), the short-necked ʕūd is assumed to have developed from the Persian berbat by C9‘. – The fact that the Arabic lute was called ʕūd is usually explained as due to the instrument’s (upper part) being made of wood (as opposed to earlier similar lutes, called mizhar or barbat, with a body cover made of skin/leather). However, prob. the reason was not only that it had a wooden deck, but also that the wood that was used for this purpose was precious wood, as ʕūd »was regarded as a luxury item, used especially for fine wood-carving and furniture-making« (ibid.). — Another explanation (promoted, among others, by Ibn Ḫaldūn) connects it to a wooden plectrum with which the ʕūd allegedly was played; but this is rather unlikely, as the plectrum typically is soft (cf. its traditional name, rīšaẗ ‘feather’). – Ar al-ʕūd is the etymon of most Eur words for ‘lute’ (see below, section WEST). Europeans came to know the lute perh. through the crusaders, but prob. even earlier via Andalusia (the Arabs had brought musical instruments with them from the East when the conquered Southern Spain and established the Umayyad caliphate in Córdoba) or via Byzantium. In Europe, the lute received bonds (made of catgut), and from c.1500 CE onwards, it was played with the fingers rather than with a plectrum. During the Renaissance, the lute was regarded as the queen of musical instruments – art. »Laute« in de.wiki (as of 30Oct2021).
▪ [v4] : fig. use
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21. Cf. Kogan2015 (Sw#90): protSem *ʕiś- ‘tree’ is preserved in Akk iṣu, Ug ʕṣ, Hbr ʕēṣ, Sab ʕṣ́, Gz ʕəṣ́, Te ʕəč̣č̣ät, etc. ‘tree, wood’, and also Aram *ʕiś- ‘wood’, Ar ʕiḍḍ ‘small thorny trees’, ʕuḍḍ ‘thick, large firewood’, ʕiḍāh ‘any great trees having thorns’.

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▪ – . (modHbr ʕūd ‘lute’ is from Ar).
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▪ The fact that ʕūd does not have cognates in Sem underlines the term’s peculiarity. Should one assume that it is a foreign word?
▪ Lokotsch1927 #2127: In the same way as the lute, the instrument accompanying love songs, has reached us from the Islamic East, so probably also medieval Minnesang is of Oriental provenience; for discussion, see ↗ṭarab (etymon of Fr troubadour?).
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▪ Engl lute (lC13) < oFr lut, leut < oProv laut < Ar al-ʕūd. – Cf. also Ar al-ʕūd > mLat lutana > Span laud, Port alaude, It liuto – EtymOnline.
▪ Ge Laute < mHGe lūte, mDu lute, luyte, Du luit < oFr leüt (C13) (> Fr luth), oProv laüt (c1300), It liuto (lC13) < Span laúd, older form alaúd (eC14), alod (mC13) < Ar al-ʕūd – DWDS (< Pfeiffer, Etym. Wb.)
▪ Ar al-ʕūd ‘wood; instrument made from wood, lute, cither’ > It liuto, liudo, oFr leüt, Fr luth, Span laud, Port alaude, Rum laută, Du luit, Engl lute, Ge Laute; [Rum laută > Tu lauta, lāʔuṭa > nGrk laoùta, Bulg lauta ‘violin’, Serb Iout ‘lute’, Ukr łavuta ‘lute, violin; thickhead, fool’, ljutnja, Ru Ijutnja, Pol lutnia, Cz loutna ‘lute’ – Lokotsch1927 #2127.
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►ʕūd al-ṯiqāb, n., matchstick, match;
►ʕūd al-ṣalīb, n., peony (Paeonia; bot.);
►ʕūd al-kibrīt, n., matchstick, match;
►raḫāwaẗ al-ʕūd, n.f., weakness of character;
►ṣulb al-ʕūd, adj., of robust physique; strongly built, husky, sturdy; stubborn, resistant, unbending, unyielding, relentless;
►ṣalābaẗ al-ʕūd, n.f., sternness, severity, hardness, obstinacy, stubbornness, inflexibility, relentlessness;
►ladn al-ʕūd, adj., lissome, lithe, of elastic physique;
►ṯaqqafa ʕūdah, expr., to train, educate s.o.;
►ʕaǧama ʕūdah, expr., to test s.o., put s.o. to the test;
►kasara ʕūdah, expr., to break s.o.’s power of resistance, crush s.o.’s spirit

►ʕawwādaẗ, pl. āt, woman lutist: n.prof.f.

For other items pertaining to √ʕWD/ʕYD, cf. ↗ʕāda, ↗ʕādaẗ, ↗ʕādī, ↗ʕiyādaẗ, ↗ʕād, and ↗ʕīd (√ʕYD), as well as, for the whole picture, root entries ↗√ʕWD and ↗√ʕYD.

ʕādaẗ عادة , pl. ‑āt, ʕawāʔidᵘ

√ʕWD

n.f.

1 habit, wont, custom, usage, practice; ʕādaẗan, adv., usually, customarily, ordinarily, habitually; 2 pl. ʕawāʔidᵘ, a taxes, duties; b charges, fees, rates – WehrCowan1979

▪ From ↗ʕāda ‘to return’ (*‘to return regularly, become habitual’), from protWSem *√ʕWD ‘to turn’.
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▪ ↗ʕāda
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–

►fawqᵃ l-ʕādaẗ, adv., extraordinary, unusual, uncommon; special, extraordinary, emergency (e.g., meeting);
►ʕalà ʕādatih, adv., according to his habit, as was his wont, as he used to do;
►ka-sābiq al-ʕādaẗ, adv., as was formerly customary, as usual;
►ǧarat-i l-ʕādaẗ bi , expr., to be customary, usual, common or current, prevail, be a common phenomenon, be the vogue, have become common practice;
►ǧarat bi-ḏālika ʕādatuhum, expr., that was their habit, that’s what they used to do;
►al-ʕādaẗ al-sirriyyaẗ, n.f., onanism, masturbation;
►ʕawāʔid al-gumruk, nonhum.pl., customs duties;
►ʕawāʔid mabānin, nonhum.pl., house taxes;
►ʕawāʔid al-ʔamlāk, nonhum.pl., taxes on real estate

►^BP#2964taʕawwada, vb. V, to get used, be accustomed, habituate o.s. (ʕalà or DO, to s.th.), make a habit (ʕalà or DO, of s. th.), be used to doing, be wont to do: Dt-stem, selfref. and/or denom. from ʕādaẗ.
►^BP#3527ĭʕtāda, vb. VIII, = V: Gt-stem, selfref.

►^BP#631ʕādī, adj., 1a customary, usual, common, ordinary, normal, regular; b undistinguished, run-of-the-mill; c ordinary, regular (e.g., meeting, as opposed to extraordinary, special, emergency); d simple, plain, ordinary (man): nsb-formation from ʕādaẗ. — 2 ↗ʕādī, [v2]
►taʕwīd, n., accustoming, habituation, conditioning, inurement (ʕalà to): vn. II.
►taʕawwud, n., contraction of a habit, habituation: vn. V.
►ĭʕtiyād, n., contraction of a habit, habituation: vn. VIII.
►ĭʕtiyādī, adj., 1a ordinary, common; b usual, customary, habitual; c normal, regular; d plain, simple, ordinary (man): nsb-formation of preceding
►^BP#2502ĭstiʕādaẗ, n.f., reconquest, recovery, recuperation, regaining, reclamation, retrieval: vn. X.
►^BP#2061ʕāʔid, adj., 1a returning, reverting, recurrent; b (pl. ūn), n., returning emigrant, re-emigrant; c (pl. ʕuwwād), n., visitor (to a sick person); 2a accruing (profit, merit); b belonging, (ap)pertaining, proper (li or ʔilà to s.o./s.th.); 3 pl. ʕāʔidāt, nonhum.pl., revenues: PA I. | ʕāʔid al-ʔarbāḥ, n., net profit, net gain
►muʕawwad, adj., 1a used, accustomed, habituated, conditioned, inured, seasoned (ʕalà to); b wont (ʕalà to do s.th.), being in the habit (ʕalà of doing s.th.): PP II.
►mutaʕawwid, adj., 1a used, accustomed, habituated, conditioned, inured, seasoned (ʕalà to); b wont (ʕalà to do s.th.), being in the habit (ʕalà of doing s.th.): PA V.
►^BP#3431muʕtād, adj., 1a used, accustomed, habituated, conditioned, inured, seasoned (ʕalà to); b wont (ʕalà to do s.th.), being in the habit (ʕalà of doing s.th.); 2 usual, customary, normal: PA/PP VIII | ka-’l-muʕtād, adv., as usual; muʕtād al-ǧarāʔim, n., habitual criminal

For other items pertaining to √ʕWD/ʕYD, cf. ↗ʕāda, ↗ʕūd, ↗ʕādī, ↗ʕiyādaẗ, ↗ʕād, and ↗ʕīd (√ʕYD), as well as, for the whole picture, root entries ↗√ʕWD and ↗√ʕYD.

ʕādī عاديّ

√ʕWD

adj.

1a customary, usual, common, ordinary, normal, regular; b undistinguished, run-of-the-mill; c ordinary, regular (e.g., meeting, as opposed to extraordinary, special, emergency); d simple, plain, ordinary (man): nsb-formation of the preceding; — 2 old, ancient, antique – WehrCowan1979.

▪ [v1] : nsb-formation from ʕādaẗ ‘custom, habit’, from ↗ʕāda, vb. I, ‘to return’ (> *‘to be repeated, become a habit’), ultimately from protWSem *√ʕWD ‘to turn’.
▪ [v2] : prob. a nsb-formation from ʕĀd, the name of an ancient Arab tribe; see ʕWD_6 in root entry ↗√ʕWD.
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▪ [v2] : ^†ʕawd, pl. ʕiyadaẗ, ʕiwadaẗ, adj., ‘old (animal); ancient (road)’; ^†ʕādī ‘old; old building; ruins’ – Hava1899.
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▪ [v1] : ↗ʕāda.
▪ [v2] : ? – Cf. ↗ʕWD_6.
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▪ …

►ʕādiyyāt, nonhum.pl., antiques, antiquities

For other items pertaining to √ʕWD/ʕYD, cf. ↗ʕāda, ↗ʕūd, ↗ʕādaẗ, ↗ʕiyādaẗ, ↗ʕād, and ↗ʕīd (√ʕYD), as well as, for the whole picture, root entries ↗√ʕWD and ↗√ʕYD.

ʕiyādaẗ عِيادة , pl. ‑āt

√ʕWD

n.f.

1 visit (with a patient), doctor’s call (on a patient); — 2a (pl. āt) clinic; b office (of a physician), consultation room (of a physician): vn. I | ʕiyādaẗ ḫāriǧiyyaẗ, n.f., policlinic; outpatient clinic

▪ [v1] : vn. of ʕāda, ū, vb. I, ‘to visit (DO a patient), have under treatment (DO; of a physician), a specialized use of ↗ʕāda ‘to return’ (*’to return regularly to a patient, to change’), ultimately from protWSem *√ʕWD ‘to turn’.
▪ [v2] : metonymic use of [v1] (‘place of doctor’s call’ < ‘doctor’s call’).
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▪ …

▪ ↗ʕāda
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–

For other items pertaining to √ʕWD/ʕYD, cf. ↗ʕāda, ↗ʕūd, ↗ʕādaẗ, ↗ʕādī, ↗ʕād, and ↗ʕīd (√ʕYD), as well as, for the whole picture, root entries ↗√ʕWD and ↗√ʕYD.

ʕād عاد

√ʕWD

adv.

1 (LevAr GulfAr) so; 2 (IrqAr) already – BuckwalterParkinson2011.

▪ (Kogan2015, 76-77 #6:) from protWSem *ʕād- ‘(he is) still.’
▪ »The use of ʕād with the meaning ‘still, yet’ is curiously absent from the classical sources and is not recognized by the standard dictionaries of ClassAr (such as Lane 2188-2189). This is in glaring contrast with its broad presence in a variety of modern Ar dialects and in post-classical written sources. Nöldeke’s inability to cope with this contradiction is more than understandable: “So nahe es liegt, dies ʕād einfach mit Hbr ʕôd zu identifizieren, so wäre das doch angesichts der historischen Entwicklung unrichtig” (Nöldeke 1904: 66)« – Kogan2015, 76-77 #6 n217.
▪ Prob., we also have to compare the older use as attested in Hava1899, see below, section HIST.
▪ …

▪ Though semantics remain to be explained, we prob. have to compare ^†ʕādⁱ as given by Hava1899 (cf. ^†ʕWD_5 in root entry ↗√ʕWD): ‘(1) indeclinable particle having the sense of ʔinna, e.g., raqadtu wa-ʕādi ʔabāka sāhir “I slept while thy father remained awake”; (2) interrog. part. in the sense of hal, e.g., ʕādi ʔabūk muqīm “Is thy father abiding?”; (3) negative answer to a question, e.g., ʕādi ḫaraǧa Zayd? ʕādi-h “Has Zeyd gone forth? He has not”’.
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▪ Kogan2015, 76-77 #6: Hbr ʕōd, BiblAram ʕōd, Ar ʕād(a), Gz ʕādi, Mhr ʔād, Jib ʕɔd, Soq ʕad.
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▪ Kogan2015, 76-77 #6: »Standard etymological treatments of [Sem] *ʕād ‘(he is) still’ typically present it as having no Akk cognates. It may therefore appear as a likely candidate for a protWSem lexical innovation, ultimately connected with the verbal root *ʕWD ‘to turn’ [↗ʕāda]. It is hard to avoid thinking, however, that the functional equivalent of *ʕād- in Akk, namely adīni ‘until now; not yet’, has something to do with it also in terms of etymology.⁵⁴ In a broader perspective, an eventual connection between *ʕād and the protSem preposition *ʕaday ‘until’ is not to be excluded.⁵⁵ «
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54. »Von Soden explains [Akk] adīni as ‘bis zu uns,’ but this is, of course, merely a guess« – ibid., n220. 55. »The semantic link between ‘still’ and ‘until/as long as’ is evident, cf. Ru Пока я жив! ‘I am still alive!’ vs. Я буду бороться, пока я жив ‘I will fight as long as I am alive.’ One can easily imagine how a sequence like adi balṭat… ‘as long as she is alive ...’ could be transformed into ‘she is still alive.’ There remains, of course, the well-known phonological irregularity (protSem *ʕaday > Akk adi instead of the expected *edi)« – ibid., n221.

–

For other items pertaining to √ʕWD/ʕYD, cf. ↗ʕāda, ↗ʕūd, ↗ʕādaẗ, ↗ʕādī, ↗ʕiyādaẗ, and ↗ʕīd (√ʕYD), as well as, for the whole picture, root entries ↗√ʕWD and ↗√ʕYD.

ʕWḎ عوذ

√ʕWḎ

“root”

▪ ʕWḎ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕWḎ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕWḎ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘refuge, protection, curtain, hideout, to seek refuge, to invoke the protection of; amulet, charm, incantation, tight circle’

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–

.

–

ʕWR عور

√ʕWR

“root”

▪ ʕWR_1 ‘one-eyed’ ↗ʔaʕwarᵘ; ‘defectiveness, faultiness, deficiency, imperfection; weakness, weak spot; pudendum, genitals’ ↗ʕawraẗ; ‘to damage, mar, spoil’ ↗²ʕawwara; ? ‘to lend, loan (s.th. to s.o.)’ ↗ʔaʕāra; ? (EgAr) ‘false, artificial (teeth, hair)’ ↗ʕīraẗ
▪ ʕWR_2 ‘to alternate, take turns, do by turns’ ↗¹taʕāwara; ‘to befall, affect (alternately, successively) (s.o.), come (alternately, successively) (over s.o.)’ ↗¹ĭʕtawara; ? ‘to lend, loan (s.th. to s.o.)’ ↗ʔaʕāra; ? (EgAr) ‘false, artificial (teeth, hair)’ ↗ʕīraẗ
▪ ʕWR_3 ‘to shape, mold, form (said of heterogeneous influences or factors)’ ↗²ĭʕtawara
▪ ʕWR_4 ‘to stand in the way of, hinder’ ↗³ĭʕtawara
▪ ʕWR_5 ‘a variety of swallow’ ↗ʕuwwār
▪ ʕWR_6 ‘to gauge (measures, weights), test the accuracy (of measures, of weights)’ ↗ʕiyār, ↗miʕyār (s.r. ↗ʕYR)
▪ ʕWR_7 ‘naked, bare, nude’ ↗ʕariya (arranged s.r. ↗ʕRY)
▪ ʕWR_

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘loss of an eye, to be one-eyed, to be vulnerable, bad word, bad deed, defect, shame, s.th. to be kept from the eyes, infamous person; difficult, uncharted road; to fall prey; to borrow’

▪ [v1] Kogan2015 77 #8: from protWSem *ʕwr‘to be blind’ (SED I #5ᵥ). In Ar, semantic marginalization from ‘to be blind’ into ‘to be one-eyed’ took place. The basic meaning ‘to be blind’ is expressed by the root ↗ʕMY, of uncertain etymology (cf. SED I #3ᵥ). – The notions of ‘defectiveness, faultiness; weakness; pudendum, genitals’ expressed in the concept of ʕawraẗ seem to be generalisations from the basic ‘one-eyedness’ < *‘blindness’. In ‘pudendum, genitals’, the value comes close to that of ↗ʕār (↗ʕYR) ‘shame, disgrace, dishonor, ignominy’, but the causatives still make clear the different origin: while ²ʕawwara means ‘to damage, mar, spoil’, ↗ʕayyara is ‘to reproach, rebuke, insult, revile’. With this in mind, EgAr ↗ʕīraẗ ‘false, artificial (teeth, hair)’ is prob. better grouped here, under √ʕWR *‘defectiveness’, than under ↗ʕYR ‘shame, disgrace, etc.’; cf. also ʕWR_2 in the sense of ‘borrowing’ (‘false, artificial’ < *‘borrowed’)? – The idea of ‘lending, loaning’ (↗ʔaʕāra) is prob. rather akin to [v2], although it is not inconceivable that ‘lending, loaning’ is regarded as *‘leaving (the one who is lending s.th.) defective’ or *‘making (the receiving part) obliged, with a debt, i.e., with a “weak point”’.
▪ [v2] : A relation to [v1] is unlikely. No obvious Sem cognates either. BadawiHinds1986 arranges corresponding values (e.g, ʔaʕārᵃ, vb. IV, ‘to second, send on secondment’, muʕār ‘out on loan’) s.r. ↗√ʕYR, but this does not make things much clearer. – The basic value seems to be similar to the tL-stem, ¹taʕāwara, i.e., ‘to alternate, take turns, do by turns’, a notion that is repeated in the Gt-stem ↗¹ĭʕtawara ‘to befall, affect, come over s.o. alternately, successively’ (*‘alternation’ here combined with [v1] *‘damage < blindness’? But compare also ↗ʕRW, with ʕarā ‘to befall, grip, seize, strike, afflict’, ʕurwaẗ ‘tie, bond’, etc.). Thus, the *Š-stem, ʔaʕāra, today mostly used in the sense of ‘to lend, loan (s.th. to s.o.)’, originally must have meant *‘to alternate ownership, let people take turns in owning/using s.th.’, cf. the meaning ‘to second, send on secondment’ of vb. IV in EgAr (but see also the option mention sub [v1]). – DialAr ʕīraẗ ‘false, artificial’ may also be *‘borrowed’ rather than *‘deficient’.
▪ [v3] ²ĭʕtawara ‘to shape, mold, form (said of heterogeneous influences or factors)’: etymological affiliation unclear.
▪ [v4] ³ĭʕtawara ‘to stand in the way of, hinder’: etymological affiliation unclear.
▪ [v5] ʕuwwār ‘a variety of swallow’: no obvious cognates in Sem or outside. MilitarevStolbova2007 (StarLingTB) #2678 suggest kinship with the obsol. Ar ^†ʔaʕwar, dim. ʕuwayr ‘raven’, from Sem *ʕarw/y- ~ *ʕawr- ‘bird of prey’, but semantics would be slightly problematic here. There may also be some overlapping/influence from Ar ↗warwār ‘bee-eater’ (accord. to MilitarevStolbova2007 StarLingTB from Sem *ʔarVr- ~ *warwar- ‘bee-eater, used to find honey’; cf. also Eg wr ‘swallow’, etc. – see entry ↗warwār).
▪ [v6] ‘to gauge (measures, weights), test the accuracy (of measures, of weights)’: ↗ʕiyār, ↗miʕyār (s.r. ↗ʕYR)
▪ [v7] ‘naked, bare, nude’ ↗ʕariya (arranged s.r. ↗ʕRY)

–

▪ [v1] Kogan2015 77 #8: Ug ʕwr, Hbr ʕiwwēr, Syr ʕwārā, Ar ʔaʕwarᵘ, Gz ʕora, Mhr ʔáywər, Jib ʕēr, Soq ʕóuhɛr. There is no trace of *ʕwr ‘to be blind’ in Akk; all the alleged cognates mentioned in SED I #5ᵥ are highly unreliable. – BDB1906 includes also forms in ‑m: Hbr ʕērōm, ʕêrōm ‘naked; nakedness’, ʕārōm, ʕârōm ‘naked’ (cf. ↗ʕRY). – Borg2021 #476: Saf ʕwr ‘to obliterate’, Ar ʕāra ‘to damage, destroy’, ʕawwara ‘to mar, spoil’, PalAr IrqAr OmanAr ‘to hurt, injure; bruise’, DamAr EgAr ‘to damage, mutilate’. – Outside Sem, Borg2021 compares Eg (Pyr) ʕwꜢ ‘to go bad, rot, become sour’ (cf. also ḥwꜢ.w ‘to rot; to putrefy; to be foul, offensive’).
▪ [v2] : BadawiHinds1986 arranges corresponding values (e.g, ʔaʕārᵃ, vb. IV, ‘to second, send on secondment’, muʕār ‘out on loan’) s.r. ↗√ʕYR. – Perh. overlapping with ↗ʕRW.
▪ [v3] : ?
▪ [v4] : ?
▪ [v5] : ? Cf. (with MilitarevStolbova2007 StarLingTB) Akk arru ‘bird used for decoy’, Syr ʔarrā ‘avis illicebra’ (< Akk ?), Tña ʔirir, ʔǝrir ‘bird which has an instinct to lead a honey gatherer to where there is honey’; ? Tña wari ‘kind of blackbird whose feathers have a metallic sheen’, Amh wari ‘a kind of blackbird’ ; outside Sem: Eg (Pyr) wr ‘swallow’; (WChad) Ha wā́rà ‘eagle’, (CChad) Higi-Futu, H.-Nkafa waři, H.-Kamale (Kapsiki) wəři, H.-Ghye wǝrì ‘kite’; Beja ḗrʔe ‘white-tailed sea-eagle’, (SCush) Dahalo (Sanye) weere ‘peafowl’; (NOmot) Woleta awriya ‘cock’ (< Sem?). – Or related to / influenced by ↗warwār (for cognates see s.v.) ?
▪ [v6] : ↗ʕiyār, ↗miʕyār (↗√ʕYR)
▪ [v7] : ↗ʕariya (↗√ʕRY)

▪ See above, section CONC.

▪ (Huehnergard2011:) Engl average, from Ar ʕawārīya ‘damaged goods’, from ʕawār ‘blemish’, from ʕawira ‘to become one-eyed, damaged’.
▪ Tu avarya: from It avaria ‘damage (esp. during transport by ship) < Ar ʕawāriyyaẗ ‘damage, damaged freight\goods’ < ʕawār ‘defective, damaged, rotten’ < vb. ʕāra ‘to be disabled, faulty, defective’. First attested 1870 in Schlechta-Wssehrd, Manuel terminologique français-turque : « [Fr] Avarie: [Tu] Hasarât-ı bahriye, âvârya » – NişanyanSözlük_1Sep2020. – Ge Havarie ‘Unfallschaden, Bruch’, from Ar ʕawāriyyaẗ ‘goods\freight damaged by sea water’ < ʕawār ‘defect, lack’ (cf. Ar ʕawwara ‘to damage, spoil’). Maritime trade brought the word to It (avaria) already by c. 1300, > oProv avarias (pl.) ‘expenditure, costs’, oFr mFr avaries (pl.) ‘charges levied on the transport of goods by sea, including for actual or potential damage’. From Fr is Du averij and haverij (made similar to Du haven by folk etymology) ‘operating costs of shipping, damage suffered by ship and cargo during the voyage, and resulting costs’, borrowed lC16 into nGe and NGe as Haverye, Haferye; in lit. lang. as Havarie only during C19; general for ‘accidental damage to vehicles and aircraft, damage and malfunctions to machines and equipment’ not earlier than C20 – DWDS_Pfeifer.
▪ Engl average ‘any small charge over freight cost, payable by owners of goods to the master of a ship for his care of the goods; financial loss incurred through damage to goods in transit’, lC15, from Fr avarie ‘damage to ship’ and It avaria. A word from C12 Mediterranean maritime trade, of uncertain origin; sometimes traced to Ar ʕawāriyyaẗ ‘damaged merchandise’. Du avarij, Ge haferei, etc., also are from Romanic languages. ... The meaning developed to ‘equal sharing of loss by the interested parties’. Transferred sense of ‘statement of a medial estimate, proportionate distribution of inequality among all’ is first recorded 1735. The mathematical sense ‘a mean proportion arrived at by arithmetical calculation’ is from 1755. Sports sense, of batting, attested by 1845, originally in cricket – EtymOnline. – Tu averaj < Fr average ‘sharing of costs of damage among partners in ship insurance’ (C15), ‘arithmetic mean’ (C18, suff. ‑age) < It avariaggio ‘insurance statement’ < It avaria ‘loss, damage in maritime trade’ < Ar ʕawār (ʕWR) ‘damage, fault, defect’; sense of ‘arithmetic middle’ is from 1938 (in Cumhuriyet) : Futbolun doğduğu memleket olan İngiltere’nin kullanmakta olduğu averaj şeklini – NişanyanSözlük_6Nov2013.

–

²ʕawwar‑ عَوَّرَ , ‑ʕawwir‑ (taʕwīr)

√ʕWR

vb., II

1 to deprive of one eye, make blind in one eye; 2 to damage, mar, spoil; 3 ↗ʕYR

▪ Like [v1], which is clearly dependent on ↗ʔaʕwarᵘ ‘one-eyed, half-blind’, also [v2] ‘to damage, mar, spoil’ is likely a function of the same base, though with a much more generalized meaning.
▪ ...

.

▪ ↗ʔaʕwarᵘ
▪ Borg2021 #476: Saf ʕwr ‘to obliterate’, Ar ʕāra ‘to damage, destroy’, ʕawwara ‘to mar, spoil’, PalAr IrqAr OmanAr ‘to hurt, injure; bruise’, DamAr EgAr ‘to damage, mutilate’. – Outside Sem: Eg (Pyr) ʕwꜢ ‘to go bad, rot, become sour’ (cf. also ḥwꜢ.w ‘to rot; to putrefy; to be foul, offensive’).

▪ The Gt-stem (see DERIV) may be related, though semantics are not really clear: the element of ‘befalling, affecting’ is close to ‘damaging, spoiling’, but ‘alternately, successively’ points to the complex of ‘alteration’ treated sub ↗taʕāwara. – Cf. also ↗ʕRW (with ʕarā ‘to befall, grip, seize, strike, afflict’, etc.)
▪ ...

▪ For Tu avarya, Ge Havarie as well as Engl average, Tu averaj, see root entry ↗ʕWR.
▪ ...

►? ¹ĭʕtawara, vb. VIII, to befall, affect (alternately, successively) (s.o.), come (alternately, successively) (‑h over s.o.): see above, section DISC.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔaʕwarᵘ, ↗ʕawraẗ, EgAr ↗ʕīraẗ, ↗ʔaʕāra, ↗¹taʕāwara, ↗¹ĭʕtawara, ↗²ĭʕtawara, ↗³ĭʕtawara, and ↗ʕuwwār, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ʕWR (with overlappings also from ↗ʕYR, ↗ʕRW and ↗ʕRY)

ʔaʕār‑ / ʔaʕar‑ أَعارَ / أَعَرْـــ , ‑ʕīr‑ (ʔiʕāraẗ)

√ʕWR

vb., IV

to lend, loan (‑h ‑h, s.th. to s.o.) – WehrCowan1976

▪ No obvious cognates in Sem. BadawiHinds1986 arranges EgAr vb. IV ʔaʕār ‘to second, send on secondment’ and related items (e.g., muʕār ‘out on loan’) sub ↗√ʕYR, but this does not make things much clearer. – The basic value seems to be similar to the tL-stem, ↗¹taʕāwara, i.e., ‘to alternate, take turns, do by turns’, a notion that is repeated in the Gt-stem ↗¹ĭʕtawara ‘to befall, affect, come over s.o. alternately, successively’ (*‘alternation’ here combined with *‘damage < blindness’, cf. ↗ʔaʕwarᵘ ? But also overlapping with ↗ʕarā ‘to befall, grip, seize, strike, afflict’, √ʕRW). Thus, the *Š-stem ʔaʕāra, today mostly used in the sense of ‘to lend, loan s.th. to s.o.’, originally must have meant *‘to let people take turn in owning/using s.th.’.
▪ A relation to ↗ʔaʕwarᵘ ‘one-eyed, half-blind’ is unlikely, though not completely inconceivable: perhaps, ‘lending, loaning’ is, originally, a *‘leaving (the one who is lending s.th.) defective’ or *‘making (the receiving part) obliged, with a debt, i.e., with a “weak point”’.
▪ ...

.

▪ ↗¹taʕāwara. – BadawiHinds1986 arrange corresponding items (EgAr ʔaʕār ‘to second, send on secondment’, muʕār ‘out on loan’, etc.) sub ↗√ʕYR.

.

See below, notes to ĭstiʕāraẗ and mustaʕār in section DERIV.

►ĭstaʕāra, vb. X, to borrow (s.th., min from): t-stem of ʔaʕāra, self-refl.
►? EgAr ʕīraẗ, n.f., false, artificial (teeth, hair): < *‘borrowed’? See also ↗ʕawraẗ.
►ʔiʕāraẗ, n.f., lending: vn. IV
►ʔiʕārī, adj.: maktabaẗ ʔiʕāriyyaẗ, lending library, circulating library: nsb-formation from the preceding
►ĭstiʕāraẗ, n.f., 1 borrowing; 2 metaphor: vn. X, ¹lit., ²fig. use¹
►ĭstiʕārī, adj., metaphorical, figurative: nsb-formation from the preceding (²ĭstiʕāraẗ)
►ʕāriyaẗ, var. ʕāriyyaẗ, n.f., pl. ʕawāriⁿ, 1a s.th. borrowed, borrowing; b loan: PA.f., functioning as quasi-vn.²
►muʕīr, n., lender: PA IV
►muʕār, adj., lent, loaned: PP IV
►mustaʕīr, n., borrower: PA X
►mustaʕār, adj., 1 borrowed; 2 used metaphorically or figuratively; 3 false, artificial (e.g., hair): PP X | ĭsm mustaʕār, pseudonym; wuǧūh mustʕāraẗ, masked faces; hypocrites³

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔaʕwarᵘ, ↗ʕawraẗ, EgAr ↗ʕīraẗ, ↗²ʕawwara, ↗¹taʕāwara, ↗¹ĭʕtawara, ↗²ĭʕtawara, ↗³ĭʕtawara, and ↗ʕuwwār, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ʕWR (with overlappings also from ↗ʕYR, ↗ʕRW and ↗ʕRY)

1. > Tu istiare, 1432 (Mercimek Aḥmed, Ḳābūsnāme terc.) sözü müsteʕār söyle ammā istiʕāreyi imkānla söyle – NişanyanSözlük_22May2015. 2. > Tu ariyet ‘id.’, c.1300 (anon., Muḳaddimeẗü 'l-ʔEdeb terc.) ḳaytarasuġa bérdi = ʕāriyet bérdi ‘iade edesiye verdi, ödünç verdi’ – NişanyanSözlük_22Sep2017. 3. > Tu müstear, 1482 (Sinān Paşa, Tażarruʕnāme) ol ay gibi nūrı müsteʕār olur – NişanyanSözlük_28Jul2015.

¹taʕāwar‑ تَعاوَرَ , ‑taʕāwar‑ (taʕāwur)

√ʕWR

vb., VI

1 to alternate, take turns (‑h in s.th.), do by turns, take alternately (s.th.); 2 ↗ʕarā (√ʕRW) – WehrCowan1976

▪ A relation of [v1] to the most prominent notion attached to the root √ʕWR, that of *‘blindness’ (> Ar ‘one-eyedness’ > ‘deficiency, imperfection’, ↗ʔaʕwarᵘ, > ‘weakness > pudenda’ ↗ʕawraẗ) is unlikely. No obvious Sem cognates. Within Ar, closer kinship seems to exist only to the Gt-stem ↗¹ĭʕtawara ‘to befall, affect, come over s.o. alternately, successively’ and the *Š-stem ↗ʔaʕāra ‘to lend, loan s.th. to s.o.’ (< *‘to let own by turn, alternately’). – The basic value seems to be similar to that of the present tL-stem, i.e., ‘to alternate, come in intervals, take turns, do by turns’.
▪ The identity of meaning between [v2] and ↗ʕarā ‘to befall, grip, seize, strike, afflict’ shows that √ʕWR often overlaps with ↗ʕRW.

.

▪ no obvious cognate in Sem.
▪ BadawiHinds1986 arranges corresponding values (e.g, ʔaʕār, vb. IV, ‘to second, send on secondment’, muʕār ‘out on loan’) s.r. ↗√ʕYR.

.

–

►¹ĭʕtawara, vb. VIII, to befall, affect (alternately, successively) (s.o.), come (alternately, successively) (‑h over s.o.): Gt-stem, prob. derived from same base as also ¹taʕāwara, perh. with overlapping/influence from ↗ʕawwara ‘to damage, spoil’ as well as ↗ʕRW (with ʕarā ‘to befall, grip, seize, strike, afflict’, ʕurwaẗ ‘tie, bond’, etc.).
►taʕāwur, n., alternation, variation, fluctuation: vn. VI

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔaʕwarᵘ, ↗ʕawraẗ, EgAr ↗ʕīraẗ, ↗²ʕawwara, ↗ʔaʕāra, ↗²ĭʕtawara, ↗³ĭʕtawara, and ↗ʕuwwār, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ʕWR (with overlappings also from ↗ʕYR, ↗ʕRW and ↗ʕRY)

¹ĭʕtawar‑ اِعْتَوَرَ , -ʕtawir- (ĭʕtiwār)

√ʕWR

vb., VIII

1 to befall, affect (alternately, successively) (s.o.), come (alternately, successively) (‑h over s.o.); [2 to shape, mold, form ↗²ĭʕtawara; 3 to stand in the way, hinder ↗³ĭʕtawara] – WehrCowan1976

▪ Semantic relation (if any) between [v1] ‘to alternate, take turns, etc.’ and the two other values [v2]-[v3] remains unclear. The latter two are treated separately here, see ↗²ĭʕtawara and ↗³ĭʕtawara.
▪ [v1] seems to be a merger of two main ideas attached to the root ↗ʕWR: (a) *‘defectiveness, weakness’ (↗ʕawraẗ), which is prob. a generalisation from the basic ‘one-eyedness’ (↗ʔaʕwarᵘ) (< Sem *‘blindness’) and akin to the caus. D-stem ‘to damage, mar, spoil’ (↗²ʕawwara); (b) *‘alternation, taking turns’, as in tL-stem ↗¹taʕāwara ‘to alternate, take turns, do by turns’ (cf. also the *Š-stem ↗ʔaʕāra, today mostly used in the sense of ‘to lend, loan s.th. to s.o.’, prob. < *‘to alternate ownership, let people take turns in owning/using s.th.’). – Further etymology obscure. – Conspicuous semantic overlapping with ↗ʕarā ‘to befall, grip, seize, strike, afflict’, ↗√ʕRW.

.

▪ ↗ʔaʕwarᵘ, ↗ʕawraẗ, ↗²ʕawwara, ↗¹taʕāwara; perh. also ↗ʕRW.

▪ See above, section CONC.

–

►? taʕāwara, vb. VI, 1 to alternate, take turns (‑h in s.th.), do by turns, take alternately (s.th.); 2 to seize, grip, befall, overcome (alternately, successively) (s.o., s.th.): tL-stem, see above, section CONC as well as own entry ↗¹taʕāwara.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔaʕwarᵘ, ↗ʕawraẗ, EgAr ↗ʕīraẗ, ↗²ʕawwara, ↗ʔaʕāra, ↗²ĭʕtawara, ↗³ĭʕtawara, and ↗ʕuwwār, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ʕWR (with overlappings also from ↗ʕYR, ↗ʕRW and ↗ʕRY)

²ĭʕtawar‑ اِعْتَوَرَ , -ʕtawir- (ĭʕtiwār)

√ʕWR

vb., VIII

[1 to alternate, take turns, etc. ↗¹ĭʕtawara;] 2 to shape, mold, form (‑h s.th., said of heterogeneous influences or factors); [3 to stand in the way, hinder ↗³ĭʕtawara] – WehrCowan1976

▪ [v1] : see individual entry
▪ [v2] :Etymological affiliation obscure. Thus, also the semantic relation (if any) between this ²ĭʕtawara ‘to shape, mold, form’ and the other two values (↗¹ĭʕtawara’ and ↗³ĭʕtawara) remains unclear.
▪ [v3] : see individual entry

.

▪ ?

▪ See above, section CONC.

–

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔaʕwarᵘ, ↗ʕawraẗ, EgAr ↗ʕīraẗ, ↗²ʕawwara, ↗ʔaʕāra, ↗¹taʕāwara, ↗¹ĭʕtawara, ↗³ĭʕtawara, and ↗ʕuwwār, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ʕWR (with overlappings also from ↗ʕYR, ↗ʕRW and ↗ʕRY)

³ĭʕtawar‑ اِعْتَوَرَ , -ʕtawir- (ĭʕtiwār)

√ʕWR

vb., VIII

1 ↗¹ĭʕtawara; 2 ↗taʕāwara; 3 to stand in the way of (‑h), hinder (s.th.) – WehrCowan1976

▪ [v1], [v2] : see individual entries.
▪ [v3] : Etymological affiliation obscure. Thus, also the semantic relation (if any) between this ³ĭʕtawara ‘to stand in the way of (‑h), hinder (s.th.)’ and the other two values (↗¹ĭʕtawara’, ²ĭʕtawara) remains unclear.

.

▪ ?

▪ See above, section CONC.

–

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔaʕwarᵘ, ↗ʕawraẗ, EgAr ↗ʕīraẗ, ↗²ʕawwara, ↗ʔaʕāra, ↗¹taʕāwara, ↗¹ĭʕtawara, ↗²ĭʕtawara, and ↗ʕuwwār, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ʕWR (with overlappings also from ↗ʕYR, ↗ʕRW and ↗ʕRY)

ʕawraẗ عَوْرَة

√ʕWR

n.f.

1a defectiveness, faultiness, deficiency, imperfection; b (pl. -āt) weakness, weak spot; – 2 pudendum, genitals – WehrCowan1976

▪ The notion of [v1a] ‘defectiveness, faultiness, deficiency, imperfection’ seems to be a generalisation from an underlying basic ‘one-eyedness’ (↗ʔaʕwarᵘ), from protWSem *ʕwr ‘to be blind’ (Kogan2015 77 #8) (but see also below, section DISC).
▪ In [v1b], the ‘defectiveness, imperfection’ of [v1a] is interpreted as ‘weakness, weak spot’, and in [v2] this ‘weak spot’ is specified as the ‘genitals’, a ‘pudendum’.
▪ In the latter [v2], the meaning comes close to that of ↗ʕār (↗ʕYR) ‘shame, disgrace, dishonor, ignominy’, but the corresponding D-stems still make clear the distinct origins: while ↗²ʕawwara means ‘to damage, mar, spoil’ (caus.), ↗ʕayyara is ‘to reproach, rebuke, insult, revile’ (appell., *‘to call disgraceful, accuse of shamelessness’).
▪ With this in mind, EgAr ↗ʕīraẗ ‘false, artificial (teeth, hair)’ is prob. better grouped together with ʕawraẗ, i.e., under √ʕWR *‘defectiveness’, than with ↗ʕār under ↗√ʕYR *‘shame, disgrace, etc.’. But it may also be from *‘borrowing’, see ↗ʔaʕāra.
▪ Both √ʕWR *‘defectiveness’ and √ʕYR *‘shame, disgrace, etc.’ are in semantic vicinity of ↗√ʕRY ‘nakedness, bareness, nudity’.
▪ The Gt-stem ↗¹ĭʕtawara ‘to befall, affect, come over s.o. alternately, successively’ seems to be the result of a fusion/combination of *‘alternation, taking turns’ (↗¹taʕāwara) and *‘damage’. Conspicuous overlapping also with ↗ʕarā, ĭʕtarà ‘to befall, grip, seize, strike, afflict’, ↗√ʕRW.

▪ …

▪ Borg2021 #476: Saf ʕwr ‘to obliterate’, Ar ʕāra ‘to damage, destroy’, ʕawwara ‘to mar, spoil’, PalAr IrqAr OmanAr ‘to hurt, injure; bruise’, DamAr EgAr ‘to damage, mutilate’. – Prob. based on *‘half-eyedness’ (< Sem *‘blindness’), see ↗ʔaʕwarᵘ. – Outside Sem, Borg2021 compares Eg (Pyr) ʕwꜢ ‘to go bad, rot, become sour’ (cf. also ḥwꜢ.w ‘to rot; to putrefy; to be foul, offensive’).
▪ Partly overlapping with ↗ʕYR and ↗ʕRY.

▪ ClassAr ^†ʕāra ‘to mar off; to injure s.th.; to spoil (a well)’ (Hava1899) as well as the D-stem ʕawwara, often meaning ‘to mutilate’ (see section COGN), could be an indication of a dependence of *‘one-eyedness, blindness’ on a more general verbal root also in Sem. However, given the wide distribution of *‘blindness’ in Sem, as opposed to the singular evidence of the general *‘to damage, mutilate, destroy’ in Ar, it seems safer to assume a development *‘blindness > damage, defectiveness’ than a reverse evolution.
▪ ...

▪ For Tu avarya, Ge Havarie as well as Engl average, Tu averaj, see root entry ↗ʕWR.
▪ ...

►ʕawwara, vb. II, 1 ↗ʔaʕwarᵘ; 2 to damage, mar, spoil; – 3 ↗ʕYR: D-stem, caus.
►? taʕāwara, vb. VI, 1 ↗s.v.; 2 to seize, grip, befall, overcome (alternately, successively) (s.o., s.th.): tL-stem, regular alteration; for semantics, see above, section CONC.
►? ĭʕtawara, vb. VIII, 1 to befall, affect (alternately, successively) (s.o.), come (alternately, successively) (‑h over s.o.); 2 ↗²ĭʕtawara; 3 ↗³ĭʕtawara: Gt-stem, self-refl.; for semantics, see above, section CONC.
►ʕawār, ʕiwār, n., fault, blemish, defect, flaw, imperfection
►EgAr ʕīraẗ, n.f., false, artificial (teeth, hair): from *ʕiwraẗ ?; for semantics, see above, section CONC.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔaʕwarᵘ, EgAr ↗ʕīraẗ, ↗²ʕawwara, ↗¹ĭʕtawara, ↗²ĭʕtawara, ↗³ĭʕtawara, and ↗ʕuwwār, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ʕWR (with overlappings also from ↗ʕYR, ↗ʕRW and ↗ʕRY)

ʕuwwār عُوّار

√ʕWR

n.

a variety of swallow – WehrCowan1976

▪ No obvious cognates in Sem or outside. MilitarevStolbova2007 (StarLingTB) #2678 suggest kinship with the obsol. Ar ^†ʔaʕwarᵘ, dim. ʕuwayr, ‘raven’, from Sem *ʕarw/y- ~ *ʕawr- ‘bird of prey’, but semantics would be slightly problematic here (‘swallow’ vs. ‘raven’). There may also be some overlapping/influence from Ar ↗warwār ‘bee-eater’ (accord. to MilitarevStolbova2007 StarLingTB from Sem *ʔarVr- ~ *warwar- ‘bee-eater, used to find honey’; cf. also Eg wr ‘swallow’, etc. – see entry ↗warwār).

.

▪ ? Cf. (with MilitarevStolbova2007 StarLingTB) Akk arru ‘bird used for decoy’, Syr ʔarrā ‘avis illicebra’ (< Akk ?), Tña ʔirir, ʔǝrir ‘bird which has an instinct to lead a honey gatherer to where there is honey’; ? Tña wari ‘kind of blackbird whose feathers have a metallic sheen’, Amh wari ‘a kind of blackbird’; outside Sem: Eg (Pyr) wr ‘swallow’; (WChad) Ha wā́rà ‘eagle’, (CChad) Higi-Futu, H.-Nkafa waři, H.-Kamale (Kapsiki) wəři, H.-Ghye wǝrì ‘kite’; Beja ḗrʔe ‘white-tailed sea-eagle’, (SCush) Dahalo (Sanye) weere ‘peafowl’; (NOmot) Woleta awriya ‘cock’ (< Sem?). – Or related to / influenced by ↗warwār (for cognates see s.v.) ?

▪ See above, section CONC.

–

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔaʕwarᵘ, ↗ʕawraẗ, EgAr ↗ʕīraẗ, ↗²ʕawwara, ↗ʔaʕāra, ↗¹taʕāwara, ↗¹ĭʕtawara, ↗²ĭʕtawara, and ↗³ĭʕtawara, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ʕWR (with overlappings also from ↗ʕYR, ↗ʕRW and ↗ʕRY)

EgAr ʕīraẗ عِيرَة

√ʕWR

n.f.

false, artificial (teeth, hair) – WehrCowan1976

▪ In BadawiHinds1986, EgAr ʕīraẗ ‘false, artificial (teeth, hair)’ is arranged under ↗√ʕYR (*‘shame, disgrace’) while it is more common to group it with ↗ʔaʕāra (↗√ʕWR) ‘to lend, loan (s.th. to s.o.)’, as the *‘borrowed’ teeth, hair, etc. This etymology seems to be obvious, and if correct, it is akin to the semantic complex *‘alternation, taking turns’ treated s.v. ↗¹taʕāwara. There may, however, also be some influence of ↗ʕawraẗ ‘defectiveness, imperfection; weakness, weak spot (hence also: pudenda, genitals)’, prob. from *‘one-eyedness’ < *‘blindness’ (↗ʔaʕwarᵘ).

.

▪ BadawiHinds1986 arranges corresponding values (e.g, ʔaʕārᵃ, vb. IV, ‘to second, send on secondment’, muʕār ‘out on loan’) s.r. ↗√ʕYR. In any case, cf. ↗ʔaʕāra and perh. ↗ʕawraẗ.
▪ ...

▪ See above, section CONC.

–

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʔaʕwarᵘ, ↗ʕawraẗ, ↗²ʕawwara, ↗ʔaʕāra, ↗¹taʕāwara, ↗¹ĭʕtawara, ↗²ĭʕtawara, ↗³ĭʕtawara, and ↗ʕuwwār, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ʕWR (with overlappings also from ↗ʕYR, ↗ʕRW and ↗ʕRY)

ʔaʕwarᵘ أَعْوَرُ , f. ʕawrāʔᵘ, pl. ʕūr

√ʕWR

adj.

one-eyed – WehrCowan1976

▪ Kogan2015 77 #8: from protWSem *ʕwr ‘to be blind’ (SED I #5ᵥ). In Ar, semantic marginalization from ‘to be blind’ into ‘to be one-eyed’ took place.²² – The notions of ‘defectiveness, faultiness; weakness; pudendum, genitals’ expressed in the concept of ↗ʕawraẗ seem to be generalisations from the basic ‘one-eyedness’ < *‘blindness’.
▪ A relation between ‘half-eyedness’ and many other values attached to √ʕWR (↗¹taʕāwara ‘to alternate, take turns, do by turns’, ↗ʔaʕāra ‘to lend, loan s.th. to s.o.’, ↗²ĭʕtawara ‘to shape, mold, form’, ↗³ĭʕtawara ‘to stand in the way of, hinder’) looks rather unlikely.
▪ ...

22. The basic meaning ‘to be blind’ is expressed by the root ↗ʕMY, of uncertain etymology (cf. SED I #3ᵥ).

.

▪ Kogan2015 77 #8: Ug ʕwr, Hbr ʕiwwēr, Syr ʕwārā, Ar ʔaʕwarᵘ, Gz ʕora, Mhr ʔáywər, Jib ʕēr, Soq ʕóuhɛr. There is no trace of *ʕwr ‘to be blind’ in Akk; all the alleged cognates mentioned in SED I #5ᵥ are highly unreliable. – BDB1906 includes also forms in ‑m: Hbr ʕērōm, ʕêrōm ‘naked; nakedness’, ʕārōm, ʕârōm ‘naked’ (cf. ↗ʕRY). – Borg2021 #476: Saf ʕwr ‘to obliterate’, Ar ʕāra ‘to damage, destroy’, ʕawwara ‘to mar, spoil’, PalAr IrqAr OmanAr ‘to hurt, injure; bruise’, DamAr EgAr ‘to damage, mutilate’. – Outside Sem, Borg2021 compares Eg (Pyr) ʕwꜢ ‘to go bad, rot, become sour’ (cf. also ḥwꜢ.w ‘to rot; to putrefy; to be foul, offensive’).
▪ ...

▪ See above, section CONC.

–

►al-maʕy al-ʔaʕwarᵘ, n., caecum, blind gut

►ʕawira, a (ʕawar), vb. I, to lose an eye, be or become one-eyed: denom.?
►ʕawwara, vb. II, 1 to deprive of one eye, make blind in one eye; 2 to damage, mar, spoil; – 3 ↗ʕiyār, ↗miʕyār (√ʕYR): D-stem, ¹caus., ²generalized caus.
►taʕāwara, vb. VI, 1 ↗s.v.; 2 to seize, grip, befall, overcome (alternately, successively) (s.o., s.th.): perh. akin to ʕawraẗ (see below and ↗s.v.)
►ĭʕtawara, vb. VIII, 1 ↗taʕāwara, ↗¹ĭʕtawara 2 ↗²ĭʕtawara; 3 to stand in the way of (‑h), hinder (s.th.): Gt-stem; akin to ʔaʕwarᵘ ?
►ʕawraẗ, n.f., 1 defectiveness, faultiness, deficiency, imperfection; b (pl. -āt) weakness, weak spot; – 2 pudendum, genitals: prob. a generalised meaning dependent on *‘blindness’.
►ʕawār, ʕiwār, n., fault, blemish, defect, flaw, imperfection: similar to ʕawraẗ (see preceding item as well as ↗s.v.)

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕawraẗ, EgAr ↗ʕīraẗ, ↗ʔaʕāra, ↗¹taʕāwara, ↗¹ĭʕtawara, ↗²ĭʕtawara, and ↗ʕuwwār, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ʕWR (with overlappings also from ↗ʕYR, ↗ʕRW and ↗ʕRY)

ʕWQ عوق

√ʕWQ

“root”

▪ ʕWQ_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕWQ_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕWQ_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘obstacle, obstruction, impediment, to obstruct, to delay, to hinder, to incapacitate’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʕWL عول

√ʕWL

“root”

▪ ʕWL_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʕWL_2 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘to swerve; to be unjust; to have a large number of children; to increase; to be dependable’. – There is a degree of overlapping between some derivations of this root and the root ʕYL (q.v.), particularly in the associated concepts of ‘to have many children’.

▪ …

–

▪ …
▪ …

–

ʕāʔilaẗ عائِلَة

√ʕWL

n.f.

… – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

–

►

ʕWM عوم

√ʕWM

“root”

▪ ʕWM_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʕWM_2 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘year, to hire on a yearly basis; to swim, to float and to run fast’

▪ …

–

▪ …
▪ …

–

ʕām عام

√ʕWM

n.

… – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Kogan2011: cf. EthSem and modSAr *ʕām‑ / ʕān‑ ‘year’. – Cf. also protSem *šan‑at‑ (> Ar ↗sanaẗ).
▪ …

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

–

►

ʕWN عون

√ʕWN

“root”

▪ ʕWN_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕWN_2 ‘help’ ↗māʕūn (see alphabetically)
▪ ʕWN_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘herd of zebras; to be in a middle state, being middle-aged; tall palm tree; helper, backer, to assist’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʕYː (ʕYY) عيّ/عيي

√ ʕYː (ʕYY)

“root”

▪ ʕYː (ʕYY)_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕYː (ʕYY)_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕYː (ʕYY)_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘incurable disease, fatigue, to be ineffectual, to lack the ability or the strength to complete a task; riddle, inability to express o.s., to become dumbfounded’

▪ …

–

.

–

ʕYB عيب

√ʕYB

“root”

▪ ʕYB_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʕYB_2 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘large sack, bag for holding clothes and other belongings, bosom, confidant; to cause to be defective, to damage, to slander’

▪ …

–

▪ …
▪ …

–

ʕayb عَيْب

√ʕYB

n.

… – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ …
▪ …

–

►

ʕYD عيد

√ʕYD

“root”

▪ ʕYD_1 ‘feast, festival’ ↗ʕīd
▪ ʕYD_2 ‘…’ ↗…

▪ …

–

▪ …
▪ …

–

ʕīd عِيد , pl. ʔaʕyād

√ʕYD (ʕWD)

n.

feast, feast day, festival, holiday – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Usually considered an inner-Sem loan (from Syr), but as such related to ↗ʕāda ‘to return’ (a feast as s.th. *‘returning regularly’), ultimately from protWSem *√ʕWD ‘to turn’.
▪ …

▪ eC7 (festive day, feast day, festival) Q 5:114 rabba-nā ʔanzil ʕalaynā māʔidaẗan min-a l-samāʔi takūnu la-nā ʕīdan li-ʔawwali-nā wa-ʔāḫiri-nā ‘our Lord, send down to us a table from heaven so that it may become a recurring festival for those of us who are present and future generations’.
▪ …

▪ Syr ʕyād, ʕyādâ ‘custom, habit, rite, use’ (PayneSmith1903), TargAram ʕêd, ʔêd, ʕêdâ ‘anniversary, (idolatrous) festival’ (Jastrow1903)
▪ Cf. ↗ʕāda.
▪ …

▪ Jeffery1938: »The sole occurrence in the Q is in the latest Madinan Sūra, in connection with Muḥammad’s curious confusion on the Lord’s supper. / The Lexicons try to derive it from ʕāda, though as we see from the discussion of al-Azharī in LA, iv: 314, they were somewhat in difficulties over it. Fraenkel, Fremdw, 276, pointed out that it has no derivation in Ar, and it was doubtless borrowed from the Syr ʕêdâ,⁵⁶ though the root is common Sem, and the Targumic ʕīdā is not impossible as the source. It would have been an early borrowing, for already in the Minaean inscriptions s-ʕyd means ‘festum instituit’ (Rossini, Glossarium, 205).«
▪ …

56. Cf. Cheikho, “Naṣrāniyya”, 173; Fischer, “Glossar”, 90.

–

►ʕīd al-rusul, Day of St. Peter and Paul (Chr.)
►ʕīd al-ṣuʕūd, Ascension Day (Chr.)
►al-ʕīd al-ṣaġīr, the Minor Feast = ʕīd al-↗fiṭr
►ʕīd al-ʔaḍḥà, the Feast of Immolation, or Greater Bairam, on the 10th of Ḏū l-↗ḥiǧǧaẗ
►ʕīd al-fiṭr, the Feast of Breaking the Ramadan Fast, or Lesser Bairam, on the last of Šawwāl
►al-ʕīd al-kabīr, the Major Feast = ʕīd al-↗ʔAḍḥà the Feast of Immolation, or Greater Bairam
►ʕīd al-qiyāmaẗ, Easter (Chr.)
►ʕīd al-kiswaẗ (Eg.), the Festival of the Kiswa, celebrated in the month of Šawwāl on the occasion of the ceremonial transport of the ↗kiswaẗ from Cairo to Mecca
►ʕīd kull al-qiddīsīn, All Saints’ Day (Chr.)
►ʕīd al-↗mīlād Christmas (Chr.)

►ʕayyada, vb. II, to celebrate, or observe, a feast; to felicitate (ʕalà s.o.) on the occasion of a feast, wish (ʕalà s.o.) a merry feast: D-stem, denom.
►ʕāyada, vb. III, to felicitate (ʕalà s.o.) on the occasion of a feast, wish (ʕalà s.o.) a merry feast: L-stem, denom.
►ʕīdiyyaẗ, n.f., gift, present given on the occasion of a feast; New Year’s present: nsb-formation, f.
►muʕāyadaẗ, n.f., cocelebration, exchange of felicitations; (pl. āt) congratulatory call on feast days: vn. III.

For other items pertaining to √ʕWD/ʕYD, cf. ↗ʕāda, ↗ʕūd, ↗ʕādaẗ, ↗ʕādī, ↗ʕiyādaẗ, and ↗ʕād, as well as, for the whole picture, root entries ↗√ʕWD and ↗√ʕYD.

ʕYR عير

√ʕYR

“root”

▪ ʕYR_1 ‘to wander, stray, roam, rove’ ↗ʕāra; ‘caravan’ ↗ʕīr; ‘scoundrel, vagabond, vagrant’ ↗¹ʕayyār
▪ ʕYR_2 ‘shame, disgrace, dishonor, ignominy’ ↗ʕār; ‘to reproach, blame, rebuke, condemn; to insult, revile’ ↗ʕayyara
▪ ʕYR_3 ‘standard measure, standard, gauge (measures, weights) ↗ʕiyār, ↗miʕyār
▪ ʕYR_4 ‘wild ass, onager’ ↗¹ʕayr
▪ ʕYR_5 ‘crane (machine)’ ↗²ʕayyār
▪ ʕYR_6 ‘false, artificial (teeth, hair)’ (EgAr) ↗ʕīraẗ (arranged s.r. ↗ʕWR)

Other values, now obsolete, include (Hava1899):

▪ ^†ʕYR_7 ‘to be overspread with green moss (water): ^†ʕayyara
▪ ^†ʕYR_8 ‘to set (a horse) free; to fatten (a horse); to pluck out (the hair of the tail): ^†ʔaʕāra
▪ ^†ʕYR_9 ‘prominence\ridge in the middle of the iron head or blade of an arrow or of a spear, sword, knife, etc.; prominent line, like a little wall, in the middle of a leaf; its middle rib, the spine, i.e., the prominent part, in the middle of the scapula\shoulderblade; prominent\projecting bone in the middle of the hand; ... any prominent\protuberant bone in the body; line on a map; edge\ridge of a rock, naturally prominent; anything prominent\protuberant in an even thing, or in the middle of an even thing [or surface]; pupil of the eye; king, chief; wooden peg; drum’: ^†²ʕayr (Lane v 1874, Hava1899)
▪ ^†ʕYR_ ‘...’: ^†...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘donkey, zebra; chief; pupil of the eye; to run away, vagabond; caravan, to measure; infamy, to exchange insults; to borrow and loan’

▪ [gnrl] : In MSA, the root ʕYR displays 3 main values: [v1] ‘to wander, roam around’, [v2] ‘shame, disgrace’, and [v3] ‘standard measure, standard’. The position of [v4] ‘wild ass, onager’ is unclear (forming a unit with [v1]?). Historically, also a fifth value, ^†[v9] ‘prominent\protuberant part of s.th.’, should prob. be taken into consideration as a basic value. Given the lack of Sem or extra-Sem cognates (except for [v2] and [v4]), the relation, or non-relation, among these 4-5 values is hard to determine. Should one, for instance, assume a development where ‘wandering around’ is based on ‘wild ass’ and later came to be identified with ‘shame, disgrace’? Or where ‘standard measure’ is dependent on ‘to wander’, as the index on the scales *‘goes to and fro’, in this way showing the im-/balance? Or where the pointer is regarded as the ‘prominent part’ of the scales? – The remaining values are either dependent on one of these 4-5 or better grouped with another root (↗ʕWR, ↗ʕRW, ↗ʕRY).
▪ [v1] : To ʕāra ‘to wander, stray, roam, rove’ and ʕīr ‘caravan’, the relation among which is evident, belongs not only ¹ʕayyār ‘scoundrel, vagabond, vagrant’, but perh. also [v4] ¹ʕayr ‘donkey’, as *‘estray, scatterling’ (so BDB1906). Or is [v1] ‘wandering, etc.’ denom. from [v4]̀ ‘donkey’ (as *‘roaming around, straying like a wild ass’)? Given the lack of Sem cognates for the value ‘wandering, etc.’, such a dependence is prob. worth considering. – Perh. also ^†[v7] ^†ʕayyara ‘to be overspread with green moss (water)’ has to be seen as D-stem coined from ‘wandering, etc.’ with ints. meaning, likening the rampant spread of moss over water to an aimless *‘wandering, roaming, going astray’. – Any relation betw. [v1] ‘wandering, roaming around’ and [v2] ‘shame, disgrace, etc.’ and/or [v3] ‘standard measure’?
▪ [v2] : Ar ʕār ‘shame, disgrace, dishonor, ignominy’ and ʕayyara ‘to reproach, blame, rebuke, condemn; to insult, revile’ have obvious cognates in Hbr, SAr, Śḥr, Gz, Te, Tña, perh. also Akk, so that one may assume a deeper (W?)Sem dimension. – Any relation betw. [v1] ‘wandering, roaming around’ and [v2] ‘shame, disgrace, etc.’? A ¹ʕayyār ‘scoundrel, vagabond, vagrant’ used to be regarded as base and ignoble...
▪ [v3] ʕiyār, miʕyār ‘standard measure, standard, gauge (measures, weights)’: etymology obscure (but cf. below, section DISC); perh. related to [v1] ‘wander, etc.’ (the index of scales *‘going to and fro’) or ^†[v9] *‘prominent\protuberant part of s.th.’ (as the scales show the excess of weight etc.)?
▪ [v4] Kogan2015 124#2 (cf. (SED II #50): from WSem *ʕayr ‘donkey’.²³ – On account of extra-Sem evidence StarlingTB further reconstructs AfrAs *ʕay/wr- ‘donkey (and horse?)’ and posits kinship also with IndEur terms. The authors further see a relation to Sem *ḥ˅wār- ‘young (of camel, donkey)’ < AfrAs *ḥ(i/uw)ar(r)- ‘(young of) donkey, camel’.
▪ [v5] ²ʕayyār ‘crane (machine)’: prob. related to [v3] ʕiyār ‘gauge (measures, weights)’, orig. *‘crane of a pair of scales’. Or specialised use of ints. (FaʕʕāL) var. of ClassAr ^†ʕāʔir ‘going to and fro, and round about’ (pointer on scales)? Or from [v4], a crane being a weight-carrying *‘donkey’? Or fig. use of ¹ʕayyār ‘scoundrel’, as tools sometimes are likened to persons or professions? (cf. Engl jack for a ‘car lifter’, or dialAr ḥarāmī ‘thieve’ for an electric ‘plug, adapter’?
▪ [v6] : EgAr ʕīraẗ (invar.) ‘false, artificial (teeth, hair)’ (also attested in Hava1899 as ^†ʕiyāraẗ al-šaʕr ‘wig, false hair’) is treated in EtymArab s.r. ↗√ʕWR (as akin to ↗ʔaʕāra ‘to lend, borrow’), but arranged s.r. ↗√ʕYR by BadawiHinds1986, suggesting that the item is akin to [v2] ↗ʕār ‘dishonour, disgrace’, ʕayyar (II) ‘to taunt (s.o.) by mentioning his/her faults or failures’, etc.
▪ ^†[v7] : ^†ʕayyara ‘to be overspread with green moss (water)’ is prob. fig. use of [v1] (see above).
▪ ^†[v8] : ^†ʔaʕāra ‘to set (a horse) free; to fatten (a horse); to pluck out (the hair of the tail)’: three rather different values treated in one here for the sake of convenience; none of them seems to be related to the common ↗ʔaʕāra ‘to lend, borrow’ (√ʕWR).
▪ ^†[v9] : The basic value of ^†²ʕayr seems to be ‘anything prominent\protuberant\projecting’. If this assumption is valid, ^†²ʕayr (which evidently must be distinguished from ¹ʕayr ‘donkey’) could be at the basis of [v3] ʕiyār, miʕyār ‘standard measure, standard, gauge (measures, weights)’ and [v5] ²ʕayyār ‘crane (machine)’ (see above), as s.th. that shows the tipping of the scales, see above.
▪ ...

23. StarlingTB Sem#1977 reconstruct protSem *ʕayr- ‘(male) donkey’ (cf. also *y˅ʕr- ‘kid, calf, goat’), but there is no ESem dimension –Akk Mr ḫāru ~ ḫaʔaru ~ ayaru ‘ass foal’ is borrowed from WSem, cf. e.g. Dolgopolsky2012. For the WSem word, the latter author reconstructs *ʕayr-/ʕīr‑ ‘male wild ass, ass foal’.

–

▪ [v1] BDB1906: (Hbr ʕyr), Ar ʕāra ‘to go away, go hither and thither, »whence« ¹ʕayr ‘(wild) ass’, Hbr ʕayir ‘male ass’.
▪ [v2] Leslau2006 (CDG): Akk âru [?]¹⁰ , Hbr ʕyr ‘to revile’ (Po ʕōrēr), SAr ʕyr ‘disgrace, shame’, Śḥr ʕer ‘disgrace’, Ar ʕayyara ‘to revile’, Gz ʕayyara ‘to rebuke, reproach, (T) despise, mock, make fun of’, Te ʕayyära ‘to insult’, Tña ʕayyärä ‘to joke, jest’
▪ [v3] ʕiyār, miʕyār ‘standard measure, standard, gauge (measures, weights)’: no obvious cognates, but cf. perh. [v1] or ^†[v9] (see above, section CONC); see also below, section DISC.
▪ [v4] StarlingTB Sem #1977, Kogan2015 124#2, Borg2021 #480: Ug ʕr (Tropper2008: /ʕêru/) ‘donkey’, Hbr ʕayir postBiblHbr ‘foal, young full-grown ass’,¹¹ ʕīr¹² ‘male donkey’, postBiblHbr ‘foal of a donkey’, JudAram *ʕayir (only in pl. ʕayrīn) ‘foal’, Sam ʕyr ’young ass’, Mhr ḥayr, Jib (Kathīri) aḥyɛ́r ‘male donkey’, ḥīrīt ‘female donkey’, Ḥrs ḥayr ’donkey’, ḥayrēt ’she-donkey’, Saf ʕr, Taym ʕyr, Ar ¹ʕayr ‘domestic and wild ass’, ʕayraẗ ‘ânesse et femelle de l’onagre’, ʕuyayr, ʕiyayr ‘ânon, poulain d’âne ou d’onagre’. – According to Kogan, Te ʕayro ‘young camel three years old; (fig.) young man’ (given in SED, StarLingTB, etc.) is too isolated to be taken as a reliable cognate.¹³ – Outside Sem, Borg2021 compares Eg (OK) ʕꜢ, Dem ʕꜢ, Copt ⲉⲓⲱ ‘ass’. – In addition, StarLingTB lists (WChad) Pero áurà ‘donkey’, (Omot) Kafa (Kaficho) awarō, EMao (Diddesa) wɔɔre ‘horse’, as well as (IndEur) Arm oroǯ ‘agnus, -a’, erinǯ ‘vitula, juvenca, bos’, Grk éripho-s (m./f.) ‘junger Bock, junge Ziege’, Slav *ā́rъka, *ā́rę̄, *ā́rьcь ‘goat’, Balt *ē̂r-a- (c.), (Ital) Lat ariēs ‘Widder, Schafbock; Seewidder’, Umbr erietu ‘arietem’, (Celt) oIr heirp ‘dama, capra’, mIr earb, fearb ‘Damtier’; (Kartvel) Georg irem- ‘deer’, SDrav *IraLai ‘deer’.
▪ [v5] ²ʕayyār ‘crane (machine)’: no obvious cognates, see above, section CONC, [v1] and [v3]-[v4].
▪ [v6] : EgAr ʕīraẗ (invar.) ‘false, artificial (teeth, hair)’: see ↗s.v. (arranged sub ↗√ʕWR); cf. also above, section CONC.
▪ ^†[v7] : see prob. [v1].
▪ ^†[v8] : ?
▪ ^†[v9] : ^†²ʕayr *‘anything prominent\protuberant\projecting’: no obvious cognates.

10. Posited by Leslau, following Kinnier Wilson 1962 (JSS 7: 181); but semantics are problematic – CAD gives: ‘to go, advance (against a person), turn against a person, confront, oppose, attack’. 11. The meaning ‘young ass, foal’, typical of the postBibl language, is most probably attested already in Gn 32.16 (ʔătōnōt wa-ʕyārīm ‘donkey mares and foals’, following a number of similar word-pairs). 12. Hapax in Gn 49.11. 13. Leslau (1990:165) assumes a borrowing from Ar ʕayrān ‘swift camel’, which may be reasonable in spite of the formal difference. – Cf. also BalqāʔAr ʕāyir, NajdAr ʕayraẗ ‘thoroughbred camel’, given by Borg2021.

▪ [v3] ʕiyār, miʕyār ‘standard measure, standard, gauge (measures, weights): Lindberg1897: 87 compares Gz ʕarräyä with Ar ʕāyara ‘to make even’ (Leslau2006 CDG, s.v. ʕarraya).
▪ [v4]: StarlingTB Sem#1977 reconstructs: protSem *ʕayr- ‘(male) donkey’⁵⁷ – Cf. also Sem *y˅ʕr- ‘kid, calf, goat’).)], Eg *ʕ˅r- ‘ass’, WChad *(H)awr- ‘donkey’ (otherwise <*ḥ(i/uw)ar(r)- ‘(young of) donkey, camel’), Omot *(H)awar- ‘horse’, all from a hypothetical AfrAs *ʕay/wr- ‘donkey (and horse?)’. – Outside AfrAr, the authors reconstruct protIndEur *ar-/e- ‘lamb, kid’ < IndEur *ē̆r- (?) < Eurasiatic: *ʔir˅ ‘ungulate’, < Borean (approx.) *H˅R˅ ‘ungulateʼ. – Based on the same evidence, Dolgopolsky2012 reconstructs WSem *ʕayr-/*ʕīr- ‘male wild ass, ass foal’, Kart *°ir- ‘deer’, Drav *ir- ‘deer, stag’, NaIE *er(i)-bʰ- (with the suffix *-bʰ(o)- of animal names), all from a hypothetical Nostr *ʕiR˹i˺ ‘(male, young) big ungulate’.
▪ ...

57. The earliest evidence for this root is h̊āru (h̊aʔaru, ayaru) ‘donkey foal’ in oBab Mari, clearly borrowed from WSem. Otherwise related to Sem *ḥ˅wār- ‘young (of camel, donkey)’. — Extra-Sem cognates would include Berb *Hawr- ‘a year-old camel’ (ḥ/har- ‘camel’, SaAf *ḥ˅r- ‘female donkey’, LECush HECush *ḥ/harr- ‘donkey’, Warazi (Dullay) *ḥarri ‘ass’, Omot *ḥ/harr- ‘donkey’, all from AfrAs *ḥ(i/uw)ar(r)- ‘(young of) donkey, camel’.

–

ʕār‑ / ʕir‑ عارَ , ī (ʕayr)

√ʕYR

vb., I

to wander, stray, roam, rove – WehrCowan1976

▪ No obvious cognates in Sem.
▪ The G-stem vb. clearly forms a semantic unit with ↗ʕīr ‘caravan’ and is prob. also the basis from which ↗¹ʕayyār ‘scoundrel, vagabond, vagrant’ (*‘person who roams around a lot’) and the obsolete ^†ʕayyara ‘to be overspread with green moss (water)’ are derived (the latter as D-stem with ints. meaning, likening the rampant spread of moss over water to an aimless *‘wandering, roaming, going astray’).
▪ Less obvious, but still not unlikely is a (far) kinship between ‘wandering, roaming, etc.’ and ^†²ʕayr (↗^†ʕYR_9) with the general meaning *‘anything prominent\protuberant\projecting’.²⁴ The basic ‘going to and fro, and round about’ is conceivable as having acquired the fig. meaning of *‘excessing a limit\boundary’ in going to and fro, thus being ‘prominent, protuberant, projecting’. The notion of *‘excessing’ could also be imagined to form the basis of the ↗ʕār ‘shame, disgrace, dishonor, ignominy’ – see below.
▪ Relation to ↗¹ʕayr ‘donkey’ unclear: Is ‘donkey’ deverbative, as *‘estray, scatterling’ (so BDB1906), or is ‘wandering, etc.’ denominative from ‘donkey’ (< *‘roaming around, straying like a wild ass’)? Given the lack of Sem cognates for ʕāra as compared to the wide attestation of ‘donkey’, such a dependence is well worth considering.
▪ Any relation betw. ‘wandering, roaming around’ and the semantic field of ↗ʕār ‘shame, disgrace, dishonor, ignominy’, roaming around being regarded as ignoble, disgraceful, an attribute of vagrants and vagabonds? Or their appearance and doings as an *‘excess’, a *‘going beyond’ the norms of society (see above)? Cf. also D-stem ↗ʕayyara ‘to reproach, blame, rebuke, condemn; to insult, revile’ (with obvious cognates in Hbr, SAr, Śḥr, Gz, Te, Tña, perh. also Akk) – from orig. *‘to accuse of roaming around, going beyond the norms’ (see ↗¹ʕayyār ‘scoundrel, vagabond, vagrant’)?
▪ Any relation betw. ‘wandering, roaming around’ and ↗ʕiyār, ↗miʕyār ‘standard measure, standard, gauge (measures, weights)’, the pointer/index on a pair of scales *‘going to and fro’ and finally showing the balance or difference in weight etc.?
▪ ...

24. Actual values vary betw. ‘prominence\ridge in the middle of the iron head or blade of an arrow or of a spear, sword, knife, etc.; prominent line, like a little wall, in the middle of a leaf; its middle rib, the spine, i.e., the prominent part, in the middle of the scapula\shoulderblade; prominent\projecting bone in the middle of the hand; ... any prominent\protuberant bone in the body; line on a map; edge\ridge of a rock, naturally prominent; anything prominent\protuberant in an even thing, or in the middle of an even thing [or surface]; pupil of the eye; king, chief; wooden peg; drum’, etc. – Lane v 1874, Hava1899.

.

▪ No obvious cognates, cf. above, section CONC.
▪ ...

▪ ...

–

Semantic affiliation or non-affiliation of many items unclear, see above, section CONC.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕayyara, ↗ʕār, ↗¹ʕayr, ↗ʕīr, ↗ʕiyār, ↗¹ʕayyār, ↗²ʕayyār, and ↗miʕyār, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ʕYR (with overlappings also from ↗ʕWR, ↗ʕRW and ↗ʕRY).

ʕayyar‑ عَيَّرَ , ‑ʕayyir‑ (taʕyīr)

√ʕYR

vb., II

1a to reproach, upbraid, blame, rebuke, condemn (s.o., ‑h, bi-, ʕalà for); b to abuse, insult, revile (s.o.), rail (-h at s.o.) – WehrCowan1976

▪ The D-stem vb. ʕayyara seems to be declarative from ↗ʕār ‘shame, disgrace, dishonor, ignominy’. The value has obvious cognates in Hbr, SAr, Śḥr, Gz, Te, Tña, perh. also Akk, so that one may assume a deeper (W?)Sem dimension.
▪ Any relation betw. this value and ↗ʕāra ‘to wander, stray, roam, rove’? A ↗¹ʕayyār ‘scoundrel, vagabond, vagrant’ used to be regarded as base and ignoble...
▪ For further speculation, see ↗ʕāra.
▪ ...

.

▪ Leslau2006 (CDG): Akk âru [?]¹⁴ , Hbr ʕyr ‘to revile’ (Po ʕōrēr), SAr ʕyr ‘disgrace, shame’, Śḥr ʕer ‘disgrace’, Ar ʕayyara ‘to revile’, Gz ʕayyara ‘to rebuke, reproach, (T) despise, mock, make fun of’, Te ʕayyära ‘to insult’, Tña ʕayyärä ‘to joke, jest’
▪ ...

14. Posited by Leslau, following Kinnier Wilson 1962 (JSS 7: 181); but semantics are problematic – CAD gives: ‘to go, advance (against a person), turn against a person, confront, oppose, attack’.

▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ ...

–

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕāra, ↗ʕār, ↗¹ʕayr, ↗ʕīr, ↗ʕiyār, ↗¹ʕayyār, ↗²ʕayyār, and ↗miʕyār, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ʕYR (with overlappings also from ↗ʕWR, ↗ʕRW and ↗ʕRY).

ʕār عار , pl. ʔaʕyār

√ʕYR

n.

shame, disgrace, dishonor, ignominy (ʕalà for) – WehrCowan1976

▪ Together with the declar. D-stem vb. ↗ʕayyara ‘to reproach, upbraid, blame, rebuke, condemn’ (*< ‘to accuse of shameful behaviour’), ʕār seems has obvious cognates in Hbr, SAr, Śḥr, Gz, Te, Tña, perh. also Akk, so that one may assume a deeper (W?)Sem dimension.
▪ Any relation betw. this value and ↗ʕāra ‘to wander, stray, roam, rove’? A ↗¹ʕayyār ‘scoundrel, vagabond, vagrant’ used to be regarded as base and ignoble... – According to Nişanyan, ClassAr lexicographers used to group ʕār under √ʕYR ‘to go, make a move’, but from a semantic perspective, it seems to make better sense (why, exactly?) to group it with ↗√ʕWR (NişanyanSözlük_17Apr2015).
▪ For further speculation, see ↗ʕāra.
▪ ...

.

▪ Leslau2006 (CDG): Akk âru [?]¹⁵ , Hbr ʕyr ‘to revile’ (Po ʕōrēr), SAr ʕyr ‘disgrace, shame’, Śḥr ʕer ‘disgrace’, Ar ʕayyara ‘to revile’, Gz ʕayyara ‘to rebuke, reproach, (T) despise, mock, make fun of’, Te ʕayyära ‘to insult’, Tña ʕayyärä ‘to joke, jest’
▪ ...

15. Posited by Leslau, following Kinnier Wilson 1962 (JSS 7: 181); but semantics are problematic – CAD gives: ‘to go, advance (against a person), turn against a person, confront, oppose, attack’.

▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ ...

▪ Tu ar, arsız, arsızlık, etc.
▪ ...

►ʕayyara, vb. II, 1a to reproach, upbraid, blame, rebuke, condemn (s.o., ‑h, bi-, ʕalà for); b to abuse, insult, revile (s.o.), rail (-h at s.o.): D-stem, declar.

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕāra, ↗¹ʕayr, ↗ʕīr, ↗ʕiyār, ↗¹ʕayyār, ↗²ʕayyār, and ↗miʕyār, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ʕYR (with overlappings also from ↗ʕWR, ↗ʕRW and ↗ʕRY).

¹ʕayr عَيْر , pl. ʔaʕyār

√ʕYR

n.

wild ass, onager – WehrCowan1976

▪ Kogan2015 124#2 (cf. (SED II #50): from WSem *ʕayr ‘donkey’.²⁵ – On account of extra-Sem evidence StarlingTB further reconstructs AfrAs *ʕay/wr- ‘donkey (and horse?)’ and posits kinship also with IndEur terms. The authors further see a relation to Sem *ḥ˅wār- ‘young (of camel, donkey)’ < AfrAs *ḥ(i/uw)ar(r)- ‘(young of) donkey, camel’.
▪ Any relation betw. ¹ʕayr and ↗ʕāra ‘to wander, stray, roam, rove’, a donkey being an *‘estray, scatterling’? (This seems to be the opinion of BDB1906.) – Or is ‘wandering, etc.’ denom. from ‘donkey’, as *‘roaming around, straying like a wild ass’? Given the lack of Sem cognates for the value ‘wandering, etc.’, such a dependence is prob. worth considering.
▪ Relation betw. ¹ʕayr and ↗ʕār ‘shame, disgrace, dishonor, ignominy’ as well as ↗ʕiyār, ↗miʕyār ‘standard measure, standard, gauge (measures, weights)’ looks rather unlikely.
▪ ↗²ʕayyār ‘crane (machine)’ could be thought of as *‘(weight-carrying) “donkey”’; but it is rather akin to ↗ʕiyār ‘gauge (measures, weights)’
▪ Historically, ʕayr is also attested with several other meanings: ^†‘pupil of the eye; prominent line on a map, a leaf; mountain; projecting bone of the hand, or the body; king, chief; wooden peg; drum’ (see ↗^†ʕYR_9). It seems hard to connect these values to ‘donkey, wild ass, onager’. It is therefore prob. better to distinguish ^†¹ʕayr ‘donkey’ from ^†²ʕayr *‘anything prominent\protuberant\projecting’.
▪ ...

25. StarlingTB Sem#1977 reconstruct protSem *ʕayr- ‘(male) donkey’ (cf. also *y˅ʕr- ‘kid, calf, goat’), but there is no ESem dimension – Akk Mr ḫāru ~ ḫaʔaru ~ ayaru ‘ass foal’ is borrowed from WSem, cf. e.g. Dolgopolsky2012. For the WSem word, the latter author reconstructs *ʕayr-/ʕīr‑ ‘male wild ass, ass foal’.

▪ ...

▪ StarlingTB Sem #1977, Kogan2015 124#2, Borg2021 #480: Ug ʕr (Tropper2008: /ʕêru/) ‘donkey’, Hbr ʕayir postBiblHbr ‘foal, young full-grown ass’,¹⁶ ʕīr¹⁷ ‘male donkey’, postBiblHbr ‘foal of a donkey’, JudAram *ʕayir (only in pl. ʕayrīn) ‘foal’, Sam ʕyr ’young ass’, Mhr ḥayr, Jib (Kathīri) aḥyɛ́r ‘male donkey’, ḥīrīt ‘female donkey’, Ḥrs ḥayr ’donkey’, ḥayrēt ’she-donkey’, Saf ʕr, Taym ʕyr, Ar ¹ʕayr ‘domestic and wild ass’, ʕayraẗ ‘ânesse et femelle de l’onagre’, ʕuyayr, ʕiyayr ‘ânon, poulain d’âne ou d’onagre’. – According to Kogan, Te ʕayro ‘young camel three years old; (fig.) young man’ (given in SED, StarLingTB, etc.) is too isolated to be taken as a reliable cognate.¹⁸ – Outside Sem, Borg2021 compares Eg (OK) ʕꜢ, Dem ʕꜢ, Copt ⲉⲓⲱ ‘ass’. – In addition, StarLingTB lists (WChad) Pero áurà ‘donkey’, (Omot) Kafa (Kaficho) awarō, EMao (Diddesa) wɔɔre ‘horse’, as well as (IndEur) Arm oroǯ ‘agnus, -a’, erinǯ ‘vitula, juvenca, bos’, Grk éripho-s (m./f.) ‘junger Bock, junge Ziege’, Slav *ā́rъka, *ā́rę̄, *ā́rьcь ‘goat’, Balt *ē̂r-a- (c.), (Ital) Lat ariēs ‘Widder, Schafbock; Seewidder’, Umbr erietu ‘arietem’, (Celt) oIr heirp ‘dama, capra’, mIr earb, fearb ‘Damtier’; (Kartvel) Georg irem- ‘deer’, SDrav *IraLai ‘deer’.
▪ ...

16. The meaning ‘young ass, foal’, typical of the postBibl language, is most probably attested already in Gn 32.16 (ʔătōnōt wa-ʕyārīm ‘donkey mares and foals’, following a number of similar word-pairs). 17. Hapax in Gn 49.11. 18. Leslau (1990:165) assumes a borrowing from Ar ʕayrān ‘swift camel’, which may be reasonable in spite of the formal difference. – Cf. also BalqāʔAr ʕāyir, NajdAr ʕayraẗ ‘thoroughbred camel’, given by Borg2021.

▪ StarlingTB Sem#1977 reconstructs: protSem *ʕayr- ‘(male) donkey’⁵⁸ – Cf. also Sem *y˅ʕr- ‘kid, calf, goat’).)], Eg *ʕ˅r- ‘ass’, WChad *(H)awr- ‘donkey’ (otherwise <*ḥ(i/uw)ar(r)- ‘(young of) donkey, camel’), Omot *(H)awar- ‘horse’, all from a hypothetical AfrAs *ʕay/wr- ‘donkey (and horse?)’. – Outside AfrAr, the authors reconstruct protIndEur *ar-/e- ‘lamb, kid’ < IndEur *ē̆r- (?) < Eurasiatic: *ʔir˅ ‘ungulate’, < Borean (approx.) *H˅R˅ ‘ungulateʼ. – Based on the same evidence, Dolgopolsky2012 reconstructs WSem *ʕayr-/*ʕīr- ‘male wild ass, ass foal’, Kart *°ir- ‘deer’, Drav *ir- ‘deer, stag’, NaIE *er(i)-bʰ- (with the suffix *-bʰ(o)- of animal names), all from a hypothetical Nostr *ʕiR˹i˺ ‘(male, young) big ungulate’.
▪ ...

58. The earliest evidence for this root is ḫāru (ḫaʔaru, ayaru) ‘donkey foal’ in oBab Mari, clearly borrowed from WSem. Otherwise related to Sem *ḥ˅wār- ‘young (of camel, donkey)’.[(cn :: Extra-Sem cognates would include Berb *Hawr- ‘a year-old camel’ (ḥ/har- ‘camel’, SaAf *ḥ˅r- ‘female donkey’, LECush HECush *ḥ/harr- ‘donkey’, Warazi (Dullay) *ḥarri ‘ass’, Omot *ḥ/harr- ‘donkey’, all from AfrAs *ḥ(i/uw)ar(r)- ‘(young of) donkey, camel’.

–

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕāra, ↗ʕayyara, ↗ʕār, ↗ʕīr, ↗ʕiyār, ↗¹ʕayyār, ↗²ʕayyār, and ↗miʕyār, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ʕYR (with overlappings also from ↗ʕWR, ↗ʕRW and ↗ʕRY).

ʕīr عِير , pl. ʕiyarāt

√ʕYR

n.

caravan – WehrCowan1976

▪ Akin to ↗ʕāra ‘to wander, stray, roam, rove’, itself of obscure origin.
▪ ...

.

▪ ↗ʕāra.
▪ ...

▪ ...

–

►lā fī ’l-ʕīr wa-fī ’l-nafīr, expr., 1a neither here nor there; b in no way, in no manner; 2 unimportant, of no consequence

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕāra, ↗ʕayyara, ↗ʕār, ↗¹ʕayr, ↗ʕiyār, ↗¹ʕayyār, ↗²ʕayyār, and ↗miʕyār, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ʕYR (with overlappings also from ↗ʕWR, ↗ʕRW and ↗ʕRY).

ʕiyār عِيار , pl. ‑āt, ʔaʕyiraẗ

√ʕYR

n.

1 standard measure, standard, gauge (of measures and weights); 2a fineness (of gold and silver articles), standard (of gold and silver coins); b caliber; 3 (pl. ‑āt, ʔaʕyiraẗ) (rifle) shot (also ʕiyār nārī) – WehrCowan1976

▪ Etymology obscure
▪ Perh. related to ↗ʕāra ‘to wander, etc.’, the index of scales *‘going to and fro’? Or to ↗^†ʕYR_9 *‘prominent\protuberant part of s.th.’, as the scales show the excess of weight etc.? Cf. also below, section DISC.
▪ [v1] : in MSA almost exchangeable with ↗miʕyār.
▪ [v2] : specifications of the more general [v1].
▪ [v3] : meton. use of [v2b], a rifle shot being likened to the ‘calibre’ of a rifle bullet.
▪ ...

.

▪ No obvious cognates in Sem or outside, but cf. perh. ↗ʕāra or ^†²ʕayr (↗ʕYR_9) (see above, section CONC); see also below, section DISC.
▪ ...

▪ According to Leslau2006 (CDG, s.v. Gz ʕarraya), Lindberg1897: 87 compares Gz ʕarräyä with Ar ʕāyara (L-stem) ‘to make even’.
▪ ...

–

►ʕāyara, vb. III, to gauge (measures, weights), test the accuracy (‑h of measures, of weights)
►ʕayyār, pl. ‑ūn, n., 1 ↗¹ʕayyār; 2 (pl. -āt) crane (machine)
►^BP#1677miʕyār, n., measuring, mensuration, gauging, measurement, measure; – (pl. maʕāyīrᵘ) standard measure, standard, gauge (of measures and weights); standard; norm | miʕyār al-ʕayš, Iiving standard; miʕyār al-ḏahab, gold standard
►muʕāyaraẗ, n.f.: muʕāyaraẗ al-mawāzīn wa’l-makāyīl, verification of weights and measures of capacity (by the bureau of standards)

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕāra, ↗ʕayyara, ↗ʕār, ↗¹ʕayr, ↗ʕīr, ↗¹ʕayyār, ↗²ʕayyār, and ↗miʕyār, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ʕYR (with overlappings also from ↗ʕWR, ↗ʕRW and ↗ʕRY).

¹ʕayyār عَيّار , pl. ‑ūn

√ʕYR

n.

1a loafer, scoundrel, bum; b vagabond, vagrant; 2 ↗²ʕayyār – WehrCowan1976

▪ »ʿAyyār (Ar pl. ʿayyārūn; Pers pl. ʿayyārān) is a term used historically to refer to a member of the paramilitary chivalric bands that constituted an important element in premodern Islamic society, primarily in the pre-Mongol Middle East (the Mashriq) and the eastern Iranian lands«.²⁶
▪ Prob. from ↗ʕāra ‘to wander, stray, roam, rove’ (cf. also ↗ʕīr ‘caravan’).
▪ Any relation (via ↗ʕāra?) to ↗¹ʕayr ‘donkey’ (*‘roaming around, straying like a wild ass’) or to ↗ʕār ‘shame, disgrace, etc.’, as ‘wandering, roaming, going astray’ may have been regarded as *‘disgraceful, base, ignoble’?
▪ ↗²ʕayyār ‘crane (machine)’ is prob. rather akin to ↗ʕiyār ‘gauge (measures, weights)’ than fig. use of ¹ʕayyār ‘donkey’, although a crane could be a weight-carrying *‘donkey’? Fig. use of ¹ʕayyār ‘scoundrel’ is not completely inconceivable, as tools sometimes are likened to persons or professions (cf. Engl jack for a ‘car lifter’, or dialAr ḥarāmī ‘thieve’ for an electric ‘plug, adapter’.
▪ ...

26. D. Tor, art. »ʿAyyār«, in EI³; for further information on the ʿayyārūn, cf. ibid. as well as art. »ʿAyyār« (F. Taeschner) in EI².

▪ For ClassAr, Hava1899 also gives a more general meaning: ^†‘sharp, sprightly; idle (man)’
▪ ...

▪ ↗ʕāra (but cf. also above, section CONC).
▪ ...

▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ ...

–

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕāra, ↗ʕayyara, ↗ʕār, ↗¹ʕayr, ↗ʕīr, ↗ʕiyār, ↗²ʕayyār, and ↗miʕyār, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ʕYR (with overlappings also from ↗ʕWR, ↗ʕRW and ↗ʕRY).

²ʕayyār عَيّار , pl. ‑āt

√ʕYR

n.

1 ↗¹ʕayyār; 2 (pl. -āt) crane (machine) – WehrCowan1976

▪ Prob. related to ↗ʕiyār ‘gauge (measures, weights)’, as *‘crane of a pair of scales’, rather than fig. use of ¹ʕayyār ‘scoundrel’, though the latter option is not completely inconceivable, as tools sometimes are likened to persons or professions (cf. Engl jack for a ‘car lifter’, or dialAr ḥarāmī ‘thieve’ for an electric ‘plug, adapter’). Or specialised use of ints. (FaʕʕāL) var. of ClassAr ^†ʕāʔir ‘going to and fro, and round about’ (pointer on scales)? Cf. also ^†²ʕayr (↗^†ʕYR_9) *‘anything prominent\protuberant\projecting’ (showing the tipping of the scales)?
▪ ...

.

▪ No obvious cognates, see above, section CONC.
▪ ...

▪ See above, section CONC.
▪ ...

–

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕāra, ↗ʕayyara, ↗ʕār, ↗¹ʕayr, ↗ʕīr, ↗ʕiyār, ↗¹ʕayyār, and ↗miʕyār, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ʕYR (with overlappings also from ↗ʕWR, ↗ʕRW and ↗ʕRY).

miʕyār مِعْيار , pl. maʕāyīrᵘ

√ʕYR

n.

1 measuring, mensuration, gauging, measurement, measure; – 2 (pl. maʕāyīrᵘ) a standard measure, standard, gauge (of measures and weights); b standard; c norm – WehrCowan1976

▪ Etymology obscure. In MSA almost exchangeable with ↗ʕiyār.
▪ Perh. related to ↗ʕāra ‘to wander, etc.’, the index of scales *‘going to and fro’? Or to ↗^†ʕYR_9 *‘prominent\protuberant part of s.th.’, as the scales show the excess of weight etc.? Cf. also below, section DISC.
▪ ...

.

▪ No obvious cognates in Sem or outside, but cf. perh. ↗ʕāra or ^†²ʕayr (↗ʕYR_9) (see above, section CONC); see also below, section DISC.
▪ ...

▪ According to Leslau2006 (CDG, s.v. Gz ʕarraya), Lindberg1897: 87 compares Gz ʕarräyä with Ar ʕāyara (L-stem) ‘to make even’.
▪ ...

–

►miʕyār al-ʕayš, Iiving standard;
►miʕyār al-ḏahab, gold standard

►ʕāyara, vb. III, to gauge (measures, weights), test the accuracy (‑h of measures, of weights)
►ʕiyār, pl. ‑āt, n., 1 standard measure, standard, gauge (of measures and weights); 2a fineness (of gold and silver articles), standard (of gold and silver coins); b caliber; 3 (pl. -āt, ʔaʕyiraẗ) (rifle) shot (also ʕiyār nārī)
►ʕayyār, pl. ‑ūn, n., 1 ↗¹ʕayyār; 2 (pl. -āt) crane (machine)
►muʕāyaraẗ, n.f.: muʕāyaraẗ al-mawāzīn wa’l-makāyīl, verification of weights and measures of capacity (by the bureau of standards)

For other values attached to the root, cf. ↗ʕāra, ↗ʕayyara, ↗ʕār, ↗¹ʕayr, ↗ʕīr, ↗ʕiyār, ↗¹ʕayyār, and ↗²ʕayyār, as well as, for the overall picture, root entry ↗ʕYR (with overlappings also from ↗ʕWR, ↗ʕRW and ↗ʕRY).

ʕYS عيس

√ʕYS

“root”

▪ ʕYS_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕYS_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕYS_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘camels of good stock, camel breeding, yellowish white (i.e. the colour of such camels)’. Philologists almost unanimously attribute the proper name ʕĪsà to a borrowing from either Hbr or Syr. A few, however, regard it as a derivation from forms associated with the concepts of camels of good stock and guidance.

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ʕYŠ عيش

√ʕYŠ

“root”

▪ ʕYŠ_1 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʕYŠ_2 ‘…’ ↗…

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘state and way of living, life (particularly of animals), to live, to make one’s home in a particular place or with a particular person, livelihood’

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▪ …
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ʕāš‑ / ʕiš‑ عاشَ / عِشْـ , i (ʕayš , ʕīšaẗ , maʕīš , maʕīšaẗ , maʕāš)

√ʕYŠ

vb., I

to live, be alive; to pass, spend, go through, experience (a period of time), live through (events) – WehrCowan1979.

▪ …

▪ eC7 ʕīšaẗ: Q 69:21 fa-huwa fī ʕīšatin rāḍiyatin ‘and so he will live a pleasant life’. – maʕāš: Q 78:11 wa-ǧaʕalnā ’l-nahāra maʕāšan ‘And we made the day [for earning] a living/for toiling’. – maʕīšaẗ: Q 43:32 naḥnu qasamnā bayna-hum maʕīšata-hum fī ’l-ḥayāti ’l-dunyā ‘We apportion out among them their livelihood in this life’.
▪▪ …

▪ Zammit2002: Syr ʕās ‘recreatus est’, SAr ʕšt ‘way of life > community’
▪ Youssef2003: for EgAr ʕēš ‘life; that which sustains life, bread’ compare Eg ʕnḫ ‘life’
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▪ Youssef2003 postulates a relation between EgAr ʕēš ‘life; that which sustains life, bread’ and Eg ʕnḫ ‘life’
▪ Albright1927 reports that Ar ʕāša had been combined with Eg ʕnḫ ‘to live’ earlier, but favours himself rather a relation between Eg ʕnḫ and Ar ↗naʕaša. The latter, however, can be thought of as being a "a prefixed nūn formation" from a *ʕŠ root (NʕŠ < *n-ʕŠ).
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► ʕayyaša, vb. II, to keep alive, make or let live; to feed, support, sustain, provide for: caus.
► ʕāyaša, vb. III, to live together with: associative.
► ʔaʕāša, vb. IV, = II: caus.
► taʕayyaša, vb. V, to eke out a living, just manage to make both ends meet; to earn one’s bread, make a living (min with); to live, subsist (min on, by):…
► taʕāyaša, vb. VI, to live together: recipr.
► ĭʕtāša, vb. VIII, = V. :…

► ^BP#1408ʕayš, n., life, way of living, way (or mode) of life; livelihood, subsistance, living: vn. I; (chiefly eg.) bread: accord. to some with own etymology | mustawà ’l-~, n., living standard; ʕēš ġurāb (eg.), n., mushrooms.
► ʕīšaẗ, n.f., sort of life, way (or mode) of living, way of life, life: vn. I.
► ʕayyāš (eg.), n., bread seller: n.prof.
► maʕāš, n., life, manner (or style) of living; livelihood, subsistence, living; means of subsistence; income: vn. I; (pl. ‑āt) retirement pay, pension; benefits or allowances from a public-welfare fund | ḏū ’l-~, n., pensioner; ʔarbāb al-~āt, n.pl., pensioners; ʔuḥīla ʔilà/ʕalà ’l-~, vb. IV pass., to be pensioned off, be retired, be superannuated.
► ^BP#3239maʕīšaẗ, n.f., pl. maʕāyišᵘ, n., life, way of living, way (or mode) of life; form of life; livelihood, subsistence, living; household: vn. I | ~ al-rīf, n., rural life, life in the country.
► ^BP#4642maʕīšī, adj., of or pertaining to the way of living: nsb-adj from maʕīšaẗ | al-ḥālaẗ al-~iyyaẗ, n., living standard.
► muʕāyašaẗ, n.f., coexistence (pol.): vn. III.
► ʔiʕāšaẗ, n.f., sustenance, nourishment, food: vn. IV | biṭāqaẗ al-~, n., food ration card.
► ^BP#4222taʕāyuš, n., living together; coexistence (pol.): vn. VI.
► ^BP#3252ʕāʔiš, adj., living, alive; well off, well-to-do, prosperous: PA I.

ʕYL عيل

√ʕYL

“root”

▪ ʕYL_1 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕYL_2 ‘...’ ↗...
▪ ʕYL_3 ‘...’ ↗...

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘children, family, to have many children; to be underfed, to be dependent, to be poor; to deviate; to be conceited, to walk with a conceited gait’. – There is a certain degree of overlapping between this root and the root ↗ʕWL (q.v.), whereby the sense of ‘to have many children’ might be derived from either.

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ʕYN عين

√ʕYN

“root”

▪ ʕYN_1 ‘eye’ ↗ʕayn
▪ ʕYN_2 ‘…’ ↗…
▪ ʕYN_3 ‘fountain, clear flowing water’ ↗maʕīn

♦ Semantic value spectrum in ClassAr (acc. to BAH2008): ‘eye, eyesight, to see, to have beautiful eyes, to injure the eye, to give the evil eye, to spy, to ascertain, notables; water spring; group of brothers’

▪ ʕYN_1 : (Kogan2011:) from protSem *ʕayn‑ ‘eye’.
▪ ʕYN_2 : …
▪ ʕYN_3 : …

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▪ …

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ʕayn عَيْن

√ʕYN

n.

… – WehrCowan1979.

▪ Kogan2015 (Sw#25): from protSem *ʕayn‑ ‘eye’ (SED I #28). Passim throughout Sem.
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▪ Bergsträsser1928: (*‘eye’) Akk ēnu, Hbr ʕáyin, Syr ʕaynā, Gz ʕayn.
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►

maʕīn مَعِين

√ʕYN, MʕN

n.

fountain, clear flowing water – Jeffery1938

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▪ eC7 Q xxiii, 52; xxxv’u, 44; lvi, 18; lxvii, 30 – Jeffery1938.

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▪ Jeffery1938: »It occurs only in early and middle Meccan passages. / The philologers were uncertain whether it was a form faʕīl from ↗maʕana ‘to flow’, or connected with ↗māʕūn, or from ↗ʕāna, so called because of its clearness, cf. Zam. on xxiii, 52, and LA, xvii, 179, 298. / The word ʕyn for a ‘spring of water’ is of course comSem, but Fraenkel, Fremdw, 281, noted that the Qurʔānic maʕīn is the Hbr maʕyān, Syr mʕīnā = Grk ‘pēgḗ’, commonly used for ‘spring, bubbling fountain’. From one of these sources, probably from the Syr, it came into Ar.«

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